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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #53384 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53384)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pygmies and Papuans, by A. F. R. Wollaston
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-Title: Pygmies and Papuans
-       The Stone Age To-day in Dutch New Guinea
-
-Author: A. F. R. Wollaston
-
-Release Date: October 27, 2016 [EBook #53384]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PYGMIES AND PAPUANS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by deaurider, Turgut Dincer and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration: A TAPIRO PYGMY.
-
-  [_Frontispiece._]
-
-
-  PYGMIES & PAPUANS
-
-  THE STONE AGE TO-DAY
-
-  IN DUTCH NEW GUINEA
-
-
-  BY
-
-  A. F. R. WOLLASTON
-
-  AUTHOR OF “FROM RUWENZORI TO THE CONGO”
-
-
-  WITH APPENDICES BY
-
-  W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT, A. C. HADDON, F.R.S.
-  AND SIDNEY H. RAY
-
-
-  _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS_
-
-
-  NEW YORK
-  STURGIS & WALTON
-  COMPANY
-  1912
-
-
-  PRINTED BY
-  WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED
-  LONDON AND BECCLES
-
-
-  _TO
-  ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, O.M.
-  THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED_
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE
-
-
-The Committee who organised the late expedition to Dutch New Guinea,
-paid me the high compliment of inviting me to write an account of our
-doings in that country. The fact that it is, in a sense, the official
-account of the expedition has precluded me—greatly to the advantage of
-the reader—from offering my own views on the things that we saw and
-on things in general. The country that we visited was quite unknown
-to Europeans, and the native races with whom we came in contact were
-living in so primitive a state that the second title of this book
-is literally true. The pygmies are indeed one of the most primitive
-peoples now in existence.
-
-Should any find this account lacking in thrilling adventure, I will
-quote the words of a famous navigator, who visited the coasts of New
-Guinea more than two hundred years ago:—“It has been Objected against
-me by some, that my Accounts and Descriptions of Things are dry and
-jejune, not filled with variety of pleasant Matter, to divert and
-gratify the Curious Reader. How far this is true, I must leave to the
-World to judge. But if I have been exactly and strictly careful to
-give only _True_ Relations and Descriptions of Things (as I am sure
-I have;) and if my Descriptions be such as may be of use not only to
-myself, but also to others in future Voyages; and likewise to such
-readers at home as are desirous of a Plain and Just Account of the
-true Nature and State of the Things described, than of a Polite and
-Rhetorical Narrative: I hope all the Defects in my Stile will meet with
-an easy and ready Pardon.”
-
-To Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, who has allowed me to inscribe this
-volume to him as a small token of admiration for the first and greatest
-of the Naturalists who visited New Guinea, my most sincere thanks are
-due.
-
-To Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, Dr. A. C. Haddon, and Mr. Sidney Ray, who
-have not only assisted me with advice but have contributed the three
-most valuable articles at the end of this volume, I can only repeat my
-thanks, which have been expressed elsewhere.
-
-To my fellow-members of the expedition I would like to wish further
-voyages in more propitious climates.
-
-
-  A.F.R.W.
-
-  LONDON,
-  _May, 1912_.
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-
-                                                            PAGE
-
-  PREFACE                                                    vii
-
-  INTRODUCTION                                               xix
-
-
-  CHAPTER I
-
-  _The British Ornithologists’ Union—Members of the
-  Expedition—Voyage to Java—Choice of Rivers—Prosperity
-  of Java—Half-castes—Obsequious Javanese—The
-  Rijst-tafel—Customs of the Dutch—Buitenzorg
-  Garden—Garoet_                                               1
-
-
-  CHAPTER II
-
-  _Expedition leaves Java—The “Nias”—Escort—Macassar—Raja
-  of Goa—Amboina—Corals and Fishes—Ambonese
-  Christians—Dutch Clubs—Dobo_                                13
-
-
-  CHAPTER III
-
-  _New Guinea—Its Position and Extent—Territorial
-  Divisions—Mountain Ranges—Numerous Rivers—The Papuans—The
-  Discovery of New Guinea—Early Voyagers—Spanish and
-  Dutch—Jan Carstensz—First Discovery of the Snow
-  Mountains—William Dampier in the “Roebuck”—Captain Cook
-  in the “Endeavour”—Naturalists and later Explorers_         21
-
-
-  CHAPTER IV
-
-  _Sail from the Aru Islands—Sight New Guinea—Distant
-  Mountains—Signal Fires—Natives in Canoes—A British
-  Flag—Natives on Board—Their Behaviour—Arrival at
-  Mimika River—Reception at Wakatimi—Dancing and
-  Weeping—Landing Stores—View of the Country—Snow
-  Mountains—Shark-fishing—Making the Camp—Death of W.
-  Stalker_                                                    35
-
-
-  CHAPTER V
-
-  _Arrival of our Ambonese—Coolie Considerations—Canoes
-  of the Natives—Making Canoes—Preliminary Exploration of
-  the Mimika—Variable Tides—Completing the Camp—A Plague
-  of Flies—Also of Crickets—Making “Atap”—Trading with the
-  Natives—Trade Goods_                                        50
-
-
-  CHAPTER VI
-
-  _Difficulties of Food—Coolies’ Rations—Choice
-  of Provisions—Transporting Supplies up the
-  Mimika—Description of the River—A Day’s Work—Monotonous
-  Scenery—Crowned Pigeons—Birds of Paradise and
-  Others—Snakes, Bees, and other Creatures—Rapids and Clear
-  Water—The Seasons—Wind—Rain—Thunderstorms—Halley’s Comet_   65
-
-
-  CHAPTER VII
-
-  _Exploration of the Kapare River—Obota—Native
-  Geography—River Obstructions—Hornbills and
-  Tree Ducks—Gifts of Stones—Importance of Steam
-  Launch—Cultivation of Tobacco—Sago Swamps—Manufacture of
-  Sago—Cooking of Sago—The Dutch Use of Convict Labour_       82
-
-
-  CHAPTER VIII
-
-  _Description of Wakatimi—The Papuan House—Coconut
-  Palms—The Sugar Palm—Drunkenness of the Natives—Drunken
-  Vagaries—Other Cultivation—The Native Language—No
-  Interpreters—The Numerals—Difficulties of
-  Understanding—Names of Places—Local Differences of
-  Pronunciation_                                              95
-
-
-  CHAPTER IX
-
-  _The Papuans of
-  Wakatimi—Colour—Hair—Eyes—Nose—Tattooing—Height—Dress—Widows’
-  Bonnets—Growth of Children—Preponderance of Men—Number
-  of Wives—Childhood—Swimming and other Games—Imitativeness
-  of Children—The Search for Food—Women as Workers—Fishing
-  Nets—Other Methods of Fishing—An Extract from Dampier_     109
-
-
-  CHAPTER X
-
-  _Food of the Papuans—Cassowaries—The Native Dog—Question
-  of Cannibalism—Village Headman—The Social System of the
-  Papuans—The Family—Treatment of Women—Religion—Weather
-  Superstitions—Ceremony to avert a Flood—The Pig—A Village
-  Festival—Wailing at Deaths—Methods of Disposal of the
-  Dead—No Reverence for the Remains—Purchasing Skulls_       124
-
-
-  CHAPTER XI
-
-  _Papuans’ Love of Music—Their Concerts—A Dancing
-  House—Carving—Papuans as Artists—Cat’s Cradle—Village
-  Squabbles—The Part of the Women—Wooden and Stone
-  Clubs—Shell Knives and Stone Axes—Bows and Arrows—Papuan
-  Marksmen—Spears—A most Primitive People—Disease—Prospects
-  of their Civilisation_                                     141
-
-
-  CHAPTER XII
-
-  _The Camp at Parimau—A Plague of Beetles—First Discovery
-  of the Tapiro Pygmies—Papuans as Carriers—We visit the
-  Clearing of the Tapiro—Remarkable Clothing of Tapiro—Our
-  Relations with the Natives—System of Payment—Their
-  Confidence in Us—Occasional Thefts—A Customary
-  Peace-offering—Papuans as Naturalists_                     155
-
-
-  CHAPTER XIII
-
-  _Visit of Mr. Lorentz—Arrival of Steam Launch—A
-  Sailor Drowned—Our Second Batch of Coolies—Health of
-  the Gurkhas—Dayaks the Best Coolies—Sickness—Arrival
-  of Motor Boat—Camp under Water—Expedition moves to
-  Parimau—Explorations beyond the Mimika—Leeches—Floods on
-  the Tuaba River—Overflowing Rivers—The Wataikwa—Cutting a
-  Track_                                                     169
-
-
-  CHAPTER XIV
-
-  _The Camp at the Wataikwa River—Malay Coolies—“Amok”—A
-  Double Murder—A View of the Snow Mountains—Felling
-  Trees—Floods—Village washed Away—The Wettest Season—The
-  Effects of Floods—Beri-beri—Arrival of C. Grant—Departure
-  of W. Goodfellow_                                          184
-
-
-  CHAPTER XV
-
-  _Pygmies visit Parimau—Description of Tapiro
-  Pygmies—Colour—Hair—Clothing—Ornaments—Netted Bags—Flint
-  Knives—Bone Daggers—Sleeping Mats—Fire Stick—Method
-  of making Fire—Cultivation of Tobacco—Manner of
-  Smoking—Bows and Arrows—Village of the Pygmies—Terraced
-  Ground—Houses on Piles—Village Headman—Our Efforts
-  to see the Women—Language and Voices—Their
-  Intelligence—Counting—Their Geographical Distribution_     196
-
-
-  CHAPTER XVI
-
-  _Communication with Amboina and Merauke—Sail in the
-  “Valk” to the Utakwa River—Removal of the Dutch
-  Expedition—View of Mount Carstensz—Dugongs—Crowded
-  Ship—Dayaks and Live Stock—Sea-Snakes—Excitable
-  Convicts—The Island River—Its Great Size—Another Dutch
-  Expedition—Their Achievements—Houses in the Trees—Large
-  Village—Barn-like Houses—Naked People—Shooting Lime—Their
-  Skill in Paddling—Through the Marianne Straits—An
-  Extract from Carstensz—Merauke—Trade in Copra—Botanic
-  Station—The Mission—The Ké Island Boat-builders—The
-  Natives of Merauke described—Arrival of our Third Batch
-  of Coolies—The Feast of St. Nicholas—Return to Mimika_     209
-
-
-  CHAPTER XVII
-
-  _Difficulty of Cross-country Travel—Expedition moves
-  towards the Mountains—Arrival at the Iwaka River—Changing
-  Scenery—The Impassable Iwaka—A Plucky Gurkha—Building a
-  Bridge—We start into the Mountains—Fording
-  Rivers—Flowers—Lack of Water on Hillside—Curious
-  Vegetation—Our highest Point—A wide View—Rare
-  Birds—Coal—Uninhabitable Country—Dreary Jungle—Rarely any
-  Beauty—Remarkable Trees—Occasional Compensations_          229
-
-
-  CHAPTER XVIII
-
-  _Departure from Parimau—Parting Gifts—Mock
-  Lamentation—Rawling explores Kamura River—Start for the
-  Wania—Lose the Propeller—A Perilous Anchorage—Unpleasant
-  Night—Leave the Motor Boat—Village of Nimé—Arrival of
-  “Zwaan” with Dayaks—Their Departure—Waiting for the
-  Ship—Taking Leave of the People of Wakatimi—Sail from New
-  Guinea—Ké Islands—Banda—Hospitality of the Netherlands
-  Government—Lieutenant Cramer—Sumbawa—Bali—Return to
-  Singapore and England—One or two Reflexions_               246
-
-
-  APPENDIX A
-
-  _Notes on the Birds collected by the B.O.U Expedition to
-  Dutch New Guinea. By W. R. Ogilvie-Grant_                  263
-
-
-  APPENDIX B
-
-  _The Pygmy Question. By Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S._          303
-
-
-  APPENDIX C
-
-  _Notes on Languages in the East of Netherlands New
-  Guinea. By Sidney H. Ray, M.A._                            322
-
-
-  INDEX                                                      347
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-(_Except where it is otherwise stated, the illustrations are from
-photographs by the Author._)
-
-  A TAPIRO PYGMY                                        _Frontispiece_
-
-                                                          FACING PAGE
-
-  NEAR THE MOUTH OF THE MIMIKA RIVER                                4
-
-  A CONVICT COOLY OF THE DUTCH ESCORT                              12
-
-  A MALAY COOLY FROM BUTON                                         12
-
-  DOBO, ARU ISLANDS                                                20
-
-  CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT WAKATIMI (Photo by C. G. RAWLING
-    and E. S. MARSHALL)                                            48
-
-  A HOUSE FOR CEREMONIES, MIMIKA (Photo by C. G. RAWLING and
-    E. S. MARSHALL)                                                48
-
-  MAKING CANOES                                                    50
-
-  CANOES, FINISHED AND UNFINISHED                                  54
-
-  MAKING “ATAP” FOR ROOFING                                        60
-
-  PAPUAN WOMAN CANOEING UP THE MIMIKA                              64
-
-  JANGBIR AND HERKAJIT, (Photo by C. G. RAWLING
-    and E. S. MARSHALL)                                            68
-
-  HAULING CANOES UP THE MIMIKA                                     70
-
-  TYPICAL PAPUANS OF MIMIKA                                        74
-
-  UPPER WATERS OF THE KAPARE RIVER                                 82
-
-  VEGETATION ON THE BANKS OF THE KAPARE RIVER                      86
-
-  PAPUAN WOMAN CARRYING WOODEN BOWL OF SAGO                        90
-
-  PAPUAN HOUSES ON THE MIMIKA                                      96
-
-  PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA                                            100
-
-  PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA                                            100
-
-  A PAPUAN MOTHER AND CHILD                                       106
-
-  CICATRIZATION (Photo by C. G. RAWLING and E. S. MARSHALL)       112
-
-  PAPUAN WITH FACE WHITENED WITH SAGO POWDER                      112
-
-  WOMEN OF WAKATIMI                                               114
-
-  PAPUAN WOMAN AND CHILD                                          120
-
-  A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA                                              128
-
-  A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA                                              134
-
-  DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD: A COFFIN ON TRESTLES                      139
-
-  SPLITTING WOOD WITH STONE AXE, (Photo by C. G. RAWLING and
-    E. S. MARSHALL)                                               148
-
-  A TRIBUTARY STREAM OF THE KAPARE RIVER                          159
-
-  TYPICAL JUNGLE, MIMIKA RIVER                                    178
-
-  AT THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE                                       182
-
-  CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT PARIMAU                               184
-
-  THE CAMP AT PARIMAU: A PRECAUTION AGAINST FLOODS                188
-
-  THE MIMIKA AT PARIMAU: LOW WATER                                190
-
-  THE SAME IN FLOOD                                               190
-
-  A TAPIRO PYGMY                                                  196
-
-  MAKING FIRE (1)                                                 200
-
-  MAKING FIRE (2)                                                 202
-
-  WAMBERI MERBIRI                                                 204
-
-  A HOUSE OF THE TAPIRO                                           206
-
-  MOUNT TAPIRO FROM THE VILLAGE OF THE PYGMIES                    208
-
-  TYPES OF TAPIRO PYGMIES                                         212
-
-  A PAPUAN WITH TWO TAPIRO                                        216
-
-  NATIVES OF MERAUKE                                              226
-
-  LOOKING UP THE MIMIKA FROM PARIMAU                              232
-
-  BRIDGE MADE BY THE EXPEDITION ACROSS THE IWAKA RIVER            234
-
-  LOOKING WEST FROM ABOVE THE IWAKA (Photo by C. H. B. GRANT)     238
-
-  COCKSCOMB MOUNTAIN SEEN FROM MT. GODMAN (Photo by C. G.
-    RAWLING and E. S. MARSHALL)                                   238
-
-  SUPPORTS OF A PANDANUS                                          242
-
-  BUTTRESSED TREES                                                246
-
-  SCREW PINES (PANDANUS)                                          250
-
-  AT SUMBAWA PESAR                                                252
-
-  NEAR BULELING                                                   256
-
-
-  COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-  (_from Drawings by G. C. Shortridge_)
-
-  CARVED WOODEN CLUBS AND STONE CLUBS                              36
-
-  HEAD-DRESSES, WORN AT CEREMONIES                                 78
-
-  STONE AXE, HEAD-RESTS AND DRUMS                                 142
-
-  BLADES OF PADDLES, AND BAMBOO PENIS-CASES                       144
-
-  BOW, ARROWS AND SPEARS                                          150
-
-  ORNAMENTS OF PAPUANS                                            222
-
-
-  MAPS
-
-  A LANGUAGE MAP OF NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA                       342
-
-  MAP OF THE DISTRICT VISITED BY THE EXPEDITION              _at End_
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION
-
-
-The wonderful fauna of New Guinea, especially the marvellous forms
-of Bird- and Insect-life to be found there, have long attracted the
-attention of naturalists in all parts of the world. The exploration
-of this vast island during recent years has brought to light many
-extraordinary and hitherto unknown forms, more particularly new Birds
-of Paradise and Gardener Bower-Birds; but until recently the central
-portion was still entirely unexplored, though no part of the globe
-promised to yield such an abundance of zoological treasures to those
-prepared to face the difficulties of penetrating to the great ranges of
-the interior.
-
-The B.O.U. Expedition, of which the present work is the official
-record, originated in the following manner. For many years past I had
-been trying to organise an exploration of the Snow Mountains, but
-the reported hostility of the natives in the southern part of Dutch
-New Guinea and the risks attending such an undertaking, rendered the
-chances of success too small to justify the attempt.
-
-It was in 1907 that Mr. Walter Goodfellow, well-known as an experienced
-traveller and an accomplished naturalist, informed me that he
-believed a properly equipped expedition might meet with success, and
-I entered into an arrangement with him to lead a small zoological
-expedition to explore the Snow Mountains. It so happened, however,
-that by the time our arrangements had been completed in December,
-1908, the members of the British Ornithologists’ Union, founded in
-1858, were celebrating their Jubilee, and it seemed fitting that
-they should mark so memorable an occasion by undertaking some great
-zoological exploration. I therefore laid my scheme for exploring
-the Snow Mountains before the meeting, and suggested that it should
-be known as the Jubilee Expedition of the B.O.U., a proposal which
-was received with enthusiasm. A Committee was formed, consisting of
-Mr. F. du Cane Godman, F.R.S. (President of the B.O.U.), Dr. P. L.
-Sclater, F.R.S. (Editor of the _Ibis_), Mr. E. G. B. Meade-Waldo, Mr.
-W. R. Ogilvie-Grant (Secretary), and Mr. C. E. Fagan (Treasurer). At
-the request of the Royal Geographical Society it was decided that
-their interests should also be represented, and that a surveyor and
-an assistant-surveyor, to be selected by the Committee, should be
-added, the Society undertaking to contribute funds for that purpose.
-The expedition thus became a much larger one than had been originally
-contemplated and included:—
-
-  Mr. Walter Goodfellow (Leader),
-
-  Mr. Wilfred Stalker and Mr. Guy C. Shortridge (Collectors
-  of Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, etc.),
-
-  Mr. A. F. R. Wollaston (Medical Officer to the
-  Expedition, Entomologist, and Botanist),
-
-  Capt. C. G. Rawling, C.I.E. (Surveyor),
-
-  Dr. Eric Marshall (Assistant-Surveyor and Surgeon).
-
-To meet the cost of keeping such an expedition in the field for at
-least a year it was necessary to raise a large sum of money, and this
-I was eventually able to do, thanks chiefly to a liberal grant from
-His Majesty’s Government, and to the generosity of a number of private
-subscribers, many of whom were members of the B.O.U. The total sum
-raised amounted to over £9000, and though it is impossible to give here
-the names of all those who contributed, I would especially mention the
-following:—
-
-  S. G. Asher,
-  E. J. Brook,
-  J. Stewart Clark,
-  Col. Stephenson Clarke,
-  Sir Jeremiah Colman,
-  H. J. Elwes,
-  F. du Cane Godman,
-  Sir Edward Grey,
-  J. H. Gurney,
-  Sir William Ingram,
-  Lord Iveagh,
-  Mrs. Charles Jenkinson,
-  E. J. Johnstone,
-  Campbell D. Mackellar,
-  G. A. Macmillan,
-  Mrs. H. A. Powell,
-  H. C. Robinson,
-  Lord Rothschild,
-  Hon. L. Walter Rothschild,
-  Hon. N. Charles Rothschild,
-  Baron and Baroness James A. de Rothschild,
-  P. L. Sclater,
-  P. K. Stothert,
-  Oldfield Thomas,
-  E. G. B. Meade-Waldo,
-  Rowland Ward,
-  The Proprietors of _Country Life_,
-  The Royal Society,
-  The Royal Geographical Society,
-  The Zoological Society of London.
-
-The organization and equipment of this large expedition caused
-considerable delay and it was not until September, 1909, that the
-members sailed from England for the East. Meanwhile the necessary
-steps were taken to obtain the consent of the Netherlands Government
-to allow the proposed expedition to travel in Dutch New Guinea and
-to carry out the scheme of exploration. Not only was this permission
-granted, thanks to the kindly help of Sir Edward Grey and the British
-Minister at the Hague, but the Government of Holland showed itself
-animated with such readiness to assist the expedition that it supplied
-not only an armed guard at its own expense, but placed a gunboat at
-the disposal of the Committee to convey the party from Batavia to New
-Guinea.
-
-On behalf of the Committee I would again take this opportunity of
-publicly expressing their most grateful thanks to the Netherlands
-Government for these and many other substantial acts of kindness,
-which were shown to the members of the expedition. The Peninsular and
-Oriental Steam Navigation Company did all in their power to further
-the interests of the expedition, and to them the Committee is very
-specially indebted. To the proprietors of _Country Life_ the thanks
-of the Committee are also due for the interest and sympathy they have
-displayed towards the expedition and for the assistance they have given
-in helping to raise funds to carry on the work in the field.
-
-In various numbers of _Country Life_, issued between the 16th of April,
-1910, and the 20th of May, 1911, a series of ten articles will be found
-in which I contributed a general account of New Guinea, and mentioned
-some of the more important discoveries made by the members of the
-expedition during their attempts to penetrate to the Snow Mountains.
-
-In Appendix A to the present volume will be found a general account of
-the ornithological results. A detailed report will appear elsewhere, as
-also, it is hoped, a complete account of the zoological work done by
-the expedition.
-
-As the reader will learn from Mr. Wollaston’s book, the great physical
-difficulties of this unexplored part of New Guinea and other unforeseen
-circumstances rendered the work of the B.O.U. Expedition quite
-exceptionally arduous; and if the results of their exploration are
-not all that had been hoped, it must be remembered that they did all
-that was humanly possible to carry out the dangerous task with which
-they had been entrusted. Their work has added vastly to our knowledge
-of this part of New Guinea, and though little collecting was done
-above 4000 feet, quite a number of new, and, in many cases, remarkably
-interesting forms were obtained.
-
-There can be no doubt that when the higher ranges between 5000 and
-10,000 feet are explored, many other novelties will be discovered
-and for this reason it has been thought advisable to postpone the
-publication of the scientific results of the B.O.U. Expedition until
-such time as the second expedition under Mr. Wollaston has returned in
-1913.
-
-The death of Mr. Wilfred Stalker at a very early period of the
-expedition was a sad misfortune and his services could ill be spared;
-his place was, however, very ably filled by Mr. Claude H. B. Grant, who
-arrived in New Guinea some six months later.
-
-As all those who have served on committees must know, most of the work
-falls on one or two individuals, and I should like here to express
-the thanks which we owe to our Treasurer, Mr. C. E. Fagan, for the
-admirable way in which he has carried out his very difficult task.
-
-
-  W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT.
-
-
-PYGMIES AND PAPUANS
-
-
-
-
-PYGMIES AND PAPUANS
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER I
-
-
-  _The British Ornithologists’ Union—Members of the
-  Expedition—Voyage to Java—Choice of Rivers—Prosperity
-  of Java—Half-castes—Obsequious Javanese—The
-  Rijst-tafel—Customs of the Dutch—Buitenzorg
-  Garden—Garoet._
-
-In the autumn of 1858 a small party of naturalists, most of them
-members of the University of Cambridge and their friends and all of
-them interested in the study of ornithology, met in the rooms of the
-late Professor Alfred Newton at Magdalene College, Cambridge, and
-agreed to found a society with the principal object of producing a
-quarterly Journal of general ornithology. The Journal was called “The
-Ibis,” and the Society adopted the name of British Ornithologists’
-Union, the number of members being originally limited to twenty.
-
-In the autumn of 1908 the Society, which by that time counted four
-hundred and seventy members, adopted the suggestion, made by Mr. W.
-R. Ogilvie-Grant, of celebrating its jubilee by sending an expedition
-to explore, chiefly from an ornithological point of view, the unknown
-range of Snow Mountains in Dutch New Guinea. A Committee, whose
-Chairman was Mr. F. D. Godman, F.R.S., President and one of the
-surviving original members of the Society, was appointed to organise
-the expedition, and subscriptions were obtained from members and their
-friends. The remote destination of the expedition aroused a good deal
-of public interest. The Royal Geographical Society expressed a desire
-to share in the enterprise, and it soon became evident that it would
-be a mistake to limit the object of the expedition to the pursuit
-of birds only. Mr. Walter Goodfellow, a naturalist who had several
-times travelled in New Guinea as well as in other parts of the world,
-was appointed leader of the expedition. Mr. W. Stalker and Mr. G. C.
-Shortridge, both of whom had had wide experience of collecting in the
-East, were appointed naturalists. Capt. C. G. Rawling, C.I.E., 13th
-Somersetshire Light Infantry, who had travelled widely in Tibet and
-mapped a large area of unknown territory in that region, was appointed
-surveyor, with Mr. E. S. Marshall, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., who had just
-returned from the “Furthest South” with Sir E. H. Shackleton, as
-assistant surveyor and surgeon; and the present writer, who had been
-medical officer, botanist, and entomologist on the Ruwenzori Expedition
-of 1906-7, undertook the same duties as before.
-
-Prolonged correspondence between the Foreign Office and the Dutch
-Government resulted, thanks largely to the personal interest of Sir
-Edward Grey and Lord Acton, British Chargé d’Affaires at the Hague, in
-permission being granted to the expedition to land in Dutch New Guinea
-on or after January 1, 1910. The date of landing was postponed by the
-Government until January in order that there might be no interference
-with the expedition of Mr. H. A. Lorentz, who it was hoped would be
-the first to reach the snow in New Guinea by way of the Noord River, a
-project which he successfully accomplished in the month of November,
-1909.
-
-[Sidenote: VOYAGE TO JAVA]
-
-On October 29th four of us sailed from Marseilles in the P. & O. S.S.
-_Marmora_. Mr. Stalker and Mr. Shortridge, who had already proceeded
-to the East, joined us later at Batavia and Amboina respectively. At
-Singapore we found the ten Gurkhas, ex-military police, who had been
-engaged for the expedition by the recruiting officer at Darjiling;
-though some of these men were useless for the work they had to do, the
-others did invaluable service as will be seen later. We left Singapore
-on November 26th, and as we passed through the narrow Riou Straits we
-saw the remains of the French mail steamer _La Seyne_, which had been
-wrecked there with appalling loss of life a few days earlier. It was
-believed that scores of persons were devoured by sharks within a few
-minutes of the accident happening. Two days’ steaming in the Dutch
-packet brought us to Batavia in Java, the city of the Government of the
-Netherlands East Indies.
-
-We had hoped that our ten Gurkhas would be sufficient escort for the
-expedition and that we could do without the escort of native soldiers
-offered to us by the Dutch Government, but the local authorities
-decided that the escort was necessary and they appointed to command it
-Lieutenant H. A. Cramer of the Infantry, a probationer on the Staff of
-the Dutch East Indian Army. The Government also undertook to transport
-the whole expedition, men, stores, and equipment, from Java to New
-Guinea. The undertaking was a most generous one as the voyage from
-Batavia by mail steamer to Dobo in the Aru Islands would have been
-most costly, and from there we should have been obliged to charter a
-special steamer to convey the expedition to the shores of New Guinea.
-
-When we left England we had the intention of approaching the Snow
-Mountains by way of the Utakwa River, which was the only river shown
-by the maps obtainable at that time approaching the mountains. After
-a consultation with the Military and Geographical Departments at
-Batavia it was decided that, owing to the bad accounts which had been
-received of the Utakwa River and the comparatively favourable reports
-of the Mimika River, the latter should be chosen as the point of our
-entry into the country. This decision, though we little suspected it
-at the time, effectually put an end to our chance of reaching the Snow
-Mountains.
-
-During the month of December, while stores were being accumulated,
-and the steamer was being prepared for our use, we had leisure to
-visit, and in the case of some of us to revisit, some of the most
-interesting places in Java. A large German ship filled with fourteen
-hundred American tourists arrived at Batavia whilst we were there,
-and the passengers “did” Java, apparently to their satisfaction, in
-forty-eight hours. But a tourist with more time could find occupation
-for as many days and still leave much to be seen. Germans and Americans
-outnumber English visitors by nearly fifty to one, and it is to be
-deplored that Englishmen do not go there in larger numbers, for they
-would see in Java, not to mention the beauty of its scenery, perhaps
-the most successful tropical dependency in the world, a vast monument
-to the genius of Sir Stamford Raffles, who laid the foundation of its
-prosperity less than one hundred years ago.
-
-[Illustration: NEAR THE MOUTH OF THE MIMIKA RIVER.]
-
-[Sidenote: PROSPERITY OF JAVA]
-
-Some idea of the progress which has been made may be learnt from the
-fact that, whereas at the beginning of the last century the population
-numbered about four millions, there are to-day nearly ten times
-that number. Wherever you go you see excellent roads, clean, and
-well-ordered villages and a swarming peasant population, quiet and
-industrious and apparently contented with their lot.
-
-There are between thirty and forty volcanoes in the island, many of
-them active, and the soil is extraordinarily rich and productive, three
-crops in the rice districts being harvested in rather less than two
-years. So fertile is the land that in many places the steepest slopes
-of the hills have been brought under cultivation by an ingenious system
-of terracing and irrigation in such a way that the higher valleys
-present the appearance of great amphitheatres rising tier above tier
-of brilliantly green young rice plants or of drooping yellow heads of
-ripening grain. The tea plantations and the fields of sugar-cane in
-Central Java not less than the rice-growing districts impress one with
-the unceasing industry of the people and the inexhaustible wealth of
-the island.
-
-One of the features of life in the Dutch East Indies, which first
-strikes the attention of an English visitor, is the difference in
-the relation between Europeans and natives from those which usually
-obtain in British possessions as shown by the enormous number of
-half-castes. Whilst we were still at Batavia the feast of the Eve of
-St. Nicholas, which takes the place of our Christmas, occurred. In the
-evening the entire “white” population indulged in a sort of carnival;
-the main streets and restaurants were crowded, bands played and
-carriages laden with parents and their children drove slowly through
-the throng. The spectacle, a sort of “trooping of the colours,” was a
-most interesting one to the onlooker, for one saw often in the same
-family children showing every degree of colour from the fairest Dutch
-hair and complexion to the darkest Javanese. It is easy to understand
-how this strong mixture of races has come about, when one learns that
-Dutchmen who come out to the East Indies, whether as civilian or
-military officials or as business men, almost invariably stay for ten
-years without returning to Europe. They become in that time more firmly
-attached to the country than is the case in colonies where people go
-home at shorter intervals, and it is not uncommon to meet Dutchmen who
-have not returned to Holland for thirty or forty years. It is not the
-custom to send children back to Europe when they reach the school age;
-there are excellent government schools in all the larger towns, and it
-often happens that men and women grow up and marry who have never been
-to Europe in their lives. Thus it can be seen how a large half-caste
-population is likely to be formed. The half-castes do not, as in
-British India, form a separate caste, but are regarded as Europeans,
-and there are many instances of men having more or less of native blood
-in their veins reaching the highest civilian and military rank.
-
-[Sidenote: THE RIJST-TAFEL]
-
-One or two curious relics of former times, which the visitor to Java
-notices, are worth recording because they show the survival of a spirit
-that has almost completely disappeared from our own dominions. When a
-European walks, or as is more usual, drives along the country roads,
-the natives whom he meets remove their hats from their heads and their
-loads from their shoulders and crouch humbly by the roadside. Again,
-on the railways the ticket examiner approaches with a suppliant air
-and begs to see your ticket, while he holds out his right hand for it
-grasping his right wrist with his left hand. In former times when a man
-held out his right hand to give or take something from you his left
-hand was free to stab you with his _kris_. Nowadays only a very few
-privileged natives in Java are allowed to carry the _kris_.
-
-Another very noticeable feature of life in the Dutch East Indies, which
-immediately attracts the attention of a stranger, is the astonishing
-number of excessively corpulent Europeans. If you travel in the morning
-in the steam tramcar which runs from the residential part of Batavia
-to the business quarter of the town, you will see as many noticeably
-stout men as you will see in the City of London in a year, or, as I
-was credibly informed, as you will see in the city of Amsterdam in a
-month. It is fairly certain that this unhealthy state of body of a
-large number of Europeans may be attributed to the institution of the
-Rijst-tafel, the midday meal of a large majority of the Dutchmen in the
-East.
-
-This custom is so remarkable that it is worth while to give a
-description of it. The foundation of the meal, as its name implies, is
-rice. You sit at table with a soup plate in front of you, a smaller
-flat plate beside it and a spoon, a knife and a fork. The first servant
-brings a large bowl of rice from which you help yourself liberally. The
-second brings a kind of vegetable stew which you pour over the heap of
-rice. Then follows a remarkable procession; I have myself seen at an
-hotel in Batavia fourteen different boys bringing as many different
-dishes, and I have seen stalwart Teutons taking samples from every
-dish. These boys bring fish of various sorts and of various cookeries,
-bones of chickens cooked in different ways and eggs of various ages,
-and last of all comes a boy bearing a large tray covered with many
-different kinds of chutneys and sauces from which the connoisseur
-chooses three or four. The more solid and bony portions find a space on
-the small flat plate, the others are piled in the soup plate upon the
-rice. As an experience once or twice the Rijst-tafel is interesting;
-but as a daily custom it is an abomination. Even when, as in private
-houses, the number of dishes is perhaps not more than three or four,
-the main foundation of the meal is a solid pile of rice, which is
-not at all a satisfactory diet for Europeans. The Rijst-tafel is not
-a traditional native custom but a modern innovation, and there is a
-tendency among the more active members of the community to replace it
-by a more rational meal.
-
-[Sidenote: CUSTOMS OF THE DUTCH]
-
-The houses of the Europeans are of the bungalow type with high-pitched
-roofs of red tiles and surrounded by wide verandahs, which are actually
-the living rooms of the house. The Dutch are good gardeners and are
-particularly fond of trees, which they plant close about their houses
-and so ensure a pleasant shade, though they harbour rather more
-mosquitoes and other insects than is pleasant. In strange contrast
-with the scrupulous cleanliness of the houses and the tidiness of the
-streets, you will see in Batavia a state of things which it is hard to
-reconcile with the usual commonsense of the Dutch. Through the middle
-of the town runs a canalised river of red muddy water, partly sewer and
-partly bathing place and so on of the natives, and in it are washed all
-the clothes of the population, both native and European. Your clothes
-return to you white enough, but you put them on with certain qualms
-when you remember whence they came. The town has an excellent supply of
-pure water, and it is astonishing that the authorities do not put an
-end to this most insanitary practice.
-
-Dutch people in the East Indies have modified their habits, especially
-in the matter of clothing, to suit the requirements of the climate, and
-while they have to some extent sacrificed elegance to comfort, their
-costume is at all events more rational than that of many Englishmen
-in the East, who cling too affectionately to the fashions of Europe
-and often wear too much clothing. The men, who do the greater part of
-the day’s work between seven in the morning and one o’clock, wear a
-plain white suit of cotton or linen. The afternoon is spent in taking
-a siesta and at about five o’clock they go to their clubs or other
-amusements in the same sort of attire as in the morning. The ladies,
-except in the larger towns where European dress is the custom, appear
-in public during the greater part of the day in a curiously simple
-costume. The upper part of the body is clothed in a short white cotton
-jacket, below which the coloured native _sarong_ extends midway down
-the leg. Low slippers are worn on bare feet, the hair hangs undressed
-down the back and the costume is usually completed by an umbrella. It
-must be admitted that the effect is not ornamental, but the costume is
-doubtless cool and comfortable, and it prevents any risk there might be
-of injury to the health from wearing an excessive amount of clothing.
-They appear more conventionally dressed about five o’clock, when the
-social business of the day begins. The ladies pay calls while the men
-meet at the club and play cards until an uncomfortably late dinner at
-about nine o’clock.
-
-[Sidenote: BOTANIC GARDEN]
-
-About an hour’s journey by railway from Batavia is the hill station of
-Buitenzorg. Although it is hardly more than eight hundred feet above
-the sea the climate is noticeably cooler (the mean annual temperature
-is 75°), and one feels immediately more vigorous than down in the low
-country. The palace of the Governor General, formerly the house of
-Sir Stamford Raffles, stands at the edge of the Botanic Garden, which
-alone, even if you saw nothing else, would justify a visit to Java.
-Plants from all the Tropics grow there in the best possible conditions,
-and you see them to advantage as you never can in their natural forest
-surroundings, where the trunks of the trees are obscured by a tangle
-of undergrowth. Every part of the garden is worth exploring, but one
-of the most curious and interesting sections is the collection of
-Screw-pines (_Pandanus_) and Cycads, which have a weirdly antediluvian
-appearance. Another very beautiful sight is the ponds of Water-lilies
-from different parts of the world. The native gardener in charge
-of them informed me that the different species have different and
-definite hours for the opening and closing of their flowers. I tested
-his statement in two instances and found the flowers almost exactly
-punctual. There was no cloud in the sky nor appearance of any change in
-the weather, and the reason for this behaviour is not easy to explain.
-At Sindanglaya in the mountains a few miles distant is an offshoot
-from the Buitenzorg garden, where plants of a more temperate climate
-flourish, and experiments are made on plants of economic value to the
-country.
-
-A few hours’ journey east from Buitenzorg is Garoet (2,300 feet above
-the sea), which lies in a beautiful fertile valley surrounded by
-forest-covered mountains. The climate is an almost ideal one, the
-nights are cool and the days are not too hot. A very remarkable feature
-of the country about Garoet is the great flocks, or rather droves, of
-ducks which you meet being driven along the roads from the villages to
-their pastures in the rice fields. These ducks differ from the ordinary
-domestic duck in their extraordinary erect attitude, from which they
-have been well called Penguin ducks. Whether their upright posture
-is due to their walking or not I do not know, but they are excellent
-walkers and are sometimes driven long distances to their feeding
-grounds. When a duck is tired and lags behind, the boy who herds them
-picks it up by the neck, and you may sometimes see him walking along
-with a bunch of two or three ducks in either hand.
-
-Others of our party visited Djokjakarta and the Buddhist Temples of
-Boro-Boder in Central Java and the mountain resort of Tosari in the
-volcanic region of Eastern Java. Tosari is more than five thousand feet
-above the sea, and is of great value to the Dutch as a sanatorium for
-soldiers and civilians from all parts of the Archipelago. The rainfall
-is comparatively scanty and the climate is like that of Southern Europe
-at its best.
-
-[Illustration: A CONVICT COOLY OF THE DUTCH ESCORT.]
-
-[Illustration: A MALAY COOLY FROM BUTON.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER II
-
-
-  _Expedition leaves Java—The “Nias”—Escort—Macassar—Raja
-  of Goa—Amboina—Corals and Fishes—Ambonese
-  Christians—Dutch Clubs—Dobo._
-
-On December 21st we left Batavia, and on Christmas Day, 1909, we sailed
-from Soerabaja in the Government steamer _Nias_, Capt. Hondius van
-Herwerden. The _Nias_, a ship of about six hundred tons, formerly a
-gun-boat in the Netherlands Indies Marine, is now stripped of her
-two small guns and is used by the Government as a special service
-vessel. Her last commission before embarking us has been to transport
-Mr. Lorentz on his expedition to the Noord River in New Guinea three
-months earlier. Now she was full to the brim of stores and gear of all
-sorts and her decks were crowded with men. There were five of us and
-ten Gurkhas. The Dutch escort consisted of Lieutenant H. A. Cramer
-in command, two Dutch sergeants and one Dutch medical orderly, forty
-native Javanese soldiers and sixty convicts, most of them Javanese. The
-convicts were nearly all of them men with more or less long sentences
-of imprisonment and some of them were murderers in chains, which were
-knocked off them to their great relief the day after we left Soerabaja.
-One of the best of the convicts, a native of Bali, was a murderer (see
-illustration, page 12), who did admirable service to the expedition,
-and was subsequently promoted to be _mandoer_.[1]
-
-At Macassar we stopped a few hours only to add to our already
-excessive deck cargo, and to hear a little of the gossip of Celebes.
-I was interested to learn that the power of the Raja of Goa, whom
-I had visited a few years before, had come to an end. That monarch
-was an interesting survivor of the old native princes of the island.
-His kingdom extended to within three miles of Macassar, and he was
-apparently not answerable to any law or authority but his own. The
-place became a refuge for criminals fleeing from justice, and it was a
-disagreeable thorn in the side of the Dutch authorities, who were at
-last compelled to send a small expedition to annex the country. The
-Raja himself, it was said, came to a very unpleasant end in a ditch.
-
-There had also been a small war on the east side of the island, which
-resulted in the pacification of the large and prosperous district
-of Boni. Now the Island of Celebes, which only a few years ago was
-dominated by savage tribes and where it was unsafe for an European
-to travel, has been almost completely brought within the Dutch
-administration, and it seems likely that its enormous mineral and
-agricultural wealth will soon make it one of the most prosperous
-islands of the Archipelago.
-
-[Sidenote: AMBOINA]
-
-On December 30th we anchored in the harbour of Amboina, where we were
-joined by the last member of the expedition, Mr. W. Stalker, who had
-been for some months collecting birds in Ceram, and recently had been
-engaged in Amboina in recruiting coolies for the expedition. It had
-been expected that he would go to engage coolies in the Ké Islands,
-a group of islands about three hundred miles to the south-east of
-Amboina, where the natives are more sturdy and less sophisticated than
-the people of Amboina; but circumstances had prevented him from going
-there, and we had to put up with the very inferior Ambonese, a fact
-which at the outset seriously handicapped the expedition. We stayed for
-two days at Amboina, or, as the Dutch always call it, Ambon, buying
-necessary stores and making arrangements with the Dutch authorities,
-who agreed to send a steamer every two months, if the weather were
-favourable, to bring men and further supplies to us in New Guinea.
-
-Amboina is an exceedingly pretty place, and a very favourite station
-of the Dutch on account of its climate, which is remarkably equable,
-and its freedom from strong winds or excessive rain. There is a volcano
-at the north end of the island which has slumbered since 1824, and the
-place is very subject to earthquakes. A very serious one occurred as
-recently as 1902, which destroyed hundreds of lives and houses, whose
-walls may still be seen lying flat in the gardens, but as in other
-volcanic places the inhabitants have conveniently short memories, and
-the place has been re-built ready for another visitation.
-
-Like most of the other Dutch settlements in the East, Amboina has been
-laid out on a rectangular plan, but the uniformity of the arrangement
-is saved from being monotonous by the tree-planting habits of the
-Dutch. The roads and open spaces are shaded by Kanari trees, which
-also produce a most delicious nut, and the gardens are hedged with
-flowering Hibiscus and Oleander and gaudy-leafed Crotons. Roses, as
-well as many other temperate plants, in addition to “hothouse” plants,
-flourish in the gardens, and the verandahs of the houses themselves are
-often decorated with orchids from Ceram and the Tenimber Islands. Birds
-are not common in the town itself except in captivity, and you see,
-especially in the gardens of the natives’ houses, parrots and lories,
-and pigeons from the Moluccas and New Guinea, and you may even hear the
-call of the Greater bird of paradise. Attracted by the many flowering
-plants are swarms of butterflies, some of them of great beauty. One of
-the most gorgeous of these is the large blue _Papilio ulysses_, which
-floats from flower to flower like a piece of living blue sky.
-
-[Sidenote: THE AMBONESE]
-
-The harbour of Amboina is a wide deep channel, which nearly divides
-the island into two, and in it are the wonderful sea-gardens, which
-aroused the enthusiasm of Mr. Wallace.[2] They are not perhaps so
-wonderful as the sea-gardens at Banda and elsewhere, but to those who
-have never seen such things before the many coloured sea-weeds and
-corals and shells and shoals of fantastic fishes seen through crystal
-water are a source of unfailing interest. The sea is crowded with fish
-of every size and form and colour. Nearly eight hundred species have
-been described from Ambonese waters, and it is worth while to visit
-the market in the early morning, when the night’s haul is brought in,
-and before the very evanescent colours of the fish have faded. Nearly
-every man in the place is a fisherman during some part of the day or
-night, and nobody need starve who has the energy to throw a baited
-hook into the sea. Most of the fish are caught either in nets very
-similar to our seine-net or in more elaborate traps which are mostly
-constructed by Chinamen.
-
-The market is also worth visiting to see the variety of fruit and
-spices that grow in the island. Amboina has a peculiar form of banana,
-the _Pisang Ambon_, with white flesh, dark green skin, and a very
-peculiar flavour. Besides this there are many other kinds of bananas,
-mangoes, mangostines, guavas, sour-manilla, soursop, pineapples,
-kanari nut, nutmeg, cloves, and a small but very delicious fruit, the
-garnderia.
-
-The native inhabitants of Amboina are a curious mixture of the
-aboriginal native with Portuguese, Dutch, and Malay blood. There is
-a strong predominance of the Portuguese type, which shows itself in
-the faces of many of the people, who still use words of Portuguese
-origin, and preserve many Portuguese names. A large number of them
-are Christians, and they rejoice in such names as Josef, Esau, Jacob,
-Petrus and Domingos.
-
-New Year’s Eve was celebrated by a confusion of fireworks and
-gun-firing, which lasted from sunset until the small hours of 1910,
-and by an afternoon service in the Church attended by many hundreds
-of people. The women, who are usually in Amboina dressed entirely
-in black, wore for the occasion long white coats, black _sarongs_
-and white stockings. The men went more variously clad in straw hats,
-dinner jackets, low waistcoats, white or coloured starched shirts,
-coloured ties, black trousers, and brown boots. We were interested to
-find that the great bulk of the stuff from which clothes are made in
-Amboina is imported from England, and we were assured by a merchant who
-was interested in the trade that a man can dress himself in so-called
-European fashion as cheaply in Amboina as he can in this country.
-
-An agreeable feature of life at Amboina, as at other places in the
-Netherlands Indies, is the hospitality of the Dutch people. A stranger
-of at all respectable social position is expected to introduce himself
-to the club, and the residents in the place feel genuinely hurt if he
-fails to do so. The Societat, or “Soce,” as it is everywhere called, is
-more of a café than a club according to English ideas, and it exists
-for conviviality and gossiping rather than for newspaper reading and
-card playing. It is not even a restaurant in the sense that many
-English clubs are; the members meet there in the evening but they
-invariably dine, as they lunch, at home. On the verandah in front of
-the club is a round table, at which sit after dark large men in white
-clothes smoking cigars and drinking various drinks. The foreigner
-approaches with what courage he may and introduces himself by name
-to the party severally. They make a place for him in the circle and
-thereafter, with a courtesy which a group of Englishmen would find
-difficulty in imitating, they continue the conversation in the language
-of the foreigner. An Englishman is at first a little staggered by
-the number of _pait_ (_i.e._ bitter, the name for gin and bitters)
-and other drinks that his hosts consume, and which he is expected
-to consume also, but, as I remember noticing in the case of their
-neighbours the Belgians in the Congo, it appears to do them little if
-any harm.
-
-[Sidenote: THE ARAFURA SEA]
-
-In the larger places there is a concert at the club once or twice a
-week—at Bandoeng in Java I heard a remarkably good string quartette—and
-in almost every place there is a ladies’ night at the club once a week,
-when the children come to dance to the music of a piano or gramophone,
-as the case may be. It is a pretty sight and one to make one ponder on
-the possible harmony of nations—“Harmonie” is commonly a name for the
-clubs in the Netherlands Indies—to see small Dutch children dancing
-with little half-castes and, as I have more than once seen, with little
-Celestials and Japanese.
-
-We left Amboina on New Year’s Day in a deluge of rain, and all that day
-we were in sight of the forest-covered heights of Ceram to the North.
-On January 2nd we passed Banda at dawn, and at sunset we got a view
-of the most South-west point of New Guinea, Cape Van de Bosch. On the
-morning of January 3rd we dropped anchor in the harbour of Dobo in the
-Aru Islands. For several miles before we arrived there we had noticed a
-marked difference in the appearance of the sea. Since we left Batavia
-we had been sailing over a deep sea of great oceanic depths, sometimes
-of two or three thousand fathoms, which was always clear and blue or
-black as deep seas are. Approaching the Aru Islands we came into the
-shoal waters of the Arafura Sea, which is yellowish and opaque and
-never exceeds one hundred fathoms in depth. We were, in fact, sailing
-over that scarcely submerged land, which joins the Aru Islands and New
-Guinea with the Continent of Australia.
-
-Dobo has doubtless changed a good deal in appearance since Mr. Wallace
-visited it in 1857, the majority of the houses are now built of
-corrugated iron in place of the palm leaves of fifty years ago; but
-it cannot have increased greatly in size, for it is built on a small
-spit of coral sand beyond which are mangrove swamps where building is
-impossible. The reason of its existence has also changed since the time
-when it was the great market of all the neighbouring islands, for now
-it exists solely as the centre of a pearl-fishing industry controlled
-by an Australian Company, the Celebes Trading Company. Messrs. Clarke
-& Ross Smith, the heads of this business, rendered us assistance in
-very many ways, and the sincerest thanks of the expedition are due to
-them. The primary object of pearl-fishing is of course the collection
-of pearl-shell which is used for knife handles, buttons, and a hundred
-other things. Shell of a good quality is worth more than £200 a ton.
-The pearls, which are occasionally found, are merely accidentals
-and profitable extras of the trade. Some idea of the extent of this
-business may be learnt from the fact that more than one hundred boats
-employing about five thousand men are occupied in the various fleets.
-
-We left Dobo, the last place of civilisation that many of us were to
-see for a year and more, on January 3rd; and here, as we are almost
-within sight as it were of our destination, it may be opportune to
-state briefly the geographical position of New Guinea, and to give a
-short account of its exploration.
-
-[Illustration: DOBO. ARU ISLANDS.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER III
-
-
-  _New Guinea—Its Position and Extent—Territorial
-  Divisions—Mountain Ranges—Numerous Rivers—The Papuans—The
-  Discovery of New Guinea—Early Voyagers—Spanish and
-  Dutch—Jan Carstensz—First Discovery of the Snow
-  Mountains—William Dampier in the “Roebuck”—Captain Cook
-  in the “Endeavour”—Naturalists and later Explorers._
-
-The island of New Guinea or Papua lies to the East of all the great
-islands of the Malay Archipelago and forms a barrier between them and
-the Pacific Ocean. To the South of it lies the Continent of Australia
-separated from it by the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait, which at its
-narrowest point is less than a hundred miles wide. To the East is the
-great group of the Solomon Islands, while on the North there are no
-important masses of land between New Guinea and Japan. The island lies
-wholly to the South of the Equator, its most Northern point, the Cape
-of Good Hope in the Arfak Peninsula, being 19´ S. latitude.
-
-The extreme length of the island from E. to W. is 1490 miles, and its
-greatest breadth from N. to S. is rather more than 400 miles. New
-Guinea is the largest of the islands of the globe, having an area of
-308,000 square miles (Borneo has about 290,000 square miles), and it is
-divided amongst three countries roughly as follows: Holland 150,000,
-Great Britain 90,000, and Germany 70,000 square miles. The large
-territory of the Dutch was acquired by them with the kingdom of the
-Sultan of Ternate, who was accustomed to claim Western New Guinea as a
-part of his dominions: it is bounded on the East by the 141st parallel
-of East longitude and partly by the Fly River and thus it comprises
-nearly a half of the island.
-
-The Eastern half of the island is divided into a Northern, German,
-and a Southern, British, part. The German territory is called Kaiser
-Wilhelm Land, and the islands adjacent to it, which have received
-German substitutes for their old names of New Britain, New Ireland,
-etc., are known as the Bismarck Archipelago. British New Guinea, which
-is now administered by the Federal Government of Australia, has been
-officially renamed the Territory of Papua, and with it are included
-the numerous islands at its Eastern extremity, the D’Entrecasteaux and
-Louisiade Archipelagoes.
-
-Only in the British territory has a serious attempt been made at
-settling and administering the country; the headquarters of the
-Government are at Port Moresby, and the country is divided into six
-magisterial districts.
-
-The German possessions are governed from Herbertshöhe in Neu Pommern
-(New Britain), which is the centre of a small amount of island trade,
-but the settlements on the New Guinea mainland are few and far between,
-and it cannot be pretended that the country is German except in name.
-
-The Dutch territory has been even less brought under control than the
-German. For more than half a century there has been a mission station
-at Dorei in the N.W. but until 1899 when the Dutch assumed the direct
-control of the country, which was till that time nominally governed by
-the Sultan of Tidor (Ternate), there was no sign of Dutch rule in New
-Guinea. Now there are Government stations with small bodies of native
-soldiers at Manokware, an island in Dorei Bay, and at Fak-fak on the
-shore of MacCluer Gulf; more recently a third post has been established
-at Merauke on the South coast near the boundary of British New Guinea,
-with the object of subjugating the fierce Tugere tribe of that region.
-
-[Sidenote: MOUNTAIN RANGES]
-
-The most important physical feature of New Guinea is the great system
-of mountain ranges, which run from West to East and form the back-bone
-of the island. The Arfak Peninsula in the N.W. is made entirely by
-mountains which reach an altitude of more than 9000 feet. In the great
-central mass of the island the mountains begin near the S.W. coast with
-the Charles Louis Mountains, which vary in height from 4000 to 9000
-feet. Following these to the East they are found to be continuous with
-the Snowy Mountains (now called the Nassau Range, the objective of
-this expedition) which culminate in the glacier-covered tops of Mount
-Idenberg (15,379 feet), and Mount Carstensz (15,964 feet), and to the
-East of these is the snow-capped Mount Wilhelmina (15,420 feet), and
-Mount Juliana (about 14,764 feet).
-
-Leaving Dutch New Guinea and proceeding further to the East we come to
-the Victor Emmanuel and the Sir Arthur Gordon Ranges, which lie near
-the boundary of German and British New Guinea. Still further East is
-the Bismarck Range, often snow covered, and extending through the long
-Eastern prolongation of the island are the great range of the Owen
-Stanley Mountains, which reach their highest point in Mount Victoria
-(13,150 feet), and the Stirling Range.
-
-As might be expected in so mountainous a country there is a large
-number of rivers and some of them are of great size. On the North
-coast the Kaiserin Augusta River rises in Dutch territory and takes
-an almost Easterly course through German New Guinea to the sea, while
-the Amberno (or Mamberamo) rises probably from the slopes of the Snowy
-Mountains and flows Northwards to Point d’Urville. On the South coast,
-in British New Guinea besides the Purari, Kikor and Turama Rivers, the
-most important is the Fly River, which has been explored by boat for a
-distance of more than five hundred miles. In Southern Dutch New Guinea
-there are almost countless rivers: chief among them are the Digoel,
-which has been explored for more than four hundred miles; the Island
-River, by which a Dutch expedition has recently reached the central
-watershed of New Guinea; the Noord River by which Mr. H. Lorentz
-approached Mount Wilhelmina; the Utakwa and the Utanata.
-
-[Sidenote: THE NATIVES OF NEW GUINEA]
-
-The natives of New Guinea are Papuans and the island is indeed the
-centre of that race, which is found more or less mixed with other races
-from the island of Flores as far as Fiji. Though the Papuans in New
-Guinea itself have been in many places altered by immigrant races,
-for instance by Malays in the extreme West, and by Polynesian and
-Melanesian influences in the South and East, there yet remain large
-regions, particularly in the Western half of the country, including
-the district visited by this expedition, where the true Papuan stock
-holds its own.
-
-The name Papua, it should be said, comes from the Malay wood _papuwah_,
-meaning “woolly” or “fuzzy,” and was first applied to the natives on
-account of their mops of hair; later the name was applied to the island
-itself.
-
-Even among those Papuans who are pure-blooded—in so far as one may
-use that expression in describing any human race—there are very
-considerable varieties of appearance, but it is still possible to
-describe a type to which all of them conform in the more important
-particulars. The typical Papuan is rather tall and is usually
-well-built. The legs of the low country people are somewhat meagre,
-as is usually the case among people who spend much of their time in
-canoes, whilst those of the hill tribes are well developed. The hands
-and feet are large. The colour of the skin varies from a dark chocolate
-colour to a rusty black, but it seems to be never of the shining ebony
-blackness of the African negro. The lips are thick but not full, the
-teeth are strong but not noticeably good, and the jaws are strong but
-they can hardly be called prognathous. The forehead is receding, the
-brows are strong and prominent, and the shape of the face is somewhat
-oval. The hair is black and “frizzly” rather than “woolly,” it is crisp
-and hard to the touch, and in some tribes it is grown to a considerable
-length and dressed in a variety of ornamental fashions. Short hard hair
-is also found frequently on the chest and on the limbs, but on the
-face it is scanty and frequently altogether absent.
-
-The most characteristic feature is the nose, which is long and fleshy
-and somewhat “Semitic” in outline, but flattened and depressed at the
-tip. But these characteristics of the nose would not alone suffice to
-distinguish the Papuans from others were it not for the fact that the
-_alae nasi_ are attached at a remarkably high level on the face, and so
-an unusually large extent of the _septum_ of the nose is exposed. It is
-owing to this curious formation of the nose that the Papuan is enabled
-to perform his almost universal practice of piercing the _septum nasi_
-and wearing there some ornament of bone or shell.
-
-Apart from physical characteristics many observers have found mental
-qualities in which the Papuans differ from, and are superior to,
-neighbouring races; but these things are so difficult to define, and
-they vary so much according to local circumstances, that it is not wise
-to use them as conclusive evidence. It may, however, be said without
-fear of contradiction that no person, who has had experience of Malays
-and of Papuans, could believe for a moment that they are anything
-but two very distinct races of men. The origin of the Papuans is not
-definitely known, and the existence in different parts of the island
-of small people, who are possibly of Negrito stock, suggests that the
-Papuans were not the original inhabitants of New Guinea.
-
-[Sidenote: EARLY SPANISH NAVIGATORS]
-
-The history of the earliest discovery of New Guinea is not precisely
-known, but it is safe to disregard the legends of navigators having
-found the island before the Portuguese reached the Moluccas and founded
-a trading centre at Ternate in 1512. The earliest authentic record
-is of the Portuguese Don Jorge de Meneses, who was driven out of his
-way on a voyage from Goa to Ternate in 1526, and took refuge in the
-island of Waigiu. Two years later a Spaniard Alvaro de Saavedra taking
-spices from the Moluccas to Mexico appears to have reached the Schouten
-Islands in Geelvink Bay. From there he sailed North and discovered the
-Carolines and the Mariana Islands, but unfavourable winds drove him
-back to the Moluccas. In 1529 he set out again, and sailed along a long
-expanse of coast, which was doubtless the North coast of New Guinea.
-
-In 1546 Ynigo Ortiz de Retes sailed from Ternate to Mexico in his ship
-_San Juan_. He touched at several places on the North coast where he
-hoisted the Spanish flag, and called the island Nueva Guinea, because
-the natives appeared to him to resemble the negroes of the Guinea coast
-of Africa. The name, spelt Nova Guinea, appears printed for the first
-time on Mercator’s map of 1569.
-
-The last important Spanish Expedition was that of Luis Vaz de Torres,
-who sailed with two ships from Peru, and in 1606 reached the south-east
-corner of New Guinea. He sailed along the South coast from one to the
-other end of the island, of which he took possession in the name of
-the King of Spain. Torres’ voyage through the strait which now bears
-his name was the first to show that New Guinea was an island, but the
-account of the voyage was not published and the fact of his discovery
-remained unknown until after 1800.
-
-The seventeenth century was chiefly notable for the explorations of the
-Dutch, whose East India Company proclaimed a monopoly of trade in the
-Spice Islands to the exclusion of people of other nationalities. In
-1605, Willem Jansz sailed from Banda to New Guinea in the _Duyfken_.
-The Ké and Aru Islands were visited and the Cape York Peninsula of
-Australia was reached, but the importance of that discovery was not
-realised. On the mainland of New Guinea nine men of the ship’s company
-were killed and eaten, and the expedition returned to Banda.
-
-Jacques Le Maire and Willem Schouten made an important voyage in 1616
-in the _Eendracht_. Sailing from Europe by way of Cape Horn they
-crossed the Pacific and discovered New Ireland, where they had trouble
-with the natives, who (it is interesting to note) gave them pigs in
-exchange for glass beads. The Admiralty and Vulcan Islands were seen
-and then, after reaching the coast of New Guinea, they discovered the
-mouth of the Kaiserin Augusta River and the Schouten Islands.
-
-[Sidenote: THE VOYAGE OF JAN CARSTENSZ]
-
-The next important voyage, and in this chronicle the most important
-of all, was that of Jan Carstensz (or Carstenszoon) who sailed from
-Amboina in 1623 with the ships _Pera_ and _Arnhem_. After visiting
-Ké and Aru they reached the S.W. coast of New Guinea, where they
-met with trouble. “This same day (February 11) the skipper of the
-yacht _Arnhem_, Dirck Meliszoon, without knowledge of myself or the
-sub-cargo or steersman of the said yacht, unadvisedly went ashore
-to the open beach in the pinnace, taking with him fifteen persons,
-both officers and common sailors, and no more than four muskets, for
-the purpose of fishing with a seine-net. There was great disorder in
-landing, the men running off in different directions, until at last a
-number of black savages came running forth from the wood, who first
-seized and tore to pieces an assistant named Jan Willemsz Van den
-Briel who happened to be unarmed, after which they slew with arrows,
-callaways, and with the oars which they had snatched from the pinnace,
-no less than nine of our men, who were unable to defend themselves, at
-the same time wounding the remaining seven (among them the skipper,
-who was the first to take to his heels); these last seven men at last
-returned on board in very sorry plight with the pinnace and one oar,
-the skipper loudly lamenting his great want of prudence, and entreating
-pardon for the fault he had committed.”
-
-The incautious skipper died of his wounds on the following day and so
-he did not take a part in the most momentous discovery of the voyage.
-“In the morning of the 16th (February) we took the sun’s altitude at
-sunrise, which we found to be 5° 6´; the preceding evening ditto 20°
-30´; the difference being divided by two comes to 7° 42´; increasing
-North-easterly variation; the wind N. by E.; we were at about one
-and a half mile’s distance from the low-lying land in 5 or 6 fathom,
-clayey bottom; at a distance of about 10 miles by estimation into the
-interior we saw a very high mountain range in many places white with
-snow, which we thought a very singular sight, being so near the line
-equinoctial. Towards the evening we held our course E. by S., along
-half-submerged land in 5, 4, 3, and 2 fathom, at which last point we
-dropped anchor; we lay there for about five hours, during which time we
-found the water to have risen 4 or 5 feet; in the first watch, the wind
-being N.E., we ran into deeper water and came to anchor in 10 fathom,
-where we remained for the night.”
-
-That is the brief account of the first discovery of the Snow Mountains
-of New Guinea by Jan Carstensz, whose name is now perpetuated in the
-highest summit of the range. Very few ships have sailed along that
-coast in three hundred years, and there are very many days in the year
-when not a sign of the mountains can be seen from the shore, so it is
-not very astonishing to find ships’ captains sailing on those seas who
-still disbelieve the story of the snow. On the same voyage Carstensz
-crossed the straits and sailed a considerable way down the Cape York
-Peninsula believing that the land was still New Guinea.
-
-In 1636 Thomas Pool explored a large tract of the S.W. coast; Pool
-himself was killed by natives, but the expedition discovered three
-large rivers, the Kupera Pukwa, Inabuka (? Neweripa), and the Utakwa.
-Tasman sailed along the North coast of New Guinea in 1642 after his
-discovery of Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania); and in 1644 he was sent to
-find out whether there was a passage between New Guinea and the large
-“South Land” (Australia). Apparently he cruised along the coast about
-as far as Merauke, and also touched Australia, but the strait was not
-discovered.
-
-Throughout the seventeenth century the Dutch East India Company
-maintained their monopoly of the cloves and nutmegs of the Moluccas,
-and great consternation was caused when the English tried to obtain
-these spices direct by sending ships to the Papuan islands. The
-Moluccas were protected by forts and their harbours safe, therefore
-in order to prevent the English from obtaining the spices outside the
-sphere of direct Dutch influence, all trees producing spices were
-destroyed.
-
-[Sidenote: DAMPIER AND COOK]
-
-The most important of the English voyages was that of Capt. William
-Dampier in the _Roebuck_. He sailed by Brazil and the Cape of Good
-Hope to Western Australia and thence to Timor. On January 1, 1700, he
-sighted the mountains of New Guinea; he landed on several islands near
-the coast, captured Crowned pigeons and many kinds of fishes, which he
-described in his book. Rounding the N.W. corner of the island he sailed
-along the North coast and discovered that New Britain was separated
-from New Guinea by a strait to which he gave his own name.
-
-After the voyages of Philip Carteret, who proved that New Ireland is
-an island, and of de Bougainville in 1766 the most important is that
-of Captain James Cook in the _Endeavour_. He sailed from Plymouth
-in August 1768, rounded Cape Horn, reached and charted New Zealand,
-reached the East coast of New Holland (Australia) in April 1770, and
-sailed along the coast to Cape York, which he named. Looking Westward
-he decided that there was a channel leading from the Pacific to the
-Indian Ocean, and after sailing through it he came to the coast of
-New Guinea to the N.W. of Prince Frederick Henry Island, where he was
-attacked by natives and thence he sailed to Batavia. Thus Captain Cook
-by sailing through his Endeavour Strait, now called Torres Strait after
-the original navigator, repeated the discovery of Torres after an
-interval of more than a century and a half, and the general position
-and outline of New Guinea became known to the world.
-
-After the voyage of Cook many important additions were made to
-the charts of New Guinea and its neighbouring islands, notably
-by the voyages of La Perouse (1788), John MacCluer (1790-1793),
-D’Entrecasteaux (1792-1793), Duperrey (1823-1824), D. H. Kolff (1826),
-and Dumont d’Urville (1827-1828).
-
-But during all this time New Guinea was practically no man’s land, and
-except at Dorei and about the MacCluer Gulf explorations were limited
-to views from the deck of a ship. Flags were hoisted now and then and
-the land taken possession of in the name of various sovereigns and
-companies, amongst others by the East India Company in 1793, but no
-effective occupation was ever made. The Dutch regained their title
-to the Western half of the island, but it was not until 1884 that
-a British Protectorate was proclaimed over the S.E. portion of the
-island, and over the remainder by Germany in the same year.
-
-[Sidenote: RECENT EXPLORATION]
-
-Although numerous naturalists, notably Dr. A. R. Wallace, Von
-Rosenberg, and Bernstein, and missionaries had spent considerable
-periods of time in the country, no very serious attempt was made to
-penetrate into the interior until 1876, when the Italian naturalist,
-d’Albertis, explored the Fly River for more than five hundred miles.
-Since that time a very large number of expeditions have been undertaken
-to various parts of the island, and it will only be possible to mention
-a few of them here. In 1885 Captain Everill ascended the Strickland
-tributary of the Fly River. In the same year Dr. H. O. Forbes explored
-the Owen Stanley range, and in 1889 Sir William Macgregor reached the
-highest point of that range.
-
-In Dutch New Guinea very little exploration was done until the
-beginning of the present century. Professor Wichmann made scientific
-investigations in the neighbourhood of Humboldt Bay in 1903. Captains
-Posthumus Meyes and De Rochemont in 1904 discovered East Bay and the
-Noord River, which was explored by Mr. H. A. Lorentz in 1907.
-
-During the period from 1909 to 1911, whilst our party was in New
-Guinea, there were six other expeditions in different parts of the
-Dutch territory. On the N. coast a Dutch-German boundary commission was
-penetrating inland from Humboldt Bay, and a large party under Capt.
-Fransse Herderschee was exploring the Amberno River. On the West and
-South coasts an expedition was exploring inland from Fak-fak, another
-was surveying the Digoel and Island rivers, and a third made an attempt
-to reach the Snow Mountains by way of the Utakwa River. But the most
-successful of all the expeditions was that of Mr. Lorentz, who sailed
-up the Noord River and in November 1909 reached the snow on Mount
-Wilhelmina, two hundred and eighty-six years after the mountains were
-first seen by Jan Carstensz.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IV
-
-
-  _Sail from the Aru Islands—Sight New Guinea—Distant
-  Mountains—Signal Fires—Natives in Canoes—A British
-  Flag—Natives on Board—Their Behaviour—Arrival at
-  Mimika River—Reception at Wakatimi—Dancing and
-  Weeping—Landing Stores—View of the Country—Snow
-  Mountains—Shark-Fishing—Making the Camp—Death of W.
-  Stalker._
-
-[Sidenote: ARRIVAL IN NEW GUINEA]
-
-When we left the northernmost end of the Aru Islands behind us the
-wind rose and torrents of rain descended, and the Arafura Sea, which
-is almost everywhere more or less shoal water, treated us to the first
-foul weather we had experienced since leaving England. At dawn on the
-4th January we found ourselves in sight of land, and about five miles
-south of the New Guinea coast. A big bluff mountain (Mount Lakahia)
-a southern spur of the Charles Louis range determined our position,
-and the head of the _Nias_ was immediately turned to the East. As we
-steamed along the coast the light grew stronger, and we saw in the
-far North-east pale clouds, which presently resolved themselves into
-ghostly-looking mountains one hundred miles away. Soon the rising
-sunlight touched them and we could clearly see white patches above
-the darker masses of rock and then we knew that these were the Snow
-Mountains of New Guinea, which we had come so far to see. Beyond an
-impression of their remoteness and their extraordinary steepness we
-did not learn much of the formation of the mountains from that great
-distance and they were quickly hidden from our view, as we afterwards
-found happened daily, by the dense white mists that rose from the
-intervening land.
-
-Following the coast rather more closely we soon found that our approach
-was causing some excitement on shore. White columns of the smoke of
-signal fires curled up from the low points of the land and canoes
-manned by black figures paddled furiously in our wake, while others,
-warned doubtless by the signals, put off from the land ahead of us and
-endeavoured to intercept us in our course.
-
-In some of the larger canoes there were as many as twenty men, and very
-fine indeed they looked standing up in the long narrow craft which
-they urged swiftly forward with powerful rhythmic strokes of their
-long-shafted paddles. At the beginning of each stroke the blade of the
-paddle is at right angles to the boat. As it is pulled backward the
-propelling surface of the paddle is a little rotated outward, a useful
-precaution, for the stroke ends with a sudden jerk as the paddle is
-lifted from the water and the consequent shower of spray is directed
-away from the canoe.
-
-[Illustration: 1. 2. 3. CARVED WOODEN CLUBS. 4-10. STONE CLUBS.]
-
-The shore was low and featureless, and it was impossible to identify
-the mouths of the rivers from the very inaccurate chart. It was not
-safe for the _Nias_ to approach the land closely on account of the
-shoal water, so Capt. Van Herwerden dropped anchor when he had been
-steaming Eastwards for about eight hours, and sent the steam launch
-towards an inlet, where we could see huts, to gather information. A bar
-of sand prevented the launch from entering the inlet, so they hailed
-a canoe which ventured within speaking distance, and by repeating
-several times “Mimika,” the only word of their language that we knew at
-that time, learnt that we had overshot our destination by a few miles.
-That canoe, it should be noted, was remarkable on account of two of
-its crew. One of them held aloft an ancient Union Jack; the other was
-conspicuously different from the scores of men in the canoes about us,
-who were all frankly in a bare undress, by wearing an old white cotton
-jacket fastened by a brass button which was ornamented with the head
-of Queen Victoria. How the flag and the coat and the button came to
-that outlandish place will never be known, but it is certain that they
-must have passed through very many hands before they came there, for
-certainly no Englishman had ever been there before.
-
-When the launch returned to the ship a crowd of natives, fifty or sixty
-at the least, came clambering on board leaving only one or two men in
-each canoe to paddle after the steamer as we slowly returned towards
-the Mimika. Two men were recognised by Capt. Van Herwerden as having
-belonged to a party of natives from this coast, who had been taken some
-years earlier to Merauke, the Dutch settlement near the southernmost
-point of New Guinea. At Merauke they had got into mischief and had
-been put in prison from which nine of them escaped, and these two men,
-probably the only survivors of the party, had contrived to find their
-way along four hundred miles of coast, peopled by hostile tribes, back
-to their own country.
-
-The behaviour of our new fellow passengers was very remarkable and
-different from what one expected, though it was obvious enough at the
-first glance that these were people totally different from the Malayan
-races both in appearance and demeanour; yet there was none of that
-exuberance of spirits, child-like curiosity and exhibition of merriment
-and delight in their novel surroundings described by Wallace[3] and
-Guillemard[4] and which I had myself seen on the coast of German New
-Guinea. A few of them shook hands, or rather held hands, with us and
-talked loudly and volubly, while the rest stared dumbly at us and
-then wandered aimlessly about the ship seeking a chance to steal any
-loose piece of metal. They showed no fear nor did they betray any
-excitement nor any very keen curiosity about the marvellous things that
-they were seeing for the first time. They were quite unmoved by the
-spectacle of the windlass lifting up the anchor, and a casual glance
-down the skylight of the engine room was enough for most of them. They
-appeared to take everything for granted without question, and a stolid
-stare was their only recognition of the wonderful works of the white
-man’s civilisation. In one respect it is true they were not quite so
-apathetic and that was in their appetite for tobacco, which they begged
-from everyone on board, brown and white alike. When they had obtained a
-supply, they sat in groups about the deck and smoked as unconcernedly
-as though a passage in a steamship were an affair of every-day
-occurrence in their lives.
-
-[Sidenote: MOUTH OF THE MIMIKA]
-
-By the time that we eventually anchored off the mouth of the Mimika
-River it was beginning to grow dark, and Capt. Van Herwerden ordered
-the natives on board to leave the ship, not having noticed that the
-canoes had already departed towards the shore. No doubt this was a
-preconcerted scheme of the natives who wanted to stay on board, but by
-dint of much shouting two canoes were persuaded to return and take away
-some of our passengers. It was then quite dark and there was a white
-mist over the sea, and the spectacle of the procession of black figures
-passing down the gangway into an apparent abyss, for the canoes were
-invisible in the gloom, was singularly weird. There was not room for
-all in the canoes, so about a score of fortunate ones had to stop on
-board, where they slept in picturesque attitudes about the deck. Five
-young men chose a place where the iron cover of the steering chain made
-a pillow a few inches high; they lay on their sides all facing the same
-way, their arms folded across their chests and their bent knees fitting
-into the bend of the knees of the man in front, and so close together
-that the five of them occupied a space hardly more than five feet
-square.
-
-Soon after daylight on the following day the steam launch left the
-ship with a party to proceed up the Mimika and find a suitable place
-for a base-camp. The river has a fine wide mouth about a mile across
-guarded by a sand bar, through which runs a narrow channel navigable at
-all stages of the tide except during rough weather. For some distance
-the river is a noble stream two or three hundred yards wide winding
-in fine sweeps between low mangrove-covered banks. About three miles
-from the sea the river divides into an East and West branch. The East
-branch, the Mimika proper, brings down not more than one-quarter of
-the volume of water of the West branch, of which it may be said to be
-a tributary. It is remarkable that the party who visited the Mimika in
-1902 apparently overlooked the fact that the West branch is actually
-the main river. Above the junction of the two branches the water of
-the Mimika is of a brown chocolate colour which proclaims it, though
-we did not know it at the time, to be a mere jungle stream rising from
-comparatively low ground. The water of the West branch on the contrary
-is pale in colour and at times of flood almost milky-white, being
-charged with lime-stone from the high mountains where it rises.
-
-[Sidenote: A WELCOME OF TEARS]
-
-Proceeding for two or three miles up the Mimika, which had become above
-the junction a comparatively insignificant stream forty or fifty yards
-across and very tortuous, the exploring party in the steam launch
-arrived at the village of Wakatimi situated on the right bank of the
-river. The village was crowded with natives, numbering perhaps one
-thousand people, who gave the visitors a most remarkable reception. As
-soon as the boat appeared in sight the natives crowded down to the bank
-and shouted shrilly, men, women and children. When they came nearer
-the people threw themselves into the shallow water and many of them
-plastered themselves with mud, while the women performed their curious
-dance, if dance it can be called. It is not a concerted performance,
-but rather a _pas seul_ executed by each woman independently of the
-others, and it is a peculiarly ungraceful exhibition. The body is bent
-forward from the hips, the hands rest on the knees or on the hips, and
-then with a shuffling movement of the feet the woman swings herself
-from side to side or up and down, always presenting her back and the
-narrow strip of barkcloth, which usually hangs down like a tail behind,
-to the astonished gaze of the spectator. She sings all the while a
-monotonous whining chant and occasionally looks back over her shoulder,
-as if to see that the onlooker is properly appreciative of her charms.
-Many of the people both men and women on this and other occasions of
-great excitement were so overcome with emotion that they actually shed
-tears of rapture.[5] For many days after this boats were constantly
-coming up the river from the ship, and they were always welcomed in a
-similar manner by the natives.
-
-The river was explored for a few miles further up, but the only
-suitable place for a camp was found to be on the left bank of the river
-immediately opposite to Wakatimi. Lieut. Cramer and a party of his
-soldiers established themselves there the same afternoon and the work
-of clearing the ground and landing the stores was immediately begun.
-The _Nias_ was anchored about two miles outside the river and the
-launch went very slowly when it had two or three heavily laden boats
-to tow against the strong current of the river, so the business of
-landing the expedition was a very slow one, and as there was at first
-but very little space for pitching tents on the camping ground some
-of us remained for a few days on board. During those days that were
-spent on the ship outside the Mimika we had opportunities in the early
-morning of getting a general idea of the broad features of the country.
-
-At the top of the white sandy beach was in most places a narrow belt of
-_Casuarina_ trees, which are accustomed to grow on sandy or stony soil.
-They resemble pines and their pale stems have a fresh green foliage,
-which is a pleasing contrast to the dense monotonous green of the
-majority of the trees in the country. Behind the _Casuarina_ belt dense
-jungle, for the first few miles consisting entirely of Mangroves and
-beyond that of various trees, extends with hardly any rise of altitude
-to the foot of the mountains thirty miles away. This last observation
-was one of supreme importance and it affected the whole prospect and
-conduct of the expedition. Those of us who had been to New Guinea
-before had been accustomed to seeing a steep shore rising very quickly
-to the hills. This is the usual formation along practically the whole
-of the North coast of the island, also along a considerable extent of
-the South-east coast and again on the West coast in the neighbourhood
-of MacCluer Gulf. It was known of course that the South coast on both
-sides of the mouth of the Fly River and about Prince Frederick Henry
-Island was low swampy country, but it was assumed that, considering the
-fact that the highest peaks of the Snow Mountains were known to be not
-more than seventy miles from the sea, the foothills would certainly
-extend to within a short distance of the coast.
-
-[Sidenote: VIEW OF THE MOUNTAINS]
-
-Before we had reached the country we had had the idea that in a few
-days’ march we should find ourselves in the hills at perhaps three or
-four thousand feet above the sea, but the view of the country which we
-saw from the _Nias_ effectually put an end to any hopes of that kind.
-It is probable that more searching enquiries made at Batavia would have
-revealed the existence of this wide belt of low land, but it seldom
-occurs to you to question the truth of such an assumption. However that
-may be, a serious mistake was made and we paid for it dearly enough.
-The mountains appeared to rise very steeply from the low ground, and
-seen from a distance they appeared to be composed of parallel ridges
-lying one behind the other, each one successively higher than the one
-in front of it. It was only in certain lights, and more particularly
-when the clouds began to form on them, that you could distinguish deep
-and narrow valleys running into the mountains. The nearer ranges rose
-steeply enough, but were not too steep to be covered with dense forest
-easily discernible from a distance. The furthermost ridge on the other
-hand rose in huge precipices of bare rock, which showed reddish yellow
-in the morning sunlight with here and there downward stripes of black
-colour, presumably water, and in other places streaks of pure white
-rock. This precipice, of which more will be said later, grew smaller
-towards the West until it ended at the deep valley, which divides the
-Snow Mountains from the range of the Charles Louis Mountains.
-
-In the opposite direction towards the East the range rises gradually,
-until at a point about North-east from the Mimika three snow-capped
-tops are seen. I use the word “top” advisedly, for these three points
-are not peaks but are elevations on an otherwise fairly even mountain
-outline. The vertical extent of the snow is not very great, a few
-hundred feet at the most, the South face of the mountain being so steep
-that snow cannot lie on it save on the horizontal terraces of the
-strata, which could plainly be distinguished. Continuing the ridge East
-from the three snow tops (Mount Idenburg) is a long plain of almost
-level snow about three miles long. From the East end of the snow plain
-a ridge of shattered rock, looking like Dolomite towers from that great
-distance, forms a connection with Mount Carstensz, the highest point of
-the range.
-
-Seen from afar, Mount Carstensz appears to be of a different formation
-from the rest of the range. Mr. Dumas of the Dutch Expedition to the
-Utakwa River clearly identified masses of slate on the Southern face
-from a distance of twenty miles, and this would quite account for its
-different appearance. There are two principal tops, a Western black and
-irregular rock with scattered patches of snow, and an Eastern top more
-even in its outline and entirely covered with snow. Between the two a
-glacier of moderate size flows down the South face of the mountain.
-Still further East from Mount Carstensz could be seen yet other ridges,
-apparently a continuation of the Carstensz ridge. Occasionally these
-were covered with snow in the early morning, but no other points of
-permanent snow could be seen from the Mimika, and indeed there is no
-other until Mount Wilhelmina is reached more than one hundred miles
-to the East. But studying the mountains with field glasses was an
-occupation which could only be pursued for a short time, for the clouds
-formed early on the ridges and by nine o’clock at the latest all the
-higher mountains were hidden from view.
-
-During the first two days that we lay off the Mimika we were visited by
-numbers of natives in canoes, who came some to trade and some merely
-to stare at the ship and the people on board. The articles that they
-brought for sale consisted chiefly of fish, coconuts and bananas of
-a very poor kind, though we afterwards came to regard these latter
-as a delicious luxury. They also brought a few young pigs, young
-cassowaries, and other birds and they received payment in beads, scraps
-of cloth, empty bottles and tins and pieces of metal. It is worth while
-to record, as showing the indolence of these people, that on the third
-day no natives came to visit us. Those who had before come to look at
-us had presumably satisfied their curiosity, while the others who had
-come to barter were content with the treasures they had won, although
-they might have added greatly to their wealth if they had had the
-energy to catch a few fish or pick a few more coconuts.
-
-[Sidenote: FISHING FOR SHARKS]
-
-Another occupation, which served to pass the time, was fishing for
-the sharks with which that shallow sea abounds. They are blunt-nosed
-animals with large dusky patches on the skin. It is very seldom that
-you see them at the surface of the water, and they appear to feed
-always at the bottom. The first that was caught was found to be full of
-fragments of large crabs. Nobody on board was found willing to eat the
-flesh, though it is probable that a few months afterwards they would
-have been less fastidious, so the fish was thrown overboard, and an
-hour or two later a second shark, a monster about twelve feet long, was
-hauled, on board, and on being opened it was found to be full of large
-undigested lumps of (presumably) the first.
-
-On January 8th those of us who had remained on the _Nias_ left the ship
-and proceeded to Wakatimi, where we found that Lieut. Cramer and his
-men had already done an immense amount of work in clearing the ground
-for the camp. It appeared that the place chosen had been cleared of
-forest at some time, for there were no large trees growing on it, but
-it was covered with a dense jungle of shrubs and small trees, a foot or
-so in thickness and a tangle of creepers. Already in four days a strip
-along the river bank about eighty yards long and thirty yards wide had
-been cleared of bush, and as time went on the clearing was gradually
-extended until there were twenty acres or more of open ground about the
-camp.
-
-During the first two or three days the natives, who had assembled
-in large numbers at the village of Wakatimi, helped a good deal in
-clearing the ground and landing the stores. When the steam launch
-towing the laden boats arrived at the camp they fell upon the boats
-in hordes and quickly carried everything up the steep mud bank, but
-this amusement palled upon them very soon, and they stood about doing
-nothing and hampered the men at their work of unpacking. Accordingly a
-stout wooden fence was built about the landward side of the camp and
-over this they were content to gaze from morning till night. They stood
-packed together five or six deep, and the press of those at the back
-trying to catch a glimpse of what was going on was so great that two
-or three times the fence fell bodily inwards, and with it a struggling
-mass of black humanity; but it was not many days before their curiosity
-was satisfied, and though they did not afford us very much assistance
-it was fortunate that they were not inclined to molest or interfere
-with us in any way.
-
-[Sidenote: OUR FIRST LOSS]
-
-We had only been in our camp at Wakatimi for one day and it already
-seemed as if the place was beginning to show some sign of order, when
-a melancholy tragedy threw a gloom over the spirits of the whole
-expedition. On the afternoon of January 9th Mr. Wilfred Stalker, who
-had had plenty of experience of tropical and Australian jungles, went
-out from the camp taking his collecting gun to shoot some birds. The
-usual daily rain began at about four o’clock, but as we were all busy
-with various occupations in our tents his absence was not noticed until
-after six o’clock, when it was already pitch dark and the rain was
-falling in torrents. Beyond the camp was dense jungle intersected by
-creeks and pools of water, difficult enough to traverse by day but
-absolutely impassable in darkness, so there was nothing to be done that
-night but to hope anxiously that Stalker’s bushcraft had prompted him
-to make a shelter of some kind, if disaster had not already overtaken
-him. At dawn Lieut. Cramer sent out parties of soldiers in all
-directions, and soon all of us, Europeans, Gurkhas, and native soldiers
-were out searching and shouting and firing shots. With some difficulty
-we explained to the natives what had happened, and we offered them
-large rewards if they were successful in finding him, and many of them
-joined with us; but though the ground was carefully quartered and the
-search was continued all that day and a part of the next not a trace
-of him was found anywhere, and it was evidently hopeless that he could
-ever be found alive. On the second day, when the search had been
-abandoned, the natives were convinced of his fate, and two of the more
-important people came over from the village and wailed loudly outside
-his empty tent.
-
-On January 12th all doubts as to his end were set at rest when a canoe
-manned by four Papuans, smeared with mud as their custom is in such
-circumstances, brought back his body from a creek about half a mile
-from the camp, where it had been found. Up to that moment there had
-been present in our minds the horrid suspicion that he might perhaps
-have fallen the victim to foul play. We thought that natives finding
-him wandering alone might have been tempted by his possessions and have
-murdered him, but it was evidently not so and we could only hope that
-by drowning death had come swiftly to him.
-
-[Illustration: CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT WAKATIMI.]
-
-[Illustration: A HOUSE FOR CEREMONIES, MIMIKA.]
-
-[Sidenote: WILFRED STALKER]
-
-We buried him under a tree about one hundred yards behind the camp, and
-in the absence of the leader of the expedition, who had gone away with
-Rawling and Cramer to reconnoitre the river above Wakatimi, I read the
-short burial service. Besides Marshall and Shortridge and myself there
-were a Dutch soldier, two convicts and about fifty Papuans, who stood
-quietly in a wide circle about the grave. I think the ninetieth psalm
-was never read to a more remarkable congregation. The grave was the
-first of the graves of many who left their bones in New Guinea.
-
-Wilfred Stalker was in his thirty-first year when he died. Previously
-he had spent many years as a naturalist in Australia and several months
-in New Guinea. Early in 1909 he returned to the East where he spent a
-part of his time in engaging coolies for the New Guinea Expedition,
-and he had time to make an interesting journey in the Island of Ceram,
-where he made a remarkable zoological collection. He joined us at
-Amboina on January 1st so that we had not time to know him well, but
-his unflagging energy in the preparations at the base-camp, where
-he landed with the first party, showed that he was a man whom the
-expedition could ill afford to lose.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER V
-
-
-  _Arrival of our Ambonese—Coolie Considerations—Canoes
-  of the Natives—Making Canoes—Preliminary Exploration of
-  the Mimika—Variable Tides—Completing the Camp—A Plague
-  of Flies—Also of Crickets—Making “Atap”—Trading with the
-  Natives—Trade Goods._
-
-After all the stores and equipment of the expedition had been landed
-at Wakatimi, an operation which took six days and some ten or more
-journeys of the steam launch towing many boats to accomplish, the
-_Nias_ returned to Dobo, and brought back from there on the 14th
-January our Ambonese coolies, who had arrived there by mail steamer
-from Amboina. To those of us who had had experience of native carriers
-in other countries, the appearance of the ninety-six Ambonese came as
-something of a shock. When the boats crowded with them came within
-sight of the camp the natives cried out that our women were coming, and
-they might well be excused for their mistake. With their wide straw
-hats and coloured coats and shirts and gay _sarongs_ they had not much
-the appearance of men, and we wondered what sort of people they would
-be to force a way through the trackless country. When they landed, our
-first impression of their unsuitableness was rather strengthened than
-otherwise. Every man (to give them a dignity which very few of them
-deserved) had a large wooden or tin box as well as a huge bundle of
-bedding and mats. Their average age appeared to be about sixteen years,
-and though they were said to be the best men obtainable in Amboina, the
-physique of most of them was wretched. It was evidently useless to keep
-so many feeble creatures, so it was decided to keep fifty of the more
-promising and send the rest back to Amboina by the _Nias_, which was
-waiting at the mouth of the Mimika until the following day. The whole
-gang was paraded and a more hopeless looking lot it would be hard to
-imagine. With great difficulty we picked out fifty who, though they had
-little appearance of strength, were not obviously crippled by disease,
-and the forty-six others were sent away without having done a single
-day’s work.
-
-[Illustration: CANOE-MAKING: ROUGHLY SHAPING THE FELLED TREE.]
-
-[Sidenote: AMBONESE COOLIES]
-
-The question of coolies, as we were to find by bitter experience during
-the ensuing months, is the point that determines the success or failure
-of an expedition. Mr. Stalker had left England charged with the duty
-of engaging coolies for this expedition. It was hoped that he would be
-able to get a number of men in the Ké Islands, but failing to engage
-them there he had seen in Amboina his only chance of recruiting a
-sufficient number of men. No blame can be attached to him, for he had
-had no experience of the kind before and his instructions were not very
-detailed, but it was a mistake which seriously delayed the progress of
-the expedition.
-
-As well as the trouble involved in trying to make a silk purse of
-efficient coolies out of the sow’s ear of the Amboina rabble we were
-confronted by another difficulty of transport. It has been mentioned
-above (page 43) that before we arrived in the country it was expected
-that we should find rising ground close to the sea, and that in a few
-days’ journey at the most we should reach an altitude of three thousand
-feet or upwards, but the discovery that there was a tract of level
-country hardly above sea level extending from the coast to the foot of
-the mountains thirty miles inland entirely upset our calculations. Had
-we known this before we should necessarily have brought a launch and
-boats to tow our stores up the many miles of navigable river, and by so
-doing we should have saved ourselves many weeks of valuable time and
-an infinity of labour. It is worth while to record this fact, not for
-the object of drawing attention to any deficiencies in the organisation
-of the expedition, but to demonstrate the uselessness of entering an
-unknown country without having made a preliminary reconnaissance.
-
-An urgent message was despatched to the Navy Department in Java begging
-them to supply us with a steam launch at the earliest opportunity, but
-communications are slow in that part of the world, and it was not until
-ten weeks afterwards that the launch arrived at the Mimika. Its career
-was brief and inglorious. It made two or three journeys at snail’s pace
-up the river before it finally broke down altogether and was sent back
-to Java.
-
-In June we purchased from the pearlfishers at Dobo a petrol
-motor-boat, which made several successful trips up the river towing
-large quantities of stores, and then it was badly damaged by coming
-into violent contact with a sunken tree, and it was several months
-before it could be repaired sufficiently to float. Thus it happened
-that nearly all the river transport of the expedition was laboriously
-carried out in canoes.
-
-[Sidenote: THE NATIVE CANOE]
-
-The canoes used by the natives on the Mimika and neighbouring rivers
-are simple “dug-outs,” that is they are made from one tree trunk
-without any joinery at all. They vary considerably in size but the
-length of an average canoe is about thirty-five feet. The sides curve
-inward towards the gunwale so that in section the canoe forms a large
-segment of a circle. The breadth at the gunwale is about eighteen
-inches and the breadth at the widest part from eighteen to twenty-four
-inches. The gunwales are almost horizontal, though in some boats there
-is a considerable “sheer” towards the end of the canoe. They end in a
-square bow and at the stern they come together to a fine point. The
-bottom of a canoe—there is no keel—slopes finely up from the middle
-towards the ends so that when the canoe is afloat several feet of its
-length at bow and stern are out of water.
-
-The square bow of the canoe is carved in a more or less symmetrical
-fashion and there is usually a narrow margin of ornamental carving at
-intervals along the sides. A common feature of this carving, as also of
-the other native ornaments, is an object which is intended to represent
-the human eye. Occasionally they attach to the bow of the canoe, one
-on either side and one in the middle, three long boards carved in a
-sort of fretwork manner and painted red and white. These project about
-four feet in front of the bow and give it somewhat the appearance of a
-bird’s beak. The inside of the canoe is sometimes whitened with lime
-or sago powder but is otherwise not ornamented. A few feet from the
-stern, where the bottom begins to slope upwards, a low partition of
-wood is left forming as it were a sort of bulkhead; the space behind
-this is filled with sand on which a fire is kept burning.
-
-Before we came to the country the whole business of canoe-making
-from the first felling of the tree to the final hollowing out of
-the inside was done with stone axes and the carving was done with
-sharpened shells, a labour which it is difficult to realise, so it is
-not surprising that the natives take very great care of their boats.
-They never allow water to stand in them for long, and at the end of
-a storm of rain the first thing they do is to go to the river and
-bail the water out of their canoes, which they do by scooping it out
-with the blade of a paddle. They also take good care of the outside
-and frequently char them with fire to kill the worms, which otherwise
-quickly destroy wood in brackish water.
-
-The tree most commonly used for making canoes is _Octomeles moluccana_,
-which has a smooth pale trunk devoid of branches for a long way above
-the ground. When they can do so they choose a tree growing close to the
-river bank, but this is not always possible and we found a place where
-a tree for a canoe had been felled fully three hundred yards from the
-water. The trunk is roughly shaped where it lies and is then hauled
-with immense toil over logs laid on a rough track to the river; thence
-it is towed to the village where the hollowing and shaping is done at
-leisure. We saw a large number of canoes made at Parimau, and in
-nearly every case the balance was perfect when they were first put into
-the water.
-
-[Illustration: CANOES, FINISHED AND UNFINISHED.]
-
-The canoes are usually propelled by paddles with long thin shafts and
-wide blades which are often beautifully carved, but in shallow places
-or rapid water the natives generally employ a long pole in the use of
-which they are very expert. It is easy enough to stand up and paddle or
-pole in large canoes, but the smaller craft are very top-heavy, and the
-natives perform wonderful feats of balancing in navigating them. Their
-education begins early for we saw in one of the villages small canoes
-three or four feet long, in which the children begin to learn the craft
-of the waterman almost before they have learned to walk.
-
-[Sidenote: PURCHASING CANOES]
-
-Though the people value their canoes very highly they were anxious
-enough to part with them in exchange for our knives and pieces of
-metal, of which they had none at all, and we very soon had a small
-fleet of canoes. The first two were bought for a knife apiece, but the
-price soon rose to an axe for a canoe, and in the course of several
-months it had still further risen to two axes or even two axes and a
-knife.
-
-Within a few days of the arrival of our coolies we had purchased half
-a dozen canoes and preparations were made to send an exploring party
-up the river. At that time we were none of us skilful canoe-men and it
-was considered safer to use the canoes as rafts by lashing two side by
-side and securing a platform of bamboos across the top. This was a most
-cumbrous arrangement which added enormously to the labour of paddling,
-and after the first journey it was never repeated.
-
-On the 18th January, Goodfellow, Rawling, and Shortridge with
-twenty-four coolies, six Gurkhas, and a small party of Javanese
-soldiers in the charge of a Dutch sergeant started up the river. They
-took with them about a dozen natives, hoping that they would work
-hard at paddling and would be useful in other ways, but they were a
-perpetual nuisance calling out for their wives and wanting to stop to
-eat or sleep; they finished by stealing one of the canoes and deserting
-the night before they would have been sent back to their homes. With
-them went another of our cherished illusions that we should be able to
-get a great deal of assistance from the natives of the country. The
-party proceeded up the river at an incredibly slow rate on account of
-the clumsy rafts, and for four days saw no signs of inhabitants. On the
-fifth day they found one isolated hut, and two days later after passing
-a few scattered huts they arrived at the village of Parimau, above
-which place the river appeared to be hardly navigable.
-
-The welcome accorded to the party by the natives of Parimau was as
-enthusiastic as that at Wakatimi described above, the people showing
-their delight by smearing themselves with mud and shedding copious
-tears. During the following days, when a camp was being made, hundreds
-of natives flocked into the place to see the strange white men, who
-were exhibited to the new-comers with a sort of proprietary air by the
-natives of Parimau.
-
-[Sidenote: TIDES OF THE RIVER]
-
-In the meantime a great deal of work was necessary to put in order
-the base-camp at Wakatimi, and to render it secure against an attack,
-should the natives ever alter their friendly attitude towards us. The
-bush was completely cleared for some distance and a stout fence built
-about the camp. Then it was found that at high tide, and especially at
-spring tide, a large part of the camp was flooded and this necessitated
-a great amount of levelling and trenching and banking, a task which
-appealed to the fenland instinct of Cramer. The tide made itself felt
-in the river for several miles above Wakatimi, where there was a rise
-and fall of about ten feet, but the exact tidal movements were very
-difficult to recognise. On some days two tides were distinctly seen,
-while on many others there appeared to be only one. Their movements
-were further complicated by the very variable amount of water brought
-down by the river. Sometimes the river was almost stagnant, but at
-other times it swept down bank-high with a strong current for days at a
-time, and no flow of the tide could be noticed. The river Watuka, which
-joins the Mimika a few miles below Wakatimi, had a much greater volume
-of water than the latter river, and often when the tide was rising its
-waters were easily recognisable by their white colour floating up past
-the camp and holding back the waters of the Mimika in the same way that
-the Blue Nile, when it is in flood, forms a pond of the White Nile.
-
-It was unfortunate that no suitable place for the base-camp could be
-found above the tidal water, because it increased the difficulty of
-supplying the camp with drinking water, and at times when there was
-not much fresh water coming down the river the ebb and flow of the tide
-washed the refuse backwards and forwards in front of the camp. Water
-was boiled and filtered every day in quantities large enough for every
-man in the camp to have as much as he wished, but the value of this
-precaution was to a large extent neutralised by the Malay habit of
-washing out the mouth with the water in which the man bathes.
-
-A wooden landing stage for canoes was built out over the muddy bank,
-and a bathing place was cut off from the river by a wooden fence
-to protect bathers from crocodiles and sharks, both of which were
-occasionally seen, but as the natives bathed constantly without showing
-any fear of either animal the precaution was perhaps needless.
-
-[Sidenote: FLIES AND CRICKETS]
-
-At that time when the ground was being cleared we began to be plagued
-by large blue-bottle flies, which swarmed about the camp and laid their
-eggs everywhere. One of their favourite laying grounds was in our
-bedding, which in a hot damp climate must always be hung out to air
-when the sun shines. You would find two folds of your blanket stuck
-together with horrible masses of eggs and if, as sometimes happened,
-you did not scrape them all away you would wake up at night and find
-yourself crawling with maggots. There are some people who are afraid of
-spiders, but the most timorous of mortals must find the homely spider
-preferable to the loathsome blow fly. The house where we mostly lived
-at Wakatimi and where we had our meals was immediately filled with
-blue-bottles the moment our food was brought in, so we encouraged the
-larger sort of spider to live there and one old fellow who lived under
-the corner of the table used to come out at meal times and take his
-toll of flies, and in the course of time he became so tame that he
-would take a living fly out of your fingers.
-
-At the same time, and indeed during the whole of our stay in the
-country, we were greatly annoyed by the depredations of very large
-crickets. Not content with making a most distracting noise by night
-these horrible creatures did endless damage to our eatable possessions.
-They invaded the sacks in which we kept our scanty garments, socks,
-vests and the like, and riddled them into holes, and they appeared to
-have a special partiality for sponges and brushes, which they devoured
-completely. Even more serious were their attacks on folded tents or
-sacks of rice and flour, which had to be constantly taken out of the
-store houses and repaired. When these things were taken out of the
-house a large number of crickets were taken out too, and then was the
-chance for the Kingfishers (_Halcyon sanctus_) which darted down and
-snapped them up. A pair of these beautiful little birds haunted the
-camp and became so tame that they would fly down from the roof of a
-house and pick up a cricket within a foot or two of a man.
-
-[Sidenote: BUILDING MATERIAL]
-
-When the ground had been well cleared and levelled, we set about the
-business of building barracks for the men and store houses for the
-provisions and equipment. The Dutch contingent had brought with them
-regulation army barrack frames, pieces of seasoned wood of definite
-lengths which are fitted together by bolts and screws, and form the
-skeleton of excellent houses. We had nothing of the kind, but the
-jungle supplied plenty of wood and our houses, though less regular than
-those of the Dutch, were very soon built. It is easy enough to put up
-the framework of a house in a place where there is plenty of timber,
-but the walls and the roof are a more difficult matter. Fortunately the
-natives were adepts in the art of making “atap,” which they use for
-roofing their own huts, and they were soon eagerly making it for us in
-exchange for our trade goods.
-
-[Illustration: MAKING “ATAP” FOR ROOFING.]
-
-The best “atap” is made from the leaves of the Nipa palm (_Nipa
-fruticans_) which grows abundantly in the swampy country. Almost
-equally good “atap” can be made from the Sago palm, but the leaves of
-the Coconut palm shrivel quickly and are of no use for the purpose. The
-method of the manufacture of “atap” is briefly as follows: Leaflets of
-the palm are stripped from the stem, which is then split into three or
-four sticks of about an inch and a half in diameter and five or six
-feet in length. The man begins by taking up a leaf and folding it in
-the middle, thus breaking the mid-rib of the leaf. He then frees the
-mid-rib from the surrounding leaf for a short distance and breaks off
-a piece about three inches long for use presently. Then holding the
-stick near the end he pushes the free end of the mid-rib, which is
-separated from the leaf, into the soft substance of the stick and folds
-the leaf once round the stick in such a way that its two free ends lie
-one upon the other. He then clips together the free ends with the
-short piece he had broken from the mid-rib. He then repeats the process
-with another leaf, making each one slightly overlap the last, until the
-stick is completely covered with folded leaves. It should be said that
-each leaf is about three inches wide and four feet long so that the
-free ends, when the leaf is folded, lie about two feet from the stick.
-“Atap” is always made by the men, never by the women, and a quick
-worker will make a complete piece in about ten minutes.
-
-The method of roofing with “atap” is very simple. Pieces are fixed by
-strands of rattan to the timbers of the roofing beginning from below
-and overlapping each other like tiles. The stick end of the “atap” is
-uppermost and the free ends point downwards. When there is no lack of
-“atap” and the pieces can be laid on the roof very closely together it
-forms a most efficient thatch, which keeps the house tolerably cool in
-the hot weather and is impervious to the heaviest downfall of rain.
-
-The demand for “atap” started our regular trade with the natives, it
-brought us into friendly relations with them and they soon discovered
-that they could put confidence in us. When they found that we really
-paid them, as we promised, in beads and cloth, there was keen
-competition in the “atap” trade and they brought us as much as we
-wanted. For a few pieces only they received beads, while for ten pieces
-and upwards we paid them in cloth and they adopted various tricks to
-obtain cloth, when they knew that the amount they brought was only
-worth beads. One of their dodges was to bring old pieces of “atap”
-from their own houses to increase the size of the pile, and sometimes
-a man would steal two or three pieces from the pile of another man
-who had already been paid, but they were always found out and were
-not in the least ashamed of themselves. It was important to keep the
-price low, because we very well knew that when the people had obtained
-as much cloth and as many beads as they wanted they would never do
-any more work, and that did occur after a few months. They greatly
-enjoyed a little foolery. For instance, when you were paying them in
-cloth it was much more appreciated if you wound it artistically about
-the recipient’s head than if you merely thrust it into his hands; and
-in paying a man in beads it was thought a great joke if you let them
-slowly trickle into his palm out of your closed fist. His smile would
-grow with the pile of beads in his hand, and he always hoped to find
-some more concealed between your fingers.
-
-In addition to “atap” they also brought other things for trade,
-sometimes fish from the sea which were generally uneatable, and
-sometimes delicious prawns six or eight inches long from the river
-estuary. There was a constant trade in coconuts which grew in some
-numbers about Wakatimi, and occasionally we bought a bunch of bananas.
-Living birds of many kinds, cassowaries, pigeons, kingfishers, lories
-and parrots were often brought for sale, but the poor creatures were
-generally taken straight from the nest, and the soldiers and coolies
-who bought them quickly stuffed them to death with rice. Some of the
-lories throve and became tame enough to fly about at liberty, and the
-cassowaries became quite a pest in the camp.
-
-[Sidenote: TRADING WITH THE NATIVES]
-
-So keen did the people become on trading that they would barter all
-their worldly possessions for European goods. Stone clubs and axes,
-bows and arrows, spears and drums, the skulls of their forebears,
-indeed all their moveable goods were brought to us for exchange. It may
-sound rather a mean transaction to buy from a Papuan a stone axe, which
-has probably been in his family for generations, for a small knife or
-coloured handkerchief, but he was always delighted with the exchange
-and when both parties to it are satisfied a bargain may be considered a
-just one.
-
-Our trade goods consisted mostly of coloured beads, red cloth, knives
-of various sizes, and axes. Of these the red cloth was by far the most
-useful and the most sought after. The Dutch had cloth of various shades
-and patterns, but the natives, with a true eye for colour, knew that
-our red stuff suited their dark skins better than any shade of green
-or blue. The axes were given in exchange for canoes, and knives were
-mostly used to pay the men who carried for us in the interior. Fish
-hooks were greatly appreciated by the natives of the coast villages,
-but the Jews’ harps of which we had a large quantity, though they
-are greatly in demand among the Papuans of British New Guinea and in
-some of the Pacific Islands, were of no use to us for trade, and the
-few we gave away were used either as ornaments round the neck or as
-ear-rings. There was always a great demand for cast-off clothing, but
-a Papuan wearing a pair of tattered trousers or a fragment of a shirt
-was so unpleasant to look at and he generally became so demoralised
-in character, that we made it a rule not to give them any of our
-rags. Empty bottles were of course greatly sought after and the many
-thousands of tins which we emptied during the course of the expedition
-were wealth untold to a people, who up to that time had possessed no
-sort of vessel.
-
-[Illustration: PAPUAN WOMAN CANOEING UP THE MIMIKA.
-
-(_Smoke is seen from the fire in the stern._)]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VI
-
-
-  _Difficulties of Food—Coolies’ Rations—Choice
-  of Provisions—Transporting Supplies up the
-  Mimika—Description of the River—A Day’s Work—Monotonous
-  Scenery—Crowned Pigeons—Birds of Paradise and
-  Others—Snakes, Bees and other Creatures—Rapids and Clear
-  Water—The Seasons—Wind—Rain—Thunderstorms—Halley’s Comet._
-
-One of the principal obstacles in the way of successful exploration
-in Dutch New Guinea is the lack of food in the country itself. It is
-true that in the low-lying swampy districts near the coast there are
-plenty of Sago-palms, but the majority of Malays are not sago eaters
-except under compulsion, and the preparation of sago to make it only
-tolerably palatable is a tedious business. Moreover the first object of
-an expedition to the mountains is to leave the swamps behind as soon
-as possible. So it follows that every scrap of food, for the coolies
-as well as for the Europeans, has to be brought into the country from
-outside, and it will be evident that, when the means of transport
-are distressingly slow, the provisions must diminish considerably in
-quantity as they are carried towards the interior.
-
-[Sidenote: SUPPLIES]
-
-The mainstay of the food of Malay coolies and soldiers is rice, of
-which the daily ration is one _katti_ (1-1/3 pounds); to this is
-added about a quarter of a pound of dried meat or dried fish. Once or
-twice a week the rice was replaced by _kachang ijau_, a small round
-green bean, which is supposed to be of use in preventing the onset of
-beri-beri, though it is very doubtful whether this is the case; the
-beans are boiled and are eaten either with salt or with brown Javanese
-sugar. A full ration for a coolie also includes tea, coffee, salt and
-chillies. When it is remembered that the numbers of the expedition
-were never less than one hundred and twenty and were often more than
-one hundred and sixty, and since it was considered advisable always
-to have a supply for several months in advance in the eventuality of
-communication with Amboina becoming impossible, it can be imagined that
-the amount of stores necessary for the whole party was no small thing.
-The management of the stores of Cramer’s party alone, of which every
-detail had to be accounted for to the Government, occupied the full
-time of a Dutch sergeant and a native clerk.
-
-Not only was a great deal of labour involved in dealing with such
-an immense bulk of stores, but there was considerable difficulty
-in preserving them from the ill effects of the climate. Our first
-consignment of rice arrived in sacks, and the futility of that method
-of packing was apparent, when a great quantity of it was spoilt by a
-shower of rain between the steamer and the base-camp. The next lot
-was packed in tins with lids; when these were turned upside down the
-rice trickled out or water trickled in, and again a large quantity was
-lost or spoilt. After that it was put into tins of which the tops were
-soldered down, but even that was not quite successful, for it often
-happened that a pin-hole was left unsoldered, through which moisture
-would eventually find its way and the rice be spoilt.
-
-Even more difficult than the rice to keep dry were the dried fish
-and dried meat, which were sent to us packed in wooden boxes; the
-stuff quickly became sodden from the moisture-laden atmosphere, and
-although we kept coolies constantly employed in drying it in the sun,
-an enormous amount of it became rotten and was thrown away. The only
-effectual method of preserving the dried meat and fish is to seal it up
-like the rice in soldered tins. The tin always used for this purpose
-is the rectangular tin in which kerosene oil is imported to the East;
-filled with rice it weighs about forty pounds.
-
-In writing the history of this expedition I should not be honest if I
-were to refrain from mentioning the fact that some of our own stores
-were, to say the least, ill-chosen. It appeared that a large quantity
-of stores had been bought from the Shackleton Expedition, which had
-returned from the Antarctic a few months before we left England.
-However suitable those provisions may have been for a Polar expedition,
-they were not the sort of thing one would have chosen for a journey in
-the Tropics. For instance, large tins of “bully-beef” are excellent in
-a cold climate, but when you open them near the Equator you find that
-they consist of pallid lumps of pink flesh swimming in a nasty gravy.
-Pea-soup and pea-flour, of which we had nearly four hundred pounds’
-weight, strike terror into the stoutest heart, when the temperature is
-86° in the shade. Pickles are all very well in their way for those that
-like them, but one hundred and sixty bottles was more than a generous
-allowance. _Punch_, in commenting on a newspaper misprint which stated
-that “the British Ornithologists Union Expedition to Papua was joined
-at Singapore by ten pickled Gurkhas,” suggested that it was “no doubt
-a misprint for gherkins.” We were glad that Mr. Punch was mistaken and
-that we had not increased our store of pickles at Singapore.
-
-The packing was almost as remarkable as the choice of the stores
-themselves: they were secured in strong packing cases of large and
-variable size fastened with bands of iron and an incredible number of
-nails, suitable enough to withstand the banging of Polar storms, but
-not well adapted to their present purpose. The boxes were all too big
-for convenient transport, and as each one was filled with food of one
-kind only every box had to be opened at once and a selection made from
-them.
-
-[Sidenote: SUPPLIES]
-
-Here it must be said that, in response to our comments on the stores
-and the packing, the Committee sent out to us an excellent supply of
-provisions from Messrs. Fortnum and Mason, properly packed in light
-“Vanesta” cases. These reached us at the end of August and during the
-rest of our stay in the country we fared well.
-
-[Illustration: JANGBIR AND HERKAJIT, GURKHAS.]
-
-We took with us a small supply of whisky and brandy, which was often
-acceptable, and I believe that in an excessively damp climate a small
-quantity of alcohol may be beneficial. The Dutch took with them dry
-Hollands gin, which is drunk with a small quantity of bitters before
-dinner; it certainly has the effect of coaxing your appetite for tinned
-foods, all of which, when you have lived on them for a few months, have
-the same dull taste.
-
-It may be thought that the above discourse on the subject of food
-is unduly long, but I shall make no apology for it, because equally
-with the question of transport the question of food is of paramount
-importance. The recital of some of the mistakes that we made may
-serve as a warning to others, who wish to visit a similar district.
-In countries like Africa and many parts of Asia, where the people
-cultivate the soil and where there are numbers of game animals, you may
-always look forward to varying your fare with some fresh food, either
-animal or vegetable; but when you go to New Guinea you must be prepared
-to live wholly on dried and tinned foods, and that is only possible
-when they are varied and of the best manufacture.
-
-[Sidenote: THE MIMIKA RIVER]
-
-During the first months of our stay in New Guinea most of the energies
-of the expedition were spent in transporting supplies from the
-base-camp at Wakatimi to the camp at Parimau up the Mimika River. And
-indeed it may be said that this was one of the principal occupations of
-the expedition from beginning to end; for our coolies were very soon
-worn out by sickness and the unaccustomed labour, so that they had to
-be sent back to their homes, and by the time that a fresh batch of
-coolies arrived in the country the store of provisions at Parimau was
-exhausted and the process of taking up a fresh supply had to be begun
-again.
-
-It was not until our third batch of coolies came at the end of
-December, that we were able to accumulate enough stores at Parimau
-to serve as a base for a moderately long expedition from that place.
-Before that time it had never been possible to make a longer march than
-three days from Parimau, and there had been long periods when from
-lack of coolies everything had been at a standstill. Those times were
-of course excessively trying both to the health and to the tempers of
-the members of the expedition. It was irksome beyond words to see day
-after day the mountains in the distance and to be unable to move a step
-nearer to them.
-
-[Illustration: HAULING CANOES UP THE MIMIKA.]
-
-The distance from Wakatimi to Parimau, though only twenty-two miles as
-the crow flies, was about forty miles by water, and it took from five
-to seven days, according to the state of the river, to accomplish the
-journey in canoes. While the coolies were still comparatively fresh,
-we sometimes sent off as many as six canoes at a time from Wakatimi to
-Parimau, but with sickness and fatigue their numbers quickly diminished
-and two or three canoes laden with stores, accompanied by one “escort”
-canoe manned by Javanese soldiers and convicts, was the size of the
-usual river “transport.” The larger canoes were paddled by five or six
-and the smaller by four men; the average load carried by one canoe was
-about eight hundred pounds’ weight, of which a considerable amount
-was consumed on the journey. The men were given one day’s rest at
-Parimau, they came down the river in two days and rested for two days
-at Wakatimi before starting up the river again. One of us accompanied
-them on nearly every journey with a view to preventing the men from
-lingering too many days on the voyage and partly as a protection from
-the natives, who paid great respect to us but were inclined to behave
-rudely to the coolies, if they were not accompanied by an European.
-
-Those days of canoeing up the Mimika River were some of the most
-monotonous of my life and I shall never forget them. For the first
-few miles above Wakatimi the river is about as wide as the Thames at
-Windsor, the banks are covered with smallish trees with here and there
-clumps of palm trees, from which fresh young coconuts may be gathered.
-Occasionally the rising tide helps you on your way, and if you are
-particularly fortunate you may even see at the end of a straight
-reach of the river a glimpse of the distant mountains. But very soon
-the river narrows to half its width, the huge trees of the regular
-New Guinea jungle shut out all except a narrow strip of sky, and the
-river twists and meanders towards all the points of the compass,
-until you wonder whether it will not eventually bring you back to the
-point whence you started. There was one bend of the river which was
-particularly remarkable; it made an almost complete circle of about a
-mile and a half in circumference, ending at a point exactly forty yards
-distant from its commencement, so that by landing and walking across a
-narrow neck you could wait for more than half an hour for the canoes to
-overtake you.
-
-The rate of travel varied with the efficiency of the coolies and
-according to the strength of the current in the river, which was
-sometimes very sluggish, and at other times came swirling down at three
-or four miles an hour. We cleared camping places at various points
-along the river, and, if the pace was good, the average stage was about
-six hours, though it often took ten or even twelve hours when the river
-was in flood. The pleasantest camping places were on mudbanks, where
-the coolies could bathe and pitch their tents without trouble, but they
-were very liable to be flooded by a sudden rise of the river during the
-night, and we generally had our own tents pitched on a space cleared in
-the jungle at the top of a steep bank.
-
-[Sidenote: CANOEING UP THE MIMIKA]
-
-It will be convenient to describe a day’s voyage up the Mimika by
-taking an extract from my diary:—
-
-
-  “May 13. The monotony of the river is beyond words, and
-  one day is almost exactly like another. I get up at
-  six o’clock and breakfast off cocoa and biscuits and
-  butter, whilst the camp is coming down, _i.e._ tents,
-  etc., being packed. Spend the next hour or rather more
-  in hurrying on the coolies with their food, which they
-  ought always to begin to cook half an hour earlier than
-  they do. See everything put into the canoes and then
-  start with the last. After that anything from five to
-  twelve hours’ sitting on a damp tent with one’s feet in
-  more or less (according to the weather) water swishing
-  from side to side of the canoe. Sometimes I paddle, but
-  not so much now as I did the first time I came up the
-  river, not from laziness but because the irregular
-  time is so horribly irritating. If the coolies would
-  only paddle lazily but regularly all would be well, but
-  they will not; they paddle all together furiously for
-  perhaps twenty or thirty strokes and then vary between a
-  haphazard rag-time and doing nothing at all.
-
-  “Most of the time I watch the banks go by and wonder
-  how long it will take us to get to the end of this
-  reach, which bears a remarkable resemblance to the last
-  and to the next. The jungle is as ugly as it can be,
-  rank undergrowth, trailing rattans and scraggy rotting
-  trees. In forty miles I do not think there are half a
-  dozen big trees worth looking at. Very occasionally you
-  see a flowering creeper, one with clusters of white
-  flowers is here and there, and I have seen a few of the
-  gorgeous flaming D’Albertis creeper (_Mucuna pruriens_).
-  Butterflies are seldom seen and birds one hardly hears at
-  all. The banks are steep slimy brown mud, littered with
-  the trunks and limbs of rotten trees, which also stick up
-  all over the river like horrid muddy bones.
-
-  “Altogether it is as gloomy and depressing as it can
-  be, there is no view, not even a glimpse to shew that
-  we are getting near a mountain range. In the midst of
-  all this it generally rains hard and you arrive in
-  camp soaking wet. Then see everything taken out of the
-  canoes, tents pitched, canoes securely moored, food
-  given out to the coolies, and by that time it is well
-  on into the afternoon. Wet wood is somehow coaxed into
-  boiling a kettle and I get a cup of tea, very good. At
-  six o’clock the meal of the day, rice or a tin, but one
-  eats very little on these journeys. After dinner a book
-  and tobacco and to bed about nine o’clock, or earlier
-  if the mosquitoes are troublesome. It does not compare
-  favourably with being ‘on safari’ in Africa, and I
-  frequently wish myself back on one of those interminable
-  roads which I have so often cursed.”
-
-[Sidenote: BIRDS]
-
-But it must not be supposed that there were not occasional pleasant
-moments, which to some extent were compensation for the monotony of
-those days. Sometimes you saw a Crowned Pigeon (_Goura sclateri_) by
-the water’s edge, and by paddling quietly you could approach within
-a few yards before it flew lazily across the river and alighted on a
-low branch. The Crowned Pigeon is one of the handsomest of New Guinea
-birds; it is as big as a large domestic fowl, of an uniform mauve grey
-colour with a large white patch on the wings, and on its head is a
-crest of delicate grey plumes, which it opens and shuts like a fan.
-These birds feed mostly on fruits, but they also eat small molluscs
-and crabs, which they pick up on the river bank. As they were almost
-the only eatable birds in the country, we killed a good many of them,
-but their numbers appeared to be in no way diminished when we left the
-country; the flesh is white and excessively dry.
-
-[Illustration: A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA WITH CLOSELY PLAITED HAIR.]
-
-The little red King Bird of Paradise (_Cicinnurus regius_) is heard
-calling everywhere, and from the upper waters of the river you
-hear the harsh cry of the Greater Bird of Paradise (_Paradisea novae
-guineae_), but both of these are birds of the dense forest and I do not
-remember ever having seen one from the river.
-
-Green and red Eclectus Parrots (_Eclectus pectoralis_) and white
-Lemon-crested Cockatoos are fairly numerous and their harsh screams,
-though sufficiently unpleasing are a welcome interruption of the
-prevailing silence.
-
-Lories were not often seen on the river journeys, but they were
-extremely common near Wakatimi, where a certain clump of trees was used
-by them as a regular roosting-place. For an hour or more before sunset
-countless hundreds of Lories (_Eos fuscata_) flew in flocks from all
-directions towards the roosting-trees, chattering loudly as they flew
-and even louder after they had perched. Often a branch would give way
-under the living weight and then the whole throng would rise in the air
-again and circle round and round before they alighted once more and the
-shouting and chattering continued until it was dark.
-
-Crocodiles were very seldom seen, but Iguanas of two or three feet
-in length were often seen sunning themselves on a log or a stump,
-from which they would splash hurriedly into the water as the canoes
-approached. Several times at night I heard a splash as loud as the
-plunge of a man into water, but I could never discover what was the
-animal that caused it; there may yet possibly be some large unknown
-reptile in the river. Snakes were sometimes seen curled up in the
-overhanging vegetation and very commonly they were found swimming in
-the water; one day I counted eleven small harmless snakes swimming
-within half a mile of the same place.
-
-On many days during the months of May and June the river swarmed with
-large bright yellow flies very similar to, but about twice the size
-of, the Green Drake of the fly-fisher. They hatched out about mid-day
-and took longer or shorter flights over the water, rising from it and
-alighting again like miniature aeroplanes. Many of them fell a prey
-to swallows and bee-eaters and other insect-eating birds, while the
-rest were quickly drowned, and I have seen long stretches of the river
-completely covered by the dead insects.
-
-At some of the camps on the river and elsewhere we were a good
-deal bothered by small bees, the Stingless Honey-bee (_Melipona
-praeterita_). These annoying little creatures—they are about half the
-size of the common house-fly—buzzed about you in swarms and strove most
-persistently to settle on any exposed part of your body in pursuit of
-the sweat, which is never absent from you in those places. No matter
-how you beat about and killed them they were back again immediately and
-once, while writing, I kept my hands quite still on the book and in a
-few moments I counted forty-six on my two hands before their crawling
-became unbearable. They have a disagreeably sticky feeling as they
-crawl over you and your hands, when you have squashed a number of them,
-become sticky too.
-
-[Sidenote: NIGHT ON THE RIVER]
-
-At night, when the rain was not drumming ceaselessly on the roof of
-the tent, the silence was broken now and then by the grating call of a
-Brush Turkey (_Talegallus fuscirostris_)[6]; or a flock of Pale Crows
-(_Gymnocorax senex_), which are curiously nocturnal in their habits,
-would fly over the camp cawing like muffled rooks. Lizards and frogs
-uttered all sorts of strange cries and whistles, and the mournful
-unbirdlike note of the Frogmouth (_Podargus papuensis_) was heard on
-every side.
-
-Sometimes, even when there was no wind stirring, you would hear at
-night a noise like thunder as some great tree went crashing down. Most
-of the trees in the jungle do not attain a very great girth, but they
-grow up very rapidly to reach the light and in their upper branches
-there is soon accumulated a dense mass of climbers and parasitic
-plants, which in the course of time become too heavy for the tree and
-cause it to collapse. The floor of the jungle is strewn with the limbs
-and trunks of fallen trees and the smell of rotting wood is everywhere.
-
-The last, usually the fifth, day of the journey up the river was always
-pleasant, partly because one knew that there were only a few more hours
-of the tedious voyage, and partly because the scenery was beginning
-to change. Beautiful Tree-ferns appeared upon the banks and the soil,
-firmer than in the swampy lands near the coast, supported trees of
-finer growth. Scattered pebbles and then banks of clean sand and
-shingle began to take the place of the hideous mud of the lower river,
-and after spending, as frequently happened, many weeks at Wakatimi,
-where the smallest pebble would have been an object of wonder, it was a
-peculiar pleasure to feel the grit of stones under your feet again. At
-the same time the cocoa-brown water became clear and sparkling and one
-drank it for the very pleasure of drinking. Going further we came to
-rapids, where the river ran over stones, or piled-up barriers of fallen
-trees. Passages were cut through many of these obstacles, but every
-succeeding flood brought down more trees and new barriers were formed.
-
-When the river was low, the last four miles to Parimau were covered by
-wading and hauling the canoes over or under the great logs. Every man
-had to get out of the canoe and do his share of the work, and sometimes
-we had to take the cargo out as well, when the canoe had to be dragged
-over a particularly high obstacle. When the river was in flood, the
-last day’s journey was the most arduous of all, and it sometimes took
-twelve or fourteen hours’ hard labour to accomplish it. The water was
-then too deep for poling, and the current was so swift that vigorous
-paddling hardly did more than prevent the canoe from following the
-stream, and it was only by dodging from one side of the river to the
-other and by hauling on overhanging branches that progress was made.
-
-[Illustration: HEAD-DRESSES MADE OF PLAITED FIBRES, WORN AT FESTIVALS
-AND CEREMONIES. 1. IS ORNAMENTED WITH TUFTS OF PLUMES OF THE GREATER
-BIRD OF PARADISE.]
-
-Considering the want of skill of the coolies and the great number of
-journeys that were made up and down the river, it was wonderful that
-no accidents of any consequence occurred. It is true that a good
-many canoes capsized—I think all of us had at least one involuntary
-ducking—but a well-laden canoe is comparatively steady, and most of
-the upsets happened to empty canoes going down the river and nothing
-was lost but coolies’ scanty baggage, which was easily replaced. The
-Javanese coolies of the escort, who were even less skilled watermen
-than ours, suffered rather more accidents, but one boat-load of
-provisions and two rifles were the total of their losses.
-
-[Sidenote: THE LONG WET SEASON]
-
-There were periods, lasting for several weeks, when the river was
-almost continually in flood, and there were other, but always shorter,
-periods when the river was low; but though we spent fifteen months in
-New Guinea the time was not long enough to determine at all accurately
-the limits of the seasons, for the first three months of 1911 differed
-considerably from the corresponding months of the previous year.
-Speaking generally, it may be said of the Mimika district that the
-weather from mid-October to the middle of April is finer than the
-weather from the middle of April to the middle of October. These two
-periods correspond more or less with the monsoons, but it is notable
-that whereas in British New Guinea the period of the Eastern monsoon,
-May to November, is the drier, here the reverse is the case. The finest
-weather appears to be in November and December, and the wettest weather
-is in July, August and September. The terms “fine” and “wet” are used
-only relatively, for it is almost always wet. In the first twelve
-months of our stay rain fell on three hundred and thirty days. It was
-very unfortunate that we did not provide ourselves with rain-gauges
-for use at Wakatimi and Parimau, where interesting observations
-might have been recorded for a year or more. A roughly constructed
-rain-gauge, which was used for a short time, more than once recorded
-a fall of over six inches of rain in one night, and that was in the
-comparatively dry season of March.
-
-A great deal of the rain fell in thunderstorms. From January 4th, 1910,
-to January 4th, 1911, I heard thunder on two hundred and ninety-five
-days, not including days on which I saw distant lightning but did not
-hear the thunder.
-
-Before we left England it was thought that the party ought to include
-a geologist, but it was impossible to add to our numbers, which
-were already sufficiently great. As it fell out, we hardly reached
-geological country at all and a geologist would have spent an idle
-time, but there would have been plenty of occupation for a well
-equipped hydrologist.
-
-The winds, whether from the East or from the West, were very variable
-both in force and constancy. Sometimes there would blow a fierce wind
-for two or three days followed by several days of calm. At other times
-a steady wind would blow for two or three weeks and so great would be
-the surf on the sea-shore that no ship could approach the mouth of the
-river. The wind usually dropped before sunset and the nights were calm.
-
-[Sidenote: HALLEY’S COMET]
-
-It followed naturally from the heavy rainfall that the nights were
-seldom clear, and at one time Marshall waited for three months before
-he could take an observation from a star. But there were times even
-in the wet weather, when the rain poured down during the day and at
-night the heavens were clear. One of these times fortunately occurred
-in May, when Halley’s Comet was approaching the Earth. On May 9th the
-comet, looking like a muffled star, was seen in the East and its tail,
-a broad beam of brilliant light, extended upwards through about thirty
-degrees. Below the comet and a little to the South of it Venus shone
-like a little moon, appearing far bigger than any planet I have ever
-seen. The comet grew enormously and in the early morning of May 14th,
-the last time that we saw it completely before it had passed the Earth,
-the tail blazed across the heavens like an immense search-light beam to
-the zenith and beyond. On May 26th it appeared again in the evening,
-reduced in size to about forty-five degrees, and several nights we
-watched it growing always smaller, until it vanished from our sight.
-Superlative expressions will not describe Halley’s Comet as we saw
-it in New Guinea; it was a wonderful appearance and one never to be
-forgotten. Our coolies and the Javanese declared that it portended much
-sickness and death. Though we tried to question them about it, we never
-learnt how it impressed the minds of the natives.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VII
-
-
-  _Exploration of the Kapare River—Obota—Native
-  Geography—River Obstructions—Hornbills and
-  Tree Ducks—Gifts of Stones—Importance of Steam
-  Launch—Cultivation of Tobacco—Sago Swamps—Manufacture of
-  Sago—Cooking of Sago—The Dutch Use of Convict Labour._
-
-Towards the end of January Capt. Rawling, who had gone up the Mimika
-River with the first party to Parimau, made an excursion to the N.W. of
-that place, and at a distance of about four miles he came to a river,
-which we afterwards learnt to know as the Kapare, of much greater
-volume than the Mimika, and therefore likely to spring from mountains
-much higher than those that gave rise to the Mimika. Had we known at
-the time that our real objective, the highest mountains of the range,
-lay far to the N.E., we should have neglected the Kapare River, and
-by so doing we should have spared ourselves many weeks of labour; but
-at the same time we should have missed seeing a wide area of unknown
-country, and we might possibly have failed to make the discovery of the
-pygmy tribe, who inhabit the hilly country between the Kapare and the
-upper waters of the Mimika River.
-
-[Illustration: UPPER WATERS OF THE KAPARE RIVER. MOUNT TAPIRO IN
-DISTANCE.]
-
-It appeared that the Kapare might offer a better route to the higher
-mountains than the Mimika, so it was decided that we should explore
-its lower waters and see whether it was possible to reach it from our
-base-camp. Accordingly on February 14th Lieut. Cramer, Marshall and
-I set out in three canoes, taking with us provisions sufficient for a
-week’s journey. Two miles below Wakatimi we entered and began to ascend
-the Watuka River, of which, as has been noted above (p. 40), the Mimika
-is but a tributary. After proceeding a mile or two up the Watuka we
-came to another junction of two rivers, and for the first time we began
-to realise the extraordinary network of waterways, which traverse the
-low-lying lands of that part of New Guinea. We learnt afterwards that
-there are inland channels joining several of the rivers to the East of
-the Mimika in such a way that it is possible to travel by water from
-Wakatimi to villages far distant along the coast without going by sea,
-and no doubt the same is true in a Westerly direction.
-
-The junction we had then reached was formed by a wide river coming,
-apparently, from due North and a much smaller branch, not more than ten
-yards wide, but deep and swift, joining it from the West. It appeared
-to be quite certain that the river we were in search of must be the
-Northern branch, and we should have followed it at once had not a
-number of natives appeared on the bank, and asked us to go and visit
-their village, which, they explained, was a short distance up the
-Western branch.
-
-[Sidenote: VISIT TO OBOTA]
-
-We soon reached Obota, as the village was called, a collection of
-about one hundred huts on both banks of the narrow river, and there we
-were accorded the usual welcome by a large crowd of people. As it was
-still early in the day we were anxious to continue our journey, and we
-proposed to go up the Northern branch, but the natives assured us that
-that led to nowhere and broke up into branches in the jungle, while
-the small stream which flowed through the village was the river flowing
-directly from the mountains.
-
-It should be explained that this information was conveyed to us partly
-by long speeches of which we understood little or nothing, but chiefly
-by means of maps drawn on the ground. Some of the men drew their rivers
-crossing one another in a rather improbable manner, but many of them
-drew charts very intelligently, and at different times we obtained
-from the natives a good deal of geographical information which was
-substantially correct. On this occasion their maps all agreed in
-tracing the big river to branches in the jungle, and the small river
-to the mountains, so we were rather reluctantly persuaded that they
-were right, and we tried to induce some of them to go with us. Many
-of them offered to go the next day, but not one would start then—it
-was too late, it was going to rain, they had not eaten, and many other
-excuses—so we got into our canoes and attempted to paddle up the stream
-and found, what the natives doubtless knew, that we could not advance
-at all. Several times we tried, but were always driven back by the
-strong current, to the great delight of the natives who lined the banks
-and laughed at our feeble efforts, so there was nothing for it but to
-make a camp near the village and wait till the next day.
-
-[Sidenote: RIVER OBSTACLES]
-
-There was some difficulty about inducing the men to start in the
-morning, for it was raining, and, like other naked peoples, the
-Papuans dislike being wetted by rain, but we got off eventually with
-two natives, one at the bow and one at the stern, in each canoe, in
-addition to the crews of four Javanese soldiers and convicts. It was
-soon evident that without the help of the natives we could not possibly
-have ascended the river. For a mile or two above Obota the water ran
-like a mill-race in a very narrow channel full of rocks and sunken
-trees, and it was only by the most skilful poling and, when a chance
-occurred, by hauling the canoes along a side channel that we were able
-to proceed. When we returned a few days later, we skimmed in fifteen
-minutes down the rapids which we had taken more than three hours to
-ascend.
-
-Above the rapids the river widened to about forty yards and the
-strength of the current was proportionately less, but in a few miles
-we met with another difficulty. At a sharp bend of the river the whole
-channel was blocked by an enormous barrier of huge trunks and limbs of
-trees piled high upon each other and wedged below into a solid mass.
-For larger boats this might have meant a delay of many days spent
-in cutting a channel, but the dug-out canoe is narrow and, if not
-flexible, it can be squeezed through the most unlikely openings, so
-that we passed the barrier without the loss of many hours.
-
-When we started from Obota we had been doubtful whether it was possible
-that so small a river could possibly come from the mountains; but a
-little way above the barrier of logs our doubts were set at rest, when
-we found that our river was a mere off-shoot from another more than
-twice its volume, which flowed down to the sea at a village called
-Periepia. The main river, the Kapare, where we joined it, was more
-than a hundred yards wide, and in the next two days’ journey it hardly
-diminished at all in size. The character of the river differed markedly
-from that of the Mimika; its bed was of sand, denoting its mountain
-origin, in contrast to the brown mud of the Mimika and other jungle
-rivers, and its course was a procession of magnificent bends, quite
-unlike the paltry windings of the Mimika.
-
-Paddling slowly up the river we disturbed companies of Hornbills
-(_Rhytidoceros plicatus_) which were feeding at the tops of the trees.
-These peculiarly hideous birds bark like dogs, and the loud “swishing”
-of their wings, as they slowly take flight, has been likened (not
-inaptly) to the starting puffs of a railway train. On this and on the
-other rivers we were often pleasantly reminded of home by the note of
-the Common Sandpiper (_Totanus hypoleucus_) which seemed to be quite as
-much at home in New Guinea as in its northern haunts. The last of these
-were seen in early April, and they began to reappear before the end of
-July. Very interesting birds, of which we saw a great number on this
-river, are the black and white Tree Ducks (_Tadorna radjah_). They have
-the curious habit of perching very cleverly on the topmost branches of
-the trees, and they make a pretty whistling by night.
-
-[Illustration: VEGETATION ON THE BANKS OF THE KAPARE RIVER.]
-
-There were no signs of human habitation along the banks, until on the
-third day we came to a small village of a dozen huts, in the middle
-of which was a tall house built of bamboos, used for ceremonials and
-dancing. The few people inhabiting the place were of a very low
-order of intelligence, if one may judge from the apathy with which
-they received us and saw us go on our way.
-
-As we proceeded further, on the fourth day the river became a good deal
-smaller, having derived several tributaries from the low hills which
-were by that time not far distant on the right bank, and as the current
-became increasingly swifter it was evident that the Kapare did not
-promise a better means of approach by water to the mountains than the
-Mimika.
-
-[Sidenote: THE FIRST PEBBLES]
-
-We were rather amused, when we came to the first bank of shingle, by
-the natives who were with us bringing us gifts of stones, as though
-they were something new and rare: probably they thought that as we
-came, for all they knew, from the sea, we had never seen such things
-before.
-
-On the fifth day we left the baggage behind and went on in one unladen
-canoe, hoping to reach the point where Rawling had met the Kapare River
-by walking overland from the Mimika, but we were stopped a few miles
-short of that place by heavy rapids, which effectually prevented any
-further investigation of the river.
-
-The excursion up the Kapare was a further illustration, if one had been
-needed, of the futility of undertaking an expedition in that country
-without a steam launch or motor-boat. When it was found that the Mimika
-was only an insignificant river, which the first excursion up it would
-have shown, the Kapare River might have been explored from Periepia,
-a matter which could have been done in two days instead of the seven
-occupied by the journey in canoes, and after that other rivers to the
-East might have been explored until one convenient for approaching the
-mountains had been found.
-
-After spending a night on a sand bank from which we were very nearly
-washed away by a sudden flood, we paddled leisurely down the river
-and came in one day again to Obota. Though the two places are so
-close together and communication between them is very frequent, the
-inhabitants of Obota are a much better lot of people than those of
-Wakatimi. The Obota men, who came up the river with us, worked steadily
-for several days, a thing we never could persuade the Wakatimi men to
-do, and, a more striking sign of their superiority, the Obota people
-cultivate the soil, whereas the Wakatimi people never do anything of
-the kind.
-
-[Sidenote: TOBACCO]
-
-Many acres of ground on both sides of the river were cleared of bush
-and planted with bananas and sweet potatoes; we never succeeded in
-obtaining any of the latter, but bananas were brought for us to buy
-and in the circumstances they seemed to us to be excellent. The most
-extensive crop cultivated at Obota is tobacco; they plant out the
-seedlings and shelter them with a low roof of bent sticks covered with
-leaves, until the young plants are strong enough to bear the full force
-of the sun and rain. Almost every native smokes, men and women, and
-very often the children. A small handful of the dried leaves is taken
-and very carefully rolled up in the form of a cigar, and then wrapped
-round with a _sirih_ leaf, which has been previously warmed over the
-fire; the ends are bitten square, and sometimes the leaf is tied round
-the middle with a thread of fibre to prevent its unrolling. The
-tobacco is strong in flavour, but not at all unpleasant to smoke. The
-only other place, except among the pygmy people of the hills, where we
-found cultivation was up the Keaukwa River, a few miles to the E. of
-the Mimika River.
-
-The distribution of tobacco in New Guinea is rather a puzzling
-question. There are many places on the coast where its use was unknown
-until quite recently, while at the same time the mountain people, for
-example, in the Arfak Mountains and on the upper reaches of the Fly
-and Kaiserin Augusta Rivers, have been accustomed to cultivate it and
-to barter it with their neighbours in the lowlands. The Tapiro pygmy
-people, who live in the mountains, cultivate tobacco and exchange
-it with the Papuans of the upper Mimika who grow none themselves.
-These facts have led some people to suppose that the tobacco plant is
-indigenous in New Guinea.
-
-The people of Obota were rich in worldly possessions, for as we
-walked through the village we saw two Chinese brass gongs and a large
-porcelain pot, which they told us came from “Tarete.” It may be that at
-some time a Malay or Arab trader from Ternate came over to this part of
-the coast, but it is impossible to know; perhaps the things had been
-stolen and exchanged from one village to another, from the West end of
-the island, which is often visited by Ternate traders.
-
-[Sidenote: SAGO]
-
-But the chief reason for the prosperity of Obota is the fact that it
-lies at the edge of an extensive sago swamp, and sago is the mainstay
-of the food of the Papuans. Sago is made from a palm (_Sagus rumphii_)
-which always grows in wet places, generally in low ground near the
-sea, and it will even grow where the water is brackish.[7] The palm is
-thicker than a man’s body, and its height is about 25 or 30 feet. The
-trunk is covered with large leaves bearing long hard spines. A mature
-tree produces a large vertical spike of flowers and then dies. When
-they wish to collect sago, the natives cut down a full-grown palm and
-clear it of its leaves and leaf-sheaths. A wide strip of the bark is
-then cut off from the side of the tree which lies uppermost and the
-sago is exposed. The bark of the tree is really nothing more than a
-shell about an inch in thickness, enclosing the pith or sago, which is
-a brownish pulpy substance separated by fibrous strands. The pith is
-separated from the bark by means of the sago-beater, which is a sort
-of wooden hammer made in two pieces, a handle about a foot and a half
-long, carrying a head about twelve inches long; the hitting face of the
-head is about two inches in diameter, and it often bears a rather sharp
-rim which is useful in clearing the pith from the bark.
-
-[Illustration: PAPUAN WOMAN CARRYING WOODEN BOWL OF SAGO.]
-
-When all the pith has been beaten out of the shell of the tree it is
-carried away to the nearest water, where the sago is extracted. A
-trough made of two wide basin-like leaf-bases of the sago palm is set
-up on crossed sticks about three feet from the ground in such a way
-that one basin is a little higher than the other. Lumps of the pith
-are then kneaded in the upper part of the trough with water which
-is constantly poured into it; the water carries away the sago into the
-lower part of the trough, and nothing remains above but the coarse
-fibrous stuff which is thrown away; the lower trough gradually becomes
-filled with sago and the water flows away. The sago, a dirty white
-substance with a rather sour smell, is made into cylindrical cakes of
-about 30 lbs. weight, and neatly wrapped up in leaves of the palm to
-be carried back to the village. Most of the work of collecting and
-preparing the sago is done by the women.
-
-According to Mr. Wallace, one fair-sized sago palm will supply one man
-with food for a year, so it will be seen that the amount of labour
-required to feed a community in a district where sago is plentiful is
-not very overwhelming.
-
-The usual method of cooking employed by the Papuans is to roll the
-sago into lumps about the size of a cricket ball and roast them in the
-embers of a fire. On one or two occasions I saw them prepare it in a
-different way, which was to wrap up the sago in banana leaves and cook
-it on hot stones; the result was probably more wholesome food than the
-charred lumps that they usually eat.
-
-Very often the natives of the Mimika eat the crude sago, that is to
-say, the pith simply as it is cut out of the tree, without having
-been washed or pounded. The stuff is roasted in the usual way and the
-separation of the sago is done in the mouth of the eater, who spits out
-the uneatable fibre.
-
-As well as providing the Papuans with the bulk of their food, the sago
-palm supplies them with excellent building poles in the mid-ribs of the
-leaves, which are straight and very strong, and are sometimes fifteen
-to twenty feet long, and the leaflets themselves are used for making
-“atap” in the districts where the _Nipa_ palm is not found.
-
-It was mentioned above that the crews of our canoes on the excursion up
-the Kapare River were made up of Javanese soldiers and convicts. Our
-first batch of Ambonese coolies had by that time failed us, so Lieut.
-Cramer very kindly lent us some of his men for the occasion, and we had
-an opportunity of testing their worth. Speaking generally, it is not
-unfair to them to say that the Javanese are wholly unsuited to rough
-work in a savage country; they are a peaceful race of peasants and
-their proper place is in the rice fields. As soldiers they appear to
-the civilian eye to be clodhoppers masquerading in (usually misfitting)
-uniform. They have no military bearing and no alertness, and one ceases
-to wonder that when the Netherlands East Indian native army is almost
-exclusively composed of Javanese, the war-like people of Atjeh have
-kept the field for so many years. It is a matter for surprise that
-the Dutch do not enlist more of the warlike Bugis of Celebes, and
-natives of the Moluccas, and even the Achinese prisoners themselves;
-ten thousand of such men would surely be of more worth than the 30,000
-Javanese who fill the ranks of their native army. Of course there are
-exceptions; there are men among them who have performed splendidly
-valorous deeds in time of war; but the majority are of a stuff of
-which it would be impossible to make soldiers, they are soft and
-unathletic and of a curiously feminine form of body, as a glance at a
-group of bathing Javanese will show.
-
-[Sidenote: CONVICT LABOUR]
-
-The Javanese convicts were the same sort of material, but their case
-was not quite the same as that of the soldiers, for they had not
-voluntarily entered a profession (if the condition of convict can
-be called a profession) that involved service in foreign lands. The
-justice of the Dutch practice of employing convicts as coolies in
-military and exploring expeditions is very much open to question,
-but it need not be discussed at length here. The transport for the
-military operations in Atjeh is carried out almost entirely by convict
-labour, and all the Dutch exploring parties in New Guinea have made
-use of convict coolies, assisted in two instances by paid Dayaks.
-It is intended officially that only long-sentence men shall go on
-expeditions, so that by good behaviour they may earn some substantial
-remission of their sentences, but that is not invariably the case,
-for several young men left our expedition because their terms had
-expired. It is also supposed that only men shall be sent on expeditions
-who volunteer to go; but the supply of convict volunteers is not
-inexhaustible, and there were men with us whose last wish would have
-been to come to New Guinea.
-
-But even if they were all volunteers and all long-service men, it is
-doubtful whether it is justifiable to send any but free men to work in
-a country so full of risks as New Guinea. The native of Java is a poor
-creature, particularly susceptible to beri-beri and other diseases of
-the tropics, and when I saw convicts die, as did unfortunately happen,
-I came to the conclusion that the balance went heavily against the
-system. It must, however, be recorded that the convicts are extremely
-well treated. Except in the matter of pay—convicts on expeditions
-receive about one guilder (1_s._ 8_d._) a month—they are treated
-in all essentials exactly like the native soldiers; they have the
-same rations of food and the same tent accommodation, and many of
-them enjoy themselves a good deal more than if they were occupied in
-sweeping the roads in a town in Java. Their hours of labour in camp
-are comparatively short, and the loads they are given to carry on the
-march are by no means excessive. Nothing could exceed the kindness of
-Cramer’s treatment of the men under his command, and I have no doubt
-that the same may be said of the treatment of convicts elsewhere.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VIII
-
-
-  _Description of Wakatimi—The Papuan House—Coconut
-  Palms—The Sugar Palm—Drunkenness of the Natives—Drunken
-  Vagaries—Other Cultivation—The Native Language—No
-  Interpreters—The Numerals—Difficulties of
-  Understanding—Names of Places—Local Differences of
-  Pronunciation._
-
-The native village of Wakatimi lay directly opposite to our base-camp
-on the W. bank of the Mimika, which was there about 150 yards broad.
-Beyond the margin of the river was a strip of grass intersected by
-muddy creeks, where the natives moored their canoes, and beyond that
-was Wakatimi. The village consisted of a single street about two
-hundred yards long lined on one side by huts, which usually numbered
-about sixty. But occasionally, as for instance when we first arrived,
-and once or twice subsequently when large crowds of natives from other
-villages visited the place, it happened that the street was a double
-row of houses, and every available spot of dry ground was occupied.
-
-Shifting house is a very simple affair, as most of the building
-materials are carried about in the canoes, and the canoes come and
-go in the most casual and unaccountable manner. Sometimes there were
-perhaps a thousand people at Wakatimi, and then there would be days
-when there was not a soul in the village. There were times when for
-weeks together there were large villages at the mouth of the river, and
-there were other times when the coast was utterly deserted and hardly
-a trace of the villages remained. We were never able to learn what it
-was that prompted these migrations of the natives, but it is probable
-that the pursuit of food was the guiding motive. The wandering habits
-of the people will certainly make it very difficult to administer the
-country and civilise the people, if an attempt to do so is ever made.
-
-[Sidenote: THEIR HOUSES]
-
-The typical native house of the Mimika district is a simple rectangular
-structure with a framework of light poles driven into the ground, the
-cross-pieces and roof pole being tied to the uprights by strands of
-rattan. In some houses the roof is a simple slope downwards from front
-to back, but in most cases there is a central ridge pole from which
-the roof slopes to the back and front, that at the back being longer
-and going lower than that in front. The height of the ridge is about
-eight feet; after we had been for some time in the country the people
-improved their building in imitation of our houses and built their huts
-ten, and even twelve feet high. The roof is made of “atap,” the thatch
-described above (p. 60), and the walls are mats made from the leaves of
-a Screw-pine (_Pandanus_). The area of an average hut is about 9 by 12
-feet, the longer dimensions being from front to back.
-
-[Illustration: PAPUAN HOUSES ON THE MIMIKA.]
-
-The floor is covered with sand to a depth of several inches, which is
-prevented from escaping into the street by a board placed on its edge
-along the front of the hut. The sand is brought from the seashore and
-must be of great value in preserving the health of the people: the huts
-are frequently under water in the big floods and without the sand,
-which quickly dries, it would be impossible for them to live there.
-Unfortunately the sand aggravates the sores and ulcers from which too
-many of them suffer, but that is perhaps a lesser evil than always
-sleeping on sodden ground. Racks made of sticks, on which are stowed
-bundles of arrows, spears, clubs, tobacco, sago and all the other
-portable property of the family, extend from one wall to another, so
-that it is almost impossible to stand upright inside a hut. The door is
-an opening about two feet square in the front wall; as well as being
-the means of entrance for the members of the household the door serves
-as the principal means of escape for the smoke of the fire, which is
-constantly kept burning inside.
-
-It is only rarely that a house remains for long separated from others;
-when a second house is built it is attached to the side of the first,
-and the dividing wall is removed. In a large village the houses are
-built in rows of varying length, according to the nature of the ground,
-and there may be as many as fifty or sixty joined together. If you go
-inside you find that it is a single long house without any dividing
-walls, but each family keeps to its own particular section and use
-its own private entrance. When the place is crowded with people, and
-a number of fires are burning, the atmosphere inside the house may be
-more readily imagined than described.
-
-The feature that most distinguishes Wakatimi from all the other
-villages that we saw is its fine grove of coconut palms. The village
-street is bordered with them on the side opposite to the houses, and
-there must be three or four hundred trees in all. They afford a very
-pleasant shade to the village, and their graceful trunks curving this
-way and that are really picturesque and conveniently relieve the
-ugliness of the Papuan houses. It is rather dangerous to live so close
-to coconut trees, and sometimes when the wind blew in gusts before the
-rain we heard warning shouts and the heavy thud of a nut falling to the
-ground; but accidents never seemed to happen. The nuts are, of course,
-a source of great wealth to the Wakatimi people, who exchange them for
-bananas and tobacco with the people of Obota, and while we were in the
-country they brought us altogether thousands of nuts for which they
-received riches undreamt of before. At one or two places near the sea,
-and at several places on the Mimika River we found coconut palms, but
-far up the river they did not occur, nor did we see any on the Kapare
-River; and I believe all those we saw were planted by the natives, and
-that none of them were self-sown.
-
-The method of cultivation is extremely simple. A ripe nut is left out
-on the roof of a hut and allowed to sprout; when the shoot is about a
-foot or more in length, a small patch of ground is cleared, preferably
-in a sandy place on the river bank or near the sea shore, a hole is dug
-and the sprouting nut is planted. From time to time, if he remembers to
-do so, the native will clear away the strangling vegetation from the
-young plant, and in about five years, under favourable conditions, the
-palm begins to bear fruit.
-
-[Sidenote: DRUNKENNESS]
-
-Growing commonly near Wakatimi is another species of palm, which,
-though it has not the value of the coconut palm, is yet more prized
-by the natives. This is the Sugar palm (_Arenga saccharifera_), and
-from it is made a very potent and intoxicating liquor. When the palm is
-in fruit—it bears a heavy bunch of dark green fruit—a cut is made in
-the stem below the stalk of the fruit, and the juice trickles out and
-is collected in the shell of a coconut. Apparently the juice ferments
-very rapidly without the addition of any other substance, for it is
-drunk almost as soon as it is collected and the native becomes horribly
-intoxicated.
-
-During the first few weeks of our stay in the country the people were
-on their good behaviour, or else they found sufficient amusement in
-coming to see us and our works, but they soon tired of that and went
-back to their normal habits. Many of them went to the drinking places
-by day, and we often saw them lying or sitting at the foot of the
-tree, while one of their party stood at the top of a bamboo ladder
-collecting the palm wine. But the worst was a small gang of about a
-dozen men, the laziest in the village, whose custom it was to start off
-towards evening in canoes to their favourite drinking tree, where they
-spent the night drinking and making night hideous with their songs and
-shouts. In the morning they returned raving to the village and as often
-as not they started quarrelling and fighting and knocking the houses to
-pieces (a favourite occupation of the angry Papuan) before they settled
-down to sleep off the effects of their potations.
-
-As a rule, the men were the worst offenders, and the women drank but
-seldom, but I well remember one day seeing a man and his wife both
-hopelessly drunk come over to our camp. It was pouring with rain and
-their canoe was several inches deep in water, but they danced up and
-down in it and sang a drunken ditty; it was a ludicrous and at the same
-time heart-rending exhibition. The man, when we first knew him, was
-a fine fellow who one day climbed up a palm tree to get us coconuts,
-a feat which no man out of condition can perform; a few months later
-he was hardly ever seen sober, and in January he died. A smiling
-round-faced youth called Ukuma, who was one of our particular friends
-at first and was privileged to wander where he liked about the camp,
-attached himself to the drinking party, and before we left the country
-he looked an old man, and I had difficulty in recognising him.
-
-[Illustration: A PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA.]
-
-[Illustration: A PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA.]
-
-Though the drunken vagaries of the natives were usually food for tears,
-they sometimes provided us with amusement. One afternoon one of the
-principal men of Wakatimi came down to the river bank quite intoxicated
-and took a canoe, which he paddled out into mid-stream and there moored
-it. From there he proceeded to shoot arrows vaguely and promiscuously
-at the village, raving and shouting what sounded to be horrible curses.
-Some of the arrows fell into the village and some sailed over the palm
-trees, and now and again he turned round and shot harmlessly into our
-camp, but nobody took the slightest notice of him except his wife, who
-went down to the river bank and told him in plain language her opinion
-of him. This caused him to turn his attention to her, but his aim
-was wild and the arrows missed their mark, so he desisted and went
-back to the shore, where the woman broke across her knee the remainder
-of his bundle of arrows, while he cooled his fevered brow in the river.
-Then, while she delivered a further lecture, he followed her back to
-their hut looking like a whipped and ashamed dog. It can hardly be
-doubted that palm wine shortens the lives of many of the Papuans, but
-one must hesitate before condemning an absolutely untaught and savage
-race for excessive indulgence in one of the pleasures that vary their
-monotonous lives.
-
-[Sidenote: FRUITS]
-
-As well as coconuts the Mimika people have also bananas, papayas
-(_Carica papaya_), water-melons and pumpkins, all of them of a very
-inferior kind. It cannot be said that they cultivate these fruits;
-they occasionally get a banana shoot and plant it in the ground by the
-riverside, where it may or may not grow and produce fruit, but they
-make no clearings and take very little trouble to ensure the life of
-the plant. The papayas and the melons and pumpkins are sometimes seen
-growing about the native dwellings; but they, too, seem to be there
-more by accident than by any design on the part of the people. At Obota
-we found a few pineapples, which were probably the descendants of some
-that were brought to the Mimika by M. Dumas a few years earlier.
-
-[Sidenote: LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES]
-
-It has been stated in the previous chapters that the natives told us
-this or that, and that we asked them for information about one thing or
-another. From this the reader must not conclude that we acquired a very
-complete knowledge of the native language, for that, unfortunately,
-was not the case, and even at the end of the fifteen months that
-we spent in their country we were not able to converse with them.
-Lieutenant Cramer and I compiled a vocabulary of nearly three hundred
-words,[8] and we talked a good deal with the people, but we never
-reached the position of being able to exchange ideas on any single
-subject.
-
-In the Eastern and Northern parts of New Guinea it has always been
-found possible to communicate with the natives through the medium of
-some known language; even if there were many differences noticed in the
-language of a new district, there were always some common words which
-formed the foundation of a more complete understanding. The Western end
-of New Guinea has been for centuries visited by traders speaking Malay
-dialects, some of whom have settled in the country; or Papuans from
-those parts have travelled to Malay-speaking islands and have returned
-with a sufficient knowledge of the language to act as interpreters to
-people visiting those districts.
-
-But the long stretch of the South-west coast from the MacCluer Gulf
-as far as the Fly River has been quite neglected by Malay-speaking
-traders, partly on account of the poverty of the country and partly by
-reason of the shallow sea and the frequent storms which make navigation
-difficult and dangerous, so that the Malay language was of no use to us
-as a means of talking with the natives. It is true that two men from
-the Mimika district had been taken a few years previously to Fak-fak,
-the Dutch Government post on the South side of the MacCluer Gulf, but
-though they spent two years there and attempts were made to teach them
-Malay, in 1910 the extent of their knowledge of the language was the
-two words _Tida, tuan_ (No, master).
-
-It is unfortunate that there is no common language along the S. coast,
-nor even a language with words common to all the dialects in use. We
-were visited on one occasion by the Dutch Assistant Resident from
-Fak-fak; the native interpreter who came with him, and who knew all the
-native dialects of the Fak-fak district, could not understand one word
-of the Mimika language. On another occasion some natives from Mimika
-were taken down by steamer to Merauke, the Government post in S.W. New
-Guinea, not far from the boundary of British Papua, and there they
-found the language of the natives quite unintelligible to them.
-
-So we found ourselves confronted with the task of learning a language
-with neither grammar, dictionary nor interpreter. This may not seem to
-be an insuperable difficulty, nor is it perhaps where Europeans and
-educated people are concerned, but with Papuans it is a very different
-problem. The first thing to do—and very few of them would even grasp
-the idea—is to make them understand that you wish to learn their
-words. You may point at an object and look intelligent and expectant,
-but they are slow to take your meaning, and they soon tire of giving
-information. The facial expression, which amongst us conveys even to a
-deaf man an interrogation, means nothing to them, nor has the sideways
-shake of the head a negative meaning to Papuans.
-
-In trying to learn a new language of this kind most people (I imagine)
-would begin, as we did, with the numerals. But our researches in
-this direction did not take us very far, for we made the interesting
-discovery that they have words for one and two only; _ínakwa_ (one),
-_jamaní_ (two). This is not to say that they cannot reckon beyond two,
-for they can, by using the fingers and thumbs, and beginning always
-with the thumb of the right hand, reckon with tolerable accuracy up
-to ten. For numbers above ten they use the toes, never, so far as
-we observed, two or three toes, but always all the toes together to
-indicate a large but uncertain number. Sometimes they opened and closed
-the fingers of both hands two or three times and uttered the word
-_takirí_, which appeared to mean “many.” They did not, as some people
-do, use the word which means “hand” to indicate five or a quantity of
-about that number.
-
-With patience we learnt a great number of substantives, the names of
-animals, the parts of the body, the various possessions of the natives
-and so forth, and with more difficulty we learnt some of the active
-verbs. But when we came to abstract ideas, our researches ceased
-abruptly for lack of the question words, who, how, where, when, etc.;
-these we were never able to learn, and it is impossible to act them.
-
-Thus we were never able to find out what they thought of various
-things; we could point to the moon and be told its name, but we were
-never able to say, “What is the moon?” We learnt the names of lightning
-and thunder, but we never knew who they thought produced them. We
-could not find out where their stone axes came from, nor how old they
-were, nor who made them; and a hundred other questions, which we should
-have liked to put, remained unanswered.
-
-[Sidenote: OBTAINING INFORMATION]
-
-These limitations of our knowledge of the language were particularly
-annoying when we tried to find out the simplest ties of relationship.
-It may be thought very unintelligent of us that we never learnt the
-word for father, in spite of many attempts to do so. If you pointed to
-a child and asked a man, knowing him to be the father, what the child
-was, he would slap himself on the chest and answer, “_Dorota kamare_”
-(my penis); then if you pointed to himself he would tell you his own
-name, but never any word that could possibly be construed as father. If
-you tried the same thing with the mother she would point to the child
-and say, “_Dorota auwë_” (my breast). The child on being questioned
-pointed to the father and always said his name, the mother it would
-call _Aína_ (woman), but perhaps this word also means mother.
-
-There were two men at Parimau so much alike as to be unmistakably
-brothers; we learnt their names and that they were _Inakwa kamare_ (one
-penis), but we never found out the name of their relationship.
-
-Seeing that some of the people have a very good idea of drawing on
-the ground a map of the country, I tried one day a graphic method of
-obtaining the relationships of a man whose name and whose wife’s name
-and son’s name I knew. I put sticks on the ground to represent him and
-his wife and son, and then in a tentative sort of way put in a stick to
-represent his father, whose name he mentioned, but the game did not
-interest him and my researches came to an end.
-
-Even the apparently simple matter of enquiring the names of places
-is not so easy as one would think. When the first party went up the
-Mimika to Parimau they pointed to the huts and asked what the village
-was called; the answer given was “Tupué,” meaning I believe, the name
-of the family who lived in the huts pointed at. For several months we
-called the place Tupué, and the name appeared in various disguises in
-the English newspapers. When I was at Parimau in July, it occurred to
-me to doubt the name of Tupué, which we never heard the natives use, so
-I questioned a man elaborately. Pointing in the direction of Wakatimi,
-I said in his language: “Many houses, Wakatimi,” and he nodded assent;
-then pointing in the direction of another village that we had visited
-I said: “Many houses, Imah,” to which he agreed; then I said. “Many
-houses,” and pointed towards Parimau. This performance was repeated
-three times before he understood my intention and supplied the word
-“Parimau,” and then he shouted the whole story across the river to the
-people in the village who received it with shouts of laughter, and
-well they might. It was as if a foreigner, who had been living for six
-months in a place which he was accustomed to call Smith, enquired again
-one day what its name was and found that it was London.
-
-[Illustration: A PAPUAN MOTHER AND CHILD.
-
-(_On the right is seen a fishing net._)]
-
-[Sidenote: LANGUAGE OF MIMIKA]
-
-The language spoken by the people of Mimika is by no means unpleasant
-to listen to, and with the customary sing-song intonation it would be
-almost musical, if it were not for the harsh voices of the natives,
-both men and women. There are many agreeably soft gutterals, and there
-is no hissing sound in the language, as they are unable to pronounce
-the letter “s.” Many of their words are really very pleasing, notably
-some of their names, such as “Oonabë,” “Inamë,” “Tébo,” “Magena,”
-“Awariao,” “Idoriaota,” “Poandio,” and “Mareru,” to mention only a few;
-some of the names were so long that I never succeeded in writing them
-correctly.
-
-The people who lived near the upper waters of the Mimika appeared
-to speak the same dialect as those living near the coast, with one
-noticeable difference. Those words containing a “k” in the language
-of the people at the coast lose the “k” in the mouths of the up-river
-natives, thus: _Ké_ (rain) in the Wakatimi language becomes _’é_ at
-Parimau; _Kie_ (a leech) becomes _’ie_, _Pokanë_ (an axe) becomes
-_Po’anë_.
-
-The only rule of grammar that we learnt was the simple method of
-constructing the possessive case by adding the suffix _ta_. Thus from
-_doro_ (I) you have _dorota_ (mine); from _oro_ (you), _orota_ (your),
-and in the same way _Tebota_ (Tebo’s); _Mareruta_ (Mareru’s), and so on.
-
-They were curious to know our names and liked to address us by them;
-Goodfellow’s and Rawling’s names baffled them completely; Marshall’s
-became “Martë”; they made a good attempt at mine in “Wollatona,” and
-Cramer’s they pronounced perfectly.
-
-So far as I know, they never finish a word with a consonant, and when
-they adopted a Malay or Dutch word which ended in a consonant, they
-always added a vowel; for instance, _tuana_ (master), _Kapítana_
-(Captain), _maíora_ (Major).
-
-Some of their newly-constructed words will puzzle future philologists
-who go there; for instance, the Malay word _písau_ (a knife) they
-called _pítau_, substituting “t” for the “s” which they cannot
-pronounce; _petau_ was found easier to say than _pítau_, and eventually
-it became changed to _pauti_, which was the finally accepted version.
-
-Probably the best means of learning the local dialect would be to
-encourage an intelligent child to visit your camp daily, where it would
-learn Malay and in course of time might be able to act as interpreter;
-but the process of education would be a slow one, and it would be
-constantly interrupted by the wandering habits of the natives. The time
-that we spent in the country was too short for any such attempt to be
-made, and indeed it was not until we had been there for several months
-that the children came fearlessly into our camp. But now that the
-natives have full confidence in Europeans a patient scholar might make
-a complete study of a quite unknown language.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IX
-
-
-  _The Papuans of
-  Wakatimi—Colour—Hair—Eyes—Nose—Tattooing—Height—Dress—Widows’
-  Bonnets—Growth of Children—Preponderance of Men—Number of
-  Wives—Childhood—Swimming and other Games—Imitativeness
-  of Children—The Search for Food—Women as Workers—Fishing
-  Nets—Other Methods of Fishing—An Extract from Dampier._
-
-The Papuans of the Mimika district may be divided into two classes or
-tribes: those who live in the villages on the lower waters of the river
-and make periodical migrations to the sea; and those who live on the
-upper waters of the river near the foot of the mountains and who never
-go down to the coast. There is a wide interval of uninhabitable country
-between the regions occupied by these two tribes, and communication
-between them, if it takes place at all, is very rare; but they resemble
-each other so closely, both in physical characters and in their manners
-and customs, that a single description will suffice for both.[9] The
-other native race of the district, the pygmy people who live in the
-mountains, will be described in a later chapter.
-
-[Sidenote: FEATURES OF THE PAPUANS]
-
-The skin of the Mimika native is a very dark brown, almost rusty black,
-but a dark colour without any of the gloss seen in the skin of the
-African negro. Not infrequently we saw men of a lighter, nearly yellow,
-colour, and in the Wakatimi district there were three pure albinos, a
-man, a woman and a child. The man and woman were covered with blotches
-of a pinkish pigment and were peculiarly disagreeable to look at, the
-child, a sucking infant, and the offspring of black parents, was as
-white as any European baby, and was called, out of compliment to us,
-“Tuana.”[10]
-
-The hair is black and thick and frizzly; it never, or seldom grows
-long, so you do not see the ornamental coiffures characteristic of the
-natives of some other parts of the island; but they are skilful in
-plaiting what there is of it and take some pride in the result. Three-
-or four-pronged combs are worn in the hair more as a means of carrying
-a useful article than as ornaments. The hair of young children is often
-quite fair, but it becomes dark as they grow up; some of the adults
-have the custom, common in other places, of dyeing the hair yellow with
-lime.
-
-The eye of the Papuan child is the eye of any bright dark-eyed child
-here or elsewhere; the white of the eye is white and the iris dark
-and clear. But very soon the white becomes bloodshot and yellow, and
-the iris blurred. The expression in the eyes is a thing that haunts
-one by its forlornness and hopelessness; it cannot be described, but
-you may see it in the eyes of certain animals. They show a strong
-disinclination to look you straight in the eyes, and when you rarely
-make them do so you seem to be looking into an unlighted and empty
-space.
-
-The teeth are strong, but not conspicuously white and perfect like
-those of some other black races. A good many men file or chip the
-upper incisors to a point, but this has not, so far as we know, any
-particular significance.
-
-The nose is almost bridgeless and is of a somewhat hooked and fleshy
-type with wide nostrils. The _septum_ of the nose is pierced when the
-boys are young, and the hole is kept open by a rolled-up leaf thrust
-through it; in this way it is gradually dilated until the man is
-able to wear a carved ornament of a piece of the bill of a hornbill
-or a curved boar’s tusk, with which he decorates himself on festal
-occasions. The nose-piercing is attended with a good deal of ceremony,
-but we were never fortunate enough to see it; it is done when the child
-is about five years old, and the operation is made (according to native
-accounts) with a piece of sharpened bone heated in the fire. Small
-ornaments are sometimes worn in holes in the _alae nasi_ which are
-pierced in all the children, both boys and girls, when they are small
-infants.
-
-Many of the people pierce the lobes of the ear, but the custom is not
-universal. The ornaments worn in the ear are strings of two or three
-beads, or small rings of plaited fibres or rattan, or the claw of a
-cassowary. We took with us a large number of Jew’s harps as trade
-goods, but the natives did not care for them, and two (the only two, I
-believe) that we did succeed in making the people accept, were worn
-by them as ear-rings. Another man, a constant smoker, in default of a
-better cigar case always carried a cigar in the lobe of his ear.
-
-Tattooing, in the proper sense of the term, is unknown to the Mimika
-Papuans, but a great number of them practise cicatrisation or scarring.
-The usual places for these markings are the buttocks and the outer
-side of the upper (usually the left) arm. On the buttocks the marks
-are almost always the same, a cross, about two inches square, on the
-left buttock, and a cross surrounded by a circle on the right. The
-mark on the arm is about four inches long and sometimes represents a
-snake and sometimes a scorpion or a crayfish, but the meaning of it,
-and whether or not it had some totemistic significance we were unable
-to learn. Some of the women affect a scar between the breasts, which
-makes a very unsightly contraction, and we occasionally saw people with
-irregular scars all over the upper part of the breast and back, but it
-is probable that most of them were the signs rather of former quarrels
-than due to a spirit of coquetry.
-
-They are fond of painting their faces with a bright red earth, lumps of
-which they sometimes find and prize very highly, and not infrequently
-we saw men with their faces smeared black with a mixture of fat and
-charcoal, or whitened with powdered sago, but the reason, if there were
-any but vanity, for this adornment we did not discover.
-
-[Illustration: CICATRIZATION.]
-
-[Illustration: PAPUAN WITH FACE WHITENED WITH SAGO POWDER.]
-
-The average height of men measured at Wakatimi and Parimau is 5 feet 6
-inches. No women were measured, but it would probably be found that
-the average height of the women was about two inches less than that of
-the men. Such a height is small compared with that of many races, but
-the first impression you get of the Papuans is that they are tall, for
-they hold themselves well, and all naked people look taller than those
-who go clothed. Their legs are thin and rather meagre, due in a great
-measure to the large proportion of their lives that is spent in canoes,
-but they walk with a good swinging gait and cover the ground easily.
-
-[Sidenote: DRESS]
-
-It is a curious thing that a black man never looks naked; a white man
-undressed looks a naked man, so too does a yellow man, but a Papuan—and
-nobody could wear much less in the way of clothes than he does—always
-seems to be sufficiently clad. The dress of the Papuan men, as has been
-suggested above, is scanty in the extreme. They have, or had before
-we visited them, no cloth except a very inferior bark cloth made from
-the bark of a species of fig tree. Some of the men wear a narrow strip
-of this bark cloth, which hangs down in front from a string round the
-loins and keeps up an ineffectual pretence of decency.
-
-The more usual covering is the bamboo penis-case, which is kept in
-position by pulling the preputium through a hole in the lower end of
-the case. There are three or four different patterns of penis-cases,
-and they are always ornamented with carved designs. Another equally
-common fashion of covering is the shell; this is an oval or roughly
-squared segment of a large white sea shell, sometimes as much as six
-inches in diameter. It is worn on a string which passes through two
-holes bored in it, and is tied tightly round the loins. The convex
-surface of the shell faces forwards, and the preputium is pulled
-upwards and clipped under the lower margin of the shell. Both the
-bamboo case and the shell are useful as a protection against the
-leeches and thorns of the jungle.
-
-Small boys go quite naked until they reach the time of puberty, when
-for a short period they wear a sort of skirt made from the shredded
-leaves of the _pandanus_. Though the men like very much to wear round
-their heads strips of our coloured cloth, they do not normally use any
-kind of head-gear except on ceremonial occasions, when the men who beat
-the drums wear elaborate hats ornamented with the plumes of birds of
-paradise. Many of the men wear arm-bands above the elbow and leg-bands
-below the knee, made of tightly woven fibre or of fine strips of rattan.
-
-The women are rather more clothed than the men, but it cannot be said
-that they are at all overdressed. The usual garment consists of a
-narrow belt of bark cloth or grass round the waist, from which there
-hang a narrow strip of bark cloth in front, reaching about half way
-down the thigh, and a wider strip, somewhat after the fashion of the
-tail of an Englishman’s evening coat, extending as far as the knee
-behind. In addition to this, many of the women wear a sort of short
-waistcoat or sleeveless bodice made of plaited grass or fibre with
-tags or tassels hanging down in a sort of fringe from its lower edge.
-Newly-married women wear a sort of apron, or rather a long fringe of
-shredded leaves, which hangs down from the waist.
-
-[Illustration: WOMEN OF WAKATIMI.
-
-(_On the left is a widow wearing the bonnet._)]
-
-[Sidenote: WIDOWS’ WEEDS]
-
-The best dressed, or in any case the most dressed, members of the
-community are the widows, who wear, in addition to the other articles
-of female attire, what can only be described as a poke bonnet. In some
-cases the bonnet projects so far in front of the face as to obscure the
-features, in some it is of a conical design, and in others it resembles
-in shape nothing so much as the morion of a mediaeval man-at-arms.
-
-Like the waistcoats worn by the women, the bonnets are made of
-ingeniously plaited fibre, and both of these look well when they are
-newly made, but they very quickly become hideous with damp and dirt,
-and the wearer is a person to be shunned. The small girls, unlike the
-boys, wear a narrow strip of bark cloth tucked between the legs almost
-as soon as they can walk. It is perhaps worth mentioning that these
-people have the art of sewing; they make eyed needles out of sharp fish
-bones, and with strands of fibre they contrive to sew pieces of bark
-cloth very neatly together.
-
-There are no milk-producing domesticated animals in the country, so
-the women suckle their infants for a very long time, and you may
-occasionally see children of (apparently) three or four years old at
-their mothers’ breasts; but whether young or old, it is very difficult
-to estimate the age of these people. In the course of a year we saw
-little children grow into active boys and we saw young men become
-middle-aged. I should say—but this is pure speculation—that a man
-is old at forty years and a woman at an even earlier age; it seems
-probable, too, that the life of a woman is shorter than that of a man.
-
-Partly on account of the migratory habits of the natives, and partly
-owing to the fact that at no hour of the day until nightfall are all
-the people in or about the houses, it was never found possible to take
-a census of a village, but from our observations we arrived at the
-conclusion that the number of men was decidedly greater than that of
-women.
-
-The number of a man’s wives was a favourite subject for boasting and
-they often assured us that they had two or even three wives, but we
-only knew two men who certainly had two wives; on the other hand we
-knew a considerable number of men who had no wives at all. It appears
-that a man may take a wife from his own village or from a village in
-the same district; thus a Wakatimi man may take a wife from Obota
-or Periepia, and a Parimau man from Kamura. There were two women at
-Parimau who were said to come from Wakatimi, but whether they had been
-voluntarily exchanged or were the spoils of war we were not told.
-
-It was unfortunate that we learnt nothing about the customs and
-ceremonies connected with marriage. A wedding took place at Wakatimi
-when we all happened to be absent, and the only definite description
-that we were able to get of it was that the bride, who arrived from
-another village by canoe, crawled on her hands and knees from the
-water’s edge to the village, a distance of about a hundred yards, and
-most of it through mud.
-
-Beyond question, the happiest time in the lives of the Papuans is their
-childhood, when they are free to play from morning to night and need
-not take part in the ceaseless search for food, which occupies so much
-of the time of their elders. As infants they are carried on the backs
-of their mothers and very often of their fathers, secured by a wide
-strap of bark cloth, the ends of which are tied across the carrier’s
-chest. It is very seldom that you hear them cry and they appear to give
-very little trouble; their mothers are very careful of the cleanliness
-of the infants. Very early in life they begin to walk and almost as
-soon they learn to swim. In fine weather they often spend the greater
-part of the day in the river and it is a very pretty sight to see a
-crowd of little Papuans playing together in the water. Sometimes they
-are joined by the women, who seem to enjoy the fun quite as much as the
-children. One of their favourite games is to pretend to be a school of
-porpoises, whose rolling headers they imitate admirably. They very soon
-become powerful swimmers, and I remember one day seeing a small boy,
-who cannot have been more than eight years old, swim across a river in
-tremendous flood, while the party of men who were with him had to seek
-a place where they could safely swim across half a mile lower down.
-
-[Sidenote: GAMES OF THE CHILDREN]
-
-There are a number of games too that they play on dry land: they
-play the universal game of lying in wait for your enemy and suddenly
-pouncing out on him; they have great battles in which they are armed
-with miniature bows and arrows, and reed stems take the place of
-spears, and shrill yells make up for the lack of bloodshed. There is
-another game which I saw played three or four times in exactly the same
-manner, and which, by reason of it somewhat resembling a children’s
-game called “Nuts in May,” is perhaps worth describing. Eight little
-boys, each one carrying a long flowering grass, stood in two parties
-of four facing each other a few yards apart. At first they waved their
-grasses and then danced towards each other, crossed and took the places
-that had been opposite to them; this they repeated twice. Then they
-ran round and round in a circle about five yards wide waving their
-grasses and shouting until they stopped suddenly and sat down in a
-bunch together. After a rest of about half a minute, they jumped up and
-ran round again in the same circle, now shouting and grabbing as they
-ran handsful of sand, which they threw over their heads into the air or
-between their legs into the face of the one behind; then a sudden stop
-and again they all sat down in a bunch. After this they jumped up, ran
-all together for a few yards shouting loudly, hurled all their grasses
-as high into the air as they could, and the game was ended.
-
-Like the children of more civilised races, the young Papuans are fond
-of imitating their elders. The boys like to be seen walking about
-with men, to copy their swaggering walk, and to sit about smoking
-idly and watch the women at work. The little girls sometimes contrive
-to make grass garments like those worn by the women; they make small
-dolls’ houses in which they themselves, or infants still smaller than
-they, are the dolls, and they like to be seen baling out the canoes
-or carrying sand for the houses. But in their case pretence is soon
-changed to reality, and when they are quite young they are made to
-accompany their mothers in the serious business of life, while the
-boys are still leading a gay life with no responsibilities. Both boys
-and girls very early become proficient in the management of canoes, and
-a child of tender years will confidently steer a canoe through rough
-water which would end in certain shipwreck for one of us.
-
-[Sidenote: THE BUSINESS OF LIFE]
-
-The chief business in the lives of the Papuans is that of all animals,
-human and others, namely, the search for food. But while the civilised
-races have learnt to foresee wants of the future, and have established
-a system of agriculture which provides food for everybody and leaves a
-part of the population free to pursue other occupations, the Papuans
-take no thought for the morrow, and the search for food becomes
-literally a hand to mouth business, which occupies the attentions of
-every member of the community.
-
-They have no cultivation in the Mimika villages, and even at those
-places such as Obota (see p. 88) where there is some cultivation,
-the crops that they raise are not nearly sufficient for the whole
-population, so it can easily be imagined that an improvident people
-living in a country constantly liable to sudden floods, which swamp
-the land for weeks at a time, is frequently faced with a prospect of
-complete starvation. At first you are inclined to think that the whole
-of the business of collecting food falls on the shoulders of the women,
-while the men sit at home and do nothing. This is certainly true of a
-great many days in the year, but certain tasks can only be performed by
-the men, such as hunting for game in the jungle, and felling trees to
-make the canoes, without which the people must inevitably starve.
-
-Their working day begins fairly early, and by about eight o’clock the
-village is almost deserted by the women, who have all gone off in
-canoes to fish or collect sago. As a rule, two or three women go in
-each canoe, taking with them a few children, a dog or two, several
-fishing nets, rolls of matting, some spears and arrows, a little food,
-a bamboo filled with fresh water, if they are going down to the river
-mouth, and always a fire burning in the stern of the boat. The usual
-destination of the women is the muddy creeks among the mangrove swamps
-not far from the sea; there where the water is brackish and the tide
-rises and falls several feet they find in the mud banks large mussels
-(_Cyrena_ sp.), which contain a good deal of food, and the shells of
-which are useful as knives and scrapers. Hopping all over the mud are
-seen hundreds of curious little fish (_Periophthalmus_ sp.), whose eyes
-seem to be starting out of their heads; these little creatures climb up
-the steepest mud banks, and even up the stumps of trees.
-
-[Illustration: PAPUAN WOMAN AND CHILD.]
-
-[Sidenote: FISHING]
-
-The commonest type of fishing net is made in an oval framework of
-wood, or strips of rattan, about 5 feet long by 2 feet wide; the net
-is a close mesh of native string stretched tightly across the frame,
-except at the middle, where it sags a little. The usual method of using
-this kind of net is to grasp it at both ends and by wading through the
-shallow water to scoop up small fish much in the same way as shrimps
-are caught. There is another more ingenious method of using it, which
-sometimes results in large capture of little fish. When the tide
-is high the bushes along the river bank and many of the drooping
-branches of the trees are submerged; the natives approach quietly in
-their canoes, cautiously push the net under the submerged vegetation,
-and then with a sudden jerk lift it up out of the water, in this way
-capturing numbers of small fish which had been sheltering or looking
-for food among the leaves.
-
-Another form of fishing net—though there is no netting in its
-construction—is made of long, thin strips of bamboo tied parallel to
-each other at intervals of about half an inch, forming a sort of screen
-or trellis-work, which can be rolled up if necessary. Strong wooden
-stakes are driven into the mud at the mouth of the creeks which join
-the river in many places, and at high water the screens are fastened to
-the stakes in such a way as to touch the bottom and close the entrance
-of the creek; the water can run back when the tide falls, but not the
-fish which are sometimes caught in considerable numbers.
-
-The larger fish are all obtained by the men, who either catch them with
-a hook and line, or spear them in the shallow water near the river
-mouth, or along the sea shore. We saw very few hooks; one or two were
-made of rough metal, the others were neatly fashioned from fish bones,
-and all of them were plain without barbs. Now they have a large number
-of steel fishhooks, which they greatly value.
-
-The commonest types of fish-spear are made of thin bamboo or a light
-wood about ten feet long, and they end in three or four sharp prongs
-of bamboo or hardened wood. They also use a barbed spear of which
-the head becomes detached from the shaft, when it becomes fixed in a
-fish; a light line connecting the shaft with the head causes the shaft
-to act as a drag on the movements of the fish, which can easily be
-followed up and killed; this kind of spear is only used for the larger
-fish, saw-fish and the like, but I never saw it in use. Considering the
-enormous number of fish that there are—at the mouth of the river the
-water is sometimes seen to be seething with large fish—it cannot be
-said that the men are very clever with their spears.
-
-They also shoot fish, using single- or three-pointed arrows; you may
-see a man standing quietly in a pool of water like a heron waiting for
-the fish to come up to him, or stalking a shoal of fish stealthily
-from the bank; in either case he will probably shoot arrow after arrow
-without effect, for they are absurdly indifferent marksmen with the bow.
-
-The most primitive methods of all of catching fish I saw practised one
-day coming down from Obota. A native paddling in the bow of my canoe
-saw a large fish near the bank, towards which he steered the canoe.
-When he judged that he was near enough to it, he hurled himself flat on
-to the water with a resounding splash that drenched everything in the
-boat, and a thud that would have stunned the fish at once had it not
-darted off an instant earlier.
-
-The sight of a fish, however small it is, always rouses a Papuan to
-action. When we were travelling with natives, we sometimes came to
-pools where small fish had been left by some receding flood. Instantly
-their loads were thrown down and everyone darted into the water with
-sticks and stones and shouts and as much enthusiasm as if the fish had
-been salmon and a full meal for everyone.
-
-There is another method of fishing which was observed by the navigator,
-Captain Dampier, in use by the natives of this region. It is so
-remarkable that, although we did not see it employed by the people of
-the Mimika district, I shall make no excuse for repeating it here:—
-
-“They strike Fish very ingeniously with Wooden Fiss-gigs and have a
-very ingenious way of making the Fish rise: For they have a piece of
-Wood curiously carv’d and painted much like a Dolphin (and perhaps
-other Figures;) these they let down into the Water by a Line with a
-small weight to sink it; when they think it low enough, they haul
-the Line into their Boats very fast, and the Fish rise up after this
-Figure; and they stand ready to strike them when they are near the
-Surface of the Water.”[11]
-
-There are times when the natives get more fish than they know what to
-do with, and other times when no fish can be caught; but they have no
-idea of laying up a store for the lean times. It is true that they char
-some in the fire and keep them for a few days before the fish putrify,
-but if they learnt to smoke some of their surplus supply, they need
-never go hungry.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER X
-
-
-  _Food of the Papuans—Cassowaries—The Native Dog—Question
-  of Cannibalism—Village Headman—The Social System of the
-  Papuans—The Family—Treatment of Women—Religion—Weather
-  Superstitions—Ceremony to avert a Flood—The Pig—A Village
-  Festival—Wailing at Deaths—Methods of Disposal of the
-  Dead—No Reverence for the Remains—Purchasing Skulls._
-
-[Sidenote: FOOD OF THE NATIVES]
-
-The search for food furnishes occasionally some very curious scenes.
-One of the most remarkable occurs when the river in flood brings down a
-tree-trunk in a suitable stage of decay. A canoe is sent out with men
-to secure it and tow it to the bank. When it has been left stranded by
-the falling water, the people, men, women and children come out and
-swarm around it like bees about a honey-pot, and you wonder what they
-can be doing. When you go close you find that some are splitting up
-the log with their stone axes and others are cutting up the fragments
-with sharpened shells in the same way that their ancestors—and perhaps
-ours too—did centuries ago. The objects of their search are the large
-white _larvæ_ of a beetle, about the size of a man’s thumb; I have seen
-natives eat them just as they cut them out of the wood, but usually
-they roast them in the fire and consider them a great delicacy.
-
-Nothing that can by any means be considered eatable comes amiss to the
-Papuans; there are two kinds of water tortoises which they like to eat,
-and rats, lizards, frogs and snakes, and the eggs of crocodiles they
-devour greedily. A number of different kinds of fruits, most of them
-disagreeable to European tastes, are found growing in the jungle and
-form a welcome addition to their fare. Birds they get occasionally, but
-their skill with the bow and arrow is not remarkable.
-
-Most of their meat is obtained by hunting with dogs the wild pig, the
-wallaby and the cassowary. The pig (_Sus papuensis_), though it is not
-really a native of New Guinea, was introduced into the island so long
-ago that it has become as well established as the rabbit has become
-in this country. In some places, particularly near the foot of the
-mountains, pigs are fairly numerous, and the natives kill a good many;
-they are very savage beasts, and I saw a native terribly gashed by a
-large boar, which was shortly afterwards shot by one of our Gurkhas.
-
-The Wallaby (_Dorcopsis lorentzii_) is a small kangaroo, about two
-feet in height when it stands upright; it seems to be fairly evenly
-distributed all over the district. When the natives bestir themselves
-they seem to be able to catch the wallaby fairly easily; in four
-consecutive days we saw the remains of thirteen brought into the
-village of Parimau. The flesh is coarse and has a very strong musky
-flavour.
-
-There are two kinds of Cassowary in the Mimika district, a small
-species new to science (_Casuarius claudi_), which was discovered in
-the mountains at an altitude of about 1500 feet, and a large species
-(_Casuarius sclateri_), which was fairly abundant everywhere. We
-frequently heard their curious booming cry at night and we often saw
-their tracks in the mud of the jungle or on the river bank, but they
-are very shy birds and are seldom seen.
-
-Once I had the luck to see an old cassowary with two young birds
-walking about in a stony river bed, a place which they particularly
-affect, and it was a very pretty sight to see how the mother bird,
-after she had caught sight of me, drove away the chicks to a place of
-safety and all the time kept herself between them and me. The natives
-hunt and kill and eat a good many cassowaries; the feathers are used
-for ornamental head-dresses and belts and for decorating spears and
-clubs, and the claws are often used as the points of arrows.
-
-[Sidenote: THE NATIVE DOGS]
-
-The Papuan Dog, without whose help the native would seldom, if ever,
-be able to get any meat, is a sharp-nosed prick-eared creature about
-the size of a Welsh terrier. The colour is yellow, brown or black, and
-the tail, which is upstanding, is tipped with white. Usually the hair
-is short and smooth, but we saw one dog, brought down to Parimau by a
-party of pygmies, which had a thick furry coat like a chow dog, which
-it also resembled in the carriage of its tail. The dogs in the village
-of the pygmies which we visited, were smooth-coated like those of the
-Papuans, so it is possible that that thick-coated animal came from some
-remote district where the natives live at a higher altitude.
-
-The Papuan dogs are very sociable creatures, and they like to accompany
-the natives on their journeys. They are particularly fond of going in
-canoes on the river, and two or three are seen in nearly every canoe
-even when the people are only out fishing. Their food is generally
-given to them by the women and it consists of raw meat, when there
-is any, and lumps of sago. A remarkable peculiarity about them is
-that they never bark, but they make up for this defect by their
-extraordinary power of howling. Sometimes in broad daylight, if there
-was no wind, but more often on still fine nights, a party of dogs
-would sit together, usually on the river bank, and utter a chorus of
-the most piteous and blood-curdling howls. No amount of stone-throwing
-or beating with sticks, freely administered by their masters, had the
-smallest effect on them; they would only move away a few yards and
-begin again, apparently carried away by an ecstasy of sorrow.
-
-The natives value their dogs highly, as they well may do, for they
-provide the whole of their meat supply, and they use them to exchange
-for articles of which they have great need. The people at Parimau have
-a small piece of iron about the size of a chisel, used for carving
-their canoes and paddles, for which the enormous price of three dogs
-had been paid, so they informed us, to the people of the Wakatimi.
-One day one of our “boys” shot a dog, which had been in the habit of
-stealing food from our camp. When the natives knew that it was dead,
-all the people of the village began to wail in the same manner as they
-do when a person dies, and the owner of the dog smeared himself with
-mud and mourned bitterly. No doubt the display was somewhat exaggerated
-in the hope of getting a compensation from us, but at the back of it
-there was genuine emotion.
-
-Before leaving the subject of the food of the Papuans and their means
-of obtaining it, a word must be said on the question of cannibalism.
-It is popularly supposed that all the natives of New Guinea are
-cannibals, and fears were expressed by many of our friends that some,
-if not all, of us would end in a Papuan feast. But we saw no signs of
-cannibalism, and we have no reason to suppose that it is practised by
-the people of the Mimika district. Men whom we questioned about it
-denied it and showed expressions of disgust at the suggestion; but that
-is not a complete proof of their innocence, for I have known people
-elsewhere, who were undoubtedly cannibals, deny it in the same manner.
-The question of cannibalism is always difficult to decide without
-direct evidence, and in the case of these Papuans the verdict must be
-one of “Not proven.”
-
-[Sidenote: SOCIAL SYSTEM OF THE PAPUANS]
-
-The account given in a preceding chapter of the difficulties we
-experienced in learning the language of the Papuans will serve to
-explain how it was that we learnt so little about the nature of their
-social system. The people of Wakatimi were called _Wakatimi-wé_ (people
-of Wakatimi), the people of Obota were _Obota-wé_, and the people
-of other villages in like manner, but we never heard one word that
-included them all, nor indeed do we know whether or not they consider
-themselves all to belong to the same tribe.
-
-In every village that we visited there were one or two or even more
-men who called themselves _natoo_, a word signifying “chief.” But in
-no case did the _natoo_ appear to have any authority over the other
-people; their houses were no bigger than the rest, and (except in one
-instance) they had no more personal property than the other members of
-the community.
-
-[Illustration: A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA.]
-
-The exceptional case was a man of unusual intelligence who became our
-intimate friend and gave us much information for which he was always
-well rewarded, so that before we left the country his house was filled
-with tins and bottles, and he was the possessor of axes and knives,
-yards of cloth and countless beads. In all the ordinary affairs of life
-the “chiefs” and their families have to work like everybody else, but
-it is possible that in their wars, of which we saw nothing at all, they
-may be persons of more consequence.
-
-Generally speaking, one would say that the society of the Mimika
-Papuans is a group of small families. It cannot by any means be
-described as a socialistic community; with one exception there is no
-sign of community of property, but it is rather a case of every man
-for himself, or (more accurately) of every family for itself. A canoe
-belongs to the family of the man who made it; the coconut trees, which
-grow here and there along the lower Mimika, do not belong to the
-community but to individuals, presumably the men or some of the men
-who planted them. Sometimes the trees are protected by a fence, a very
-flimsy structure of three or four sticks, placed across the track which
-leads to the trees; in other cases a few palm leaves or some pierced
-shells threaded on a string are tied round the tree itself; both of
-these devices appear to be enough to ensure the security of the trees.
-The exception mentioned is seen when game is brought in by the hunters;
-the meat, as I observed on several occasions, is distributed to every
-house in the village.
-
-As I have described above (p. 97) the houses in a village are joined
-together under a common roof, but each family enters by its own
-doorway, and, except for the publicity resulting from the lack of
-dividing walls or partitions, it finds itself in its own private house.
-It is difficult to say exactly of what the “family-group” consists.
-There are the man and his wife and the children, and sometimes an extra
-man or two, and, rarely, an extra woman, who is, I believe, always a
-second wife of the man of the house; but the position of the extra men
-and their relationship to the rest of the family I cannot define. At
-the village of Obota a detached house, rather larger than the rest,
-was said to be occupied by young men only; we did not see any other
-instance of this elsewhere.
-
-Families are small, as might be expected from the severity of their
-conditions of life and the long period of suckling by the mothers,
-and we did not know definitely of any couple who had more than three
-living children. Though the women do a large amount of the work of the
-community they are not mere drudges; they do a great deal of talking,
-and the men appear to pay considerable respect to their opinion. This
-was frequently noticeable when we wanted to buy something, such as
-canoes, from a native; he would say that he must first of all go and
-consult his wife, and when he returned it often happened that, prompted
-by his wife, he insisted on a higher payment than he had asked before.
-
-On one occasion only did we see a woman ill-treated, and the
-performance was a particularly brutal one. Two men and a woman walked
-down from the village of Wakatimi to the river bank, dragging another
-woman, who shrieked and struggled violently. After throwing her into
-the mud they dragged her into the shallow water and tried to drown her
-by holding her down under a fishing-net. We shouted at them, and were
-just going with some soldiers in a canoe across the river to rescue the
-woman, when they desisted and allowed the poor creature to crawl out on
-to the bank, where she lay for some time exhausted. Some natives who
-came over to us shortly afterwards laughed about it and treated the
-whole affair as a joke.
-
-[Sidenote: PAPUAN SUPERSTITIONS]
-
-With regard to the superstitions and beliefs of the Papuans, owing
-to our unfortunate difficulties with the language we learnt nothing
-whatever. Religion, in the accepted sense of that term, I am sure they
-have not. It is true that they make curious carved effigies, but these
-are not idols, and there is no evidence to show that they ever consult
-or worship them; on the contrary, they treat them with contempt and
-often point to them with laughter. These images are ingeniously and
-skilfully carved out of wood, and they represent a human figure always
-grotesque and sometimes grossly indecent. They vary in size from a few
-inches to twelve or fourteen feet, and when they are not neglected they
-are ornamented with red and white paint.
-
-We had opportunities of observing the outward signs of what were
-probably superstitions in connection with certain phenomena of the
-weather. For instance, the first peal of thunder that was heard in
-the day—it occurred almost every day—was greeted by the men with a
-long-drawn tremulous shout. On the occasion of a particularly alarming
-thunderstorm, when the lightning flashes were almost unceasing, the
-men came out of doors and with long sticks beat the ground in front
-of their huts; then they waved the sticks in the air, shouting loudly
-meanwhile. Curiously enough the rare whistle of a certain bird, which
-we never identified, was always greeted by the men of Parimau with a
-shout precisely similar to that with which they greet the thunder.
-
-The first sight of the new moon was signalised by a short sharp bark
-rather than a shout. Several times on the day following the first sight
-of the new moon I noticed a spear decorated with white feathers exposed
-conspicuously in the village, but whether it had any connection with
-the kalendar I cannot say.
-
-When the first drops of rain of the day began to fall, the men were
-sometimes seen to snap their fingers four times towards the four
-quarters of the compass.
-
-A curious ceremony was twice observed at a time of heavy rain, when the
-Mimika was rising rapidly and threatening to sweep away the village
-of Parimau. A party of men walked down to the edge of the river, and
-one of them with a long spear threshed the water, while the others at
-each stroke shouted, “_Mbu_” (water, flood). Then they went up to the
-village, and in front of each door they dug a hole, into which they
-poured a coconut-full of water; again they shouted “_Mbu_,” and then
-filled up the hole with sand.
-
-That they have some belief in the supernatural is certain. We learnt a
-word _niniki_, which undoubtedly means ghosts; they described _niniki_
-as things which you could not see but were here and there in the air
-about you. When they were asked where a dead man had gone to, they
-talked of _niniki_, and pointed vaguely to the horizon, saying the word
-which means “far.”
-
-[Sidenote: PIGS]
-
-If there is one thing in heaven or earth to which it may be said that
-the Papuans pay some sort of respect it is the pig. They hunt and kill
-a good many wild pigs in the jungle and eat their flesh, but the lower
-jaw of each animal is carefully cleaned and hung up on a sort of rack
-in front of the houses; on one of these racks I counted no fewer than
-thirty-two pigs’ jaws. The grass and leaves in which the animal is
-wrapped and the ropes used for tying it up when it is carried home from
-the jungle, are not thrown away but are hung up on a similar sort of
-rack in a conspicuous place in the village.
-
-In every village there may generally be seen two or three pigs running
-about freely; they are probably not bred in the village, but are caught
-in the jungle, when they are young. They very soon become quite tame
-and accompany the people on their migrations from one place to another
-until they are full grown, when they provide food for a festival. The
-only elaborate popular ceremony that took place while we were in the
-country happened early in May at Parimau, and the principal feature
-of it was the slaughter of pigs. Unfortunately for me I was at the
-base-camp at the time and did not see the festival, so I will make
-extracts from Marshall’s graphic account.[12]
-
-[Sidenote: A VILLAGE FESTIVAL]
-
-“Yesterday the natives gave us an excellent show. For some days
-previously natives had been arriving from distant parts until the small
-village of 40 huts contained 400 people, and it was evident from the
-tomtomming and other signs that something of importance was about to
-take place. On the night of the 3rd inst. they lit a big bonfire, and
-all night long they were howling and yelling as if to drive away evil
-spirits. Soon after daybreak they came over to fetch us, and, expecting
-something unusual, I slipped a film into my cinematograph camera and
-went over. They gave me every opportunity of obtaining a good picture,
-keeping an open space for me in the best positions. First of all the
-women, draped in leaves, slowly walked down the beach, driving two
-full-grown boars in front of them, and then disappeared in the jungle.
-About 150 men with faces painted and heads and spears decorated with
-feathers, formed up in three sides of a square, one end of which was
-occupied by a band of tomtoms. A slow advance on the village then
-commenced, the men shouting in chorus and the women dancing on the
-outskirts. The centre of the square was occupied by single individuals,
-who, following each other in quick succession, gave a warlike display,
-finally shooting arrows far over the trees.
-
-[Illustration: A TYPICAL PAPUAN OF MIMIKA.]
-
-“The next scene took place around a large sloping erection which we
-soon found was an altar, on which the two boars were about to be
-sacrificed. The women and boars who had disappeared into the forest
-now marched from the jungle at the far end of the village. The
-boars were seized, and a struggle with the animals ensued, but the two
-huge brutes were bound up with rattan, chalk meanwhile being rubbed
-into their eyes, apparently in order to blind them. The women set up
-a tremendous wailing, and appeared on the scene plastered in wet mud
-from head to foot. The two boars, on each of which a man sat astride,
-were now hoisted up and carried to the altar, on which the animals were
-tightly lashed. Then amid much shouting, tomtomming, and fanatical
-displays, the boars were clubbed to death. As soon as life was extinct,
-the women cut the carcases free, and, pulling them to the ground,
-threw themselves on the dead bodies, wailing loudly, and plastering
-themselves with wet mud in ecstasies of grief. This continued for some
-ten minutes, when the men, many of whom were covered with mud and
-uttered strange dirges, picked up the bodies, and the whole assembly
-following suit marched into the river, where a much-needed washing
-took place. Just previous to this a three-year-old child, painted red
-and crying loudly, had been roughly seized and dragged towards the
-dais, and for a moment we thought something more serious than a boar
-sacrifice was about to take place. But we were much relieved to see
-that it was only having its ears pierced. The whole performance lasted
-about an hour and a half.
-
-“The afternoon was given over to innocent play, the women and
-girls—many of them quite pretty—chasing the men up to the river side
-and into the water. This is one of the few ceremonies when the
-women are allowed to beat the men, the latter not being permitted to
-retaliate. The damsels finally became so bold that they stormed the
-camp.”
-
-Of ceremonies connected with birth, if any take place, we saw nothing
-at all. The only marriage ceremony that took place during our stay in
-the country has been referred to on a preceding page.
-
-Deaths were unfortunately more frequent, and if they were not
-accompanied by any elaborate ceremonial they were, at all events,
-widely advertised, sometimes indeed even before the event itself. A
-wretched man became very ill at Parimau in August, and it was soon
-evident that his days were numbered. Members of his family carried
-him out of the house and laid him in the sunlight for a time, and
-then took him back into the house again at least half a dozen times
-a day. Now and again, when he dozed, they set up the dreadful wail
-that is customary when a person dies, and he had to wake up and
-assure them of his continued life. At night his hut was crowded with
-sympathetic watchers, and with the smoke of the fire and much tobacco
-the atmosphere must have been nearly insupportable. As our own house
-was distant only about forty yards across the river we could plainly
-hear his laboured breathing, and when it grew softer they wailed again
-until the wonder was that he did not die. On the third day they dug a
-grave for him, but still he lingered on, and it was not until the fifth
-night, when a tremendous flood came down and swept away the village so
-that all the people had to take refuge in their canoes, that he died.
-
-[Sidenote: WAILING AT DEATH]
-
-When a death occurs the people in the hut at once begin to wail,
-then the people in the neighbouring huts join in and soon the whole
-village is wailing. It is a very peculiar and very striking chorus.
-Each individual wails on one note, and as there are perhaps five
-notes ranging from a very high pitch to a deep murmured bass being
-sung at once, the effect is most mournful. The occasional beat of
-a drum adds not a little to the general effect of lamentation. It
-must be admitted, however, that the wailing is not always a musical
-performance. Sometimes the mourning man behaves in the way that a child
-does when it is described as “roaring”; he puckers up his face in the
-most extraordinary contortions, “roars” at the top of his voice with
-occasional heart-breaking sobs, while the tears course down his face,
-and the complete picture is ludicrous in the extreme.
-
-The disposal of the dead nearly always takes place just before dawn,
-but the method of it is not always the same. The most common practice
-is to bury the body in a shallow grave dug in the nearest convenient
-spot, sometimes within a few yards of the huts. The body is wrapped in
-mats and laid flat in the grave, which is then filled up, and its place
-is perhaps marked by a stick, but in a day or two it is forgotten and
-people trample on it without heed.
-
-We observed one instance of a more elaborate kind of burial. The
-corpse, wrapped in leaves and mats, was taken out into the jungle and
-placed on a platform about four feet high, which had been put up for
-the purpose. After placing the body on the platform the men who had
-carried it walked down to the river, shouted once in unison, and then,
-having received an answering shout from the men in the village, one of
-them threw a small triangular piece of wood out into the stream. In
-the meantime the family of the dead man disappeared into the jungle,
-from which they soon emerged quite naked, plastered all over with mud
-and decorated with wisps of climbing plants. The next two days were
-spent in digging a grave and making a coffin shaped like a small canoe;
-this however was found to be too small and was not used. On the third
-day the body was placed in the grave, and an ornamental post placed in
-the ground at each end, but contrary to our hopes (for the state of
-that man was becoming very offensive) they did not fill in the grave.
-They merely covered the body with leaves and turned it over every day.
-At intervals the widow, quite naked, save for a plastering of mud,
-crawled on hands and knees from her hut, which was less than five yards
-distant, and visited the grave. In a few days a providential flood came
-and filled up the grave and put an end to what had become for us an
-almost intolerable nuisance.
-
-Both at Wakatimi and at Parimau our camp commanded a good view of the
-native village, and a death always provided us with the mild excitement
-of wondering in what new way they would celebrate the event. On one
-occasion when a woman died, the bereaved husband and another man walked
-slowly down to the river and waded out into about three feet of water.
-There the widower submitted to being washed all over by the other man
-and finally to being held under water by him for half a minute or
-more, after which they walked solemnly back to the village.
-
-[Sidenote: DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD]
-
-Early in the morning of the day after the death of the _natoo_ of
-Wakatimi all the women and girls of the village, to the number of sixty
-or seventy, came down to the river, all of them without a vestige of
-clothing, and in the shallow water a foot or two deep they swam and
-crawled and wriggled up the river for a hundred yards or more, wailing
-loudly all the time. Sometimes they came out on to the bank and rolled
-in the mud, and finally they all went out of the water and stood
-wailing in front of the dead man’s house.
-
-Another method of disposing of the dead, which is very frequently
-adopted, is to place the body wrapped in mats in a rude coffin, which
-is usually constructed from pieces of broken canoes. The coffin
-containing the body is supported on a trestle of crossed sticks about
-four feet from the ground (see illustration opposite), and there it
-remains until decomposition is complete. As these coffins are often
-placed within a yard or two of the houses, it can be imagined that a
-Papuan village is not always a pleasant place to visit.
-
-At the village of Nimé we saw two or three pathetic little bundles
-containing the remains of infants exposed on racks within a few feet of
-the houses, from which they doubtless came.
-
-[Illustration: DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. A COFFIN ON TRESTLES.]
-
-When decomposition is complete no account is taken of the bones,
-excepting the skull, which is taken and preserved in the house.
-Sometimes it is buried in the sand of the floor of the house, and
-sometimes it is tied up in a sort of open basket-work of rattan and
-hung up in the roof, where it becomes brown with smoke and polished
-by frequent handling.
-
-Though the people take the trouble to bring the skulls into their
-houses, they show no real respect for them, and they are eager enough
-to part with them if a chance occurs. Two of us went one day to Obota,
-a village a few miles from Wakatimi, in the hopes of buying some
-bananas. In one of the huts we saw a skull and offered to buy it, not
-at all expecting that the owner would be willing to sell, but the offer
-of (I think) a piece of cloth was gladly accepted and the skull was
-ours. In a few minutes, when it became known that we had given good
-cloth for a common skull, everybody was anxious to sell his family
-remains, and outside every doorway were placed one or two or even three
-grinning skulls. They do not treat the skulls very carefully, and a
-good many were damaged, so we only bought about half a dozen that were
-perfect.
-
-One day a man walked into our camp at Wakatimi carrying a skull under
-his arm. He stood outside our house for some time, grinning and saying
-nothing, then he gave us unmistakably to understand that it was the
-skull of his wife, who, as we knew for a fact, had only died a short
-time previously. The skull was indeed so fresh that we declined the
-offer.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XI
-
-
-  _Papuans’ Love of Music—Their Concerts—A Dancing
-  House—Carving—Papuans as Artists—Cat’s Cradle—Village
-  Squabbles—The Part of the Women—Wooden and Stone
-  Clubs—Shell Knives and Stone Axes—Bows and Arrows—Papuan
-  Marksmen—Spears—A most Primitive People—Disease—Prospects
-  of their Civilisation._
-
-The most pleasing characteristic of the Papuans is their love of music.
-When a number of them are gathered together and when they have eaten
-well, or are for any other reason happy, they have a concert. Sometimes
-the concerts take place in the afternoon and continue till nightfall,
-but more often they begin after dark and go on almost through the
-night. The orchestra is simple and consists of two or three men who
-beat drums and sit before a small fire in the middle. Round them are
-grouped the chorus all sitting on the ground. The drums are hollowed
-cylinders of wood, which are often elaborately carved; one end is
-open, the other is closed by a piece of lizard’s or snake’s skin (see
-illustration p. 142). When this skin becomes slack, as it very quickly
-does, the drummer holds it towards the fire until it regains its
-pitch. It is not the custom to tune up both drums, when there are more
-than one, to the same pitch, usually an interval of about half a tone
-is left between them. The leader of the orchestra sometimes wears a
-remarkable head-dress made of plaited fibre and ornamented with bunches
-of plumes of the Bird of Paradise (see illustration p. 78). The effect
-of these plumes waving backwards and forwards as the man moves his head
-to mark the phrases of the song is exceedingly striking, and it must
-be admitted that if there is anybody, who can becomingly wear those
-gorgeous plumes, it is the naked black man.
-
-The most usual kind of song begins with a slow tapping of the drums,
-then these are beaten quicker and the singer (one of the drummers)
-begins a sort of recitative song, to which the chorus contributes a
-low humming accompaniment. Then the drums are beaten very loudly and
-rapidly, all the men in chorus sing, or rather growl, a deep guttural
-note, followed by a prolonged musical note at about the middle of the
-register of a normal man’s voice, and the song ends with one or more
-short sharp barks, “Wah! wah! wah!” with a loud drum accompaniment. The
-song, or probably different verses of it, is repeated very many times.
-The final shouts of the song, which for want of a better word I have
-called “barks,” are uttered by all the men in unison and recall, as was
-pointed out by Mr. Goodfellow, the harsh croaking call of the Greater
-Bird of Paradise, which is heard almost daily in the jungle. It is
-possible that the song is in some way connected with the bird and that
-there is an intentional imitation of its note.
-
-The scheme of all these songs is the same, viz., a recitative with
-drums and a humming accompaniment, but some of them have really
-rollicking choruses, and we used to listen to them at night with
-extreme pleasure as they came, somewhat softened by distance, over the
-water to our camp at Wakatimi. The voices of the men are often rich,
-and they have a true musical ear. Their intervals are very similar to
-ours and not at all like those of the Malays and many other Eastern
-singers, who recognize perhaps five notes where we have only two.
-Beside the drum the only instrument of music they have is a straight
-trumpet made from a short piece of bamboo. This produces only a single
-booming note and is not used at the concerts.
-
-[Illustration: 1. STONE AXE.
-
-2. 3. 4. HEAD-RESTS FOR SLEEPING.
-
-5. 6. 7. DRUMS.]
-
-[Sidenote: A DANCING HOUSE]
-
-As an amusement of the Papuans even more important than singing is
-dancing, of which they often talked, but though we saw some of their
-dancing halls (see illustration p. 48), we never had the good fortune
-to witness a performance. At the coast village of Nimé, a few miles
-to the East of the Mimika River, there was a very elaborate dancing
-house, which must have cost an immense amount of labour to build. The
-length of the house from front to back was about 100 feet, the width
-about 25 feet, and it rested on poles which were about 8 feet high in
-front, rising up to about 14 feet high at the back. The side walls and
-the back were of “atap” as was also the roof, which sloped from a long
-ridgepole running the whole length of the house. The ridgepole was
-remarkable as being made from a single tree trunk (_Casuarina_) shaved
-down very smoothly to a uniform thickness of about 10 inches; the ends
-of it, which projected about 8 feet both at the front and back of the
-house, were carved in very lifelike representations of the head of a
-crocodile and were painted red. The weight of the beam must have been
-immense and one wondered how it had been hoisted into position. Between
-the ridge of the roof and the eaves there projected both in front and
-at the back six other smaller poles grotesquely carved to represent
-fish and reptiles and hideous human heads. The front of the house was
-open, and when you had climbed up the supporting poles and had stepped
-over a low fence you found yourself in a spacious hall with a floor
-well made of sheets of bark, which sloped up gradually from front to
-back. Along either side at regular intervals on the floor were sand
-fireplaces and above these were wooden racks, from which it was evident
-that something was hung to be cooked. Round the walls on all sides
-was a strip of carved and painted wood, and exactly in the middle of
-the hall, fixed to the floor and the roof were two posts about 3 feet
-apart and tied between them, at about half the height of a man, was an
-elaborately carved and painted board about twelve inches wide. In the
-middle of this board was carved the eye, which is a familiar feature of
-the ornamental carving on the canoes and drums, and it appeared that
-this eye is the centre of the ceremonies which take place in the house.
-
-So far as I could understand from the description of the natives who
-accompanied me in my visit to the house, the people, both men and
-women, who take part in the ceremony, dance slowly upwards from the
-front of the house singing as they go, and when they reach the carved
-board each one in turn touches the eye, while all the people shout
-together. But what the object of the whole performance is and what the
-people cook and eat, are questions to which I was unable to find an
-answer.
-
-[Illustration: 1-7. BAMBOO PENIS-CASES. 8-12. CARVED BLADES OF PADDLES.]
-
-[Sidenote: PAPUAN ARTISTS]
-
-I have had occasion above to mention the artistic carvings on the
-canoes and drums. Their paddles too show a very good idea of design,
-as will be seen from the illustration p. 144. Nothing amused them more
-than to be provided with a pencil and pieces of paper and to attempt
-to draw figures. Their efforts were not always very successful, and
-some of the drawings which I have kept would be quite unrecognisable
-for what they are, if I had not labelled them at the time. Like the
-young of civilised races they always preferred to draw the figures of
-men and women, and some of these are remarkable for having the mouth
-near the top of the head above the level of the eyes. The method of
-drawing is very simple; the pencil is held almost upright on the paper
-and the outline of the figure, begun at an arm or leg or anywhere
-indifferently, is drawn in one continuous stroke without removing the
-pencil from the paper. The end is always rather exciting, like the feat
-of drawing a pig when you are blindfolded, for the artist is never
-quite certain of finishing at the point whence he started. Besides
-human figures they liked drawing dogs, pigs, birds and fishes. Two
-pictures of a dog and a bird both done by the same man are peculiarly
-interesting, because they were both drawn upside down. I watched the
-man making the drawings, and when they were finished I saw that the
-legs of the creatures were uppermost; so I turned the papers the right
-way round and handed them back to him, but he inverted them again and
-admired them in that position. Curiously enough the same man drew human
-figures in the correct attitude, head uppermost, so that the state of
-his mental vision offers rather a puzzling problem.
-
-[Illustration: _a._ Cockatoo. _a_{1} b_. Designs for scarification.
-_b._ Hornbill. _c._ Pig. _d._ Dog. _e._ Bird. _f._ Man. _g._ Woman.]
-
-Most of them had a keen appreciation of pictures and they were
-surprisingly quick in identifying photographs of themselves; in this
-respect they showed a good deal more intelligence than some of our
-Gurkhas, who held a photograph sideways or upside down and gazed at it
-blankly, as if they had not the faintest idea of what it portrayed.
-The illustrated papers were a source of endless delight to them, and
-the portraits of beautiful ladies, who they felt sure were our wives,
-were greatly admired. Horses, sheep, cattle and all other animals were
-declared to be dogs.
-
-[Sidenote: CAT’S CRADLE]
-
-Another amusement—it can hardly be called an art—of the Papuans is
-the game of cat’s cradle, at which many of them are extraordinarily
-proficient. It is not, as with us, a game played by two persons; with
-them the part of the second person is performed by the player’s teeth,
-and he contrives to produce some wonderfully intricate figures, none of
-which, I regret to say, we had patience or skill enough to learn. The
-most elaborate figure I saw was supposed to represent a bird, and when
-the features of it had been pointed out some resemblance was certainly
-apparent.
-
-But it must be admitted that their amusements are not always so
-innocent as drawing pictures and playing cat’s cradle. I have referred
-above to the gang of drunkards, who used to create such turmoil
-at Wakatimi. The people of Parimau, who had no means of getting
-intoxicated, were just as quarrelsome as the Wakatimi people, and
-fights were of frequent, almost daily occurrence. Some one does
-something, it matters not what, to offend some other person, and
-in an instant the village is in an uproar. Spears fly through the
-air—we never saw anybody touched by one—and stone clubs are brandished
-furiously, the combatants all shout horrible threats at the tops of
-their voices, while a few people look on stolidly or hardly take any
-notice at all. There seems to be a certain etiquette about the use of
-clubs, for the person about to be hit generally presents a soft part of
-his person, the back or shoulders, to the clubber, and we never saw a
-man intentionally hit another on the head, a blow which might easily be
-fatal; but blood flowed in plenty from the flesh wounds.
-
-The part of the women in these village squabbles is always to scream
-loudly and generally to begin by banging the houses with sticks or
-spears and to end with pulling them to pieces. In a fight at Wakatimi
-we saw a party of infuriated women absolutely demolish three or four
-houses. The fights end almost as suddenly as they begin and in a short
-time the village settles down to its usual tranquillity. Neither the
-sight nor the sound of these village quarrels is very agreeable, but
-they have no regularly organised games and, at the worst, not a very
-great amount of damage is done.
-
-The clubs used in these village fights and doubtless also in their
-tribal wars—but of those we know nothing—are of two kinds, wooden and
-stone-headed. The wooden clubs are about four feet long and consist of
-a plain shaft, of which the last foot or rather more is carved into
-a saw-like cutting edge; some of these are made of a very heavy wood
-and they are exceedingly formidable weapons. A more simple type of
-wooden club is a plain wooden shaft rather thinner at the handle end
-than at the other, round which is fixed a piece of shark’s skin or
-the prickly skin from the back of the Sting Ray and often with it is
-tied the saw of a small Saw fish; such a club appears to be capable of
-inflicting a very nasty wound.
-
-[Illustration: SPLITTING WOOD WITH A STONE AXE.]
-
-[Sidenote: STONE CLUBS]
-
-There is a great variety of stone-headed clubs, but they are all alike
-in being furnished with a wooden shaft, which is usually a plain piece
-of wood, but occasionally carved near the club end. The stone head
-is pierced in the middle by a round hole about an inch in diameter,
-through which the shaft is passed and fixed firmly by wedges. Most of
-the heads are made of a rather soft limestone, but where the people
-obtain it we do not know, for there is no stone of any kind near the
-coast. The simplest type is merely a round water-worn pebble with a
-hole bored through it. More commonly they are worked and the labour of
-producing them must have been considerable. Some are flat discs with
-sharp cutting edges or blunt and roughly milled edges, and some are
-cut into the form of five or six or more pointed stars; rarely they
-are triangular. Others again are round or oval and are cut into more
-or less deep teeth, or they have small bosses left projecting here and
-there, but no two of them are exactly alike. The weight of the club
-head is usually two or three pounds. The most savage-looking club we
-saw was simply a rough lump of coral, not trimmed in any way. It was
-pierced and mounted on a finely carved shaft of extremely heavy wood,
-and the whole thing must have weighed fifteen or twenty pounds.
-
-Not a little credit is due to the Papuans for their industry in
-making these elaborate weapons, for it must be remembered that until
-we visited the country they had no metal tools whatever, with the
-exception of two or three scraps of soft iron, and all their work was
-done with shell knives and stone axes. The knives are simply the shells
-of a common freshwater bivalve (_Cyrena_ sp.); when these are rubbed
-down on a stone, they take on an exceedingly sharp edge and are used
-by the natives for carving the canoes and drums and sharpening their
-spears and arrows.
-
-The stone axes used in the Mimika district are all of the same type,
-though they vary greatly in size from about four inches to large ones
-of nearly twelve inches in length. The stone of which they are made is
-always the same, a quartzite. The shaft is about two feet long and is
-invariably made of the butt end of a bamboo. A hole is bored and burnt
-in the lower end of the bamboo, that is to say in the solid part of
-the wood below the first joint, and the pointed end of the stone is
-jammed into the hole. The stone is always fixed axe-fashion, _i.e._
-with its broad surface and cutting edge in the same plane with the long
-axis of the handle, and not adze-fashion, as is the custom in some
-other parts of New Guinea (see illustration p. 142). The axes quickly
-become blunt with use and they are sharpened by being rubbed upon
-another stone. At Wakatimi stones are very rare and one man appeared
-to be the stone-smith of the village. I remember seeing him one day
-sitting outside his hut sharpening an axe, with three or four others
-lying beside him waiting to be done, while a few yards away a woman was
-splitting a log of wood with a stone axe. It struck me as being one
-of the most primitive scenes I had ever witnessed, really a glimpse of
-the Stone Age.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  1. BOW.
-  2, 7. WOODEN FISH SPEARS.
-  3. PLAIN WOOD-POINTED ARROW.
-  4. NOTCHED WOOD-POINTED ARROW.
-  5. ARROW TIPPED WITH CASSOWARY CLAW.
-  6. BAMBOO-POINTED ARROW.
-  8. HUNTING SPEAR, POINTED WITH SHARP BONE.
-  9, 10. WOODEN SPEAR USED AT CEREMONIES.]
-
-[Sidenote: BOWS AND ARROWS]
-
-The bows of the Mimika natives are about five feet long and are made
-of a simple straight piece of a very hard wood (usually a species of
-_pandanus_), tapering towards the ends, which are sometimes ornamented
-with the claw of a cassowary or a tuft of feathers and shells or the
-claw of a crab. The “string” is a piece of rattan and it requires
-a strong arm to bend the bow. The arrows are of various types (see
-illustration p. 150); they are all made of reed stems, and none are
-ever feathered nor have they nocks. They vary only in their points,
-which are sometimes merely the sharpened end of the reeds themselves
-and sometimes a plain sharpened tip of hard wood or bamboo. Some are
-tipped with the sharpened claw of a cassowary or with the spine that
-lies along the back of the Sting Ray, and the arrows used for shooting
-fish have often three points of sharp bamboo.
-
-Most people have the idea that the savage man performs prodigies of
-skill with his bow and arrows, but whenever I saw the Papuans shooting,
-they made astonishingly bad practice. I remember seeing two Papuans
-trying to kill an iguana in a tree not more than twenty feet above the
-ground; they shot arrow after arrow at it, but the creature, which was
-as long and almost as thick as a man’s arm, climbed slowly up from
-branch to branch until it was lost to view.
-
-The hunting spears are of two kinds, a plain straight shaft of heavy
-wood, very sharp and hardened by fire at the tip; and a straight shaft
-of a lighter wood, to the end of which is fixed part of a straight bone
-(generally the _tibia_) of a pig, sharpened to a fine point. There is
-another kind of spear made of a soft wood, finely pointed and with a
-wide blade carved in a sort of open-work fashion (see illustration p.
-150); the blade and the point are painted red with clay and the shaft
-is generally decorated with feathers or plaited fibre. Spears of this
-sort are of no use in hunting but are employed at dances and other
-ceremonial functions.
-
-Two more pieces of furniture, the head-rest and the sago bowl, complete
-the list of articles made by the Papuans. The head-rests, which were
-seen only in the villages of Obota and Nimé, are made of a strip of
-elaborately carved wood four or five inches wide and between two and
-three feet in length, and are supported at each end by a stout wooden
-prop, which raises the head-rest about four inches above the ground.
-The longer head-rests are supposed to support the heads of two sleeping
-persons.
-
-Fire is nearly always taken by the Papuans wherever they go; in almost
-every canoe a fire is kept burning, and when they travel through the
-jungle the men carry a smouldering stick. There must be occasions when
-all these fires are extinguished, but how they produce them we were
-unable to learn; the Papuans of Parimau could not make fire with the
-friction stick and rattan used by their neighbours, the Tapiro Pygmies.
-
-From the description of them which has been given in this and the two
-preceding chapters it will be seen that the conditions of life of the
-Papuans are as primitive as those of any people now living in the
-world. There are very few other places, where you can find a people
-who neither make nor possess any metal and who have no knowledge
-of pottery. The only vessels that they have for holding water are
-scraped-out coconuts and simple pieces of bamboo. Water boiling they
-had never seen before we came among them. Their implements and weapons
-are, as I have shown, of the most primitive kind, and their ornaments
-are of the rudest possible description.
-
-Cultivation of the soil is only practised by the people of one or two
-villages, and even then it produces but a very small proportion of
-their food, so it follows that most of their time and energies are
-devoted to procuring the necessaries of life.
-
-[Sidenote: STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE]
-
-The struggle for existence is keen enough, the birth-rate is low and
-the rate of infant mortality is, I believe, very high. Nor do diseases
-spare them; syphilis is exceedingly prevalent, and was probably
-introduced by Chinese and Malay traders to the West end of the island,
-whence it has spread along the coast. Tuberculosis is happily absent,
-but two natives of Wakatimi were suffering from what appeared to be
-certainly leprosy. Skin diseases, notably _tinea imbricata_, are very
-common; and almost every person appears to suffer occasionally from
-fever of one sort or another.
-
-But in spite of all these drawbacks the Papuans of the Mimika are not
-such a very miserable people. They are strong, those of them that
-survive the ordeals of infancy and sickness; they have food in plenty
-to eat, if they choose to exert themselves sufficiently to obtain it;
-they have their amusements, songs and dances; and the manner of their
-lives is suited to the conditions of the country in which they live.
-It is this last consideration which ought ultimately to determine their
-fate: they live in a wretchedly poor country which is constantly liable
-to devastating floods, and their habit of wandering from one place to
-another, where food may be obtained, is the only way of life suitable
-to the physical and climatic conditions of the country.
-
-Any attempt to “civilise” them must inevitably destroy their primitive
-independence, and if it succeeded in establishing the people in
-settled communities it would reduce them at many seasons to absolute
-starvation. We were visited once by the Director of the Sacred Heart
-Mission at Toeal, which has done admirable work amongst the natives
-of the Ké Islands and at one or two places in New Guinea itself. When
-he had seen the people and the nature of the country and had been
-told something of their habits, he decided that the Mimika was not,
-at present at all events, a proper field for missionary enterprise.
-Setting aside all other considerations, one dares to hope that such
-an interesting people may for a long time be left undisturbed; they
-do no harm to their neighbours and the effects on them of civilising
-influences would be at the best uncertain.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XII
-
-
-  _The Camp at Parimau—A Plague of Beetles—First Discovery
-  of the Tapiro Pygmies—Papuans as Carriers—We visit the
-  Clearing of the Tapiro—Remarkable Clothing of Tapiro—Our
-  Relations with the Natives—System of Payment—Their
-  Confidence in Us—Occasional Thefts—A Customary
-  Peace-offering—Papuans as Naturalists._
-
-While it was the business of some of us during the early months of the
-expedition to stop at the base-camp and despatch canoes laden with
-stores up the river, others remained at Parimau to establish there a
-second permanent camp and to find, if possible, a way of approaching
-the higher mountains. It should be said that Parimau is some distance
-from the mountains—the high point nearest to it. Mount Tapiro (7660
-ft.) is some twelve miles to the North, but it was no longer possible
-to travel in the direction of the mountains by way of the Mimika River,
-which had dwindled to a very small size at Parimau, therefore it was
-necessary to find a new route from there onward.
-
-The first camp at Parimau was made on the shallow sandy side of the
-river close to the native village; the Papuans generally place their
-villages on gently sloping rather than on steep banks for convenience
-in hauling up their canoes. The coolies, such as there were of them,
-were occupied on the river, the natives for the first few months were
-of little or no assistance in building, and the work was done almost
-entirely by half a dozen of the Gurkhas. Their greatest achievement was
-the construction of a log-house in the best Himalayan style, probably
-by far the solidest building that was ever put up in Dutch New Guinea.
-The floor was raised about three feet above the ground and it was well
-that the workmanship was good, for it had not been finished many weeks
-before a flood swept over the camp and everyone took refuge in the
-house, the floor of which was just awash. Afterwards the camp was moved
-to the high bank across the river and the subsequent floods swamped the
-house and carried it away piecemeal, but two of the uprights survived
-and were still standing a year later.
-
-We were a good deal annoyed at Parimau by the _larvæ_ of a small
-red and black beetle, which infested the wood of which the frames
-of our huts were made. These _larvæ_, which look like small hairy
-caterpillars, were continually dropping from the roof and when they
-were killed, or even touched, they emitted the most disagreeable musky
-smell. They sometimes dropped upon you during the night and the smell
-of them would wake you from your sleep. The beetle itself too, if
-crushed or irritated, has the same disgusting peculiarity.
-
-[Sidenote: DISCOVERY OF THE PYGMIES]
-
-It has been mentioned above (Chapter V.) that Captain Rawling in
-exploring to the N.W. of Parimau came to the big river Kapare, which
-we unsuccessfully tried to navigate in canoes from below to the point
-where he had met it. While he was walking up the river bed one day, the
-Papuans who were with him caught after an exciting chase two small
-men, whose build and dress and appearance proclaimed them to belong
-to another race than the Papuan. A day or two later two more were
-captured, while they were crossing the river; they were kindly treated
-and presents were given to them, but they showed no inclination to
-conduct strangers to their home, a large clearing in the jungle on the
-hill side, which could be plainly seen from the Kapare River. We learnt
-from the Papuans that these little people were called Tapiro.[13]
-
-At the beginning of March I accompanied one of the food-transports
-up the Mimika and went with Rawling out to the Kapare, where he had
-made a camp and was occupied with some of the Gurkhas in cutting a
-track through the jungle. By that time we had no coolies available for
-land transport; in six weeks our fifty coolies had diminished to ten,
-who were all wanted for the canoes, so we were entirely dependent on
-native assistance for land journeys. There was not much difficulty in
-persuading people to carry loads for us from Parimau to the nearest
-point of the Kapare River, for they were accustomed to go over there to
-fish. But it was a different business on the second day, when we wanted
-to push the camp a few miles further up the river so as to be in a
-better position for reaching the clearing of the Tapiro. At first they
-resolutely refused to start at all and retired to the shelters they had
-made at a little distance from the camp. From there they had to be led
-back by the hand one by one and then be severally introduced to their
-loads, but even so a number of them ran away again, and it was hours
-before we moved from the camp.
-
-When once they were started they went steadily enough for about a
-mile and then they all put down their loads and refused to go on,
-but as they had stopped in the middle of the bed of the river it was
-impossible to remain there, so with promises of cloth and beads we
-urged them on a little further. The same performance was repeated a
-dozen times at intervals, which became shorter and shorter until our
-coaxing and cajoling availed no longer and there was nothing for it
-but to stop and make a camp. It had taken us more than four hours to
-cover less than three miles, most of which was easy going over sand
-and stones in the bed of the river. We should have been awkwardly
-situated if they had all gone away and left us to carry the loads, as
-they did a few weeks later to Marshall, who was deserted by them and
-forced to leave some of his baggage behind him. Needless to say, these
-misfortunes would not have occurred if our Malay coolies had been
-suited to their work. As it was, there were considerable periods when
-we had either to make use of what help the natives consented to give
-us, or else be content to do nothing at all.
-
-When it suits them to do so, the Mimika Papuans can carry very heavy
-loads and they manage to cover the ground at a very respectable pace.
-They wrap up the load in the mat made of _pandanus_ leaves, which every
-man always carries with him to serve both as a sleeping mat and as a
-shelter from the rain. The mat is securely tied by ropes of rattan or
-any of the other innumerable creepers of the jungle, and two strong
-loops are made to pass over the shoulders so that the load may be
-carried on the back, ruck-sack fashion. The women carry loads as well
-as the men and sometimes also the children, when the whole family is
-making a journey.
-
-From our upper camp on the Kapare River Rawling and I made two attempts
-to reach the forest clearing of the Tapiro, which could be easily seen
-from the camp at a distance of about three miles in a straight line;
-but though careful bearings of its direction were taken, it turned
-out to be a most puzzling place to reach. Not more than a mile above
-the camp the Kapare emerges from a deep and narrow gorge in the foot
-hills—or rather the spurs of the mountains, they are too steep to call
-foot hills—which descend very abruptly to the almost level country
-below. Just after it emerges from the gorge, the river is joined by a
-stream of the clearest water I have ever seen, which we afterwards came
-to call the White Water (see illustration opposite).
-
-[Sidenote: BIRDS OF PARADISE]
-
-In our first attempt to reach the clearing we wandered in the jungle
-for ten hours and came nowhere near to it. But the day was not
-altogether wasted, for we climbed up the hillside to about fifteen
-hundred feet and by cutting down some trees we obtained a wonderful
-view across the plain of the jungle to the distant sea. The air of the
-jungle was heavy with the scent of the wild Vanilla, and all around us
-were calling (but we could not see them) Greater Birds of Paradise;
-sometimes we were within sound of as many as six at one time. On that
-day too I first saw the Rifle Bird (_Ptilorhis intercedens_), one of
-the most beautiful though the least gaudy of the birds of Paradise,
-whose long-drawn whistle can never be mistaken or forgotten.
-
-[Illustration: A TRIBUTARY STREAM OF THE KAPARE RIVER.]
-
-In our second attempt we profited by some of the mistakes made on the
-former, but even so the irregularity of the ground and the complexity
-of the watercourses nearly succeeded in baffling us. “Rawling and I
-left camp early with two Gurkhas. A mile and a half up the left bank of
-the river we struck off N.E. from the path we followed the other day.
-Cut a new path through the jungle for about a mile until we came to a
-faint native track, which we followed for another mile or so, chiefly
-along fallen tree trunks overhung by a network of rattan and other
-creepers, a fearful struggle to get through. Then for a mile or more up
-the bed of a stony stream encumbered with the same obstructions, dead
-trees and rattans, until we came to a deep gorge with a torrent about
-three hundred feet below us and on the opposite side the steep slope of
-another great spur of the mountain, on which the clearing presumably
-lay. We slithered and scrambled down to the river, which was full of
-water and only just fordable. Then up the other slope, not knowing at
-all accurately the direction of the clearing. Very steep and the jungle
-very dense with rattan and tree-ferns, so the leading Gurkha was kept
-busily occupied in cutting with his _kukrí_ and progress was slow.
-
-[Sidenote: WE VISIT THE PYGMIES]
-
-“About one o’clock, when we had been going for nearly six hours, the
-clouds came down and it began to rain and we were ready to turn back.
-Luckily the Gurkhas were convinced that the clearing was not far ahead
-and when we found a pig-trap, a noose of rattan set in a faint track,
-it seemed that they might perhaps be right. So we went on and in a
-few minutes we came out of the forest into the clearing. About thirty
-yards from us was a hut with three men standing outside it. We called
-out to them and they waited until we came up. A minute or two later
-two more men came out from the forest behind us, no doubt they had
-been following us unseen. The hut was a most primitive structure of
-sticks roofed with leaves, leaning up against the hillside. There was a
-fire in the hut and beside it was sitting an old man covered with most
-horrible sores. We went on up the hill for a couple of hundred yards
-to a place (about 1900 feet above the sea) where we had a fine view.
-Rawling put up the plane-table and got angles on to several points for
-the map.
-
-“During the hour or more that we stayed there, eight men came to see
-us. Excepting one rather masterful little man, who had no fear of us,
-they were too shy to approach us closely and remained about ten yards
-distant, but even so it was plainly evident from their small stature
-alone, that they were of a different race from the people of the low
-country.
-
-“The most remarkable thing about them is the case that each man wears,
-his only article of clothing; it is made of a long yellow gourd, about
-two inches in diameter at the base and tapering to about half an inch
-at the pointed end. It is worn with the pointed end upwards and is kept
-in position by a string round the waist. As the length of the case—some
-of them measure more than fifteen inches—is more than a quarter of
-the height of the man himself, it gives him a most extraordinary
-appearance. Every man carries a bow and arrows in his hand and a
-plaited fibre bag of quite elaborate design slung on his back. Two men
-wore necklaces of very rough scraps of shell and one had a strip of fur
-round his head. Two others wore on their heads curious helmet-like hats
-of grass ornamented with feathers.
-
-“One man had a diminutive axe made of a piece of soft iron about three
-inches long, set in a handle like those of the stone axes. They must
-have some bigger axes, as they have cut down some very large trees and
-the marks on the stumps look as if they had been made with fairly sharp
-instruments. The clearing altogether is very considerable, probably
-fifty acres or more. The ground is covered with the sweet-potato plant,
-and in many places ‘taro’ has been carefully picked out. They have a
-few coarse-looking bananas, some of which they offered to us.
-
-“Their voices are rather high-pitched and one of them, who met us first
-and called several of the others to come and see us, ended his calls
-with a very curious shrill jodelling note. When we came away we offered
-them cloth and beads to come with us and show us a better way, but
-they were either too frightened or too lazy to do so. We got back to
-camp after ten hours’ hard going, drenched with rain and covered with
-leeches, but well-pleased with the success of the day.”[14]
-
-That was the last that we saw for a long time of the Tapiro pygmies,
-for it was evident that the Kapare River was useless as a means of
-approach to the Snow Mountains and we had to turn our attention to
-the country to the N.E. of the Mimika. Moreover, it was impossible to
-keep the camp there supplied with provisions, as we were at that time
-entirely dependent for transport on the goodwill of the Papuans.
-
-[Sidenote: NATIVES AS CARRIERS]
-
-Generally speaking we always remained on excellent terms with the
-natives and very rarely had any trouble with them. Except that we
-bought from them the “atap” for our houses, we got little or no help
-from the people of Wakatimi, but the people of Parimau assisted us
-in a number of ways. At first, as I have shewn, we had considerable
-difficulty in persuading them to work for us as carriers; but when they
-found that they really did receive the payment they were promised, they
-were willing and sometimes even anxious to carry loads for us, though
-we often had to wait a few days until it suited their convenience to
-start. It was a pity that they were never willing to travel further
-than about three days’ march from their village, but as there were long
-periods when we were entirely dependent on them for land transport, we
-counted ourselves lucky in their agreeing to work at all.
-
-Chiefly owing to the help of the natives we were able to make and
-keep supplied for several months another camp on the Wataikwa River,
-three days’ march north-east from Parimau. When they went out there
-first, they were accustomed to receive their pay, cloth and beads or
-a small knife at the end of the journey; but later, when wages rose,
-as they inevitably did with every successive journey, it seemed to be
-absurd to waste perhaps half a load by carrying axes and knives to
-be given in payment at the end of the march. So a plan was adopted of
-giving them at the Wataikwa camp a paper authorising them to demand
-payment on their return to Parimau, and it was a gratifying tribute to
-the confidence that they had in us that they readily fell in with the
-scheme. Before starting they were shewn the knife or axe or whatever it
-was that they would receive for their labour, and at the end they raced
-back with their scraps of paper to Parimau, covering in a few hours the
-distance that had taken them three days on the outward journey. Some
-of the less energetic people in the village, when they saw that their
-friends received a knife or an axe by merely presenting a small piece
-of paper to the man in charge of the camp at Parimau, thought that they
-might easily earn the same reward, and they were rather astonished to
-find that the small scraps of paper, which they handed in, produced
-nothing at all or only a serious physical rebuff. But they were so
-childlike in their misdemeanours that one could not be seriously angry
-with them.
-
-[Sidenote: OUR RELATIONS WITH THE NATIVES]
-
-They shewed their confidence in our honesty in another very flattering
-way. During the period of the most frequent floods at Parimau, when
-they were liable to be washed away at any moment, the people took most
-of their movable possessions out of their houses and hid them in safe
-places in the jungle. But many of them merely brought their goods
-across to our side of the river and deposited them without any attempt
-at concealment within a few yards of our camp, apparently knowing that
-there they would be perfectly secure from theft.
-
-They are by nature unconscionable thieves and a chance of stealing is
-to them merely a chance of acquiring property in the easiest way. On
-one occasion, when a party of our coolies were returning alone from
-Parimau to Wakatimi, they were waylaid at a narrow place in the river
-by some Papuans, who relieved them of their baggage and disappeared
-into the jungle; most of the stolen goods were subsequently returned,
-when the natives were threatened with punishment. The same thing
-happened another time when the coolies were accompanied by armed
-Javanese soldiers, who apparently forgot the use of their rifles until
-the thieves had got away. But they had a proper respect for a white man
-and whenever one of us, armed or not, was with the canoes, the natives
-never tried to molest us. They occasionally stole from the camps a
-knife or an axe, but though they were constantly about our houses and
-often inside them for hours at a time, we never lost anything of value.
-
-A temptation, which often proved too strong for them, was our fleet of
-canoes. At Wakatimi the canoes were moored in front of the camp at the
-place where the natives, who came to visit us, were accustomed to land.
-They came mostly in the late afternoon and stayed till sunset, and it
-happened several times that when they went away they contrived to put
-two or three men into one of our canoes and slip away with it unnoticed
-in the dusk. But when on the following day we made a fuss, the canoe
-was generally brought back with a long story of its having been found
-floating down the river towards the sea.
-
-An opportunity of looting, which was not to be resisted, occurred one
-day when a party of discharged coolies were leaving the country. The
-boat, in which they were being taken off to the ship, capsized as it
-came alongside the steamer and thirty coolies and all their belongings
-were upset into the sea. The captain of the ship was only anxious to
-save his boat and the coolies hastened to escape from the sharks. In
-the meantime a crowd of natives, who had come down in their canoes
-to visit the ship, lost no time in picking up the floating boxes and
-bundles of clothing, and before anybody was aware of their action they
-were fast paddling away to their villages.
-
-On such occasions and at other times when we had reason to be angry
-with them, the people of Wakatimi observed a curious custom. There
-was in the village a coloured china plate and a piece of bent silver
-wire, which was sometimes used by the owner as an ear-ring. On the
-morning following their misdemeanour two men came over from the village
-bringing the ear-ring on the plate, which they gave to us, shook hands
-and departed. Later in the day they returned and we gave them back
-their gifts; this happened several times.
-
-At one time there was a serious epidemic of drunkenness among the
-people of Wakatimi and they shewed their ill-manners by shooting
-arrows into the camp. This was of no consequence when only one person
-misbehaved himself. But when one day a number of men waded half-way
-across the river and began to send arrows into the camp, it had to
-be stopped. The Dutch sergeant, who was alone in charge of the place
-at the time, held up his rifle, a weapon the use of which they very
-well understood, and signalled to them that unless they went away he
-would fire. As they took no notice of his warning he fired, aiming at
-the legs of the ringleader, but unfortunately he hit him in the groin.
-Shortly afterwards, so little animosity did they show and so complete
-was their confidence in us, they brought the wretched man over to our
-camp, but nothing could be done for him and in a few hours he died.
-
-They were very appreciative of medical treatment and at different times
-we were able to do a good deal for them. One man actually went so far
-as to pay a fee of half a dozen coconuts for the saving of his little
-daughter’s ulcerated foot, which was rapidly going from bad to worse
-under native treatment. They often cut themselves severely with our
-axes and knives before they learnt their sharpness, and their wounds
-healed astonishingly quickly with ordinary clean methods; the only
-trouble was that they liked to take off the bandages and use them for
-personal adornment.
-
-As well as acting as carriers for us, the people at Parimau did a
-considerable amount of work for us about the camp in cutting down
-trees, an occupation which they always enjoyed, and in helping to build
-some of the houses. They were even more useful to us as naturalists
-and, thanks mainly to them, we made a very complete collection of the
-reptiles of the district. They were particularly adept at catching
-snakes and often five or six men in a day would stroll into the camp
-carrying a deadly poisonous snake wrapped up in leaves. One day
-Goodfellow was walking through the jungle with some natives and the
-man in front of him stooped down and picked up a poisonous viper
-without even pausing in his stride.
-
-We always encouraged the natives to bring us snakes in the hope of
-getting new species, and when we did not want those that they brought,
-they were quite content to take them away and eat them. They seemed
-to have a peculiar knack of catching poisonous things, for besides
-snakes they often brought scorpions and centipedes in their parcels
-of leaves. With the more delicate creatures such as lizards they were
-less successful and among the hundreds that they brought us there were
-very few which they had not damaged. They always assumed an air of
-importance and somewhat of mystery, when they brought some animal for
-sale, and you always knew that when you had bought, or refused, as the
-case might be, the creature that was offered, the man would instantly
-produce something else, but the puzzle was always to know whence he
-produced it, for his scanty costume does not admit of pockets.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XIII
-
-
-  _Visit of Mr. Lorentz—Arrival of Steam Launch—A
-  Sailor Drowned—Our Second Batch of Coolies—Health of
-  the Gurkhas—Dayaks the best Coolies—Sickness—Arrival
-  of Motor Boat—Camp under Water—Expedition moves to
-  Parimau—Explorations beyond the Mimika—Leeches—Floods on
-  the Tuaba River—Overflowing Rivers—The Wataikwa—Cutting a
-  Track._
-
-A pleasant interlude in the monotony of the early part of the
-expedition occurred one day towards the end of March, when the natives
-of Wakatimi signalled in the usual way the approach of a boat and
-presently a steam launch appeared with Europeans on board. They turned
-out to be the Dutch explorer, Mr. H. A. Lorentz, who was on his way
-back from his second and successful expedition to Mount Wilhelmina by
-way of the Noord River, with his companions Captain J. W. van Nouhuys
-and Lieutenant Habbema, and the Captain of the Government steamer
-_Java_, which had anchored off the mouth of the Mimika. Mr. Lorentz
-looked like a man hardly returned from the dead, as indeed he well
-might, for after climbing to the snows of Mount Wilhelmina he had
-fallen down a cliff on his return, with a result of two broken ribs and
-serious concussion of the brain, and he had endured untold sufferings
-on his way back to the foot of the mountain. But he had achieved the
-principal object of his expedition, and his spirits were in better
-condition than his body. They stayed for the night with us and at
-dinner, though I was in a minority of one to six, with characteristic
-courtesy they all spoke English; the entertainment, assisted by
-luxuries brought from the _Java_, lasted until the small hours, and it
-was the pleasantest evening I spent in New Guinea.
-
-The _Java_ brought for us the long-expected steam launch, and its
-career began, as it ended, with disaster. Before dawn one of the men
-of the boat wished to fetch something that he had left on the launch,
-which was moored in the river about fifteen yards from the bank. The
-sentry on duty did his best to prevent him, because it was a rule
-of the camp that no man was allowed to bathe before sunrise, but he
-insisted on swimming out to the launch. In a few yards he found that
-the current was stronger than he had expected, he called for help, and
-in a few moments a canoe set out in the gloom to look for him, but no
-more was seen of him until his body was recovered by the natives at
-the mouth of the Mimika a few days later. Shortly after the accident
-happened our guests left us on their way back to Europe, and we watched
-their departure with somewhat envious eyes.
-
-[Sidenote: COOLIES AND GURKHAS]
-
-The history of the middle period of the expedition, that is to say,
-from April to December, is chiefly a history of floods and sickness and
-disappointment. In the middle of April Goodfellow, who had gone away
-early in March, returned with a fresh batch of forty-eight coolies,
-whom he had recruited in Banda and Amboina. About a half of these men
-were natives of the island of Buton, and the rest were Ambonese, and
-though they were the best men that could be found at such short notice,
-and were greatly superior to our first batch of coolies, they were
-really not fit for the work they had to do, and the majority of them
-soon became useless to us.
-
-The steam launch towed the canoes for a short distance up the river
-once or twice, but it very soon broke down and thenceforward until the
-middle of June all the transport between Wakatimi and Parimau was done
-by the coolies themselves. For them it was literally a killing work;
-in the first few weeks two men died, one of pneumonia, the other of
-dysentery, both causes resulting from the circumstances of their work,
-while several others developed the first signs of beri-beri and had to
-be sent away at the earliest opportunity.
-
-About the same time one of the Gurkhas died; he was from the beginning
-a very unhealthy man, who ought not to have been engaged for the
-expedition. Of the other nine Gurkhas three were invalided home before
-the end of the year and the remaining six stayed with us until we left
-the country. Although they came from the highlands of Darjeeling—or
-perhaps for that very reason—our Gurkhas, who were by no means a
-carefully selected lot, withstood the trials and the climate of the
-country better than any of the other “native” people in the expedition
-and, if expense were no drawback, it is probable that an expedition to
-New Guinea would have the best chance of success if coolies were taken
-from Northern India.
-
-That is, however, rather a counsel of perfection, and an expedition
-to New Guinea must make use of natives of the Malay Archipelago. The
-Ambonese and the Butonese have been tried and have been found wanting,
-so also have the Ké Islanders and the Sundanese from the mountains
-of central Java. Possibly the wild hillmen of Timor, if enough of
-them could be engaged, would work well, but the only people who have
-hitherto worked successfully as coolies in Dutch New Guinea are the
-hill-Dayaks of Borneo. Mr. Lorentz, who took with him eighty Dayaks,
-most of them from the Mendalen River, on his expedition to Mount
-Wilhelmina, spoke with enthusiasm of the admirable behaviour of his
-men, and if Indian or other Asiatic coolies are not available, it may
-be said that an expedition to the mountainous districts of Dutch New
-Guinea can only be properly conducted with Dayaks.
-
-Our coolies were not the only people in the expedition who began to
-feel the ill effects of the climate; the Javanese soldiers and convicts
-quickly filled the hospital which had been put up at Wakatimi, and in
-May and June there were many mornings when I saw more than forty sick
-men. Most of them suffered from fever and a more or less severe form of
-dysentery, and a good many cases of beri-beri occurred. Unfortunately
-sickness was not confined to our native followers only; the Europeans
-began also to suffer from the very adverse conditions in which they
-found themselves. One or two of the Dutch non-commissioned officers
-became seriously ill; Goodfellow, who returned with the second batch
-of coolies from Banda about the middle of April, was never free from
-fever for more than a few days from that time until he left the
-country in October; and Shortridge became such a wreck from almost
-continuous fever, which began about the beginning of March, that by
-the end of May he had to be sent away for three months’ change of
-air to Australia. Soon after his return in August he succumbed again
-to the evil climate, and though he pluckily pretended that there was
-nothing the matter with him, he went from bad to worse, and I am fully
-persuaded that his almost forcible deportation at the end of November
-saved his life.
-
-At the end of May, Goodfellow and Rawling went over to Dobo, and
-after about eight days returned with the motor boat, which had been
-bought from the pearl-fishers. Like most things of which a great deal
-is expected the motor boat turned out to be a disappointment, and it
-eventually led us into serious difficulty, but for a short time it
-did good service in towing boats up the river, and it considerably
-shortened the voyage from Wakatimi to Parimau.
-
-[Sidenote: THE FIRST FLOOD]
-
-The day of the arrival of the motor boat was memorable for being the
-occasion of the first of the really serious floods that beset us. Late
-in the evening a party of our coolies on their way back from Parimau,
-who were not due to arrive until the following day, reached the camp at
-Wakatimi, most of which was by that time under water. The journey down
-the river usually occupied two days, but they had found all the usual
-camping places, some of which were high above the ordinary river bed,
-under water, and they had been unable to find any safe resting-place.
-
-The three following days were among the most unpleasant that I had
-ever spent, though worse were to follow later. On the morning of the
-first day the water fell a little and we spent laborious hours in
-piling up our stores and movable gear on to the top of empty boxes, and
-when those were all used on posts driven into the ground. All through
-the afternoon the water rose, the coolies’ and soldiers’ houses were
-quickly flooded, and our own house, which was on the highest part of
-the camp, was nearly a foot under water. On the two succeeding days the
-conditions were much more serious, and we had two feet of water in our
-house. The river took a short cut over the neck of land formed by a
-wide bend of the river on which the camp was placed and flowed straight
-through the camp. Our beds were raised up on empty kerosene-tin boxes,
-and when these were submerged there was a mild excitement in guessing
-how far up the frame-work of the bed the water would rise. Fires were
-put out and cooking was impossible, so the coolies and soldiers, who
-depended on their boiled rice, had rather a hungry time. Our own
-food consisted of biscuits and cold tinned stuff, which is not very
-exhilarating when you have been in water all day long. An unprejudiced
-observer looking in upon us from the outside in the evening might well
-have wondered what kind of lunatics we were to come to New Guinea.
-Goodfellow was lying in bed very sick with fever, while Rawling and I,
-up to our knees in water, were making a poor pretence at having dinner.
-The only humour that we managed to extract from the situation was in
-the novel experience of being able, without moving from our seats,
-to wash our plates between the first course of biscuits and sardines
-and the second course of biscuits and marmalade; the Mimika river was
-flowing under our chairs and we had only to lower our plates into it
-to clean them.
-
-On the fourth day the water fell, and the camp was not flooded again
-for several weeks, but there was left everywhere a thick deposit of
-mud, which kept the houses sodden for a long time afterwards. In spite
-of all our precautions, a quantity of stores were irreparably spoilt
-and, worse still, the flood left behind it an increased amount of
-sickness, and indeed the wonder was that the prolonged soaking had not
-ill effects on every one of us.
-
-At the beginning of July Cramer and I arrived at Parimau, bringing with
-us the last loads of provisions to complete the store, which we had
-been working hard for three months with our second batch of coolies
-to accumulate at that place. It was hoped that that store would be
-sufficient to enable us to use Parimau as a second base camp for making
-a prolonged expedition into the mountains without wasting any more time
-on transports up the river; but in that we had reckoned without the
-vagaries of the New Guinea climate and the consequent diminution of the
-effective strength of our coolies, who were already too few for our
-purpose.
-
-[Sidenote: EXCURSIONS BEYOND MIMIKA]
-
-In the meantime Rawling and Marshall had been making excursions to
-the North-east of Parimau, in the direction of the high mountains.
-About five miles from Parimau they had come to the Tuaba River and
-about the same distance further on they had come to the Kamura River,
-a few miles above its junction with the Tuaba. Continuing in the same
-direction they came to another river, bigger than either of the others,
-the Wataikwa, which was so often impassable that it seemed likely to
-prevent any further progress. But a short excursion up the valley of
-the Wataikwa showed the impossibility of reaching the highest mountains
-by that route, and a camp was accordingly established on the Wataikwa
-with a view to crossing that river when an opportunity should occur.
-
-These excursions were all made with the assistance of natives, without
-whose assistance no advance beyond Parimau would have been possible,
-so long as all the coolies were occupied in the work on the river.
-Very little reliance could be placed on the natives, when they were
-working as carriers alone without coolies, and most of us at one
-time or another had the disagreeable experience of being deserted by
-them and left unable to move either backwards or forwards. It was in
-circumstances such as these that the Gurkhas, some of whom always
-accompanied us in journeys through the jungle, shewed to the best
-advantage.
-
-When the store of provisions at Parimau was completed, the next step
-was to establish a further depôt of provisions at the Wataikwa camp.
-Though the distance between the two places was less than fifteen miles
-in a straight line, it was a three days’ march for a loaded coolie and
-two camping places were made on the way, one on an island in the Tuaba
-River, the other on the bank of the Kamura. The first day’s march from
-Parimau began by crossing and recrossing the Mimika several times and
-here and there wading up the river itself. About three miles up the
-river we struck off Eastwards through the jungle along a hardly visible
-native track used by the people going to the village of Ibo; this was
-the only regular native track we used, and these few miles across from
-the Mimika to the Tuaba were the only place where we had not to cut our
-own path. The mud in that part of the jungle was quite exceptionally
-bad, even for New Guinea; in the comparatively dry weather it was like
-walking through porridge, and in the wet weather you were continually
-struggling through liquid slime almost up to your knees.
-
-[Sidenote: LEECHES]
-
-We were very much annoyed there, though not more in that than in
-other parts of the jungle, by the leeches which swarmed everywhere.
-These hateful little creatures sit on the leaves or twigs stretched
-out to their fullest length and expectant of the passer-by. It is
-not necessary to believe, as some people do, that they jump or even
-that they fall upon you as you pass beneath them; there are so many
-that as you brush through the jungle you must inevitably touch many
-outstretched heads and as soon as they are touched they attach
-themselves immediately to you. They are extremely rapid in their
-movements, and their touch is so delicate that you do not feel their
-presence until they have nearly gorged themselves with blood. Your
-legs, unless they are well protected with putties, are most liable to
-their attacks, but you find leeches on all parts of your body, and
-I have found them in my eyes and in my mouth and once just captured
-one as it was preparing to enter one of my nostrils. They are able to
-consume an astonishingly large quantity of blood, and when, as often
-happens, they open a small vein, the bleeding continues after they
-have dropped from their feeding place. It is not advisable to pull a
-leech from your body; it often results in the creature leaving behind
-a part of its clasper, which may give rise to a serious sore. Pigs do
-not appear to be attacked by leeches, but the soft parts of the heads
-of some of the cassowaries that were shot were found to be covered with
-them. Cassowaries are few and far between, and there must be millions
-of leeches that go through life without once tasting blood. Some of the
-leeches are prettily marked with stripes of yellow and brown, but none
-that we saw in the jungle were of large size; the longest were perhaps
-two inches in length.
-
-Besides leeches there was not much to distract or to amuse us in
-passing through that stage of the march—certainly there were always
-plenty of the Greater Birds of Paradise to be heard calling, but they
-were very seldom to be seen—and we were chiefly anxious to struggle to
-the end of it ourselves and to push the coolies along until we heard
-the welcome sound of heavy water and light showed through the trees
-ahead. The Tuaba, at the place where we were accustomed to cross it, is
-a wide river flowing in about half a dozen channels, which extend over
-half a mile or more of ground. All of these channels are considerable
-torrents even in the most favourable conditions and it is by no means
-easy to cross them, but in the very frequent times of flood they are
-absolutely impassable. The camping place was made on an island across
-the first channel, as the river bank proper was covered with very dense
-jungle, and at low water the island was surrounded by a stretch of dry
-sand and shingle, which afforded us a pleasant drying ground after
-struggling through the sweltering jungle.
-
-[Illustration: TYPICAL JUNGLE, MIMIKA RIVER.]
-
-[Sidenote: A DANGEROUS FLOOD]
-
-But it was not always a place of calm; it could be quite a dangerous
-place, and I had a very unpleasant experience the first time I camped
-there. I was on my way out to the Wataikwa river with a Gurkha, four
-coolies and about twenty natives of Parimau laden with tins of rice.
-The river was comparatively low when we pitched our camp, but it began
-to rain in the afternoon, and the almost continuous thunder and the
-black clouds in that direction showed us that it was raining heavily
-in the mountains. By nightfall the rising flood had completely covered
-the sandbank in front of the camp, and before midnight the river was
-flowing right through the camp. The coolies were taking refuge like
-birds in the trees, and the water had just covered my piece of ground,
-which was an inch or two higher than any other spot. The Gurkha came
-and helped me to secure the stores from the water, which was still
-rising fast. We arranged all the rice tins upright, and on them we
-placed my bed; on the bed we placed all the other stores and baggage,
-and finally I took refuge there myself. The water rose above the top
-of the rice tins and about half way up the framework of my bed and
-then happily it began to fall rapidly, and in an hour or two the camp
-was land again. Shoes of mine and odd garments of the coolies were
-washed away, but we had been in no danger of being swept away, for the
-current was not rapid enough over the comparatively shallow water of
-the island; the only risk was from the large logs and trees which came
-sweeping down on the flood. The Papuans, who were encamped on another
-island a short distance below ours, had kept up all night a constant
-and most melancholy wailing, which did not at all add to the humour of
-the situation.
-
-For three more days we stayed on that sandbank, while the rain poured
-down and the river swept past us on both sides, unable either to
-proceed or to retreat. I made two attempts to cross the river, but
-found it impossible to struggle across the flood. In the meantime the
-natives, who were well able to swim naked across the first channel,
-threatened all the time to return to Parimau. A few of them did leave
-me, but the rest by constant cajoling and by liberal gifts of rice, for
-which they had acquired a great liking, I persuaded to stay with me
-until after four days we were able to get away.
-
-[Sidenote: OVERFLOWING RIVERS]
-
-From the Tuaba to the Kamura river, a distance of about four miles,
-a track had been cut by Marshall and the Gurkhas. It was a curious
-piece of country, almost level and covered with not very dense jungle,
-but remarkable for the number of streams flowing through it. Between
-the two rivers we crossed eighteen streams of various sizes; some
-were rivulets, and others swift and strong so that one was glad of a
-supporting Papuan on either hand. The Kamura river is of less size
-than the Tuaba, but it is still a large river and subject to heavy
-and sudden floods. It flows in a bed of sand and shingle two or three
-hundred yards from bank to bank, though, except at times of flood, it
-only occupies a narrow channel. Mostly it runs swiftly over the stones,
-but here and there are long stretches of still water like the pool of
-a salmon river; unluckily there are no big fish in it, or New Guinea
-would be a pleasanter place than it is.
-
-It was an agreeable change to come out on to the bank of the Kamura,
-for from there we had our first wide view of the mountains that we
-hoped to reach. The foothills, if mountains eight or nine thousand
-feet high may be so described, sloped down to within a few miles of
-us to the North, and behind them and stretching far to East and West
-rose range beyond range of steep and precipitous ridges, culminating
-in the snowy top of Mount Carstensz, thirty miles to the North-east.
-Our route took us for several miles along the course of the Kamura; it
-was certainly not comfortable walking over the big and often slippery
-stones and wading waist-deep across the river three or four times to
-cut off big bends, but it was pleasant indeed to have a wide free space
-about us after having been for so long hemmed in by trees, and anything
-was preferable to the mud and leeches of the jungle.
-
-A few miles up the Kamura we left the main river and turned off up the
-bed of a smaller river, which joins it from the East. This is actually
-a branch of the Wataikwa connecting the two rivers, and down it comes a
-great volume of water when the Wataikwa is full, while at other times
-it becomes almost dry. The rivers of this district of New Guinea are
-somewhat peculiar in this respect; they are very numerous, and they
-flow out from the mountains in a North to South direction, with not
-many miles intervening between one river and the next. As soon as they
-emerge from the mountains they find themselves on quite low ground and
-with forty or more miles to run to the sea. There are no outlying hills
-or depressions to guide them in any particular course, thus it happens
-that they overflow in convenient directions, and connections are
-established between one river and another. As well as in the case of
-the Wataikwa this was observed on the Utakwa river, close to the foot
-of the mountains, and I believe the same thing happens on the Kapare
-river. Further on in their courses, when they approach the mangrove
-swamps near the sea, the rivers again break up into an extraordinary
-network of branches. Judging from the appearance of the country and
-from the considerable changes, which we observed in the case of the
-Wataikwa during a period of only a few months, it is probable that
-these great rivers change their courses very often.
-
-[Sidenote: CUTTING A TRACK]
-
-Whilst parties of coolies, rapidly diminishing in numbers, were
-occupied at lengthening intervals in transporting stores from Parimau
-to the camp on the Wataikwa river, Rawling and Marshall had found a
-way of crossing that river. It is true that there were a great many
-days when it was quite impossible to cross it, and there was always
-a certain amount of risk of being swept away, not to mention the
-discomfort of beginning your day’s work by getting wet up to your
-chest; but it was absolutely necessary to continue cutting the track,
-wet or dry. On the other side of the river, they had tried to continue
-in the North-east direction and had come to broken lumpy ground covered
-with the densest jungle that we met with in any part of the country.
-The trees were not so very big, indeed most of them were quite small,
-but they were of a peculiarly hard wood, which quickly blunted the
-_kukris_ of the Gurkhas and they grew so close together that it was
-quite impossible to push your way between them. Eventually a track was
-cut to the Iwaka River, five miles to the east of the Wataikwa.
-
-[Illustration: AT THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE.]
-
-Some idea of the difficulty of cutting this track may be learnt,
-when it is said that Rawling and Marshall with three Gurkhas and five
-natives were occupied for three weeks in cutting five thousand yards of
-the way, and the whole distance of five miles was cut in five weeks.
-Unfortunately it was labour in vain, the path when finished was too
-difficult for men to traverse with loads. We cut another track, which
-avoided the hilly ground and brought us to the Iwaka close to the point
-reached by the first; by the new track, which was cut in a week, we
-were able to reach the Iwaka in three hours’ walk from the Wataikwa.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XIV
-
-
-  _The Camp at the Wataikwa River—Malay Coolies—“Amok”—A
-  Double Murder—A View of the Snow Mountains—Felling
-  Trees—Floods—Village washed Away—The Wettest Season—The
-  Effects of Floods—Beri-beri—Arrival of C. Grant—Departure
-  of W. Goodfellow._
-
-If I were to write a true and complete account of the expedition,
-I should fill many pages with repeated stories of rain and floods,
-sickness among the coolies and our consequent inaction; but that would
-be as wearisome to the reader as it was trying to our own patience.
-During July and a part of August we sent out parties of coolies to the
-Wataikwa camp, where a considerable depôt of food was formed, but about
-the middle of the latter month the number of our coolies was reduced
-to twenty, of whom not more than half were capable of any hard work,
-and it became quite evident that any further progress in the direction
-of the mountains was out of the question until we should get a fresh
-supply of men.
-
-As the number of coolies grew fewer we sent natives with them to
-carry stores out to the Wataikwa, but the supply of willing natives
-was very uncertain and it became a matter of some difficulty to
-keep up a regular communication with that camp. Two Gurkhas and two
-Javanese soldiers remained always at the Wataikwa and one or other of
-us went out there and stopped to make natural history collections or
-to superintend the cutting of the road on the other side of the
-river for a few weeks at a time, while the others were at Parimau or
-at Wakatimi. We managed to continue this arrangement until the end of
-October, when it became no longer possible to keep an European supplied
-out there; thenceforward until the beginning of January the camp at
-the Wataikwa was occupied only by the guard of Gurkhas and Javanese,
-who in the meantime consumed nearly all the stores that had been so
-laboriously accumulated there.
-
-[Illustration: CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT PARIMAU.]
-
-[Sidenote: MALAY COOLIES]
-
-We often said hard things to and of our Malay coolies, but the poor
-wretches were not to blame for being such incompetent carriers. At
-their proper occupations of carrying cargo to and from the ships at
-Macassar, or working on the boats of the pearl-fishers, or doing odd
-jobs in their native places, no doubt they excelled; but at struggling
-through the New Guinea jungle with even the lightest of loads they were
-hopeless failures and the wonder was that they survived as long as they
-did. Taking them all round, the majority of them worked as well as they
-could, and some of them even became quite attached to us.
-
-To a large number of people the name of Malay immediately suggests
-a savage person who runs _amok_, but you may live for years in a
-Malay country and never see a single _amok_. Fortunately our Malays
-never behaved in this dangerous fashion, though one day a man who
-was suffering from fever went suddenly mad and inflicted a serious
-knife-wound on the body of another coolie; the wounded man was
-successfully treated by Marshall, who was happily but seldom required
-in this way to exercise his vocation as surgeon. Malays are indeed
-rather too handy with their knives and a more serious encounter took
-place one day between two of Cramer’s convicts. These two men, a
-_mandoer_ (head man) and another, quarrelled one morning about some
-trifle connected with their food, and before anybody knew what was
-amiss, knives were out and one was chasing the other through the camp.
-By a clever backward thrust the pursued man dealt the pursuer a deep
-wound under the heart, but he was unable to escape before the pursuer
-had given him too a mortal wound. One died in a few minutes and the
-other during the course of the day, fortunately perhaps for both of
-them.
-
-But ordinarily our Malays were most quiet and peaceable fellows.
-Certainly they were liars and thieves when it suited their convenience
-to be so, but these two faults are almost universal in the East. They
-were enthusiastic fishermen (a sure sign of grace) and spent many hours
-of their leisure time in angling for small fish, which they very seldom
-caught. Another of their virtues, though it sometimes became a little
-wearisome, was their love of singing, in which they indulged on fine
-evenings. The Ambonese used to sing, accompanied by a soloist on a sort
-of penny whistle, some really pretty songs, possibly of Portuguese
-origin, to which one could listen with real pleasure. But the singing
-of the Javanese, usually in a high falsetto voice, was a burden hardly
-to be borne.
-
-In dealing with people like the Malays it is essential to keep them
-constantly occupied in order to prevent them from brooding too much
-over their untoward circumstances and becoming, as they easily do,
-physically ill. Accordingly, during the times when for one reason or
-another they were not carrying out loads to the Wataikwa camp, we set
-them to clearing the jungle about the camp at Parimau, and in the
-course of time some ten or twelve acres were cleared. Apart from the
-object of drying and letting light into the camp, this clearing was
-made with the purpose of obtaining from Parimau a view of the Snow
-Mountains. This latter object was ultimately attained and proved of
-great service to the surveyors, who were enabled to fix more definitely
-the various points of the range seen from a place of which they had
-already determined the position by astronomical observations. To the
-non-surveyor too the view of the mountains was a boon, though rather
-a tantalising one, and I used to spend many hours in the mornings,
-before the mists had hidden them, in scanning the snows of Idenburg and
-Carstensz and planning routes by which they might be reached.
-
-[Sidenote: FELLING TREES]
-
-Cutting down trees in the New Guinea jungle differs from cutting
-down trees here in that the tree does not always fall, even when the
-trunk is cut completely through. Amongst the tops of the trees grows
-an extraordinary network of rattans and other creepers of sufficient
-strength to support a tree, even if it is inclined to fall. We spent
-some time one day in firing shots with a rifle at a single creeper,
-thicker than a man’s arm, which was holding up a tree without any
-other support; though I believe we sometimes pierced the creeper with
-bullets, it held on and only gave way some hours later. As a rule we
-did not take the trouble to cut the creepers, but if a tree did not
-fall we cut down those about it until they all fell together in one
-splendid crash. On sloping ground the best method of felling trees is
-to cut their trunks only half way through and leave them, and then to
-cut completely through a big tree above them in such a way that it will
-fall down hill and complete the felling of those below it.
-
-Some of the trees that we cut down in our clearing fell in the most
-unexpected directions, but though there were some narrow escapes, there
-were no accidents. The most unpleasant was a tree which fell midway
-between two houses, one full of coolies and the other full of stores,
-and shaved off the projecting roof of both; it might easily have killed
-half-a-dozen sleeping men, but the only harm it did was to fill the
-camp with a swarm of large and furiously biting ants, which had had a
-nest in its topmost branches. The natives, who never tired of using our
-steel axes, helped a good deal in felling the trees and in this way
-some of them earned large quantities of coloured beads.
-
-Another occupation for the coolies in their idle moments, and at the
-same time a very necessary work, was the business of keeping the camp
-in a state of repair. When the high river bank opposite the village of
-Parimau was chosen for a camping ground, it was thought that floods at
-all events could do no harm. The houses nearest to the river were built
-five or six yards back from the edge of the bank, which was there about
-fifteen feet above the usual level of the water, and it seemed quite
-out of the question that the river could ever invade the camp. It was
-necessary, in order to prevent it from becoming the dumping ground
-of camp-refuse, to clear away the rank vegetation that grew on the bank
-down to the water’s edge, and this was the beginning of what almost
-ended in our downfall. After the tangle of creepers had been removed,
-the first rains began to wash the bank away, and when the river rose
-three or four feet, as it speedily did after a few hours’ downpour, it
-undermined the lower part of the bank and large landslips took place
-from above.
-
-[Illustration: THE CAMP AT PARIMAU. A PRECAUTION AGAINST FLOODS.]
-
-[Sidenote: SECURING THE CAMP]
-
-In the course of a few weeks several yards of land disappeared, and
-the safety of our houses, which had come to be almost overhanging the
-river, was seriously imperilled. To save them we erected a strong
-palisade of long poles thrust deeply into the bottom of the bank and
-secured them by rattan ropes, which passed through our house and were
-attached to posts at the back. The interval between the palisade and
-the bank was laboriously filled up with shingle from the river bed, and
-this provided a never-ending occupation, because the stones were always
-trickling through the palisade and required to be renewed. The natives
-were of great assistance to us in this work, and on one occasion—it
-was the only time that we ever persuaded them to come into our camp,
-although we lived within a few yards of their village—the women and
-children came and helped in the work and thoroughly enjoyed themselves.
-
-[Sidenote: FLOODS]
-
-It was well that we took these precautions, for as the weather grew
-steadily wetter and wetter (though that seemed hardly possible)
-through July and August, so the river rose higher and higher and
-each succeeding flood was greater than the last. The night of the
-18-19th of August was one that I shall never forget: it had been
-raining steadily for some days and the river was fairly full, but
-about sunset on the 18th the rain really began to come down solidly,
-as it does in the Tropics. About midnight a terrific thunderstorm
-began, which continued with almost incessant thunder and lightning
-until dawn, but long before this the river had risen many feet and was
-already threatening the village. As soon as the waters began to rise
-the natives appeared at the edge of the river with blazing torches,
-while canoes were baled out and brought nearer to the shore. When the
-flood, rising visibly by that time, reached the lowest house, a most
-extraordinary Bedlam broke loose and it sounded as if all the people in
-the village were being drowned. The men all shouted at once, the women
-and children screamed and the dogs whined and howled. By the light
-of the flashes of lightning we could see them scurrying hither and
-thither, bundling all their belongings into the canoes and trying to
-save the roofs and matting walls of their huts by throwing them among
-the branches of the trees at the back of the village. In a very short
-time all the houses were swamped and the people were in their canoes,
-about twenty in all, moored to the branches of the trees along the edge
-of the jungle, where they kept up an unceasing turmoil until daylight.
-
-[Illustration: THE MIMIKA AT PARIMAU. LOW WATER.]
-
-[Illustration: THE SAME IN FLOOD. THE VILLAGE HAS DISAPPEARED AND THE
-PEOPLE ARE IN CANOES.]
-
-In the meantime our own position was not very secure. The river was
-swirling down at ten or twelve miles an hour and bringing with it huge
-tree-trunks, which carried away our fleet of canoes and threatened to
-destroy our protecting palisade. If that had gone nothing could have
-prevented our houses from falling into the river, but happily it
-held well. The whole of the jungle on our side of the river was under
-water and all sorts of creatures sought the shelter of our houses,
-which occupied the highest position. When even these were flooded,
-armies of ants and beetles and other insects climbed up our beds and
-other furniture to escape from drowning, moths washed out of their
-resting places fluttered aimlessly about, and a family of rats, which
-inhabited my hut, ran about squeaking in terror.
-
-Beyond the loss of our canoes, some of which were afterwards recovered,
-no great damage was done, and the flood fell almost as quickly as it
-had risen. Soon after daybreak the ground, on which the village had
-been, began to appear above the falling water, and it was seen that not
-one stick of the huts was standing. But the natives were anxious to
-get out of their canoes, and by mid-day half the huts in the village
-were re-built with the fragments that they had crammed into the canoes
-or had put up into the trees. During the next two or three days they
-brought back quantities of housing materials, which had been carried
-for miles down the river, and very soon the village resumed its normal
-appearance.
-
-On two subsequent occasions in the following month the village was
-completely swept away by floods, and it was a matter of surprise to
-us that they did not adopt the custom of their neighbours the Tapiro
-pygmies and build their houses on piles. The third great flood swept
-away the sandbank on which the village stood, and they were accordingly
-compelled to build their houses on the top of a high bank further down
-the river. Such a place as that necessitated cutting down a number of
-big trees, but now that a great many of them have the steel axes, which
-we gave them, it is to be hoped that they have learnt to place their
-dwellings in safer positions, even though it costs them a little extra
-labour.
-
-The wet season, which we hoped had reached its maximum of wetness
-in July, when sometimes for days together the rain hardly ceased,
-continued in a series of greater or less floods through the months of
-August and September. Often it was impossible to move a yard from the
-camp, and without books life would have been almost insupportable. On
-one of the wettest of those days I came across the following passage,
-which seemed to describe the situation exactly:—
-
-  “With five ... what we call qualities of bad,
-  Worse, worst, and yet worse still, and still worse yet.”
-
-It need hardly be said that this very disagreeable season produced ill
-effects on all the members of the expedition. The Europeans became
-depressed, and if we were not sick of life itself, we were certainly
-sick of New Guinea, while in the case of the coolies and soldiers, who
-were accustomed to sunnier climates, and who had no interest or goal
-to look forward to in the country, the results were disastrous indeed.
-Hardly a man escaped fever of greater or less severity and chills
-brought on by the unceasing rain and the consequent impossibility
-of securing a change of dry clothing. Several men suffered too from
-dysentery of a very intractable type, which completely incapacitated
-them from any further service.
-
-[Sidenote: BERI-BERI]
-
-But worse than either fever or dysentery was the beri-beri, which
-made its appearance after we had been in the country for a few months.
-This is not the place to give a scientific account of beri-beri; it
-will suffice to say that it is a disease, of which the most important
-feature is a degeneration of the nervous system. The results of this
-are seen in the curious and characteristic walk, loss of sensation
-in various parts of the body, interference with the circulation and
-swelling of the body and particularly of the face and limbs, and in
-very many cases sudden heart failure. It is almost conclusively proved
-now that the cause of the disease is an error of diet, and it appears
-to be certain that the fine milling and polishing of the rice, which
-forms the staple food of the natives of so many countries in the East,
-deprives the rice of a very necessary constituent as a food. Those
-people, who grind their own rice and do not mill or polish it finely,
-but leave a small portion of the husk still adhering to the grain, are
-free from beri-beri. The disease varies in severity from time to time
-and from place to place, but at its best it is a very deadly scourge
-and it causes a very large number of deaths. Occasionally it occurs in
-an epidemic form, but fortunately that did not happen to our expedition.
-
-In the six months from the beginning of June to the end of November,
-thirty-nine men shewed definite symptoms of beri-beri, and seven deaths
-were directly attributable to this cause. Our coolies, who came from
-the Eastern islands of the Archipelago, were much less susceptible to
-the disease than were the convicts and soldiers, most of whom came from
-Java and Sumatra; these latter contracted the disease in a much more
-serious form and most of the fatal cases took place among them. It was
-a curious circumstance that at Parimau, which was in most respects by
-far the healthier place, many more cases of beri-beri occurred than at
-Wakatimi, where it is doubtful if any cases originated.
-
-[Sidenote: SICKNESS]
-
-Still more remarkable was the case of the camp on the Wataikwa River,
-which ought to have been the healthiest place we occupied anywhere in
-the country. For several months a guard of two Javanese and two Gurkhas
-was kept there to look after the store of food, and though they were
-very frequently changed and replaced by others, several of the Javanese
-developed beri-beri and two of them died. The Gurkhas, perhaps because
-they led more active lives than the Javanese, remained free of the
-disease until one of them, Havildar Mahesur, a most useful man, had
-the misfortune to damage one of his eyes; it was necessary for him to
-remain in the darkness of his tent for some days and within a fortnight
-he developed all the signs of beri-beri so that he had to be sent away
-from the country.
-
-A welcome interruption in those dreary months was caused by the arrival
-at Parimau on August 26 of canoes bringing Mr. C. H. B. Grant, who had
-come out from England as naturalist to the expedition in the place of
-W. Stalker. He brought with him two Dayak collectors[15] and a quantity
-of various and excellent stores, and a large mail, the first we had
-received since the end of May. Shortridge had arrived in the country by
-the same ship on his return from Australia, but his change of air had
-not completely cured him and he was compelled to leave the country at
-the end of November. Goodfellow, whose fever continued almost without
-interruption, became so weak that he also was obliged to leave the
-country early in October. From that time we had only a dozen men and
-no forward movement was possible until the arrival of our third batch
-of coolies on the 22nd December. By the same boat that brought the new
-coolies in December came instructions to Captain Rawling to take over
-the command of the expedition.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XV
-
-
-  _Pygmies visit Parimau—Description of Tapiro
-  Pygmies—Colour—Hair—Clothing—Ornaments—Netted Bags—Flint
-  Knives—Bone Daggers—Sleeping Mats—Fire Stick—Method
-  of making Fire—Cultivation of Tobacco—Manner of
-  Smoking—Bows and Arrows—Village of the Pygmies—Terraced
-  Ground—Houses on Piles—Village Headman—Our Efforts
-  to see the Women—Language and Voices—Their
-  Intelligence—Counting—Their Geographical Distribution._
-
-[Sidenote: THE TAPIRO PYGMIES]
-
-The Pygmy people—or Tapiro as they are called by the Papuans—whom we
-saw in March, visited us occasionally in small parties of three or four
-at Parimau and later we went to one of their villages in the hills,
-to which they were reluctantly persuaded to show us the way. When
-they come down to Parimau they were warmly welcomed by the Papuans,
-with whom they seemed to be on very friendly terms, and stayed in
-their houses for two or three days. They appeared to be particularly
-attractive to the women, one of whom we saw affectionately embrace a
-Tapiro on his arrival; it was said that she kissed him, but if that was
-so it was the only occasion on which that form of endearment was seen
-practised by the Papuans. It was noticeable that when they arrived at
-Parimau they had not their bows and arrows, which they always carry
-elsewhere; probably they had left them hidden in the jungle before they
-came to the village. Similarly, when we went up to visit the Tapiro,
-the Papuans who were with us left their spears behind them at the
-last camp before we reached their village.
-
-[Illustration: A TAPIRO PYGMY.]
-
-Their visits were always very welcome because they brought with them
-from the hills quantities of tobacco to exchange with the natives of
-Parimau, who grow none themselves. At first they were very shy of
-crossing the river, but by the offer of gifts we persuaded them to come
-into our camp, where we had better opportunities of observing them than
-in the crowded village.
-
-At one time or another we took measurements of 40 adult men, most of
-them men in the prime of life, and their average height was found to
-be 144·9 cm. (4 ft. 9 in.). It is possible that one or two rather tall
-men of 150 cm. and upwards, whose appearance led us to suspect that
-they were Tapiro-Papuan half-breeds, may have been included among those
-measured, but the correction of that error will not appreciably reduce
-the true average height. The height of the smallest man measured was
-132·6 cm. By contrast with the Papuans they looked extremely small and,
-what was rather a curious thing, though many of our Malay coolies were
-no taller than they, the coolies looked merely under-sized and somewhat
-stunted men, while the Tapiro looked emphatically _little_ men. They
-are cleanly-built, active-looking little fellows, rather big in the
-buttocks as mountain people are apt to be, and their well-made calves
-are noticeable in contrast with the long, straight legs of the Papuans.
-They walk with an easy swinging gait, the knees a little bent and the
-body slightly leaning forwards.
-
-The colour of their skin is paler than that of the Papuans—some of
-them indeed are almost yellow—but they are so indescribably dirty that
-it is not easy to know what is their true colour; they have also an
-ugly habit of smearing their faces with a black oily mixture. Neither
-tattooing nor cicatrization appears to be practised by them. The
-_septum_ of the nose is always pierced and in it they occasionally wear
-a curved boar’s tusk planed down to a thin slip, or a short piece of
-straight bone; the _alae nasi_ are not pierced. The nose is straight
-and very wide at the nostrils. The upper lip of many of the men is long
-and curiously convex.
-
-The hair is short and woolly and black; many of the men give a lighter
-shade to the hair with lime or mud, and in two or three cases it seemed
-to be of a brown colour without any artificial treatment. They appear
-to begin to grow bald at a comparatively early age. The younger men
-grow whiskers and the older have short bushy black beards. There is a
-good deal of short downy black hair scattered about the body. Their
-eyes are noticeably larger and rounder than those of the Papuans, and
-there is in them something sleepy and dog-like which gives a pathetic
-expression to their faces.[16]
-
-[Sidenote: DRESS AND ORNAMENTS]
-
-When we first saw them one or two men wore curious helmet-like caps
-of plaited fibres and another had a strip of fur round his head;
-otherwise they are completely naked except for the remarkable gourd
-case described above (p. 161). Strangely enough they are extremely
-modest and unwilling to expose themselves; when with some difficulty we
-had persuaded a man to part with his case, he would not remove it then
-and there, but always disappeared into the jungle and returned after an
-interval decently covered with leaves.
-
-Their ornaments are few and simple; a number of men wear arm-bands and
-leg-bands of plaited fibre similar to those worn by the Papuans, and
-several of them wear necklaces of seeds, short pieces of bamboo, scraps
-of broken shell, teeth of wallabies and (in one instance) the bones of
-a small mammal. The lobes of both ears are pierced and a few men wear
-in one ear an ornament made of a small piece of gourd to which are
-attached seeds, scraps of fur, claws of birds and other ornamental odds
-and ends. One young man, with more originality than the rest, thrust
-through his front hair a piece of sharpened bone, which projected
-downwards over his face and gave him a most distinguished appearance
-(see Frontispiece).
-
-The most elaborate and ornamental of their possessions are the bags,
-which every man carries. Most of them carry two, a large bag like a
-haversack slung across the shoulders and usually hanging down the back,
-and a small bag only a few inches square slung round his neck and
-hanging down on the chest. They are made of fine fibres of different
-colours, cleverly netted[17] in ornamental patterns, and they show the
-best attempt at decorative art that we saw in the country. In these
-bags the Pygmy man keeps all his portable property. The small wallet
-round the neck contains his bone and shell ornaments when they are not
-in use, and his knives; these latter are sharp flakes of a flint-like
-stone shaped exactly like the flint-knives and scrapers that are found
-in this country; they are used for scraping down the wood of their bows
-and for pointing and ornamenting their arrows as well as for other
-cutting purposes, and it is profoundly interesting in these days of
-steel to see people still using the implements of prehistoric man.
-One or two men also carried in their wallets a short dagger made of a
-pointed cassowary’s bone, and they explained to us by graphic gestures
-how they were accustomed to shoot a cassowary with their arrows and
-then after a long chase to stab it with the dagger.
-
-The contents of the larger bag usually are the sleeping mat, the
-fire-stick and rattan, and tobacco. The sleeping mat is a fabric of
-_pandanus_ leaves, which can be used either as a mat to lie upon or as
-a shelter from the rain; it measures usually about six by three feet
-and is neatly folded to be carried in the bag. The manufacture of these
-mats is always the work of the women and is a very ingenious process.
-The long ribbon-like leaves of the _pandanus_ are split horizontally
-into two strips; the shiny upper one alone is used and the lower is
-thrown away. Strips of two leaves are placed with their split surfaces
-together and their shiny surfaces outwards, and then numbers of these
-pairs of split leaves are sown together, edge to edge, until the mat
-is of the required size. Thus the mat is made entirely of the outer
-surfaces of the leaves; it is very strong and is quite impervious to
-rain.
-
-[Illustration: MAKING FIRE: (1) BY THE FRICTION OF WOOD AND RATTAN.]
-
-[Sidenote: MAKING FIRE]
-
-By far the most interesting of the possessions of these people is
-the apparatus for making fire, which consists of three different parts,
-the split stick, the rattan, and the tinder. The split stick is a short
-stick of wood an inch or so in diameter, which is split at one end and
-is held open by a small pebble placed between the split halves. The
-rattan is a long piece of split rattan wound upon itself into a neatly
-coiled ring (see illustration p. 202), and the tinder is usually a lump
-of the fibrous sheath of a palm shoot and sometimes a piece of dried
-moss.
-
-The method of making fire is as follows: In the split of the stick,
-between the stone which holds the split ends apart and the solid stick,
-is placed a small fragment of tinder. The operator—if one may use so
-modern a word in describing so ancient a practice—places the stick
-upon the ground and secures the solid, _i.e._ the unsplit end with his
-foot. Then, having unwound about a yard of the rattan, he holds the
-coil in one hand and the free end in the other and looping the middle
-of it underneath the stick at the point where the tinder is placed he
-proceeds to saw it backwards and forwards with extreme rapidity. In a
-short space of time, varying from ten to thirty seconds, the rattan
-snaps and he picks up the stick with the tinder, which has probably
-by this time begun to smoulder, and blows it into flame. At the point
-where the rattan rubs on the stick a deep cut is made on the stick,
-and at each successive use the stick is split a little further down
-and the rattan is rubbed a little further back, so that a well-used
-fire-stick is marked with a number of dark burnt rings. It was only
-with the greatest difficulty and after many attempts that we succeeded
-in producing fire in this manner, but the Tapiro do it with the utmost
-ease and they scorned our boxes of matches, which we offered them in
-exchange for their apparatus, and showed no signs of surprise at a
-suddenly kindled match.[18]
-
-The most frequent use of the fire-stick is in lighting the tobacco, of
-which nearly every man carries a supply in his larger bag. These people
-cultivate tobacco in sufficient quantities to be able to supply the
-Papuans of the low country. The leaves are dried and neatly rolled up
-into long bundles weighing three or four pounds; the flavour is strong
-and rather bitter, but it is not unpleasant to smoke. The Tapiro smoke
-tobacco chiefly as cigarettes, using for the wrapper a thin slip of dry
-_pandanus_ leaf. When, as is often the case, the wrapper is very narrow
-and the tobacco is inclined to escape, the man smokes his cigarette in
-a peculiar manner; he holds the unlighted end in his fingers and with
-his mouth draws out the smoke from between the edges of the wrapper
-in the middle of the cigarette, this he continues to do until the
-cigarette is about half consumed when he puts the end in his mouth in
-the ordinary way.
-
-The Tapiro also smoke tobacco in a pipe in a fashion of their own. The
-pipe is a simple cylinder of bamboo about an inch in diameter and a
-few inches in length. A small plug of tobacco is rolled up and pushed
-down to about the middle of the pipe, and the smoker holding it upright
-between his lips draws out the smoke from below. The Tapiro never
-make large cigars like those of the Papuans of the Mimika, and the
-Papuans never smoke pipes, nor did they take readily to those that we
-gave them.
-
-[Illustration: MAKING FIRE: (2) BLOWING ON THE SMOULDERING TINDER.]
-
-[Sidenote: WEAPONS OF THE PYGMIES]
-
-Besides the bone daggers mentioned above the only weapon of the Tapiro
-are the bow and arrows, which they always carry. The bows are a very
-little shorter than those of the Papuans, but otherwise they are very
-similar, viz.: straight tapered strips of hard wood “strung” with
-a slip of rattan. The arrows are shorter and lighter and of finer
-workmanship than those of the Mimika Papuans, but like those they
-have neither feathers nor nocks. The best, which they were not at all
-anxious to sell to us, are ornamented with simple carvings and are
-tipped with a very sharp point of black wood. An arrow which ended in
-a curious blunt lump of wood was used, so we understood, for shooting
-birds.
-
-The Tapiro have no spears and neither they nor the Mimika Papuans know
-the use of the sling. They set quantities of little nooses for small
-animals, and we once found a rattan noose fixed to a root of a tree and
-evidently set with the purpose of catching a pig.
-
-Many of them carry in their bags a small Jew’s harp, made of a thin
-piece of bamboo, from which they extract faint music that is pleasing
-to their ears. Two men possessed instruments of a more original
-design: these were made of pieces of polished bone fitting together in
-such a way that when one was turned round over the other it produced
-peculiarly discordant squeaks, which were highly appreciated by the
-player.
-
-Wamberi Merbiri or Wamberimi, the village of the Tapiro which was
-visited by different members of our party on three separate occasions,
-is situated on the lower slopes of Mount Tapiro, the mountain nearest
-to Parimau, at about 1800 feet above the sea. It is in fact within a
-stone’s throw of that large clearing which Rawling and I had reached
-with so much difficulty, but when approached by the track used by the
-people themselves it is an easy walk of two or three hours from the
-Kapare River.
-
-The track climbs by a steep almost knife-edged ridge densely covered
-with forest to the rounded shoulder of the hill where the village
-lies. The first sign of the village is a flimsy fence of tall poles,
-which bars the track and extends for a short distance on either side
-of it. Passing through a narrow opening in the fence you come to a
-cleared space occupied by three or four houses. A couple of hundred
-yards beyond these and separated from them by a small gully, which is
-bridged by an enormous fallen tree, is a second group of six houses,
-constituting the village of Wamberi Merbiri.
-
-The houses are scattered about over three or four acres of steeply
-sloping ground, from which most of the trees have been cleared. Between
-the houses the ground has been levelled in three places to form almost
-level terraces, measuring about fifteen by five yards, completely
-cleared of vegetation and covered with small stones. These terraces are
-held up on the lower side by logs and stumps of trees, and the labour
-of making them by people whose only tools are stone axes and pieces
-of wood is difficult to imagine; they are used, so far as we could
-understand, for dances and other ceremonies.
-
-[Illustration: WAMBERI-MERBIRI, THE VILLAGE OF THE TAPIRO PYGMIES.]
-
-[Sidenote: HOUSES OF THE PYGMIES]
-
-The houses are greatly superior to those of the Mimika Papuans, from
-which they differ in every respect. They are built on piles, which
-raise the floor of the house from four to ten feet above the ground
-according to the steepness of the slope underneath. The walls are made
-of long laths of split wood with big sheets of bark fastened on to
-the outside. The roof is a fairly steep pitched angular structure of
-split wood covered with over-lapping leaves of the Fan-palm. The floor
-is made like the walls and covered with large sheets of bark; in the
-middle of the floor is a square sunken box filled with sand or earth in
-which a fire is kept burning, and over the fire hanging from the roof
-is a simple rack, on which wood is placed to dry. The house consists
-of one nearly square compartment, measuring about ten feet in each
-direction. The way of entering is by a steep ladder made of two posts
-tied closely together, which leads to a narrow platform or balcony
-in front of the front wall of the house. There are no notches on the
-posts, but the lashings of rattan, which tie them together, answer the
-purpose of steps or rungs for the feet. As well as in the excellence
-of their houses, the Tapiro show another point of superiority over the
-neighbouring Papuans in their habit of using a common retiring place at
-the edge of a small stream.
-
-There was an old man in the village, bald and white-bearded, and
-horribly disfigured by disease,[19] who appeared to be unquestionably
-the headman of the place. He sat in one of the huts all day and shouted
-shrilly to the other men who were constantly going in and out to speak
-to him, and I think it was due to him that we were never allowed to see
-the women. We were particularly anxious to see some of the women of
-the tribe, and we offered them large rewards of knives and axes merely
-for the sight of them. The other men were willing enough to produce
-the women, and several times they were on the point of fetching them,
-but were always prevented by the old man. Finally we had a personal
-interview with him, and held out three bright axes, which made his one
-eye glisten with greed, but he still remained obdurate.
-
-Though we never saw the women I have no doubt that they saw us; at
-night we saw their camp fires up on the hillside opposite the village,
-and when we departed we heard their shrill voices quite close to us
-before we had gone a quarter of a mile from the place. They had no
-reason to distrust us when we assured them that our only wish was to
-see their women, and I think the reason for their keeping them hidden
-was the presence of the Papuans who accompanied us from Parimau. The
-supply of Papuan women is very scanty, and it is likely enough that the
-men would seize any chance of abducting a Tapiro woman, as indeed they
-boasted of having done.
-
-The language of these Tapiro pygmy people is certainly different
-from that of the Papuans, but I regret to say that we were unable
-to make even the smallest vocabulary of it. Their voices are rather
-high-pitched and nasal, and many of their words contain curious throat
-sounds, which I was not able to spell much less to imitate. In talking
-they have a curious habit of protruding the lips, which recalls in a
-striking manner a familiar grimace of the anthropoid apes.
-
-[Illustration: HOUSE OF THE TAPIRO.]
-
-They appeared to understand a good deal that the Papuans said to them,
-but I doubt if the latter understood them when they were talking
-amongst themselves. When we were trying to persuade the headman to
-allow the women to be produced, it was a strange experience to be
-using the Papuans, of whose language we knew only the rudiments, as
-interpreters to an even less known people.
-
-In consequence of our entire lack of knowledge of their language we
-were not able to form a very reasonable estimate of their intelligence.
-When they were seen in company with the Papuans, the latter, who
-usually looked dull and expressionless, appeared by contrast to be full
-of life and animation. The Tapiro, as a rule, looks blank and rather
-sad, and when a smile does appear upon his face, it dawns slowly and
-reluctantly.
-
-[Sidenote: COUNTING]
-
-A rough test of an uncivilised man’s intelligence is the extent to
-which he is able to count, but in the case of the Tapiro there is an
-unfortunate difference of evidence in this respect. Capt. Rawling
-(_Geograph. Journal_, Vol. xxxviii., page 246) affirms that they are
-able to count up to ten. If this is so, it is a very interesting and
-remarkable fact. On several occasions I tried to make these people
-count, with a view to learning their numeral words, and I found that
-like the Papuans they only had words for one and two, and that those
-two words were the same as the Papuan words; but it appeared that,
-unlike the Papuans, they had not the custom of using their fingers and
-toes for the higher numbers.
-
-On the credit side of their intelligence must be placed their admirably
-constructed houses, their decorated arrows and ingeniously woven bags,
-and their cultivation.
-
-As well as the village and clearing of Wambiri Merbiri we saw other
-small patches of cleared ground on the spurs of Mount Tapiro, and on
-the slopes of Mount Tuaba we saw from a distance another large clearing
-which we were never able to reach. Further to the East we saw no sign
-of them and we were informed by the Papuans that there were no more
-in that direction. That is probably true, for the mountains are so
-excessively steep to the East of Mount Tuaba that there appears to be
-no country suitable for them. It seems likely that we were fortunate
-enough to meet these people at the Eastern limit of their range and
-that more of them would be found living in the hills N.W. from the
-Kapare River towards the Charles Louis Mountains, where the slopes are
-less steep than in the Nassau Range. The thick-coated dog, which was
-brought down to Parimau by the Tapiro (see p. 126), might suggest that
-they have dealings with other natives living high up in the mountains,
-but so far we have no definite knowledge of the existence of such a
-people.
-
-This account of our observations, which were necessarily very
-superficial, will suffice to show that there is a most promising field
-for some future investigator, who has opportunity and time to spend
-among these most interesting people.
-
-[Illustration: MOUNT TAPIRO, FROM THE VILLAGE OF THE PYGMIES.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XVI
-
-
-  _Communication with Amboina and Merauke—Sail in the
-  “Valk” to the Utakwa River—Removal of the Dutch
-  Expedition—View of Mount Carstensz—Dugongs—Crowded
-  Ship—Dayaks and Live Stock—Sea-Snakes—Excitable
-  Convicts—The Island River—Its Great Size—Another Dutch
-  Expedition—Their Achievements—Houses in the Trees—Large
-  Village—Barn-like Houses—Naked People—Shooting Lime—Their
-  Skill in Paddling—Through the Marianne Straits—An
-  Extract from Carstensz—Merauke—Trade in Copra—Botanic
-  Station—The Mission—The Ké Island Boat-builders—The
-  Natives of Merauke described—Arrival of our Third Batch
-  of Coolies—The Feast of St. Nicholas—Return to Mimika._
-
-It has been mentioned in the preceding chapters that after the
-expedition landed in New Guinea, a more or less regular communication
-was kept up between the Mimika and Amboina. The South-west coast of
-New Guinea as far East as the Utanata River is in the administrative
-district of Amboina, and beyond that, as far as the boundary of British
-New Guinea, the country is nominally under the control of the station
-of Merauke. Thus the Mimika is actually within the Merauke district,
-but it was for many reasons found more convenient for the Government
-to communicate with the expedition directly from Amboina rather than
-by way of Merauke; accordingly the soldiers forming our escort were
-attached as an outpost to the garrison of Amboina and communications
-were established with that place.
-
-For several months a steamer came from Amboina to the Mimika, bringing
-men and stores and letters and taking away invalids; usually it came
-every six or eight weeks, and the longest interval that occurred was
-twelve weeks, during which for one reason or another it was found
-impossible to send a ship to the Mimika. In October an alteration was
-made, and it was decided that the Merauke steamer, which was in regular
-communication with the Dutch expeditions on the Utakwa and Island
-rivers, should visit the Mimika also. It was in consequence of this
-new arrangement on the part of the Government that I was enabled to
-make the journey described below, and although these places do not fall
-strictly within the sphere of our expedition, yet they are so little
-known that I shall make no apology for giving a short description of
-them here.
-
-Towards the end of November, the Government steamer _Valk_ called at
-the Mimika on its way to the Utakwa and Island rivers to take away
-our sick men, who had accumulated in some numbers during the last two
-months. Our work was practically at a standstill, and nothing more
-could be done until our next batch of coolies arrived, so it was agreed
-that I should go down to Merauke in company with Shortridge, who was
-going home an invalid, and bring back our new coolies who were due to
-arrive there by the next boat early in December.
-
-[Sidenote: THE UTAKWA RIVER]
-
-A few hours’ steaming from the Mimika brought us to the mouth of the
-Utakwa, where we lay outside the bar all night waiting for daylight to
-find our way into the channel. When we had entered the river it was
-evident that the Utakwa was something very different from the Mimika,
-which is a mere ditch in comparison with it; it is indeed to the Mimika
-as the Severn is to the Wye. It was tantalising to remember that this
-was the river by which we had originally intended to enter the country,
-and one could not help regretfully wondering what would have been the
-result if we had followed out that plan; but it was at the best an
-unprofitable speculation, and one had to rest content (or as content
-as possible) with the course we had taken. In any case it was certain
-that even if we had taken the Utakwa as our point of entering into the
-country, we could not possibly have reached any considerable height in
-the Snow Mountains with the means, i.e. the men, at our disposal.
-
-Near its mouth and for some miles inland the Utakwa is about half a
-mile wide and bounded by low banks of Mangrove and Nipa-palm. The
-_Valk_ was a ship of about five hundred tons drawing twelve feet of
-water. We steamed up the river for about seventeen miles and there
-anchored, not from lack of water, but on account of the risk of turning
-the ship round against a strong current in the somewhat narrowing
-channel. From the anchorage a steam launch and boats were sent on to
-the base camp of the Government expedition, which had been established
-rather more than thirty miles further up the river.
-
-We waited for three days while that expedition was being brought away,
-and after the first day the _Valk_ went down to the mouth of the river
-on account of the mosquitoes at the anchorage; they were a small black
-species, and they came out of the swamps by day as well as by night in
-swarms, and attacked everybody on board so furiously that life became
-quite intolerable. Before we left the anchorage up the river we saw
-a magnificent view of the snows of Mount Carstensz towering up over
-the morning mists. From there the Snow Mountains, making as it were a
-steep wall across the view to the North, appear far more imposing than
-they do in the rather sidelong view from the Mimika; and the different
-aspect of the precipices as seen from the Utakwa was most instructive.
-
-Whilst we were waiting at the mouth of the river we were visited by
-several parties of natives in canoes, who came, they informed us, from
-a large village on the Kupera Pukwa, the next river to the west of the
-Utakwa. They appeared to use the same, or almost the same, language as
-the people of Mimika, and they were very anxious that we should go and
-visit their village, but unfortunately we had no means of doing so.
-
-An interesting sight at the mouth of the Utakwa were the Dugongs
-(_Halicore australis_), which were seen feeding on the weeds in the
-shallow water and occasionally rose up and stared at us in a curiously
-human manner. They are about eight feet long and are perfectly
-inoffensive creatures, but they have been “fished” for with nets and
-almost exterminated in many places on account of their valuable oil.
-
-[Illustration: TYPES OF TAPIRO PYGMIES.]
-
-[Sidenote: DUTCH EXPEDITION]
-
-The Dutch expedition came down to us in detachments during the three
-days that we waited at the mouth of the river. There were Captain
-Van der Bie, in command; Mr. J. M. Dumas, surveyor and naturalist;
-three white sergeants, about fifty native soldiers and convicts,
-and twenty Dayaks of Dutch Borneo, who came down the river in the
-long canoes they had built themselves. There was also an Australian
-collector, Mr. Meek and two assistants, who had been attached to the
-Dutch expedition to make collections of birds and butterflies for a
-private museum in England. With Mr. Meek were ten natives of Port
-Moresby in British New Guinea, little brown, fuzzy-headed fellows full
-of life and merriment; they were in every way so different from the
-sombre and unemotional Papuans that it was difficult to realise that
-they were both natives of the same island.
-
-The Utakwa expedition had been in the country for seven months and
-had traversed a considerable extent of country, but those months
-coincided with the period of the worst weather—one cannot talk of wet
-and dry seasons in that region—and like us they had suffered from the
-shortcomings of their coolies; the Dayaks had reached them too late
-to be of much service to the expedition. From their base camp at the
-head of steam-launch navigation they had gone two days further up the
-river in canoes, and then had gone a distance of seven marches towards
-Mount Carstensz. The furthest point they reached was at an altitude of
-about 3000 feet, and was less than twenty miles distant from the snow,
-but the views of the country that they saw were not sufficient to show
-whether that was the best route to the highest mountains. One of the
-principal objects of the Government in despatching that expedition to
-the Utakwa was to discover a convenient way of crossing New Guinea,
-and when it was found that the Utakwa led apparently to the highest
-mountain in the island, it was decided to withdraw the expedition, and
-to concentrate all the exploring energies on the Island River, which
-seemed to offer a better prospect of accomplishing that purpose.
-
-When all these people had been taken on board the _Valk_, the decks
-of the little ship were crowded to overflowing with gear and men and
-wild animals. They had brought some young wild pigs, a number of
-crowned and other kinds of pigeons, and several young cassowaries.
-Mr. Dumas brought on board three eggs, from which were hatched pretty
-little cassowary chicks during the next few days. We were particularly
-struck by the appearance of the Dayaks, any one of whom looked more
-than a match for three of our Malay coolies. Apart from their apparent
-strength, they differed noticeably from the Malays, who like to spend
-their days in sleeping between meals, in their unceasing industry; they
-had brought on board quantities of bamboo, from which they at once
-started making bird cages, and pieces of hard wood, out of which they
-carved handles for their knives and other ornamental objects.
-
-The ship was so heavily laden that it was impossible to take on
-board all the boats that had been used by the Utakwa expedition, and
-three or four were towed in a long string astern. Fortunately the
-sea was exceptionally smooth, but even so one of these, an almost
-new “long-boat,” broke adrift, and we lost a day in searching for it
-unsuccessfully.
-
-[Sidenote: CONVICT LUNATIC]
-
-Whilst we were cruising about looking for the lost boat, one of our
-passengers, a fever-stricken soldier from the Mimika, caused some
-excitement by stabbing with his knife another man and then jumping
-hastily into the sea. The sudden plunge cooled his fever and the
-appearance of a sea-snake swimming not far from him made him as anxious
-to return to the ship as he had been to leave it.
-
-During the voyage down the coast we saw a number of sea-snakes,
-sometimes as far as thirty or forty miles from land, but there was no
-opportunity of catching one; they appeared to be yellowish with dark
-markings and were about three or four feet in length. I was told that
-they sometimes travel in large numbers together and will climb up the
-sides of ships at anchor, but I cannot vouch for the correctness of
-this statement.
-
-Another episode, which enlivened the voyage down to Merauke, was caused
-by the strange behaviour of one of the convicts, who was being taken
-away from the Mimika. This man had suffered from the common form of
-delusion that everybody was against him, and after he had run away
-from the camp at Wakatimi and had spent thirty-six hours in the jungle
-without food I certified that he was of unsound mind and recommended
-that he should be sent back to Java. He was found prowling about the
-ship with an exceedingly sharp knife, with which (so he said) he
-intended to murder me, so he was promptly secured in chains. We made
-friends in a day or two and he was set at liberty again before we
-reached Merauke, but I confess I was not sorry when we were no longer
-together in the same ship.
-
-[Sidenote: THE ISLAND RIVER]
-
-On the second day after leaving the Utakwa we entered the Island River
-by one of its many mouths, and after we had gone up it a few miles we
-realised that in the matter of size it is to the Utakwa as that river
-is to the Mimika. The banks are low and swampy and mostly covered
-with mangroves for several miles from the coast. Further on the banks
-are a few feet above the level of high water and we saw many trees
-that looked like good timber trees and others of considerable beauty,
-notably a wide-spreading acacia-like tree (_Albizia moluccana_), and
-a very graceful palm (_Oncosperma filamentosum_) like a Betel-nut
-palm growing in clumps by the waterside. We noticed also a number
-of Bread-fruit trees (_Artocarpus_ sp.) bigger than any I have seen
-elsewhere, but none of them appeared to bear fruit.
-
-We steamed up the river for one hundred and twelve nautical miles to
-the _Swallow_, the depôt ship and base camp of the Dutch exploring
-expedition. The river at that point is about three hundred yards wide,
-but the current is swift and there are many shallow sand banks, which
-make further navigation impossible for a ship as large as the _Valk_.
-
-[Illustration: A PAPUAN WITH TWO TAPIRO PYGMIES.]
-
-The Dutch expedition had been established for several months in the
-country and had made very considerable progress towards the North.
-From the _Swallow_ they had proceeded up the river two days’ journey
-by steam launch and six days beyond that by canoes as far as the river
-was navigable, a distance of more than one hundred miles. Thence they
-had gone North, and in nine marches they had reached a height of ten
-thousand feet at a point which appeared to be on the watershed of the
-main mountain range of the island. One of the principal objects of
-the expedition was to cross New Guinea from South to North, and it was
-hoped that from the furthest point they had reached they would soon
-arrive at one of the upper tributaries of the Kaiserin Augusta, the
-large river which enters the sea in German territory. They were at that
-time busily occupied in transporting supplies up to their furthest
-camp with a view to continuing the journey, but shortly afterwards the
-expedition was crippled by sickness and the project was abandoned.
-We spent two days alongside of the _Swallow_ transferring to her the
-stores and many of the men that we had brought from the Utakwa and
-taking away the sick and time-expired members of the Island River
-expedition, amongst them being Lieut. Van der Wenn of the Netherlands
-Navy, who was attached to the expedition as surveyor.
-
-On our way down the Island River we saw many things which we had missed
-on the way up, because we had entered the river and steamed up through
-several hours of darkness. First we came to isolated houses by the
-river bank of the same type as the Mimika houses, but larger and better
-built; near them we saw a few natives, who appeared to be very shy and
-retreated hastily into the jungle when the steamer approached.
-
-Lower down, when we were within about thirty miles of the sea, we came
-to a large village of fifty or sixty houses, some of which were raised
-on piles near the edge of the river and the others were built in the
-trees, where they presented a most astonishing appearance. They are
-square and apparently well-made houses with ridgepole roof and walls of
-“atap,” the entrance is by a hole in the floor which is reached by a
-vertical ladder of bamboo from the ground. One house was at a height of
-certainly not less than sixty feet above the ground in a very slender
-tree, and the position of the inhabitants, when the wind blew, must
-have been far from enviable. Unfortunately the sun was low and directly
-behind the village so that I was unable to obtain photographs of the
-tree-dwellings. The people there showed no fear of us, but stood on the
-bank and shouted and waved their spears.
-
-A few miles further down the river we came to another large village of
-yet a different character. The houses there were all built on piles,
-but while a few of them were of the usual small size, the majority were
-quite unlike anything else we had seen in that part of New Guinea. They
-were huge barn-like structures raised on piles ten or more feet above
-the ground, and the length of some of them must have been from one
-hundred and fifty to two hundred feet. It was quite evident that these
-were communal dwellings, indicating a social system entirely different
-from that of the surrounding districts, and it was very tantalising
-to pass them within a few yards and not to be able to visit them. The
-village extended for about a mile along the East bank and the natives
-that we saw must have numbered at least a thousand. The men were all
-entirely naked and the women were only dressed in the scantiest strip
-of bark-cloth. In other respects they appeared, as far as one could
-tell from such a rapid survey of them, to be very similar to the Mimika
-Papuans in their features and their short hair and their absence of
-adornments.
-
-[Sidenote: INTERESTING PEOPLE]
-
-Crowds of people lined the river bank and some of them, holding short
-bamboos in their hands, jerked them in our direction and from the end
-came out a white cloud of powdered lime, which looked like smoke. This
-custom was noticed by Rawling when he first visited the village of
-Nimé, and it was recorded by some of the early voyagers,[20] but the
-meaning of it has not yet been explained. The suggestion that it is a
-means of imitating the appearance of fire-arms is ingenious, but it can
-hardly be seriously considered.
-
-While most of the people stood on the bank to see us pass, a number
-of men jumped into their canoes and came racing after us. The current
-of the river was about two, and the speed of the _Valk_ was seven
-knots, so they had to move quickly, but they easily overtook us and
-followed us for some distance down the river. Their canoes are simple
-“dug-outs,” but they differ from those of the Mimika in coming to a
-fine point at both ends. The bow is roughly notched on the upper side,
-which gives it somewhat the appearance of a bird’s beak. They seem also
-to be considerably lighter than the Mimika craft, and so narrow that a
-man could hardly sit down in them. The usual number of a crew is nine
-or ten men, who all stand up and all paddle on the same side of the
-canoe. The regular swing of their bodies and the perfect precision of
-the paddling was a sight prettier than any “eight” I have ever seen.
-They called to us and waved bundles of arrows, evidently anxious to
-trade with us, but the captain of the _Valk_ was unable to stop, so we
-threw overboard for them empty tins and bottles, and it was marvellous
-to see how they raced up to these things, and with a sudden backward
-stroke of their paddles brought the canoes to a standstill, while they
-recovered the prize, and then raced on again.
-
-From the mouth of the Island River, as we went out to sea, we saw
-through a break in the clouds to the far North the snow on Mount
-Wilhelmina, which was reached by Mr. H. A. Lorentz in November, 1909.
-Steaming in a south-easterly direction we kept some way out from the
-land, which is so low as to be invisible at a distance of a few miles.
-When we were opposite the Digoel, the greatest (excepting the Fly) of
-all the South New Guinea rivers, we found the sea strewn with logs and
-trees, in some places so many together as to form floating islands, on
-which crowds of gulls and terns were seen to settle at nightfall.
-
-The tide favouring us, we chose the Marianne Strait between the
-mainland and Prince Frederick Henry Island. Sometimes, when the
-south-east monsoon has been blowing regularly for a few days, it is
-quite impossible for a ship of only moderate power to steam through
-it against the current. The Strait is a winding channel about ninety
-miles long and has an average width of about two miles, and it is not
-surprising that early voyagers, even as late as Kolff, in the Dutch
-brig-of-war, _Dourga_, in 1826, mistook it for a river. The banks are
-low and forest-covered, and we only saw two small clusters of houses.
-From one of these some men put off in a canoe to intercept us and
-followed us for some distance, calling “_Kaya-Kaya_” (friend).[21]
-They were tall and powerful-looking men, entirely naked except for a
-small shell attached to a string about the middle, and their great mats
-of hair extending down to the shoulders and beyond showed most clearly
-that we had come to yet another tribe quite distinct from the people of
-the Island River.
-
-[Sidenote: JAN CARSTENSZ]
-
-Jan Carstensz, who visited this coast in 1623, gives a good description
-of the land and the people:[22] “It is impossible to land here with
-boats or pinnaces owing to the clayey and muddy bottom into which a man
-will sink up to the waist, the depth of the water being no more than
-three or four fathoms at three or four miles distant from the land. The
-land is low-lying and half submerged, being quite under water at high
-tide; it is covered with wild trees, those on the beach resembling the
-fir-trees of our country, and seemingly bear no fruit. The natives are
-coal black like the Kaffirs and they go about stark naked. They have
-two holes in the midst of the nose, with fangs of hogs or sword-fishes
-through them, protruding at least three fingers’ breadth on either
-side, so that in appearance they are more like monsters than human
-beings, they seem to be evil-natured and malignant. The lands which we
-have up to now skirted and touched at not only are barren and inhabited
-by savages, but also the sea in these parts yields no other fish than
-sharks, sword-fishes, and the like unnatural monsters, while the birds
-too are as wild and shy as the men.” Further to the East he found the
-people “cunning and suspicious, and no stratagem on our part availed
-to draw them near enough to us to enable us to catch one or two with
-nooses which we had prepared for the purpose.” Suspicion of the unknown
-is in the nature of savage people, and when we read that “in order to
-frighten them the corporal fired a musket, which hit them both, so that
-they died on the spot,” we no longer wonder that they appeared to Jan
-Carstensz to be “evil-natured and malignant.” But times have changed
-and the Dutch navigator of to-day is not less humane than any other.
-
-[Sidenote: MERAUKE]
-
-After coming out of the Marianne Straits we noticed a change in the
-appearance of the land; the smoke of villages appeared at frequent
-intervals and the shore was seen to be fringed by a continuous belt of
-coco-palms in place of the mangrove to which we had become accustomed.
-In a few hours from the Marianne Straits we came to the mouth of the
-Merau River and after steaming up it for about four miles we dropped
-anchor opposite the Dutch station of Merauke, where we left the ship
-and went ashore.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  1. ARM-BAND OF FIBRES, ORNAMENTED WITH COWRY SHELLS.
-  2. PART OF WAIST-BAND, ORNAMENTED WITH SHELLS AND SEEDS.
-  3. ARM-BAND OF FIBRE.
-  4. BASKET OF PLAITED STRIPS OF LEAVES.
-  5. BAMBOO ORNAMENT WORN ON THE NECK.
-  6. COLLAR MADE OF FIBRE AND CASSOWARY FEATHERS.
-  7. BAMBOO TOBACCO-PIPE, USED BY THE TAPIRO PYGMIES.
-  8. BASKET OF FIBRE.
-  9. PART OF THE BILL OF A HORNBILL, WORN IN THE NOSE.]
-
-The Dutch people have an inborn preference for low-lying land on which
-to place their stations, but not the most enthusiastic fenman would
-have voluntarily chosen Merauke as a place for a settlement. The reason
-of its existence is a political one. Formerly the natives of the
-district, the Tugeri, a very fierce and warlike people, used to have
-the habit of making raids to the Eastward into British territory,
-whence they brought slaves and the heads of their fallen enemies.
-This became such a nuisance that the Australian Government addressed
-protests to the Dutch about the lawless behaviour of their subjects,
-and in 1902 the Dutch made the station of Merauke, and established
-there a small garrison of about one hundred men. The place was chosen
-partly because it was in the centre of the district of the Tugeri, and
-partly because on that shallow coast the Merau River alone offered a
-safe harbour for ships. It is a dreary enough place on the muddy bank
-of the river and surrounded on the other sides by swamps, but the Dutch
-have made the best of a bad job, and by laborious ditching and dyking
-they have made the place fairly secure from floods; in spite of all
-their draining, however, there are more mosquitoes there than in any
-other inhabited place I have ever visited.
-
-Like other Dutch settlements Merauke is laid out on a regular and
-spacious plan, plenty of room being left between the houses of the
-officials and the quarter occupied by the shops of the Chinese, of
-which there are about a dozen. There are (or were in 1910) sixteen
-Europeans[23] in the place, all of them in the employment of the
-Government except two, the representatives of an European trading firm.
-The principal trade of the place is in copra obtained from the hundreds
-of thousands of coco-palms, which line the neighbouring sea-shore.
-These palms are the property of the natives, who are too lazy to take
-advantage of the wealth that lies (or rather hangs) at their doors,
-and they do not encourage other people to come and make use of it.
-
-There is a small force of native police under a Dutch officer, and a
-few convicts are employed in keeping the station in order. It may not
-be out of place to remark here that the nearest Dutch settlement is at
-Fak-fak on the S.W. corner of the MacCluer Gulf, seven hundred miles in
-a straight line from Merauke. Besides these two places the only other
-Dutch garrison is at Manokwari (Dorei Bay) on the north coast, where
-there has been a mission station for more than fifty years. Apart from
-civilian and military officials, missionaries and two or three agents
-of a commercial firm there are no settlers in the huge territory of
-Dutch New Guinea.
-
-A former Resident of Merauke, who had somewhat inflated ideas of the
-future of the country, established an experimental botanic garden on
-the only patch of dry ground near Merauke. Attached to the garden is
-a large building containing rooms for three Europeans, laboratories,
-a dark room and so on, which (it was hoped) would attract scientific
-agriculturists and botanists from other countries to come and study
-the local _flora_. But no sane person wishes to study the _flora_ of
-New Guinea in the middle of a swamp, and already the scanty soil was
-showing signs of exhaustion at the roots of the experimental bananas,
-and the practically-minded Resident was considering the removal of
-the house to Dobo or elsewhere as a dwelling for himself, when the
-contemplated abandonment of Merauke as a “Residency” should take place.
-
-Another interesting building at Merauke is the house of the Mission
-of the Sacred Heart, an offshoot from the mission at Toeal. It must,
-I am afraid, be admitted that Merauke is not a favourable field for
-missionary enterprise, and the most notable achievements of the good
-fathers there are the admirable house they have built, and the herd
-of cattle which they contrive to keep. They teach a very small class
-of the native children, but nearly all of them relapse again very
-soon into savagery, and the adults, who have remained faithful to the
-mission, are very few, and they are not the best specimens of their
-race.
-
-[Sidenote: BOAT BUILDERS]
-
-Recently the ubiquitous Chinese have discovered that the sea in the
-neighbourhood of Merauke is a most profitable fishing ground, and the
-results of their labours are spread abroad to dry in the sun, so that
-there are times when the air is almost too strong to be breathed.
-The fishery has attracted some men from the Ké Islands, who are the
-best boat builders in the Eastern Archipelago, and I spent many hours
-watching them at their work. Their tools consist only of an axe, an
-adze and an auger, and no nails or metal are used in the construction
-of a boat. The planks are about three inches thick and are made each
-from a single tree hewn to the required shape. Holes are bored at
-intervals along the edge of the plank, and into these are fixed pegs of
-wood which fit into corresponding holes in the edge of the succeeding
-plank. When the shell of the boat is completed, the ribs, each made
-from a single piece of bent wood, are fitted to the inside. The
-fitting of the planks is so accurate that the boats require little or
-no caulking, and they are ready to take the water as soon as they are
-built.
-
-[Sidenote: NATIVES OF MERAUKE]
-
-But by far the most interesting feature of Merauke are the natives of
-the place, whose independent mien and conservative customs fill the
-observer with admiration if not with approval. It is now nearly ten
-years since the Dutch settled at Merauke, but in all that time, apart
-from curbing somewhat their head-hunting propensities, they have made
-very little impression on the natives, who still cling (if one may use
-somewhat of an Irishism) to their scanty costume of nothing at all,
-and refuse absolutely the beads and cloth and other “trade-goods” of
-the invading white man. They stroll about the place in a most lordly
-manner, and they like to visit the houses of the Europeans, where they
-spend hours disdainfully watching other people at their work.
-
-In appearance they differ from the Papuans of the Mimika in their
-somewhat paler skin and in their features, which are markedly of the
-(so-called) “Semitic” type with prominent eyes and long, curving,
-fleshy nose. They are very fond of personal adornment and paint their
-faces with white, red, and yellow colours; a fashionable but very
-unsightly decoration is to paint the eyelids and eyelashes white.
-Through the _septum_ of the nose is thrust a long piece of white bone
-or shell, and in the _alae nasi_, which are also pierced, are often
-worn the claws of a large eagle which project forwards, and give the
-man a most ferocious aspect (see illustration opposite).
-
-[Illustration: A NATIVE OF MERAUKE.
-
-(_Wearing the claws of an eagle in the nose._)]
-
-[Illustration: NATIVES OF MERAUKE.]
-
-Some of the more dandyfied individuals are loaded with necklaces of
-shells or teeth of dogs, sharks and crocodiles, and bands or belts of
-the same things are crossed on the chest. Rings of boars’ tusks
-and plaited fibres almost cover the upper arms, and in the ears are
-worn bunches of large rings of tortoiseshell and bamboo. The hair is
-long and is plaited with a mixture of mud and grass and feathers into
-a solid bunch, which hangs down beyond the level of the shoulders. In
-some of these head-dresses I saw plumes of the Greater, the Red and the
-King birds of Paradise; it appears that when once they are made these
-head-dresses may be added to, but they can never be undone, and they
-are accordingly indescribably dirty. These people are characterised by
-a pungent and most disagreeable odour, quite different from the sickly
-sweet smell of the sago-eating Mimika people.
-
-Another curious custom of the Merauke natives is their habit of wearing
-round the waist a belt of pigskin, which cannot be removed, and is
-so tight that it constricts the man to an (apparently) most painful
-degree; the women of the tribe do not indulge in this practice.
-
-Two days after our arrival the monthly mail-steamer came bringing
-our forty-eight new coolies from Macassar, and on the following day
-it sailed again, taking Shortridge on his way back to England. For a
-week longer I received the most kind hospitality from the Resident,
-Mr. E. Kalff, until we returned to the Mimika. During that week of
-waiting our new coolies, who had heard terrible stories of the Mimika,
-declared that they would never go there, and they attacked with knives
-the guards who were placed to keep them in order. When I told them
-that if they had no liking for the Mimika they were perfectly at
-liberty to go and live near Merauke, the stories they heard of the
-habits of the Tugeri put an immediate end to the strike, and they came
-contentedly enough to the Mimika. They were more fortunate than some of
-their predecessors, and all returned to their homes at the end of the
-expedition.
-
-The Dutch have a pleasant sentiment with regard to the customs of
-their native land, and at Merauke, the most remote outpost of Holland,
-the feast of S. Nicholas was celebrated with due ceremony. All the
-Europeans in the place, as well as the Javanese sergeants and clerks
-and their children, assembled to meet the Saint, a huge Dutchman
-disguised out of all recognition, and all of us, brown and white alike,
-received at his hands a present or a mock flogging according to our
-deserts.
-
-After spending ten very agreeable days at Merauke we sailed on December
-18th and going by way of the Island River, where we landed fresh
-men for that expedition, we arrived again at the Mimika on the 22nd
-December.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XVII
-
-
-  _Difficulty of Cross-country Travel—Expedition moves
-  towards the Mountains—Arrival at the Iwaka River—Changing
-  Scenery—The Impassable Iwaka—A Plucky Gurkha—Building
-  a Bridge—We start into the Mountains—Fording
-  Rivers—Flowers—Lack of Water on Hillside—Curious
-  Vegetation—Our highest Point—A wide View—Rare
-  Birds—Coal—Uninhabitable Country—Dreary Jungle—Rarely any
-  Beauty—Remarkable Trees—Occasional Compensations._
-
-When our third and last batch of forty-eight coolies reached the
-Mimika towards the end of December, it was at once evident from their
-appearance that the majority of them would not last very long, and as
-we had ourselves been already for a year in the country, it was agreed
-that we should make a final effort to penetrate as far as possible
-towards the mountains, and that when our means of transport came to an
-end we should take our departure from New Guinea.
-
-We had long realised the impossibility of reaching the Snow Mountains
-from our present base. If we had possessed an efficient steam-launch or
-motor boat, the Mimika was still too small a river and too frequently
-unnavigable to be useful as a route for water transport. Another
-consideration even more important than this was the fact that had the
-Mimika been ten times the size it was, it would still have taken us in
-a direction many miles to the West of the mountains we hoped to reach.
-The result of these two circumstances was that we travelled by water
-with great labour to a place (Parimau), which was still in low and
-often flooded country, and from there we had to travel across country
-for many miles before we came to the first rising ground.
-
-[Sidenote: CROSS-COUNTRY JOURNEYS]
-
-It is difficult enough in New Guinea to make a way up a river valley,
-but you always have the comforting reflection that the river itself
-leads you back to your base, when stores are exhausted and it is time
-to return. But when you attempt to make a cross-country journey, not
-only is the trouble of cutting a track much greater than it is in a
-river bed, but there is the difficult and often somewhat dangerous
-business of crossing the rivers; added to this is the risk, which
-increases with every river you cross, of being cut off for a longer
-or shorter period from your base camp and supplies by a sudden flood
-in those same rivers. For this reason, when coolies were sent back
-from an advanced camp to the base, they had to be supplied with an
-extra allowance of food in the event of their being stopped by floods
-on the way; such a proceeding meant diminishing to some extent the
-store of food they had carried out and a consequent waste of labour.
-It is essential, therefore, in trying to make a long journey in such a
-country, to discover beforehand the river valley which will take you
-nearest to your goal and thus avoid the risks of a long cross-country
-journey.
-
-No time was lost in sending a fleet of canoes heavily laden with stores
-up the river from Wakatimi, and early in January the whole expedition
-was assembled at Parimau with supplies sufficient for three months.
-On the 14th January Marshall and Grant with two Dayak collectors,
-forty-six coolies, thirty-one Papuans, and about forty soldiers and
-convicts, by far the largest number of men we had ever sent off at one
-time, set out for the Wataikwa river. A few of them went on with the
-Europeans to the Iwaka, where a track was cut for two marches up the
-valley of that river, while the rest, after leaving their loads at the
-Wataikwa depôt, returned to Parimau to fetch more loads of stores. From
-the Wataikwa the coolies carried on the stores to the upper camp on
-the Iwaka river, a three days’ march, and at the beginning of February
-Cramer and I went up there with the last party. About a hundred and
-fifty loads of one kind or another had been carried up from Parimau in
-these various excursions, but unhappily the coolies ate up a good many
-of the loads on the way, and still more unhappily many of the coolies
-fell sick, so that if we had wished to send back to Parimau for yet
-another transport of stores, it would probably have ended in our having
-no coolies to carry them any further.
-
-The nett result of all this carrying was that when we arrived with
-the last loads at the Iwaka depôt we found that we had only twelve
-days’ provisions for our party of three Europeans, two Dayaks and
-the twenty-two coolies who survived from the forty-eight of a month
-earlier. Cramer had food for about the same number of days for his
-party of soldiers and convicts. Such a meagre supply of provisions as
-that obviously made it out of the question for us to penetrate far
-into the mountains; but you must in New Guinea, as elsewhere, cut your
-coat according to your cloth.
-
-The Iwaka at the place where we first came to it is a tremendous
-torrent flowing in rather a narrow stony bed. A little way further down
-it spreads out into a wider channel like that of the Wataikwa, but it
-is much larger than that river and though we searched down stream for
-three or four miles, we found no place where it was possible to cross.
-
-As we went up the river we very soon found that the river banks became
-steeper, and it was soon evident that we were at last among the hills.
-There was a peculiar satisfaction in bending one’s legs to go up hill
-after having been for so many months on almost level ground. The track
-was not at all easy, for it appeared that in many places large slices
-of the hillside had slipped down, bringing with them a chaos of dead
-and living trees over which we had to pick a precarious way. In some
-places we crept along the edge of the torrent, and in others we climbed
-high up the hillside to avoid a precipice where the river ran through
-a narrow gorge; but it was all a pleasant change from the monotonous
-jungle of the plains. There was more variety in the vegetation too as
-we went on; creepers arranged themselves prettily on the rocky river
-bank, and Fan-palms, which we had not seen before, grew in groups in
-the more level places. There was a tree growing in many places whose
-lower branches were covered at that season with small pink flowers,
-which lent a grateful splash of colour to the usually gloomy green
-of the jungle. There was an invigorating air of mountains in the river
-as it came thundering over the huge boulders in its bed, and now
-and again we even got a glimpse through the trees of the mountains
-themselves, apparently not so very far distant from us.
-
-[Illustration: LOOKING UP THE MIMIKA RIVER FROM THE CAMP AT PARIMAU.]
-
-[Sidenote: THE UNFORDABLE IWAKA]
-
-Two days’ scrambling up the valley brought us to the rest of the
-party at the depôt camp, and there we learnt the very unwelcome news
-of a discovery, which seemed likely to put an immediate end to our
-explorations. The advanced party had climbed up a spur to the west
-of the river and had seen that the Iwaka, instead of flowing (as we
-imagined) from the North-east by an apparently wide valley, actually
-flowed from the North through a deep, and in some places precipitous
-gorge, which we could not possibly attempt to traverse with our feeble
-coolies in the short time that remained to us.
-
-If we were to advance at all, it was necessary for us to go in a
-North-easterly direction, but there we seemed to be completely cut off
-by the torrent of the Iwaka River. Attempts were made both upstream
-and downstream to wade across, but nobody succeeded in doing it, and
-no better luck attended those who tried to make a bridge by felling a
-tree across the river, the bridge was at once swept away. As a last
-expedient a large reward of money was offered to the first man who
-should find a way across the river, and again they all set out full
-of hope and armed with axes. The luck fell to two of the Gurkhas, who
-cleverly felled a large tree straight across the river. Had it fallen a
-few feet to one side or the other it would not have been long enough
-to reach the other bank, and if it had bent a little more in the
-middle, the water would have snatched it up like a straw and carried
-it away in a moment. But it kept just clear above the water and made a
-safe temporary bridge by which they could cross, and before nightfall
-a single rope of rattan was securely tied across the narrowest part of
-the river.
-
-[Sidenote: A RATTAN BRIDGE]
-
-During the night the river rose and carried away the tree, and it
-seemed that with only one strand of rattan across the river the
-prospect of our reaching the other side was not very good. Nobody
-seemed inclined to risk the passage, even with the promise of a large
-reward, until one of the Gurkhas, Jangbir by name, said he would go.
-“There was only one way to go over—hand over hand, with a rattan round
-his waist held by us in case the bridge strand broke, a very likely
-thing, for it was extremely flimsy. Again the rope to hold him had to
-be very thin, or the weight would tear him from his hold. He got across
-finely, being dragged out straight by the torrent, until nearly over,
-when he could make no more headway. The rope tied to his waist was paid
-out fast, but was caught by the current, and then it was touch and go.
-Thus he hung for half a minute, dragged out in a horizontal position.
-If both rattans gave, it meant certain death; if he let go, the great
-strain would snap the rope round him with a like result. The rope was
-pulled in as quickly as possible, and then the lucky thing occurred.
-The strain was too great, and the rope we were pulling on snapped.
-This freed him, and he pulled himself up further and gained the
-bank.”[24]
-
-[Illustration: BRIDGE MADE BY THE EXPEDITION ACROSS THE IWAKA RIVER.]
-
-When once a man was on the other side, it was simple to throw over
-another rattan, and so to pull over many more which he tied to the
-trees on his bank. On our side of the river was a large boulder with a
-hole conveniently bored through it, into which stout posts were jammed
-Y-fashion, and over them the rattans were strained and fastened to the
-trees behind. When more men were able to cross the river, a similar
-structure was erected on the other bank.
-
-The plan of the bridge was very simple, two hand-rails made of a
-number of twisted rattans, and a foot piece made of a long thin tree,
-which was secured to the hand-rails by loops of rattan. The span
-of the bridge was about one hundred feet, and there must have been
-several hundred yards of rattan used in its construction. The credit
-of the idea and of most of the work in making the bridge is due to the
-Gurkhas, without whose help we should never have crossed the Iwaka.
-
-But all this work had occupied valuable time, and when the bridge was
-finished we found that we had provisions left for only eight days
-longer. On February 8th Rawling, Marshall and I, with three Gurkhas and
-nineteen coolies, and Cramer with a small party of convicts, crossed
-the Iwaka and made a way Eastwards. After crossing a moderately steep
-ridge we came down to a stream of marvellously clear water, which
-brought us in a short time to another large river flowing out of the
-mountains in a Southerly direction.
-
-So many rivers are there in this region that this was in some places
-separated by less than two miles from the Iwaka; it was eventually
-found that this was a branch of the Wania, a large river which enters
-the sea in a common mouth with the Kamura, of which the Iwaka is a
-tributary. It was evident that this river came from the slopes of Mount
-Godman (9,500 ft.) a huge mass immediately to the North of us, and it
-was our intention to climb up on to the ridge of that mountain in the
-hopes of obtaining a view of the country to the North of it, and of the
-Snow Mountains.
-
-Going up the valley we found ourselves in the midst of really beautiful
-scenery. The mountains soon closed in about us, and the river, though
-not running through an actual gorge, was walled by precipices of white
-limestone rock, now on one side and now on the other. This necessitated
-our frequently crossing the river, a task by no means easy even when
-the water is low, as it happened to be at that time. The best way of
-crossing those rapid rivers is not to fight your way upwards and across
-the stream, but to go rather with the stream in a sloping direction
-towards the other bank, and to go as quickly as may be. The bottom is
-made of very slippery stones, and a false step means disaster, as we
-all found at different times, but in that way you cross with far less
-exertion than by breasting the stream.
-
-In this valley, for the first time since we came to New Guinea, we
-found several flowering plants; among the rocks by the river grew
-clumps of a large pink Balsam, and on the moss at the foot of the tree
-trunks was a beautiful scarlet _Begonia_ with a remarkably hairy leaf.
-
-There was a curious green-flowered aroid with a large blotched leaf,
-and growing everywhere over the cliffs and the tree trunks were Pitcher
-plants (_Nepenthes_) of two species.
-
-On the second day we camped on a sort of shelf on the hillside, two or
-three hundred feet above the river, and as our progress up the valley
-had been so slow, it was certain that we should not be able to reach
-the summit ridge before we were obliged to turn back by lack of food.
-So it was decided to go straight up the spur on which we then were
-in the hope that from the top we might see a view of the surrounding
-country. On the following day we climbed up about two thousand feet;
-the hillside was exceedingly steep, and the men had to haul themselves
-up by the roots of the trees above them.
-
-[Sidenote: LACK OF WATER]
-
-At our camp on the hillside—there was not a square yard of level
-ground—we were troubled for the first time in New Guinea by a lack of
-water. No rain had fallen for two days, and the ground was so steep
-that all the water had run off, and it was a long time before the
-Gurkhas found a trickle of water in a gully some distance away, whence
-a supply was laboriously fetched to the camp.
-
-On the fourth day we climbed up about two thousand feet further, but
-with a great deal more difficulty. The trees became smaller as we went
-up, but infinitely denser, and for a great part of the way we scrambled
-up, not along the ground, but over a fantastic network of roots and
-trunks of dead and living trees, all of them covered with mosses and
-festooned with a wonderful variety of creepers. In some places we
-were clambering over the topmost branches of the tangle of vegetation,
-and in others we were burrowing into mossy caves and grottoes among
-the roots. It was a weird and rather uncanny place and, except that it
-lacked the beauty of colour that is found there, it recalled the forest
-at ten thousand feet in Ruwenzori more than any other place I have seen.
-
-At 5,000 feet we found ourselves on the ridge, a narrow knife-edged
-spur of Mount Godman, and there we camped. It was a most unlikely
-looking spot for a camp, but the ridge beyond was a great deal worse—it
-took the Gurkhas many hours to cut the narrowest track along it for
-half a mile—so we had to make the best of the place that we had
-reached. A number of trees were cut down and the irregularities of
-the ground were more or less filled up with the branches, and there
-we pitched our tents and spread our beds. There was a small shrub
-(a species of _Erica_, I think), which, when burnt, filled the air
-with a delicious smell of incense, strangely out of keeping with our
-surroundings.
-
-Though we had been surrounded by dense clouds since we reached the
-ridge, it obstinately refused to rain for the third day in succession,
-a thing quite unprecedented in our experience of the country. Happily
-the mosses, which clothed everything, were full of moisture and we had
-only to squeeze them like sponges to get water in plenty; the coolies
-of course complained of the dirty colour of their rice when it was
-cooked in mossy water, but we found that it gave to ours an unfamiliar
-and not unpleasant taste.
-
-[Illustration: LOOKING WESTWARDS FROM ABOVE THE IWAKA RIVER.]
-
-[Illustration: THE COCKSCOMB MOUNTAIN (10,050 FT.) SEEN FROM MOUNT
-GODMAN.]
-
-[Sidenote: A WIDE VIEW]
-
-The greater part of the next day was spent in cutting a way along the
-ridge to a point (5800 ft.) from which it was hoped that a view of the
-country might be seen. Long before the track was cut the clouds were
-down upon us, and no view could be seen, so we decided to stay for
-another day, although we had only one day’s food remaining. But the
-view that we saw on the following day was more than compensation for
-our rather scanty fare.
-
-Due North of us, and rising from the spur on which we stood, was the
-great mass of Mount Godman, and to the West of that the even more
-imposing peak of Wataikwa Mountain (9923 ft.). Between the two could be
-seen a part of the tremendous cliffs of Mount Leonard Darwin (13,882),
-the southern face of which appears to show an almost vertical precipice
-of upwards of ten thousand feet. To the West ridge beyond ridge of
-forest-covered heights stretched away to the ranges of the Charles
-Louis Mountains in the far distance. To the East rose the beautiful
-three-topped mountain called the Cock’s Comb (10,050 ft.), behind and
-to the North of which heavy banks of clouds showed where the snows of
-Mount Carstensz lay hidden. Five thousand feet below us the mountains
-ended almost abruptly, and the southern half of the circuit of our view
-was occupied by the hideous plain of dull green jungle to a hazy line
-of the sea forty miles away. Here and there the sunlight caught the
-waters of innumerable rivers, and we could distinctly see those that we
-had crossed, the Tuaba, Kamura, Wataikwa, and the Iwaka. Further to the
-East was a still bigger river, the Wania, which we could trace down
-to its lagoon-like estuary, and beyond it was the Aiika, and a very
-distant river, possibly the Newerip.
-
-Nobody who has not spent a year and more in a dreary jungle country,
-where you are seldom more than a yard or two from the nearest tree, and
-where the limit of your view is the opposite bank of a stagnant river,
-can realise the rest, to the mind and to the eye alike, that a wide
-horizon gives. Although there were points of interest to be seen by the
-cartographical eye, there was nothing, excepting the outlines of some
-of the nearer mountains, of beauty in that view; there were no striking
-features of the land and no gorgeous effects of colour, but one will
-always treasure a recollection of the physical delight of seeing far
-and wide to the horizon, and of the feeling of satisfaction in looking
-down godlike on the world that we had so painfully traversed.
-
-But views, like all other good things, have their ends, and ours was
-all too soon interrupted by the daily thick blanket of white cloud,
-which rolled up and enveloped us until nightfall. We groped our
-way back to the camp where we found our coolies very miserable and
-shivering with cold—poor wretches, they had never before endured, nor
-even imagined, a temperature so low as 50° F. To us the coolness was
-very pleasant, and it provoked a hunger to which we had long been
-strangers; very small quantities of boiled rice, and _chupatties_ made
-by the Gurkhas of mildewed and weevilly flour, only served to stimulate
-our appetites for more.
-
-[Sidenote: RARE BIRDS]
-
-On the following day we retreated hastily downhill by the way we had
-come, and by forced marches, perhaps a little accelerated by our lack
-of food, in two days we arrived at the Iwaka camp. In the meantime
-Grant had been camped with the two Dayak collectors on a hill about
-three thousand feet high above the Iwaka, where they had made a very
-fine collection of birds. Among them was a new dwarf species of
-Cassowary (_Casuarius claudi_) and specimens of the rare Six-plumed
-Bird of Paradise (_Parotia meeki_). Another bird very characteristic
-of the Iwaka and neighbouring valleys is the Moustached Swift
-(_Macropteryx mystacea_), which measures more than two feet across the
-wings, and is remarkable for its long pointed tail and its tapering
-white moustache. This bird seldom appears until late in the afternoon,
-when it is seen sailing majestically with outstretched wings at a
-height over the river.
-
-Near the Iwaka on a hillside laid bare by a landslip we found two seams
-of coal a few inches in thickness; it was poor stuff and only burnt
-with difficulty when put into a fire. Mr. Lorentz found combustible
-coal in the hills near Mount Wilhelmina, and it is probable that a
-careful search would reveal the existence of better coal in this region
-too. Near the same place, as well as in one or two other localities, we
-found indications of petroleum, but all our searches for gold and other
-precious metals resulted in nothing except occasional traces of copper.
-
-During the following days, while we were stumbling back to Parimau
-along the now familiar track, we wondered whether we should be the
-last as well as being the first Europeans to penetrate into that
-forsaken region. It has been mapped now, and our wanderings have shown
-that it is not the way by which any sane person would go who wished
-to explore the Snow Mountains. It is a region absolutely without
-inhabitants, and the Papuans, who live on the upper waters of the
-Mimika and Kamura rivers, shun it even as a hunting ground. There are
-no precious metals or other products of the soil to be won, and not
-until all the other forests in the world are cut down will its timber
-be of value. So it may safely be supposed that it will long be left
-untouched; the Birds of Paradise will call by day, the cassowaries will
-boom by night, and the leeches will stretch themselves anxiously on
-their leaves, but it will be a long time before another white man comes
-to disturb them.
-
-[Sidenote: THE DREARY JUNGLE]
-
-Many people have the idea that a tropical forest is full of gorgeous
-flowers, about which brilliant butterflies are constantly flitting
-and birds of splendid plumage flash from tree to tree. This idea is
-no doubt due in a great measure to the habit of gathering together in
-hothouses the flowering plants of all the Tropics, though they may
-have come from Central America, from Africa and from Borneo or Java.
-It is true that there are many splendid birds, but the vegetation is
-so dense that you seldom, if ever, see them; the brilliant butterflies
-are mostly out of sight near the topmost branches of the trees; and you
-may travel for days together without seeing a single flowering plant.
-Many of the trees are covered with orchids on all their branches, but
-they very seldom flower, and the flowers of most of them are so
-insignificant that they do not attract your attention.
-
-[Illustration: THE SUPPORTS OF A PANDANUS (30 FEET HIGH).]
-
-Occasionally you may see high above your head the white flower of a
-_Dendrobium_ or the long spike of the gigantic _Grammatophyllum_, but
-I have only once (in a small island on the North coast of New Guinea)
-seen such a mass of flowering orchids as to make a splash of colour in
-the view. In the Tropics there is nothing comparable in colour with the
-blue hyacinths, the fields of buttercups, or the gorse and hawthorns of
-this country.
-
-But if there is little that is beautiful in the jungle vegetation,
-there is a great deal that is curious and interesting. The ubiquitous
-Rattans, climbing Palms, are a constant source of wonder for their
-snake-like meanderings through the jungle until they climb to the
-top of some tree where they end in a bunch of leaves. We found three
-species of Screw Pines (_Pandanus_), fantastic trees on stilts, and
-branching like irregular candelabra. The wood of the _Pandanus_ is very
-tough, and is used by the natives for making bows and spears; the long
-ribbon-like leaves are used for mats and the walls of their huts, and
-the fruits of some are eatable, but exceedingly hard. One species bears
-a cluster of small red fruit about the size of a banana; and another
-bears a huge melon-shaped fruit of a brilliant scarlet colour and
-weighing as much as thirty pounds and upwards.
-
-Equally remarkable are the trees which stand propped on a number of
-aerial roots and seem, as Mr. Wallace noted,[25] to have started
-growing in mid air; where several of these trees grow together, it is
-difficult to say where one ends and another begins. Too rarely you
-come across a magnificent forest tree (usually, I believe, a species
-of _Dammara_) supported on huge buttresses, which begin twenty or more
-feet above the ground and spread out for many yards from the foot of
-the tree. We had occasion to cut down some of these trees, and found
-the wood intensely hard; if there were seven or eight buttresses a
-single one would still hold up the tree after all the rest had been
-cut. When the tree had been felled, the stump looked like a great
-starfish sprawling over the ground with a centre not more than a foot
-across, while the trunk a few feet up had been a yard or more in
-thickness.
-
-It has happened to me to walk through many hundreds of miles of forest
-in different parts of the world, but I have never seen any so dreary as
-that New Guinea jungle with its mud, its leeches, its almost unbroken
-stillness, and its universal air of death. Happily the mind of man
-is of a curiously selective habit, and it chooses to retain only the
-more pleasant things; you forget the long wet weeks of rain and mud,
-the hunger and the nasty food, and remember rather those glorious
-moments when you came out of the twilit jungle into an open river bed
-and saw the distant mountains, or those rare sunny afternoons when the
-“implacable cicala” creaked in the treetops above your tent.
-
-[Sidenote: FUTURE TRAVELLERS]
-
-There are indeed a thousand things to interest one in the jungle,
-however blank and monotonous it may seem to be. The trouble is that so
-much of your attention in these places must be devoted to the trivial
-duties of the day, the eternal question of food, the care of the sick,
-the precautions against floods, and so on, that but little time is
-left over for studying the hidden wonders of the world about you. The
-geographers and the naturalists of the future will live in comfortable
-ships on the coast, whence they will fly daily into the heart of New
-Guinea where they will find things undreamt of now. But the time for
-that is not yet, and in the meantime those who plod on foot do the best
-they can.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XVIII
-
-
-  _Departure from Parimau—Parting Gifts—Mock
-  Lamentation—Rawling explores Kamura River—Start for the
-  Wania—Lose the Propeller—A Perilous Anchorage—Unpleasant
-  Night—Leave the Motor Boat—Village of Nimé—Arrival of
-  “Zwaan” with Dayaks—Their Departure—Waiting for the
-  Ship—Taking Leave of the People of Wakatimi—Sail from New
-  Guinea—Ké Islands—Banda—Hospitality of the Netherlands
-  Government—Lieutenant Cramer—Sumbawa—Bali—Return to
-  Singapore and England—One or Two Reflexions._
-
-After our return to Parimau in February, Rawling and Grant went down to
-Wakatimi, while Marshall and I spent a week in visiting the village of
-the Tapiro in a last but vain attempt to see the pygmy women. The first
-few days of March were occupied in packing up the accumulated odds and
-ends of our year’s occupation and on the 9th of March we were ready to
-depart. We had told the natives that we were going away and for days
-before we went they pestered us with questions as to whether we were
-coming back and what we would give them when we went, and they quickly
-decided which of our houses they intended to occupy.
-
-[Illustration: BUTTRESSED TREES.]
-
-[Sidenote: PARTING WITH THE NATIVES]
-
-On the morning of our departure from Parimau we allowed no natives to
-come into the camp until all the canoes were loaded up and ready for
-a start. Then we called out to them to come over and about forty men
-and boys splashed across the river and came swarming into the camp. We
-had kept for them a number of axe-heads, knives and other pieces
-of steel and iron, and when the people saw what they were going to be
-given they became a crowd of madmen. I distributed the things, while
-Marshall stood by with a big piece of wood and kept them from rushing
-into the place and seizing everything at once. They shouted and raved
-and screamed and grew almost pale with excitement, and the various
-expressions of greed and cunning and anger and delight in their faces
-were most interesting to watch.
-
-After we had given them their presents we walked towards the canoes,
-and then they began to set up their horrible wail. A few of them picked
-up pieces of cloth and matting, through the middle of which they thrust
-their heads and then began to howl with their hands over their eyes.
-I took a last look round the houses to see that nothing of value had
-been left behind and on going to the store-house I met a man, one of
-our best friends, coming out of it with a tin of rice under his arm. He
-immediately put down the tin, tore off from a climbing bean that grew
-by the house a trail of leaves a yard or two long, and wound them about
-his head and body. Then he burst into tears and the most heartrending
-sobs, which changed in a moment, when he caught my eye, into a shout of
-laughter.
-
-When we finally got into the canoes all the men came down to the
-water’s edge and wailed, while some of them sat down in the water and
-smeared themselves with mud. In the meantime we could see their women
-going off into the jungle carrying tins full of their possessions to
-hide there, and it is probable that after we left there was a good
-deal of quarrelling and fighting over the spoil. The wailing is a
-purely perfunctory politeness, but I think there were a few men who
-were genuinely sorry to lose us. On the following day a strong ebb-tide
-bore us quickly down to Wakatimi and our navigations of the upper
-Mimika river were at an end.
-
-In the meantime Rawling had made an interesting exploration of the
-coast and of the river mouths to the East of the Mimika. The motor
-boat, which had been badly damaged some months earlier, had been
-repaired by two Dutch pioneer soldiers and was more or less sea-worthy.
-In a four days’ trip he had entered the Atuka river, or rather the
-Atuka mouth of the Kamura river, a few miles up which he came to Atuka,
-a large village of about six hundred huts surrounded by coconut palms
-and tobacco plantations. Proceeding up the river into the main Kamura
-river he went on almost to the junction with the Wataikwa river, thus
-filling in a large gap of unknown river. On his way back he chose the
-left (East) branch and after passing the village of Kamura, where
-the inhabitants showed an inclination to plunder the boat, he came
-to the lake-like estuary of the Kamura and Wania rivers and entered
-the sea by a deep channel. It is worth noting that the inhabitants of
-Atuka and Kamura villages, many of whom visited us two or three times
-at Wakatimi, are of a decidedly lower type (in appearance) than the
-people of the Mimika district, though the distance that separates them
-is only a few miles. They have a fiercer and more brutal aspect and
-many of them, both men and women go completely naked, a habit which is
-never practised by the people of Wakatimi. Scarcity of petrol and an
-irregularly sparking plug brought that excursion to an untimely end,
-before the lower waters of the Wania had been investigated.
-
-[Sidenote: EXCURSION TO THE WANIA]
-
-From our hill-top (see p. 239) the Wania was evidently by far the
-most considerable of all the rivers of the district, and apart from
-our desire to see the people of the Wania, of whom the Mimika natives
-always spoke with great respect, we felt bound to explore that river
-as far as possible. Accordingly on March 14, Rawling, Marshall and I,
-with a Dutch pioneer, two Gurkhas and three coolies, set off in the
-motor boat towing the yawl, a ship’s boat about twenty feet long, laden
-with tents and provisions for a week. In a few hours we arrived at the
-mouth of the Wania river and found that owing to the low tide there
-was no way of crossing the sand-bar that lay across the entrance. This
-circumstance was the more remarkable, because only a few days earlier
-Rawling had come through this bar by a very deep channel. The frequent
-changes in the banks make the navigation of this coast and particularly
-of the river mouths exceedingly difficult.
-
-On this occasion the sea was already rather rough, so that we could not
-anchor and wait until the tide rose, and as the wind was increasing in
-force there was nothing for it but to turn back and try to take shelter
-in one of the rivers between the Wania and the Mimika, if not in the
-Mimika itself. All went well for a few miles and then, as happened
-frequently, the leather band jumped off the driving wheel and the
-engine was stopped. When it was replaced and the engine was started
-again, there was no churning of water in the stern and we realized
-with some consternation that we had lost our propeller. We were about
-twelve miles from the mouth of the Mimika, in a shallow sea of less
-than three fathoms, with a strong wind blowing towards the shore where
-the waves began to break within a few hundred yards of us, and we were
-ten men with a heavy motor boat and a heavily-laden yawl to get along
-somehow. We put four men into the yawl to row and they tried to tow,
-but the current was so strong against them that they made no headway at
-all, so we had to anchor where we were and hoped for better things. We
-pitched and rolled and bumped about most horribly and soon most of the
-party were deadly sea-sick, perhaps luckily for them, because in that
-condition one cares nothing for the prospect of shipwreck.
-
-[Illustration: SCREW PINES (_Pandanus_).]
-
-[Sidenote: AN UNPLEASANT EXPERIENCE]
-
-Our anchor rope was short and none too strong, and the rope between us
-and the yawl was thoroughly rotten—it had snapped once earlier in the
-day—and we expected that every sudden jerk of the lumpy sea would break
-it again. Had that happened, there might have been a nasty accident, as
-the men were too sick to row, even if they had known the art, and their
-chances of swimming ashore through a sea swarming with sharks were
-not very bright. Our own predicament in the helpless motor boat would
-have been unpleasant too, if the yawl had gone adrift, but happily the
-ropes held. Another drawback was that the motor boat leaked like a
-sieve, so that a man was kept constantly at work baling her out, and we
-did not know that the strain might not open her old timbers even more.
-There was a glorious full moon which one would have enjoyed seeing
-from the smooth deck of a steamer, but there we could only think how
-uncomfortable it was lying (without having had dinner) on boxes and
-tins and gear of all sorts huddled in the bottom of the boat.
-
-The wind continued all through the night and the sea did not moderate,
-so at daylight, after having been for sixteen hours at anchor, we
-decided to leave the motor boat hoping that it would not be swamped
-before we were able to come back and fetch it. We all got into the
-yawl, which we pulled through quite a nasty sea for about three miles
-to a sand-bank in the estuary of the Timura river, where we camped
-until the rising tide enabled us to reach the mainland about midnight.
-On the following day, the sea having become calmer, we rescued the
-motor boat, which was by that time half full of water, and towed it
-slowly to the Timura.
-
-But it was a most arduous business and without the help of a party
-of natives, who fortunately came along the coast in canoes and were
-prevailed upon to assist us in paddling, we should never have been
-able to bring back both of the boats. The arrival of the motor boat at
-the Mimika on the fifth day, propelled by native paddles instead of by
-its own power, was not a very dignified affair—it resembled rather the
-formerly familiar sight of the motor-car in tow of a horse from the
-plough—but it was a piece of good fortune that it and we returned at
-all.
-
-We stopped for a night on the way at Nimé, a village at the mouth of
-the Keaukwa River. This is a very large village—I counted four hundred
-and thirty huts—but there were hardly a dozen people in the place, the
-whole population having gone off on one of their periodical migrations
-to a vegetable diet up the river. It was evident from the immense piles
-of fishbones and empty shells about the houses that the inhabitants
-must live largely by fishing, when they are there. The houses are
-better made than those at Wakatimi, and they are arranged in terraces
-and crescents along the water’s edge. It was there that we saw the
-elaborate dancing-houses described above (p. 143).
-
-Just as we paddled laboriously into the Mimika estuary we saw far
-down on the horizon the smoke of a steamer, and in an hour or two a
-white painted vessel, which turned out to be the Dutch Government
-ship _Zwaan_, drew inshore and anchored outside the bar. We naturally
-supposed that this was a ship that had come to take away the
-expedition, as we had informed the Government some months earlier that
-we hoped to be ready to leave the country by the end of March. But
-that communication had taken a long time, as everything does in those
-regions, in reaching its destination, and the _Zwaan_ had come, not
-to take away the expedition, but to bring the means of prolonging the
-expedition still further.
-
-[Illustration: AT SUMBAWA PESAR.]
-
-[Sidenote: LATE ARRIVAL OF DAYAKS]
-
-It appeared that in the previous December the Committee of the
-Expedition at home, hearing of our scarcity of coolies some months
-earlier, had decided that a further supply of coolies should be sent
-to us without delay. Though cables work quickly enough between London
-and Singapore, communications beyond that are matters of days and
-weeks, and it was not until the 18th of March that the party of Dayak
-coolies, who had been engaged in Sarawak by the kind permission of
-H.H. the Raja, arrived at the Mimika. They were in the charge of Mr.
-C. B. Kloss, Curator of the Government Museum at Kuala Lumpor, who had
-brought with him six months’ provision for himself and the men. Almost
-at the same time that the Committee in England had taken this step, we
-in New Guinea had decided that three months more was as long as we were
-prepared to stay in the country, and a request had been sent to the
-Dutch Government to take us away at the end of that time.
-
-When the _Zwaan_ arrived we were all ready to depart, and Cramer’s
-party, numbering more than a hundred men, were chafing with impatience
-to get away; it would have been impossible for the Government to keep
-them there yet another six months. Even if there had been a possibility
-of our staying on in the country, the number of Dayaks, thirty-eight,
-was quite insufficient for a long journey into the interior and the
-prospect of reaching the moderately high ground of Tapiro Mountain, the
-best that could be hoped for, was not sufficient inducement to tempt
-any one to paddle again up the Mimika river. Added to this was the
-further consideration that in a week or two the more rainy season would
-begin and that for five or six months very little progress would be
-possible even with an unlimited supply of the best coolies.
-
-So there was nothing for it but for Mr. Kloss and the Dayaks to go
-back in the _Zwaan_, which sailed for Amboina on the following day,
-taking also Marshall, as many sick and useless coolies and soldiers as
-could be crammed on board, and an urgent request to the authorities
-to remove us as soon as might be. The Dayak episode was altogether an
-unfortunate one; had the men reached us six months earlier, we should
-have made a very good use of them, few though they were; but coming as
-they did when we were on the point of leaving the country they merely
-illustrated the uselessness of attempting to conduct an expedition from
-the other side of the world.
-
-During the next three weeks we waited for the ship with what patience
-we could. By that time we were all somewhat stale and disinclined for
-any exertion, and those days of waiting at Wakatimi seemed interminably
-long. The only pleasant moments were when on fine evenings we could
-sit outside and watch the sun go down behind the palm trees across
-the river and hope each time that that would be the last. There were
-times when for two or three days a strong wind blew and we could hear
-the surf thundering on the beach, and we knew that even if the ship
-came it could not approach the shore. Then there were false alarms of
-whistles having been heard, or of boats seen coming up the river, but
-our suspense at last came to an end on April 5th, when a steam-launch
-towing a string of empty boats came puffing up to the camp, where
-they were received with immense enthusiasm. They came from the Dutch
-gunboat _Mataram_, which had been despatched to take away the native
-escort, and the next day came boats from the _Zwaan_, which had come to
-transport us and our men and the remaining stores of the expedition to
-Amboina. There followed two days of busy loading and coming and going
-of boats, during which our impatience to be off was a little allayed
-by the forethought of one of the officers of the _Mataram_, who stayed
-ashore with us and had brought with him that rare luxury, bread, and
-one or two other welcome delicacies.
-
-[Sidenote: DEPARTURE FROM WAKATIMI]
-
-Before sunset on April 7th the last boat was loaded and ready to go,
-and we had an amusing leave-taking with the people of Wakatimi. It
-was known that we were going to depart and for some days people from
-other villages had been crowding into Wakatimi. A large number of men
-were waiting outside the fence of the camp, but when we invited them
-to come inside they became unaccountably shy and would not venture.
-So I went outside and took one bolder fellow, a man whom we knew
-well, and led him by the arm to a hut, where there were a quantity
-of old mosquito nets; he seized one and bolted as fast as he could
-run, apparently thinking that there was something suspicious in this
-unwonted generosity. Then a few more came very warily after him and
-then fifty or sixty men dashed into the house and out again as soon as
-they had snatched up something, it mattered not what. Most of them were
-armed with spears or bows and arrows, and as there were men fighting to
-get into and out of the house at the same time it was wonderful that
-nobody was damaged.
-
-When the people in Wakatimi saw what was going on in the camp they
-began to yell with excitement, and in a few seconds twenty or more
-canoes packed with men came paddling madly across the river; they were
-so excited that some of them upset the canoes, a thing they very seldom
-do, and they had to swim to the shore. For ten minutes or so the camp
-was a pandemonium. About two hundred raving lunatics were dashing madly
-from one house to another and carrying off boxes, sacks, mosquito nets,
-cases of empty bottles, bits of iron, tables, beds, mats and everything
-they could possibly move. They howled and raved and fought like wild
-beasts in a manner horrible to see.
-
-Several women came over and danced and sang in a canoe just in front
-of the camp, while the crowd of people who had not been able to find a
-place in the canoes shrieked from the opposite bank. When they could
-carry no more, they loaded their canoes to the brim with miscellaneous
-cargoes and went back across the river to the village. There they
-at once began to squabble over the spoils, and the last we heard of
-Wakatimi, as darkness came down, were the shrill shrieks of quarrelsome
-women and the angry shouts of men.
-
-[Sidenote: THE LAST OF NEW GUINEA]
-
-New Guinea treated us kindly in farewell, and we steamed down the river
-in a glorious starlight, the kind of night which many people think is
-usual in the tropics, but is in fact most lamentably rare. We left
-Cramer on board the _Mataram_ and went on to the _Zwaan_, where we
-soon were lulled to sleep by the pleasant music of the screw. Early the
-next morning a dull cloud on the northern horizon was our last view of
-New Guinea, and before night we had reached civilisation again in the
-anchorage of Dobo.
-
-[Illustration: NEAR BULELING. ISLAND OF BALI.]
-
-Two days later we came to the Ké Islands and went ashore to visit the
-Catholic Mission at Toeal. There is nothing of great interest to see
-there except the magnificent “iron wood” timber, which is cut in the
-forests of the larger island, and is used for boat-building; it is
-obtained in larger pieces than teak, and it is said to be equally good.
-The fathers occupy themselves with carpentry and boat-building and with
-teaching a class of small children. The few people whom we saw appeared
-to be of a mixed Malay-Papuan race and were dressed in unspeakably
-dirty clothes.
-
-From Toeal we went on to Banda, where we spent a day of pouring rain,
-a great pity, for a walk through the nutmeg woods of Banda is one of
-the pleasantest excursions in the islands, and a day later we dropped
-anchor in the harbour of Amboina.
-
-It will be fitting to remark here that on the outward journey from Java
-to New Guinea and on our return from the Mimika to Amboina, the members
-of the expedition were the guests of the Netherlands Government. The
-thanks of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs have been conveyed
-to the captains of the ships and to the other officials, who helped the
-expedition in a hundred different ways.
-
-At Amboina, where we waited a few days for the arrival of a steamer
-to Singapore, we parted with Cramer, who was prevented by a sharp
-attack of fever from coming with us. He was the one other man, beside
-Rawling, Marshall and myself, who remained with the expedition from
-the beginning to the end, and it is not paying him an empty compliment
-to say that few other people would have managed more successfully than
-he did to live with a party of foreigners in circumstances, which were
-often exceedingly difficult.
-
-We sailed from Amboina on April 17th in the mail steamer _Van
-Riebeeck_, and amongst our fellow-passengers we found Captain Van der
-Bie and Lieut. Van der Wenn (Netherlands Navy), both of whom were
-returning to Java invalided from the expedition to the Island River in
-New Guinea. The expedition had penetrated a long way into the interior
-of the country, but all the Europeans fell ill and the expedition was
-withdrawn a few months later.
-
-After calling at Macassar we went South past the Postilion Islands to
-the little known island of Sumbawa, where we went ashore for a few
-hours at Sumbawa Pesar. It looked a pretty country with well-wooded
-hills and level cultivated plains. We were much struck by the
-appearance of the natives, who have a longer type of face and a much
-fairer skin than any other of the Malay races I have seen. The men all
-go armed with a _kris_, and they smoke cigars of an incredible length.
-
-[Sidenote: ISLAND OF BALI]
-
-From Sumbawa we steamed along the Northern shore of Lombok, from whose
-Peak (12,000 feet), the clouds rolled off magnificently at sunset, and
-early the next morning we came into the harbour of Buleling in the
-island of Bali. There we took a native carriage (_sado_), and drove a
-few miles out into the country to see a very interesting Hindu temple,
-where there are some remarkable good stone carvings, which shew signs
-of being carefully tended. The Hindu religion still survives, though
-it cannot be said to flourish, both in this island and in Lombok. The
-native villages that we saw have quite characteristic features of their
-own; they are surrounded by a high mud wall with a brick coping and
-are guarded by a swarm of fiercely barking dogs. Inside the wall, if
-you are bold enough to enter, you find a neatly swept compound, round
-the sides of which are well-made dwelling-houses, and in the middle
-are granaries of rice; both the houses and the granaries are raised on
-posts several feet above the ground and all are neatly thatched with
-rice straw. In the corner of the compound is a place set apart for a
-number of little stone shrines, some of them very elaborately carved,
-in which votive offerings of flowers and fruit are placed.
-
-The Balinese seem to be a sturdy and industrious people; they have
-a free and independent appearance, very different from that of
-their somewhat grovelling neighbours, the Javanese. The roads are
-picturesquely lined with shady trees, and a very pleasant feature
-of them is the number of little mouse-coloured ponies, which carry
-panniers on a high-peaked saddle and are the coolies of Bali; most of
-them have an elaborate leather harness and many carry a large number of
-little bells, which make a pretty music along the roads. They appear to
-be hungry little animals, and they have the rare and valuable faculty
-of being able to eat out of a basket tied round their necks as they
-walk along. The country, what little we saw of it, looks extremely
-prosperous, and the beauty of the cultivated lands, interrupted here
-and there by groves of trees and backed by mountains, is beyond dispute.
-
-From Bali to Java is only a few hours’ steaming, and from Batavia
-another ship brought us to Singapore, where we arrived on May 2nd. A
-month later we landed in England and the English Expedition to Dutch
-New Guinea, 1910-11, was a thing of the past.
-
-[Sidenote: THE END]
-
-It is not easy to put down in words what were our thoughts on our
-homeward journey from the Mimika River to Plymouth Sound. Naturally
-enough there were feelings of pleasant anticipation in returning to
-the comforts of civilised life, and there were feelings of profound
-thankfulness that we had left behind us neither our bones nor our
-health, as too many others less fortunate had done. There was also
-a sense of (I think pardonable) satisfaction at having accomplished
-something; the surveyors had made an accurate map of a large tract of
-quite unknown country; the naturalists had made valuable collections
-of birds and animals, and some most interesting races of men had been
-visited and studied.
-
-But beneath these was another feeling of vague disappointment. We
-had set out full of hope, if not of confidence, of reaching the Snow
-Mountains, and the disappointment of not having set foot on them was
-aggravated by the fact that we had been so long in sight of them. It
-was exasperating beyond words to see the mountains month after month
-only forty miles away and not to be able to move a foot in their
-direction; to study them so that we came to know the changing patches
-of lower snow and almost the very crevasses in the glaciers, and still
-to be forced to be content with looking and longing for “the hills and
-the snow upon the hills.”
-
-To look for fifteen months at that great rock precipice, and those long
-fields of snow untrodden yet by foot of man, to anticipate the delight
-of attaining to the summits and to wonder what would be seen beyond
-them on the other side, those were pleasures that kept one’s hopes
-alive through long periods of dull inaction. The aching disappointment
-of turning back and leaving the mountains as remote and as mysterious
-as they were before words of mine cannot express; but happily there is
-always comfort to be found in the reflexion that
-
-  “Some falls are means the happier to arise.”
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX A
-
-
-NOTES ON THE BIRDS COLLECTED; BY THE B.O.U. EXPEDITION TO DUTCH NEW
-GUINEA
-
-BY W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT
-
-Our knowledge of the Birds of New Guinea is based mainly on Count
-T. Salvadori’s monumental work _Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle
-Molluche_, which appeared in three large volumes in 1880-82, and on
-his _Aggiunte_ to the above work published in three parts in 1887-89.
-Since that date our knowledge of the avi-fauna has vastly increased and
-a very large number of splendid Birds-of-Paradise and other remarkable
-new species have been discovered.
-
-A list of the principal works subsequently published, placed in
-chronological order, will be found at the end of this chapter,
-the most important papers being no doubt those by the Hon. Walter
-Rothschild and Dr. E. Hartert, which have appeared from time to time
-in the Tring Museum periodical _Novitates Zoologicæ_. Mr. Rothschild
-is to be congratulated on the success which has attended the efforts
-of his various collectors in New Guinea and on the energy which he
-has displayed in obtaining birds from unknown districts of the most
-interesting island in the world.
-
-To give in a single chapter a brief and partly scientific, partly
-popular, summary of the ornithological work accomplished by our
-Expedition in Dutch New Guinea is a more difficult task than might be
-imagined, for there is not only an immense number of species to be
-dealt with, but in most instances very little is known about their
-habits. The jungles of South-western New Guinea are so dense that
-white men can scarcely traverse them, and most of the collecting had
-to be done by the trained natives from the Malay Peninsula, kindly
-supplied by Mr. H. C. Robinson, and by the Gurkhas who accompanied the
-Expedition.
-
-By dealing with each family in turn, I shall endeavour to refer to all
-the more important species in the collection in their proper scientific
-order, briefly describing some of the more beautiful, so that those
-without any special knowledge of birds may, if they care to do so, form
-some idea of the marvellous types which have been brought home from the
-interior of South-western New Guinea.
-
-It is certain that the resources of that wonderful island are not
-nearly exhausted: on the contrary, every fresh collecting expedition
-sent to the interior produces remarkable novelties, and large chains
-of high mountains are still unexplored. The members of our Expedition
-were fortunate in procuring no less than 2,200 skins of birds in
-New Guinea, representing about 235 species, of which ten proved to
-be new to Science. A number of new birds were also obtained by the
-late Mr. Wilfred Stalker in the mountains of Ceram, which he visited
-before joining the main Expedition at Amboina. His premature death by
-drowning, a few days after he landed in New Guinea, was an immense
-loss to the Expedition, though his place was ably filled by Mr. Claude
-Grant, who worked with his characteristic zeal and enthusiasm.
-
-It will be noticed that the great bulk of the birds inhabiting New
-Guinea belong to a comparatively small number of families, but that
-each of these is represented by a large number of different species,
-especially in such groups as the Pigeons, Parrots, Flycatchers, and
-Honey-eaters.
-
-Amongst the Pigeons of which no fewer than twenty-seven different kinds
-were obtained, it would seem as though, in some instances at least,
-Nature had almost come to the end of her resources in devising new
-and wonderful arrangements of colour and markings; for in some of the
-smaller Fruit-Pigeons, such as _Ptilopus gestroi_ and _P. zonurus_ we
-find two perfectly distinct species, occurring side by side, possessing
-almost exactly the same remarkable scheme of colouration, and only
-differing in certain minor points to be found in the markings of the
-wing-coverts. Another very similar instance is to be seen in _Ptilopus
-coronulatus_ and _P. nanus_ almost the same colours and pattern being
-repeated in both.
-
-The collection obtained by our expedition is a very valuable one,
-and has added many new and interesting forms of bird-life to the
-incomparable series in the Natural History Museum, to which the bulk
-of the specimens have been presented by the subscribers. A large
-proportion of the birds were obtained at low elevations from sea-level
-to 2,000 feet, only a comparatively small number being procured at
-from 3000-4000 feet. It is to be regretted that the immense physical
-difficulties encountered and other causes prevented our collectors from
-reaching a higher zone between 5000 and 10,000 feet, where no doubt
-much of interest remains to be discovered by those who are fortunate
-enough to get there.
-
-TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SPECIES COLLECTED AND THE FAMILIES TO WHICH
-THEY BELONG
-
-
-                                                                   No. of
-  Family.                                                         species.
-
-  _Corvidæ_           Crows                                              2
-  _Paradiseidæ_       Birds-of-Paradise, Bower-Birds and Manucodes      13
-  _Eulabetidæ_        Tree-Starlings                                     4
-  _Dicruridæ_         Drongos                                            2
-  _Oriolidæ_          Orioles                                            1
-  _Ploceidæ_          Weaver-Finches                                     1
-  _Motacillidæ_       Wagtails                                           2
-  _Meliphagidæ_       Honey-eaters                                      26
-  _Nectariniidæ_      Sun-birds                                          2
-  _Dicæidæ_           Flower-peckers                                     2
-  _Zosteropidæ_       White-eyes                                         1
-  _Laniidæ_           Shrikes                                            8
-  _Prionopidæ_        Wood-Shrikes                                       4
-  _Artamidæ_          Swallow-Shrikes                                    1
-  _Timeliidæ_         Babblers                                           4
-  _Campophagidæ_      Cuckoo-Shrikes                                    11
-  _Muscicapidæ_       Flycatchers                                       30
-  _Hirundinidæ_       Swallows                                           2
-  _Pittidæ_           Pittas or Ant-Thrushes                             2
-  _Cuculidæ_          Cuckoos                                           11
-  _Cypselidæ_         Swifts                                             4
-  _Caprimulgidæ_      Nightjars                                          2
-  _Podargidæ_         Frog-mouths                                        3
-  _Bucerotidæ_        Hornbills                                          1
-  _Meropidæ_          Bee-eaters                                         1
-  _Coraciidæ_         Rollers                                            2
-  _Alcedinidæ_        Kingfishers                                       11
-  _Psittacidæ_        Parrots                        }                  22
-  _Loriidæ_           Lories or Brush-tongued Parrots}
-  _Bubonidæ_          Horned and Wood-Owls                               1
-  _Falconidæ_         Eagles and Hawks                                  7
-  _Phalacrocoracidæ_  Cormorants                                         1
-  _Anatidæ_           Ducks                                              2
-  _Ibididæ_           Ibises                                             1
-  _Ardeidæ_           Herons                                             4
-  _Œdicnemidæ_        Stone-Plovers                                      1
-  _Charadriidæ_       Plovers                                            8
-  _Laridæ_            Gulls and Terns                                    2
-  _Rallidæ_           Rails                                              1
-  _Columbidæ_         Pigeons                                           26
-  _Megapodiidæ_       Megapodes or Mound-builders                        3
-  _Casuariidæ_        Cassowaries                                        3
-                                                                        —-
-                                                                 Total 235
-
-
-From the above table it will be seen that out of 235 species procured,
-150 are included in eight of the Families; _viz._ Birds-of-Paradise
-13; Honey-eaters 26; Cuckoo-Shrikes 11; Flycatchers 30; Cuckoos, 11;
-Kingfishers 11; Parrots, 22; Pigeons, 26.
-
-
-FAMILY _CORVIDAÆ_—CROWS.
-
-Though the true Crows are never brightly coloured birds, many are
-extremely handsome, but this epithet cannot be applied to the
-Bare-faced Crow (_Gymnocorax senex_) which is common on the Mimika
-River and distributed over New Guinea generally.
-
-The adult is brownish-black with a slight purplish or bluish gloss
-on the wings, but is generally in worn and shabby plumage. Even when
-freshly moulted it is rather a disreputable looking bird, its naked
-pink face, pale watery blue eyes, slate-coloured bill and livid feet
-adding to its dissipated appearance. Young birds in their first year’s
-plumage are even plainer than their parents, being dull drab-brown
-inclining to brownish-white on the head and neck, and appear to be clad
-in sackcloth and ashes. They have a weak uncrow-like call pitched in a
-high key and their flight is feeble and seldom sustained.
-
-In addition to this Crow of unprepossessing appearance, there is
-a handsome Raven (_Corvus orru_), much like our familiar bird but
-smaller, which was met with in pairs on the coast.
-
-
-FAMILY _PARADISEIDÆ_—BIRDS-OF-PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS.
-
-Closely allied to the well-known Greater Bird-of-Paradise (_Paradisea
-apoda_) from the Aru Islands is the New Guinea form _P. novæ-guineæ_,
-the males being distinguished by their smaller size and by having the
-long ornamental side-plumes of a much richer orange-yellow. Though
-the call of this bird was frequently heard on the upper parts of the
-Mimika, it was rarely seen; but on the Wataikwa quite a number were
-procured in all stages of plumage. The species was, however, nowhere
-plentiful and confined to the foot-hills.
-
-The Pygmies often brought plumes of the Lesser Bird-of-Paradise (_P.
-minor_) to Parimau and traded them with the natives, but the species
-was not found on the Mimika, the Charles Louis mountains probably
-forming its southern boundary.
-
-My account of the display of that species, as witnessed in the
-Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, will be found in the _Ibis_, 1905,
-p. 429, accompanied by various drawings and a coloured plate by Mr. G.
-E. Lodge. The display resembles that of the Greater Bird-of-Paradise
-(_P. apoda_) and the Red Bird-of-Paradise (_P. raggiana_) and no doubt
-also that of _P. novæ-guineæ_. It is a wonderful and beautiful sight to
-see these birds erect their splendid side-plumes in an arch over the
-back, which is concealed in a shivering cascade of colour, orange and
-white, or red according to the species.
-
-Numbers of the beautiful little King Bird-of-Paradise (_Cicinnurus
-regius_) were brought home in all stages of plumage from the young to
-the fully adult male, with its scarlet head, shading into glittering
-carmine on the back and wings and into purplish-carmine on the throat,
-which is bordered below by a rich dark green band. The sides of the
-chest are ornamented with fan-like arrangements of grey feathers
-tipped with glittering golden green; the breast and the rest of the
-under-parts are of the purest white: the outer tail-feathers are
-earthy-brown edged with orange-red, while the middle pair, which cross
-one another, have the bare shafts enormously lengthened, and terminate
-in a tightly curled disc, golden green above and reddish-brown beneath.
-
-These beautiful ornaments are seen to the greatest advantage when
-the King is displaying, the green-tipped fan-like feathers on the
-sides and the white feathers of the breast being spread out to form a
-circular shield in front of the bird, while the green metallic discs
-of the long middle tail-feathers are erected and waved overhead. An
-interesting description of the display of this species is given by Sir
-William Ingram in the _Ibis_, 1907, p. 225, with a coloured plate and
-figures drawn by Mr. G. E. Lodge from a living specimen.
-
-Mr. Walter Goodfellow made an interesting observation on the habits of
-this species. While watching some Pigeons on the opposite bank of the
-river through his glasses he saw a small bird rise from the top of a
-tree and soar into the air like a Sky-Lark. After it had risen about 30
-feet, it suddenly seemed to collapse and dropped back into the tree as
-though it had been shot. It proved to be a King Bird-of-Paradise and
-probably this soaring habit is a part of the display not indulged in by
-captive birds confined in comparatively small cages.
-
-A Rifle-Bird (_Ptilorhis magnifica_) was fairly common both on the
-coast and near the mountains and its call consisting of two long-drawn
-notes, one ascending, the other descending, might be heard at all
-hours of the day. Its plumage is mostly velvety black on the head and
-upper-parts, but the crown, middle of the throat and chest, as well as
-the middle pair of tail-feathers, are metallic blue and a bronze-green
-band separates the chest from the deep purplish-maroon under-parts. The
-outer flight feathers are curiously pointed and strongly falcate and
-some of the side-feathers terminate in long, narrow decomposed plumes.
-The long curved bill and the legs are black, while the inside of the
-mouth is pale apple-green as is the case in several other species of
-Paradise-Birds.
-
-Though a well-known species, we must not omit to mention the splendid
-Twelve-wired Bird-of-Paradise (_Seleucides niger_). The plumage of the
-male is like dark brown plush shot with bronze-green on the back and
-deep violet on the wings, while the long dark breast-feathers are
-edged with rich metallic emerald-green. The long ornamental side-plumes
-and the rest of the under-parts are beautiful bright cinnamon-yellow
-when freshly moulted, but this colour is so volatile that it soon fades
-to nearly white in skins which have been kept for a few years. The
-shafts of six of the long side-plumes on either side extend far beyond
-the vane of the feather and look like twelve recurved wires, hence
-the bird’s popular name. The eye is crimson, the bill black, the gape
-bright apple-green, and the legs and toes yellowish flesh-colour.
-
-The Expedition procured three examples of a new form of _Parotia_ or
-Six-plumed Paradise-Bird on the Iwaka River, but unfortunately did not
-succeed in shooting a fully adult male. Simultaneously A. S. Meek, who
-was collecting for Mr. Rothschild, procured specimens of the same bird
-on the Oetakwa River a few miles to the east, but he likewise did not
-secure the fully adult male. The species has been named _Parotia carolæ
-meeki_ by Mr. Rothschild.
-
-The plumage of this bird is like brownish-black plush and equally soft
-to the touch. The head is ornamented very wonderfully; on either side
-behind the eye there are three long racket-like plumes on long bare
-shafts, (a character common to all the members of this remarkable
-genus of Paradise-Birds): the middle of the crown is of a beautiful
-“old” gold colour in a setting of silvery white and golden brown: on
-the occiput there is a marvellous patch of stiff metal-like feathers,
-golden-green bordered with deep violet; the sides of the head before
-and behind the eye are golden-brown, the chin and upper part of the
-throat deep brown, and the lower part whitish, spotted with rufous.
-A lovely metallic breast-plate of bronze-green and violet feathers
-with dark middles covers the chest and the long flank-feathers are
-white. The two outer flight feathers are curiously attenuated near the
-extremity and terminate in a sharp point, the shaft bearing only a very
-narrow web. No doubt all these ornaments are displayed in a similar
-manner to those of _P. lawesi_ from British New Guinea, males of which
-have been living for some years in the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s
-Park.
-
-Another very handsome species is the Golden-winged _Diphyllodes
-chrysoptera_. The male has the bill and a bare space behind the eye
-bluish-white, the inside of the mouth apple-green and the feet Prussian
-blue. The head is clad in short velvety reddish-brown feathers with
-two metallic green spots between the eyes; the nape bears a frill of
-lengthened brown-tipped plumes; the mantle is light golden-yellow like
-spun glass and forms a lengthened tippet; the inner secondary quills
-and shoulder-feathers are orange-yellow, and the back carmine and dull
-orange shading into sooty black on the upper tail-coverts. The throat
-is deep velvety brown, the neck and breast rich dark green bordered
-below with metallic bluish-green, and with a row of metallic green
-bars like steps down the middle of the neck and chest; the rest of the
-under-parts are black. The short outer tail-feathers are sooty brown,
-while the middle pair which cross one another are very long and narrow
-and of a metallic bluish-green. The female is very soberly clad, dull
-brown above and narrowly barred with brown and buff below.
-
-The Bower-Birds have received their name from their peculiar habit of
-constructing bowers or runs where the males meet to play or pay their
-court to the females. The bowers are built long before the birds begin
-to build their nests which are placed in trees.
-
-One of the most noteworthy species procured by the Expedition was the
-gorgeously coloured Bower-Bird, _Xanthomelus ardens_. The male has the
-eye yellow and the head, sides of the neck and mantle orange-scarlet,
-the feathers of the latter being very long and loose and forming
-a dense cape; the rest of the plumage is orange-yellow above and
-golden-yellow below: the ends of the quills and the tail-feathers,
-being black.
-
-The female has the iris brown and is more sombrely clad, the head and
-upper-parts, including the wings and tail, being earthy-brown, while
-the under-parts, under wing-coverts and wing-lining, are yellow, like
-those of the male, but less bright.
-
-This beautiful species was originally described from an imperfect
-native-made skin obtained by the Italian naturalist, D’Albertis, on
-the Fly River. Subsequently, Dr. H. A. Lorentz shot two adult males on
-the Noord River, which were described and figured by Dr. Van Oort. Our
-expedition was fortunate enough to secure not only adult males, but
-also the immature male and adult female, these latter being hitherto
-unknown.
-
-The display of the male bird must be a very beautiful sight, his
-scarlet cape being no doubt erected, and forming a great hood over the
-head.
-
-Among the Bower-Birds, one of the most interesting was a remarkable
-female example of a species of _Chlamydodera_ procured on the Kamura
-River. Unlike any of the allied forms, it has the under-surface washed
-with yellow, and appears to be the female of _C. lauterbachi_, of which
-the brilliantly coloured male was described by Dr. Reichenow from an
-example procured in German New Guinea.
-
-The male has the crown and sides of the face golden-orange, the
-upper-parts olive-brown, edged with yellowish, and the under-parts
-bright yellow. It is a very striking bird and much the most brightly
-coloured member of the genus.
-
-Though the two specimens were obtained in localities so far apart,
-there seems to be no reason why they should not be male and female of
-the same species. The female obtained by the Expedition possesses many
-characteristics in common with the male type of _C. lauterbachi_ and
-the differences in plumage are just what one would expect to find in
-the female of that species.
-
-The beautiful Cat-bird (_Ælurœdus stonei_) was fairly plentiful, and
-is remarkable on account of its peculiar colouring. The cap is brown,
-the back grass-green, and the neck and under-parts buff, spotted with
-black, or green on the longer flank-feathers. The eye is hazel and the
-bill and legs slate-blue. The sexes are alike in plumage. It derives
-its popular name from its peculiar hissing alarm note, not unlike the
-sound made by an angry cat.
-
-Of the Manucodes, four different kinds were met with. They are all
-crow-like birds with brilliant metallic black plumage glossed with
-purple, green or blue, and form a link between the Paradise-Birds and
-the true Crows. The Purple-and-Violet Manucode (_Phonygama jamesi_) is
-distinguished by possessing tufts of long, narrow metallic green plumes
-behind the eye, and by having the neck-feathers similarly lengthened;
-while the other three belonging to the genus _Manucodia_ have the head
-and neck covered with short curly feathers. These curly-headed species
-are much alike in general appearance, but _M. orientalis_ has the short
-curly feathers on the chest and breast glittering golden-green, while
-in _M. jobiensis_ and _M. altera_ the same parts are dark steel-blue.
-_Inter se_ the two latter kinds differ considerably, both structurally
-and in colour. _M. jobiensis_ is smaller and has the feathers of
-the throat rounded and crinkled, and the upper-parts glossed with
-a strong shade of violet; while _M. altera_ is larger and has the
-throat-feathers short but rather pointed, and the general colour above
-purplish-blue or steel-blue.
-
-In most of the Manucodes the trachea is very long and convoluted, that
-of the Purple-and-Violet species possessing no fewer than twelve coils
-which lie between the skin and the pectoral muscles. In spite of this
-marvellous instrument its cries are not nearly so loud as those of the
-Birds-of-Paradise of the genus _Paradisea_.
-
-Mr. Claude Grant discovered a nest of _M. altera_ with two eggs at
-Parimau, an interesting find, as no properly authenticated eggs of that
-species had hitherto been obtained.
-
-
-FAMILY _EULABETIDÆ_—TREE-STARLINGS.
-
-Among the smaller Glossy Starlings we must specially mention a new
-species, _Calornis mystacea_, discovered by the Expedition. It has the
-plumage purplish-bronze and is especially remarkable in having long
-semi-erect plumes on the forehead as well as long neck-hackles. Three
-specimens were obtained flying in company with large flocks of _C.
-metallica_, a rather widely distributed species, which ranges to North
-Australia, the Moluccas and the Solomon Islands.
-
-The Grackles or Talking Starlings are represented by two lovely
-species, the first being the well-known Dumont’s Grackle (_Mino
-dumonti_) a dark glossy greenish-black bird with a yellow belly and
-white under tail-coverts. It has a brown eye surrounded by a large
-naked orange patch partially covered with short stiff filaments. The
-second species Robertson’s Golden Grackle (_Melanopyrrhus robertsoni_)
-is an equally handsome, but much rarer bird, and the fine series of
-adults obtained by the Expedition proves that it is a species quite
-distinct from _M. orientalis_, the form found in British New Guinea
-which has a large black patch on the occiput.
-
-Robertson’s Grackle has the cheeks and upper part of the throat, as
-well as the back, wings and breast, black glossed with green; the rest
-of the head, neck and chest, as well as the lower back, rump, upper
-tail-coverts and belly, are orange-yellow. In the adult there is no
-trace of a black patch on the occiput, but the quite young bird has the
-entire crown black and specimens which have not assumed the fully adult
-plumage and still retain some black feathers on the occiput might be
-mistaken for _M. orientalis_. That they have been is proved by the fact
-that Count Salvadori and many others have regarded _M. robertsoni_,
-Sharpe, as a synonym of _M. orientalis_, Schlegel, but they are really
-quite distinct.
-
-A few very high trees left standing near the huts at Wakatimi were
-the resort, morning and evening, of these Starlings and various other
-species of birds. For a long time during the hot mid-day hours Mr.
-Goodfellow had observed that some bird, possessing a remarkably sweet
-Thrush-like song, rested there, and, after many days of watching, he
-found it to be Robertson’s Golden Grackle. He says that the notes of
-this Starling would not pass unnoticed, even in countries where the
-birds, as a rule, have sweeter voices than those inhabiting New Guinea.
-
-
-FAMILY _DICRURIDÆ_—DRONGOS.
-
-The Drongos, small Crow-like Flycatchers with pugnacious habits, are
-represented in the collection by two species—_Chibia carbonaria_ and
-_Chælorhynchus papuensis_.
-
-
-FAMILY _ORIOLIDÆ_—ORIOLES.
-
-The Orioles are represented by one species only, _Mimeta striata_,
-belonging to the dull coloured brown-backed group with heavily
-streaked under-parts and the sexes alike in plumage. It was commonest
-in the mangrove swamps near the coast.
-
-
-FAMILY _PLOCEIDÆ_—WEAVER-BIRDS.
-
-This widely distributed group of Weaver-Finches is not very numerous in
-New Guinea and the only representative met with was a small species,
-_Munia tristissima_, which was common in the clearing round the camp at
-Wakatimi.
-
-
-FAMILY _MOTACILLIDÆ_—WAGTAILS.
-
-The Grey Wagtail (_Motacilla melanope_) and the Blue-headed Wagtail
-(_M. flava_) were both met with on the Mimika and other rivers. It
-is interesting to note that both species are included in the British
-List, the former being a regular breeding-species in our islands. The
-birds wintering in far-off New Guinea, no doubt formed part of the
-eastern colonies of these species which nest in Siberia and visit the
-Indo-Malayan Islands in winter.
-
-
-FAMILY _MELIPHAGIDÆ_—HONEY-EATERS.
-
-The Honey-eaters are very numerously represented in South-western New
-Guinea and no fewer than twenty-seven species were met with by our
-Expedition.
-
-The family is divided in two sections, the first including the
-comparatively brightly coloured genus _Myzomela_ the members of which
-resemble true Sun-birds (_Nectariniidæ_) in general appearance.
-Seven species were met with; the most brilliantly coloured being _M.
-cruentata_ which has the plumage of the body scarlet and the wings
-washed with the same colour, another species _M. obscura_ has the
-entire plumage smoky-grey, and four forms are intermediate between
-these two types of colouration, being partly scarlet and partly grey.
-The seventh is a very small and very rare species (_Œdistoma
-pygmæum_), which was described by Count Salvadori from the Arfak
-Peninsula.
-
-The other section contains a number of larger species, mostly with
-dull greenish or brownish plumage and nearly all with a yellow tuft or
-patch on the ear-coverts. Though rather uninteresting-looking birds
-several are really of great scientific value, being new to the National
-Collection, and one, _Ptilotis mimikæ_ proved to be new to Science.
-The largest form is the curious Friar-bird (_Philemon novæ-guineæ_)
-with the bare sides of the face and neck black and a swollen knob on
-the base of the bill. It was generally met with in pairs and inhabited
-the tops of the tallest forest trees whence its peculiar cry might
-constantly be heard.
-
-
-FAMILY _NECTARINIIDÆ_—SUN-BIRDS.
-
-The Sun-birds are represented by two species _Cinnyris aspasiæ_ and _C.
-frenata_. The male of the former is deep black with a dark metallic
-green cap, shoulders and lower back, and purple throat, while the
-female is olive above, and dull yellow below, with a grey head and
-throat. The latter species is dull yellow above, brilliant yellow
-below, with a purple throat in the male, which is absent in the female.
-
-Mr. Goodfellow tells us that among the riot of parasitic plants which
-covered the trees a few Sun-birds and Honey-eaters might always be
-seen. The nests of the former, suspended from fallen and partially
-submerged dead trees, were continuously swinging from side to side,
-the strong current in the river keeping the trees in perpetual motion.
-These nests might easily be mistaken for a handful of drift left there
-by the river.
-
-
-FAMILY _DICÆIDÆ_—FLOWER-PECKERS.
-
-_Dicæum diversum_ and _Melanocharis chloroptera_, a dull-looking
-greenish-grey species described by Count Salvadori, were the only
-Flower-peckers met with. They are small Tit-like birds allied to the
-Sun-birds, but with a short bill serrated along the edges of the
-mandibles. Both species were very common everywhere except on the coast
-and were extremely tame.
-
-
-FAMILY _ZOSTEROPIDÆ_—WHITE-EYES.
-
-_Zosterops chrysolæma_, a beautiful little species with the upper-parts
-golden-olive, the throat and under tail-coverts yellow, and the breast
-and belly pure white, was the only species met with of this most
-numerous and widely distributed group. The popular name White-eye is
-derived from the ring of tiny white plumes which encircles the eye in
-all. They resemble Titmice both in their mode of life and notes. The
-only pair observed were met with on the Iwaka River, and the species is
-probably more numerous in the higher parts of the mountains.
-
-
-FAMILY _LANIIDÆ_—SHRIKES.
-
-The large Shrike-like birds with powerful hooked bills known as the
-Piping-Crows are represented by two members of the genus _Cracticus_;
-_C. cassicus_, a black and white species, and _C. quoyi_, with
-uniform black plumage. Both are much like their well-known Australian
-representatives, but smaller. _C. cassicus_ was much the commoner bird
-and was generally observed feeding on berries and fruits in high trees,
-its actions being very Crow-like.
-
-The Pachycephaline group of birds allied to the true Shrikes is
-represented by half-a-dozen species, two of which proved to be
-undescribed: a grey form with a white throat _Pachycephala approximans_
-and a black species with a white breast and belly, _P. dorsalis_.
-Brilliantly coloured orange-yellow and black, or orangeyellow and
-grey species were represented by _Pachycephala aurea_ and _Pachychare
-flavogrisea_.
-
-
-FAMILY _PRIONOPIDÆ_—WOOD-SHRIKES.
-
-This group is represented by _Rhectes cristatus_ and _R. ferrugineus_
-in which both sexes are rufous and by _R. nigripectus_ with the
-sexes different, the male being partly black and partly chestnut.
-_Pinarolestes megarhynchus_, an allied species with the sexes alike,
-is brown above and dull rufous below. Some of these Wood-Shrikes lay
-peculiar looking eggs of a long oval shape and large for the size of
-the bird. The ground-colour is purplish- or pinkish-grey with scattered
-spots or small blotches of dark purplish-brown or maroon-brown, often
-blurred at the edges and running into the ground-colour. These eggs
-have on several occasions been palmed off on travellers in British New
-Guinea as eggs of the Red Bird-of-Paradise, which they do not in any
-way resemble.
-
-
-FAMILY _ARTAMIDÆ_—SWALLOW-SHRIKES.
-
-These birds which closely resemble Swallows in their mode of life are
-represented by one species only, _Artamus leucopygialis_, a grey bird
-with the breast and rump white. It was common along the coast, and was
-generally seen either perched on some dead tree or skimming swiftly
-over the sands.
-
-
-FAMILY _TIMELIIDÆ_—BABBLERS.
-
-We now come to the Timeline group of birds: of these we may mention two
-striking-looking species of _Eupetes_. One, _E. nigricrissus_, with the
-plumage slate-blue and the throat white, edged with black, was met with
-on the Mimika; the other, _E. pulcher_, was only seen further east on
-the Wataikwa River. It is very similar to the above, but has the crown
-and back rich-chestnut, instead of slate. Both species are ground-birds
-and usually found in pairs; they are rather difficult to procure as,
-when disturbed, they instantly conceal themselves among the trunks of
-the trees and vegetation. The Scimitar Babblers were represented by the
-reddish-brown _Pomatorhinus isidori_.
-
-
-FAMILY _CAMPOPHAGIDÆ_—CUCKOO-SHRIKES.
-
-The Cuckoo-Shrikes are well represented in the collection, no fewer
-than eleven species having been obtained. They belong to four genera
-and vary much in colour: the large _Graucalus cæruleogrisea_ has
-the entire plumage bluish-grey, except the axillaries and under
-wing-coverts which are pale cinnamon and the male has a black patch in
-front of eye. Another genus _Edoliisoma_ is represented by _E. melas_
-of which the male is entirely black, and the female chestnut and brown.
-A very attractive and brilliantly coloured species is _Campochæra
-sloetii_, forming a marked contrast to other members of the group. The
-greater part of its plumage is orange-yellow, the forehead white, the
-middle of the crown yellow and the wings black and white; the male has
-the cheeks, throat and chest black glossed with dull green, while in
-the female these parts are dull grey. Several examples of this very
-rare Cuckoo-Shrike were procured on the Mimika River. It is no doubt
-most nearly allied to the Minivets (_Pericrocotus_) which inhabit the
-Indo-Chinese countries and islands, the predominant colour of most of
-the males being scarlet and of the females yellow.
-
-
-FAMILY _MUSCICAPIDÆ_—FLYCATCHERS.
-
-Flycatchers are very numerously represented and among them two
-new forms were discovered, a Fantailed Flycatcher (_Rhipidura
-streptophora_) and a broad-billed species _Myiagra mimikæ_. Among the
-more notable forms we may mention _Monarcha aruensis_, a brilliant
-yellow and black species; _Todopsis bonapartei_, the male being vivid
-ultramarine-blue, purple and black, while the female differs in
-having the back and sides dark chestnut and the breast mostly white;
-lastly _Peltops blainvillei_, a black bird with the rump, vent and
-tail-coverts scarlet, a large white patch on each side of the head and
-another on the middle of the mantle; the sexes are alike in plumage.
-
-The Fan-tailed Flycatchers were commonly seen on the Mimika River
-in May and June when numbers were busy hawking the canary-coloured
-May-flies which swarmed at that time.
-
-The Black-and-white Flycatcher (_Malurus alboscapulatus_) frequented
-the tall grasses near the camp on the Wataikwa River. It was a
-delightful little bird, very tame and might constantly be seen crossing
-the open spaces with an undulating flight.
-
-
-FAMILY _HIRUNDINIDÆ_—SWALLOWS.
-
-Two species of Swallows were met with _Hirundo javanica_ and _H.
-gutturalis_.
-
-
-FAMILY _PITTIDÆ_—PITTAS OR ANT-THRUSHES.
-
-Of the Ant-Thrushes or Pittas two species were met with, both
-brilliantly plumaged birds. _Pitta mackloti_ which was far the commoner
-of the two, has a dark crown, reddish-chestnut nape, and greenish-blue
-upper-parts; the throat is black, the chest shining greyish-blue and
-the breast and belly scarlet, divided from the chest by a wide black
-band.
-
-The other species, _Pitta novæ-guineæ_, which was much less frequently
-met with, has the head and neck black and the rest of the plumage
-dark green washed with bluish on the breast, which is black down the
-middle. The shoulders are shining silvery-blue and the vent and under
-tail-coverts scarlet.
-
-These long-legged Thrush-like birds are entirely terrestrial in their
-habits and frequent the depths of the forests. They can hop with great
-agility and escape on the slightest alarm, but are easily taken in
-snares.
-
-
-FAMILY _CUCULIDÆ_—CUCKOOS.
-
-Among the Cuckoos, the largest is a species of “Crow-pheasant” or
-“Lark-heeled” Cuckoo, _Centropus menebiki_, a bird of black plumage
-glossed with dark green, with a large whitish-horn bill and heavy
-slate-coloured legs and toes.
-
-An allied, but smaller and rarer species, _C. bernsteini_, was met
-with near the mouth of the Mimika. It is very similar in plumage to
-the above, but is easily distinguished by its smaller size, black
-bill and long, nearly straight hind-claw. Both are almost entirely
-ground-birds of skulking habits. Several other species of Cuckoo were
-met with, and among these _Cuculus micropterus_, the eastern form of
-the Common Cuckoo, closely resembling our familiar bird. The rarest
-species obtained was _Microdynamis parva_, a remarkable little Cuckoo
-about the size of a Thrush, first described by Count Salvadori in 1875.
-The origin of the type specimen is uncertain, but it is believed to
-have been obtained by Beccari in the Moluccas. Subsequently, Dr. H. O.
-Forbes procured female examples in the Astrolabe Mountains. Mr. Claude
-Grant obtained an adult male and female which form a valuable addition
-to the National Collection. The general plumage is brown, but in the
-male the top of the head and the malar stripe are black, glossed with
-steel-blue and the cheeks and throat are cinnamon. In both sexes the
-bill is short, thick and curved. The male has the eye bright red, while
-in the female it is hazel.
-
-
-FAMILY _CYPSELIDÆ_—SWIFTS.
-
-The Swifts, though of especial interest, are not very numerously
-represented in the collection. The commonest species was that known as
-the Esculent Swiftlet (_Collocalia fuciphaga_) which produces the best
-kind of edible nest.
-
-A very interesting discovery was the existence in New Guinea of the
-large fork-tailed species _Collocalia whiteheadi_ originally described
-by myself from the highlands of Luzon, Philippine Islands.
-
-A remarkable Spine-tailed Swift (_Chætura novæ-guineæ_) is new to the
-National Collection. It was fairly common on the Mimika River and
-originally described by Count Salvadori from specimens procured by
-D’Albertis on the Fly River.
-
-A pair of the magnificent Moustached Swift (_Macropteryx mystacea_)
-with a wing expanse of more than two feet were also procured. The
-plumage of this bird is mostly grey, but the crown, wings, and long
-deeply-forked tail are black glossed with purplish-blue. The eye-brows
-and moustache-stripes as well as the scapulars are white, the two
-former being composed of lengthened, narrow, pointed plumes. The male
-has a small chestnut spot behind the ear-coverts which is absent in the
-female. The nesting-habits of this species are very curious, it makes a
-very small exposed half-saucer-shaped nest of bark and feathers gummed
-by saliva to a branch or stump barely large enough to contain the
-single white egg, and ridiculously small in comparison with the size of
-the bird. When incubating, the greater part of the bird’s body must
-rest on the branch to which the nest is attached.
-
-
-FAMILIES _CAPRIMULGIDÆ_ AND _PODARGIDÆ_—NIGHTJARS AND FROG-MOUTHS.
-
-The common Nightjar of the country found along the shingly banks of
-the rivers was _Caprimulgus macrurus_, a widely distributed species.
-After the ground had been cleared for the base camp at Wakatimi it was
-visited every evening by a number of Nightjars, which no doubt found
-such a large open space an admirable hunting-ground and the members
-of the Expedition derived great pleasure from watching their graceful
-evolutions. Another very rare Nightjar was _Lyncornis papuensis_,
-not previously included in the National Collection. Frog-mouths were
-represented by the larger species _Podargus papuensis_ and the smaller,
-_P. ocellatus_. At some of the stopping places on the river night was
-made hideous by their mournful cries repeated to distraction on every
-side, and ending up with a sharp snap.
-
-A single example of the rare Wallace’s Owlet-Nightjar (_Ægotheles
-wallacei_) was collected by Mr. G. C. Shortridge on the Wataikwa River.
-It has a peculiar uniform blackish upper plumage, without any trace of
-a distinct nuchal collar. No doubt, like its Australian ally, it roosts
-in holes in trees during the daytime and captures its prey on the wing
-at night, like the true Nightjars, though the flight is said to be less
-tortuous.
-
-
-FAMILY _BUCEROTIDÆ_—HORNBILLS.
-
-The only representative of the _Bucerotidæ_ is the Wreathed Hornbill
-(_Rhytidoceros plicatus_) a large bird with a casque formed of
-overlapping plates on the base of the upper mandible. The male is
-black with the head and neck chestnut and the tail white, while the
-female differs in having the head and neck black. It was plentiful
-everywhere and its flesh was reported to be good eating. It frequented
-the fruit-bearing trees in company with various species of Pigeons and
-Mr. Claude Grant on one or two occasions observed pairs at what he
-took to be their nesting-holes high up in the bare trunks of very tall
-trees. Their heavy noisy flight and raucous call, continually repeated,
-renders these birds difficult to overlook.
-
-
-FAMILY _MEROPIDÆ_—BEE-EATERS.
-
-A species of Bee-eater, _Merops ornata_, was common about the base
-camp. It ranges to Australia, the Moluccas and westwards to the Lesser
-Sunda group. Mr. Goodfellow says it swarmed in some places after the
-month of April; though previous to that date none had been met with.
-
-
-FAMILY _CORACIIDÆ_—ROLLERS.
-
-Two species of Rollers inhabit the Mimika district _Eurystomus
-crassirostris_, a greenish-blue species with brilliant ultramarine
-throat, quills and tail-feathers and vermilion bill and feet; and
-a smaller species _E. australis_ with brownish-green upper-parts,
-verditer-blue breast and bluish-green bases to the tail-feathers.
-
-Both Bee-eaters and Rollers were common in flocks along the banks of
-the Mimika during April and May when preying on the canary-coloured
-May-fly, which swarmed on the waters at that season.
-
-
-FAMILY _ALCEDINIDÆ_—KINGFISHERS.
-
-Kingfishers were well represented in the Mimika district and Mr.
-Goodfellow says that the Sacred Kingfisher (_Halcyon sanctus_) was
-undoubtedly the most conspicuous bird about the base camp, where
-its harsh cry could be heard all through the hot hours of the day.
-The huts and storehouses were infested by myriads of black crickets,
-which take the place of the cockroaches found in other countries
-and commit fearful havoc among stores and personal possessions. The
-constant packing up of goods to send up river drove thousands of these
-insects to seek shelter in other parts of the camp, and, at such times,
-Kingfishers became very tame and darted in and out among the buildings,
-taking advantage of the feast thus afforded. Mr. Claude Grant shot a
-single specimen of the lovely Kingfisher _H. nigrocyanea_, the only one
-obtained. It has the crown, wings, upper tail-coverts, tail, and breast
-dark ultramarine blue, the rump cobalt-blue, the throat and a band
-across the breast pure white, and the remainder of the plumage black.
-Another species met with at the base camp was _H. macleayi_ with purple
-head, wings and tail, verditer-blue back, white lores, collar and
-under-parts, and cinnamon flanks. Only one example of this fine bird
-was procured. Others were the dark purplish-blue and chestnut _Alcyone
-lessoni_, about the size of our Common Kingfisher and the much smaller
-_A. pusilla_ similarly coloured above, but with the under-parts pure
-white.
-
-_Ceyx solitaria_, a closely allied species, with purple spangled
-upper-parts and cinnamon-yellow under-parts was also found on the
-Mimika and Mr. Goodfellow was surprised to find this diminutive
-species which he had believed to be exclusively a fish-eater, greedily
-devouring a canary-coloured May-fly which swarmed on the waters of the
-Mimika during April and May.
-
-On the river a few specimens of the large “Jackass” Kingfisher
-(_Dacelo intermedia_) were obtained, but the species was by no
-means common. The most conspicuous bird was Gaudichaud’s Kingfisher
-(_Sauromarptis gaudichaudi_) and its loud grating call might be heard
-in all directions. The adult is a very handsome bird, the black
-of the upper-parts being relieved by the electric-blue tips to the
-wing-coverts and feathers of the lower back and rump, the wings and
-tail are washed with dull purplish-blue, the throat is white and
-extends in a buff collar round the neck, the under wing-coverts are
-buff and the breast and rest of the under-parts deep chestnut. The
-natives brought numbers of the half-fledged young of this species
-to the base camp during May and June and many were purchased by
-the Javanese soldiers and convicts; but as they fed them on boiled
-rice only, their lives were brief. The great Shoe-billed Kingfisher
-(_Clytoceyx_) was not met with by the members of our Expedition, but
-Dr. Van Oort has described a new form which he calls _Clytoceyx rex
-imperator_, from a specimen procured by Dr. Lorentz on the Noord River.
-Another large species, _Melidora macrorhinus_, with a curious brown
-spotted plumage above was not uncommon; it usually frequented the lower
-branches and undergrowth within a few feet of the ground and when
-disturbed merely mounted to a more conspicuous perch.
-
-The lovely Racquet-tailed species of the genus _Tanysiptera_ were not
-procured, though Dr. H. A. Lorentz met with a specimen on the Noord
-River.
-
-
-FAMILIES _PSITTACIDÆ_ AND _LORIIDÆ_—PARROTS AND LORIES.
-
-Another very numerously represented group is the Parrots of which
-twenty-two different species were procured, varying in size from the
-Great Black Cockatoo (_Microglossus aterrimus_), which is about the
-size of a Raven and has an enormously powerful bill, to the tiny
-Pygmy Parrot (_Nasiterna keiensis_) which is about the size of a
-Golden-crested Wren. This latter species has recently been described
-by Mr. Walter Rothschild as new, under the name of _Nasiterna
-viridipectus_ from specimens obtained by A. S. Meek in the Oetakwa
-district, but they do not seem to differ from the birds found on the
-Kei and Aru Islands and also in the neighbourhood of the Fly River. The
-plumage is green, paler below, the crown dull orange, the shoulders
-spotted with black, the middle-tail feathers blue and the outer pairs
-black with yellow and green tips. A few solitary Black Cockatoos might
-be seen on the lower River, sitting on the tops of the highest trees;
-their loud whistle always attracted attention and even on their high
-perches their red faces and erect crests were conspicuous. The Common
-Cockatoo of the country was _Cacatua triton_, a moderate sized species
-with a yellow crest which was met with in small numbers throughout the
-mangrove belt, but it was a shy bird and when approached always flew
-away, screaming. Lories of different kinds were numerous and included
-some of the most brilliantly coloured species, _Lorius erythrothorax_
-combining in its plumage black, crimson, scarlet, purple, blue, green
-and bright yellow. The adult has the under wing-coverts uniform scarlet
-in marked contrast to the bright yellow inner webs of the primary
-quills, but in younger birds the smaller under wing-coverts are mottled
-with scarlet, blue, black, green and yellow and the long outer series
-are yellow with greyish-black ends, making a dark band at the base of
-the quills. In this stage the bird has been described by Dr. A. B.
-Meyer as _Lorius salvadorii_.
-
-A less brilliantly coloured and more common species in the
-neighbourhood of the Mimika was _Eos fuscatus_ which has the general
-colour above sooty-black shaded on the middle of the crown, neck, etc.
-with reddish-orange and the under-parts widely banded with scarlet.
-A lovely species with a longer tail was _Trichoglossus cyanogrammus_
-which is green with a blue face and greenish-yellow collar, and has the
-scarlet chest-feathers edged with purple, while the belly and flanks
-are yellow barred with green.
-
-The tiniest Lory is _Loriculus meeki_, a minute species, about the
-size of a Blue Titmouse, with brilliant green plumage, orange-yellow
-forehead, and the rump and upper tail-coverts as well as a spot on the
-throat scarlet. The female differs in having the forehead and cheeks
-verditer-green.
-
-The genus _Geoffroyus_ is represented by two species: the commoner _G.
-aruensis_ with the plumage green, the male having the crown and nape
-violet-blue and the rest of the head and neck scarlet, while in the
-female these parts are brown; also the much rarer _G. simplex_ which is
-entirely green with a dull lilac blue ring round the neck. This latter
-is a very rare bird in collections, but was seen on the higher parts
-of the mountains above the Iwaka River in flocks of upwards of twenty
-individuals.
-
-Other small and brilliantly coloured species of Lories are
-_Charmosynopsis pulchella_ and _C. multistriata_, the latter a
-remarkable new species with green plumage, and the whole of the
-under-parts streaked with bright yellow. It was recently described
-by Mr. Rothschild from a male, shot by A. S. Meek on the Oetakwa
-River; a second specimen, a female, was obtained on the Mimika by
-Mr. Goodfellow. We must also mention _Chalcopsittacus scintillans_,
-_Hypocharmosyna placens_, _Charmosyna josephinæ_, the rare
-_Glossopsittacus goldiei_, and three species of _Cyclopsittacus_, viz.
-_C. melanogenys_, which is green with a white throat, black cheeks,
-deep orange breast, and ultramarine wings; _C. diophthalmus_; and _C.
-godmani_, a new and handsome species with the general colour green,
-the head and nape orange-scarlet, the upper mantle orange-yellow, the
-cheeks covered with long, pointed, yellowish feathers, and the chest
-verditer-blue.
-
-Behind the camp at Wakatimi lay a swamp which Mr. Goodfellow tells
-us was every night the roosting-place of thousands of Lories, chiefly
-_Eos fuscatus_, and there were also smaller flocks of _Trichoglossus
-cyanogrammus_. Long before sunset and until it was quite dusk flocks
-of many hundred birds coming from all directions flew over with a
-deafening noise. Often some weak branch would give way under their
-weight, causing a panic just as the noise was beginning to subside,
-and clouds of these birds would again circle around, seeking a fresh
-roosting place and keeping up a continual din.
-
-One of the most peculiar Parrots, and bearing a marked external
-resemblance to the Kea of New Zealand, is the Vulturine Parrot
-(_Dasyptilus pesqueti_) which has the black skin of the face almost
-entirely bare, the plumage black and scarlet on the wings, rump and
-belly, the breast feathers having pale sandy margins. Its hoarse,
-grating call, quite unlike that of any other species, could be heard
-a long way off, and was continually uttered when on the wing. Mr.
-Goodfellow says it usually moves about in parties of four or five
-individuals, and that occasionally as many as seven may be seen
-together. When not feeding they always select the tallest trees to
-rest in, preferring dead ones which tower about the general level of
-the jungle, and in which they remain for hours at a time in rain or
-sunshine. They do not climb after the usual manner of Parrots, but jump
-from branch to branch with a jerky movement, like the Lories, and with
-a rapid flicking movement of the wings. They feed entirely on soft
-fruits, chiefly wild figs. Apparently the species feeds on the plains
-and retires to the mountains to roost, for every evening flocks or
-pairs were observed passing high over the camp at Parimau, and making
-their way towards the Saddle-peak range.
-
-A handsome new Parroquet of the genus _Aprosmictus_ was discovered, and
-has been named _A. wilhelminæ_, in honour of the Queen of Holland. The
-male has the head, neck and under-parts scarlet, the wings green, with
-a pale yellow green band across the coverts, the mantle and back mostly
-deep purplish-blue, and the tail black tinged with purplish.
-
-Finally, the Eclectus Parrot (_Eclectus pectoralis_) was common. The
-remarkable difference in the colouration of the sexes might lead some
-to believe that they belonged to quite different species, the male
-being mostly green with scarlet sides and under wing-coverts, while
-the female is maroon with the head, neck and breast scarlet, and the
-mantle, belly, sides and under wing-coverts blue.
-
-
-FAMILIES _BUBONIDÆ_ AND _STRIGIDÆ_—WOOD-OWLS AND BARN-OWLS.
-
-The only Owl of which examples were obtained was a small species of
-Brown Hawk-Owl (_Ninox theomaca_), with the upper-parts, back, wings
-and tail uniform dark brown, and the under-parts deep chestnut. It was
-a strictly nocturnal species, and confined to the jungle along the
-base of the mountains, where its weird double call “yon-yon” might
-constantly be heard after dark.
-
-A form of the Barn-Owl (_Strix novæ-hollandiæ_), which occurs in the
-district, was not obtained by the Expedition.
-
-
-FAMILY _FALCONIDÆ_—EAGLES AND HAWKS.
-
-New Guinea possesses a very remarkable Harpy-Eagle (_Harpyopsis
-novæ-guineæ_) allied to the Harpy Eagles of America and to the Great
-Monkey-eating Eagle (_Pithecophaga jefferyi_) which inhabits the
-forests of the Philippine Islands. The New Guinea bird is like a
-large Goshawk, having a long tail and comparatively short and rounded
-wings; the feet are armed with very powerful claws, but in strength
-and power it is far inferior to its great Philippine ally or to the
-still more powerful species inhabiting Central America. Mr. Claude
-Grant says that this species was seldom met with; it has a rather
-loud cry and a beautiful soaring flight, often in ascending circles.
-Besides this large Eagle, two species of Goshawk _Astur etorques_
-and _A. poliocephalus_ were met with, likewise a small chestnut and
-white Brahminy Kite (_Haliastur girrenera_). A small Sparrow-Hawk was
-obtained near the mouth of the Mimika River, but being in immature
-plumage its identification is at present uncertain. Reinwardt’s
-Cuckoo-Falcon (_Baza reinwardti_) with a crested head and banded
-breast, was rather a rare bird and appears to feed largely on insects.
-
-
-FAMILY _PHALACROCORACIDÆ_—CORMORANTS.
-
-The small black-backed white-breasted species _Phalacrocorax
-melanoleucus_ is the only representative of this group. Several
-specimens were shot on the upper waters of the Mimika, at Parimau and
-at the base camp at Wakatimi.
-
-
-FAMILY _ANATIDÆ_—DUCKS.
-
-The handsome white-necked Sheld-duck (_Tadorna radjah_) differs from
-the Australian form in being much darker on the back, the plumage being
-practically black with indistinct mottlings of dull rufous on the
-mantle. This dark form, found also in the Moluccas, was common about
-the mouth of the Mimika River. The more rufous-backed Australian form
-has been named _T. rufitergum_ by Dr. Hartert.
-
-The only other species of duck brought home was an immature male
-Garganey (_Querquedula discors_) shot on the Kapare River.
-
-
-FAMILY _IBIDIDÆ_—IBISES.
-
-The Eastern form of the Sacred Ibis (_Ibis stictipennis_) was met with
-at the mouth of the Mimika. It is easily distinguished from its western
-ally by having the innermost secondaries mottled with black and white.
-
-
-FAMILY _ARDEIDÆ_—HERONS.
-
-Several different species of Herons were procured including the Night
-Heron (_Nycticorax caledonica_); the Yellow-necked Heron (_Dupetor
-flavicollis_); the White Heron (_Herodias timoriensis_); and a
-Tiger-Bittern (_Tigrisoma heliosylus_). The last named is a very fine
-bird with the general colour above black boldly barred with rufous and
-buff; the under-parts buff barred on the neck and chest with black. The
-feathers on the neck and chest are very long and broad and no doubt
-form a most imposing ruff when the bird is displaying.
-
-
-FAMILIES _ŒDICNEMIDÆ_, _CHARADRIIDÆ_ AND _LARIDÆ_—STONE-PLOVERS,
-PLOVERS, AND GULLS.
-
-A number of small wading birds were also procured near the mouth of
-the river, and two species of Terns, but as all belong to well-known,
-widely distributed species, there is no special interest attaching to
-them. I may however mention that the great Australian Curlew (_Numenius
-cyanopus_), and the large Australian Thicknee (_Esacus magnirostris_)
-were among the species found at the mouth of the Mimika.
-
-
-FAMILY _RALLIDÆ_—RAILS.
-
-The only Rail met with was an example of _Rallina tricolor_ which has
-the head, neck and chest bright chestnut, and the rest of the plumage
-dark brown with white bars on the wing-feathers. It is also met with in
-some of the Papuan Islands and in North-eastern Australia.
-
-
-FAMILY _COLUMBIDÆ_—PIGEONS.
-
-Pigeons were very numerously represented, no fewer than twenty-six
-different species being obtained by the Expedition. Some of the smaller
-forms are among the most beautifully coloured birds met with in New
-Guinea. The Crowned Pigeons (Goura) are represented by _G. sclateri_
-which was fairly common near the base camp and met with in all places
-visited by the Expedition. In spite of the numbers shot for food during
-the whole time the Expedition remained in the country, the supply did
-not appear to diminish. This fine Pigeon and a few others afforded the
-only fresh meat to be had. On the canoe-journeys up the river Sclater’s
-Goura was frequently met with in the early mornings in parties of
-two or three searching for aquatic life along the muddy banks. When
-disturbed they did not immediately take flight, but with raised wings
-pirouetted around for a few seconds and then flew to the nearest high
-tree. Mr. Goodfellow found the remains of small crabs in their stomachs
-and a large percentage of the birds shot were infested by a small red
-parasite, the same, or similar to that which is known in other parts of
-New Guinea as “Scrub-itch.”
-
-Another very handsome bird is the Ground-Pigeon (_Otidiphaps nobilis_)
-with the head bluish-black, the nape dull metallic green, the mantle
-and wings purplish-chestnut and the rest of the plumage deep purple,
-all being more or less metallic. Its long legs and the upward carriage
-of its long tail give it much the appearance of a Bantam hen. It was
-fairly common, but being extremely shy was rarely met with.
-
-Among the larger Fruit-Pigeons we must specially mention _Carpophaga
-pinon_ which has the general appearance of a large Wood-Pigeon. It was
-met with in large flocks and proved an excellent bird for the table.
-Another very striking species, of rather lesser proportions and very
-much rarer, was Muller’s Fruit-Pigeon (_Carpophaga mulleri_) easily
-distinguished by its white throat, the bold black ring round its neck
-and its shining chestnut mantle. Among the handsomest was _Carpophaga
-rufiventris_, a bird with the breast cinnamon and the wings and back
-metallic green, copper and purple. Lastly a very striking form was the
-large creamy-white Pigeon (_Myristicivora spilorrhoa_) with the flight
-feathers, tips of the tail-feathers and under tail-coverts blackish. It
-appears to be entirely confined to the mangrove swamps and was observed
-breeding in May along the creeks near the mouth of the river, no less
-than seven nests being found in one tree.
-
-As already stated among the smaller Fruit-Pigeons many are very
-beautifully marked and brilliantly coloured, but always with the most
-harmonious shades. It would seem as though Nature had almost exhausted
-her scheme of colouration in dealing with some of these birds; for
-we find two totally different species, _Ptilopus zonurus_ and _P.
-gestroi_, occurring together in which the markings and colours of the
-plumage are almost identical; on the under-surface the two species
-are practically alike, both have the chin and throat pale lavender,
-extending in a ring round the neck, the throat orange, the chest
-washed with vinous and the remainder of the under-parts green; on the
-upper-surface, the top of the head and nape are greenish-yellow and
-the rest of the upper-parts green, but in _P. zonurus_ the median
-wing-coverts are green with a subterminal spot of bright pink, while
-in _P. gestroi_ the least wing-coverts are crimson and the next
-series grey fringed with greenish-yellow. Another parallel case of
-close resemblance is found between the small _Ptilopus nanus_ and the
-larger _P. coronulatus_. Though really extremely distinct species
-the under-parts are very similarly coloured both being green with a
-bright magenta patch on the middle of the breast and the belly and
-under-tail coverts mostly bright yellow: viewed from the upper surface
-the two birds are, however, very different, _P. coronulatus_ having the
-crown lilac-pink, edged posteriorly with bands of crimson and yellow,
-while _P. nanus_ has the head green, but the ends of the scapulars and
-secondaries are deep shining bluish-green, tipped with bright yellow.
-Even more brilliantly coloured species than the above are _Ptilopus
-pulchellus_, _P. superbus_, _P. aurantiifrons_ and _P. bellus_.
-
-Near the camp at Wataikwa large flocks of D’Albertis’ Pigeon
-(_Gymnophaps albertisii_) were observed coming in every evening from
-their feeding-grounds on the high mountains to roost on the plains
-below. Mr. Goodfellow tells us that their flight is extremely rapid and
-that their strange aerial evolutions remind one of the common “Tumbler”
-Pigeons.
-
-The Long-tailed Cuckoo-Doves were represented by the very large
-_Reinwardtœnas griseotincta_ and the smaller chestnut-plumaged
-_Macropygia griseinucha_; the former being a large and abnormally
-long-tailed bird with the head, mantle and under-parts grey, and the
-back and tail chestnut.
-
-
-FAMILY _MEGAPODIIDÆ_—MEGAPODES OR MOUND-BUILDERS.
-
-The Game-birds are represented by three species of Mound-builders,
-two being Brush-Turkeys and the other a true Megapode (_Megapodius
-freycineti_). The fact that two closely allied species of Brush-Turkeys
-are found in the same district is of considerable interest. The common
-species of the country _Talegallus fuscirostris_ has a very wide
-coastal range, being also found in S.E. New Guinea and extending along
-the north coast to the middle of Geelvinck Bay. The other species
-_T. cuvieri_ is of western origin being hitherto known from the
-Arfak Peninsula, and the islands of Salwatti, Mysol and Gilolo. Its
-occurrence on the Iwaka river was quite unexpected and no doubt the
-range of the two species overlap in the neighbourhood of the Mimika in
-the south and in the vicinity of Rubi on Geelvinck Bay in the north. In
-both the plumage is black, but _T. cuvieri_ is a larger bird than _T.
-fuscirostris_ and is easily recognised by having the tibia feathered
-right down to the tibio-tarsal joint and the bill orange-red instead of
-sooty-brown.
-
-All these species are of the greatest interest on account of their
-remarkable nesting habits, and their nesting mounds of decaying
-vegetable matter were conspicuous objects in the jungle. The eggs,
-which are very large for the size of the birds, are buried among the
-débris which the birds rake together into a large heap, the young being
-hatched, as in an incubator, by the warmth of the decaying leaves. The
-parent bird, after burying its eggs, takes no further notice of them,
-but the young on leaving the shell are fully feathered and able to fly
-and take care of themselves.
-
-
-FAMILY _CASUARIIDÆ_—CASSOWARIES.
-
-The discovery made by Mr. Walter Goodfellow that two distinct forms
-of two-wattled Cassowary occur side by side on the Mimika River has
-greatly modified Mr. Rothschild’s views on the classification of the
-genus, and he now finds that the ten forms possessing two wattles, when
-placed side by side fall naturally into two groups, one consisting
-of the Common Cassowary (_Casuarius casuarius_), divisible into six
-sub-species or races, and the other of _C. bicarunculatus_ which may
-be divided into four sub-species. The large forms found on the Mimika
-are _C. sclateri_, representing the first group, and _C. intensus_
-representing the second. Both these birds have a large elevated casque
-or helmet and differ chiefly in the pattern and colouration of the bare
-neck-wattles.
-
-These Cassowaries were seen at various times searching for food
-in the pools and shallow waters of the river-beds, and during the
-cross-country marches would sometimes dash across the trail, affording
-but a momentary glimpse.
-
-The natives have distinct names for the male and female birds and
-judging from the quantities of feathers in their possession must often
-succeed in capturing them. Eggs and newly-hatched chicks were brought
-in during January and February. On one occasion at Parimau some eggs
-must have been kept by the natives for a few days before they hatched,
-for young were brought to the camp which had evidently just emerged
-from the shells.
-
-A very interesting discovery was made by Mr. Claude Grant on the
-foot-hills, where he met with a new dwarf species of Cassowary, _C.
-claudii_. It is allied to _C. papuanus_, but has the hind part of the
-crown and occiput black instead of white. Like that bird it has a low
-triangular casque and belongs to a different section of the genus from
-the two larger species already mentioned.
-
-_C. claudii_ has very brilliantly coloured soft parts. The occiput and
-sides of the head are entirely black; between the gape and the ear is
-a patch of deep plum-colour; the upper half of the back of the neck is
-electric-blue, shading into violet-blue on the sides and fore-part of
-the neck including the throat; the lower half of the back of the neck
-is orange-chrome, this colour extending down the upper margin of a bare
-magenta-coloured area situated on each side of the feathered part of
-the neck. This fine bird is now mounted and on exhibition in the Bird
-Gallery at the Natural History Museum.
-
-
-  LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PAPERS RELATING TO THE BIRDS OF NEW
-  GUINEA, INCLUDING THE KEI AND ARU ISLANDS.
-
-  1875-88.    _Gould._ Birds of New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands.
-                  (Completed by R. B. Sharpe) (1875-88).
-  1880-82     _Salvadori._ Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molluche. Vols. I-III.
-  & 1889-91.      (1880-82). Aggiunte, pts. I.-III. (1889-91).
-  1883.       _Ramsay._ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. VIII. pp. 15-29 (1883).
-  1884.       _Sharpe._ Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. XVII. pp. 405-408 (1884).
-              _Meyer._ Zeit. Ges. Orn 1. pp. 269-296, pls. XIV.-XVIII. (1884).
-  1885.       _Finsch and Meyer._ Zeit. ges. Orn. II. pp. 369-391, pls. XV.-XXII.
-                  (1885).
-              _Guillemard._ P.Z.S. 1885, pp. 615-665, pl. XXXIX.
-  1886.       _Meyer._ Monat. Schutze Vogelw. 1886, pp. 85-88, pl.
-              _Meyer._ P.Z.S. 1886, pp. 297-298.
-              _Finsch and Meyer._ Zeit. ges. Orn. III. pp. 1-29, pls. I.-VI. (1886).
-              _Meyer._ Zeit. ges. Orn. III. pp. 30-38 (1886).
-              _Salvadori._ Ibis 1886, pp. 151-155.
-  1887.       _Ramsay._ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2) II. pp. 239-240 (1887).
-              _Bartlett._ P.Z.S. 1887, p. 392.
-              _Oustalet._ Le Nat. I. pp. 180-182 (1887).
-  1888.       _Meyer._ Reisen in Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und Englisch New-Guinea
-                  in dem Jahren 1884 u. 1885 an Bord des Deutschen Damfers
-                  “Samoa.” Leipsig, 1888.
-              _Cabanis._ J.f.O. 1888, p. 119.
-  1889.       _Cabanis._ J.f.O. 1889, p. 62, pls. 1 & 2.
-              _Meyer._ J.f.O. 1889, pp. 321-326.
-              _De Vis._ Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland VI. pp. 245-248 (1889).
-  1890.       _De Vis._ British New Guinea. Report of the Administration for the
-                  period 4th Sept. 1888 to 30th June, 1889.
-                    App. G. Report on Birds from British New Guinea, pp. 105-116
-                    (1890).
-                    (Reprinted, Ibis 1891, pp. 25-41).
-              _Goodwin._ Ibis 1890, pp. 150-156.
-              _Meyer._ Ibis 1890, p. 412, pl. XII.
-              _Salvad._ Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) IX. pp. 554-592 (1890).
-  1891.       _Oustalet._ Le Nat. V. pp. 260-261 (1891).
-              _Sclater._ Ibis 1891, p. 414, pl. X.
-              _Meyer._ Abh. Zool. Mus. Dresden 1891, No. 4, pp. 1-17.
-  1891-98.    _Sharpe._ Monogr. _Paradiseidæ_ and _Ptilonorhynchidæ_ (1891-98).
-  1892.       _De Vis._ Ann. Queensland Mus. II. pp. 4-11 (1892).
-              _De Vis._ Annual Report Brit. New Guinea, 1890-91. App. CC.
-                  pp. 93-97. pl. (1892).
-              _Salvad._ Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) X. pp. 797-834 (1892).
-              _Meyer._ J.f.O. 1892, pp. 254-266.
-              _Crowley._ Bull. B.O.C. 1. p. XVI. (1892).
-  1893.       _Meyer._ Abh. Zool. Mus. Dres. 1892-93, No. 3. pp. 1-33, pls. 1 & 2.
-              _Oustalet._ Nouv. Archiv. Mus. Paris, (3) IV. pp. 218-220, pl. XV.;
-                  V. pp. 295-299, pl. VI.
-              _Sclater._ Ibis 1893, pp. 243-246, pl. VII. text fig.
-              _Finsch._ Ibis 1893, pp. 463-464.
-              _Meyer._ Ibis 1893, pp. 481-483, pl. XIII.
-  1894.       _De Vis._ Annual Report, Brit. New Guinea, 1894, pp. 99-105.
-              _Salvad._ Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) XIV. pp. 150-152 (1894).
-              _Meyer._ Bull. B.O.C. IV. pp. VI., VII., XI., XII. (1894).
-  1894.       _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. IV. p. XI. (1894).
-              _Sharpe._ Bull. B.O.C. IV. pp. XII.-XV. (1894).
-              _Reichenow._ Orn. Monatsb. II. p. 22 (1894).
-              _Meyer._ Abh. Zool. Mus. Dres. 1894-95. No. 2. pp. 1-4. pl. (1894).
-              _Büttikofer._ Notes Leyden Mus. XVI. pp. 161-165 (1894).
-              _Mead._ Amer. Natural. XXVIII. pp. 915-920. pls. XXIX.-XXXI.
-                  (1894).
-  1895.       _Meyer._ Bull. B.O.C. IV. p. XVII. (1895).
-              _Meyer._ Abh. Zool. Mus. Dres. 1894-95, no. 5. pp. 1-11. pls. 1 & 2.
-                  No. 10. pp. 1-2, pl. I. figs. 1-4 (1895).
-              _Rothschild._ Nov. Zool. II. pp. 22, 59, 480, pls. III. & V. (1895).
-              _Hartert._ Nov. Zool. II. p. 67 (1895).
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. IV. pp. XXI., XXVI., XLII. (1895).
-              _Ogilvie-Grant._ Bull. B.O.C. V. p. XV. (1895).
-              _Mead._ Amer. Natural. XXIX. pp. 1-9, 409-417, 627-636, 1056-1065,
-                  pl. VII. (1895).
-              _Sanyal._ P.Z.S. 1895, pp. 541-542.
-              _Oustalet._ Bull. Mus. Paris. 1895, pp. 47-50.
-              _Sclater._ Ibis 1895, pp. 343, 344, pl. VIII.
-  1896.       _Rothschild and Hartert._ Nov. Zool. III., pp. 8, 252, 530, 534, pl. I.
-                  (1896).
-              _Rothschild._ Nov. Zool. III., pp. 10-19 (1896).
-              _Salvadori._ Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. (2) XVI., pp. 55-120 (1896).
-              _Salvadori._ Bull. B.O.C. V. p. XXII. (1896).
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. VI. pp. XV.-XVI. (1896).
-              _Oustalet._ Nouv. Archiv. Mus. Paris (3) VIII. pp. 263-267, pls. XIV.
-                  & XV. (1896).
-  1897.       _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. VI. pp. XV., XVI., XXIV., XXV., XL.,
-                  XLV., LIV. (1897).
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. VII. pp. XXI.-XXII. (1897).
-              _Reichenow._ Orn. Monatsb. V. pp. 24-26, 161, 178, 179 (1897).
-              _Kleinschmidt._ Orn. Monatsb. V. p. 46 (1897).
-              _Kleinschmidt._ J.f.O. 1897, pp. 174-178, text-fig.
-              _Reichenow._ J.f.O. 1897, pp. 201-224, pls. V. & VI.
-              _Rothschild._ Nov. Zool. IV. p. 169, pl. II. fig. 2 (1897).
-              _Hartert._ Nov. Zool. IV. p. 396 (1897).
-              _De Vis._ Ibis 1897, pp. 250-252, 371-392, pl. VII.
-              _Madarasz._ Termes, Füzetek XX. pp. 17-54, pls. 1 & 2 (1897).
-              _Mead._ Amer. Natural. XXXI. pp. 204-210 (1897).
-  1898.       _Hartert._ Bull. B.O.C. VIII. pp. VIII. & IX. (1898).
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. VIII. p. XIV. (1898).
-              _Rothschild._ Das Tierreich _Paradiseidæ_, 52 pp. Berlin, 1898.
-              _De Vis._ Annual Report, New Guinea, App. AA. Report on birds for
-                  1896-97, pp. 81-90 (1898).
-              _Finsch._ Notes Leyden Mus. XX. pp. 129-136 (1898).
-              _Rothschild._ Nov. Zool. V. pp. 84-87, 418, 509, 513, pl. XVIII. (1898).
-              _Reichenow._ J.f.O. 1898, pp. 124-128, pl. 1.
-              _Caley-Webster._ Through New Guinea and the Cannibal Countries.
-                  Appendices on birds by Messrs. Rothschild and Hartert (1898).
-  1899.       _Salvadori._ Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) XIX. pp. 578-582 (1899).
-              _Rothschild._ Nov. Zool. VI. pp. 75 & 218, pls. II. & III. (1899).
-              _Hartert._ Nov. Zool. VI. p. 219, pl. IV. (1899).
-              _Madarasz._ Termes, Füzetek. XXII. pp. 375-428, pls. XV.-XVII.
-                  (1899).
-  1900.       _Finsch._ Notes Leyden Mus. XXII. pp. 49-69 & 70 (1900).
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. X. pp. C. CI. (1900).
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. XI. pp. 25, 26, 30 (1900).
-              _Madarasz._ Orn. Monatsb. VIII. pp. 1-4 (1900).
-              _Renshaw._ Nature Notes XI. pp. 164-167 (1900).
-              _Currie._ P.U.S. Nat. Mus. XXII. pp. 497-499, pl. XVII. (1900).
-  1900.       _Le Souëf._ Ibis 1900, pp. 612, 617, text-fig. 1.
-  1901.       _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. XII. p. 34 (1901).
-              _Reichenow._ Orn. Monatsb. IX. pp. 185-186 (1901).
-              _Madarasz._ Termes Füzetek, XXIV. p. 73 (1901).
-              _Hartert._ Nov. Zool. VIII. pp. 1, 93 (1901).
-              _Rothschild and Hartert._ Nov. Zool. VIII. pp. 53, 102, pls. II.-IV.
-                  (1901).
-  1902.       _Weiske._ Ein Beitrag zur Naturgeschichte der Laubenvogel. Monat.
-                  Schutze Vogelw. XXVII. pp. 41-45 (1902).
-              _Sclater._ Bull. B.O.C. XIII. p. 23 (1902).
-  1903.       _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. XIII. p. 32 (1903).
-              _Finsch._ Orn. Monatsb. XI. p. 167 (1903).
-              _Renshaw._ Avicult. Mag. (2) II. pp. 26-27, fig. (1903).
-              _Rothschild and Hartert._ Nov. Zool. X. pp. 65-89, pl. I. 196-231,
-                  435-480, pls. XIII. & XIV. (1903).
-              _Hartert._ Nov. Zool. X. pp. 232-254 (1903).
-  1904.       _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. XIV. pp. 38-40 (1904).
-              _Ogilvie-Grant._ Bull. B.O.C. XIV. p. 40 (1904).
-  1905.       _Ogilvie-Grant._ Ibis 1905, pp. 429-440, pl. VIII. text-figs. 22-26.
-              _Pycraft._ Ibis 1905, pp. 440-453.
-              _Sharpe._ Bull. B.O.C. XV. p. 91 (1905).
-              _Salvadori._ Ibis 1905, pp. 401-429, 535-542.
-  1905-10.    _Salvadori._ In Wytsman, Genera Avium. Psittaci, pts. 5, 11, & 12
-                  (1905-1910).
-  1906.       _Salvadori._ Ibis, 1906, pp. 124-131, 326-333; 451-465, 642-659.
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. XIX. pp. 7-8, 27 (1906).
-              _Foerster and Rothschild._ Two new birds of Paradise Zool. Mus. Tring.
-                  3 pp. Tring. 1st October, 1906.
-              _Van Oort._ Notes Leyden Mus. XXVIII. p. 129-130 (1906).
-              _Ogilvie-Grant._ Bull. B.O.C. XIX. p. 39 (1906).
-              _North._ Vict. Nat. XXII. pp. 147, 156-8, pl. (1906).
-  1907.       _Salvadori._ Ibis 1907, pp. 122-151; 311-322.
-              _Ingram, (Sir W.)._ Ibis 1907, pp. 225-229, pl. V. text-figs. 8 & 9.
-              _Simpson._ Ibis 1907, pp. 380-387, text-figs.
-              _Rothschild and Hartert._ Nov. Zool. XIV. pp. 433, 447 (1907).
-              _Rothschild._ Nov. Zool. XIV. p. 504, pls. V.-VII. (1907).
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. XXI. p. 25 (1907).
-              _Hartert._ Bull. B.O.C. XXI. p. 26 (1907).
-              _North._ Vict. Nat. XXIV. p. 136 (1907).
-              _Ingram_, (C.). Avicult. Mag. (2) V. p. 364, pl. (1907).
-              _Le Souëf._ Emu. VI. p. 119-120 (1907).
-  1908.       _Van Oort._ Notes Leyden Mus. XXIX. pp. 170-180, 2 pls. pp. 204-206
-                  1 pl. (1908).
-              _Van Oort._ Notes Leyden Mus. XXX. pp. 127-128 (1908).
-              _Rothschild._ Nov. Zool. XV. p. 392 (1908).
-              _Sharpe._ Bull. B.O.C. XXI. p. 67 (1908).
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. XXIII. p. 7 (1908).
-              _Goodfellow._ Bull. B.O.C. XXIII. pp. 35-39 (1908).
-  1909.       _Beaufort._ Nova Guinea V. Zoologie Livr. 3, pp. 389-420 (1909).
-              _Van Oort._ Nova Guinea IX., Zoologie Livr. 1. Birds from South-western
-                  and Southern New Guinea, pp. 51-107, pl. III. (1909).
-              _Van Oort._ Notes Leyden Mus. XXX. pp. 225-244 (1909).
-              _Horsbrugh_, (C. B.). Ibis, 1909, pp. 197-213.
-              _Sassi._ J.f.O. 1909, pp. 365-383.
-              _Nehrkorn._ Orn. Monatsb. XVII. p. 44 (1909).
-              _Astley._ Avicult. Mag. (2) VII. pp. 156-158 (1909).
-  1910.       _Van Oort._ Notes Leyden Mus. XXXII. pp. 78-82, 211-216 (1910).
-              _Madarasz._ Ann. Hist. Nat. Mus. Nat. Hung. Budapest VIII., pp. 172-174,
-                  pl. II. (1910).
-              _Goodfellow._ Avicult. Mag. (3) 1, pp. 277-286 (1910).
-  1910.       _Ogilvie-Grant._ Bull. B.O.C. XXVII. p. 10 (1910).
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. XXVII. pp. 13, 35, 36, 45 (1910).
-              _Hartert._ Nov. Zool. XVII. p. 484, pl. X. (eggs) (1910).
-  1911.       _Rothschild._ Ibis 1911, pp. 350-367, pls. V. & VI.
-              _Rothschild and Hartert._ Nov. Zool. XVIII. pp. 159-167 (1911).
-              _Ogilvie-Grant._ Bull. B.O.C. XXVII. pp. 66, 68, 83, 84 (1911).
-  1912.       _Rothschild._ Ibis 1912, pp. 109-112, pl. II.
-              _Ogilvie-Grant._ Ibis 1912, pp. 112-118, pl. III.
-              _Hartert._ Nov. Zool. XVIII. p. 604. pls. VII. & VIII. (1912).
-              _Rothschild._ Bull. B.O.C. XXIX. pp. 50-52 (1912).
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX B
-
-
-THE PYGMY QUESTION
-
-BY DR. A. C. HADDON, F.R.S.
-
-Pygmies, as their name implies, are very short men, and the first
-question to decide is whether this short stature is normal or merely a
-dwarfing due to unfavourable environment. Although stature cannot be
-taken as a trustworthy criterion of race, since it is very variable
-within certain limits among most races, there are certain peoples who
-may be described as normally tall, medium, or short. The average human
-stature appears to be about 1·675 m. (5 ft. 6 ins.). Those peoples who
-are 1·725 (5 ft. 8 ins.) or more in height are said to be tall, those
-below 1·625 m. (5 ft. 4 ins.) are short, while those who fall below
-1·5 m. (4 ft. 11 ins.) are now usually termed pygmies. One has only to
-turn to the investigations of the Dordogne district by Collignon and
-others to see how profoundly _la misère_ can affect the stature of a
-population living under adverse conditions, for example in the canton
-of Saint Mathieu there are 8·8 per cent. with a stature below 1·5 m.
-But when one finds within one area, as in the East Indian region,
-distinct peoples of medium, short and pygmy stature, living under
-conditions which appear to be very similar, one is inclined to suspect
-a racial difference between them, and the suspicion becomes confirmed
-if we find other characters associated with pygmy stature.
-
-Pygmy peoples are widely distributed in Central Africa, but these
-Negrillos, as they are often termed, do not concern us now.
-
-Asiatic pygmies have long been known, but it is only comparatively
-recently that they have been studied seriously, and even now there
-remains much to be discovered about them. There are two main stocks on
-the eastern border of the Indian Ocean, who have a very short stature
-and are respectively characterised by curly or wavy hair and by hair
-that grows in close small spirals—the so-called woolly hair.
-
-(i.) The Sakai or Senoi of the southern portion of the Malay Peninsula
-are typical examples of the former stock, their average stature is
-slightly above the pygmy limit, but they need not detain us longer
-as they belong to a different race of mankind from the woolly-haired
-stock. It may be mentioned however that cymotrichous (curly-haired),
-dolichocephalic (narrow-headed), dark-skinned peoples of very short
-stature, racially akin to the Sakai, have been found in East Sumatra
-and in Celebes (Toala) more or less mixed with alien blood; and quite
-recently Moszkowski, as will be mentioned later, has suggested that
-the islands of Geelvink Bay, Netherlands New Guinea, were originally
-inhabited by the same stock. All these peoples together with the Vedda
-and some jungle tribes of the Deccan are now regarded as remnants of a
-once widely distributed race to which the term Pre-Dravidian has been
-applied; it is also believed by many students that the chief element in
-the Australians is of similar origin.
-
-(ii.) For a long time it has been known that there are three groups
-of ulotrichous (woolly-haired), brachycephalic (broad-headed),
-dark-skinned, pygmy peoples inhabiting respectively the Andaman
-Islands, the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines; to this race the
-name Negrito is universally applied. We can now include in it a fourth
-element from New Guinea. The physical characters of these several
-groups may be summarised as follows:
-
-1. The ANDAMANESE, who are sometimes erroneously called Mincopies,
-inhabit the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal. Their head _hair_
-is extremely frizzly (woolly), fine in texture, lustreless and seldom
-more than two or three inches long, or five inches when untwisted, its
-colour varies between black, greyish black, and sooty, the last perhaps
-predominating. Hair only occasionally grows on the face and then but
-scantily. There is little or no hair over the surface of the body. The
-_skin_ has several shades of colour between bronze or dark copper,
-sooty, and black, the predominating colour being a dull leaden hue
-like that of a black-leaded stove. The average _stature_ of 48 males
-is 1·492 m. (4 ft. 10-3/4 ins.), the extremes being 1·365 m. (4 ft.
-5-3/4 ins.) and 1·632 m. (5 ft. 4-1/4 ins.). The _head_ is moderately
-brachycephalic, the average _cranial index_ (_i.e._ the ratio of the
-breadth to the length, the length being taken as 100) in male skulls
-is 81, thus the _cephalic index_ of the living would be about 83. The
-_features_ may be described as: face broad at the cheek-bones; eyes
-prominent; nose much sunken at the root, straight and small; lips full
-but not everted; chin small; the jaws do not project.
-
-2. The SEMANG live in the central region of the Malay Peninsula, some
-of them are known under the names of Udai, Pangan, Hami and Semán. The
-_hair_ of the head is short, universally woolly, and black. Skeat says
-it is of a brownish black, not a bluish black like that of the Malays,
-and Martin alludes to a reddish shimmer when light falls on it, but
-says there is not a brownish shimmer as in the Sakai. Hair is rare and
-scanty on face and body. Skeat describes the _skin_ colour as dark
-chocolate brown approximating in some Kedah Negritos to glossy black,
-and Martin says the skin of the chest is dark brown with reddish
-tinges, while that of the face is mainly dark brown, the remainder
-being medium brown, with reddish or pure brown tinges. The data for
-the _stature_ are not very satisfactory, the best are a series of 17
-males by Annandale and Robinson, the average being 1·528 m. (5 ft.
-0-1/4 in.), with extreme, of 1·372 m. (4 ft. 6 ins.) and 1·604 (5 ft.
-3 ins.). The average _cephalic index_ is about 78 or 79, the extremes
-ranging from about 74 to about 84. The Semang are thus mesaticephalic
-on the average. According to Skeat the _face_ is round; the forehead
-rounded, narrow and projecting, or as it were “swollen”; the nose short
-and flattened, the nostrils much distended, the breadth remarkably
-great, five adult males having an average nasal index of 101·2, the 20
-measured by Annandale and Robinson varied from 81·3 to 108·8 with an
-average of 97·1, but four men measured by Martin had an average index
-of 83·5. The cheek-bones are broad; jaws often protrude slightly; lips
-not as a rule thick, Martin remarks that very characteristic of both
-the Semang and the Sakai is the great thickening of the integumental
-part of the upper lip, the whole mouth region projecting from the lower
-edge of the nose; this convexity occurs in 70 per cent., and is well
-shown in his photographs.
-
-3. The AETA live in the mountainous districts of the larger islands and
-in some of the smaller islands of the Philippines. It is convenient to
-retain this name for the variously named groups of Philippine Negritos,
-many of whom show admixture with other peoples. The _hair_ of the head
-is universally woolly except when mixture may be suspected or is known;
-Reed says it is uniformly of a dirty black colour, sometimes sunburnt
-on the top to reddish brown; Worcester describes it as usually black
-but it may be reddish brown, and Meyer as a dark seal-brown to black.
-Reed says that the beard is very scanty but all adult males have some
-and that there is very little body hair, but Worcester states that the
-men often have abundant beards and a thick growth of hair on the arms,
-chest and legs. The _skin_ is described as being of a dark chocolate
-brown, rather than black, with a yellowish tinge on the exposed parts
-(Reed), sooty black (Sawyer), or dark, sooty brown (Worcester). The
-average _stature_ of 48 men is 1·463 m. (4 ft. 9-1/2 ins.), ranging
-from 1·282 m. (4 ft. 2-1/2 ins.) to 1·6 m. (5 ft. 3 ins.), but some
-of these were not pure breeds (Reed); other observations also show
-a considerable range in height. The _cephalic index_ of 16 males
-averages 82·2, ranging from 78·8 to 92·3, ten range between 80 and 85
-(Reed). _Features_: typically the nose is broad, flat, bridgeless, with
-prominent arched alæ and nostrils invariably visible from the front.
-Of 76 persons measured by Reed 4 males and 3 females had nasal indices
-below 89, 10 and 3 of 90-99, 20 and 13 of 100-109, 7 and 7 of 110-119,
-6 and 3 above 120; the median of the males is 102, the extremes being
-83·3 and 125, the median of the females is 105, their extremes being
-79·5 and 140·7; in other words they are extremely platyrhine. The
-eyes are round. The lips are moderately thick, but not protruding. A
-somewhat pronounced convexity is sometimes seen between the upper lip
-and the nose in the photographs of Meyer’s and Folkmar’s Albums. Meyer
-says the projecting jaw gives an ape-like appearance to the face, but
-Reed says the Aeta have practically no prognathism, a statement which
-is borne out by his and Folkmar’s photographs.
-
-4. The discovery of pygmies in Netherlands New Guinea by the Expedition
-has drawn public attention to a problem of perennial interest to
-ethnologists. Nearly twenty-five years ago Sir William Flower stated,
-“that it (the Negrito race) has contributed considerably to form the
-population of New Guinea is unquestionable. In many parts of that
-great island, small round-headed tribes live more or less distinct
-from the larger and longer-headed people who make up the bulk of
-the population.” (Lecture at the Royal Institution, April 13, 1888,
-reprinted in _Essays on Museums_, 1898, p. 302.) No further information
-is given, nor are his authorities mentioned. Perhaps he was alluding to
-the following statement by de Quatrefages, “L’extension des Négritos en
-Mélanésie est bien plus considérable. Ici leurs tribus sont mêlées et
-juxtaposées à celles des Papouas probablement dans toute la Nouvelle
-Guinée” (_Rev. d’Ethn._, 1882, p. 185); subsequently he wrote, “La
-confusion regrettable (namely the confusion of the brachycephalic
-Negrito-Papuans with the dolichocephalic Papuans, of which Earl,
-Wallace, Meyer and others have been guilty) est cause que l’on n’a
-pas recherché les traits differentiels qui peuvent distinguer les
-Negritos-Papous des vrais Papouas au point de vue de l’état social,
-des mœurs, des croyances, des industries.” (_Les Pygmées_, 1887, p.
-97, English Translation, 1895, p. 62.) Dr. A. B. Meyer, from whose
-essay these quotations have been taken, adds, “No, the confusion has
-not been in this case in the heads of the travellers; a Negritic race,
-side by side with the Papuan race, nobody has been able to discover,
-just because it does not exist, and it does not exist because the
-Papuan race, in spite of its variability, is on the one hand a uniform
-race, and on the other as good as identical with the Negritos.” (_The
-Distribution of the Negritos_, 1899, p. 85.) When reviewing this essay
-in _Nature_ (Sept. 7, 1899, p. 433), I stated that I was inclined to
-adopt the view that the various types exhibited by the natives of
-New Guinea “point to a crossing of different elements,” and do not
-“simply reveal the variability of the race,” as Dr. Meyer provisionally
-believed. While agreeing with Dr. Meyer that the “different conditions
-of existence” (p. 80) in New Guinea probably have reacted on the
-physical characters of the natives (about which, however, we have
-extremely little precise information), we have now sufficient evidence
-to prove that the indigenous or true Papuan population has been
-modified in places by intrusions from elsewhere, and of late years
-data have been accumulating which point to the existence of a pygmy
-population. Shortly before his death, Dr. Meyer drew my attention to
-a more recent statement of his views, in which he says, “Although I
-formerly stated (_Negritos_, p. 87) that the question whether the
-Papuans, _i.e._ the inhabitants of New Guinea, are a uniform race
-with a wide range of variation or a mixed race is not yet ripe for
-pronouncement, I am now more inclined, after Mr. Ray’s discovery of
-the Papuan linguistic family, to look upon them as a mixed race of
-‘Negritos’ and Malays in the wider sense. I am eagerly looking forward
-to the exploration of the interior of that great island, for may it not
-be possible there to discover the Negrito element in that old and more
-constant form in which it persists in the Philippines, Andamans, and
-in Malakka.” (_Globus_, XCIV., 1908, p. 192.) This later view appears
-to me to be less tenable than his earlier one, as it is difficult to
-see how a mixture of pygmy, woolly-haired brachycephals with short,
-straight-haired brachycephals (Malays) could give rise to the taller,
-woolly-haired dolichocephalic Papuans.
-
-The racial history of New Guinea has proved to be unexpectedly
-complicated. We are now justified in recognising at least two
-indigenous elements, the Negrito and Papuan; the effect of the island
-populations to the east has not yet been determined, but in the
-south-west two immigrations at least from Melanesia have taken place,
-which, with Seligmann, we may term Papuo-Melanesian. (_Journ. R. Anth.
-Inst._, XXXIX. 1909, pp. 246, 315; and _The Melanesians of Brit. New
-Guinea_, 1910.) It is, however, almost certain that future researches
-will reveal that the problem is not so simple as that just indicated.
-
-Writing in 1902, Dr. Weule states (_Globus_, LXXXII. p. 247) that he
-has no further doubts as to the existence of pygmies in New Guinea,
-though it is not yet clear whether they live in definite groups or
-as scattered remnants among the taller peoples. He points out that
-information as to the pygmies was of necessity scanty, as expeditions
-had always followed the course of rivers where encounter with them
-might least be expected, since they are for the most part mountain
-people. Through the activity of Sir William MacGregor and others,
-British New Guinea is “the least unknown” part of the whole island;
-there is therefore more likelihood of pygmy peoples being discovered in
-German or Netherlands New Guinea, the latter being entirely a _terra
-incognita_ from the geographical standpoint. Dr. Weule’s article
-contains various references to previous literature on the pygmy
-question, and three photographs of pygmies from the middle Ramu are
-reproduced, which show three men well under 142 cm. (4 ft. 8-3/4 ins.)
-in height.
-
-The later history of the discovery of a pygmy substratum in the
-population of parts of New Guinea is as follows:—
-
-Dr. M. Krieger had visited the Sattelberg and the neighbourhood of
-Simbang where he heard reports of dwarfs from natives, but no European
-had seen them (_Neu Guinea_, 1899, p. 143); subsequently Dr. R. Pöch
-stayed from December 1904 to February 1905 in the Kai area, which
-lies inland from Finschhafen in German New Guinea. In the _Mitt. aus
-den deutschen Schutzgebieten_, 1907, he writes (p. 225): “During the
-first part of the time I remained chiefly on the Sattelberg itself,
-and observed and measured the various Kai frequenting the Mission
-Station. In them I became acquainted with a mountain tribe entirely
-different from the coast peoples previously visited. In fifty men I
-found the average height to be 152·5 cm. (5 ft.); the skulls are, as
-a rule, mesocephalic to brachycephalic. Towards the coast (Jabim)
-dolichocephaly becomes more usual and the type also changes. Very
-small people are not infrequently met with among the Kai.” Among 300
-adult males he found twelve ranging from 133 to 145·6 cm. (4 ft. 4-1/2
-ins. to 4 ft. 9-1/4 ins.). “For the present,” he adds, “it cannot be
-determined whether this is merely a variation in stature or whether we
-have here survivals of an older smaller race not yet entirely merged
-in the Kai” (_cf._ also _Sitzungsber. der Anth. Gesellschaft in Wien_,
-1905, pp. 40 ff.). In the _Zeitschr. f. Ethnol._ XXXIX., 1907, p.
-384, he states that on the north coast of British New Guinea and in
-Normanby Island he often came across very small people. Dr. O. Reche,
-in describing a journey up the Kaiserin-Augusta river, says that, “the
-population consists of three clearly distinguishable types or races,
-two of which have long, very narrow skulls, and one a short broad
-skull. Inland from the river bank there seems to be in addition to
-these a pygmy-like people of small growth; at all events, I found in
-some of the villages situated on the upper river, among other skulls,
-some which were remarkably small and of a special type, and which must
-have been taken from enemies living further inland.” (_Globus_, XCVII.
-1910, p. 286.)
-
-Neuhauss studied the Sattelberg natives and is very certain that
-a pygmy element occurs there. He notes the stockiness of certain
-individuals, who have a long powerful trunk and short limbs, whereas
-the Papuans are lean and slender; the shortest man measured by him was
-1·355 m. (4 ft. 5-1/2 ins.). Again, the _cephalic index_ of 260 Papuans
-averages 76·8, while that of thirty-two short individuals averages
-78·8, and on the Sattelberg 79·7, some even ranging from 83-84·6. He
-also noticed that the ears were short, wide and without lobe; the
-hands and feet were unusually small. Von Luschan draws attention to the
-convexity of the whole upper lip area as in African pygmies. Neuhauss
-insists that the pygmies are almost merged into the rest of the
-population, and that their low stature is not due to poor conditions.
-(_Zs. f. Ethnol._ XLIII., 1911, p. 280.)
-
-Dr. M. Moszkowski found that in Geelvink Bay the hair is not always
-ulotrichous (woolly), as is usual with Papuans, especially on Biak and
-Padeido Islands the hair often recalls the cymotrichous (curly) hair
-of Veddas. Other points of resemblance with wild tribes of Further
-Asia are:—A very dainty graceful bone-structure, small hands and
-feet, relatively short limbs compared to the trunk, low stature, few
-being above 156 cm. and most below 150 cm. (4 ft. 11 ins.), and now
-and then the characteristic convex upper lip of the wild tribes (_Zs.
-f. Ethnol._ XLIII. 1911, pp. 317, 318). On these grounds Moszkowski
-inclines to think that the islands of Geelvink Bay were originally
-peopled by pre-Malayan wild tribes allied to the Vedda, Sakai, Toala,
-etc., and thus the present population is the result of crossing between
-these and immigrant Melanesians; true Malays came later. Moszkowski
-has not yet published any head measurements of these interesting
-people, and the evidence is insufficient to decide whether this is a
-Pre-Dravidian or a Negrito element in the population of these islands,
-the curly character of the hair may be due as elsewhere in New Guinea
-to racial mixture; the photograph of a “Vedda-type” from Padeido island
-is by no means convincing (_l.c._ p. 318).
-
-Finally Guppy, Ribbe and Rascher report the occurrence of very
-short people in the interior of the larger islands of the Bismarck
-Archipelago and of the Solomon Islands; recently Thurnwald refers to
-very small people in the mountainous interior of Bougainville who speak
-a non-Melanesian language, one man from Mari mountain had a stature
-of 1·39 m. (4 ft. 6-1/2 ins.). In the mountains the mixed population
-consists of types recalling the Solomon Islanders and “representatives
-of a small short-legged, broad-faced, short-skulled, very hairy,
-wide-nosed people.” (_Zs. f. Ethnol._ XLII. 1910, p. 109.)
-
-Discussing the pygmies of Melanesia von Luschan referred in 1910 (_Zs.
-f. Ethnol._ XLII., p. 939) to bones brought a century ago from the
-Admiralty Islands which must have belonged to individuals 1·32-1·35 m.
-(4 ft. 4 ins.-4 ft. 5 ins.) in stature; it is unlikely that the type
-persists, though Moseley mentions an unusually short man, a little
-over 5 ft. (_Journ. Anth. Inst._ 1877, p. 384). In the collection
-made by the German Marine Expedition there are a number of extremely
-small skulls from New Ireland, which von Luschan is convinced belong
-to pygmies. Finsch brought from New Britain over thirty years ago the
-smallest known skull of a normal adult person; it came from the S.W.
-coast of Gazelle Peninsula. Like four other extremely small feminine
-skulls from New Britain this one is dolichocephalic (ceph. index 73).
-Von Luschan is of opinion that the small people of Melanesia represent
-an older stratum of population than their tall neighbours.
-
-While other travellers have come across what is now accepted as a pygmy
-element in the population, the members of this Expedition have for
-the first time proved the existence of a pygmy people, known as the
-_TAPIRO_, who may be regarded as predominantly Negritos. The _hair_
-is short, woolly and black, but seemed brown in two or three cases,
-there is a good deal of hair on the face and of short downy hair
-scattered about the body. The _skin_ is of a lighter colour than that
-of the neighbouring Papuans, some individuals being almost yellow. The
-_stature_ averages 1·449 m. (4 ft. 9 ins.), ranging from 1·326 m. (4
-ft. 4-1/4 ins.) to 1·529 m. (5 ft. 0-1/4in.). The _cephalic index_
-averages 79·5, varying from 66·9 to 85·1. _Features_: The nose is
-straight and though described as “very wide at the nostrils,” the mean
-of the indices is only 83, the extremes being 65·5 to 94. The eyes are
-noticeably larger and rounder than those of Papuans. “The upper lip of
-many of the men is long and curiously convex.”
-
-At the same time that the Expedition discovered pygmies in Netherlands
-New Guinea, Mr. R. W. Williamson was investigating the Mafulu, a
-mountain people on the upper waters of the Angabunga river in the
-Mekeo District. He has shown (_The Mafulu Mountain People of British
-New Guinea_, 1912) that in all probability these and some neighbouring
-tribes are a mixture of Negritos, Papuans and Papuo-Melanesians. Their
-invariably woolly _hair_ is generally dark brown, often quite dark,
-approaching to black and sometimes perhaps quite black, but frequently
-it is lighter and often not what we in Europe should call dark; a
-beard and moustache are quite unusual. The _skin_ is dark sooty-brown.
-The average stature is 1·551 m. (5 ft. 1 in.) ranging from 1·47 m. (4
-ft. 10 ins.) to 1·63 m. (5 ft. 4 ins.). They are fairly strong and
-muscular, but rather slender and slight in development. The average
-_cephalic index_ is 80 and ranges from 74·7 to 86·8. _Features_: The
-average nasal index is 84·3, the extremes being 71·4 and 100. The eyes
-are dark brown and very bright. The lips are fine and delicate.
-
-It is worth noting that Pöch had in 1906 measured two Fergusson Island
-men with statures 1·403 and 1·425 m. (4 ft. 7-1/4 ins., 4 ft. 8 ins.),
-who told him that “all the people in that tribe were as small or
-smaller.” (_Zs. f. Ethnol._ XLII. 1910, p. 941.)
-
-On reading through the brief synopses which I have given it is
-apparent that, with the possible exception of the Andamanese, each
-of the Negrito peoples shows considerable diversity in its physical
-characters and this is more evident when more detailed accounts and
-photographs are studied. There appears to be sufficient evidence
-to show that a very ancient ulotrichous, low brachycephalic, pygmy
-population once extended over the Malay Peninsula and a great part
-(at least) of Melanesia and New Guinea, but the existing groups do
-not appear to be homogeneous judging from the diversity in stature,
-head index and nasal index. Stature, as has already been stated, is
-always recognised as subject to considerable variation, but the bulk
-of the measurements of these peoples fall below 1·5 m., and therefore
-indicate a predominant very short population. The head indices mainly
-show low brachycephaly; the occasional very low indices may be due
-either to a Pre-Dravidian mixture or in New Guinea, at all events, to
-a Papuan strain. The former existence of a Pre-Dravidian stock in New
-Guinea is highly probable, nor must it be overlooked that there may
-have been a hitherto undescribed pygmy or very short dolichocephalic
-ulotrichous stock in New Guinea and Melanesia. The nasal index of these
-Negrito peoples is very suggestive of racial complexity. Judging from
-photographs, in the absence of measurements, the Andamanese have by no
-means a broad nose, and a mesorhine index is found in all the other
-groups, some of the Tapiro and Mafulu are even leptorhine. A constantly
-recurring feature is the convex upper lip, but that also occurs among
-the Sakai. The problem now is to determine what foreign elements have
-modified these pygmies, and whether the Negrito stock itself will not
-have to be subdivided into at least two groups.
-
-The Negritos have certain cultural characters more or less in common,
-some of which differentiate them from their neighbours. There is very
-little artificial deformation of the person. The Tapiro and Mafulu
-alone do not tattoo or scarify the skin; Skeat says that the Semang
-“do not appear as a race to tattoo or scarify,” and the Aeta scarify
-only occasionally. The nasal septum is not pierced for a nose-stick
-by the Andamanese and Aeta nor among the purer Semang tribes, but the
-Tapiro and Mafulu do so. The Semang women possess numerous bamboo combs
-which are engraved with curious designs of a magical import, similar
-combs are possessed by nearly every Aeta man and woman. The Andamanese
-have no combs.
-
-With regard to clothing, the male Andamanese are nude, the females wear
-a small apron of leaves or a single leaf, but one tribe, the Jarawa, go
-nude. The male Semang frequently wear a loin-cloth, or simply leaves
-retained by a string girdle, sometimes the women wear this too or a
-fringed girdle made of the long black strings of a fungus, but more
-usually a waist-cloth. The Aeta men wear a loin-cloth and the women
-a waist-cloth. The Mafulu men and women wear a perineal band of bark
-cloth, while the Tapiro men wear a unique gourd penis-sheath. A gourd
-or calabash is also worn by men on the north coast of New Guinea, but
-not further west than Cape Bonpland, in this case the hole is in the
-side and not at the end as among the Tapiro.
-
-The Negritos are collectors and hunters, and never cultivate the soil
-unless they have been modified by contact with more advanced peoples.
-
-The Andamanese make three kinds of simple huts on the ground and large
-communal huts are sometimes built. The Semang construct “bee-hive”
-and long communal huts and weather screens similar to those of the
-Andamanese. They also erect tree shelters, but direct evidence is very
-scanty that pure Semang inhabit huts with a flooring raised on piles;
-they sleep on bamboo platforms. The Aeta usually make very simple huts
-sometimes with a raised bamboo sleeping platform inside. The pile
-dwellings of the Tapiro have evidently been copied from those of other
-tribes in the interior. The Mafulu build a different kind of pile
-dwelling which has a peculiar hood-like porch.
-
-All the Negritos have the bow and arrow. The Great Andamanese bow is
-peculiar while that of the Little Andamanese appears to resemble that
-of the Semang. The Great Andamanese and the Tapiro have very long bows.
-Harpoon arrows with iron points are used by the Andamanese and Aeta,
-the arrows of the Andamanese, Semang and Aeta are nocked, but only
-those of the two latter are feathered. No nocked or feathered arrows
-occur in New Guinea. Only the Semang and Aeta are known to poison their
-arrows, and they may have borrowed the idea from the poisoned darts of
-the blow-pipe. Some Semang have adopted the blow-pipe.
-
-The Andamanese appear to be one of the very few people who possess fire
-but do not know how to make it afresh. The Semang usually make fire
-by “rubbing together short blocks of wood, bamboo or cane. A common
-method consists in passing a rattan line round the portion of a dried
-branch, and holding the branch down by the feet whilst the line is
-rapidly worked to and fro with the hands.” Flint and steel are also
-used. (The Sakai employ similar methods.) (_Skeat and Blagden_, I, pp.
-111-114, 119.) Among the Aeta flint and steel have almost replaced
-the old method of making fire by one piece of split bamboo being
-sawed rapidly across another piece. Semper collected from Negritos of
-N.E. Luzon, a split stick, bark fibre and a strip of rattan used in
-fire-making, these are described and figured by A. B. Meyer (_Publ. der
-K. Ethn. Mus. zu. Dresden_, IX, _Negritos_, p. 5, pl. 11, fig. 7 a-c).
-It is interesting to find that the Tapiro employ the same method and
-apparatus (p. 200). Thus there occurs among Negritos in the Philippines
-and New Guinea the method of making fire by partly splitting a dry
-stick, keeping the ends open by inserting a piece of wood or a stone
-in the cleft, stuffing some tinder into the narrow part of the slit and
-then drawing rapidly a strip of rattan to and fro across this spot till
-a spark ignites the tinder. Pöch found it among the Poum, dwelling in
-the mountains inland from the Kai (_Geog. Jnl._ XXX, 1907, p. 612, and
-_Mitt. Anth. Ges. in Wien_, XXXVII. 1907, p. 59, fig. 2, 3). Precisely
-the same method was described by the Rev. Dr. W. G. Lawes who found
-it among the Koiari of Tabure on Mt. Warirata (_Proc. R. Geog. Soc._
-V, 1883, p. 357). Finsch collected the apparatus from the same people
-(_Ann. des K.K. naturhist. Hofmus. in Wien_, III, 1888, p. 323; Leo
-Frobenius, _The Childhood of Man_, 1909, fig. 313, but Frobenius is
-mistaken in representing the rattan as going twice round the stick).
-Dr. H. O. Forbes had found it at Ubumkara on the Naoro, also in the
-Central Division (_P.R.G.S._ XII. 1890, p. 562). Mr. C. A. W. Monckton
-noticed it in 1906 among the Kambisa tribe, in the valley of the
-Chirima, Mt. Albert Edward (_Ann. Rep. Brit. New Guinea_, 1907). Pöch
-suggests that N. von Miklucho-Maclay was wrong in thinking that the
-strip was rubbed in the split of a stick (_l.c._ p. 61); this is the
-earliest Papuan record (1872).
-
-From the above account it is possible that the split stick and rattan
-strip method of fire-making may be a criterion of Negrito culture, but
-it should be noted that the stick is not reported as split among the
-Semang, and that the unsplit stick is found among the Sakai and the
-Kayans and Kenyahs of Sarawak who are not Negritos. Also the split
-stick is found at several spots in the mountainous interior of the
-south-east peninsula of New Guinea where Negrito influence has not yet
-been recorded, but Mr. Williamson’s observations are very suggestive
-in this respect. Pöch (_l.c._ p. 62) points out that this method
-is nearest akin to “fire-sawing with bamboo, both in principle and
-distribution,” of which he gives details. A somewhat similar method
-is that described by W. E. Roth. A split hearth-stick is held by the
-feet, but fire is made by sawing with another piece of wood, a device
-which appears to be widely spread in Queensland and occurs also on the
-Lachlan River, N.S.W. (_N. Queensland Ethnogr. Bull._ 7, 1904, sect. 9,
-pl. II. figs. 17, 18).
-
-So far as is known the social structure of the Negritos is very simple.
-Among the Andamanese there is no division of the community into two
-moieties, no clan system nor totemism, neither has a classificatory
-system of kinship been recorded; the social unit appears to be the
-family, and the power of the head-man is very limited. Our knowledge
-concerning the Semang and Aeta is extremely imperfect but they probably
-resemble the Andamanese in these points. The Andamanese and Semang are
-strictly monogamous, polygyny is allowed among the Aeta, but monogamy
-prevails. The only restriction at all on marriage appears to be the
-prohibition of marriage between near kindred, and divorce is very
-rare. All bury their dead, but it is considered by the Andamanese more
-complimentary to place the dead on a platform which is generally built
-in a large tree, and the more honourable practice of the Semang is to
-expose the dead in trees. The Mafulu bury ordinary people, but the
-corpses of chiefs are placed in an open box either on a platform or
-in the fork of a kind of fig tree. Nothing is known about the social
-life of the Tapiro, and Williamson says, “The very simple ideas of
-the Mafulu, as compared with the Papuans and Melanesians, in matters
-of social organization, implements, arts and crafts, religion and
-other things may well, I think, be associated with a primitive Negrito
-origin” (_l.c._ p. 306).
-
-
-
-
-SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY.
-
-
-This is not the place to attempt to give a record of the very
-voluminous bibliography of the Negritos, and most of the works here
-recorded are those from which the foregoing facts have been collected.
-Books referred to in the text are, with one or two exceptions, not here
-repeated.
-
-_The General Question._
-
-Danielli, G., “Studi di Antropogeografia generale.” _Memorie
-  Geografiche_, N. 18. Vol. VI. 1912.
-
-Flower, W. H. _The Pygmy Races of Men._ Royal Inst. Lecture, 1888,
-  reprinted in _Essays on Museums_, 1898.
-
-Lapicque, L. “La Race Negrito.” _Ann. de Géographie_, 1896, p. 407.
-
-Meyer, A. B. _The Distribution of the Negritos_, 1899; translation with
-  additions from _Publikationen d. K. Ethn. Mus. zu Dresden_, IX. 1893.
-
-Quatrefages, A. de. _The Pygmies_, 1895. (English Translation).
-
-Schmidt, W. _Die Stellung der Pygmäenvölker in der
-  Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen_, 1910.
-
-  Pater W. Schmidt has gone into the whole pygmy question
-  with great thoroughness. He extends his comparison to
-  the African pygmies (Negrillos), between whom and the
-  Asiatic pygmies he attempts to prove a connection through
-  Southern India. Emphasis is laid on the “infantile”
-  physical characters of both African and Asiatic pygmies
-  and the extremely primitive features of their culture. He
-  is inclined to regard the Pre-Dravidian Vedda, Senoi and
-  Toala as of mixed pygmy origin, finding support for this
-  theory in the proximity of the Senoi to the Semang in the
-  Malay Peninsula. The eastward extension of the pygmies
-  into Melanesia and New Guinea is not dealt with.
-
-Tyson, E. _A Philological Essay concerning the Pygmies of the
-Ancients_, 1699. Edited by B. C. A. Windle, 1894.
-
-
-_The Andamanese._
-
-Dobson, G. E., “On the Andamans and Andamanese.” _Journ. Anth. Inst._
-  IV. 1875, p. 457.
-
-Flower, W. H., “On the Osteology and Affinities of the Natives of the
-  Andaman Islands,” _J.A.I._, IX. 1879, p. 108, _cf._ also X., p. 124,
-  XIV., p. 115, XVIII., p. 73.
-
-Lane Fox, A., “Observations on Mr. Man’s Collection of Andamanese and
-  Nicobarese Objects,” _J.A.I._, VII. 1877, p. 434.
-
-Man, E. H., “On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands,”
-  _J.A.I._, XII. 1882-3, pp. 69, 117, 327, _cf._ also VII. p. 105, XI. p.
-  268.
-
-Portman, M. V., “Notes on the Andamanese,” _J.A.I._, XXV. 1896, p. 361.
-
-
-_The Semang._
-
-Skeat, W. W., and Blagden, C. O., _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_,
-  1906.
-
-Martin, R., _Die Inlandstämme der Malayischen Halbinsel_, 1905.
-
-Annandale, N., and Robinson, H. C., _Fasciculi Malayensis_,
-  Anthropology, Part I, 1903, p. 105.
-
-
-_The Aeta._
-
-Folkmar, D., _Album of Philippine Types_, Manila, 1904.
-
-Koeze, G. A., “Crania Ethnica Philippinica,” _Publicatiën uit ’s rijks
-  ethnographisch Museum_, Serie II. No. 3, Haarlem, 1901-1904.
-
-Meyer, A. B., _Album of Filipino Types_, 1885, Vol. II., 1891, and Vol.
-  III., 1904, with photographs taken by Dr. A. Schadenberg.
-
-Meyer, A. B., “Die Philippinen, II., Negritos,” _Publikationen des K.
-  Ethnogr. Mus. zu Dresden_, IX. 1893 (and _cf._ _J.A.I._, XXV. p. 172).
-
-Reed, W. A., “Negritos of Zambales,” _Department of the Interior,
-  Ethnological Survey Publications_, II. Manila, 1904.
-
-Sawyer, F. H., _The Inhabitants of the Philippines_, 1900.
-
-Worcester, Dean C., “The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon,” _The
-  Philippine Journal of Science_, I. 1906, p. 791.
-
-
-Measurements of 22 Tapiro Pygmies (Males).
-
-  KEY:
-  A.  No. of man.
-  B.  Height of stature.
-  C.  Girth of chest.
-  D.  Vertexto tragus.
-  E.  Head length.
-  F.  Head breadth.
-  G.  Face breadth.
-  H.  Bigonial breadth.
-  I.  Face length.
-  J.  Nose length.
-  K.  Nose breadth.
-  L.  Interocular breadth.
-
-  Indices. a. {Head index.
-           b. {Face Index.
-           c. {Nasal Index.
-
-  —————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————————————————
-       |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     Indices
-   A.  |  B. |  C. |  D. |  E. |  F. |  G. |  H. |  I. |  J. |  K. |  L. |  a. |  b. |  c.
-  —————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————
-   17  |152·7| 80·5| 13·0| 18·2| 14·1| 13·6| 12·7| 10·7| 5·1 | 3·9 | 3·4 | 77·5| 78·7| 76·5
-   18  |148·0| 77·5| 12·7| 17·7| 13·8| 13·4| 12·7| 10·0| 4·7 | 4·1 | 2·8 | 78·0| 74·6| 87·2
-   19  |142·5| 71·0| 11·2| 18·1| 13·9| 13·1| 11·1| 11.5| 5·5 | 3·6 | 3·4 | 76·8| 87·8| 65·5
-   20  |142·1| 71·5| 11·0| 17·2| 11·5| 13·0| 12·0| 10·3| 4·8 | 4·1 | 3·1 | 66·9| 79·5| 85·4
-   21  |147·9| 78·0| 12·6| 17·4| 13·7| 12·5|  9·3| 11·7| 6·0 | 4·5 | 3.2 | 78·7| 93·6| 75·0
-   22  |140·2| 74·0| 11·2| 17·7| 14·2| 13·0| 10·7| 10·6| 5·2 | 4·2 | 3·4 | 80·2| 81·5| 80·8
-   23  |145·4| 74·5| 12·9| 17·8| 14·3| 13·6| 12·5| 10·6| 4·5 | 3·9 | 3·3 | 80·3| 77·9| 86·7
-   24  |152·9| 78·5| 12·1| 17·7| 14·3| 12·7| 11·1| 11·6| 5·2 | 4·4 | 3·2 | 80·8| 91·3| 84·6
-   25  |138·9| 74·5| 12·6| 16·7| 14·1| 11·8|  9·6| 10·4| 5·0 | 4·4 | 2·8 | 84·4| 88·1| 88·0
-   26  |149·0| 72·7| 12·6| 17·4| 13·6| 12·3| 11·8| 10·7| 4·8 | 3·9 | 3·2 | 78·2| 87·0| 81·3
-   27  |148·2| 81·4| 11·3| 18·5| 13·9| 12·8| 11·0| 11·3| 5·2 | 4·4 | 3·2 | 75·1| 88·3| 84·6
-   28  |132·6| 72·8| 12·8| 17·5| 14·7| 12·8|  9·8| 11·2| 5·1 | 4·1 | 3·0 | 84·0| 87·5| 80·4
-   29  |150·7| 79·5| 13·6| 17·4| 14·8| 13·6| 12·3| 11·1| 5·5 | 4·4 | 3·4 | 85·1| 81·6| 80·0
-   30  |148·8| 74·0| 13·0| 18·1| 14·1| 12·6| 11·0| 10·6| 4·9 | 4·4 | 3·3 | 77·9| 84·1| 89·8
-   31  |150·1| 79·0| 13·5| 17·8| 14·8| 13·1| 11·0| 12·2| 5·5 | 4·4 | 3·1 | 83·2| 93·1| 80·0
-   32  |139·8| 76·5| 12·5| 17·4| 14·7| 13·4| 10·8| 10·4| 5·5 | 4·1 | 3·1 | 84·5| 77·6| 74·6
-   33  |134·3| 71·8| 12·2| 16·2| 13·4| 13·2| 11·7| 10·6| 4·8 | 4·1 | 3·1 | 82·7| 80·3| 85·4
-   34  |150·6| 78·0| 12·8| 18·2| 14·6| 13·8| 11·4| 11·6| 5·9 | 5·0 | 3·6 | 80·2| 84·1| 84·8
-   35  |144·2| 79·0| 12·0| 17·8| 13·7| 13·5| 12·8| 11·2| 4·8 | 4·1 | 3·1 | 77·0| 83·0| 85·4
-   36  |144·8| 77·7| 11·1| 18·1| 13·9| 13·0| 12·2| 11·0| 5·1 | 4·8 | 3·3 | 76·8| 84·6| 94·1
-   37  |140·5| 71·3| 12·2| 18·4| 14·6| 13·0|  9·7| 12·5| 5·5 | 3·9 | 3·3 | 80·7| 96·2| 70·9
-   38  |142·8| 79·0| 11·5| 18·1| 14·2| 13·4| 11·9| 12·1| 6·1 | 4·3 | 3·0 | 78·5| 90·3| 70·5
-  —————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX C
-
-
-NOTES ON LANGUAGES IN THE EAST OF NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA
-
-BY SIDNEY H. RAY, M.A.
-
-
-I. INTRODUCTION
-
-In considering the languages of Netherlands New Guinea it is convenient
-to divide the territory into six geographical divisions. These are:—
-
-  1. The North-western Coast and Islands (Waigiu, Salawati,
-       and Misol).
-
-  2. The Western shore of Geelvink Bay and the islands
-       adjacent (Mefor, Biak, and Jobi).
-
-  3. The Peninsula of Kumava (Orange Nassau) with the
-       islands between Ceram and the Ké group.
-
-  4. The Southern and Eastern Shores of Geelvink Bay.
-
-  5. The North Coast from Kurudu Islands to Humboldt Bay.
-
-  6. The South-eastern Coast from Kamrau Inlet to the
-       Bensbach River on the boundary between Netherlands and
-       British territory.
-
-
-The present notice only refers to languages in the three last of these
-divisions.
-
-At the Western end of the South shore of Geelvink Bay is the district
-of Wandammen, of which the language is fairly well known. For this
-we have a vocabulary with grammatical examples (9),[26] and also for
-Windessi, which is the same language, a mission text-book. Eastward
-from Wandammen the numerals only are recorded (7), but at the Southern
-point of the Bay, in the district around Jamur Lake we have the
-collections made by Van der Sande during the Wichmann Expedition of
-1903 (8). He gives a vocabulary of Angadi, an island in the Jamur Lake,
-some words of the Nagramadu dialect on the North-west, and the numerals
-of Goreda on the South of the lake. The languages of the Western Shore
-of Geelvink Bay are represented only by numerals (7) but there is more
-information of the language of Pauwi at the mouth of the Wamberam
-or Amberno or Mamberamo River, where F. van Braam Morris collected
-a vocabulary published by Robidé van der Aa in 1885 (6). This was
-considered faulty by de Clercq.[27]
-
-Westward along the Northern coast very little linguistic material is
-available, and the few words recorded show great differences. The
-places of which the speech is known are, on the mainland: Takar, Tarfia
-and Tana Merah, and on the islands: Liki (in the Kumamba Group), Moar
-(called also Wakde), Masimasi and Jamna (4, 5).
-
-For the region about Humboldt Bay we have short vocabularies of Jotafa
-by various collectors, and a fuller one by G. L. Bink (2), also Sentani
-lists by P. E. Moolenburg (3) and van der Sande (8). Moolenburg also
-gives a list from Seka, West of the Bay.
-
-For the Southern shore of Netherlands New Guinea, we have nothing but
-vocabularies, none of very large extent, the most extensive being that
-of Merauke in the extreme West (15) which has also been ably discussed
-by Dr. N. Adriani.[28]
-
-Commencing at Kamrau Inlet, the languages of the shore and islands
-are illustrated by the Kowiai vocabularies of Miklucho-Maclay (13),
-the papers of G. W. Earl[29] and the lists of S. Muller (10), the
-last two being derived from the collections made during the voyage of
-the _Triton_ under Lieut. Modera in 1828. The following languages are
-named:—
-
-  Lobo at Triton Bay (including Namatote, Aiduma, Mawara, and Kaju-Mera).
-  Wuaussirau, inland on the Kamaka-Wallar Lake.
-  Mairassis, inland from Lobo.
-  Lakahia, on Telok Lakahia.
-  Kiruru, on Telok Kiruru.
-  Utanata, on the Utanata River.
-
-Westward of the Utanata a vocabulary of the language spoken on
-the Mimika River people was obtained by Mr. Wollaston in 1910-11.
-A list of the same language is given also in the account of the
-South-west New Guinea Expedition of the Royal Netherlands Geographical
-Association.[30] The latter work contains a few words of the language
-used at the mouth of the Kupĕra Pukwa River.
-
-The language of Mĕraukĕ has been recorded by J. Seijne Kok (15), and by
-J. C. Montague and E. F. Bik,[C] that of Toro by S. Bik.[31]
-
-
-II. CLASSIFICATION OF THE LANGUAGES.
-
-Of the three languages in the northern part of Eastern Netherlands New
-Guinea that of the Jotafa of Humboldt Bay has been ably discussed by
-Dr. Kern,[32] who decides that in phonology, construction, numeration
-and word store it presents many points of agreement with the Mefoor or
-Nufor of the North-west. But it undoubtedly also contains many words
-which are of non-Indonesian origin. The Sentani and Pawi languages
-seem to have very few or no words similar to the Indonesian, and may
-probably be found to be Papuan languages. But nothing is known of the
-grammar. The language of Wandammen presents agreements with the Mefoor
-(or Nufōr) in vocabulary and also in some points of grammar. It will
-probably be found to fall into the same class as the Nufōr and Jotafa.
-The languages of the north coast and islands also show a mixture of
-Indonesian with other words. So little is known of the structure of the
-languages in the Kumava Peninsula that their place cannot be determined
-with certainty. The numerals and much of the vocabulary appear to be
-Indonesian,[33] but there are Papuan forms in the Grammar.
-
-The Lobo languages of the Kowiai district on the south coast appear
-to be Indonesian, but those inland and south of Geelvink Bay have a
-distinct connection with those on the south coast west of the Kowiai
-district, and with those at the Utanata River and beyond the Mimika,
-at least as far as the Kupera Pukwa River. Beyond this point nothing
-is recorded until Princess Marianne Strait is reached, and here of two
-words known, one is Mĕraukĕ.[34] The latter language extends to the
-Boundary. All west of the Lobo appear to be Papuan.
-
-Using the scanty means available, the languages of the Eastern part of
-Netherlands New Guinea may be thus provisionally classified:—
-
-NORTH COAST AND ISLANDS (INCLUDING EAST AND SOUTH SHORE OF GEELVINK
-BAY).
-
-
- _Papuan._        Seka          West of Lake Sentani.
-                  Sentani       Lake Sentani.
-                  Moki (?)      Hinterland of Tana Mera Bay.
-                   ...          Tana Mera.
-                  Tarfia (?)    Coast West of Tana Mera Bay.
-                  Takar         Mainland East of Mamberamo R.
-                  Wamberan      ? Mamberamo R.
-                  Pauwi         Villages on Lower Mamberamo R.
-                  Angadi        Island in Jamur Lake.
-                  Goreda        South of Lake Jamur.
-                  Nagramadu     North-West of L. Jamur.
-                  Manikion      North of McCleur Inlet (Telok Berau).
- _Indonesian_[35] Jotafa        Humboldt Bay.
-                  Jamna         Island opposite Takar.
-                  Masimasi      Island West of Jamna.
-                  Moar          Islands West of Masimasi.
-                  Kumamba       Islands and Coast West of Moar and Takar.
-                  Waropin       East shore of Geelvink Bay.
-                  Mohr          Island opposite Waropin.
-                  Tandia        Coast South of Waropin.
-                  Jaur          South-West shore of Geelvink Bay.
-                  Dasener       West of Jaur.
-                  Wandammen     North of Dasener.
-
-
-SOUTH COAST.
-
-  _Papuan._       Mairassis      Inland from Lobo.
-                  Wuaussirau     On Kamaka Wallar Lake.
-                  Lakahia        On Telok Lakahia.
-                  Kiruru         On Telok Kiruru.
-                  Utanata        Inland from Utanata River.
-                  Mimika         Inland from Mimika River.
-                  Kupera Pukwa   Kupera Pukwa River.
-                  Mĕraukĕ        Coast between the Kumbĕ River and the
-                                   British Boundary.
-                  Toro           Bensbach R.
-  _Indonesian._   Onin           North of Kumava Peninsula.
-                  Kapauer        North-West of Kumava Peninsula.
-                  Karufa         South of Kumava Peninsula.
-                  Lobo           Kowiai Coast and Islands of Namatote,
-                                   Mawara, Aiduma, and Kaju-mera.
-
-
-III. COMPARATIVE NOTES ON THE ANGADI-MIMIKA GROUP OF LANGUAGES.
-
-This group consists of the Angadi, Nagramadu, Goreda, Utanata, Lakahia,
-Mimika and Kupera Pukwa dialects, and perhaps also Kiruru.
-
-1. _Sound changes._[36]
-
-A comparison of vocabularies shows a certain amount of sound change
-between the dialects. Thus Angadi _m_ becomes _b_ in Utanata and Mimika
-and _vice versa_.[37]
-
-  Ex. Angadi _muti_, Mimika and Utanata _buïti_, bamboo.
-      Angadi _mopere_, Nagramadu _mobere(bu)_, Mimika _bopere_, navel.
-      Angadi _mirimoi_, Utanata _birimbu_, Mimika _birim_, nose.
-      Angadi _mau_, Utanata _mouw_, Mimika _bauwe_, foot.
-      Angadi _tohoma-pare_, Mimika _to-mari_, arm.
-
-The Angadi _m_ is represented sometimes by _mb_ in Mimika, but is
-retained in Lakahia and Kiruru. Utanata examples are not found.
-
-  Ex. Angadi _mi_, Lakahia _mu_, Kiruru _mi_, Mimika _mbi_, _mbu_, water.
-      Angadi _metaho_, Mimika _mbatau_, spit.
-      Angadi _imiri_, Mimika _imbiri_, shin.
-      Mimika _amuri_ is Kupera Pukwa _ambori_.
-
-Angadi in some words loses _k_ or _g_ which appears in Mimika and
-Lakahia.
-
-  Ex. Angadi _irĕa_, Mimika _irĕka_, Utanata _eriki_, fish.
-      Angadi _kauwa_, Mimika _kaukwa_, woman.
-      Angadi _maare_, Mimika _makarĕ_, armlet.
-      Angadi _măe_, Mimika _mbage_, Utanata _make_, cry, weep.
-      Angadi _hehe_, Lakahia _eika_, finger-nail.
-      Angadi _(nata)pairi_, Mimika _pigeri_, skin.
-
-A few words show an interchange of _r_ and _n_ between Mimika and
-Lakahia.
-
-  Mimika _marĕ_, Lakahia _mana_, finger. (Utanata _to-mare_, Angadi
-  _mahare_, hand.) Mimika _iribu_, Utanata and Angadi _iripu_, Lakahia
-  _ini-fa_, knee. Mimika _amuri_, Utanata _amure_, Angadi _amore_,
-  Lakahia _amuno_, bow, Kupera Pukwa _ambori_.
-
-
-2. _Vocabulary._
-
-The great likeness of the dialects may be illustrated by the following
-examples:—
-
-              _Angadi._              _Utanata._    _Mimika._
-
-  Arm.        _to_ (in compounds)    _tō_          _to_         Lakahia _esu-rua_ (?)
-  Arrow.      _ka-tiaro_ (in bundle) _tiăre_       _tiari_
-  Boat.       _ku_                   _ku_          _ku_
-  Chin.       _kepare_               ..            _kepare_
-  Coconut.    _utiri_                _uteri_       _uteri_      Kupera Pukwa _otiri_.
-  Dog.        _uwiri_                _wuri_        _wiri_       Lakahia _iwora_, Nagramadu
-                                                                  _iwŏra_, Kupera Pukwa
-                                                                  _uweri_.
-  Ear.        _ihani_                _iänī_        _ene_
-  Eye.        _măme_                 _mame_        _mame_
-  Fire.       _utămai_               _uta_         _uta_        Lakahia _ŭsia_, Kiruru _uta_,
-                                                                  Nagramadu _uha_.
-  Give.       _kema_                 ..            _kema_
-  Hair.       _rup-ere_              _uirī_        _viri_       Kupera Pukwa, _uïri_
-  Hand.       _mahare_               _tu-mare_     _marĕ_       Lakahia, _mana_ (finger).
-  Head.       _rupau_                _upauw_       _kapa-uĕ_    Lakahia _uwua_.
-  House.      _kăme_                 _kamī_        _kamĕ_
-  Iron.       _jau_ (pot)            (_puruti_)    _tau_
-  Laugh.      _oko_                  _oku_         _oko_
-  Lip.        _iri_                  _iri_ (mouth) _iri_        Kiruru _uru_ (mouth).
-  Moon.       _pură_                 _uran_        _pura_       Lakahia _bura_.
-  Mountain    ..                     (_pamogo_)    _pukare_     Lakahia _bugura_, Wuaussirau
-                                                                  _wara_.
-  Neck.       _amoiï_                _ema_         _ima_        Lakahia _umia_, Nagramadu
-                                                                  _umeke_.
-  Paddle.     _pá_                   _pō_          _poh_        Lakahia _boa_.
-  Pig.        _ŏhŏ_                  _ū_           _u_          Lakahia _u(fa)_, Nagramadu
-                                                                  _ŏhă_, Kupera Pukwa _uwĕ_.
-  Rain.       _keke_                 _komak_       _ke_         Lakahia _ge(fa)_, Kiruru _kē_.
-  Sago.       _amata_                (_kinani_)    _amota_      Lakahia _ama_, Nagramadu
-                                                                  _ĕma_, Kupera Pukwa _amĕta_.
-  Sleep.      _ete_                  _ete_         _ete_        Kupera Pukwa _ete_.
-  Sugarcane.  ..                     _mone_        _mŏni_       Lakahia _moni(fa)_.
-  Sun.        _jăū_                  _youw_        _yau_        Lakahia _aya_.
-  Tongue.     _mere_                 _mare_        _malī_       Lakahia _mara_.
-  Tooth.      _titi_                 _titi_        _titi_       Nagramadu _si_.
-  Wind.       _kimiri_               _lowri_       _kimire_     Kiruru _kemuru_.
-
-
-
-3. _Pronouns._ These are given only in Mimika for the singular number,
-and in Utanata for the first person singular, but the words for “I,”
-Mimika _doro_ and Utanata _area_ are unlike. In Mimika the possessive
-is shown by the suffix _-ta_, which is used also with other words.
-_Dorota_, mine, _oro-ta_, yours, _amare-ta_ his, _wehwaída-ta_ of
-another man. _Wehwaída_ is compounded apparently of _uwe_ (_rí_) man
-and _awaída_ other. In Mairassis “I” is _omona_.
-
-
-4. _Numerals._ No numerals are given by Müller or Earl for Utanata.
-“People of Utanata had very little knowledge of counting. When wishing
-to make known any number, they made use of the word _awerí_ and
-counted on their fingers and toes.”[38] In Angadi, Nagramadu, Goreda,
-Lakahia and Mimika, the numbers appear as follows:
-
-        Angadi.               Nagramadu.     Goreda.             Lakahia.       Mimika.
-   1.  _janăūwă_              _nadi_         _unakwa_            _onarawa_      _inakwa_
-   2.  _jaminatia_            _ăbåmă_        _jămanini_          _aboma_        _yamani_
-   3.  _jaminati-janăūwa_     _ăbåmă-nadi_   ..                 (_torua_)      _yamani-inakwa_
-   4.  _awaitămă-jaminatia_   _abama-båmŏ_   ..                  _(fāt)_        _ama-yamani_
-   5.  _măhăre-ajăherauri_    _măma-riba_     _maheri-herori_   (_rim_)         ..
-   6.  _măhăre-janăūwa_       _mariba-nadi_   ..                 _rim-onarawa_  ..
-  10.  _măhăre-jăminatia_     _măma răbåmă_   _tăoru_            ..             ..
-
-These show a numeration only as far as two. “Three” and “four” are
-made by additions, 2 + 1 = 3 and 2 + 2 = 4, except in Angadi where
-_awaitămă-jaminatia_ means “another two” with which cf. the Mimika
-_awaida_, other. _Măhăre_, _maheri_, _mari_ in the words for “five”
-also mean “hand,” abbreviated to _mă_ in _măma_ of Nagramadu. The
-Goreda _tăoru_ given for “ten,” is the Angadi _tăöru_, much, Mimika
-_takiri_, many. In Lakahia the words for “three,” “four,” “five,” “six”
-have the Ceram numerals which are also used in Lobo and Namatote. The
-Mairassis and Wuaussirau numerals agree with one another, but differ
-entirely from those of the Angadi-Mimika group.
-
-
-               One        Two       Three    Four     Five     Six           Ten
-  Mairassis   _tangauw_  _amoōi_   _karia_  _āi_     _iworo_  _iwora-mōi_   _werowa-mōi_
-  Wuaussirau  _anau_     _amōi_    _karia_  _aiwera_ _iworo_  _iwor-tanau_  _iwor-toki-tani_
-
-The low numeration in all these languages may be regarded as an
-indication of their Papuan character.
-
-
-5. _Construction._
-
-A few grammatical forms which appear to be indicated in the
-vocabularies may be noted here.
-
-_a._ The possessive with pronouns and pronominal words is indicated
-by a suffix _-ta_. Mimika, _doro-ta_, of me, mine; _oro-ta_, thine;
-_amare-ta_, his; _wehwaída-ta_, of another man. In Angadi several
-compound words end in _nata_, which thus appears to be a noun, _na_
-(thing?), with the possessive suffix; and it seems possible to explain
-such words as _ută-nata_, firewood; _kara nata_, head of javelin—_i.e._
-fire-thing-of, javelin-thing-of. Cf. also _nata pairi_ given by v. d.
-Sande for “skin,” with Mimika _pīgīri_, skin, which suggests that _nata
-pairi_ means skin of something.
-
-_b._ The adjective follows the noun. Utanata _warari napetike_, water
-big, river.
-
-_c._ A noun in the genitive relation precedes its substantive. Mimika
-_bau mame_, leg’s eye, ankle; _iwau makarĕ_, belly’s band. Angadi
-_mahare hehe_, finger nail; _māū hehe_, toe nail; _mirimoi ipa_, nose
-hole, nostril; _ihani ipa_, hole in ear lobe; _ămore eme_, bow’s
-rattan, bowstring.
-
-_d._ The subject precedes the verb. Angadi _jăū hinau-mara_, sun rises
-(?), morning; _jăū emapojemia_, sun sets (?), evening.
-
-_e._ The object also precedes the verb. Angadi _ihani aimeri_, ear
-pierce; _mirimoi aimeri_, nose pierce.
-
-These five points indicate a Papuan structure of the languages.
-
-
-6. _Comparison with Merauke and the Languages of British New Guinea
-West of the Fly River._
-
-The Papuan languages usually show so few agreements in vocabulary that
-the likeness of words, unless frequent, cannot be held to establish
-relationship. In the comparative vocabulary, words and numerals are
-added from the languages on British Territory.[39] These show a few
-likenesses, which may, however, be accidental.
-
-
-  Arm. Mimika _to_, Dungerwab _tond_, Dabu _tang_, Miriam _tag_, Kiwai _tu_
-  Arrow. Mimika _tiari_, Kiwai _tere_.
-  Arrow barb. Mimika _imari_, Kiwai _were_.
-  Basket. Mimika _temone_, Kunini _diba_, Jibu _dimba_,
-    Mimika _eta_, Kiwai _sito_, Mowata _hito_.
-  Bird. Mimika _pateru_, Bugi _pa_ (?), Dabu _papa_ (?).
-  Earth. Mimika _tiri_, Bangu _tiritari_.
-  Eat. Mimika _namuka_, Bangu _jamukwa_.
-  Elbow. Mimika _to-mame_, Mowata _tu-pape_.
-  Fire. Mimika _uta_, Miriam _ur_.
-  Forehead. Mimika _metar(re)_, Bangu _mithago_, Miriam _mat_.
-  Head. Mimika _kapane_, Bangu _kambu_.
-  Iron. Mimika _tau_, Dungerwab _tod_.
-  Nose. Mimika _birim_, Dabu _murung_, Saibai, Miriam _pit_.
-  Pig. Mimika _ap_, Meranke _sapi_.
-  Rat. Mimika _kemako_, Bugi _makata_, Saibai _makas_, Miriam _mokeis_.
-  Shore. Mimika _tiri_, Dungerwab _tredre_.
-  Sleep. Mimika _ete_, Bangu _ete-betha_, Dungerwab _eda-bel_, Miriam _ut-eid_.
-  Tree. Mimika _uti_, Kiwai _ota_.
-
-
-IV. MALAYAN INFLUENCE ON THE SOUTH COAST OF NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA.
-
-
-In a discussion of the languages of the south-eastern shores of
-Netherlands New Guinea, the extent of Malay influence in that region
-must be taken into account. Mr. William Churchill has lately put
-forward a theory that the Polynesian people entered the Pacific not
-only by coasting along the northern shores of New Guinea to the Solomon
-Group, but also by a passage through Torres Straits, and thence along
-the south-eastern coast of British New Guinea to the New Hebrides.[40]
-On tracing the languages westward from Polynesia, it is an indisputable
-fact that many words which are identical with Polynesian are found
-in use along the shores of British New Guinea, though they are not
-used in a Polynesian syntax, or in the simplified forms usual in the
-Eastern tongues. It is also a fact that many of these same words are
-current also in the western islands of Indonesia. For example, _hua_,
-fruit; _ina_, mother; _lala_, blood; _lau_, leaf; _au_, I; _ruma_,
-house; _inu_, drink; _utu_, louse; _tohu_, sugar cane, and many other
-words are identical in the south-east of British New Guinea and in
-Ceram. But in British New Guinea the languages which show likeness to
-Polynesian end abruptly at Cape Possession, and are not found west
-of that point.[41] Hence it becomes important to inquire how far the
-similar tongues of Amboyna and Ceram have influenced the New Guinea
-languages to the east of them. That there is such an influence is plain
-from the vocabularies of the languages. Indonesian words, such as the
-Onin (10) _kayu_, wood; _tanigan_, ear; _nifan_, tooth; _fenu_, turtle;
-_mani_, bird; _afi_, fire, are of common occurrence in the islands of
-the Arafura Sea, and on the coast of the mainland. But these words
-are more common in the west, and gradually disappear towards Torres
-Straits, and are not found beyond. In Rosenberg’s Karufa list (12) we
-find such characteristically Indonesian words as _ulu_, hair; _mata_,
-eye; _uhru_, mouth; _taruya_, ear; _nima_, hand; _ora_, sun; _uran_,
-moon; _niyu_, coconut. Words of this kind are found also in Lobo (10)
-and Namatote (13), as, for example, _wuran_, moon; _labi_, fire;
-_nima_, hand; _nena_, mother; _rara_, blood; _metan_, black; _tobu_,
-sugar cane; _wosa_, paddle; _matoran_, sit; _mariri_, stand. Some of
-these words seem to have passed into Utanata (10) and Lakahia (13), and
-apparently, though not so freely, into Wuaussirau (13), Mairassis (10),
-and Mimika (14). The Kiruru vocabulary of Maclay does not appear to
-show any words of this kind. The following are examples of Indonesian
-or Ceram words in the Utanata-Mimika group of languages.
-
-  Utanata _uran_, Lakahia _bura_, Mairassis _furan_, Mimika
-  _pura_, Ceram _wulana_, moon. The Angadi has also _pura_.
-
-  Lakahia _bugura_, Wuaussirau _wara_, Mimika _pukare_,
-  Ceram _uhara_, mountain. Utanata has _pamogo_.
-
-  Utanata _pō_, Lakahia _boa_, Mimika _poh_, Ceram _wosa_,
-  paddle.
-
-  Utanata _kai_, Ceram _kai_, wood. For this the Mimika is
-  _uti_.
-
-A word of much interest in this region is _turika_ or _turi_. This is
-given by Muller in his Ceram list as _turika_, knife, in Lobo _turi_,
-Onin _tuni_. Maclay gives the Ceram (Keffing) as _turito_, Namatote and
-Wuaussirau _turi_, also for “knife.” The word does not appear in Angadi
-or in the list of Ekris (19). Though not apparently used in Merauke
-_turik_ has travelled eastward as far as Torres Straits and the Fly
-River, and even to the borders of the Papuan Gulf. Thus Bangu _turik_,
-Dabu _turikata_, Sisiami (Bamu R.) _turuko_, and Tirio _turuko_ mean
-“knife” (_i.e._ iron knife). In Bugi, Saibai, Mowata and Kiwai,
-_turika_ and in Murray Island _tulik_ mean “iron.”[42]
-
-Dr. N. Adriani has pointed out some words adopted from Malay in Merauke
-and also some apparent agreements between that language and Indonesian
-languages generally,[43] but there is no evidence of any language from
-Ceram having passed through the Torres Straits. Agreements between the
-Merauke and Papuan languages to the east are also pointed out by Dr.
-Adriani[44] but these are no evidence of the passage of a Polynesian
-fleet, as they are not Polynesian words, and the languages using them
-have no Polynesian syntax. Mr. Churchill’s theory of the Polynesian
-entry into the Pacific by way of Torres Straits cannot therefore be
-maintained.
-
-
-V. A COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF LANGUAGES IN THE NORTH EAST AND SOUTH
-EAST OF NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA AND OF BRITISH NEW GUINEA WEST OF THE
-FLY RIVER.
-
-The following vocabulary is arranged strictly in Geographical order.
-The North Eastern Languages follow from East to West, from Seka to
-Manikion, and the South Eastern from Onin to the Boundary and thence
-along the South Coast of British Territory to the Western or Right Bank
-of the Fly River.
-
-The following authorities have been quoted:—[45]
-
-
-  1. _Seka._ P. E. Moolenburg. Tijd. v. Indische Taal
-        xlvii. 1904.
-
-  2. _Jotafa_ [and _Sentani_ in ( )]. G. L. Bink in ibid.
-        xlv. 1902.
-
-  3. _Sentani._ P. E. Moolenburg. Bijdragen. t.d. Taal. Ned
-        Indië (7) v. 1906.
-
-  4. _Tanah Merah_, _Tarfia_, _Takar_, _Jamna_, _Masimasi_,
-       _Moar_ (i.e. _Wakde_) and _Kumamba_. G. G. Batten.
-        Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago, 1894.
-
-  5. _Arimoa._ A. B. Meyer. Über die Mafoor’sche, 1874.
-
-  6. _Pauwi._ P. J. B. C. Robidé v. d. Aa. “Reisen van
-        Braam Morris.” Bijd. t.d. Taal. Ned. Indië. (4) x. 1885.
-
-  7. _Wamberan_, _Waropin_, _Mohr_, _Tandia_, _Dasener_,
-       _Jaur_. Fabritius. Tijd. v. Indische Taal. iv. 1885.
-
-  8. _Angadi_, _Goreda_, _Nagramadu_, _Manikion_. G. A. J.
-        v. d. Sande in “Nova Guinea.” Vol. III. 1907.
-
-  9. _Wandammen._ G. L. Bink. Tijd. v. Indische Taal.
-        xxxiv. 1891.
-
-  10. _Onin_, _Lobo_, _Mairassis_, _Utanata_. S. Muller.
-         Reisen, 1857.
-
-  11. _Kapaur._ C. J. F. le Cocq d’Armandville. Tijd. v.
-         Indische Taal. xlvi. 1903.
-
-  12. _Karufa._ H. v. Rosenberg. Der Malayische Archipel.
-         1878.
-
-  13. _Namatote_, _Wuaussirau_, _Lakahia_, _Kiruru_. N. v.
-         Miklucho Maclay. Tijd. v. Indische Taal. xxiii. 1876.
-
-  14. _Mimika._ MS. Dr. A. F. R. Wollaston.
-
-  15. _Merauke._ J. Seijne Kok. Verband. v. h. Batav.
-         Genootsch. v. Kunsten lvi. 1906.
-
-  16. _Bangu_, _Bugi_, _Dabu_, _Mowata_, _Kunini_,
-        _Jibu_, _Tagota_. Reports of Cambridge Anthropological
-         Expedition. Vol. III. 1907.
-
-  17. _Parb_, _Saibai_, _Kiwai_, and _Tirio_. MSS. S. H.
-         Ray.
-
-  18. _Nufor._ J. L. v. Hasselt. Hollandsch. Noefoorsch
-         Woordenboek, 1876.
-
-  19. _Ceram._ A. v. Ekris. Woordenlijst v. Ambonsche
-         Eilanden. Mededeel. v. h. Ned. Zendings Genoots, viii.
-         1864-65.
-
-  20. _Tuburuasa_, _Karas_. (_Islands between Ceram and
-         Onin._) P. J. B. C. Robidé v. d. Aa. Reisen naar Ned.
-         Nieuw-Guinea, 1879.
-
-
-COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.
-
-
-  ———————————+——————————————+————————————————-+——————————+———————————————+——————————————
-             |   Man.       |      Woman.     |  Head.   |     Eye.      |    Ear.
-             |   Man.       |      Vrouw.     |  Hoofd.  |     Oog.      |    Oor.
-  ———————————+——————————————+—————————————————+——————————+———————————————+——————————————
-  Seka       | ...          | ...             | subi     | rutja         | re
-  Jotafa     | tante        | moi             | rabunadu | windu         | tĕni
-  Sentani    | doh          | mī              | farem,   | yŏrå, (yeroh  | anggei,
-             |              |                 |  (panem  |               | (angei
-  Arimoa     | kabun        | ...             | dabro    | masamana      | seroro
-             | (_white_)    |                 |          |               |
-  Pauwi      | maomba       | nedba           | ...      | kikia         | knĭperemba
-  Angadi     | were         | kauwă           | rupau    | măme          | ihani
-  Nagramadu  | ...          | ...             | yabimă   | ...           | ehăra
-  Wandammen  | mua          | babien          | rupai    | rĕne          | tatelajau
-  ———————————+——————————————+—————————————————+——————————+———————————————+——————————————
-  Onin       |marara        | matapais        | onimpatin| matapatin     | tanigan
-  Kapaur     | neméhār      | tombŏhār        | kenda    | kendep        | per
-  Karufa     | mutangki     | maisoida        | umuh     | mata          | taringa
-  Namatote   | murwana      | merwine         | umu      | matatungu     | zingangu
-  Lobo       | marowana     | mawina          | monongo, | matalongo     | tringango
-             |              |                 |   umun   |               |
-  Mairassis  | fatakowa     | ewei            | nanguwu  | nambutu       | newirana
-  Wuaussirau | taturobu     | ewei            | kotera   | obiatu        | obiru
-  Lakahia    | odacira      | yama            | uwua     | managa        | yawana
-  Kiruru     | ...          | ...             |  ...     | ...           | yawatsha
-  Utanata    | marowana     | kuranī          | upauw    | mameh         | ianī
-  Mimika     | uweri        | kaukwa,         | kapane   | mame          | ene
-             |              |  aina           |          |               |
-  Merauke    | amnangga     | bubtī, savĕ,    | pa       | kīndĕ         | kambīt
-             |              | īsus(?) iwogĕ   |          |               |
-  Bangu      | ...          | ...             | kambu    | ti            | taroba, tarup
-  Parb       | ar           | temarb          | mor      | taramb        | tongal
-  Bugi       | la           | mala            | beneqet  | kalye         | laandra
-  Dabu       | rabu         | mure            | bunkut   | ikapa         | ran, ika
-  Saibai     | garakazi     | ipökazi         | kuikö    | dan, purka    | kaura
-  Mowata     | auana        | orobo           | epuru    | damari        | hepate, gare
-  Kunini     | binam, ima   | magebi, ule     | mope     | ireu          | tablame
-  Jibu       | vientete,rega| konga           | mopu     | yere          | yekrom
-  Kiwai      | dubu         | orobo           | epuru    | damari        | sepate, gare
-  Tirio      | amiami       | kinasu          | yapuru   | pariti        | pamata
-  Tagota     | ...          | moream          | kana     | pari          | tuap
-  ———————————+——————————————+—————————————————+——————————+———————————————+——————————————
-  Nufōr      | snun         | bien            | rewuri   | mgasi         | knasi
-  Ceram      | malona,      | mahina,         | uru, ulu | mata, maa     | tarina, talina
-             |  mandai,     | bina, leuto,    |          |               |
-             |  makwai,     |   pepina        |          |               |
-             |  manawal     |                 |          |               |
-  Tuburuasa  | maruana      | mapata          | unīn     | matanpuon     | taningan
-  Karas      | kianam       | paas            | nakalun  | kangiri       | kulokeim
-  ———————————+——————————————+————————————————-+——————————+———————————————+——————————————
-
-  ———————————+——————————————+————————————————-+————————————+———————————————+————————————
-             |    Nose.     |     Tongue.     |   Tooth.   |      Hand.    |    Sun.
-             |    Neus.     |      Tong.      |   Tand.    |      Hand.    |    Zon.
-  ———————————+——————————————+—————————————————+————————————+———————————————+——————————-—
-  Seka       | hā           | ...             | ...        | na (nabērā,   | ...
-             |              |                 |            |  _arm_)       |
-  Jotafa     | su           | meriki          | ñoh        | tibimi        | tap
-  Sentani    | yoi          | fēuw            | je, (tje   | megeragera,   | su
-             |              |                 |            | (posadi       |
-  Arimoa     | sirino       | mataro          | umata      | ...           | ...
-  Pauwi      | kimparia     | kimsiba         | kabrua     |kibawia (_arm_)| tebia
-  Angadi     | mirimoi      | mere            | titi       | mahare        | yăū
-  Nagramadu  | ...          | yămănărai       | si         | ...           | ...
-  Wandammen  | swŏnê        | taperê          | derĕnesi   | waraba        | wor
-  ———————————+——————————————+—————————————————+————————————+———————————————+——————————-—
-  Onin       | wirin        | eri             | nifan      | nemien        | rera
-  Kapaur     | kănomba,     | gengabu         | mĕhien-tāb | tān           | kĕmina
-             |   kănunga    |                 |            |               |
-  Karufa     | sikai        | ...             | ...        | nimang-uta    | ohra
-  Namatote   | iyaongu      | yaeiyongu       | zwiutiongu | siŭsiongu     | oro-matawuti
-  Lobo       | sikaiongo    | kariongo        | ruwotongo  | nimango-uta   | orah
-  Mairassis  | nambi        | nenegun         | sika       | okorwita      | onguru
-  Wuaussirau | ombi         | onsabi          | oras       | uadu          | unguru
-  Lakahia    | onoma        | mara            | ifa        | esurua        | aya
-  Kiruru     | unuga        | ...             | uru        | ...           | yauburawa
-  Utanata    | birimbu      | mare            | titi       | mareh         | dyauw
-  Mimika     | bīrim        | malī            | titi       | marĕ          | yau
-  Merauke    | anggīp       | unum            | manggat    | sangga        | katŏnī
-  Bangu      | ...          | thamina         | ter        | tambia        | epotha
-  Parb       | mebele       | penji           | tol        | tond          | abiard
-  Bugi       | wede         | dangamai        | lenge      | trang-qab     | yabada
-  Dabu       | murung       | dogmar          | ngui, ngoia| tang-kor      | yabada
-  Saibai     | piti         | nöi             | dang       | get           | goiga
-  Mowata     | wodi         | watotorope      | ibuanara   | tu-pata       |
-             |              |                 |            |  (_palm_)     | iwio
-  Kunini     | keke         | weta            | giriu      | imwe          | bimu
-  Jibu       | soku         | vrate           | orkak      | yema          | loma
-  Kiwai      | wodi         | wototorope      | iawa       | tu-pata       |
-             |              |                 |            |  (_palm_)     | sai
-  Tirio      | norose       | ima             | sū         | tikiri        | uainea
-  Tagota     | miu          | uo              | kam        | ...           | dari
-  ———————————+——————————————+—————————————————+————————————+———————————————+——————————-—
-  Nufōr      | snŏri        | kaprēndi        | nasi       | rwasi         | ori
-  Ceram      | hiru, inu,   | mei, mē, mā     | niki, niri,| rima, lima,   | rematai,
-             |   ninu, ili  |                 | nityi, nio |  barau        |  leamatai,
-             |              |                 |            |               |  leamanyo,
-             |              |                 |            |               |  deamatae
-  Tuburuasa  | nirīng       | kwēri           | ...        | tangan        | nera
-  Karas      | bustang      | belein          | ...        | taan          | ïōn
-  ———————————+—————————————-+—————————————————+————————————+———————————————+——————————-—
-
-
-  ———————————+———————————————+——————————————————+————————————-+————————————-+————————————
-             |     Moon.     |      Star.       |    Rain.    |    Stone.   |   Fire.
-             |     Maan.     |      Ster.       |    Regen.   |    Steen.   |   Vuur.
-  ———————————+——————————————-+——————————————————+—————————————+—————————————+————————————
-  Seka       | ...           | ...              | ...         | ...         | ...
-  Jotafa     | sembi         | endor            | tāb         | āt          | aijări
-  Sentani    | ara, (aroh    | ...              | (ya         | tuga, (duwa | ī
-  Arimoa     | ...           | ...              | ...         | fati        | ...
-  Pauwi      | ...           | ...              | ...         | ...         | ...
-  Angadi     | pură          | ...              | kehe        | ...         | ută-mai
-  Nagramadu  | ...           | ...              | emoya       | ...         | uhă
-  Wandammen  | sembai        | siberere         | rama        | rebuki      | adia, adyat
-  ———————————+——————————————-+——————————————————+————————————-+—————————————+————————————
-  Onin       | punono        | apatin-no-farere | unano       | pāti        | api
-  Kapaur     | koba, keba,   | mbāb             | kĕri        | wār         | tōm
-             |   kabah       |                  |             |             |
-  Karufa     | uran          | ŏma              | kama        | langerah    | lawi
-  Namatote   | wuran         | omoma            | omo         | ...         | labi
-  Lobo       | furan         | komakoma         | komah       | ...         | lawi
-  Mairassis  | furan         | waniwani         | yamo        | ...         | iworo
-  Wuaussirau | angane        | onburi           | yamu        | ...         | iworo
-  Lakahia    | bura          | mawena           | gefa        | ...         | ŭsia
-  Kiruru     | ...           | imaru            | kē          | ...         | uta
-  Utanata    | uran          | ...              | koma        | ...         | uta
-  Mimika     | pura          | mako             | ke          | omanī       | uta
-  Merauke    | mandau        | ovom, uvum       | heĕ         | katarĕ      | takavĕ
-  Bangu      | ...           | ...              | narunjar    | tan         | meni
-  Parb       | tugiu         | ...              | nou         | ...         | pend
-  Bugi       | kak           | qatai            | yugula      | dader       | iu
-  Dabu       | qar, qak      | piro             | igurai      | dadar       | yu, dumbrel
-  Saibai     | mulpal, kizai | titui            | ari         | kula        | mui
-  Mowata     | ganume        | zogubo           | wiari       | nora-api    | era
-  Kunini     | mabie         | wale             | ngupe       | magezuli    | muie
-  Jibu       | mobi          | guje             | piro        | nora        | para
-  Kiwai      | sagana        | gugi             | mauburo,    | kuraere     | era
-             |               |                  |   wisai     |             |
-  Tirio      | korame        | apapa            | iōuko       | kuma        | suze
-  Tagota     | mano          | durupa           | ...         | tamaga      | jau
-  ———————————+———————————————+——————————————————+—————————————+—————————————+————————————
-  Nufōr      | paik          | ătaruwa,         | mĕkem,      | kĕru        | fōr
-             |               |   samfari        |   miun      |             |
-  Ceram      | huran, ulano, | marit, kolomali, | uran, ulan, | hatu, batu  | hau, au
-             |   buran       |   kamali, umalio | kial        |             |
-  Tuburuasa  | puna          | finma            | unang       | pati        | lawi
-  Karas      | pak           | masseer          | kekal       | jaar        | dien
-  ———————————+———————————————+——————————————————+—————————————+————————————-+————————————
-
-
-  ———————————+————————————+———————————+——————————+——————————————+———————————
-             |   Water.   |  Pig.     |  Fish.   |  Coconut.    |  House.
-             |   Water.   |  Varken.  |  Visch.  |  Kokos-noot. |  Huis.
-  ———————————+————————————+——————————-+——————————+——————————————+———————————
-  Seka       | ...        | ...       | ...      | ...          | pā
-  Jotafa     | nanu       | por       | igeh     | nīno         | duma
-  Sentani    | bu         | (yoku     | ka       | koh          | ime
-  Arimoa     | dano       | ...       | ...      | niwi         | ...
-  Pauwi      | memba      | ...       | ...      | ...          | hŭsia
-  Angadi     | mi         | ŏhŏ       | ireă     | utiri        | kãme
-  Nagramadu  | ...        | ŏhă       | ...      | măgrabe      | ya
-  Wandammen  | kambu      | pisai     | diya     | ankadi       | anio
-  ———————————+————————————+———————————+——————————+——————————————+——————————
-  Onin       | weari      | papio     | sairi    | ruroh        | rumaso
-  Kapaur     | kĕra       | ndur,     | heir     | no’ur        | wuri
-             |            |  kalapaji,|          |              |
-             |            |  măma     |          |              |
-  Karufa     | ualar      | ...       | dohndi   | niyu         | tsaring
-  Namatote   | wălar      | boi       | dondi    | niu (?)      | sarin
-  Lobo       | walar      | bōi       | donde    | niu          | sarin
-  Mairassis  | wata       | bemba     | kuratu   | owah         | watara
-  Wuaussirau | kai        | wembe     | kuratu   | obo          | wata
-  Lakahia    | mura       | ufa       | nema     | wuina        | yafa
-  Kiruru     | mi         | ...       | ...      | ...          | ...
-  Utanata    | warari     | uh        | erika    | uteri        | kami
-  Mimika     | mbi, mbu   | u, api    | irĕka    | utēri        | kamĕ
-             |            |           |          |              |
-  Merauke    | daka       | basikĕ    | pararĕ,  | misĕ,        | sava, aha
-             |            |           |  parara  |  onggat,     |
-             |            |           |          |  wīmap       |
-  Bangu      | tauqar     | rougu     | thaua    | nangar       | boot, munka
-  Parb       | nou        | kimb      | angur    | argh, kwogh, | mongo
-             |            |           |          |  keu         |
-  Bugi       | ngi        | simbel    | galba    | nge          | māē
-  Dabu       | ine        | mule,     | pudi     | ngoi, guvi   | ma
-             |            |  chimela, |          |              |
-             |            |  sasa     |          |              |
-  Saibai     | nguki      | burum     | wapi     | urab         | mud
-  Mowata     | obo        | boromo    | arimina  | oi           | moto
-  Kunini     | nīe        | blome     | ibu      | ia           | mete
-  Jibu       | nia        | woroma    | waji     | u            | meta
-  Kiwai      | obo        | boromo    | irisina  | oi           | moto
-  Tirio      | opa        | sepera    | kopoma   | sapu-mutira  | turie
-  Tagota     | mauka      | minao     | ...      | ...          | ...
-  ———————————+————————————+———————————+——————————+——————————————+———————————
-  Nufōr      | wār        | beyen     | iyen     | srabon       | rum
-  Ceram      | waer, wael,| hahu, apal| ian, iano| niwer, niwel,| ruma, luma
-             |  kwael     |           |          |  nimel,      |
-             |            |           |          |  nikwel,     |
-             |            |           |          |  noolo       |
-  Tuburuasa  | wêre       | ...       | se       | ...          | kapalla
-  Karas      | pere       | ...       | soor     | ...          | kawe
-  ———————————+————————————+———————————+——————————+—————————————-+———————————
-
-
-COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY, NUMERALS.
-
-
-  ———————————+——————————————————+————————————————+——————————————————+————————————-—————
-             |    One. Een.     |   Two. Twee.   |    Three. Drie.  | Four. Vier.
-  ———————————+——————————————————+————————————————+——————————————————+————————————-—————
-  Seka       | ahi (ari?)       | hitjun         | hetun            | nabu
-  Jotafa     | the              | ros            | for              | au
-  Sentani    | imbai            | be             | name             | gŭri
-  Tana Merah | ogosarai         | saibona        | ondoafi          | soronto
-  Tarfia     | tukse            | arho           | tor              | fauk
-  Takar      | afateni          | nawa           | nawa-jengki      | nawa-nawa
-  Jamna      | tes              | ru             | tau              | fau
-  Masimasi   | kīs              | ru             | tou              | fo
-  Moar       | hibeti           | ru             | tou              | fau
-  Kumamba    | tès              | lu             | taur             | fau
-  Pauwi      | pa-sari          | pa-ri          | pa-rosi          | pa-rasi
-  Wamberan   | tenama           | bisa           | ...              | ...
-  Waropin    | wo-sio           | wo-ruo         | wo-ro            | wo-ako
-  Mohr       | tata             | ruru           | oro              | ao
-  Angadi     | janăūwă          | jăminatia      | jaminati-janăūwă | awaitămă-jaminatia
-  Goreda     | unakwa           | jămanini       | ...              | ...
-  Nagramadu  | nadi             | ăbåmă          | ăbåmă-nadi       | ăbåmŏ-båmŏ
-  Tandia     | nei              | rusi           | turusi           | attesi
-  Dasener    | joser            | suru           | toru             | ati
-  Jaur       | rebe             | redu           | reü              | rea
-  Wandammen  | siri             | mondu          | tŏru             | atê
-  Manikion   | hom              | hŏai           | homoi            | hŏku
-  ———————————+——————————————————+————————————————+——————————————————+————————————-—————
-  Onin       | sa               | nuwa           | teni             | fāt
-  Kapauer    | hĕre-wo          | hĕre-rīk       | hĕre-terī        | hère-ngara
-  Karufa     | simoksi          | rueiti         | tohru            | bahdi
-  Namatote   | samosi           | rueiti         | toru             | fāt
-  Lobo       | samosi           | rueti          | tuwru            | fāt
-  Mairassis  | tangauw          | amōi           | karia            | āi
-  Wuaussirau | anau             | amoi           | karia            | aiwera
-  Lakahia    | onarawa          | aboma          | torua            | fāt
-  Mimika     | inakwa           | yamani         | yamani-īnakwa    | ama-yamani
-  Merauke    | zakod            | iena           | iena-zakod       | iena-iena
-  Bangu      | nambu, nambi     | yethombi,      | yetho            | asar
-             |                  |   kethembi     |                  |
-  Parb       | ambiur           | tumbi          | lambi            | tutubiar
-  Bugi       | tarangesa        | metakina       | gingi-metakina   | topea
-  Dabu       | tupi-dibi        | kumi-rivi      | kumi-reriga      | kumi-rivi-kumi-rivi
-  Saibai     | wara, urapon     | uka, ukasar    | uka-modobigal    | uka-uka
-  Mowata     | nau              | netoa          | ...              | ...
-  Kunini     | iepa             | neneni         | nesae            | neneni-neneni
-  Jibu       | yepa             | kuraiepa       | kuraiepa         | kuraiepa
-             |                  |   (_finger_)   |                  |
-  Kiwai      | nau              | netewa         | netewa-nau       | netewa-netewa
-  Tirio      | oroka            | miseka         | misorako         | miseka-miseka
-  Tagota     | uradaga          | mitiga         | nan              | mitiga-mitiga
-  ———————————+——————————————————+————————————————+——————————————————+——————————————-———
-  Nufōr      | sai, ŏsēr        | dui, suru      | kior             | fiak
-  Ceram      | isa, sā          | rua, lua, dua, | teru, telu, tolu,| haa, hata, ata,
-             |                  |   roti         |   toru           |   fāt
-  ———————————+——————————————————+————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————-————
-
-
-  ———————————+—————————————————————+————————————————————+—————————————————————+—————————————————
-             |      Five. Vijf.    |      Six. Zes.     |      Ten. Tien.     | Twenty. Twintig.
-  ———————————+—————————————————————+————————————————————+—————————————————————+—————————————————
-  Seka       | naplan              | naplahi            | amplahari           | amplanaplan
-  Jotafa     | mimiām              | măndŏsīm           | ronduminarōs        | manisayām
-  Sentani    | mehembai            | mehinimbai         | mehinmehembai       | megohri
-  Tana Merah | ogosarai            | demean             | ...                 | ...
-  Tarfia     | rim                 | mana-tuksi         | mafarufaru          | ...
-  Takar      | nawa-nawa-jengki    | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Jamna      | jim, rim            | ...                | sinafui             | ...
-  Masimasi   | rim                 | ...                | sanafu              | ...
-  Moar       | rim                 | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Kumamba    | lim                 | ...                | sanafun             | ...
-  Pauwi      | pa-rinisi           | ponensi            | putaonsi            | ...
-  Wamberan   | ...                 | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Waropin    | rimo                | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Mohr       | rimo                | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Angadi     | măhărè-ajăhe-rauri  | măhărè-jană-ūwă    | măhăre-jămi-natia   | ...
-  Goreda     | mahère-hèrori       | ...                | tăóru               | ...
-  Nagramadu  | măma-riba           | mariba-nadi        | măma-răbåmă         | ...
-  Tandia     | marasi              | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Dasener    | rimbi               | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Jaur       | breiare             | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Wandammen  | rīm                 | rīmi-siri          | sura                | snun-tupesi
-  Manikion   | sirkem              | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  ———————————+—————————————————————+————————————————————+—————————————————————+—————————————————
-  Onin       | nima                | nem                | pusua               | puti-nuwa
-  Kapauer    | hĕre-tembu          | here-tembu-here-wo | pra’a               | to mdijowo
-  Karufa     | rimi                | rom-simoksi        | putja               | siúmput-rueiti
-  Namatote   | rim                 | rim-samoti         | futsa               | ombutueti
-  Lobo       | rimi                | rim-samosi         | wutsya              | sekumat-rueti
-  Mairassis  | iworo               | iwora-mōi (? 7)    | werowa-moi          | yauw-nat-makia
-  Wuaussirau | iworo               | iwor-tanau         | iwor-toki-tani      | toki-amoi
-  Lakahia    | rim                 | rim-onarawa        | ...                 | ...
-  Mimika     | ...                 | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Merauke    | iena-iena-zakod     | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Bangu      | tambothoi           | nimbo              | ...                 | ...
-  Parb       | tumbi-tumbi-yambia  | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Bugi       | manda               | gaben              | dala                | ...
-  Dabu       | tumu                | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Saibai     | ...                 | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Mowata     | ...                 |  ...               | ...                 | ...
-  Kunini     | imegube             | matemate (_wrist_) | dare (_breast_)     | ...
-  Jibu       | kuraiepa            | ribenda (_wrist_)  | mua (_breast_)      | ...
-  Kiwai      | ...                 | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Tirio      | miseka-miseka-oroka | ...                | ...                 | ...
-  Tagota     | uradaga (?)         | moti-taba-nan      | moti-tatan          | ...
-  Nufōr      | rīm                 | onem               | samfur              | samfur-di-suru
-  Ceram      | rima, lima, dima    | nē, nena, nō, onam | husane, husā,       | huturua
-             |                     |                    |  utsya              |
-  ———————————+—————————————————————+————————————————————+—————————————————————+—————————————————
-
-
-[Illustration: LANGUAGE MAP
-
-of the Eastern Part of Netherlands New Guinea
-
-Sidney H. Ray]
-
-LIST OF WORDS USED BY THE PAPUANS IN THE DISTRICT OF THE MIMIKA RIVER,
-S. W. DUTCH NEW GUINEA.
-
-
-  Above                     Opo
-
-                           {Tite
-  Acid                     {Imakemàn
-
-  Animal                    Irĕka (also
-                                   “fish”)
-
-  Ankle                     Bau-mámĕ
-
-  Ant                       Wámé
-
-  Arm                      {To-marī
-                           {To
-
-  Arm-band                  Maka-rĕ
-
-  Arrive                    Mainaumà
-
-  Arrow                     Tīari
-    (barb of)               Imari
-
-  Atap                      Wurī
-
-  Axilla                    Emmabu
-
-
-  Back (of man)             Ata
-
-  Bamboo                    Búiti
-
-  Banana                    Kau
-    (plantation of)         Kauti
-
-  Band (of rattan worn
-    round middle)           Iwau-mákarĕ
-
-  Bandicoot                 Púruga
-
-  Bark (of tree)            Pīkī
-
-  Basket                   {Temme
-                           {Eta
-
-  Beads                     Kamburi
-
-  Bean                      Kawetī
-
-                           {Keparise
-                           {Kepa bíri
-  Beard                    {Burídi
-                           {Pakúti
-
-  Bed (mat)                 Kápiri
-
-  Bee                       Imoho
-
-  Beetle                    Buruta
-
-  Belch                     Mbau
-
-  Belly                     Iwau
-
-  Big                      {Atwa
-                           {Iwáko
-
-  Bird                     {Páteru
-                           {Páturu
-    (of Paradise           {Yamuku
-                           {Yau
-
-  Bitter                   {Tite
-                           {Imakemàn
-
-  Black                     Ikako
-
-  Blood                     Maréte
-
-  Blunt                     Yamenà
-
-  Boat                      Ku
-
-  Bodice (of woven fibre)   Paitĕ
-
-  Body                      Nata
-
-  Bottle                    Kárepa
-
-  Bow                       Amúri
-
-  Bow-string                Kima
-
-  Breast (of woman)         Auwĕ
-         (of man)           Pītī
-
-  Breathe                   Túa
-
-  Broken                    Táka
-
-  Butterfly                 Wīrī
-
-  Buttock                   Atabú
-
-
-  Calf (of leg)             Ewambugu
-
-  Canoe                     Ku
-
-  Cap (worn by widows)      Ubauta
-
-  Carve (to)                Maramu
-
-  Cassowary                 Tu
-
-  Centipede                 Arowī
-
-  Coconut                   Utēri
-
-  Cheek                     Awár(re)
-
-  Child                     Aidru
-
-  Chin                      Kepáre
-
-  Cicada                    Wéako
-
-  Cloth                     Pīkī
-
-  Club                      Moánne
-
-  Clouds                    Apu
-
-  Cockatoo                  Pukī
-
-  Cold                      Yu
-
-  Comb                      Ta
-
-  Copulate                  Ipĕ
-
-  Cough                     Otah
-
-                           {Peja
-  Crab                     {Epor(re)
-                           {Bī
-
-  Crayfish                  Bĭ
-
-  Crocodile                 Tīmaku
-
-  Cry (weep)                Mbágĕ
-
-  Cut (to)                  Embe
-
-  Cuscus (Phalanger)        Apui
-
-
-  Dance                     Dirin-dirin
-
-  Deep                      Emúku
-
-  Dog                       Wīrī
-
-  Drink                     Tomagu
-
-  Drum                      Emmĕ
-
-
-  Ear                       Éne
-
-  Ear-ring                  Tīrawōnĕ
-
-  Earth (sand)              Tīrī
-
-  Eat                       Namúka
-
-  Eel                       Mbatarúbia
-
-  Egg                       Tareté
-
-  Elbow                     To-mámé
-
-  Exchange                  Akóra
-
-  Eye                       Mámé
-
-  Eyebrow                   Mambīrī
-
-
-  Far                       Awakopíre
-
-  Fat                       Atwa
-
-  Feather                   Idī
-
-  Finger                    Márĕ
-
-  Finger-nail               Marē
-
-  Fire                      Utá
-    (stick)                 Utamau
-
-  Fish                      Irĕka
-
-  Flower (orchid)           Idarōnĕ
-
-  Fly (insect)              Oboö
-
-  Flying-fox                Iéa
-
-  Foot                      Bauwe
-
-  Forehead                  Métár(re)
-
-
-  Ghost                     Níniki
-
-  Give                      Kéma
-
-  Grass                     Umetir(re)
-
-  Grasshopper               Atŏkŏ
-
-  Green                     Otopu
-
-
-  Hair                      Vīrī
-
-  Hand                      Marĕ
-
-  He                        Amárepa
-
-  Head                      Kapa-uĕ
-
-  Heavy                     Ikīti
-
-  Heel                      Mbautep(e)
-
-  His                       Amareta
-
-  Hiccough                  Urri
-
-  Hornbill                  Kumai
-
-  Hornet                    Imŏkŏ
-
-  House                     Kámĕ
-
-
-  I                         Doro
-
-  Ill                       Namúti
-
-  Image (carved)            Betoro
-
-  Iron                      Tau
-
-
-  Knee                      Irību
-
-
-  Lance                     Uruna
-
-  Laugh                     Oko
-
-  Leaf                      E
-
-  Leg                       Atīrī
-
-  Lightning                 Marapiti
-
-  Lips                      Irī
-
-  Little                    Mimiti
-
-  Lizard                    Inamo
-
-  Lizard (frilled)          Wago
-
-  Loins                     Yaïmi
-
-
-  Man                       Uweri
-
-  Many                      Tákiri
-
-  Mat (of pandanus)         Au
-
-  Melon                     Anĕtĕ
-
-  Mine                      Dorota
-
-  Moon                      Pura
-
-  Mosquito                  Itjī
-
-  Mountain                  Púkare
-
-  Mouth                     Ba
-
-  Moustache                 Mbu-tīrĭ
-
-
-  Navel                     Boporĕ
-
-  Neck                      Ima
-
-  New                       Aigu
-
-  Nod                       Kiparu
-
-  Nose                      Bīrim
-    (secretion of)          Bīndī
-
-
-  Old man of village        Natu
-
-  One                       Inakwa
-
-  Orchid                    Idarōnĕ
-
-  Other                     Awaida
-
-  Other man                 Wehwaida
-
-  Other man’s               Wehwaidata
-
-
-  Paddle                    Poh
-
-  Palate                    Tībanne
-
-  Papaya                    Tĕnà
-
-  Parrot                    Akīma
-
-  Pearl                     Omab(e)
-
-  Penis                     Kamàrē
-    (case)                  Kamare-po(ko)
-
-  Pig                      {U
-                           {Api
-
-  Pigeon                    Parúa
-
-  Pillow (wooden)           Yamate
-
-  Pine-apple                Makadĕtĕ
-
-  Prawn                     Mbi
-
-  Pumpkin                   Nabru
-
-  Python                    Pīmī
-
-
-  Rain                      Ke
-
-  Rainbow                   Parakĕta
-
-  Rapids                    Kamáwa
-
-  Rat                       Kemako
-
-  Rattan                    Kima
-
-  Red                       Epĕró
-
-  Ribs                      Párĕrŏ
-
-  Rice                      Wátē
-
-  Ripe                      Pu
-
-  River                     Iuata
-
-  Road (track)              Mako
-
-  Rope                      Temmà
-
-
-  Sacrum                    Wagamau(e)
-
-  Sago                      Amŏta
-    (beater)                Wapúri
-
-  Sago-bowl                Pámagu
-
-  Sap                       Namī
-
-  Scorpion                  Purumbaä
-
-  Sea                       Takarī
-
-  Shallow                   Taparī
-
-  Sharp                     Yánakŏ
-
-  Shell                     Parau
-
-  Shell-fish                Uwo
-
-  Shin                      Imbīrī
-
-  Shore                     Tīrī
-
-  Shoulder                  Ta-rī
-
-  Shoulder-blade            To-bābŭ
-
-  Skin                      Pīgerī
-
-  Skull                     Upau
-
-  Sleep                     Eté
-
-  Snail                     Tapoko
-
-  Snake                     Apako
-
-  Sneeze                    Yaiē
-
-  Spear                     Uruna
-    (wooden)                Potaku
-
-  Spit                      Mbatau
-
-  Star                      Mako
-
-  Steal                     Otemu
-
-  Stick (of club)           Wu
-
-  Sting-ray                 Kaū
-
-  Stone                     Omanī
-
-  Suck                      Au
-
-  Sugar-cane                Mŏnī
-
-  Sun                       Yau
-
-  Sweat                     Papitī
-
-  Sweet potato              Pamu
-
-  Swim                      Tīmago
-
-
-  Tear (a)                  Bágumbú
-
-  Thigh                     I
-
-  Throat                    Kīmárĭ
-
-  Thumb    }               Ipau
-  Great Toe}
-
-  Thunder                   Uraki
-
-  Tired                     Toh
-
-  Tobacco                   Kapakī
-
-  To-day                    Wauwà
-
-  Toes                      Bauwē
-
-  To-morrow                 Kaúmuta
-
-  Tongue                    Malī
-
-  Tooth                     Tītī
-
-  Tree                      Uti
-
-  Turtle                    Mbiambu
-
-  Two                       Yamani
-
-
-  Upset                     Pīro
-
-
-  Viper                     Mágu
-
-  Vomit                     Mbau
-
-
-  Water                     Mbi
-                            Mbu
-    (make)                  Gīgī
-
-  Wet                       Nata
-
-  Whistle                   Wiramogo
-
-  White                     Naputiàre
-
-  Wind                      Kīmīr(e)
-
-  Woman                     Kaukwa
-                            Aina
-
-  Wound                     Natŭ
-
-  Wrist                     Marapŭmĕ
-
-
-  Yawn                      Mbápoh
-
-  Yellow                    Taier(re)
-
-  You                       Oro
-
-  Your                      Orota
-
-
-
-
-INDEX
-
-
-
-  A
-
-  Acton, Lord, 2
-
-  Albinos, 110
-
-  Alcohol, 68
-
-  Amberno River, 24
-
-  Amboina, 14, 257;
-    communication with, 209;
-    inhabitants of, 17;
-    market at, 17
-
-  Ambonese coolies, 50
-
-  Ambonese, dress of, 17;
-    names of, 17
-
-  _Amok_, 185
-
-  Arafura Sea, 19, 35
-
-  Arfak Mountains, 23
-
-  Arrows, 151
-
-  Aru Islands, 19
-
-  _Atap_, method of making, 60
-
-  Atuka River, 248
-
-  Atjeh, 92
-
-
-  B
-
-  Balfour, H., 202
-
-  Bali, 259
-
-  Bamboo, throwing lime from, 219
-
-  Banana, 17, 88
-
-  Banda, 16, 19, 257
-
-  Batavia, 3;
-    washing in, 9
-
-  Bees, stingless honey-, 76
-
-  Beetles, as food, 124;
-    larva of, 156
-
-  Beri-beri, 66, 193
-
-  Bird of Paradise, 74, 142, 159, 178, 227, 261
-
-  Birds, collection of, 241
-
-  Boat-builders, 225
-
-  Boni, 14
-
-  Bonnets of widows, 115
-
-  Borneo, 21
-
-  Boro-Boder, 11
-
-  Botanic station at Merauke, 224
-
-  Bougainville, de, 31
-
-  Bows, 151
-
-  Bridge, building a, 235
-
-  British New Guinea, 22
-
-  British Ornithologists’ Union, 1
-
-  Brush Turkey, 76
-
-  Buddhist Temples, 11
-
-  Buitenzorg garden, 10
-
-  Buleling, 258
-
-  Butonese, 170
-
-  Butterflies, 16
-
-
-  C
-
-  Camp, health of, 58;
-    repairing, 188
-
-  Cannibalism, 127
-
-  Canoes, 219;
-    building of, 53;
-    description of, 53;
-    method of paddling, 36;
-    the price of, 55
-
-  Carstensz, Mt., 23, 44, 181, 212
-
-  Carstensz, Jan, 28, 221
-
-  Cape York, 28, 32
-
-  Carteret, Philip, 31
-
-  Cassowaries, 200, 214
-
-  Cassowary, 125, 241
-
-  Casuarina trees, 42
-
-  Cat’s cradle, 147
-
-  Celebes, 14
-
-  Celebes Trading Company, 20
-
-  Ceram, 14
-
-  Ceremonies, 131
-
-  Charles Louis Mountains, 23, 35, 44
-
-  Chief, 128
-
-  Children, games of, 117
-
-  Chinese, 17, 223, 225
-
-  Christians at Amboina, 17
-
-  Cicatrisation, 112
-
-  Clothing of Dutch, 9;
-    of natives, 113
-
-  Clouds on mountains, 45
-
-  Clubs, Dutch, 18;
-    stoneheaded, 149;
-    wooden, 148
-
-  Coal, 241
-
-  Coast, description of, 42;
-    navigation of, 249
-
-  Coconuts, 98, 223
-
-  Comet, Halley’s, 81
-
-  Convicts, 13, 93;
-    madness of, 215
-
-  Cook, Captain, 31, 219
-
-  Coolies, 15, 170, 227;
-    Ambonese, 50;
-    failure of, 231;
-    feebleness of, 51;
-    sickness of, 184
-
-  Corals, 16
-
-  Counting, 104
-
-  Cramer, H. A., 3, 13, 41, 46, 57, 92, 102, 231, 258
-
-  Crickets, a plague of, 59
-
-  Crocodiles, 75
-
-  Crowned pigeon, 74
-
-  Crows, pale, 77
-
-  Cultivation, 88;
-    in Java, 5
-
-
-  D
-
-  Daggers of bone, 203
-
-  d’Albertis, 33
-
-  Dampier, Captain, 31, 123
-
-  Dancing, 143;
-    houses, 143
-
-  Darwin, Mt. Leonard, 239
-
-  Dayaks, 172, 194;
-    arrival of, 253;
-    industry of, 214
-
-  Dead, disposal of, 137-140
-
-  Death, 136
-
-  Digoel River, 24
-
-  Disease, 205
-
-  Djokjakarta, 11
-
-  Dobo, 19, 257
-
-  Dog, Papuan, 126
-
-  Dorei, 22
-
-  Drawing, 145
-
-  Drowning of sailor, 170
-
-  Drums, 141
-
-  Ducks, penguin, 11;
-    perching in trees, 86
-
-  Dugongs, 212
-
-  Dumas, J. M., 212
-
-  Dumas, Mr., 44
-
-  Dutch, Government, 3, 257;
-    food of, 7;
-    house of, 8;
-    habits of, 9;
-    tree-planting by, 15;
-    hospitality of, 18;
-    rule in New Guinea, 23;
-    explorations of, 28;
-    East India Company, 31;
-    Expeditions, 213, 216
-
-
-  E
-
-  Earthquake at Amboina, 15
-
-  Effigies, carved, 131
-
-  _Endeavour_, voyage of, 31
-
-  Escort, 3, 13
-
-  Expedition, members of, 2;
-    leave Java, 13
-
-
-  F
-
-  Fak-fak, 224
-
-  Families, 129
-
-  Festival, 134
-
-  Fiji, 24
-
-  Fire, 152
-
-  Fire-making, 200
-
-  Fish, many coloured, 16
-
-  Fishing-net, 120
-
-  Flies, a plague of, 58;
-    on water, 76
-
-  Flint knives, 200
-
-  Flood, 132, 156, 173, 178, 189
-
-  Flores, 24
-
-  Flowers, 206, 242
-
-  Fly River, 33, 42
-
-  Food of natives, 119, 124
-
-  Forbes, H. O., 33
-
-  Forest, 242-245
-
-  Fortnum and Mason, 68
-
-  Frogmouth, 77
-
-
-  G
-
-  Garden at Amboina, 16
-
-  Garoet, 11
-
-  Geographical Society, Royal, 2
-
-  German New Guinea, 22
-
-  Ghosts, 133
-
-  Goa, Raja of, 14
-
-  Godman, F. D., 1
-
-  Godman, Mt., 239
-
-  Goodfellow, W., 2, 142, 167, 170, 172, 195
-
-  Grant, C. H. B., 194, 231, 241
-
-  Grant, W. R. Ogilvie, 1
-
-  Grey, Sir E., 2
-
-  Guillemard, 38
-
-  Gurkhas, 3, 156, 160, 171, 179, 194, 233
-
-
-  H
-
-  Habbema, Lieut., 169
-
-  Half-castes, 6, 223
-
-  Halley’s Comet, 81
-
-  Head-rests, 152
-
-  Herwerden, Captain, 13
-
-  Hindu Temple, 259
-
-  Hornbills, 86
-
-  Houses of the natives, 96;
-    in trees, 217;
-    communal, 218
-
-  Humboldt Bay, 33
-
-
-  I
-
-  _Ibis_, 1
-
-  Iguanas, 75
-
-  Intoxication of natives, 99
-
-  Incense, smell of, 238
-
-  Island River, Dutch Expedition, 60;
-    description of, 216
-
-  Iwaka River, 231
-
-
-  J
-
-  Java, prosperity of, 5;
-    half-castes in, 6
-
-  Javanese soldiers, 62
-
-  Jew’s harp, 203
-
-  Jungle, clearing the, 46
-
-
-  K
-
-  Kaiserin Augusta River, 24, 28
-
-  Kalff, Mr. E., 227
-
-  Kamura River, 175, 248
-
-  Kapare River, 82
-
-  Ké Islands, 15, 51, 257;
-    natives of, 225
-
-  Kingfishers, 59
-
-  Kloss, C. B., 253
-
-  Kolff, 220
-
-  Kris, abolition of, 7
-
-
-  L
-
-  Language, difficulty of, 103
-
-  La Perouse, 32
-
-  _La Seyne_, wreck of, 3
-
-  Leeches, 177
-
-  Le Maire, Jacques, 28
-
-  Lombok, 258
-
-  Lorentz, H. A., 2, 13, 33, 34, 169, 172, 241
-
-  Lories, 75
-
-
-  M
-
-  Macassar, 14
-
-  MacCluer Gulf, 42
-
-  MacCluer, John, 32
-
-  Macgregor, Sir W., 33
-
-  Malays, 185;
-    food of, 65;
-    music of, 143
-
-  Mangrove, 42
-
-  Marianne Strait, 220
-
-  Marriage, 116
-
-  Marshall, E. S., 2, 80, 82, 133, 175, 185, 231
-
-  Medical treatment, 167
-
-  Meek, Mr., 213
-
-  Megapode, 77
-
-  Meneses, Don Torge de, 27
-
-  Merauke, 31, 37, 222;
-    communication with, 209;
-    natives of, 226
-
-  Mimika, first voyage on, 39;
-    description of, 40, 71;
-    water of, 40;
-    tides on the, 57;
-    obstacles in, 78
-
-  Mission at Dorei, 22
-
-  Missions, 154
-
-  Mosquitoes, 211, 223
-
-  Motor-boat, 52, 173, 248
-
-  Murderer, 13, 186
-
-  Music, 141
-
-
-  N
-
-  Natives, trading with, 61;
-    communicating with, 84, 102;
-    dislike of rain, 84;
-    migrations of, 95;
-    drink of, 99;
-    language of, 102, Appendix C;
-    description of, 109;
-    height of, 112;
-    clothing of, 113;
-    age of, 115;
-    food of, 119, 120;
-    social system of, 128;
-    property of, 129;
-    music of, 141;
-    dancing of, 143;
-    as artists, 145;
-    mock sorrow of, 247;
-    quarrels of, 148;
-    as marksmen, 151;
-    health of, 153;
-    as carriers, 158;
-    our relations with, 163;
-    as thieves, 165
-
-  Naturalists, explorations by, 32
-
-  New Guinea, position of, 21;
-    size of, 21;
-    mountains of, 23;
-    natives of, 24;
-    discovery of, 26;
-    name of, 27;
-    recent explorations of, 33;
-    first sight of, 35;
-    shore of, 36;
-    lack of food, 65;
-    rivers of, 24, 83, 181;
-    departure from, 257
-
-  Newton, Professor Alfred, 1
-
-  _Nias_, 13, 35
-
-  Nimé, dancing house at, 252
-
-  Noord River, 2, 13, 33, 34
-
-  Nouhuys, J. W. van, 169
-
-  Numerals, 104
-
-
-  O
-
-  Obota, 83
-
-  Ogilvie-Grant, W. R., 1
-
-
-  P
-
-  Palm, coconut, 98
-
-  Pandanus, 10, 243
-
-  Papua, 22;
-    meaning of, 25
-
-  Papuans, description of, 25, 109;
-    behavior of, 37;
-    dress of, 37, 113;
-    apathy of, 38, 45;
-    asleep, 39;
-    dancing, 41, 143;
-    as traders, 45;
-    communicating with, 84;
-    dislike of rain, 84;
-    food of, 91;
-    migrations of, 95;
-    drink of, 99;
-    language of, 102, Appendix C;
-    height of, 112;
-    age of, 115;
-    social system of, 128;
-    property of, 129;
-    music of, 141;
-    as artists, 145;
-    quarrels of, 148;
-    as marksmen, 151;
-    health of, 153
-
-  Paradise, bird of, 74, 142
-
-  Parimau, arrival at, 56, 155;
-    departure from, 247
-
-  Payment of natives, 163
-
-  Peace-offering, 166
-
-  Pearls, 20
-
-  Pearl-shell, 20
-
-  Penguin ducks, 11
-
-  Periepia, 85
-
-  Petroleum, 241
-
-  Pickles, 68
-
-  Pig, 125, 133-136
-
-  Pigeons, crowned, 31, 74
-
-  Pineapples, 101
-
-  Plants, 231
-
-  Plants at Buitenzorg, 10
-
-  Ponies, 259
-
-  Pool, Thomas, 30
-
-  Port Moresby, natives of, 213
-
-  Portuguese, remains of, 17;
-    navigators, 27
-
-  Precipice, 239
-
-  Prince Frederick Henry Island, 220
-
-  Propeller, loss of, 250
-
-  Provisions, storing of, 66;
-    packing of, 68;
-    depôt of, 176
-
-  Pygmies, discovery of, 157;
-    visit to, 159;
-    dress of, 161;
-    description of, 161, 197;
-    voices of, 162;
-    visit Parimau, 196;
-    measurements of, 197, Appendix B;
-    ornaments of, 199;
-    possessions of, 199;
-    methods of smoking, 202;
-    village of, 203;
-    houses of, 205;
-    women of, 206;
-    intelligence of, 207;
-    distribution of, 208
-
-
-  R
-
-  Races, mixture of, 6;
-    harmony of, 19
-
-  Raffles, Sir Stamford, 5, 10
-
-  Rain, 79
-
-  Rattan, 243
-
-  Rawling, C. G., 2, 82, 156, 174-5, 195, 219, 248
-
-  Relationship, 105
-
-  Reptiles, 168
-
-  Retes, Ynigo Ortiz de, 27
-
-  Rice, 65;
-    cultivation in Java, 5
-
-  Rifle bird, 159
-
-  Rijst-tafel, 7
-
-  Rivers, branching, 83;
-    crossing, 236;
-    in New Guinea, 24
-
-  Robinson, H. C., 194
-
-  _Roebuck_, voyage of, 31
-
-  Ruwenzori, 2, 238
-
-
-  S
-
-  Sago, 65, 89-92
-
-  St. Nicholas, feast of, 6, 228
-
-  Sandpiper, 86
-
-  Sarawak, H. H. the Raja of, 253
-
-  Sarong, 10
-
-  Schouten Islands, 27
-
-  Schouten, Willem, 28
-
-  Screw-pines, 10, 243
-
-  Sea, depth of, 19
-
-  Sea-snakes, 215
-
-  Seasons, 79;
-    wet, 192
-
-  Shackleton Expedition, 67
-
-  Sharks, fishing for, 46
-
-  Shortridge, G. C., 2, 172, 194, 210
-
-  Sickness, 171-192
-
-  Sindanglaya, 11
-
-  Skulls, preservation of, 139
-
-  Smith, Stamford, 90
-
-  Snakes, 167
-
-  Snow Mountains, 1, 23, 33;
-    discovery of, 29;
-    first sight of, 35;
-    distant view of, 43;
-    attempt to reach, 229
-
-  Social system, 128
-
-  Soldiers, native, 92
-
-  Songs, 142
-
-  Spanish navigators, 27
-
-  Spears, 151
-
-  Spices, Dutch monopoly of, 31
-
-  Spiders, tameness of, 58
-
-  Stalker, W., 2, 14, 51;
-    death of, 47;
-    funeral of, 49
-
-  Steam-launch, 52, 170
-
-  Stone Age, 151
-
-  Stone implements, 150
-
-  Stones, gifts of, 87
-
-  Sugar-palm, 99
-
-  Sumbawa, 258
-
-  Superstitions, 131
-
-  Swift, Moustached, 241
-
-  Swimming, 117
-
-
-  T
-
-  Tapiro (_see_ Pygmies)
-
-  Tasman, 30
-
-  Tattooing, 112
-
-  Tears, a welcome of, 41
-
-  Temples at Boro-Boder, 11
-
-  Ternate, Sultan of, 22;
-    traders of, 89
-
-  Thunderstorms, 79, 132
-
-  Tides of the river, 57
-
-  Timura River, 251
-
-  Tobacco, 38, 202;
-    cultivation of, 88
-
-  Torres, Luis Vaz de, 27
-
-  Torres Strait, 32
-
-  Tosari, 12
-
-  Track, used by natives, 176;
-    cutting a, 183
-
-  Trade goods, 63
-
-  Transport, difficulty of, 52
-
-  Travelling, difficult, 230
-
-  Trees, 216, 243;
-    falling at night, 77;
-    cutting down, 187;
-    houses in, 217
-
-  Tuaba River, 175
-
-  Tugeri, 23
-
-  Tugeri tribe, 222
-
-
-  U
-
-  Utakwa, Dutch expedition to, 210
-
-  Utakwa River, 4, 33, 210
-
-
-  V
-
-  Van der Bie, 212
-
-  Vanilla, 159
-
-
-
-
-  Vegetation, 237
-
-  View, a rare, 240
-
-  Volcano, 15
-
-  Volcanoes in Java, 5, 12
-
-
-  W
-
-  Wailing at death, 137
-
-  Wakatimi, arrival at, 40;
-    camp at, 46;
-    description of, 95;
-    departure from, 255
-
-  Wallaby, 125
-
-  Wallace, A. R., 16, 20, 33, 38, 91, 244
-
-  Wamberi Merbiri, 203
-
-  Wania, excursion to, 249
-
-  Wania River, 236, 239, 249
-
-  Wataikwa, 231
-
-  Wataikwa River, 175
-
-  Water, lack of, 237;
-    squeezed from moss, 238
-
-  Water-lilies, 10
-
-  Weather, 79
-
-  Wilhelmina, Mt., 23, 45, 169, 220
-
-  Wives, number of, 116
-
-  Women, 148;
-    clothing of, 114;
-    treatment of, 130;
-    dress of Dutch, 9;
-    Pygmies, 206
-
-
-
-THE END
-
-
-PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.
-
-[Illustration: PART OF
-
-DUTCH NEW GUINEA
-
-drawn by
-
-Captain. C. G. Rawling, C.I.E. and M^r. E. Marshall, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
-
-to illustrate the explorations of
-
-THE BRITISH EXPEDITION
-
-1909-11.
-
-—Note—
-
-_This map is based on a plane table survey, adjusted to points fixed
-by theodolite angles, and astronomical observations for latitude and
-azimuth. Heights of peaks are from theodolite vertical angles._]
-
-
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[1] _i.e._ leader of a gang.
-
-[2] _Malay Archipelago_, Chapter XX.
-
-[3] _Malay Archipelago_, Chapter XXIX.
-
-[4] F. H. H. Guillemard, _The Cruise of the “Marchesa,”_ Chapter XXI.
-
-[5] A note in the _Geographical Journal_, Vol. xxxviii. p. 211, points
-out the interesting fact that this custom of shedding tears in welcome
-was observed by some of the early travellers in many places on the
-American Continent, both North and South. It has also been noticed
-among the Andamanese and other Negroid inhabitants of South-Eastern
-Asia and Australasia.
-
-[6] Like the Megapodes the Brush Turkeys are most interesting birds,
-which have the habit of making large mounds of rubbish in which they
-place their eggs, where they are hatched by the heat of fermentation.
-This species is about the size of a domestic hen, and its large brown
-egg is very good eating.
-
-[7] The very interesting discovery was made by Mr. Staniforth Smith of
-sago growing at an altitude of 3500 feet in the region of Kikor River,
-British New Guinea.—_Geog. Journal_, vol. xxxix. p. 329.
-
-[8] See Appendix C.
-
-[9] The number of individuals examined was not very great and the
-difference in their measurements are so insignificant, that they may be
-considered all to belong to one race.
-
-[10] _Tuan_ = master, v. p. 103. The natives always addressed us as
-“Tuana,” and many babies, of whom their parents were particularly
-proud, were called “Tuana.”
-
-[11] _A Continuation of a Voyage to New Holland, etc., in the year
-1699_, by Captain William Dampier.
-
-[12] _Standard_, 4, 8, 1910.
-
-[13] The accent is placed on the first syllable—Tápĭro.
-
-[14] Extract from diary, 12th March 1910. A.F.R.W.
-
-[15] The services of these two men were secured to the expedition
-through the generosity of Mr. H. C. Robinson, Director of the Museums
-of the Federated Malay States.
-
-[16] For their cranial measurements see _Appendix_.
-
-[17] The stitch used is a “figure of eight.” An exactly similar pattern
-is used by the natives near Humboldt Bay, North Dutch New Guinea, in
-making caps. See Van der Sande, _Nova Guinea_, Vol. III. Illustration,
-p. 37.
-
-[18] I am informed by Mr. H. Balfour, of the Pitt Rivers Museum,
-Oxford, that a similar method of making fire is employed by people in
-Assam, the Chittagong Hills, at certain places in the Malay Peninsula,
-in Borneo, at numerous places in different parts of New Guinea, and at
-one place in West Africa.
-
-[19] I saw three men who showed unmistakable signs of syphilis.
-
-[20] “Capt. Cook, H.M.S. _Endeavour_, 1770.” “Kolff’s Voyages in Dutch
-Brig of War _Dourga_, 1825-6.”
-
-[21] This is the usual friendly greeting of the people in the Merauke
-district. The word is now used by the Dutch as a slang name for the
-natives of any part of New Guinea.
-
-[22] Voyage of the ships _Pera_ and _Arnhem_, under command of Jan
-Carstenszoon or Carstensz, 1623.
-
-[23] Here, as elsewhere in the Dutch colonies, half-castes in official
-positions are reckoned as Europeans.
-
-[24] Capt. C. G. Rawling. _Country Life._ 20 May, 1911.
-
-[25] _Malay Archipelago._ Chapter V.
-
-[26] The numerals in brackets refer to the list of authorities prefixed
-to the comparative vocabulary.
-
-[27] _Cf._ Translation by G. G. Batten in “Glimpses of the Eastern
-Archipelago,” 1894.
-
-[28] Dr. N. Adriani. Eenige opmerkingen over de Mĕraukĕ-Taal naar
-aanleiding der Woordenlijst van Contr. J. Seijne Kok, in “De Zuidwest
-Nieuw-Guinea-expeditie van het Kon. Ned. Aardrijkskundig Genootschap,
-1904-5.”
-
-[29] G. W. Earl, Native Races of the Indian Archipelago, Papuans, 1853,
-Appendix, and Jour. Roy. Geographical Society, 1837, p. 393-395.
-
-[30] De Zuidwest Nieuw-Guinea-expeditie van het Kon. Ned.
-Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, 1904-5. Leiden, 1908.
-
-[31] _Cf._ Internat. Archiv. für Ethnographie, 16, 1905, and Reports of
-Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, III., p. 387.
-
-[32] H. Kern. Over de taal der Jotafa’s aan de Humboldtbaai, Bijdragen
-tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië, 6 Volg. deel VII.
-
-[33] _Cf._ G. von der Gabelentz und A. B. Muller, Melanesischen
-Sprachen, 1882, p. 536-541. Also C. J. F. le Cocq d’Armandville in
-Tijds. v. Taal, etc., 46, 1903.
-
-[34] P. J. B. C. Robidé van der Aa in Bijdragen tot de Taal etc., 1883,
-p. 197. The word is _mes_, coconut, the Mĕraukĕ _mise_.
-
-[35] The term “Indonesian” is used here only to imply that the
-languages so designated appear to contain some words and constructions
-which are found commonly in the languages of the Indian Archipelago.
-The data are too few for definite classification. The term “Papuan” may
-be taken to mean “non-Indonesian” or “Non-Malayo-Polynesian” with a
-similar limitation.
-
-[36] In the Examples following, the vowels should be sounded as in
-Italian, and the consonants as in English. The Dutch _oe_ and _ie_ are
-written _u_ and _ī_.
-
-[37] This interchange is very common in the languages of the Papuan
-Gulf. _Cf._ Reports of Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, III., pp.
-325, 334.
-
-[38] G. W. Earl in Jour. Royal Geographical Society, 1837, p. 394.
-
-[39] Those quoted are: _Dungerwab_ (or _Parb_) on Wai Kasa R., _Bangu_,
-Morehead River; _Bugi_, Mai Kasa River, _Dabu_, Paho R., _Mowata_,
-mouth of Binaturi R., _Saibai Is._ in Western Torres Straits, _Miriam_,
-Murray Is. Torres Straits, _Kunini_ and _Jibu_ West shore of Fly Delta,
-_Kiwai Is._ in Fly Delta.
-
-[40] William Churchill, “The Polynesian Wanderings.” Washington. 1911.
-Pp. v., 147.
-
-[41] Reports of Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, III, p. 290.
-
-[42] The writer was however told by Murray Island natives that “tulik”
-was the name of the old shell axe.
-
-[43] Eenige opmerkingen over de Mĕraukĕ-taal, in “De Zuidwest
-Nieuw-Guinea-expeditie van het Kon. Ned. Aardrijkskundig Genootschap,
-1904-5,” p. 661-2.
-
-[44] Op. cit., p. 664-665.
-
-[45] The number prefixed is that by which these authorities have been
-referred to in the preceding pages.
-
-
-
-
-
-
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pygmies and Papuans, by A. F. R. Wollaston
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-Title: Pygmies and Papuans
-       The Stone Age To-day in Dutch New Guinea
-
-Author: A. F. R. Wollaston
-
-Release Date: October 27, 2016 [EBook #53384]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PYGMIES AND PAPUANS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by deaurider, Turgut Dincer and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f" id="f">
-<img src="images/i_f02.jpg" width="500" height="781" alt="A TAPIRO PYGMY." /></a>
-<p class="caption">A TAPIRO PYGMY.</p>
-<p class="right f08 padr2">[<i>Frontispiece.</i></p></div>
-
-<hr />
-<h1>PYGMIES&nbsp;&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;&nbsp;PAPUANS<br /><br />
-<small>THE STONE AGE TO-DAY<br /><br />
-IN DUTCH NEW GUINEA</small><br /><br /></h1>
-
-<p class="center"><small><small><small>BY</small></small></small><br />
-A. F. R. WOLLASTON<br />
-<small><small><small>AUTHOR OF “FROM RUWENZORI TO THE CONGO”</small></small></small><br /><br /><br />
-<small><small>WITH APPENDICES BY</small></small><br />
-<small>W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT, A. C. HADDON, F.R.S.</small><br />
-<small>AND SIDNEY H. RAY</small><br /><br /><br />
-<small><small><i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS</i></small></small><br />
-<br />
-<br />
-<small><small>NEW YORK</small></small><br />
-STURGIS &amp; WALTON<br />
-COMPANY<br />
-1912<br />
-</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p class="center f05">
-PRINTED BY<br />
-WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED<br />
-LONDON AND BECCLES
-</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p class="center">
-<small><small><i>TO</i></small></small><br />
-<i>ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, O.M.</i><br />
-<small><small><i>THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED</i></small></small></p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>PREFACE</h2>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Committee who organised the late expedition to
-Dutch New Guinea, paid me the high compliment of
-inviting me to write an account of our doings in that
-country. The fact that it is, in a sense, the official
-account of the expedition has precluded me—greatly
-to the advantage of the reader—from offering my own
-views on the things that we saw and on things in
-general. The country that we visited was quite unknown
-to Europeans, and the native races with whom we came
-in contact were living in so primitive a state that the
-second title of this book is literally true. The pygmies
-are indeed one of the most primitive peoples now in
-existence.</p>
-
-<p>Should any find this account lacking in thrilling
-adventure, I will quote the words of a famous navigator,
-who visited the coasts of New Guinea more than two
-hundred years ago:—“It has been Objected against me
-by some, that my Accounts and Descriptions of Things
-are dry and jejune, not filled with variety of pleasant
-Matter, to divert and gratify the Curious Reader. How
-far this is true, I must leave to the World to judge.
-But if I have been exactly and strictly careful to give
-only <i>True</i> Relations and Descriptions of Things (as I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">viii</a></span>
-am sure I have;) and if my Descriptions be such as
-may be of use not only to myself, but also to others
-in future Voyages; and likewise to such readers at home
-as are desirous of a Plain and Just Account of the true
-Nature and State of the Things described, than of a
-Polite and Rhetorical Narrative: I hope all the Defects
-in my Stile will meet with an easy and ready Pardon.”</p>
-
-<p>To Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, who has allowed me
-to inscribe this volume to him as a small token of
-admiration for the first and greatest of the Naturalists
-who visited New Guinea, my most sincere thanks are
-due.</p>
-
-<p>To Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, Dr. A. C. Haddon, and
-Mr. Sidney Ray, who have not only assisted me with
-advice but have contributed the three most valuable
-articles at the end of this volume, I can only repeat my
-thanks, which have been expressed elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p>To my fellow-members of the expedition I would like
-to wish further voyages in more propitious climates.</p>
-
-<p class="right padr1">A.F.R.W.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">London</span>,<br />
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>May, 1912</i>.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">ix</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
-
-<table summary="contents" width="100%" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdr f08" colspan="2">PAGE</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_xii">vii</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_xix">xix</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>The British Ornithologists’ Union—Members of the Expedition—Voyage
-to Java—Choice of Rivers—Prosperity of Java—Half-castes—Obsequious
-Javanese—The Rijst-tafel—Customs of the
-Dutch—Buitenzorg Garden—Garoet</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Expedition leaves Java—The “Nias”—Escort—Macassar—Raja of
-Goa—Amboina—Corals and Fishes—Ambonese Christians—Dutch
-Clubs—Dobo</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER III</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>New Guinea—Its Position and Extent—Territorial Divisions—Mountain
-Ranges—Numerous Rivers—The Papuans—The Discovery
-of New Guinea—Early Voyagers—Spanish and Dutch—Jan
-Carstensz—First Discovery of the Snow Mountains—William
-Dampier in the “Roebuck”—Captain Cook in the “Endeavour”—Naturalists
-and later Explorers</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER IV</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Sail from the Aru Islands—Sight New Guinea—Distant Mountains—Signal
-Fires—Natives in Canoes—A British Flag—Natives on
-Board—Their Behaviour—Arrival at Mimika River—Reception
-at Wakatimi—Dancing and Weeping—Landing Stores—View of
-the Country—Snow Mountains—Shark-fishing—Making the
-Camp—Death of W. Stalker</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">x</a></span>CHAPTER V</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Arrival of our Ambonese—Coolie Considerations—Canoes of the
-Natives—Making Canoes—Preliminary Exploration of the
-Mimika—Variable Tides—Completing the Camp—A Plague of
-Flies—Also of Crickets—Making “Atap”—Trading with the
-Natives—Trade Goods</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER VI</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Difficulties of Food—Coolies’ Rations—Choice of Provisions—Transporting
-Supplies up the Mimika—Description of the River—A
-Day’s Work—Monotonous Scenery—Crowned Pigeons—Birds of
-Paradise and Others—Snakes, Bees, and other Creatures—Rapids
-and Clear Water—The Seasons—Wind—Rain—Thunderstorms—Halley’s
-Comet</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER VII</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Exploration of the Kapare River—Obota—Native Geography—River
-Obstructions—Hornbills and Tree Ducks—Gifts of Stones—Importance
-of Steam Launch—Cultivation of Tobacco—Sago
-Swamps—Manufacture of Sago—Cooking of Sago—The Dutch
-Use of Convict Labour</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER VIII</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Description of Wakatimi—The Papuan House—Coconut Palms—The
-Sugar Palm—Drunkenness of the Natives—Drunken Vagaries—Other
-Cultivation—The Native Language—No Interpreters—The
-Numerals—Difficulties of Understanding—Names of Places—Local
-Differences of Pronunciation</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER IX</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>The Papuans of Wakatimi—Colour—Hair—Eyes—Nose—Tattooing—Height—Dress—Widows’
-Bonnets—Growth of Children—Preponderance</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">xi</a></span>
-<i>of Men—Number of Wives—Childhood—Swimming
-and other Games—Imitativeness of Children—The Search
-for Food—Women as Workers—Fishing Nets—Other Methods of
-Fishing—An Extract from Dampier</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER X</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Food of the Papuans—Cassowaries—The Native Dog—Question of
-Cannibalism—Village Headman—The Social System of the
-Papuans—The Family—Treatment of Women—Religion—Weather
-Superstitions—Ceremony to avert a Flood—The Pig—A
-Village Festival—Wailing at Deaths—Methods of Disposal of the
-Dead—No Reverence for the Remains—Purchasing Skulls</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER XI</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Papuans’ Love of Music—Their Concerts—A Dancing House—Carving—Papuans
-as Artists—Cat’s Cradle—Village Squabbles—The
-Part of the Women—Wooden and Stone Clubs—Shell Knives and
-Stone Axes—Bows and Arrows—Papuan Marksmen—Spears—A
-most Primitive People—Disease—Prospects of their Civilisation</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER XII</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>The Camp at Parimau—A Plague of Beetles—First Discovery of the
-Tapiro Pygmies—Papuans as Carriers—We visit the Clearing of
-the Tapiro—Remarkable Clothing of Tapiro—Our Relations with
-the Natives—System of Payment—Their Confidence in Us—Occasional
-Thefts—A Customary Peace-offering—Papuans as
-Naturalists</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER XIII</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Visit of Mr. Lorentz—Arrival of Steam Launch—A Sailor Drowned—Our
-Second Batch of Coolies—Health of the Gurkhas—Dayaks
-the Best Coolies—Sickness—Arrival of Motor Boat—Camp under
-Water—Expedition moves to Parimau—Explorations beyond the
-Mimika—Leeches—Floods on the Tuaba River—Overflowing
-Rivers—The Wataikwa—Cutting a Track</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">xii</a></span>CHAPTER XIV</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>The Camp at the Wataikwa River—Malay Coolies—“Amok”—A
-Double Murder—A View of the Snow Mountains—Felling Trees—Floods—Village
-washed Away—The Wettest Season—The
-Effects of Floods—Beri-beri—Arrival of C. Grant—Departure
-of W. Goodfellow</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER XV</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Pygmies visit Parimau—Description of Tapiro Pygmies—Colour—Hair—Clothing—Ornaments—Netted
-Bags—Flint Knives—Bone
-Daggers—Sleeping Mats—Fire Stick—Method of making Fire—Cultivation
-of Tobacco—Manner of Smoking—Bows and Arrows—Village
-of the Pygmies—Terraced Ground—Houses on Piles—Village
-Headman—Our Efforts to see the Women—Language
-and Voices—Their Intelligence—Counting—Their Geographical
-Distribution</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER XVI</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Communication with Amboina and Merauke—Sail in the “Valk”
-to the Utakwa River—Removal of the Dutch Expedition—View
-of Mount Carstensz—Dugongs—Crowded Ship—Dayaks and Live
-Stock—Sea-Snakes—Excitable Convicts—The Island River—Its
-Great Size—Another Dutch Expedition—Their Achievements—Houses
-in the Trees—Large Village—Barn-like Houses—Naked
-People—Shooting Lime—Their Skill in Paddling—Through the
-Marianne Straits—An Extract from Carstensz—Merauke—Trade
-in Copra—Botanic Station—The Mission—The Ké Island
-Boat-builders—The Natives of Merauke described—Arrival of our
-Third Batch of Coolies—The Feast of St. Nicholas—Return to
-Mimika</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER XVII</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Difficulty of Cross-country Travel—Expedition moves towards the
-Mountains—Arrival at the Iwaka River—Changing Scenery—The
-Impassable Iwaka—A Plucky Gurkha—Building a</i>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">xiii</a></span>
-<i>Bridge—We start into the Mountains—Fording Rivers—Flowers—Lack
-of Water on Hillside—Curious Vegetation—Our highest Point—A
-wide View—Rare Birds—Coal—Uninhabitable Country—Dreary
-Jungle—Rarely any Beauty—Remarkable Trees—Occasional
-Compensations</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-CHAPTER XVIII</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Departure from Parimau—Parting Gifts—Mock Lamentation—Rawling
-explores Kamura River—Start for the Wania—Lose
-the Propeller—A Perilous Anchorage—Unpleasant Night—Leave
-the Motor Boat—Village of Nimé—Arrival of “Zwaan” with
-Dayaks—Their Departure—Waiting for the Ship—Taking Leave
-of the People of Wakatimi—Sail from New Guinea—Ké Islands—Banda—Hospitality
-of the Netherlands Government—Lieutenant
-Cramer—Sumbawa—Bali—Return to Singapore and England—One
-or two Reflexions</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-APPENDIX A</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Notes on the Birds collected by the B.O.U Expedition to Dutch New
-Guinea. By W. R. Ogilvie-Grant</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-APPENDIX B</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>The Pygmy Question. By Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">
-APPENDIX C</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<i>Notes on Languages in the East of Netherlands New Guinea. By
-Sidney H. Ray, M.A.</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Index</span></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td>
-</tr></table>
-
-<hr />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">xiv/xv</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
-
-<p class="center">(<i>Except where it is otherwise stated, the illustrations are from photographs by the Author.</i>)</p>
-
-<table summary="Illustrations" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">A Tapiro Pygmy</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#f"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdr f06" colspan="2">FACING PAGE</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Near the Mouth of the Mimika River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">A Convict Cooly of the Dutch Escort</span></p></td><td class="tdr">12</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">A Malay Cooly from Buton</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Dobo, Aru Islands</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Camp of the Expedition at Wakatimi</span> (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G. Rawling</span>
-and <span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">A House for Ceremonies, Mimika</span> (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G. Rawling</span> and
-<span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Making Canoes</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Canoes, Finished and Unfinished</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Making “Atap” for Roofing</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Papuan Woman Canoeing up the Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Jangbir and Herkajit</span>, (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G. Rawling</span> and <span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Hauling Canoes up the Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Typical Papuans of Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Upper Waters of the Kapare River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Vegetation on the Banks of the Kapare River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Papuan Woman carrying Wooden Bowl of Sago</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Papuan Houses on the Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Papuan of the Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Papuan of the Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">xvi</a></span><span class="smcap">A Papuan Mother and Child</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Cicatrization</span> (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G. Rawling</span> and <span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Papuan with Face Whitened with Sago Powder</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Women of Wakatimi</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Papuan Woman and Child</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">A Papuan of Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">A Papuan of Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Disposal of the Dead: A Coffin on Trestles</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Splitting Wood with Stone Axe</span>, (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G. Rawling</span> and<br />
-<span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">A Tributary Stream of the Kapare River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Typical Jungle, Mimika River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">At the Edge of the Jungle</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Camp of the Expedition at Parimau</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">The Camp at Parimau: A Precaution against Floods</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">The Mimika at Parimau: Low Water</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">The same in Flood</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">A Tapiro Pygmy</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Making Fire</span> (1)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Making Fire</span> (2)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Wamberi Merbiri</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">A House of the Tapiro</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Mount Tapiro from the Village of the Pygmies</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Types of Tapiro Pygmies</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">A Papuan with Two Tapiro</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Natives of Merauke</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Looking up the Mimika from Parimau</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Bridge made by the Expedition across the Iwaka River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Looking West from above the Iwaka</span> (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. H. B. Grant</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Cockscomb Mountain seen from Mt. Godman</span> (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G.<br />
-Rawling</span> and <span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Supports of a Pandanus</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Buttressed Trees</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Screw Pines (Pandanus)</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">xvii</a></span>
-<span class="smcap">At Sumbawa Pesar</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Near Buleling</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td>
-</tr></table>
-
-<h2>COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
-
-<p class="center">(<i>from Drawings by G. C. Shortridge</i>)</p>
-
-<table summary="COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS"><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Carved Wooden Clubs and Stone Clubs</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Head-Dresses, Worn at Ceremonies</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Stone Axe, Head-Rests and Drums</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Blades of Paddles, and Bamboo Penis-Cases</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Bow, Arrows and Spears</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">Ornaments of Papuans</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
-</tr></table>
-
-<h2>MAPS</h2>
-
-<table summary="MAPS"><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">
-<span class="smcap">A Language Map of Netherlands New Guinea</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_342">342</a></td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Map of the District Visited by the Expedition</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_353"><i>at End</i></a></td>
-</tr></table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">xviii/xix</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> wonderful fauna of New Guinea, especially the
-marvellous forms of Bird- and Insect-life to be found there,
-have long attracted the attention of naturalists in all parts
-of the world. The exploration of this vast island during
-recent years has brought to light many extraordinary and
-hitherto unknown forms, more particularly new Birds of
-Paradise and Gardener Bower-Birds; but until recently the
-central portion was still entirely unexplored, though no
-part of the globe promised to yield such an abundance
-of zoological treasures to those prepared to face
-the difficulties of penetrating to the great ranges of the
-interior.</p>
-
-<p>The B.O.U. Expedition, of which the present work
-is the official record, originated in the following manner.
-For many years past I had been trying to organise an
-exploration of the Snow Mountains, but the reported
-hostility of the natives in the southern part of Dutch
-New Guinea and the risks attending such an undertaking,
-rendered the chances of success too small to justify the
-attempt.</p>
-
-<p>It was in 1907 that Mr. Walter Goodfellow, well-known
-as an experienced traveller and an accomplished
-naturalist, informed me that he believed a properly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">xx</a></span>
-equipped expedition might meet with success, and I
-entered into an arrangement with him to lead a small
-zoological expedition to explore the Snow Mountains. It
-so happened, however, that by the time our arrangements
-had been completed in December, 1908, the members of
-the British Ornithologists’ Union, founded in 1858, were
-celebrating their Jubilee, and it seemed fitting that they
-should mark so memorable an occasion by undertaking some
-great zoological exploration. I therefore laid my scheme
-for exploring the Snow Mountains before the meeting,
-and suggested that it should be known as the Jubilee
-Expedition of the B.O.U., a proposal which was received
-with enthusiasm. A Committee was formed, consisting of
-Mr. F. du Cane Godman, F.R.S. (President of the
-B.O.U.), Dr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S. (Editor of the <i>Ibis</i>),
-Mr. E. G. B. Meade-Waldo, Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant
-(Secretary), and Mr. C. E. Fagan (Treasurer). At the
-request of the Royal Geographical Society it was decided
-that their interests should also be represented, and that a
-surveyor and an assistant-surveyor, to be selected by the
-Committee, should be added, the Society undertaking to
-contribute funds for that purpose. The expedition thus
-became a much larger one than had been originally contemplated
-and included:—</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p class="indent2">Mr. Walter Goodfellow (Leader),</p>
-
-<p class="indent2">Mr. Wilfred Stalker and Mr. Guy C. Shortridge (Collectors
-of Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, etc.),</p>
-
-<p class="indent2">Mr. A. F. R. Wollaston (Medical Officer to the Expedition,
-Entomologist, and Botanist),</p>
-
-<p class="indent2">Capt. C. G. Rawling, C.I.E. (Surveyor),</p>
-
-<p class="indent2">Dr. Eric Marshall (Assistant-Surveyor and Surgeon).</p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">xxi</a></span></p>
-
-<p>To meet the cost of keeping such an expedition in the
-field for at least a year it was necessary to raise a large
-sum of money, and this I was eventually able to do, thanks
-chiefly to a liberal grant from His Majesty’s Government,
-and to the generosity of a number of private subscribers,
-many of whom were members of the B.O.U.
-The total sum raised amounted to over £9000, and
-though it is impossible to give here the names of
-all those who contributed, I would especially mention the
-following:—</p>
-
-<table summary="Names"><tr>
-<td class="tdl">S. G. Asher,</td><td class="tdl">Mrs. H. A. Powell,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">E. J. Brook,</td><td class="tdl">H. C. Robinson,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">J. Stewart Clark,</td><td class="tdl">Lord Rothschild,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Col.&nbsp;Stephenson&nbsp;Clarke,&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Hon. L. Walter Rothschild,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sir Jeremiah Colman,</td><td class="tdl">Hon. N. Charles Rothschild,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">H. J. Elwes,</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Baron and Baroness James A. de Rothschild,</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">F. du Cane Godman,</td><td class="tdl">P. L. Sclater,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sir Edward Grey,</td><td class="tdl">P. K. Stothert,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">J. H. Gurney,</td><td class="tdl">Oldfield Thomas,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sir William Ingram,</td><td class="tdl">E. G. B. Meade-Waldo,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lord Iveagh,</td><td class="tdl">Rowland Ward,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mrs. Charles Jenkinson,</td><td class="tdl">The Proprietors of <i>Country Life</i>,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">E. J. Johnstone,</td><td class="tdl">The Royal Society,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Campbell D. Mackellar,</td><td class="tdl">The Royal Geographical Society,</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">G. A. Macmillan,</td><td class="tdl">The Zoological Society of London.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>The organization and equipment of this large expedition
-caused considerable delay and it was not until
-September, 1909, that the members sailed from England for
-the East. Meanwhile the necessary steps were taken to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">xxii</a></span>
-obtain the consent of the Netherlands Government to
-allow the proposed expedition to travel in Dutch New
-Guinea and to carry out the scheme of exploration. Not
-only was this permission granted, thanks to the kindly
-help of Sir Edward Grey and the British Minister at the
-Hague, but the Government of Holland showed itself
-animated with such readiness to assist the expedition
-that it supplied not only an armed guard at its own
-expense, but placed a gunboat at the disposal of the
-Committee to convey the party from Batavia to New
-Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>On behalf of the Committee I would again take this
-opportunity of publicly expressing their most grateful
-thanks to the Netherlands Government for these and many
-other substantial acts of kindness, which were shown to
-the members of the expedition. The Peninsular and
-Oriental Steam Navigation Company did all in their
-power to further the interests of the expedition, and to
-them the Committee is very specially indebted. To the
-proprietors of <i>Country Life</i> the thanks of the Committee
-are also due for the interest and sympathy they
-have displayed towards the expedition and for the assistance
-they have given in helping to raise funds to carry
-on the work in the field.</p>
-
-<p>In various numbers of <i>Country Life</i>, issued between
-the 16th of April, 1910, and the 20th of May, 1911, a
-series of ten articles will be found in which I contributed
-a general account of New Guinea, and mentioned some
-of the more important discoveries made by the members
-of the expedition during their attempts to penetrate to
-the Snow Mountains.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">xxiii</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In Appendix A to the present volume will be found
-a general account of the ornithological results. A detailed
-report will appear elsewhere, as also, it is hoped, a
-complete account of the zoological work done by the
-expedition.</p>
-
-<p>As the reader will learn from Mr. Wollaston’s book,
-the great physical difficulties of this unexplored part of
-New Guinea and other unforeseen circumstances rendered
-the work of the B.O.U. Expedition quite exceptionally
-arduous; and if the results of their exploration are not all
-that had been hoped, it must be remembered that they
-did all that was humanly possible to carry out the
-dangerous task with which they had been entrusted.
-Their work has added vastly to our knowledge of this
-part of New Guinea, and though little collecting was
-done above 4000 feet, quite a number of new, and,
-in many cases, remarkably interesting forms were
-obtained.</p>
-
-<p>There can be no doubt that when the higher ranges
-between 5000 and 10,000 feet are explored, many other
-novelties will be discovered and for this reason it has
-been thought advisable to postpone the publication of
-the scientific results of the B.O.U. Expedition until such
-time as the second expedition under Mr. Wollaston has
-returned in 1913.</p>
-
-<p>The death of Mr. Wilfred Stalker at a very early
-period of the expedition was a sad misfortune and his
-services could ill be spared; his place was, however, very
-ably filled by Mr. Claude H. B. Grant, who arrived in
-New Guinea some six months later.</p>
-
-<p>As all those who have served on committees must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">xxiv</a></span>
-know, most of the work falls on one or two individuals,
-and I should like here to express the thanks which we owe
-to our Treasurer, Mr. C. E. Fagan, for the admirable
-way in which he has carried out his very difficult task.</p>
-
-<p class="right padr1">W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">xxv</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="center">PYGMIES AND PAPUANS</p>
-
-<hr />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">1</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="center f2">PYGMIES AND PAPUANS<br /><br /></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>The British Ornithologists’ Union—Members of the Expedition—Voyage
-to Java—Choice of Rivers—Prosperity of Java—Half-castes—Obsequious
-Javanese—The Rijst-tafel—Customs of the
-Dutch—Buitenzorg Garden—Garoet.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the autumn of 1858 a small party of naturalists, most
-of them members of the University of Cambridge and
-their friends and all of them interested in the study of
-ornithology, met in the rooms of the late Professor Alfred
-Newton at Magdalene College, Cambridge, and agreed to
-found a society with the principal object of producing a
-quarterly Journal of general ornithology. The Journal
-was called “The Ibis,” and the Society adopted the name
-of British Ornithologists’ Union, the number of members
-being originally limited to twenty.</p>
-
-<p>In the autumn of 1908 the Society, which by that
-time counted four hundred and seventy members, adopted
-the suggestion, made by Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, of
-celebrating its jubilee by sending an expedition to explore,
-chiefly from an ornithological point of view, the unknown
-range of Snow Mountains in Dutch New Guinea. A
-Committee, whose Chairman was Mr. F. D. Godman,
-F.R.S., President and one of the surviving original
-members of the Society, was appointed to organise the
-expedition, and subscriptions were obtained from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span>
-members and their friends. The remote destination of
-the expedition aroused a good deal of public interest.
-The Royal Geographical Society expressed a desire to
-share in the enterprise, and it soon became evident that
-it would be a mistake to limit the object of the expedition
-to the pursuit of birds only. Mr. Walter Goodfellow, a
-naturalist who had several times travelled in New Guinea
-as well as in other parts of the world, was appointed
-leader of the expedition. Mr. W. Stalker and Mr. G. C.
-Shortridge, both of whom had had wide experience of
-collecting in the East, were appointed naturalists. Capt.
-C. G. Rawling, C.I.E., 13th Somersetshire Light Infantry,
-who had travelled widely in Tibet and mapped a large
-area of unknown territory in that region, was appointed
-surveyor, with Mr. E. S. Marshall, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,
-who had just returned from the “Furthest South” with
-Sir E. H. Shackleton, as assistant surveyor and surgeon;
-and the present writer, who had been medical officer,
-botanist, and entomologist on the Ruwenzori Expedition
-of 1906-7, undertook the same duties as before.</p>
-
-<p>Prolonged correspondence between the Foreign Office
-and the Dutch Government resulted, thanks largely to
-the personal interest of Sir Edward Grey and Lord
-Acton, British Chargé d’Affaires at the Hague, in permission
-being granted to the expedition to land in Dutch
-New Guinea on or after January 1, 1910. The date
-of landing was postponed by the Government until
-January in order that there might be no interference
-with the expedition of Mr. H. A. Lorentz, who it was
-hoped would be the first to reach the snow in New
-Guinea by way of the Noord River, a project which he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span>
-successfully accomplished in the month of November,
-1909.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">VOYAGE TO JAVA</div>
-
-<p>On October 29th four of us sailed from Marseilles in
-the P. &amp; O. <span class="smcap">S.S.</span> <i>Marmora</i>. Mr. Stalker and Mr. Shortridge,
-who had already proceeded to the East, joined us
-later at Batavia and Amboina respectively. At Singapore
-we found the ten Gurkhas, ex-military police, who
-had been engaged for the expedition by the recruiting
-officer at Darjiling; though some of these men were
-useless for the work they had to do, the others did invaluable
-service as will be seen later. We left Singapore
-on November 26th, and as we passed through the narrow
-Riou Straits we saw the remains of the French mail
-steamer <i>La Seyne</i>, which had been wrecked there with
-appalling loss of life a few days earlier. It was believed
-that scores of persons were devoured by sharks within
-a few minutes of the accident happening. Two days’
-steaming in the Dutch packet brought us to Batavia
-in Java, the city of the Government of the Netherlands
-East Indies.</p>
-
-<p>We had hoped that our ten Gurkhas would be sufficient
-escort for the expedition and that we could do
-without the escort of native soldiers offered to us by the
-Dutch Government, but the local authorities decided
-that the escort was necessary and they appointed to
-command it Lieutenant H. A. Cramer of the Infantry,
-a probationer on the Staff of the Dutch East Indian
-Army. The Government also undertook to transport
-the whole expedition, men, stores, and equipment, from
-Java to New Guinea. The undertaking was a most
-generous one as the voyage from Batavia by mail steamer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span>
-to Dobo in the Aru Islands would have been most costly,
-and from there we should have been obliged to charter
-a special steamer to convey the expedition to the shores
-of New Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>When we left England we had the intention of approaching
-the Snow Mountains by way of the Utakwa
-River, which was the only river shown by the maps
-obtainable at that time approaching the mountains.
-After a consultation with the Military and Geographical
-Departments at Batavia it was decided that, owing to
-the bad accounts which had been received of the Utakwa
-River and the comparatively favourable reports of the
-Mimika River, the latter should be chosen as the point
-of our entry into the country. This decision, though we
-little suspected it at the time, effectually put an end to
-our chance of reaching the Snow Mountains.</p>
-
-<p>During the month of December, while stores were
-being accumulated, and the steamer was being prepared
-for our use, we had leisure to visit, and in the case of
-some of us to revisit, some of the most interesting places
-in Java. A large German ship filled with fourteen
-hundred American tourists arrived at Batavia whilst we
-were there, and the passengers “did” Java, apparently
-to their satisfaction, in forty-eight hours. But a tourist
-with more time could find occupation for as many days
-and still leave much to be seen. Germans and Americans
-outnumber English visitors by nearly fifty to one, and
-it is to be deplored that Englishmen do not go there in
-larger numbers, for they would see in Java, not to mention
-the beauty of its scenery, perhaps the most successful
-tropical dependency in the world, a vast monument to
-the genius of Sir Stamford Raffles, who laid the foundation
-of its prosperity less than one hundred years ago.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p004a.jpg" width="400" height="647" alt="NEAR THE MOUTH OF THE MIMIKA RIVER." />
-<p class="caption">NEAR THE MOUTH OF THE MIMIKA RIVER.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span></p>
-<div class="sidenote">PROSPERITY OF JAVA</div>
-
-<p>Some idea of the progress which has been made may
-be learnt from the fact that, whereas at the beginning
-of the last century the population numbered about four
-millions, there are to-day nearly ten times that number.
-Wherever you go you see excellent roads, clean, and
-well-ordered villages and a swarming peasant population,
-quiet and industrious and apparently contented with
-their lot.</p>
-
-<p>There are between thirty and forty volcanoes in the
-island, many of them active, and the soil is extraordinarily
-rich and productive, three crops in the rice
-districts being harvested in rather less than two years.
-So fertile is the land that in many places the steepest
-slopes of the hills have been brought under cultivation
-by an ingenious system of terracing and irrigation in
-such a way that the higher valleys present the appearance
-of great amphitheatres rising tier above tier of
-brilliantly green young rice plants or of drooping yellow
-heads of ripening grain. The tea plantations and the
-fields of sugar-cane in Central Java not less than the
-rice-growing districts impress one with the unceasing
-industry of the people and the inexhaustible wealth of
-the island.</p>
-
-<p>One of the features of life in the Dutch East Indies,
-which first strikes the attention of an English visitor, is
-the difference in the relation between Europeans and
-natives from those which usually obtain in British
-possessions as shown by the enormous number of half-castes.
-Whilst we were still at Batavia the feast of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span>
-Eve of St. Nicholas, which takes the place of our Christmas,
-occurred. In the evening the entire “white” population
-indulged in a sort of carnival; the main streets
-and restaurants were crowded, bands played and carriages
-laden with parents and their children drove slowly
-through the throng. The spectacle, a sort of “trooping
-of the colours,” was a most interesting one to the onlooker,
-for one saw often in the same family children
-showing every degree of colour from the fairest Dutch
-hair and complexion to the darkest Javanese. It is
-easy to understand how this strong mixture of races has
-come about, when one learns that Dutchmen who come
-out to the East Indies, whether as civilian or military
-officials or as business men, almost invariably stay for
-ten years without returning to Europe. They become
-in that time more firmly attached to the country than is
-the case in colonies where people go home at shorter
-intervals, and it is not uncommon to meet Dutchmen
-who have not returned to Holland for thirty or forty
-years. It is not the custom to send children back to
-Europe when they reach the school age; there are
-excellent government schools in all the larger towns,
-and it often happens that men and women grow up and
-marry who have never been to Europe in their lives.
-Thus it can be seen how a large half-caste population is
-likely to be formed. The half-castes do not, as in British
-India, form a separate caste, but are regarded as Europeans,
-and there are many instances of men having more
-or less of native blood in their veins reaching the highest
-civilian and military rank.</p>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span></p>
-<div class="sidenote">THE RIJST-TAFEL</div>
-
-<p>One or two curious relics of former times, which the
-visitor to Java notices, are worth recording because they
-show the survival of a spirit that has almost completely
-disappeared from our own dominions. When a European
-walks, or as is more usual, drives along the country
-roads, the natives whom he meets remove their hats
-from their heads and their loads from their shoulders and
-crouch humbly by the roadside. Again, on the railways
-the ticket examiner approaches with a suppliant air
-and begs to see your ticket, while he holds out his right
-hand for it grasping his right wrist with his left hand.
-In former times when a man held out his right hand to
-give or take something from you his left hand was free
-to stab you with his <i>kris</i>. Nowadays only a very few
-privileged natives in Java are allowed to carry the
-<i>kris</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Another very noticeable feature of life in the Dutch
-East Indies, which immediately attracts the attention of
-a stranger, is the astonishing number of excessively
-corpulent Europeans. If you travel in the morning in
-the steam tramcar which runs from the residential part
-of Batavia to the business quarter of the town, you will
-see as many noticeably stout men as you will see in
-the City of London in a year, or, as I was credibly
-informed, as you will see in the city of Amsterdam in a
-month. It is fairly certain that this unhealthy state of
-body of a large number of Europeans may be attributed
-to the institution of the Rijst-tafel, the midday meal
-of a large majority of the Dutchmen in the East.</p>
-
-<p>This custom is so remarkable that it is worth while
-to give a description of it. The foundation of the meal,
-as its name implies, is rice. You sit at table with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span>
-soup plate in front of you, a smaller flat plate beside it
-and a spoon, a knife and a fork. The first servant brings
-a large bowl of rice from which you help yourself liberally.
-The second brings a kind of vegetable stew which you
-pour over the heap of rice. Then follows a remarkable
-procession; I have myself seen at an hotel in Batavia
-fourteen different boys bringing as many different dishes,
-and I have seen stalwart Teutons taking samples from
-every dish. These boys bring fish of various sorts and
-of various cookeries, bones of chickens cooked in different
-ways and eggs of various ages, and last of all comes a
-boy bearing a large tray covered with many different
-kinds of chutneys and sauces from which the connoisseur
-chooses three or four. The more solid and bony portions
-find a space on the small flat plate, the others are piled
-in the soup plate upon the rice. As an experience once
-or twice the Rijst-tafel is interesting; but as a daily
-custom it is an abomination. Even when, as in private
-houses, the number of dishes is perhaps not more than
-three or four, the main foundation of the meal is a solid
-pile of rice, which is not at all a satisfactory diet for
-Europeans. The Rijst-tafel is not a traditional native
-custom but a modern innovation, and there is a tendency
-among the more active members of the community to
-replace it by a more rational meal.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">CUSTOMS OF THE DUTCH</div>
-
-<p>The houses of the Europeans are of the bungalow type
-with high-pitched roofs of red tiles and surrounded by
-wide verandahs, which are actually the living rooms of
-the house. The Dutch are good gardeners and are
-particularly fond of trees, which they plant close about
-their houses and so ensure a pleasant shade, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span>
-they harbour rather more mosquitoes and other insects
-than is pleasant. In strange contrast with the scrupulous
-cleanliness of the houses and the tidiness of the streets,
-you will see in Batavia a state of things which it is hard
-to reconcile with the usual commonsense of the Dutch.
-Through the middle of the town runs a canalised river
-of red muddy water, partly sewer and partly bathing
-place and so on of the natives, and in it are washed all
-the clothes of the population, both native and European.
-Your clothes return to you white enough, but you put
-them on with certain qualms when you remember whence
-they came. The town has an excellent supply of pure
-water, and it is astonishing that the authorities do not
-put an end to this most insanitary practice.</p>
-
-<p>Dutch people in the East Indies have modified their
-habits, especially in the matter of clothing, to suit the
-requirements of the climate, and while they have to some
-extent sacrificed elegance to comfort, their costume is
-at all events more rational than that of many Englishmen
-in the East, who cling too affectionately to the
-fashions of Europe and often wear too much clothing.
-The men, who do the greater part of the day’s work
-between seven in the morning and one o’clock, wear a
-plain white suit of cotton or linen. The afternoon is
-spent in taking a siesta and at about five o’clock they go
-to their clubs or other amusements in the same sort of
-attire as in the morning. The ladies, except in the
-larger towns where European dress is the custom, appear
-in public during the greater part of the day in a curiously
-simple costume. The upper part of the body is clothed
-in a short white cotton jacket, below which the coloured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span>
-native <i>sarong</i> extends midway down the leg. Low
-slippers are worn on bare feet, the hair hangs undressed
-down the back and the costume is usually completed
-by an umbrella. It must be admitted that the effect
-is not ornamental, but the costume is doubtless cool and
-comfortable, and it prevents any risk there might be
-of injury to the health from wearing an excessive amount
-of clothing. They appear more conventionally dressed
-about five o’clock, when the social business of the day
-begins. The ladies pay calls while the men meet at the
-club and play cards until an uncomfortably late dinner
-at about nine o’clock.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">BOTANIC GARDEN</div>
-
-<p>About an hour’s journey by railway from Batavia
-is the hill station of Buitenzorg. Although it is hardly
-more than eight hundred feet above the sea the climate
-is noticeably cooler (the mean annual temperature is
-75°), and one feels immediately more vigorous than
-down in the low country. The palace of the Governor
-General, formerly the house of Sir Stamford Raffles,
-stands at the edge of the Botanic Garden, which alone,
-even if you saw nothing else, would justify a visit to
-Java. Plants from all the Tropics grow there in the
-best possible conditions, and you see them to advantage
-as you never can in their natural forest surroundings,
-where the trunks of the trees are obscured by a tangle
-of undergrowth. Every part of the garden is worth
-exploring, but one of the most curious and interesting
-sections is the collection of Screw-pines (<i>Pandanus</i>)
-and Cycads, which have a weirdly antediluvian appearance.
-Another very beautiful sight is the ponds of
-Water-lilies from different parts of the world. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span>
-native gardener in charge of them informed me that the
-different species have different and definite hours for
-the opening and closing of their flowers. I tested his
-statement in two instances and found the flowers almost
-exactly punctual. There was no cloud in the sky nor
-appearance of any change in the weather, and the reason
-for this behaviour is not easy to explain. At Sindanglaya
-in the mountains a few miles distant is an offshoot from
-the Buitenzorg garden, where plants of a more temperate
-climate flourish, and experiments are made on plants
-of economic value to the country.</p>
-
-<p>A few hours’ journey east from Buitenzorg is Garoet
-(2,300 feet above the sea), which lies in a beautiful fertile
-valley surrounded by forest-covered mountains. The
-climate is an almost ideal one, the nights are cool and the
-days are not too hot. A very remarkable feature of
-the country about Garoet is the great flocks, or rather
-droves, of ducks which you meet being driven along
-the roads from the villages to their pastures in the
-rice fields. These ducks differ from the ordinary domestic
-duck in their extraordinary erect attitude, from which
-they have been well called Penguin ducks. Whether
-their upright posture is due to their walking or not I
-do not know, but they are excellent walkers and are
-sometimes driven long distances to their feeding grounds.
-When a duck is tired and lags behind, the boy who
-herds them picks it up by the neck, and you may sometimes
-see him walking along with a bunch of two or
-three ducks in either hand.</p>
-
-<p>Others of our party visited Djokjakarta and the
-Buddhist Temples of Boro-Boder in Central Java and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span>
-mountain resort of Tosari in the volcanic region of
-Eastern Java. Tosari is more than five thousand feet
-above the sea, and is of great value to the Dutch as a
-sanatorium for soldiers and civilians from all parts of
-the Archipelago. The rainfall is comparatively scanty
-and the climate is like that of Southern Europe at its
-best.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_p012a.jpg" width="300" height="379" alt="A CONVICT COOLY OF THE DUTCH ESCORT." />
-<p class="caption">A CONVICT COOLY OF THE DUTCH ESCORT.<br /><br /></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_p012b.jpg" width="300" height="368" alt="A MALAY COOLY FROM BUTON." />
-<p class="caption">A MALAY COOLY FROM BUTON.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Expedition leaves Java—The “Nias”—Escort—Macassar—Raja of
-Goa—Amboina—Corals and Fishes—Ambonese Christians—Dutch
-Clubs—Dobo.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">On</span> December 21st we left Batavia, and on Christmas
-Day, 1909, we sailed from Soerabaja in the Government
-steamer <i>Nias</i>, Capt. Hondius van Herwerden. The
-<i>Nias</i>, a ship of about six hundred tons, formerly a gun-boat
-in the Netherlands Indies Marine, is now stripped
-of her two small guns and is used by the Government
-as a special service vessel. Her last commission before
-embarking us has been to transport Mr. Lorentz on his
-expedition to the Noord River in New Guinea three
-months earlier. Now she was full to the brim of stores
-and gear of all sorts and her decks were crowded with
-men. There were five of us and ten Gurkhas. The
-Dutch escort consisted of Lieutenant H. A. Cramer in
-command, two Dutch sergeants and one Dutch medical
-orderly, forty native Javanese soldiers and sixty
-convicts, most of them Javanese. The convicts were
-nearly all of them men with more or less long
-sentences of imprisonment and some of them were
-murderers in chains, which were knocked off them
-to their great relief the day after we left Soerabaja.
-One of the best of the convicts, a native of Bali, was
-a murderer (see illustration, page 12), who did<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span>
-admirable service to the expedition, and was subsequently
-promoted to be <i>mandoer</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p>
-
-<p>At Macassar we stopped a few hours only to add to
-our already excessive deck cargo, and to hear a little
-of the gossip of Celebes. I was interested to learn that
-the power of the Raja of Goa, whom I had visited a
-few years before, had come to an end. That monarch
-was an interesting survivor of the old native princes
-of the island. His kingdom extended to within three
-miles of Macassar, and he was apparently not answerable
-to any law or authority but his own. The place became
-a refuge for criminals fleeing from justice, and it was
-a disagreeable thorn in the side of the Dutch authorities,
-who were at last compelled to send a small expedition
-to annex the country. The Raja himself, it was said,
-came to a very unpleasant end in a ditch.</p>
-
-<p>There had also been a small war on the east side of
-the island, which resulted in the pacification of the large
-and prosperous district of Boni. Now the Island of
-Celebes, which only a few years ago was dominated by
-savage tribes and where it was unsafe for an European
-to travel, has been almost completely brought within
-the Dutch administration, and it seems likely that its
-enormous mineral and agricultural wealth will soon
-make it one of the most prosperous islands of the
-Archipelago.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">AMBOINA</div>
-
-<p>On December 30th we anchored in the harbour of
-Amboina, where we were joined by the last member
-of the expedition, Mr. W. Stalker, who had been for
-some months collecting birds in Ceram, and recently
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span>had been engaged in Amboina in recruiting coolies for
-the expedition. It had been expected that he would
-go to engage coolies in the Ké Islands, a group of islands
-about three hundred miles to the south-east of Amboina,
-where the natives are more sturdy and less sophisticated
-than the people of Amboina; but circumstances had
-prevented him from going there, and we had to put up
-with the very inferior Ambonese, a fact which at the
-outset seriously handicapped the expedition. We stayed
-for two days at Amboina, or, as the Dutch always call
-it, Ambon, buying necessary stores and making arrangements
-with the Dutch authorities, who agreed to send
-a steamer every two months, if the weather were favourable,
-to bring men and further supplies to us in New
-Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>Amboina is an exceedingly pretty place, and a very
-favourite station of the Dutch on account of its climate,
-which is remarkably equable, and its freedom from
-strong winds or excessive rain. There is a volcano at
-the north end of the island which has slumbered since
-1824, and the place is very subject to earthquakes. A
-very serious one occurred as recently as 1902, which
-destroyed hundreds of lives and houses, whose walls
-may still be seen lying flat in the gardens, but as in other
-volcanic places the inhabitants have conveniently short
-memories, and the place has been re-built ready for
-another visitation.</p>
-
-<p>Like most of the other Dutch settlements in the
-East, Amboina has been laid out on a rectangular plan,
-but the uniformity of the arrangement is saved from
-being monotonous by the tree-planting habits of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span>
-Dutch. The roads and open spaces are shaded by
-Kanari trees, which also produce a most delicious nut,
-and the gardens are hedged with flowering Hibiscus and
-Oleander and gaudy-leafed Crotons. Roses, as well as
-many other temperate plants, in addition to “hothouse”
-plants, flourish in the gardens, and the verandahs
-of the houses themselves are often decorated with
-orchids from Ceram and the Tenimber Islands. Birds
-are not common in the town itself except in captivity,
-and you see, especially in the gardens of the natives’
-houses, parrots and lories, and pigeons from the Moluccas
-and New Guinea, and you may even hear the call of the
-Greater bird of paradise. Attracted by the many
-flowering plants are swarms of butterflies, some of them
-of great beauty. One of the most gorgeous of these is
-the large blue <i>Papilio ulysses</i>, which floats from flower
-to flower like a piece of living blue sky.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE AMBONESE</div>
-
-<p>The harbour of Amboina is a wide deep channel,
-which nearly divides the island into two, and in it are
-the wonderful sea-gardens, which aroused the enthusiasm
-of Mr. Wallace.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> They are not perhaps so wonderful
-as the sea-gardens at Banda and elsewhere, but to those
-who have never seen such things before the many
-coloured sea-weeds and corals and shells and shoals of
-fantastic fishes seen through crystal water are a source
-of unfailing interest. The sea is crowded with fish of
-every size and form and colour. Nearly eight hundred
-species have been described from Ambonese waters,
-and it is worth while to visit the market in the early
-morning, when the night’s haul is brought in, and before
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span>the very evanescent colours of the fish have faded.
-Nearly every man in the place is a fisherman during
-some part of the day or night, and nobody need starve
-who has the energy to throw a baited hook into the
-sea. Most of the fish are caught either in nets very
-similar to our seine-net or in more elaborate traps
-which are mostly constructed by Chinamen.</p>
-
-<p>The market is also worth visiting to see the variety
-of fruit and spices that grow in the island. Amboina
-has a peculiar form of banana, the <i>Pisang Ambon</i>, with
-white flesh, dark green skin, and a very peculiar flavour.
-Besides this there are many other kinds of bananas,
-mangoes, mangostines, guavas, sour-manilla, soursop,
-pineapples, kanari nut, nutmeg, cloves, and a small but
-very delicious fruit, the garnderia.</p>
-
-<p>The native inhabitants of Amboina are a curious
-mixture of the aboriginal native with Portuguese, Dutch,
-and Malay blood. There is a strong predominance of
-the Portuguese type, which shows itself in the faces of
-many of the people, who still use words of Portuguese
-origin, and preserve many Portuguese names. A large
-number of them are Christians, and they rejoice in such
-names as Josef, Esau, Jacob, Petrus and Domingos.</p>
-
-<p>New Year’s Eve was celebrated by a confusion of
-fireworks and gun-firing, which lasted from sunset
-until the small hours of 1910, and by an afternoon
-service in the Church attended by many hundreds of
-people. The women, who are usually in Amboina
-dressed entirely in black, wore for the occasion long
-white coats, black <i>sarongs</i> and white stockings. The
-men went more variously clad in straw hats, dinner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span>
-jackets, low waistcoats, white or coloured starched
-shirts, coloured ties, black trousers, and brown boots.
-We were interested to find that the great bulk of the
-stuff from which clothes are made in Amboina is imported
-from England, and we were assured by a merchant
-who was interested in the trade that a man can dress
-himself in so-called European fashion as cheaply in
-Amboina as he can in this country.</p>
-
-<p>An agreeable feature of life at Amboina, as at other
-places in the Netherlands Indies, is the hospitality of
-the Dutch people. A stranger of at all respectable
-social position is expected to introduce himself to the
-club, and the residents in the place feel genuinely hurt
-if he fails to do so. The Societat, or “Soce,” as it is
-everywhere called, is more of a café than a club according
-to English ideas, and it exists for conviviality and
-gossiping rather than for newspaper reading and card
-playing. It is not even a restaurant in the sense that
-many English clubs are; the members meet there in
-the evening but they invariably dine, as they lunch,
-at home. On the verandah in front of the club is a
-round table, at which sit after dark large men in white
-clothes smoking cigars and drinking various drinks.
-The foreigner approaches with what courage he may
-and introduces himself by name to the party severally.
-They make a place for him in the circle and thereafter,
-with a courtesy which a group of Englishmen
-would find difficulty in imitating, they continue the
-conversation in the language of the foreigner. An
-Englishman is at first a little staggered by the number
-of <i>pait</i> (<i>i.e.</i> bitter, the name for gin and bitters) and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span>
-other drinks that his hosts consume, and which he is
-expected to consume also, but, as I remember noticing
-in the case of their neighbours the Belgians in the Congo,
-it appears to do them little if any harm.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE ARAFURA SEA</div>
-
-<p>In the larger places there is a concert at the club
-once or twice a week—at Bandoeng in Java I heard
-a remarkably good string quartette—and in almost
-every place there is a ladies’ night at the club once a
-week, when the children come to dance to the music
-of a piano or gramophone, as the case may be. It is
-a pretty sight and one to make one ponder on the possible
-harmony of nations—“Harmonie” is commonly a name
-for the clubs in the Netherlands Indies—to see small Dutch
-children dancing with little half-castes and, as I have
-more than once seen, with little Celestials and Japanese.</p>
-
-<p>We left Amboina on New Year’s Day in a deluge of
-rain, and all that day we were in sight of the forest-covered
-heights of Ceram to the North. On January
-2nd we passed Banda at dawn, and at sunset we got a
-view of the most South-west point of New Guinea,
-Cape Van de Bosch. On the morning of January 3rd
-we dropped anchor in the harbour of Dobo in the Aru
-Islands. For several miles before we arrived there we
-had noticed a marked difference in the appearance of
-the sea. Since we left Batavia we had been sailing
-over a deep sea of great oceanic depths, sometimes of
-two or three thousand fathoms, which was always clear
-and blue or black as deep seas are. Approaching the
-Aru Islands we came into the shoal waters of the Arafura
-Sea, which is yellowish and opaque and never exceeds
-one hundred fathoms in depth. We were, in fact, sailing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span>
-over that scarcely submerged land, which joins the Aru
-Islands and New Guinea with the Continent of Australia.</p>
-
-<p>Dobo has doubtless changed a good deal in appearance
-since Mr. Wallace visited it in 1857, the majority
-of the houses are now built of corrugated iron in place
-of the palm leaves of fifty years ago; but it cannot
-have increased greatly in size, for it is built on a small
-spit of coral sand beyond which are mangrove swamps
-where building is impossible. The reason of its existence
-has also changed since the time when it was the
-great market of all the neighbouring islands, for now
-it exists solely as the centre of a pearl-fishing industry
-controlled by an Australian Company, the Celebes
-Trading Company. Messrs. Clarke &amp; Ross Smith, the
-heads of this business, rendered us assistance in very
-many ways, and the sincerest thanks of the expedition
-are due to them. The primary object of pearl-fishing
-is of course the collection of pearl-shell which is used for
-knife handles, buttons, and a hundred other things.
-Shell of a good quality is worth more than £200 a ton.
-The pearls, which are occasionally found, are merely
-accidentals and profitable extras of the trade. Some
-idea of the extent of this business may be learnt from the
-fact that more than one hundred boats employing about
-five thousand men are occupied in the various fleets.</p>
-
-<p>We left Dobo, the last place of civilisation that many
-of us were to see for a year and more, on January 3rd;
-and here, as we are almost within sight as it were of our
-destination, it may be opportune to state briefly the
-geographical position of New Guinea, and to give a short
-account of its exploration.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p020a.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="DOBO. ARU ISLANDS." />
-<p class="caption">DOBO. ARU ISLANDS.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>New Guinea—Its Position and Extent—Territorial Divisions—Mountain
-Ranges—Numerous Rivers—The Papuans—The Discovery of New
-Guinea—Early Voyagers—Spanish and Dutch—Jan Carstensz—First
-Discovery of the Snow Mountains—William Dampier in the
-“Roebuck”—Captain Cook in the “Endeavour”—Naturalists and
-later Explorers.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> island of New Guinea or Papua lies to the East
-of all the great islands of the Malay Archipelago and
-forms a barrier between them and the Pacific Ocean.
-To the South of it lies the Continent of Australia
-separated from it by the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait,
-which at its narrowest point is less than a hundred
-miles wide. To the East is the great group of the
-Solomon Islands, while on the North there are no important
-masses of land between New Guinea and Japan.
-The island lies wholly to the South of the Equator,
-its most Northern point, the Cape of Good Hope in
-the Arfak Peninsula, being 19´ S. latitude.</p>
-
-<p>The extreme length of the island from E. to W. is
-1490 miles, and its greatest breadth from N. to S. is
-rather more than 400 miles. New Guinea is the largest
-of the islands of the globe, having an area of 308,000
-square miles (Borneo has about 290,000 square miles),
-and it is divided amongst three countries roughly as
-follows: Holland 150,000, Great Britain 90,000, and
-Germany 70,000 square miles. The large territory of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span>
-the Dutch was acquired by them with the kingdom of
-the Sultan of Ternate, who was accustomed to claim
-Western New Guinea as a part of his dominions: it is
-bounded on the East by the 141st parallel of East
-longitude and partly by the Fly River and thus it
-comprises nearly a half of the island.</p>
-
-<p>The Eastern half of the island is divided into a
-Northern, German, and a Southern, British, part. The
-German territory is called Kaiser Wilhelm Land, and
-the islands adjacent to it, which have received German
-substitutes for their old names of New Britain, New
-Ireland, etc., are known as the Bismarck Archipelago.
-British New Guinea, which is now administered by the
-Federal Government of Australia, has been officially
-renamed the Territory of Papua, and with it are included
-the numerous islands at its Eastern extremity, the
-D’Entrecasteaux and Louisiade Archipelagoes.</p>
-
-<p>Only in the British territory has a serious attempt
-been made at settling and administering the country;
-the headquarters of the Government are at Port Moresby,
-and the country is divided into six magisterial districts.</p>
-
-<p>The German possessions are governed from Herbertshöhe
-in Neu Pommern (New Britain), which is the
-centre of a small amount of island trade, but the settlements
-on the New Guinea mainland are few and far
-between, and it cannot be pretended that the country
-is German except in name.</p>
-
-<p>The Dutch territory has been even less brought under
-control than the German. For more than half a century
-there has been a mission station at Dorei in the N.W.
-but until 1899 when the Dutch assumed the direct<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span>
-control of the country, which was till that time nominally
-governed by the Sultan of Tidor (Ternate), there was
-no sign of Dutch rule in New Guinea. Now there are
-Government stations with small bodies of native soldiers
-at Manokware, an island in Dorei Bay, and at Fak-fak
-on the shore of MacCluer Gulf; more recently a third
-post has been established at Merauke on the South
-coast near the boundary of British New Guinea, with
-the object of subjugating the fierce Tugere tribe of
-that region.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">MOUNTAIN RANGES</div>
-
-<p>The most important physical feature of New Guinea
-is the great system of mountain ranges, which run from
-West to East and form the back-bone of the island.
-The Arfak Peninsula in the N.W. is made entirely by
-mountains which reach an altitude of more than 9000
-feet. In the great central mass of the island the
-mountains begin near the S.W. coast with the Charles
-Louis Mountains, which vary in height from 4000 to
-9000 feet. Following these to the East they are found
-to be continuous with the Snowy Mountains (now called
-the Nassau Range, the objective of this expedition)
-which culminate in the glacier-covered tops of Mount
-Idenberg (15,379 feet), and Mount Carstensz (15,964 feet),
-and to the East of these is the snow-capped Mount
-Wilhelmina (15,420 feet), and Mount Juliana (about
-14,764 feet).</p>
-
-<p>Leaving Dutch New Guinea and proceeding further
-to the East we come to the Victor Emmanuel and the
-Sir Arthur Gordon Ranges, which lie near the boundary
-of German and British New Guinea. Still further East
-is the Bismarck Range, often snow covered, and extending<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span>
-through the long Eastern prolongation of the island
-are the great range of the Owen Stanley Mountains,
-which reach their highest point in Mount Victoria
-(13,150 feet), and the Stirling Range.</p>
-
-<p>As might be expected in so mountainous a country
-there is a large number of rivers and some of them are
-of great size. On the North coast the Kaiserin Augusta
-River rises in Dutch territory and takes an almost
-Easterly course through German New Guinea to the
-sea, while the Amberno (or Mamberamo) rises probably
-from the slopes of the Snowy Mountains and
-flows Northwards to Point d’Urville. On the South
-coast, in British New Guinea besides the Purari, Kikor
-and Turama Rivers, the most important is the Fly River,
-which has been explored by boat for a distance of more
-than five hundred miles. In Southern Dutch New
-Guinea there are almost countless rivers: chief among
-them are the Digoel, which has been explored for more
-than four hundred miles; the Island River, by which
-a Dutch expedition has recently reached the central
-watershed of New Guinea; the Noord River by which
-Mr. H. Lorentz approached Mount Wilhelmina; the
-Utakwa and the Utanata.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE NATIVES OF NEW GUINEA</div>
-
-<p>The natives of New Guinea are Papuans and the
-island is indeed the centre of that race, which is found
-more or less mixed with other races from the island of
-Flores as far as Fiji. Though the Papuans in New
-Guinea itself have been in many places altered by
-immigrant races, for instance by Malays in the extreme
-West, and by Polynesian and Melanesian influences in
-the South and East, there yet remain large regions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span>
-particularly in the Western half of the country, including
-the district visited by this expedition, where the true
-Papuan stock holds its own.</p>
-
-<p>The name Papua, it should be said, comes from
-the Malay wood <i>papuwah</i>, meaning “woolly” or “fuzzy,”
-and was first applied to the natives on account of their
-mops of hair; later the name was applied to the island
-itself.</p>
-
-<p>Even among those Papuans who are pure-blooded—in
-so far as one may use that expression in describing
-any human race—there are very considerable varieties
-of appearance, but it is still possible to describe a type
-to which all of them conform in the more important
-particulars. The typical Papuan is rather tall and is
-usually well-built. The legs of the low country people
-are somewhat meagre, as is usually the case among
-people who spend much of their time in canoes, whilst
-those of the hill tribes are well developed. The hands
-and feet are large. The colour of the skin varies from
-a dark chocolate colour to a rusty black, but it seems to
-be never of the shining ebony blackness of the African
-negro. The lips are thick but not full, the teeth are
-strong but not noticeably good, and the jaws are strong
-but they can hardly be called prognathous. The
-forehead is receding, the brows are strong and prominent,
-and the shape of the face is somewhat oval.
-The hair is black and “frizzly” rather than “woolly,”
-it is crisp and hard to the touch, and in some tribes it
-is grown to a considerable length and dressed in a
-variety of ornamental fashions. Short hard hair is
-also found frequently on the chest and on the limbs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span>
-but on the face it is scanty and frequently altogether
-absent.</p>
-
-<p>The most characteristic feature is the nose, which
-is long and fleshy and somewhat “Semitic” in outline,
-but flattened and depressed at the tip. But these
-characteristics of the nose would not alone suffice to
-distinguish the Papuans from others were it not for the
-fact that the <i>alae nasi</i> are attached at a remarkably
-high level on the face, and so an unusually large extent
-of the <i>septum</i> of the nose is exposed. It is owing to
-this curious formation of the nose that the Papuan is
-enabled to perform his almost universal practice of
-piercing the <i>septum nasi</i> and wearing there some ornament
-of bone or shell.</p>
-
-<p>Apart from physical characteristics many observers
-have found mental qualities in which the Papuans
-differ from, and are superior to, neighbouring races;
-but these things are so difficult to define, and they vary
-so much according to local circumstances, that it is
-not wise to use them as conclusive evidence. It may,
-however, be said without fear of contradiction that
-no person, who has had experience of Malays and of
-Papuans, could believe for a moment that they are
-anything but two very distinct races of men. The
-origin of the Papuans is not definitely known, and the
-existence in different parts of the island of small people,
-who are possibly of Negrito stock, suggests that the
-Papuans were not the original inhabitants of New
-Guinea.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">EARLY SPANISH NAVIGATORS</div>
-
-<p>The history of the earliest discovery of New Guinea<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span>
-is not precisely known, but it is safe to disregard the
-legends of navigators having found the island before
-the Portuguese reached the Moluccas and founded a
-trading centre at Ternate in 1512. The earliest authentic
-record is of the Portuguese Don Jorge de Meneses, who
-was driven out of his way on a voyage from Goa to
-Ternate in 1526, and took refuge in the island of Waigiu.
-Two years later a Spaniard Alvaro de Saavedra taking
-spices from the Moluccas to Mexico appears to have
-reached the Schouten Islands in Geelvink Bay. From
-there he sailed North and discovered the Carolines and
-the Mariana Islands, but unfavourable winds drove
-him back to the Moluccas. In 1529 he set out again,
-and sailed along a long expanse of coast, which was
-doubtless the North coast of New Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>In 1546 Ynigo Ortiz de Retes sailed from Ternate
-to Mexico in his ship <i>San Juan</i>. He touched at several
-places on the North coast where he hoisted the Spanish
-flag, and called the island Nueva Guinea, because the
-natives appeared to him to resemble the negroes of
-the Guinea coast of Africa. The name, spelt Nova
-Guinea, appears printed for the first time on Mercator’s
-map of 1569.</p>
-
-<p>The last important Spanish Expedition was that of
-Luis Vaz de Torres, who sailed with two ships from
-Peru, and in 1606 reached the south-east corner of
-New Guinea. He sailed along the South coast from
-one to the other end of the island, of which he took
-possession in the name of the King of Spain. Torres’
-voyage through the strait which now bears his name
-was the first to show that New Guinea was an island,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span>
-but the account of the voyage was not published and the
-fact of his discovery remained unknown until after
-1800.</p>
-
-<p>The seventeenth century was chiefly notable for the
-explorations of the Dutch, whose East India Company
-proclaimed a monopoly of trade in the Spice Islands
-to the exclusion of people of other nationalities. In
-1605, Willem Jansz sailed from Banda to New Guinea
-in the <i>Duyfken</i>. The Ké and Aru Islands were visited
-and the Cape York Peninsula of Australia was reached,
-but the importance of that discovery was not realised.
-On the mainland of New Guinea nine men of the ship’s
-company were killed and eaten, and the expedition
-returned to Banda.</p>
-
-<p>Jacques Le Maire and Willem Schouten made an
-important voyage in 1616 in the <i>Eendracht</i>. Sailing
-from Europe by way of Cape Horn they crossed the
-Pacific and discovered New Ireland, where they had
-trouble with the natives, who (it is interesting to note)
-gave them pigs in exchange for glass beads. The
-Admiralty and Vulcan Islands were seen and then,
-after reaching the coast of New Guinea, they discovered
-the mouth of the Kaiserin Augusta River and the
-Schouten Islands.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE VOYAGE OF JAN CARSTENSZ</div>
-
-<p>The next important voyage, and in this chronicle
-the most important of all, was that of Jan Carstensz
-(or Carstenszoon) who sailed from Amboina in 1623
-with the ships <i>Pera</i> and <i>Arnhem</i>. After visiting Ké
-and Aru they reached the S.W. coast of New Guinea,
-where they met with trouble. “This same day
-(February 11) the skipper of the yacht <i>Arnhem</i>, Dirck<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span>
-Meliszoon, without knowledge of myself or the sub-cargo
-or steersman of the said yacht, unadvisedly
-went ashore to the open beach in the pinnace, taking
-with him fifteen persons, both officers and common
-sailors, and no more than four muskets, for the purpose
-of fishing with a seine-net. There was great disorder
-in landing, the men running off in different directions,
-until at last a number of black savages came running
-forth from the wood, who first seized and tore to
-pieces an assistant named Jan Willemsz Van den
-Briel who happened to be unarmed, after which they
-slew with arrows, callaways, and with the oars which
-they had snatched from the pinnace, no less than
-nine of our men, who were unable to defend themselves,
-at the same time wounding the remaining
-seven (among them the skipper, who was the first to
-take to his heels); these last seven men at last returned
-on board in very sorry plight with the pinnace and
-one oar, the skipper loudly lamenting his great want
-of prudence, and entreating pardon for the fault he
-had committed.”</p>
-
-<p>The incautious skipper died of his wounds on the
-following day and so he did not take a part in the most
-momentous discovery of the voyage. “In the morning
-of the 16th (February) we took the sun’s altitude
-at sunrise, which we found to be 5° 6´; the preceding
-evening ditto 20° 30´; the difference being divided
-by two comes to 7° 42´; increasing North-easterly
-variation; the wind N. by E.; we were at about
-one and a half mile’s distance from the low-lying
-land in 5 or 6 fathom, clayey bottom; at a distance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span>
-of about 10 miles by estimation into the interior we
-saw a very high mountain range in many places white
-with snow, which we thought a very singular sight,
-being so near the line equinoctial. Towards the
-evening we held our course E. by S., along half-submerged
-land in 5, 4, 3, and 2 fathom, at which last
-point we dropped anchor; we lay there for about
-five hours, during which time we found the water to
-have risen 4 or 5 feet; in the first watch, the wind
-being N.E., we ran into deeper water and came to
-anchor in 10 fathom, where we remained for the
-night.”</p>
-
-<p>That is the brief account of the first discovery of the
-Snow Mountains of New Guinea by Jan Carstensz, whose
-name is now perpetuated in the highest summit of the
-range. Very few ships have sailed along that coast in
-three hundred years, and there are very many days in
-the year when not a sign of the mountains can be seen
-from the shore, so it is not very astonishing to find
-ships’ captains sailing on those seas who still disbelieve
-the story of the snow. On the same voyage Carstensz
-crossed the straits and sailed a considerable way down
-the Cape York Peninsula believing that the land was
-still New Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>In 1636 Thomas Pool explored a large tract of the
-S.W. coast; Pool himself was killed by natives, but
-the expedition discovered three large rivers, the Kupera
-Pukwa, Inabuka (? Neweripa), and the Utakwa. Tasman
-sailed along the North coast of New Guinea in 1642
-after his discovery of Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania);
-and in 1644 he was sent to find out whether there was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>
-a passage between New Guinea and the large “South
-Land” (Australia). Apparently he cruised along the
-coast about as far as Merauke, and also touched Australia,
-but the strait was not discovered.</p>
-
-<p>Throughout the seventeenth century the Dutch East
-India Company maintained their monopoly of the cloves
-and nutmegs of the Moluccas, and great consternation
-was caused when the English tried to obtain these spices
-direct by sending ships to the Papuan islands. The
-Moluccas were protected by forts and their harbours
-safe, therefore in order to prevent the English from
-obtaining the spices outside the sphere of direct Dutch
-influence, all trees producing spices were destroyed.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">DAMPIER AND COOK</div>
-
-<p>The most important of the English voyages was
-that of Capt. William Dampier in the <i>Roebuck</i>. He
-sailed by Brazil and the Cape of Good Hope to Western
-Australia and thence to Timor. On January 1, 1700,
-he sighted the mountains of New Guinea; he landed
-on several islands near the coast, captured Crowned
-pigeons and many kinds of fishes, which he described
-in his book. Rounding the N.W. corner of the island
-he sailed along the North coast and discovered that
-New Britain was separated from New Guinea by a
-strait to which he gave his own name.</p>
-
-<p>After the voyages of Philip Carteret, who proved
-that New Ireland is an island, and of de Bougainville
-in 1766 the most important is that of Captain James
-Cook in the <i>Endeavour</i>. He sailed from Plymouth in
-August 1768, rounded Cape Horn, reached and charted
-New Zealand, reached the East coast of New Holland
-(Australia) in April 1770, and sailed along the coast to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span>
-Cape York, which he named. Looking Westward he
-decided that there was a channel leading from the
-Pacific to the Indian Ocean, and after sailing through
-it he came to the coast of New Guinea to the N.W. of
-Prince Frederick Henry Island, where he was attacked
-by natives and thence he sailed to Batavia. Thus
-Captain Cook by sailing through his Endeavour Strait,
-now called Torres Strait after the original navigator,
-repeated the discovery of Torres after an interval of
-more than a century and a half, and the general position
-and outline of New Guinea became known to the
-world.</p>
-
-<p>After the voyage of Cook many important additions
-were made to the charts of New Guinea and its neighbouring
-islands, notably by the voyages of La Perouse
-(1788), John MacCluer (1790-1793), D’Entrecasteaux
-(1792-1793), Duperrey (1823-1824), D. H. Kolff (1826),
-and Dumont d’Urville (1827-1828).</p>
-
-<p>But during all this time New Guinea was practically
-no man’s land, and except at Dorei and about the
-MacCluer Gulf explorations were limited to views from
-the deck of a ship. Flags were hoisted now and then
-and the land taken possession of in the name of various
-sovereigns and companies, amongst others by the East
-India Company in 1793, but no effective occupation
-was ever made. The Dutch regained their title to the
-Western half of the island, but it was not until 1884
-that a British Protectorate was proclaimed over the
-S.E. portion of the island, and over the remainder by
-Germany in the same year.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">RECENT EXPLORATION</div>
-
-<p>Although numerous naturalists, notably Dr. A. R.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span>
-Wallace, Von Rosenberg, and Bernstein, and missionaries
-had spent considerable periods of time in the country,
-no very serious attempt was made to penetrate into the
-interior until 1876, when the Italian naturalist, d’Albertis,
-explored the Fly River for more than five hundred miles.
-Since that time a very large number of expeditions
-have been undertaken to various parts of the island,
-and it will only be possible to mention a few of them
-here. In 1885 Captain Everill ascended the Strickland
-tributary of the Fly River. In the same year Dr. H. O.
-Forbes explored the Owen Stanley range, and in 1889
-Sir William Macgregor reached the highest point of that
-range.</p>
-
-<p>In Dutch New Guinea very little exploration was
-done until the beginning of the present century. Professor
-Wichmann made scientific investigations in the
-neighbourhood of Humboldt Bay in 1903. Captains
-Posthumus Meyes and De Rochemont in 1904 discovered
-East Bay and the Noord River, which was explored
-by Mr. H. A. Lorentz in 1907.</p>
-
-<p>During the period from 1909 to 1911, whilst our party
-was in New Guinea, there were six other expeditions
-in different parts of the Dutch territory. On the N.
-coast a Dutch-German boundary commission was penetrating
-inland from Humboldt Bay, and a large party
-under Capt. Fransse Herderschee was exploring the
-Amberno River. On the West and South coasts an
-expedition was exploring inland from Fak-fak, another
-was surveying the Digoel and Island rivers, and a third
-made an attempt to reach the Snow Mountains by
-way of the Utakwa River. But the most successful of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span>
-all the expeditions was that of Mr. Lorentz, who sailed
-up the Noord River and in November 1909 reached
-the snow on Mount Wilhelmina, two hundred and eighty-six
-years after the mountains were first seen by Jan
-Carstensz.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Sail from the Aru Islands—Sight New Guinea—Distant Mountains—Signal
-Fires—Natives in Canoes—A British Flag—Natives on
-Board—Their Behaviour—Arrival at Mimika River—Reception at
-Wakatimi—Dancing and Weeping—Landing Stores—View of the
-Country—Snow Mountains—Shark-Fishing—Making the Camp—Death
-of W. Stalker.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="sidenote">ARRIVAL IN NEW GUINEA</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">When</span> we left the northernmost end of the Aru Islands
-behind us the wind rose and torrents of rain descended,
-and the Arafura Sea, which is almost everywhere more
-or less shoal water, treated us to the first foul weather
-we had experienced since leaving England. At dawn
-on the 4th January we found ourselves in sight of land,
-and about five miles south of the New Guinea coast.
-A big bluff mountain (Mount Lakahia) a southern spur
-of the Charles Louis range determined our position, and
-the head of the <i>Nias</i> was immediately turned to the
-East. As we steamed along the coast the light grew
-stronger, and we saw in the far North-east pale clouds,
-which presently resolved themselves into ghostly-looking
-mountains one hundred miles away. Soon the rising
-sunlight touched them and we could clearly see white
-patches above the darker masses of rock and then we
-knew that these were the Snow Mountains of New
-Guinea, which we had come so far to see. Beyond an
-impression of their remoteness and their extraordinary
-steepness we did not learn much of the formation of
-the mountains from that great distance and they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span>
-quickly hidden from our view, as we afterwards found
-happened daily, by the dense white mists that rose from
-the intervening land.</p>
-
-<p>Following the coast rather more closely we soon
-found that our approach was causing some excitement
-on shore. White columns of the smoke of signal fires
-curled up from the low points of the land and canoes
-manned by black figures paddled furiously in our wake,
-while others, warned doubtless by the signals, put off
-from the land ahead of us and endeavoured to intercept
-us in our course.</p>
-
-<p>In some of the larger canoes there were as many
-as twenty men, and very fine indeed they looked standing
-up in the long narrow craft which they urged swiftly
-forward with powerful rhythmic strokes of their long-shafted
-paddles. At the beginning of each stroke the
-blade of the paddle is at right angles to the boat. As
-it is pulled backward the propelling surface of the
-paddle is a little rotated outward, a useful precaution,
-for the stroke ends with a sudden jerk as the paddle
-is lifted from the water and the consequent shower of
-spray is directed away from the canoe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p036.jpg" width="500" height="377" alt="Carved Wooden Clubs and Stone Clubs." />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">1. 2. 3. Carved Wooden Clubs.
-4-10. Stone Clubs.</span></p></div>
-
-<p>The shore was low and featureless, and it was
-impossible to identify the mouths of the rivers from
-the very inaccurate chart. It was not safe for the
-<i>Nias</i> to approach the land closely on account of the
-shoal water, so Capt. Van Herwerden dropped anchor
-when he had been steaming Eastwards for about eight
-hours, and sent the steam launch towards an inlet,
-where we could see huts, to gather information. A
-bar of sand prevented the launch from entering the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>
-inlet, so they hailed a canoe which ventured within
-speaking distance, and by repeating several times
-“Mimika,” the only word of their language that we
-knew at that time, learnt that we had overshot our
-destination by a few miles. That canoe, it should be
-noted, was remarkable on account of two of its crew.
-One of them held aloft an ancient Union Jack; the
-other was conspicuously different from the scores of
-men in the canoes about us, who were all frankly in a
-bare undress, by wearing an old white cotton jacket
-fastened by a brass button which was ornamented with
-the head of Queen Victoria. How the flag and the
-coat and the button came to that outlandish place will
-never be known, but it is certain that they must have
-passed through very many hands before they came there,
-for certainly no Englishman had ever been there before.</p>
-
-<p>When the launch returned to the ship a crowd of
-natives, fifty or sixty at the least, came clambering on
-board leaving only one or two men in each canoe to paddle
-after the steamer as we slowly returned towards the
-Mimika. Two men were recognised by Capt. Van
-Herwerden as having belonged to a party of natives
-from this coast, who had been taken some years earlier
-to Merauke, the Dutch settlement near the southernmost
-point of New Guinea. At Merauke they had
-got into mischief and had been put in prison from which
-nine of them escaped, and these two men, probably
-the only survivors of the party, had contrived to find
-their way along four hundred miles of coast, peopled
-by hostile tribes, back to their own country.</p>
-
-<p>The behaviour of our new fellow passengers was very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span>
-remarkable and different from what one expected,
-though it was obvious enough at the first glance that
-these were people totally different from the Malayan
-races both in appearance and demeanour; yet there
-was none of that exuberance of spirits, child-like curiosity
-and exhibition of merriment and delight in their novel
-surroundings described by Wallace<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> and Guillemard<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a>
-and which I had myself seen on the coast of German
-New Guinea. A few of them shook hands, or rather
-held hands, with us and talked loudly and volubly,
-while the rest stared dumbly at us and then wandered
-aimlessly about the ship seeking a chance to steal any
-loose piece of metal. They showed no fear nor did
-they betray any excitement nor any very keen curiosity
-about the marvellous things that they were seeing
-for the first time. They were quite unmoved by the
-spectacle of the windlass lifting up the anchor, and a
-casual glance down the skylight of the engine room
-was enough for most of them. They appeared to take
-everything for granted without question, and a stolid
-stare was their only recognition of the wonderful works
-of the white man’s civilisation. In one respect it is
-true they were not quite so apathetic and that was in
-their appetite for tobacco, which they begged from
-everyone on board, brown and white alike. When they
-had obtained a supply, they sat in groups about the
-deck and smoked as unconcernedly as though a passage
-in a steamship were an affair of every-day occurrence
-in their lives.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">MOUTH OF THE MIMIKA</div>
-
-<p>By the time that we eventually anchored off the
-mouth of the Mimika River it was beginning to grow
-dark, and Capt. Van Herwerden ordered the natives
-on board to leave the ship, not having noticed that the
-canoes had already departed towards the shore. No
-doubt this was a preconcerted scheme of the natives
-who wanted to stay on board, but by dint of much
-shouting two canoes were persuaded to return and take
-away some of our passengers. It was then quite dark
-and there was a white mist over the sea, and the spectacle
-of the procession of black figures passing down the
-gangway into an apparent abyss, for the canoes were
-invisible in the gloom, was singularly weird. There
-was not room for all in the canoes, so about a score of
-fortunate ones had to stop on board, where they slept
-in picturesque attitudes about the deck. Five young
-men chose a place where the iron cover of the steering
-chain made a pillow a few inches high; they lay on
-their sides all facing the same way, their arms folded
-across their chests and their bent knees fitting into the
-bend of the knees of the man in front, and so close
-together that the five of them occupied a space hardly
-more than five feet square.</p>
-
-<p>Soon after daylight on the following day the steam
-launch left the ship with a party to proceed up the
-Mimika and find a suitable place for a base-camp. The
-river has a fine wide mouth about a mile across guarded
-by a sand bar, through which runs a narrow channel
-navigable at all stages of the tide except during rough
-weather. For some distance the river is a noble stream
-two or three hundred yards wide winding in fine sweeps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span>
-between low mangrove-covered banks. About three
-miles from the sea the river divides into an East and
-West branch. The East branch, the Mimika proper,
-brings down not more than one-quarter of the volume
-of water of the West branch, of which it may be said
-to be a tributary. It is remarkable that the party who
-visited the Mimika in 1902 apparently overlooked the
-fact that the West branch is actually the main river.
-Above the junction of the two branches the water of
-the Mimika is of a brown chocolate colour which
-proclaims it, though we did not know it at the time,
-to be a mere jungle stream rising from comparatively
-low ground. The water of the West branch on the
-contrary is pale in colour and at times of flood almost
-milky-white, being charged with lime-stone from the
-high mountains where it rises.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">A WELCOME OF TEARS</div>
-
-<p>Proceeding for two or three miles up the Mimika,
-which had become above the junction a comparatively
-insignificant stream forty or fifty yards across
-and very tortuous, the exploring party in the steam
-launch arrived at the village of Wakatimi situated
-on the right bank of the river. The village was crowded
-with natives, numbering perhaps one thousand people,
-who gave the visitors a most remarkable reception.
-As soon as the boat appeared in sight the natives
-crowded down to the bank and shouted shrilly, men,
-women and children. When they came nearer the
-people threw themselves into the shallow water and
-many of them plastered themselves with mud, while
-the women performed their curious dance, if dance it
-can be called. It is not a concerted performance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span>
-but rather a <i>pas seul</i> executed by each woman independently
-of the others, and it is a peculiarly ungraceful
-exhibition. The body is bent forward from the
-hips, the hands rest on the knees or on the hips, and
-then with a shuffling movement of the feet the woman
-swings herself from side to side or up and down, always
-presenting her back and the narrow strip of barkcloth,
-which usually hangs down like a tail behind, to the
-astonished gaze of the spectator. She sings all the
-while a monotonous whining chant and occasionally
-looks back over her shoulder, as if to see that the
-onlooker is properly appreciative of her charms. Many
-of the people both men and women on this and other
-occasions of great excitement were so overcome with
-emotion that they actually shed tears of rapture.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a>
-For many days after this boats were constantly coming
-up the river from the ship, and they were always
-welcomed in a similar manner by the natives.</p>
-
-<p>The river was explored for a few miles further up,
-but the only suitable place for a camp was found to
-be on the left bank of the river immediately opposite
-to Wakatimi. Lieut. Cramer and a party of his
-soldiers established themselves there the same afternoon
-and the work of clearing the ground and landing
-the stores was immediately begun. The <i>Nias</i> was
-anchored about two miles outside the river and the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span>launch went very slowly when it had two or three
-heavily laden boats to tow against the strong current
-of the river, so the business of landing the expedition
-was a very slow one, and as there was at first but very
-little space for pitching tents on the camping ground
-some of us remained for a few days on board. During
-those days that were spent on the ship outside the
-Mimika we had opportunities in the early morning
-of getting a general idea of the broad features of the
-country.</p>
-
-<p>At the top of the white sandy beach was in most
-places a narrow belt of <i>Casuarina</i> trees, which are
-accustomed to grow on sandy or stony soil. They
-resemble pines and their pale stems have a fresh green
-foliage, which is a pleasing contrast to the dense
-monotonous green of the majority of the trees in the
-country. Behind the <i>Casuarina</i> belt dense jungle, for
-the first few miles consisting entirely of Mangroves and
-beyond that of various trees, extends with hardly any
-rise of altitude to the foot of the mountains thirty
-miles away. This last observation was one of supreme
-importance and it affected the whole prospect and
-conduct of the expedition. Those of us who had been
-to New Guinea before had been accustomed to seeing
-a steep shore rising very quickly to the hills. This
-is the usual formation along practically the whole of
-the North coast of the island, also along a considerable
-extent of the South-east coast and again on the West
-coast in the neighbourhood of MacCluer Gulf. It
-was known of course that the South coast on both
-sides of the mouth of the Fly River and about Prince<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span>
-Frederick Henry Island was low swampy country,
-but it was assumed that, considering the fact that the
-highest peaks of the Snow Mountains were known to
-be not more than seventy miles from the sea, the foothills
-would certainly extend to within a short distance
-of the coast.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">VIEW OF THE MOUNTAINS</div>
-
-<p>Before we had reached the country we had had
-the idea that in a few days’ march we should find ourselves
-in the hills at perhaps three or four thousand
-feet above the sea, but the view of the country which
-we saw from the <i>Nias</i> effectually put an end to any hopes
-of that kind. It is probable that more searching
-enquiries made at Batavia would have revealed the
-existence of this wide belt of low land, but it seldom
-occurs to you to question the truth of such an assumption.
-However that may be, a serious mistake was
-made and we paid for it dearly enough. The mountains
-appeared to rise very steeply from the low ground,
-and seen from a distance they appeared to be composed
-of parallel ridges lying one behind the other, each one
-successively higher than the one in front of it. It
-was only in certain lights, and more particularly when
-the clouds began to form on them, that you could
-distinguish deep and narrow valleys running into the
-mountains. The nearer ranges rose steeply enough,
-but were not too steep to be covered with dense forest
-easily discernible from a distance. The furthermost
-ridge on the other hand rose in huge precipices of bare
-rock, which showed reddish yellow in the morning
-sunlight with here and there downward stripes of
-black colour, presumably water, and in other places<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span>
-streaks of pure white rock. This precipice, of which
-more will be said later, grew smaller towards the West
-until it ended at the deep valley, which divides the
-Snow Mountains from the range of the Charles Louis
-Mountains.</p>
-
-<p>In the opposite direction towards the East the range
-rises gradually, until at a point about North-east from
-the Mimika three snow-capped tops are seen. I use
-the word “top” advisedly, for these three points are not
-peaks but are elevations on an otherwise fairly even
-mountain outline. The vertical extent of the snow
-is not very great, a few hundred feet at the most, the
-South face of the mountain being so steep that snow
-cannot lie on it save on the horizontal terraces of the
-strata, which could plainly be distinguished. Continuing
-the ridge East from the three snow tops (Mount
-Idenburg) is a long plain of almost level snow about
-three miles long. From the East end of the snow
-plain a ridge of shattered rock, looking like Dolomite
-towers from that great distance, forms a connection
-with Mount Carstensz, the highest point of the range.</p>
-
-<p>Seen from afar, Mount Carstensz appears to be of
-a different formation from the rest of the range. Mr.
-Dumas of the Dutch Expedition to the Utakwa River
-clearly identified masses of slate on the Southern face
-from a distance of twenty miles, and this would quite
-account for its different appearance. There are two
-principal tops, a Western black and irregular rock with
-scattered patches of snow, and an Eastern top more
-even in its outline and entirely covered with snow.
-Between the two a glacier of moderate size flows down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span>
-the South face of the mountain. Still further East
-from Mount Carstensz could be seen yet other ridges,
-apparently a continuation of the Carstensz ridge.
-Occasionally these were covered with snow in the early
-morning, but no other points of permanent snow could
-be seen from the Mimika, and indeed there is no other
-until Mount Wilhelmina is reached more than one
-hundred miles to the East. But studying the mountains
-with field glasses was an occupation which could only
-be pursued for a short time, for the clouds formed
-early on the ridges and by nine o’clock at the latest
-all the higher mountains were hidden from view.</p>
-
-<p>During the first two days that we lay off the Mimika
-we were visited by numbers of natives in canoes, who
-came some to trade and some merely to stare at the
-ship and the people on board. The articles that they
-brought for sale consisted chiefly of fish, coconuts and
-bananas of a very poor kind, though we afterwards
-came to regard these latter as a delicious luxury. They
-also brought a few young pigs, young cassowaries, and
-other birds and they received payment in beads, scraps
-of cloth, empty bottles and tins and pieces of metal.
-It is worth while to record, as showing the indolence
-of these people, that on the third day no natives came
-to visit us. Those who had before come to look at
-us had presumably satisfied their curiosity, while the
-others who had come to barter were content with the
-treasures they had won, although they might have
-added greatly to their wealth if they had had the energy
-to catch a few fish or pick a few more coconuts.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">FISHING FOR SHARKS</div>
-
-<p>Another occupation, which served to pass the time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span>
-was fishing for the sharks with which that shallow
-sea abounds. They are blunt-nosed animals with large
-dusky patches on the skin. It is very seldom that you
-see them at the surface of the water, and they appear
-to feed always at the bottom. The first that was
-caught was found to be full of fragments of large crabs.
-Nobody on board was found willing to eat the flesh,
-though it is probable that a few months afterwards
-they would have been less fastidious, so the fish was
-thrown overboard, and an hour or two later a second
-shark, a monster about twelve feet long, was hauled,
-on board, and on being opened it was found to be full
-of large undigested lumps of (presumably) the first.</p>
-
-<p>On January 8th those of us who had remained on
-the <i>Nias</i> left the ship and proceeded to Wakatimi,
-where we found that Lieut. Cramer and his men had
-already done an immense amount of work in clearing
-the ground for the camp. It appeared that the place
-chosen had been cleared of forest at some time, for
-there were no large trees growing on it, but it was
-covered with a dense jungle of shrubs and small trees,
-a foot or so in thickness and a tangle of creepers.
-Already in four days a strip along the river bank about
-eighty yards long and thirty yards wide had been
-cleared of bush, and as time went on the clearing was
-gradually extended until there were twenty acres or
-more of open ground about the camp.</p>
-
-<p>During the first two or three days the natives, who
-had assembled in large numbers at the village of Wakatimi,
-helped a good deal in clearing the ground and
-landing the stores. When the steam launch towing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span>
-the laden boats arrived at the camp they fell upon
-the boats in hordes and quickly carried everything
-up the steep mud bank, but this amusement palled
-upon them very soon, and they stood about doing nothing
-and hampered the men at their work of unpacking.
-Accordingly a stout wooden fence was built about the
-landward side of the camp and over this they were
-content to gaze from morning till night. They stood
-packed together five or six deep, and the press of those
-at the back trying to catch a glimpse of what was
-going on was so great that two or three times the
-fence fell bodily inwards, and with it a struggling mass
-of black humanity; but it was not many days before
-their curiosity was satisfied, and though they did not
-afford us very much assistance it was fortunate that
-they were not inclined to molest or interfere with us
-in any way.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">OUR FIRST LOSS</div>
-
-<p>We had only been in our camp at Wakatimi for
-one day and it already seemed as if the place was
-beginning to show some sign of order, when a melancholy
-tragedy threw a gloom over the spirits of the
-whole expedition. On the afternoon of January 9th
-Mr. Wilfred Stalker, who had had plenty of experience
-of tropical and Australian jungles, went out from the
-camp taking his collecting gun to shoot some birds.
-The usual daily rain began at about four o’clock, but
-as we were all busy with various occupations in our
-tents his absence was not noticed until after six o’clock,
-when it was already pitch dark and the rain was falling
-in torrents. Beyond the camp was dense jungle intersected
-by creeks and pools of water, difficult enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span>
-to traverse by day but absolutely impassable in darkness,
-so there was nothing to be done that night but
-to hope anxiously that Stalker’s bushcraft had prompted
-him to make a shelter of some kind, if disaster had
-not already overtaken him. At dawn Lieut. Cramer
-sent out parties of soldiers in all directions, and soon
-all of us, Europeans, Gurkhas, and native soldiers were
-out searching and shouting and firing shots. With
-some difficulty we explained to the natives what had
-happened, and we offered them large rewards if they
-were successful in finding him, and many of them
-joined with us; but though the ground was carefully
-quartered and the search was continued all that day
-and a part of the next not a trace of him was found
-anywhere, and it was evidently hopeless that he could
-ever be found alive. On the second day, when the search
-had been abandoned, the natives were convinced of his
-fate, and two of the more important people came over from
-the village and wailed loudly outside his empty tent.</p>
-
-<p>On January 12th all doubts as to his end were set
-at rest when a canoe manned by four Papuans, smeared
-with mud as their custom is in such circumstances,
-brought back his body from a creek about half a mile
-from the camp, where it had been found. Up to that
-moment there had been present in our minds the
-horrid suspicion that he might perhaps have fallen
-the victim to foul play. We thought that natives finding
-him wandering alone might have been tempted
-by his possessions and have murdered him, but it was
-evidently not so and we could only hope that by drowning
-death had come swiftly to him.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p048a.jpg" width="400" height="297" alt="CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT WAKATIMI." />
-<p class="caption">CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT WAKATIMI.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p048b.jpg" width="400" height="291" alt="A HOUSE FOR CEREMONIES, MIMIKA." />
-<p class="caption">A HOUSE FOR CEREMONIES, MIMIKA.</p></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">WILFRED STALKER</div>
-
-<p>We buried him under a tree about one hundred yards
-behind the camp, and in the absence of the leader of
-the expedition, who had gone away with Rawling and
-Cramer to reconnoitre the river above Wakatimi, I
-read the short burial service. Besides Marshall and
-Shortridge and myself there were a Dutch soldier, two
-convicts and about fifty Papuans, who stood quietly
-in a wide circle about the grave. I think the ninetieth
-psalm was never read to a more remarkable congregation.
-The grave was the first of the graves of many
-who left their bones in New Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>Wilfred Stalker was in his thirty-first year when
-he died. Previously he had spent many years as a
-naturalist in Australia and several months in New
-Guinea. Early in 1909 he returned to the East where
-he spent a part of his time in engaging coolies for the
-New Guinea Expedition, and he had time to make
-an interesting journey in the Island of Ceram, where
-he made a remarkable zoological collection. He joined
-us at Amboina on January 1st so that we had not time
-to know him well, but his unflagging energy in the
-preparations at the base-camp, where he landed with
-the first party, showed that he was a man whom the
-expedition could ill afford to lose.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Arrival of our Ambonese—Coolie Considerations—Canoes of the Natives—Making
-Canoes—Preliminary Exploration of the Mimika—Variable
-Tides—Completing the Camp—A Plague of Flies—Also
-of Crickets—Making “Atap”—Trading with the Natives—Trade
-Goods.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="sidenote">AMBONESE COOLIES</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">After</span> all the stores and equipment of the expedition
-had been landed at Wakatimi, an operation which
-took six days and some ten or more journeys of the
-steam launch towing many boats to accomplish, the
-<i>Nias</i> returned to Dobo, and brought back from there
-on the 14th January our Ambonese coolies, who had
-arrived there by mail steamer from Amboina. To
-those of us who had had experience of native carriers
-in other countries, the appearance of the ninety-six
-Ambonese came as something of a shock. When the
-boats crowded with them came within sight of the camp
-the natives cried out that our women were coming, and
-they might well be excused for their mistake. With
-their wide straw hats and coloured coats and shirts and
-gay <i>sarongs</i> they had not much the appearance of men,
-and we wondered what sort of people they would be
-to force a way through the trackless country. When
-they landed, our first impression of their unsuitableness
-was rather strengthened than otherwise. Every man
-(to give them a dignity which very few of them deserved)
-had a large wooden or tin box as well as a huge bundle
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span>of bedding and mats. Their average age appeared to
-be about sixteen years, and though they were said to
-be the best men obtainable in Amboina, the physique
-of most of them was wretched. It was evidently useless
-to keep so many feeble creatures, so it was decided
-to keep fifty of the more promising and send the rest
-back to Amboina by the <i>Nias</i>, which was waiting at
-the mouth of the Mimika until the following day. The
-whole gang was paraded and a more hopeless looking
-lot it would be hard to imagine. With great difficulty
-we picked out fifty who, though they had little appearance
-of strength, were not obviously crippled by disease,
-and the forty-six others were sent away without having
-done a single day’s work.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p050.jpg" width="400" height="651" alt="CANOE-MAKING: ROUGHLY SHAPING THE FELLED TREE." />
-<p class="caption">CANOE-MAKING: ROUGHLY SHAPING THE FELLED TREE.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">AMBONESE COOLIES</div>
-
-<p>The question of coolies, as we were to find by bitter
-experience during the ensuing months, is the point
-that determines the success or failure of an expedition.
-Mr. Stalker had left England charged with the duty
-of engaging coolies for this expedition. It was hoped
-that he would be able to get a number of men in the
-Ké Islands, but failing to engage them there he had
-seen in Amboina his only chance of recruiting a sufficient
-number of men. No blame can be attached to
-him, for he had had no experience of the kind before
-and his instructions were not very detailed, but it was
-a mistake which seriously delayed the progress of the
-expedition.</p>
-
-<p>As well as the trouble involved in trying to make
-a silk purse of efficient coolies out of the sow’s ear of
-the Amboina rabble we were confronted by another
-difficulty of transport. It has been mentioned above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span>
-(page 43) that before we arrived in the country it
-was expected that we should find rising ground close
-to the sea, and that in a few days’ journey at the most
-we should reach an altitude of three thousand feet or
-upwards, but the discovery that there was a tract of
-level country hardly above sea level extending from
-the coast to the foot of the mountains thirty miles
-inland entirely upset our calculations. Had we known
-this before we should necessarily have brought a launch
-and boats to tow our stores up the many miles of
-navigable river, and by so doing we should have saved
-ourselves many weeks of valuable time and an infinity
-of labour. It is worth while to record this fact, not
-for the object of drawing attention to any deficiencies
-in the organisation of the expedition, but to demonstrate
-the uselessness of entering an unknown country without
-having made a preliminary reconnaissance.</p>
-
-<p>An urgent message was despatched to the Navy
-Department in Java begging them to supply us with
-a steam launch at the earliest opportunity, but communications
-are slow in that part of the world, and it
-was not until ten weeks afterwards that the launch
-arrived at the Mimika. Its career was brief and inglorious.
-It made two or three journeys at snail’s
-pace up the river before it finally broke down altogether
-and was sent back to Java.</p>
-
-<p>In June we purchased from the pearlfishers at Dobo
-a petrol motor-boat, which made several successful
-trips up the river towing large quantities of stores, and
-then it was badly damaged by coming into violent
-contact with a sunken tree, and it was several months<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span>
-before it could be repaired sufficiently to float. Thus
-it happened that nearly all the river transport of the
-expedition was laboriously carried out in canoes.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE NATIVE CANOE</div>
-
-<p>The canoes used by the natives on the Mimika and
-neighbouring rivers are simple “dug-outs,” that is they
-are made from one tree trunk without any joinery at
-all. They vary considerably in size but the length
-of an average canoe is about thirty-five feet. The
-sides curve inward towards the gunwale so that in
-section the canoe forms a large segment of a circle.
-The breadth at the gunwale is about eighteen inches
-and the breadth at the widest part from eighteen to
-twenty-four inches. The gunwales are almost horizontal,
-though in some boats there is a considerable
-“sheer” towards the end of the canoe. They end in
-a square bow and at the stern they come together to
-a fine point. The bottom of a canoe—there is no keel—slopes
-finely up from the middle towards the ends
-so that when the canoe is afloat several feet of its length
-at bow and stern are out of water.</p>
-
-<p>The square bow of the canoe is carved in a more
-or less symmetrical fashion and there is usually a narrow
-margin of ornamental carving at intervals along the
-sides. A common feature of this carving, as also of
-the other native ornaments, is an object which is intended
-to represent the human eye. Occasionally
-they attach to the bow of the canoe, one on either
-side and one in the middle, three long boards carved
-in a sort of fretwork manner and painted red and white.
-These project about four feet in front of the bow and
-give it somewhat the appearance of a bird’s beak.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span>
-The inside of the canoe is sometimes whitened with
-lime or sago powder but is otherwise not ornamented.
-A few feet from the stern, where the bottom begins
-to slope upwards, a low partition of wood is left forming
-as it were a sort of bulkhead; the space behind
-this is filled with sand on which a fire is kept burning.</p>
-
-<p>Before we came to the country the whole business
-of canoe-making from the first felling of the tree to
-the final hollowing out of the inside was done with
-stone axes and the carving was done with sharpened
-shells, a labour which it is difficult to realise, so it is
-not surprising that the natives take very great care
-of their boats. They never allow water to stand in
-them for long, and at the end of a storm of rain the
-first thing they do is to go to the river and bail the
-water out of their canoes, which they do by scooping
-it out with the blade of a paddle. They also take good
-care of the outside and frequently char them with fire
-to kill the worms, which otherwise quickly destroy
-wood in brackish water.</p>
-
-<p>The tree most commonly used for making canoes
-is <i>Octomeles moluccana</i>, which has a smooth pale trunk
-devoid of branches for a long way above the ground.
-When they can do so they choose a tree growing close
-to the river bank, but this is not always possible and
-we found a place where a tree for a canoe had been
-felled fully three hundred yards from the water. The
-trunk is roughly shaped where it lies and is then hauled
-with immense toil over logs laid on a rough track to the
-river; thence it is towed to the village where the
-hollowing and shaping is done at leisure. We saw a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span>large number of canoes made at Parimau, and in nearly
-every case the balance was perfect when they were
-first put into the water.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p054.jpg" width="500" height="305" alt="CANOES, FINISHED AND UNFINISHED." />
-<p class="caption">CANOES, FINISHED AND UNFINISHED.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The canoes are usually propelled by paddles with
-long thin shafts and wide blades which are often beautifully
-carved, but in shallow places or rapid water
-the natives generally employ a long pole in the use of
-which they are very expert. It is easy enough to
-stand up and paddle or pole in large canoes, but the
-smaller craft are very top-heavy, and the natives perform
-wonderful feats of balancing in navigating them.
-Their education begins early for we saw in one of the
-villages small canoes three or four feet long, in which
-the children begin to learn the craft of the waterman
-almost before they have learned to walk.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">PURCHASING CANOES</div>
-
-<p>Though the people value their canoes very highly
-they were anxious enough to part with them in exchange
-for our knives and pieces of metal, of which they had
-none at all, and we very soon had a small fleet of canoes.
-The first two were bought for a knife apiece, but the price
-soon rose to an axe for a canoe, and in the course of
-several months it had still further risen to two axes
-or even two axes and a knife.</p>
-
-<p>Within a few days of the arrival of our coolies we
-had purchased half a dozen canoes and preparations
-were made to send an exploring party up the river.
-At that time we were none of us skilful canoe-men and
-it was considered safer to use the canoes as rafts by
-lashing two side by side and securing a platform of
-bamboos across the top. This was a most cumbrous
-arrangement which added enormously to the labour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span>
-of paddling, and after the first journey it was never
-repeated.</p>
-
-<p>On the 18th January, Goodfellow, Rawling, and
-Shortridge with twenty-four coolies, six Gurkhas, and
-a small party of Javanese soldiers in the charge of a
-Dutch sergeant started up the river. They took with
-them about a dozen natives, hoping that they would
-work hard at paddling and would be useful in other
-ways, but they were a perpetual nuisance calling out
-for their wives and wanting to stop to eat or sleep; they
-finished by stealing one of the canoes and deserting
-the night before they would have been sent back to
-their homes. With them went another of our cherished
-illusions that we should be able to get a great deal of
-assistance from the natives of the country. The party
-proceeded up the river at an incredibly slow rate on
-account of the clumsy rafts, and for four days saw no
-signs of inhabitants. On the fifth day they found one
-isolated hut, and two days later after passing a few
-scattered huts they arrived at the village of Parimau,
-above which place the river appeared to be hardly
-navigable.</p>
-
-<p>The welcome accorded to the party by the natives
-of Parimau was as enthusiastic as that at Wakatimi
-described above, the people showing their delight by
-smearing themselves with mud and shedding copious
-tears. During the following days, when a camp was
-being made, hundreds of natives flocked into the place
-to see the strange white men, who were exhibited to
-the new-comers with a sort of proprietary air by the
-natives of Parimau.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">TIDES OF THE RIVER</div>
-
-<p>In the meantime a great deal of work was necessary
-to put in order the base-camp at Wakatimi, and to
-render it secure against an attack, should the natives
-ever alter their friendly attitude towards us. The
-bush was completely cleared for some distance and
-a stout fence built about the camp. Then it was found
-that at high tide, and especially at spring tide, a large
-part of the camp was flooded and this necessitated a
-great amount of levelling and trenching and banking,
-a task which appealed to the fenland instinct of Cramer.
-The tide made itself felt in the river for several miles
-above Wakatimi, where there was a rise and fall of
-about ten feet, but the exact tidal movements were
-very difficult to recognise. On some days two tides
-were distinctly seen, while on many others there
-appeared to be only one. Their movements were further
-complicated by the very variable amount of water
-brought down by the river. Sometimes the river was
-almost stagnant, but at other times it swept down
-bank-high with a strong current for days at a time,
-and no flow of the tide could be noticed. The river
-Watuka, which joins the Mimika a few miles below
-Wakatimi, had a much greater volume of water than
-the latter river, and often when the tide was rising its
-waters were easily recognisable by their white colour
-floating up past the camp and holding back the waters
-of the Mimika in the same way that the Blue Nile,
-when it is in flood, forms a pond of the White Nile.</p>
-
-<p>It was unfortunate that no suitable place for the
-base-camp could be found above the tidal water, because
-it increased the difficulty of supplying the camp with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span>
-drinking water, and at times when there was not much
-fresh water coming down the river the ebb and flow
-of the tide washed the refuse backwards and forwards
-in front of the camp. Water was boiled and filtered
-every day in quantities large enough for every man
-in the camp to have as much as he wished, but the
-value of this precaution was to a large extent neutralised
-by the Malay habit of washing out the mouth with the
-water in which the man bathes.</p>
-
-<p>A wooden landing stage for canoes was built out
-over the muddy bank, and a bathing place was cut off
-from the river by a wooden fence to protect bathers
-from crocodiles and sharks, both of which were occasionally
-seen, but as the natives bathed constantly
-without showing any fear of either animal the precaution
-was perhaps needless.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">FLIES AND CRICKETS</div>
-
-<p>At that time when the ground was being cleared
-we began to be plagued by large blue-bottle flies, which
-swarmed about the camp and laid their eggs everywhere.
-One of their favourite laying grounds was
-in our bedding, which in a hot damp climate must
-always be hung out to air when the sun shines. You
-would find two folds of your blanket stuck together
-with horrible masses of eggs and if, as sometimes happened,
-you did not scrape them all away you would
-wake up at night and find yourself crawling with
-maggots. There are some people who are afraid of
-spiders, but the most timorous of mortals must find
-the homely spider preferable to the loathsome blow
-fly. The house where we mostly lived at Wakatimi
-and where we had our meals was immediately filled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span>
-with blue-bottles the moment our food was brought
-in, so we encouraged the larger sort of spider to live
-there and one old fellow who lived under the corner
-of the table used to come out at meal times and take
-his toll of flies, and in the course of time he became so
-tame that he would take a living fly out of your fingers.</p>
-
-<p>At the same time, and indeed during the whole
-of our stay in the country, we were greatly annoyed
-by the depredations of very large crickets. Not content
-with making a most distracting noise by night these
-horrible creatures did endless damage to our eatable
-possessions. They invaded the sacks in which we kept
-our scanty garments, socks, vests and the like, and
-riddled them into holes, and they appeared to have a
-special partiality for sponges and brushes, which they
-devoured completely. Even more serious were their
-attacks on folded tents or sacks of rice and flour, which
-had to be constantly taken out of the store houses and
-repaired. When these things were taken out of the
-house a large number of crickets were taken out too,
-and then was the chance for the Kingfishers (<i>Halcyon
-sanctus</i>) which darted down and snapped them up. A
-pair of these beautiful little birds haunted the camp
-and became so tame that they would fly down from
-the roof of a house and pick up a cricket within a foot
-or two of a man.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">BUILDING MATERIAL</div>
-
-<p>When the ground had been well cleared and levelled,
-we set about the business of building barracks for the
-men and store houses for the provisions and equipment.
-The Dutch contingent had brought with them regulation
-army barrack frames, pieces of seasoned wood of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span>
-definite lengths which are fitted together by bolts and
-screws, and form the skeleton of excellent houses. We
-had nothing of the kind, but the jungle supplied plenty
-of wood and our houses, though less regular than those
-of the Dutch, were very soon built. It is easy enough
-to put up the framework of a house in a place where
-there is plenty of timber, but the walls and the roof
-are a more difficult matter. Fortunately the natives
-were adepts in the art of making “atap,” which they
-use for roofing their own huts, and they were soon
-eagerly making it for us in exchange for our trade
-goods.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p060.jpg" width="400" height="562" alt="MAKING 'ATAP' FOR ROOFING." />
-<p class="caption">MAKING “ATAP” FOR ROOFING.</p></div>
-
-<p>The best “atap” is made from the leaves of the
-Nipa palm (<i>Nipa fruticans</i>) which grows abundantly
-in the swampy country. Almost equally good “atap”
-can be made from the Sago palm, but the leaves of
-the Coconut palm shrivel quickly and are of no use for
-the purpose. The method of the manufacture of
-“atap” is briefly as follows: Leaflets of the palm are
-stripped from the stem, which is then split into three
-or four sticks of about an inch and a half in diameter
-and five or six feet in length. The man begins by
-taking up a leaf and folding it in the middle, thus breaking
-the mid-rib of the leaf. He then frees the mid-rib
-from the surrounding leaf for a short distance and
-breaks off a piece about three inches long for use presently.
-Then holding the stick near the end he pushes
-the free end of the mid-rib, which is separated from
-the leaf, into the soft substance of the stick and folds
-the leaf once round the stick in such a way that its
-two free ends lie one upon the other. He then clips
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span>together the free ends with the short piece he had
-broken from the mid-rib. He then repeats the process
-with another leaf, making each one slightly overlap
-the last, until the stick is completely covered with
-folded leaves. It should be said that each leaf is about
-three inches wide and four feet long so that the free
-ends, when the leaf is folded, lie about two feet from
-the stick. “Atap” is always made by the men, never
-by the women, and a quick worker will make a complete
-piece in about ten minutes.</p>
-
-<p>The method of roofing with “atap” is very simple.
-Pieces are fixed by strands of rattan to the timbers
-of the roofing beginning from below and overlapping
-each other like tiles. The stick end of the “atap” is
-uppermost and the free ends point downwards. When
-there is no lack of “atap” and the pieces can be laid
-on the roof very closely together it forms a most efficient
-thatch, which keeps the house tolerably cool in the
-hot weather and is impervious to the heaviest downfall
-of rain.</p>
-
-<p>The demand for “atap” started our regular trade
-with the natives, it brought us into friendly relations
-with them and they soon discovered that they could
-put confidence in us. When they found that we really
-paid them, as we promised, in beads and cloth, there
-was keen competition in the “atap” trade and they
-brought us as much as we wanted. For a few pieces
-only they received beads, while for ten pieces and
-upwards we paid them in cloth and they adopted various
-tricks to obtain cloth, when they knew that the amount
-they brought was only worth beads. One of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span>
-dodges was to bring old pieces of “atap” from their
-own houses to increase the size of the pile, and sometimes
-a man would steal two or three pieces from the pile
-of another man who had already been paid, but they
-were always found out and were not in the least ashamed
-of themselves. It was important to keep the price
-low, because we very well knew that when the people
-had obtained as much cloth and as many beads as they
-wanted they would never do any more work, and that
-did occur after a few months. They greatly enjoyed
-a little foolery. For instance, when you were paying
-them in cloth it was much more appreciated if you
-wound it artistically about the recipient’s head than
-if you merely thrust it into his hands; and in paying
-a man in beads it was thought a great joke if you let
-them slowly trickle into his palm out of your closed
-fist. His smile would grow with the pile of beads in
-his hand, and he always hoped to find some more
-concealed between your fingers.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to “atap” they also brought other
-things for trade, sometimes fish from the sea which
-were generally uneatable, and sometimes delicious prawns
-six or eight inches long from the river estuary. There
-was a constant trade in coconuts which grew in some
-numbers about Wakatimi, and occasionally we bought
-a bunch of bananas. Living birds of many kinds,
-cassowaries, pigeons, kingfishers, lories and parrots were
-often brought for sale, but the poor creatures were
-generally taken straight from the nest, and the soldiers
-and coolies who bought them quickly stuffed them
-to death with rice. Some of the lories throve and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span>
-became tame enough to fly about at liberty, and the
-cassowaries became quite a pest in the camp.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">TRADING WITH THE NATIVES</div>
-
-<p>So keen did the people become on trading that they
-would barter all their worldly possessions for European
-goods. Stone clubs and axes, bows and arrows, spears
-and drums, the skulls of their forebears, indeed all
-their moveable goods were brought to us for exchange.
-It may sound rather a mean transaction to buy from
-a Papuan a stone axe, which has probably been in
-his family for generations, for a small knife or coloured
-handkerchief, but he was always delighted with the
-exchange and when both parties to it are satisfied a
-bargain may be considered a just one.</p>
-
-<p>Our trade goods consisted mostly of coloured beads,
-red cloth, knives of various sizes, and axes. Of these
-the red cloth was by far the most useful and the most
-sought after. The Dutch had cloth of various shades
-and patterns, but the natives, with a true eye for colour,
-knew that our red stuff suited their dark skins better
-than any shade of green or blue. The axes were given
-in exchange for canoes, and knives were mostly used
-to pay the men who carried for us in the interior.
-Fish hooks were greatly appreciated by the natives of
-the coast villages, but the Jews’ harps of which we had
-a large quantity, though they are greatly in demand
-among the Papuans of British New Guinea and in some
-of the Pacific Islands, were of no use to us for trade,
-and the few we gave away were used either as ornaments
-round the neck or as ear-rings. There was
-always a great demand for cast-off clothing, but a Papuan
-wearing a pair of tattered trousers or a fragment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span>
-a shirt was so unpleasant to look at and he generally
-became so demoralised in character, that we made it
-a rule not to give them any of our rags. Empty bottles
-were of course greatly sought after and the many
-thousands of tins which we emptied during the course
-of the expedition were wealth untold to a people, who
-up to that time had possessed no sort of vessel.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p064.jpg" width="500" height="309" alt="PAPUAN WOMAN CANOEING UP THE MIMIKA." />
-<p class="caption">PAPUAN WOMAN CANOEING UP THE MIMIKA.<br />
-(<i>Smoke is seen from the fire in the stern.</i>)</p></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Difficulties of Food—Coolies’ Rations—Choice of Provisions—Transporting
-Supplies up the Mimika—Description of the River—A
-Day’s Work—Monotonous Scenery—Crowned Pigeons—Birds of
-Paradise and Others—Snakes, Bees and other Creatures—Rapids
-and Clear Water—The Seasons—Wind—Rain—Thunderstorms—Halley’s
-Comet.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the principal obstacles in the way of successful
-exploration in Dutch New Guinea is the lack of food
-in the country itself. It is true that in the low-lying
-swampy districts near the coast there are plenty of
-Sago-palms, but the majority of Malays are not sago
-eaters except under compulsion, and the preparation
-of sago to make it only tolerably palatable is a tedious
-business. Moreover the first object of an expedition
-to the mountains is to leave the swamps behind as
-soon as possible. So it follows that every scrap of
-food, for the coolies as well as for the Europeans, has
-to be brought into the country from outside, and it
-will be evident that, when the means of transport are
-distressingly slow, the provisions must diminish considerably
-in quantity as they are carried towards the
-interior.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">SUPPLIES</div>
-
-<p>The mainstay of the food of Malay coolies and
-soldiers is rice, of which the daily ration is one <i>katti</i>
-(1-1/3 pounds); to this is added about a quarter of a
-pound of dried meat or dried fish. Once or twice a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span>
-week the rice was replaced by <i>kachang ijau</i>, a small
-round green bean, which is supposed to be of use in
-preventing the onset of beri-beri, though it is very
-doubtful whether this is the case; the beans are
-boiled and are eaten either with salt or with brown
-Javanese sugar. A full ration for a coolie also includes
-tea, coffee, salt and chillies. When it is remembered
-that the numbers of the expedition were never less than
-one hundred and twenty and were often more than
-one hundred and sixty, and since it was considered
-advisable always to have a supply for several
-months in advance in the eventuality of communication
-with Amboina becoming impossible, it can be
-imagined that the amount of stores necessary for the
-whole party was no small thing. The management
-of the stores of Cramer’s party alone, of which
-every detail had to be accounted for to the Government,
-occupied the full time of a Dutch sergeant and a
-native clerk.</p>
-
-<p>Not only was a great deal of labour involved in
-dealing with such an immense bulk of stores, but there
-was considerable difficulty in preserving them from
-the ill effects of the climate. Our first consignment of
-rice arrived in sacks, and the futility of that method
-of packing was apparent, when a great quantity of it
-was spoilt by a shower of rain between the steamer and
-the base-camp. The next lot was packed in tins with
-lids; when these were turned upside down the rice
-trickled out or water trickled in, and again a large
-quantity was lost or spoilt. After that it was put into
-tins of which the tops were soldered down, but even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span>
-that was not quite successful, for it often happened
-that a pin-hole was left unsoldered, through which
-moisture would eventually find its way and the rice
-be spoilt.</p>
-
-<p>Even more difficult than the rice to keep dry were
-the dried fish and dried meat, which were sent to us
-packed in wooden boxes; the stuff quickly became
-sodden from the moisture-laden atmosphere, and although
-we kept coolies constantly employed in drying it in
-the sun, an enormous amount of it became rotten and
-was thrown away. The only effectual method of preserving
-the dried meat and fish is to seal it up like
-the rice in soldered tins. The tin always used for this
-purpose is the rectangular tin in which kerosene oil
-is imported to the East; filled with rice it weighs about
-forty pounds.</p>
-
-<p>In writing the history of this expedition I should
-not be honest if I were to refrain from mentioning the
-fact that some of our own stores were, to say the least,
-ill-chosen. It appeared that a large quantity of stores
-had been bought from the Shackleton Expedition,
-which had returned from the Antarctic a few months
-before we left England. However suitable those provisions
-may have been for a Polar expedition, they were
-not the sort of thing one would have chosen for a
-journey in the Tropics. For instance, large tins of
-“bully-beef” are excellent in a cold climate, but when
-you open them near the Equator you find that they
-consist of pallid lumps of pink flesh swimming in a
-nasty gravy. Pea-soup and pea-flour, of which we
-had nearly four hundred pounds’ weight, strike terror<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span>
-into the stoutest heart, when the temperature is 86°
-in the shade. Pickles are all very well in their way
-for those that like them, but one hundred and sixty
-bottles was more than a generous allowance. <i>Punch</i>,
-in commenting on a newspaper misprint which stated
-that “the British Ornithologists Union Expedition
-to Papua was joined at Singapore by ten pickled
-Gurkhas,” suggested that it was “no doubt a misprint
-for gherkins.” We were glad that Mr. Punch
-was mistaken and that we had not increased our store
-of pickles at Singapore.</p>
-
-<p>The packing was almost as remarkable as the choice
-of the stores themselves: they were secured in strong
-packing cases of large and variable size fastened with
-bands of iron and an incredible number of nails, suitable
-enough to withstand the banging of Polar storms,
-but not well adapted to their present purpose. The
-boxes were all too big for convenient transport, and
-as each one was filled with food of one kind only every
-box had to be opened at once and a selection made
-from them.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">SUPPLIES</div>
-
-<p>Here it must be said that, in response to our comments
-on the stores and the packing, the Committee
-sent out to us an excellent supply of provisions from
-Messrs. Fortnum and Mason, properly packed in light
-“Vanesta” cases. These reached us at the end of
-August and during the rest of our stay in the country
-we fared well.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p068.jpg" width="400" height="457" alt="JANGBIR AND HERKAJIT, GURKHAS." />
-<p class="caption">JANGBIR AND HERKAJIT, GURKHAS.</p></div>
-
-<p>We took with us a small supply of whisky and brandy,
-which was often acceptable, and I believe that in an
-excessively damp climate a small quantity of alcohol
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span>may be beneficial. The Dutch took with them dry
-Hollands gin, which is drunk with a small quantity of
-bitters before dinner; it certainly has the effect of
-coaxing your appetite for tinned foods, all of which,
-when you have lived on them for a few months, have
-the same dull taste.</p>
-
-<p>It may be thought that the above discourse on the
-subject of food is unduly long, but I shall make no
-apology for it, because equally with the question of
-transport the question of food is of paramount importance.
-The recital of some of the mistakes that
-we made may serve as a warning to others, who wish
-to visit a similar district. In countries like Africa
-and many parts of Asia, where the people cultivate the
-soil and where there are numbers of game animals,
-you may always look forward to varying your fare
-with some fresh food, either animal or vegetable; but
-when you go to New Guinea you must be prepared to
-live wholly on dried and tinned foods, and that is
-only possible when they are varied and of the best
-manufacture.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE MIMIKA RIVER</div>
-
-<p>During the first months of our stay in New Guinea
-most of the energies of the expedition were spent in
-transporting supplies from the base-camp at Wakatimi
-to the camp at Parimau up the Mimika River. And
-indeed it may be said that this was one of the principal
-occupations of the expedition from beginning to end;
-for our coolies were very soon worn out by sickness
-and the unaccustomed labour, so that they had to be
-sent back to their homes, and by the time that a fresh
-batch of coolies arrived in the country the store of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span>
-provisions at Parimau was exhausted and the process
-of taking up a fresh supply had to be begun again.</p>
-
-<p>It was not until our third batch of coolies came
-at the end of December, that we were able to accumulate
-enough stores at Parimau to serve as a base for
-a moderately long expedition from that place. Before
-that time it had never been possible to make a longer
-march than three days from Parimau, and there had
-been long periods when from lack of coolies everything
-had been at a standstill. Those times were of course
-excessively trying both to the health and to the tempers
-of the members of the expedition. It was irksome
-beyond words to see day after day the mountains in
-the distance and to be unable to move a step nearer
-to them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p070.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="HAULING CANOES UP THE MIMIKA." />
-<p class="caption">HAULING CANOES UP THE MIMIKA.</p></div>
-
-<p>The distance from Wakatimi to Parimau, though
-only twenty-two miles as the crow flies, was about
-forty miles by water, and it took from five to seven
-days, according to the state of the river, to accomplish
-the journey in canoes. While the coolies were still
-comparatively fresh, we sometimes sent off as many
-as six canoes at a time from Wakatimi to Parimau,
-but with sickness and fatigue their numbers quickly
-diminished and two or three canoes laden with stores,
-accompanied by one “escort” canoe manned by
-Javanese soldiers and convicts, was the size of the
-usual river “transport.” The larger canoes were paddled
-by five or six and the smaller by four men; the average
-load carried by one canoe was about eight hundred
-pounds’ weight, of which a considerable amount was
-consumed on the journey. The men were given one
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>day’s rest at Parimau, they came down the river in
-two days and rested for two days at Wakatimi before
-starting up the river again. One of us accompanied
-them on nearly every journey with a view to preventing
-the men from lingering too many days on the voyage
-and partly as a protection from the natives, who paid
-great respect to us but were inclined to behave rudely to
-the coolies, if they were not accompanied by an European.</p>
-
-<p>Those days of canoeing up the Mimika River were
-some of the most monotonous of my life and I shall
-never forget them. For the first few miles above
-Wakatimi the river is about as wide as the Thames
-at Windsor, the banks are covered with smallish trees
-with here and there clumps of palm trees, from which
-fresh young coconuts may be gathered. Occasionally
-the rising tide helps you on your way, and if you are
-particularly fortunate you may even see at the end
-of a straight reach of the river a glimpse of the distant
-mountains. But very soon the river narrows to half
-its width, the huge trees of the regular New Guinea
-jungle shut out all except a narrow strip of sky, and
-the river twists and meanders towards all the points
-of the compass, until you wonder whether it will not
-eventually bring you back to the point whence you
-started. There was one bend of the river which was
-particularly remarkable; it made an almost complete
-circle of about a mile and a half in circumference, ending
-at a point exactly forty yards distant from its commencement,
-so that by landing and walking across a
-narrow neck you could wait for more than half an hour
-for the canoes to overtake you.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The rate of travel varied with the efficiency of the
-coolies and according to the strength of the current
-in the river, which was sometimes very sluggish, and
-at other times came swirling down at three or four
-miles an hour. We cleared camping places at various
-points along the river, and, if the pace was good, the
-average stage was about six hours, though it often
-took ten or even twelve hours when the river was in
-flood. The pleasantest camping places were on mudbanks,
-where the coolies could bathe and pitch their
-tents without trouble, but they were very liable to be
-flooded by a sudden rise of the river during the night,
-and we generally had our own tents pitched on a space
-cleared in the jungle at the top of a steep bank.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">CANOEING UP THE MIMIKA</div>
-
-<p>It will be convenient to describe a day’s voyage
-up the Mimika by taking an extract from my diary:—</p>
-
-<p class="p padl2">“May 13. The monotony of the river is beyond
-words, and one day is almost exactly like another.
-I get up at six o’clock and breakfast off cocoa
-and biscuits and butter, whilst the camp is coming
-down, <i>i.e.</i> tents, etc., being packed. Spend the
-next hour or rather more in hurrying on the
-coolies with their food, which they ought always
-to begin to cook half an hour earlier than they
-do. See everything put into the canoes and
-then start with the last. After that anything
-from five to twelve hours’ sitting on a damp tent
-with one’s feet in more or less (according to the
-weather) water swishing from side to side of
-the canoe. Sometimes I paddle, but not so much
-now as I did the first time I came up the river,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span>not from laziness but because the irregular time
-is so horribly irritating. If the coolies would
-only paddle lazily but regularly all would be
-well, but they will not; they paddle all together
-furiously for perhaps twenty or thirty strokes
-and then vary between a haphazard rag-time
-and doing nothing at all.</p>
-
-<p class="p padl2">“Most of the time I watch the banks go by
-and wonder how long it will take us to get to
-the end of this reach, which bears a remarkable
-resemblance to the last and to the next. The
-jungle is as ugly as it can be, rank undergrowth,
-trailing rattans and scraggy rotting trees. In
-forty miles I do not think there are half a dozen
-big trees worth looking at. Very occasionally
-you see a flowering creeper, one with clusters of
-white flowers is here and there, and I have seen
-a few of the gorgeous flaming D’Albertis creeper
-(<i>Mucuna pruriens</i>). Butterflies are seldom seen
-and birds one hardly hears at all. The banks
-are steep slimy brown mud, littered with the
-trunks and limbs of rotten trees, which also
-stick up all over the river like horrid muddy
-bones.</p>
-
-<p class="p padl2">“Altogether it is as gloomy and depressing as
-it can be, there is no view, not even a glimpse
-to shew that we are getting near a mountain
-range. In the midst of all this it generally rains
-hard and you arrive in camp soaking wet. Then
-see everything taken out of the canoes, tents
-pitched, canoes securely moored, food given out
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span>to the coolies, and by that time it is well on into
-the afternoon. Wet wood is somehow coaxed
-into boiling a kettle and I get a cup of tea, very
-good. At six o’clock the meal of the day, rice
-or a tin, but one eats very little on these journeys.
-After dinner a book and tobacco and to bed about
-nine o’clock, or earlier if the mosquitoes are
-troublesome. It does not compare favourably
-with being ‘on safari’ in Africa, and I frequently
-wish myself back on one of those interminable
-roads which I have so often cursed.”</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">BIRDS</div>
-
-<p>But it must not be supposed that there were not
-occasional pleasant moments, which to some extent
-were compensation for the monotony of those days.
-Sometimes you saw a Crowned Pigeon (<i>Goura sclateri</i>)
-by the water’s edge, and by paddling quietly you could
-approach within a few yards before it flew lazily across
-the river and alighted on a low branch. The Crowned
-Pigeon is one of the handsomest of New Guinea birds;
-it is as big as a large domestic fowl, of an uniform mauve
-grey colour with a large white patch on the wings, and
-on its head is a crest of delicate grey plumes, which it
-opens and shuts like a fan. These birds feed mostly
-on fruits, but they also eat small molluscs and crabs,
-which they pick up on the river bank. As they were
-almost the only eatable birds in the country, we killed
-a good many of them, but their numbers appeared to
-be in no way diminished when we left the country;
-the flesh is white and excessively dry.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p074.jpg" width="400" height="655" alt="A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA WITH CLOSELY PLAITED HAIR." />
-<p class="caption">A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA WITH CLOSELY PLAITED HAIR.</p></div>
-
-<p>The little red King Bird of Paradise (<i>Cicinnurus
-regius</i>) is heard calling everywhere, and from the upper
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span>waters of the river you hear the harsh cry of the Greater
-Bird of Paradise (<i>Paradisea novae guineae</i>), but both
-of these are birds of the dense forest and I do not
-remember ever having seen one from the river.</p>
-
-<p>Green and red Eclectus Parrots (<i>Eclectus pectoralis</i>)
-and white Lemon-crested Cockatoos are fairly numerous
-and their harsh screams, though sufficiently unpleasing
-are a welcome interruption of the prevailing
-silence.</p>
-
-<p>Lories were not often seen on the river journeys,
-but they were extremely common near Wakatimi, where
-a certain clump of trees was used by them as a regular
-roosting-place. For an hour or more before sunset
-countless hundreds of Lories (<i>Eos fuscata</i>) flew in flocks
-from all directions towards the roosting-trees, chattering
-loudly as they flew and even louder after they had
-perched. Often a branch would give way under the
-living weight and then the whole throng would rise
-in the air again and circle round and round before they
-alighted once more and the shouting and chattering
-continued until it was dark.</p>
-
-<p>Crocodiles were very seldom seen, but Iguanas of
-two or three feet in length were often seen sunning
-themselves on a log or a stump, from which they would
-splash hurriedly into the water as the canoes approached.
-Several times at night I heard a splash as loud as the
-plunge of a man into water, but I could never discover
-what was the animal that caused it; there may yet
-possibly be some large unknown reptile in the river.
-Snakes were sometimes seen curled up in the overhanging
-vegetation and very commonly they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span>
-found swimming in the water; one day I counted eleven
-small harmless snakes swimming within half a mile of
-the same place.</p>
-
-<p>On many days during the months of May and June
-the river swarmed with large bright yellow flies very
-similar to, but about twice the size of, the Green Drake
-of the fly-fisher. They hatched out about mid-day
-and took longer or shorter flights over the water, rising
-from it and alighting again like miniature aeroplanes.
-Many of them fell a prey to swallows and bee-eaters
-and other insect-eating birds, while the rest were quickly
-drowned, and I have seen long stretches of the river
-completely covered by the dead insects.</p>
-
-<p>At some of the camps on the river and elsewhere
-we were a good deal bothered by small bees, the Stingless
-Honey-bee (<i>Melipona praeterita</i>). These annoying
-little creatures—they are about half the size of the
-common house-fly—buzzed about you in swarms and
-strove most persistently to settle on any exposed part
-of your body in pursuit of the sweat, which is never
-absent from you in those places. No matter how you
-beat about and killed them they were back again immediately
-and once, while writing, I kept my hands
-quite still on the book and in a few moments I counted
-forty-six on my two hands before their crawling became
-unbearable. They have a disagreeably sticky feeling
-as they crawl over you and your hands, when you have
-squashed a number of them, become sticky too.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">NIGHT ON THE RIVER</div>
-
-<p>At night, when the rain was not drumming ceaselessly
-on the roof of the tent, the silence was broken
-now and then by the grating call of a Brush Turkey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span>
-(<i>Talegallus fuscirostris</i>)<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a>; or a flock of Pale Crows
-(<i>Gymnocorax senex</i>), which are curiously nocturnal in
-their habits, would fly over the camp cawing like muffled
-rooks. Lizards and frogs uttered all sorts of strange
-cries and whistles, and the mournful unbirdlike note
-of the Frogmouth (<i>Podargus papuensis</i>) was heard on
-every side.</p>
-
-<p>Sometimes, even when there was no wind stirring,
-you would hear at night a noise like thunder as some
-great tree went crashing down. Most of the trees in
-the jungle do not attain a very great girth, but they
-grow up very rapidly to reach the light and in their
-upper branches there is soon accumulated a dense mass
-of climbers and parasitic plants, which in the course
-of time become too heavy for the tree and cause it
-to collapse. The floor of the jungle is strewn with the
-limbs and trunks of fallen trees and the smell of rotting
-wood is everywhere.</p>
-
-<p>The last, usually the fifth, day of the journey up
-the river was always pleasant, partly because one knew
-that there were only a few more hours of the tedious
-voyage, and partly because the scenery was beginning
-to change. Beautiful Tree-ferns appeared upon the
-banks and the soil, firmer than in the swampy lands
-near the coast, supported trees of finer growth. Scattered
-pebbles and then banks of clean sand and shingle began
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span>to take the place of the hideous mud of the lower river,
-and after spending, as frequently happened, many
-weeks at Wakatimi, where the smallest pebble would
-have been an object of wonder, it was a peculiar pleasure
-to feel the grit of stones under your feet again. At
-the same time the cocoa-brown water became clear
-and sparkling and one drank it for the very pleasure
-of drinking. Going further we came to rapids, where
-the river ran over stones, or piled-up barriers of fallen
-trees. Passages were cut through many of these
-obstacles, but every succeeding flood brought down
-more trees and new barriers were formed.</p>
-
-<p>When the river was low, the last four miles to
-Parimau were covered by wading and hauling the canoes
-over or under the great logs. Every man had to get
-out of the canoe and do his share of the work, and
-sometimes we had to take the cargo out as well, when
-the canoe had to be dragged over a particularly high
-obstacle. When the river was in flood, the last day’s
-journey was the most arduous of all, and it sometimes
-took twelve or fourteen hours’ hard labour to accomplish it.
-The water was then too deep for poling, and
-the current was so swift that vigorous paddling hardly
-did more than prevent the canoe from following the
-stream, and it was only by dodging from one side of
-the river to the other and by hauling on overhanging
-branches that progress was made.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p078.jpg" width="500" height="707" alt="Head-dresses" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Head-dresses made of plaited fibres, worn at festivals and
-ceremonies. 1. is ornamented with tufts of plumes of the
-Greater Bird of Paradise.</span></p></div>
-
-<p>Considering the want of skill of the coolies and
-the great number of journeys that were made up and
-down the river, it was wonderful that no accidents of
-any consequence occurred. It is true that a good
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span>many canoes capsized—I think all of us had at least
-one involuntary ducking—but a well-laden canoe is
-comparatively steady, and most of the upsets happened
-to empty canoes going down the river and nothing
-was lost but coolies’ scanty baggage, which was
-easily replaced. The Javanese coolies of the escort,
-who were even less skilled watermen than ours, suffered
-rather more accidents, but one boat-load of provisions
-and two rifles were the total of their losses.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE LONG WET SEASON</div>
-
-<p>There were periods, lasting for several weeks, when
-the river was almost continually in flood, and there
-were other, but always shorter, periods when the
-river was low; but though we spent fifteen months in
-New Guinea the time was not long enough to determine
-at all accurately the limits of the seasons, for the first
-three months of 1911 differed considerably from the
-corresponding months of the previous year. Speaking
-generally, it may be said of the Mimika district that
-the weather from mid-October to the middle of April is
-finer than the weather from the middle of April to the
-middle of October. These two periods correspond more
-or less with the monsoons, but it is notable that whereas
-in British New Guinea the period of the Eastern monsoon,
-May to November, is the drier, here the reverse
-is the case. The finest weather appears to be in
-November and December, and the wettest weather
-is in July, August and September. The terms “fine”
-and “wet” are used only relatively, for it is almost
-always wet. In the first twelve months of our stay
-rain fell on three hundred and thirty days. It was
-very unfortunate that we did not provide ourselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span>
-with rain-gauges for use at Wakatimi and Parimau,
-where interesting observations might have been recorded
-for a year or more. A roughly constructed rain-gauge,
-which was used for a short time, more than once recorded
-a fall of over six inches of rain in one night,
-and that was in the comparatively dry season of March.</p>
-
-<p>A great deal of the rain fell in thunderstorms.
-From January 4th, 1910, to January 4th, 1911, I heard
-thunder on two hundred and ninety-five days, not
-including days on which I saw distant lightning but did
-not hear the thunder.</p>
-
-<p>Before we left England it was thought that the
-party ought to include a geologist, but it was impossible
-to add to our numbers, which were already sufficiently
-great. As it fell out, we hardly reached geological
-country at all and a geologist would have spent an idle
-time, but there would have been plenty of occupation
-for a well equipped hydrologist.</p>
-
-<p>The winds, whether from the East or from the West,
-were very variable both in force and constancy. Sometimes
-there would blow a fierce wind for two or three
-days followed by several days of calm. At other times
-a steady wind would blow for two or three weeks and
-so great would be the surf on the sea-shore that no
-ship could approach the mouth of the river. The
-wind usually dropped before sunset and the nights were
-calm.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">HALLEY’S COMET</div>
-
-<p>It followed naturally from the heavy rainfall that
-the nights were seldom clear, and at one time Marshall
-waited for three months before he could take an observation
-from a star. But there were times even in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span>
-wet weather, when the rain poured down during the
-day and at night the heavens were clear. One of these
-times fortunately occurred in May, when Halley’s Comet
-was approaching the Earth. On May 9th the comet,
-looking like a muffled star, was seen in the East and its
-tail, a broad beam of brilliant light, extended upwards
-through about thirty degrees. Below the comet and
-a little to the South of it Venus shone like a little moon,
-appearing far bigger than any planet I have ever seen.
-The comet grew enormously and in the early morning
-of May 14th, the last time that we saw it completely
-before it had passed the Earth, the tail blazed across
-the heavens like an immense search-light beam to the
-zenith and beyond. On May 26th it appeared again
-in the evening, reduced in size to about forty-five
-degrees, and several nights we watched it growing always
-smaller, until it vanished from our sight. Superlative
-expressions will not describe Halley’s Comet as we
-saw it in New Guinea; it was a wonderful appearance
-and one never to be forgotten. Our coolies and the
-Javanese declared that it portended much sickness
-and death. Though we tried to question them about
-it, we never learnt how it impressed the minds of the
-natives.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></h2>
-
-<p class="indent f09"><i>Exploration of the Kapare River—Obota—Native Geography—River
-Obstructions—Hornbills and Tree Ducks—Gifts of Stones—Importance
-of Steam Launch—Cultivation of Tobacco—Sago Swamps—Manufacture
-of Sago—Cooking of Sago—The Dutch Use of
-Convict Labour.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Towards</span> the end of January Capt. Rawling, who had
-gone up the Mimika River with the first party to Parimau,
-made an excursion to the N.W. of that place, and at
-a distance of about four miles he came to a river, which
-we afterwards learnt to know as the Kapare, of much
-greater volume than the Mimika, and therefore likely to
-spring from mountains much higher than those that gave
-rise to the Mimika. Had we known at the time that
-our real objective, the highest mountains of the range,
-lay far to the N.E., we should have neglected the Kapare
-River, and by so doing we should have spared ourselves
-many weeks of labour; but at the same time we should
-have missed seeing a wide area of unknown country,
-and we might possibly have failed to make the discovery
-of the pygmy tribe, who inhabit the hilly country between
-the Kapare and the upper waters of the Mimika River.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p082.jpg" width="500" height="309" alt="UPPER WATERS OF THE KAPARE RIVER" />
-<p class="caption">UPPER WATERS OF THE KAPARE RIVER. MOUNT TAPIRO IN DISTANCE.</p></div>
-
-<p>It appeared that the Kapare might offer a better
-route to the higher mountains than the Mimika, so it
-was decided that we should explore its lower waters
-and see whether it was possible to reach it from our base-camp.
-Accordingly on February 14th Lieut. Cramer,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span>Marshall and I set out in three canoes, taking with us
-provisions sufficient for a week’s journey. Two miles
-below Wakatimi we entered and began to ascend the
-Watuka River, of which, as has been noted above (p. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>),
-the Mimika is but a tributary. After proceeding a mile
-or two up the Watuka we came to another junction
-of two rivers, and for the first time we began to realise
-the extraordinary network of waterways, which traverse
-the low-lying lands of that part of New Guinea. We
-learnt afterwards that there are inland channels joining
-several of the rivers to the East of the Mimika in such a
-way that it is possible to travel by water from Wakatimi
-to villages far distant along the coast without going by
-sea, and no doubt the same is true in a Westerly direction.</p>
-
-<p>The junction we had then reached was formed by a
-wide river coming, apparently, from due North and a
-much smaller branch, not more than ten yards wide,
-but deep and swift, joining it from the West. It appeared
-to be quite certain that the river we were in search of
-must be the Northern branch, and we should have
-followed it at once had not a number of natives appeared
-on the bank, and asked us to go and visit their village,
-which, they explained, was a short distance up the
-Western branch.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">VISIT TO OBOTA</div>
-
-<p>We soon reached Obota, as the village was called, a
-collection of about one hundred huts on both banks
-of the narrow river, and there we were accorded the
-usual welcome by a large crowd of people. As it was still
-early in the day we were anxious to continue our journey,
-and we proposed to go up the Northern branch, but the
-natives assured us that that led to nowhere and broke<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span>
-up into branches in the jungle, while the small stream
-which flowed through the village was the river flowing
-directly from the mountains.</p>
-
-<p>It should be explained that this information was
-conveyed to us partly by long speeches of which we
-understood little or nothing, but chiefly by means of
-maps drawn on the ground. Some of the men drew
-their rivers crossing one another in a rather improbable
-manner, but many of them drew charts very intelligently,
-and at different times we obtained from the natives a
-good deal of geographical information which was substantially
-correct. On this occasion their maps all
-agreed in tracing the big river to branches in the jungle,
-and the small river to the mountains, so we were rather
-reluctantly persuaded that they were right, and we
-tried to induce some of them to go with us. Many of
-them offered to go the next day, but not one would
-start then—it was too late, it was going to rain, they
-had not eaten, and many other excuses—so we got
-into our canoes and attempted to paddle up the stream
-and found, what the natives doubtless knew, that we
-could not advance at all. Several times we tried, but
-were always driven back by the strong current, to the
-great delight of the natives who lined the banks and
-laughed at our feeble efforts, so there was nothing for
-it but to make a camp near the village and wait till the
-next day.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">RIVER OBSTACLES</div>
-
-<p>There was some difficulty about inducing the men
-to start in the morning, for it was raining, and, like
-other naked peoples, the Papuans dislike being wetted
-by rain, but we got off eventually with two natives,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span>
-one at the bow and one at the stern, in each canoe, in
-addition to the crews of four Javanese soldiers and convicts.
-It was soon evident that without the help of the
-natives we could not possibly have ascended the river.
-For a mile or two above Obota the water ran like a mill-race
-in a very narrow channel full of rocks and sunken
-trees, and it was only by the most skilful poling and,
-when a chance occurred, by hauling the canoes along
-a side channel that we were able to proceed. When
-we returned a few days later, we skimmed in fifteen
-minutes down the rapids which we had taken more than
-three hours to ascend.</p>
-
-<p>Above the rapids the river widened to about forty
-yards and the strength of the current was proportionately
-less, but in a few miles we met with another
-difficulty. At a sharp bend of the river the whole
-channel was blocked by an enormous barrier of huge
-trunks and limbs of trees piled high upon each other
-and wedged below into a solid mass. For larger boats
-this might have meant a delay of many days spent in
-cutting a channel, but the dug-out canoe is narrow and,
-if not flexible, it can be squeezed through the most
-unlikely openings, so that we passed the barrier without
-the loss of many hours.</p>
-
-<p>When we started from Obota we had been doubtful
-whether it was possible that so small a river could
-possibly come from the mountains; but a little way
-above the barrier of logs our doubts were set at rest,
-when we found that our river was a mere off-shoot
-from another more than twice its volume, which flowed
-down to the sea at a village called Periepia. The main<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span>
-river, the Kapare, where we joined it, was more than a
-hundred yards wide, and in the next two days’ journey
-it hardly diminished at all in size. The character of
-the river differed markedly from that of the Mimika;
-its bed was of sand, denoting its mountain origin, in
-contrast to the brown mud of the Mimika and other
-jungle rivers, and its course was a procession of magnificent
-bends, quite unlike the paltry windings of the
-Mimika.</p>
-
-<p>Paddling slowly up the river we disturbed companies
-of Hornbills (<i>Rhytidoceros plicatus</i>) which were
-feeding at the tops of the trees. These peculiarly hideous
-birds bark like dogs, and the loud “swishing” of their
-wings, as they slowly take flight, has been likened (not
-inaptly) to the starting puffs of a railway train. On
-this and on the other rivers we were often pleasantly
-reminded of home by the note of the Common Sandpiper
-(<i>Totanus hypoleucus</i>) which seemed to be quite as much
-at home in New Guinea as in its northern haunts. The
-last of these were seen in early April, and they began to
-reappear before the end of July. Very interesting birds,
-of which we saw a great number on this river, are the
-black and white Tree Ducks (<i>Tadorna radjah</i>). They
-have the curious habit of perching very cleverly on the
-topmost branches of the trees, and they make a pretty
-whistling by night.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p086.jpg" width="400" height="633" alt="VEGETATION ON THE BANKS OF THE KAPARE RIVER." />
-<p class="caption">VEGETATION ON THE BANKS OF THE KAPARE RIVER.</p></div>
-
-<p>There were no signs of human habitation along the
-banks, until on the third day we came to a small village
-of a dozen huts, in the middle of which was a tall house
-built of bamboos, used for ceremonials and dancing.
-The few people inhabiting the place were of a very low
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span>order of intelligence, if one may judge from the apathy
-with which they received us and saw us go on our way.</p>
-
-<p>As we proceeded further, on the fourth day the river
-became a good deal smaller, having derived several
-tributaries from the low hills which were by that time
-not far distant on the right bank, and as the current
-became increasingly swifter it was evident that the
-Kapare did not promise a better means of approach by
-water to the mountains than the Mimika.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE FIRST PEBBLES</div>
-
-<p>We were rather amused, when we came to the first
-bank of shingle, by the natives who were with us bringing
-us gifts of stones, as though they were something new
-and rare: probably they thought that as we came, for
-all they knew, from the sea, we had never seen such
-things before.</p>
-
-<p>On the fifth day we left the baggage behind and went
-on in one unladen canoe, hoping to reach the point
-where Rawling had met the Kapare River by walking
-overland from the Mimika, but we were stopped a few
-miles short of that place by heavy rapids, which
-effectually prevented any further investigation of the
-river.</p>
-
-<p>The excursion up the Kapare was a further illustration,
-if one had been needed, of the futility of undertaking
-an expedition in that country without a steam
-launch or motor-boat. When it was found that the
-Mimika was only an insignificant river, which the first
-excursion up it would have shown, the Kapare River
-might have been explored from Periepia, a matter
-which could have been done in two days instead of the
-seven occupied by the journey in canoes, and after that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span>
-other rivers to the East might have been explored until
-one convenient for approaching the mountains had been
-found.</p>
-
-<p>After spending a night on a sand bank from which
-we were very nearly washed away by a sudden flood,
-we paddled leisurely down the river and came in one
-day again to Obota. Though the two places are so close
-together and communication between them is very frequent,
-the inhabitants of Obota are a much better lot of
-people than those of Wakatimi. The Obota men, who
-came up the river with us, worked steadily for several
-days, a thing we never could persuade the Wakatimi
-men to do, and, a more striking sign of their superiority,
-the Obota people cultivate the soil, whereas the Wakatimi
-people never do anything of the kind.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">TOBACCO</div>
-
-<p>Many acres of ground on both sides of the river were
-cleared of bush and planted with bananas and sweet
-potatoes; we never succeeded in obtaining any of the
-latter, but bananas were brought for us to buy and in
-the circumstances they seemed to us to be excellent.
-The most extensive crop cultivated at Obota is tobacco;
-they plant out the seedlings and shelter them with a
-low roof of bent sticks covered with leaves, until the
-young plants are strong enough to bear the full force of
-the sun and rain. Almost every native smokes, men and
-women, and very often the children. A small handful
-of the dried leaves is taken and very carefully rolled
-up in the form of a cigar, and then wrapped round with
-a <i>sirih</i> leaf, which has been previously warmed over the
-fire; the ends are bitten square, and sometimes the
-leaf is tied round the middle with a thread of fibre to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span>
-prevent its unrolling. The tobacco is strong in flavour,
-but not at all unpleasant to smoke. The only other
-place, except among the pygmy people of the hills,
-where we found cultivation was up the Keaukwa River,
-a few miles to the E. of the Mimika River.</p>
-
-<p>The distribution of tobacco in New Guinea is rather
-a puzzling question. There are many places on the
-coast where its use was unknown until quite recently,
-while at the same time the mountain people, for example,
-in the Arfak Mountains and on the upper reaches of
-the Fly and Kaiserin Augusta Rivers, have been accustomed
-to cultivate it and to barter it with their neighbours
-in the lowlands. The Tapiro pygmy people,
-who live in the mountains, cultivate tobacco and exchange
-it with the Papuans of the upper Mimika who grow
-none themselves. These facts have led some people
-to suppose that the tobacco plant is indigenous in New
-Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>The people of Obota were rich in worldly possessions,
-for as we walked through the village we saw two Chinese
-brass gongs and a large porcelain pot, which they told
-us came from “Tarete.” It may be that at some time
-a Malay or Arab trader from Ternate came over to this
-part of the coast, but it is impossible to know; perhaps
-the things had been stolen and exchanged from one
-village to another, from the West end of the island,
-which is often visited by Ternate traders.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">SAGO</div>
-
-<p>But the chief reason for the prosperity of Obota is
-the fact that it lies at the edge of an extensive sago
-swamp, and sago is the mainstay of the food of the
-Papuans. Sago is made from a palm (<i>Sagus rumphii</i>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span>
-which always grows in wet places, generally in low ground
-near the sea, and it will even grow where the water is
-brackish.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> The palm is thicker than a man’s body,
-and its height is about 25 or 30 feet. The trunk is
-covered with large leaves bearing long hard spines. A
-mature tree produces a large vertical spike of flowers
-and then dies. When they wish to collect sago, the
-natives cut down a full-grown palm and clear it of its
-leaves and leaf-sheaths. A wide strip of the bark is
-then cut off from the side of the tree which lies uppermost
-and the sago is exposed. The bark of the tree is really
-nothing more than a shell about an inch in thickness,
-enclosing the pith or sago, which is a brownish pulpy
-substance separated by fibrous strands. The pith is
-separated from the bark by means of the sago-beater,
-which is a sort of wooden hammer made in two pieces,
-a handle about a foot and a half long, carrying a head
-about twelve inches long; the hitting face of the head
-is about two inches in diameter, and it often bears a
-rather sharp rim which is useful in clearing the pith from
-the bark.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p090.jpg" width="400" height="513" alt="PAPUAN WOMAN CARRYING WOODEN BOWL OF SAGO." />
-<p class="caption">PAPUAN WOMAN CARRYING WOODEN BOWL OF SAGO.</p></div>
-
-<p>When all the pith has been beaten out of the shell
-of the tree it is carried away to the nearest water, where
-the sago is extracted. A trough made of two wide
-basin-like leaf-bases of the sago palm is set up on
-crossed sticks about three feet from the ground in such a
-way that one basin is a little higher than the other.
-Lumps of the pith are then kneaded in the upper part
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span>of the trough with water which is constantly poured
-into it; the water carries away the sago into the lower
-part of the trough, and nothing remains above but the
-coarse fibrous stuff which is thrown away; the lower
-trough gradually becomes filled with sago and the
-water flows away. The sago, a dirty white substance
-with a rather sour smell, is made into cylindrical cakes of
-about 30 lbs. weight, and neatly wrapped up in leaves
-of the palm to be carried back to the village. Most
-of the work of collecting and preparing the sago is done
-by the women.</p>
-
-<p>According to Mr. Wallace, one fair-sized sago palm
-will supply one man with food for a year, so it will be
-seen that the amount of labour required to feed a
-community in a district where sago is plentiful is not
-very overwhelming.</p>
-
-<p>The usual method of cooking employed by the
-Papuans is to roll the sago into lumps about the size
-of a cricket ball and roast them in the embers of a fire.
-On one or two occasions I saw them prepare it in a
-different way, which was to wrap up the sago in
-banana leaves and cook it on hot stones; the result
-was probably more wholesome food than the charred
-lumps that they usually eat.</p>
-
-<p>Very often the natives of the Mimika eat the crude
-sago, that is to say, the pith simply as it is cut out of
-the tree, without having been washed or pounded. The
-stuff is roasted in the usual way and the separation
-of the sago is done in the mouth of the eater, who
-spits out the uneatable fibre.</p>
-
-<p>As well as providing the Papuans with the bulk of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span>
-their food, the sago palm supplies them with excellent
-building poles in the mid-ribs of the leaves, which
-are straight and very strong, and are sometimes fifteen
-to twenty feet long, and the leaflets themselves are used
-for making “atap” in the districts where the <i>Nipa</i>
-palm is not found.</p>
-
-<p>It was mentioned above that the crews of our canoes
-on the excursion up the Kapare River were made up
-of Javanese soldiers and convicts. Our first batch of
-Ambonese coolies had by that time failed us, so Lieut.
-Cramer very kindly lent us some of his men for the
-occasion, and we had an opportunity of testing their
-worth. Speaking generally, it is not unfair to them
-to say that the Javanese are wholly unsuited to rough
-work in a savage country; they are a peaceful race
-of peasants and their proper place is in the rice fields.
-As soldiers they appear to the civilian eye to be clodhoppers
-masquerading in (usually misfitting) uniform.
-They have no military bearing and no alertness, and
-one ceases to wonder that when the Netherlands East
-Indian native army is almost exclusively composed
-of Javanese, the war-like people of Atjeh have kept
-the field for so many years. It is a matter for surprise
-that the Dutch do not enlist more of the warlike Bugis
-of Celebes, and natives of the Moluccas, and even the
-Achinese prisoners themselves; ten thousand of such
-men would surely be of more worth than the 30,000
-Javanese who fill the ranks of their native army. Of
-course there are exceptions; there are men among
-them who have performed splendidly valorous deeds
-in time of war; but the majority are of a stuff of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span>
-which it would be impossible to make soldiers, they
-are soft and unathletic and of a curiously feminine
-form of body, as a glance at a group of bathing
-Javanese will show.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">CONVICT LABOUR</div>
-
-<p>The Javanese convicts were the same sort of material,
-but their case was not quite the same as that of the
-soldiers, for they had not voluntarily entered a profession
-(if the condition of convict can be called a
-profession) that involved service in foreign lands. The
-justice of the Dutch practice of employing convicts
-as coolies in military and exploring expeditions is very
-much open to question, but it need not be discussed
-at length here. The transport for the military operations
-in Atjeh is carried out almost entirely by convict
-labour, and all the Dutch exploring parties in New
-Guinea have made use of convict coolies, assisted in
-two instances by paid Dayaks. It is intended officially
-that only long-sentence men shall go on expeditions,
-so that by good behaviour they may earn some substantial
-remission of their sentences, but that is not
-invariably the case, for several young men left our
-expedition because their terms had expired. It is also
-supposed that only men shall be sent on expeditions
-who volunteer to go; but the supply of convict volunteers
-is not inexhaustible, and there were men with
-us whose last wish would have been to come to New
-Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>But even if they were all volunteers and all long-service
-men, it is doubtful whether it is justifiable to
-send any but free men to work in a country so full of
-risks as New Guinea. The native of Java is a poor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span>
-creature, particularly susceptible to beri-beri and other
-diseases of the tropics, and when I saw convicts die,
-as did unfortunately happen, I came to the conclusion
-that the balance went heavily against the system. It
-must, however, be recorded that the convicts are
-extremely well treated. Except in the matter of pay—convicts
-on expeditions receive about one guilder
-(1<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>) a month—they are treated in all essentials
-exactly like the native soldiers; they have the same
-rations of food and the same tent accommodation,
-and many of them enjoy themselves a good deal more
-than if they were occupied in sweeping the roads in a
-town in Java. Their hours of labour in camp are
-comparatively short, and the loads they are given to
-carry on the march are by no means excessive. Nothing
-could exceed the kindness of Cramer’s treatment of the
-men under his command, and I have no doubt that the
-same may be said of the treatment of convicts elsewhere.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Description of Wakatimi—The Papuan House—Coconut Palms—The
-Sugar Palm—Drunkenness of the Natives—Drunken Vagaries—Other
-Cultivation—The Native Language—No Interpreters—The
-Numerals—Difficulties of Understanding—Names of Places—Local
-Differences of Pronunciation.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> native village of Wakatimi lay directly opposite
-to our base-camp on the W. bank of the Mimika,
-which was there about 150 yards broad. Beyond
-the margin of the river was a strip of grass intersected
-by muddy creeks, where the natives moored their canoes,
-and beyond that was Wakatimi. The village consisted
-of a single street about two hundred yards long lined
-on one side by huts, which usually numbered about
-sixty. But occasionally, as for instance when we first
-arrived, and once or twice subsequently when large
-crowds of natives from other villages visited the place,
-it happened that the street was a double row of houses,
-and every available spot of dry ground was occupied.</p>
-
-<p>Shifting house is a very simple affair, as most of
-the building materials are carried about in the canoes,
-and the canoes come and go in the most casual and
-unaccountable manner. Sometimes there were perhaps
-a thousand people at Wakatimi, and then there would
-be days when there was not a soul in the village. There
-were times when for weeks together there were large
-villages at the mouth of the river, and there were other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span>
-times when the coast was utterly deserted and hardly
-a trace of the villages remained. We were never able
-to learn what it was that prompted these migrations
-of the natives, but it is probable that the pursuit of
-food was the guiding motive. The wandering habits
-of the people will certainly make it very difficult to
-administer the country and civilise the people, if an
-attempt to do so is ever made.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THEIR HOUSES</div>
-
-<p>The typical native house of the Mimika district is
-a simple rectangular structure with a framework of
-light poles driven into the ground, the cross-pieces
-and roof pole being tied to the uprights by strands of
-rattan. In some houses the roof is a simple slope
-downwards from front to back, but in most cases there
-is a central ridge pole from which the roof slopes to
-the back and front, that at the back being longer and
-going lower than that in front. The height of the ridge
-is about eight feet; after we had been for some time in
-the country the people improved their building in
-imitation of our houses and built their huts ten, and
-even twelve feet high. The roof is made of “atap,”
-the thatch described above (p. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>), and the walls are
-mats made from the leaves of a Screw-pine (<i>Pandanus</i>).
-The area of an average hut is about 9 by 12 feet, the
-longer dimensions being from front to back.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p096.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="PAPUAN HOUSES ON THE MIMIKA." />
-<p class="caption">PAPUAN HOUSES ON THE MIMIKA.</p></div>
-
-<p>The floor is covered with sand to a depth of several
-inches, which is prevented from escaping into the street
-by a board placed on its edge along the front of the
-hut. The sand is brought from the seashore and must
-be of great value in preserving the health of the people:
-the huts are frequently under water in the big floods
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span>and without the sand, which quickly dries, it would
-be impossible for them to live there. Unfortunately
-the sand aggravates the sores and ulcers from which
-too many of them suffer, but that is perhaps a lesser
-evil than always sleeping on sodden ground. Racks
-made of sticks, on which are stowed bundles of arrows,
-spears, clubs, tobacco, sago and all the other portable
-property of the family, extend from one wall to another,
-so that it is almost impossible to stand upright inside
-a hut. The door is an opening about two feet square
-in the front wall; as well as being the means of entrance
-for the members of the household the door serves as
-the principal means of escape for the smoke of the fire,
-which is constantly kept burning inside.</p>
-
-<p>It is only rarely that a house remains for long
-separated from others; when a second house is built
-it is attached to the side of the first, and the dividing
-wall is removed. In a large village the houses are built
-in rows of varying length, according to the nature of
-the ground, and there may be as many as fifty or
-sixty joined together. If you go inside you find that it
-is a single long house without any dividing walls, but
-each family keeps to its own particular section and
-use its own private entrance. When the place is
-crowded with people, and a number of fires are burning,
-the atmosphere inside the house may be more readily
-imagined than described.</p>
-
-<p>The feature that most distinguishes Wakatimi from
-all the other villages that we saw is its fine grove of
-coconut palms. The village street is bordered with
-them on the side opposite to the houses, and there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span>
-must be three or four hundred trees in all. They afford
-a very pleasant shade to the village, and their graceful
-trunks curving this way and that are really picturesque
-and conveniently relieve the ugliness of the Papuan
-houses. It is rather dangerous to live so close to coconut
-trees, and sometimes when the wind blew in gusts
-before the rain we heard warning shouts and the heavy
-thud of a nut falling to the ground; but accidents
-never seemed to happen. The nuts are, of course, a
-source of great wealth to the Wakatimi people, who
-exchange them for bananas and tobacco with the
-people of Obota, and while we were in the country
-they brought us altogether thousands of nuts for which
-they received riches undreamt of before. At one or two
-places near the sea, and at several places on the Mimika
-River we found coconut palms, but far up the river
-they did not occur, nor did we see any on the Kapare
-River; and I believe all those we saw were planted
-by the natives, and that none of them were self-sown.</p>
-
-<p>The method of cultivation is extremely simple.
-A ripe nut is left out on the roof of a hut and allowed
-to sprout; when the shoot is about a foot or more in
-length, a small patch of ground is cleared, preferably
-in a sandy place on the river bank or near the sea shore,
-a hole is dug and the sprouting nut is planted. From
-time to time, if he remembers to do so, the native will
-clear away the strangling vegetation from the young
-plant, and in about five years, under favourable conditions,
-the palm begins to bear fruit.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">DRUNKENNESS</div>
-
-<p>Growing commonly near Wakatimi is another
-species of palm, which, though it has not the value<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span>
-of the coconut palm, is yet more prized by the natives.
-This is the Sugar palm (<i>Arenga saccharifera</i>), and from
-it is made a very potent and intoxicating liquor.
-When the palm is in fruit—it bears a heavy bunch
-of dark green fruit—a cut is made in the stem below
-the stalk of the fruit, and the juice trickles out and
-is collected in the shell of a coconut. Apparently the
-juice ferments very rapidly without the addition of
-any other substance, for it is drunk almost as soon as
-it is collected and the native becomes horribly intoxicated.</p>
-
-<p>During the first few weeks of our stay in the
-country the people were on their good behaviour, or
-else they found sufficient amusement in coming to see
-us and our works, but they soon tired of that and went
-back to their normal habits. Many of them went to
-the drinking places by day, and we often saw them
-lying or sitting at the foot of the tree, while one of their
-party stood at the top of a bamboo ladder collecting
-the palm wine. But the worst was a small gang of
-about a dozen men, the laziest in the village, whose
-custom it was to start off towards evening in canoes
-to their favourite drinking tree, where they spent the
-night drinking and making night hideous with their
-songs and shouts. In the morning they returned raving
-to the village and as often as not they started quarrelling
-and fighting and knocking the houses to pieces
-(a favourite occupation of the angry Papuan) before
-they settled down to sleep off the effects of their
-potations.</p>
-
-<p>As a rule, the men were the worst offenders, and
-the women drank but seldom, but I well remember<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span>
-one day seeing a man and his wife both hopelessly
-drunk come over to our camp. It was pouring with
-rain and their canoe was several inches deep in water,
-but they danced up and down in it and sang a drunken
-ditty; it was a ludicrous and at the same time heart-rending
-exhibition. The man, when we first knew
-him, was a fine fellow who one day climbed up a palm
-tree to get us coconuts, a feat which no man out of
-condition can perform; a few months later he was
-hardly ever seen sober, and in January he died. A
-smiling round-faced youth called Ukuma, who was one
-of our particular friends at first and was privileged
-to wander where he liked about the camp, attached
-himself to the drinking party, and before we left the
-country he looked an old man, and I had difficulty in
-recognising him.</p>
-
-<table summary="a Papuan"><tr>
-<td class="tdl2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_p100a.jpg" width="200" height="257" alt="A PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA." />
-<p class="caption">A PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA.</p></div></td>
-<td class="tdl2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_p100b.jpg" width="200" height="255" alt="A PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA." />
-<p class="caption">A PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA.</p></div></td></tr></table>
-
-<p>Though the drunken vagaries of the natives were
-usually food for tears, they sometimes provided us
-with amusement. One afternoon one of the principal
-men of Wakatimi came down to the river bank quite
-intoxicated and took a canoe, which he paddled out
-into mid-stream and there moored it. From there
-he proceeded to shoot arrows vaguely and promiscuously
-at the village, raving and shouting what sounded to be
-horrible curses. Some of the arrows fell into the village
-and some sailed over the palm trees, and now and
-again he turned round and shot harmlessly into our
-camp, but nobody took the slightest notice of him
-except his wife, who went down to the river bank and
-told him in plain language her opinion of him. This
-caused him to turn his attention to her, but his aim
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span>was wild and the arrows missed their mark, so he
-desisted and went back to the shore, where the woman
-broke across her knee the remainder of his bundle of
-arrows, while he cooled his fevered brow in the river.
-Then, while she delivered a further lecture, he followed
-her back to their hut looking like a whipped and
-ashamed dog. It can hardly be doubted that palm
-wine shortens the lives of many of the Papuans, but
-one must hesitate before condemning an absolutely
-untaught and savage race for excessive indulgence in
-one of the pleasures that vary their monotonous lives.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">FRUITS</div>
-
-<p>As well as coconuts the Mimika people have also
-bananas, papayas (<i>Carica papaya</i>), water-melons and
-pumpkins, all of them of a very inferior kind. It
-cannot be said that they cultivate these fruits; they
-occasionally get a banana shoot and plant it in the
-ground by the riverside, where it may or may not grow
-and produce fruit, but they make no clearings and take
-very little trouble to ensure the life of the plant. The
-papayas and the melons and pumpkins are sometimes
-seen growing about the native dwellings; but they, too,
-seem to be there more by accident than by any design
-on the part of the people. At Obota we found a few
-pineapples, which were probably the descendants of
-some that were brought to the Mimika by M. Dumas
-a few years earlier.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES</div>
-
-<p>It has been stated in the previous chapters that
-the natives told us this or that, and that we asked
-them for information about one thing or another.
-From this the reader must not conclude that we acquired
-a very complete knowledge of the native language,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span>
-for that, unfortunately, was not the case, and even
-at the end of the fifteen months that we spent in their
-country we were not able to converse with them.
-Lieutenant Cramer and I compiled a vocabulary of
-nearly three hundred words,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> and we talked a good
-deal with the people, but we never reached the position
-of being able to exchange ideas on any single subject.</p>
-
-<p>In the Eastern and Northern parts of New Guinea
-it has always been found possible to communicate with
-the natives through the medium of some known
-language; even if there were many differences noticed
-in the language of a new district, there were always
-some common words which formed the foundation of
-a more complete understanding. The Western end
-of New Guinea has been for centuries visited by traders
-speaking Malay dialects, some of whom have settled in
-the country; or Papuans from those parts have
-travelled to Malay-speaking islands and have returned
-with a sufficient knowledge of the language to act as
-interpreters to people visiting those districts.</p>
-
-<p>But the long stretch of the South-west coast from
-the MacCluer Gulf as far as the Fly River has been
-quite neglected by Malay-speaking traders, partly on
-account of the poverty of the country and partly by
-reason of the shallow sea and the frequent storms which
-make navigation difficult and dangerous, so that the
-Malay language was of no use to us as a means of talking
-with the natives. It is true that two men from the
-Mimika district had been taken a few years previously
-to Fak-fak, the Dutch Government post on the South
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span>side of the MacCluer Gulf, but though they spent two
-years there and attempts were made to teach them
-Malay, in 1910 the extent of their knowledge of the
-language was the two words <i>Tida, tuan</i> (No, master).</p>
-
-<p>It is unfortunate that there is no common language
-along the S. coast, nor even a language with words
-common to all the dialects in use. We were visited
-on one occasion by the Dutch Assistant Resident
-from Fak-fak; the native interpreter who came with
-him, and who knew all the native dialects of the Fak-fak
-district, could not understand one word of the Mimika
-language. On another occasion some natives from
-Mimika were taken down by steamer to Merauke, the
-Government post in S.W. New Guinea, not far from
-the boundary of British Papua, and there they found
-the language of the natives quite unintelligible to them.</p>
-
-<p>So we found ourselves confronted with the task of
-learning a language with neither grammar, dictionary
-nor interpreter. This may not seem to be an insuperable
-difficulty, nor is it perhaps where Europeans
-and educated people are concerned, but with Papuans
-it is a very different problem. The first thing to do—and
-very few of them would even grasp the idea—is
-to make them understand that you wish to learn their
-words. You may point at an object and look intelligent
-and expectant, but they are slow to take your
-meaning, and they soon tire of giving information.
-The facial expression, which amongst us conveys even
-to a deaf man an interrogation, means nothing to them,
-nor has the sideways shake of the head a negative
-meaning to Papuans.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In trying to learn a new language of this kind most
-people (I imagine) would begin, as we did, with the
-numerals. But our researches in this direction did not
-take us very far, for we made the interesting discovery
-that they have words for one and two only; <i>ínakwa</i>
-(one), <i>jamaní</i> (two). This is not to say that they cannot
-reckon beyond two, for they can, by using the fingers
-and thumbs, and beginning always with the thumb
-of the right hand, reckon with tolerable accuracy up to
-ten. For numbers above ten they use the toes, never,
-so far as we observed, two or three toes, but always
-all the toes together to indicate a large but uncertain
-number. Sometimes they opened and closed the fingers
-of both hands two or three times and uttered the word
-<i>takirí</i>, which appeared to mean “many.” They did
-not, as some people do, use the word which means
-“hand” to indicate five or a quantity of about that
-number.</p>
-
-<p>With patience we learnt a great number of substantives,
-the names of animals, the parts of the body,
-the various possessions of the natives and so forth, and
-with more difficulty we learnt some of the active verbs.
-But when we came to abstract ideas, our researches
-ceased abruptly for lack of the question words, who,
-how, where, when, etc.; these we were never able to
-learn, and it is impossible to act them.</p>
-
-<p>Thus we were never able to find out what they
-thought of various things; we could point to the moon
-and be told its name, but we were never able to say,
-“What is the moon?” We learnt the names of lightning
-and thunder, but we never knew who they thought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span>
-produced them. We could not find out where their
-stone axes came from, nor how old they were, nor who
-made them; and a hundred other questions, which
-we should have liked to put, remained unanswered.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">OBTAINING INFORMATION</div>
-
-<p>These limitations of our knowledge of the language
-were particularly annoying when we tried to find out
-the simplest ties of relationship. It may be thought
-very unintelligent of us that we never learnt the word
-for father, in spite of many attempts to do so. If
-you pointed to a child and asked a man, knowing him
-to be the father, what the child was, he would slap
-himself on the chest and answer, “<i>Dorota kamare</i>” (my
-penis); then if you pointed to himself he would tell
-you his own name, but never any word that could
-possibly be construed as father. If you tried the same
-thing with the mother she would point to the child and
-say, “<i>Dorota auwë</i>” (my breast). The child on being
-questioned pointed to the father and always said his
-name, the mother it would call <i>Aína</i> (woman), but
-perhaps this word also means mother.</p>
-
-<p>There were two men at Parimau so much alike as
-to be unmistakably brothers; we learnt their names
-and that they were <i>Inakwa kamare</i> (one penis), but
-we never found out the name of their relationship.</p>
-
-<p>Seeing that some of the people have a very good
-idea of drawing on the ground a map of the country,
-I tried one day a graphic method of obtaining the
-relationships of a man whose name and whose wife’s
-name and son’s name I knew. I put sticks on the
-ground to represent him and his wife and son, and then
-in a tentative sort of way put in a stick to represent his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span>
-father, whose name he mentioned, but the game did
-not interest him and my researches came to an end.</p>
-
-<p>Even the apparently simple matter of enquiring
-the names of places is not so easy as one would think.
-When the first party went up the Mimika to Parimau
-they pointed to the huts and asked what the village
-was called; the answer given was “Tupué,” meaning
-I believe, the name of the family who lived in the huts
-pointed at. For several months we called the place
-Tupué, and the name appeared in various disguises
-in the English newspapers. When I was at Parimau
-in July, it occurred to me to doubt the name of Tupué,
-which we never heard the natives use, so I questioned
-a man elaborately. Pointing in the direction of Wakatimi,
-I said in his language: “Many houses, Wakatimi,”
-and he nodded assent; then pointing in the direction
-of another village that we had visited I said: “Many
-houses, Imah,” to which he agreed; then I said.
-“Many houses,” and pointed towards Parimau. This
-performance was repeated three times before he understood
-my intention and supplied the word “Parimau,”
-and then he shouted the whole story across the river
-to the people in the village who received it with shouts
-of laughter, and well they might. It was as if a
-foreigner, who had been living for six months in a place
-which he was accustomed to call Smith, enquired again
-one day what its name was and found that it was
-London.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p106.jpg" width="400" height="653" alt=">A PAPUAN MOTHER AND CHILD." />
-<p class="caption">A PAPUAN MOTHER AND CHILD.<br />
-(<i>On the right is seen a fishing net.</i>)</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">LANGUAGE OF MIMIKA</div>
-
-<p>The language spoken by the people of Mimika is by
-no means unpleasant to listen to, and with the customary
-sing-song intonation it would be almost musical, if it
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span>were not for the harsh voices of the natives, both men
-and women. There are many agreeably soft gutterals,
-and there is no hissing sound in the language, as they
-are unable to pronounce the letter “s.” Many of
-their words are really very pleasing, notably some of
-their names, such as “Oonabë,” “Inamë,” “Tébo,”
-“Magena,” “Awariao,” “Idoriaota,” “Poandio,” and
-“Mareru,” to mention only a few; some of the names
-were so long that I never succeeded in writing them
-correctly.</p>
-
-<p>The people who lived near the upper waters of the
-Mimika appeared to speak the same dialect as those
-living near the coast, with one noticeable difference.
-Those words containing a “k” in the language of the
-people at the coast lose the “k” in the mouths of the
-up-river natives, thus: <i>Ké</i> (rain) in the Wakatimi
-language becomes <i>’é</i> at Parimau; <i>Kie</i> (a leech) becomes
-<i>’ie</i>, <i>Pokanë</i> (an axe) becomes <i>Po’anë</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The only rule of grammar that we learnt was the
-simple method of constructing the possessive case by
-adding the suffix <i>ta</i>. Thus from <i>doro</i> (I) you have
-<i>dorota</i> (mine); from <i>oro</i> (you), <i>orota</i> (your), and in the
-same way <i>Tebota</i> (Tebo’s); <i>Mareruta</i> (Mareru’s), and
-so on.</p>
-
-<p>They were curious to know our names and liked to
-address us by them; Goodfellow’s and Rawling’s names
-baffled them completely; Marshall’s became “Martë”;
-they made a good attempt at mine in “Wollatona,”
-and Cramer’s they pronounced perfectly.</p>
-
-<p>So far as I know, they never finish a word with a
-consonant, and when they adopted a Malay or Dutch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span>
-word which ended in a consonant, they always added
-a vowel; for instance, <i>tuana</i> (master), <i>Kapítana</i> (Captain),
-<i>maíora</i> (Major).</p>
-
-<p>Some of their newly-constructed words will puzzle
-future philologists who go there; for instance, the
-Malay word <i>písau</i> (a knife) they called <i>pítau</i>, substituting
-“t” for the “s” which they cannot pronounce;
-<i>petau</i> was found easier to say than <i>pítau</i>, and eventually
-it became changed to <i>pauti</i>, which was the finally accepted
-version.</p>
-
-<p>Probably the best means of learning the local dialect
-would be to encourage an intelligent child to visit
-your camp daily, where it would learn Malay and in
-course of time might be able to act as interpreter; but
-the process of education would be a slow one, and it
-would be constantly interrupted by the wandering
-habits of the natives. The time that we spent in the
-country was too short for any such attempt to be
-made, and indeed it was not until we had been there
-for several months that the children came fearlessly
-into our camp. But now that the natives have full
-confidence in Europeans a patient scholar might make
-a complete study of a quite unknown language.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>The Papuans of Wakatimi—Colour—Hair—Eyes—Nose—Tattooing—Height—Dress—Widows’
-Bonnets—Growth of Children—Preponderance of Men—Number
-of Wives—Childhood—Swimming and
-other Games—Imitativeness of Children—The Search for Food—Women
-as Workers—Fishing Nets—Other Methods of Fishing—An
-Extract from Dampier.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Papuans of the Mimika district may be divided
-into two classes or tribes: those who live in the
-villages on the lower waters of the river and make
-periodical migrations to the sea; and those who live
-on the upper waters of the river near the foot of the
-mountains and who never go down to the coast.
-There is a wide interval of uninhabitable country
-between the regions occupied by these two tribes, and
-communication between them, if it takes place at all,
-is very rare; but they resemble each other so closely,
-both in physical characters and in their manners and
-customs, that a single description will suffice for both.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a>
-The other native race of the district, the pygmy people
-who live in the mountains, will be described in a later
-chapter.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">FEATURES OF THE PAPUANS</div>
-
-<p>The skin of the Mimika native is a very dark brown,
-almost rusty black, but a dark colour without any of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span>the gloss seen in the skin of the African negro. Not
-infrequently we saw men of a lighter, nearly yellow,
-colour, and in the Wakatimi district there were three
-pure albinos, a man, a woman and a child. The man
-and woman were covered with blotches of a pinkish
-pigment and were peculiarly disagreeable to look at,
-the child, a sucking infant, and the offspring of black
-parents, was as white as any European baby, and was
-called, out of compliment to us, “Tuana.”<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p>
-
-<p>The hair is black and thick and frizzly; it never,
-or seldom grows long, so you do not see the ornamental
-coiffures characteristic of the natives of some other
-parts of the island; but they are skilful in plaiting
-what there is of it and take some pride in the result.
-Three- or four-pronged combs are worn in the hair
-more as a means of carrying a useful article than as
-ornaments. The hair of young children is often quite
-fair, but it becomes dark as they grow up; some of the
-adults have the custom, common in other places, of
-dyeing the hair yellow with lime.</p>
-
-<p>The eye of the Papuan child is the eye of any bright
-dark-eyed child here or elsewhere; the white of the
-eye is white and the iris dark and clear. But very
-soon the white becomes bloodshot and yellow, and the
-iris blurred. The expression in the eyes is a thing
-that haunts one by its forlornness and hopelessness;
-it cannot be described, but you may see it in the eyes of
-certain animals. They show a strong disinclination
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span>to look you straight in the eyes, and when you rarely
-make them do so you seem to be looking into an unlighted
-and empty space.</p>
-
-<p>The teeth are strong, but not conspicuously white
-and perfect like those of some other black races. A
-good many men file or chip the upper incisors to a
-point, but this has not, so far as we know, any particular
-significance.</p>
-
-<p>The nose is almost bridgeless and is of a somewhat
-hooked and fleshy type with wide nostrils. The <i>septum</i>
-of the nose is pierced when the boys are young, and the
-hole is kept open by a rolled-up leaf thrust through it;
-in this way it is gradually dilated until the man is able
-to wear a carved ornament of a piece of the bill of a
-hornbill or a curved boar’s tusk, with which he decorates
-himself on festal occasions. The nose-piercing is
-attended with a good deal of ceremony, but we were
-never fortunate enough to see it; it is done when the
-child is about five years old, and the operation is made
-(according to native accounts) with a piece of sharpened
-bone heated in the fire. Small ornaments are sometimes
-worn in holes in the <i>alae nasi</i> which are pierced
-in all the children, both boys and girls, when they are
-small infants.</p>
-
-<p>Many of the people pierce the lobes of the ear, but
-the custom is not universal. The ornaments worn in
-the ear are strings of two or three beads, or small rings
-of plaited fibres or rattan, or the claw of a cassowary.
-We took with us a large number of Jew’s harps as
-trade goods, but the natives did not care for them,
-and two (the only two, I believe) that we did succeed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>
-in making the people accept, were worn by them as
-ear-rings. Another man, a constant smoker, in default
-of a better cigar case always carried a cigar in the lobe
-of his ear.</p>
-
-<p>Tattooing, in the proper sense of the term, is unknown
-to the Mimika Papuans, but a great number of
-them practise cicatrisation or scarring. The usual
-places for these markings are the buttocks and the
-outer side of the upper (usually the left) arm. On the
-buttocks the marks are almost always the same, a cross,
-about two inches square, on the left buttock, and a
-cross surrounded by a circle on the right. The mark
-on the arm is about four inches long and sometimes
-represents a snake and sometimes a scorpion or a crayfish,
-but the meaning of it, and whether or not it had
-some totemistic significance we were unable to learn.
-Some of the women affect a scar between the breasts,
-which makes a very unsightly contraction, and we
-occasionally saw people with irregular scars all over
-the upper part of the breast and back, but it is probable
-that most of them were the signs rather of former
-quarrels than due to a spirit of coquetry.</p>
-
-<p>They are fond of painting their faces with a bright
-red earth, lumps of which they sometimes find and
-prize very highly, and not infrequently we saw men with
-their faces smeared black with a mixture of fat and
-charcoal, or whitened with powdered sago, but the
-reason, if there were any but vanity, for this adornment
-we did not discover.</p>
-
-<table summary="CICATRIZATION and SAGO POWDER"><tr>
-<td class="tdl2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_p112a.jpg" width="200" height="254" alt="CICATRIZATION." />
-<p class="caption">CICATRIZATION.</p></div></td>
-
-<td class="tdl2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_p112b.jpg" width="200" height="250" alt="PAPUAN WITH FACE WHITENED WITH SAGO POWDER." />
-<p class="caption">PAPUAN WITH FACE WHITENED WITH SAGO POWDER.</p></div></td></tr></table>
-
-<p>The average height of men measured at Wakatimi
-and Parimau is 5 feet 6 inches. No women were
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span>measured, but it would probably be found that the
-average height of the women was about two inches
-less than that of the men. Such a height is small compared
-with that of many races, but the first impression
-you get of the Papuans is that they are tall, for they
-hold themselves well, and all naked people look taller
-than those who go clothed. Their legs are thin and
-rather meagre, due in a great measure to the large proportion
-of their lives that is spent in canoes, but they walk
-with a good swinging gait and cover the ground easily.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">DRESS</div>
-
-<p>It is a curious thing that a black man never looks
-naked; a white man undressed looks a naked man,
-so too does a yellow man, but a Papuan—and nobody
-could wear much less in the way of clothes than he
-does—always seems to be sufficiently clad. The dress
-of the Papuan men, as has been suggested above, is
-scanty in the extreme. They have, or had before we
-visited them, no cloth except a very inferior bark cloth
-made from the bark of a species of fig tree. Some of
-the men wear a narrow strip of this bark cloth, which
-hangs down in front from a string round the loins
-and keeps up an ineffectual pretence of decency.</p>
-
-<p>The more usual covering is the bamboo penis-case,
-which is kept in position by pulling the preputium
-through a hole in the lower end of the case. There are
-three or four different patterns of penis-cases, and they
-are always ornamented with carved designs. Another
-equally common fashion of covering is the shell; this
-is an oval or roughly squared segment of a large white
-sea shell, sometimes as much as six inches in diameter.
-It is worn on a string which passes through two holes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span>
-bored in it, and is tied tightly round the loins. The
-convex surface of the shell faces forwards, and the
-preputium is pulled upwards and clipped under the
-lower margin of the shell. Both the bamboo case and
-the shell are useful as a protection against the leeches
-and thorns of the jungle.</p>
-
-<p>Small boys go quite naked until they reach the
-time of puberty, when for a short period they wear a
-sort of skirt made from the shredded leaves of the
-<i>pandanus</i>. Though the men like very much to wear
-round their heads strips of our coloured cloth, they do
-not normally use any kind of head-gear except on ceremonial
-occasions, when the men who beat the drums
-wear elaborate hats ornamented with the plumes of
-birds of paradise. Many of the men wear arm-bands
-above the elbow and leg-bands below the knee, made
-of tightly woven fibre or of fine strips of rattan.</p>
-
-<p>The women are rather more clothed than the men,
-but it cannot be said that they are at all overdressed.
-The usual garment consists of a narrow belt of bark
-cloth or grass round the waist, from which there hang
-a narrow strip of bark cloth in front, reaching about
-half way down the thigh, and a wider strip, somewhat
-after the fashion of the tail of an Englishman’s evening
-coat, extending as far as the knee behind. In addition
-to this, many of the women wear a sort of short waistcoat
-or sleeveless bodice made of plaited grass or fibre
-with tags or tassels hanging down in a sort of fringe
-from its lower edge. Newly-married women wear a
-sort of apron, or rather a long fringe of shredded leaves,
-which hangs down from the waist.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p114.jpg" width="400" height="625" alt="WOMEN OF WAKATIMI." />
-<p class="caption">WOMEN OF WAKATIMI.<br />
-(<i>On the left is a widow wearing the bonnet.</i>)</p></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">WIDOWS’ WEEDS</div>
-
-<p>The best dressed, or in any case the most dressed,
-members of the community are the widows, who wear,
-in addition to the other articles of female attire, what
-can only be described as a poke bonnet. In some cases
-the bonnet projects so far in front of the face as to
-obscure the features, in some it is of a conical design,
-and in others it resembles in shape nothing so much
-as the morion of a mediaeval man-at-arms.</p>
-
-<p>Like the waistcoats worn by the women, the bonnets
-are made of ingeniously plaited fibre, and both of
-these look well when they are newly made, but they
-very quickly become hideous with damp and dirt, and
-the wearer is a person to be shunned. The small girls,
-unlike the boys, wear a narrow strip of bark cloth
-tucked between the legs almost as soon as they can walk.
-It is perhaps worth mentioning that these people have
-the art of sewing; they make eyed needles out of
-sharp fish bones, and with strands of fibre they contrive
-to sew pieces of bark cloth very neatly together.</p>
-
-<p>There are no milk-producing domesticated animals
-in the country, so the women suckle their infants for
-a very long time, and you may occasionally see
-children of (apparently) three or four years old at their
-mothers’ breasts; but whether young or old, it is very
-difficult to estimate the age of these people. In the
-course of a year we saw little children grow into active
-boys and we saw young men become middle-aged.
-I should say—but this is pure speculation—that a man
-is old at forty years and a woman at an even earlier
-age; it seems probable, too, that the life of a woman
-is shorter than that of a man.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Partly on account of the migratory habits of the
-natives, and partly owing to the fact that at no hour
-of the day until nightfall are all the people in or about
-the houses, it was never found possible to take a census
-of a village, but from our observations we arrived at
-the conclusion that the number of men was decidedly
-greater than that of women.</p>
-
-<p>The number of a man’s wives was a favourite subject
-for boasting and they often assured us that they had
-two or even three wives, but we only knew two men
-who certainly had two wives; on the other hand we
-knew a considerable number of men who had no wives
-at all. It appears that a man may take a wife from his
-own village or from a village in the same district;
-thus a Wakatimi man may take a wife from Obota
-or Periepia, and a Parimau man from Kamura. There
-were two women at Parimau who were said to come
-from Wakatimi, but whether they had been voluntarily
-exchanged or were the spoils of war we were not told.</p>
-
-<p>It was unfortunate that we learnt nothing about
-the customs and ceremonies connected with marriage.
-A wedding took place at Wakatimi when we all
-happened to be absent, and the only definite description
-that we were able to get of it was that the bride,
-who arrived from another village by canoe, crawled
-on her hands and knees from the water’s edge to the
-village, a distance of about a hundred yards, and most
-of it through mud.</p>
-
-<p>Beyond question, the happiest time in the lives of
-the Papuans is their childhood, when they are free to
-play from morning to night and need not take part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span>
-in the ceaseless search for food, which occupies so much
-of the time of their elders. As infants they are carried
-on the backs of their mothers and very often of their
-fathers, secured by a wide strap of bark cloth, the ends
-of which are tied across the carrier’s chest. It is
-very seldom that you hear them cry and they appear
-to give very little trouble; their mothers are very
-careful of the cleanliness of the infants. Very early
-in life they begin to walk and almost as soon they learn
-to swim. In fine weather they often spend the greater
-part of the day in the river and it is a very pretty sight
-to see a crowd of little Papuans playing together in
-the water. Sometimes they are joined by the women,
-who seem to enjoy the fun quite as much as the
-children. One of their favourite games is to pretend
-to be a school of porpoises, whose rolling headers they
-imitate admirably. They very soon become powerful
-swimmers, and I remember one day seeing a small boy,
-who cannot have been more than eight years old, swim
-across a river in tremendous flood, while the party
-of men who were with him had to seek a place where
-they could safely swim across half a mile lower down.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">GAMES OF THE CHILDREN</div>
-
-<p>There are a number of games too that they play
-on dry land: they play the universal game of lying
-in wait for your enemy and suddenly pouncing out on
-him; they have great battles in which they are armed
-with miniature bows and arrows, and reed stems take
-the place of spears, and shrill yells make up for the
-lack of bloodshed. There is another game which I saw
-played three or four times in exactly the same manner,
-and which, by reason of it somewhat resembling a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span>
-children’s game called “Nuts in May,” is perhaps worth
-describing. Eight little boys, each one carrying a long
-flowering grass, stood in two parties of four facing each
-other a few yards apart. At first they waved their
-grasses and then danced towards each other, crossed
-and took the places that had been opposite to them;
-this they repeated twice. Then they ran round and
-round in a circle about five yards wide waving their
-grasses and shouting until they stopped suddenly and
-sat down in a bunch together. After a rest of about
-half a minute, they jumped up and ran round again
-in the same circle, now shouting and grabbing as they
-ran handsful of sand, which they threw over their
-heads into the air or between their legs into the face
-of the one behind; then a sudden stop and again they
-all sat down in a bunch. After this they jumped up,
-ran all together for a few yards shouting loudly,
-hurled all their grasses as high into the air as they
-could, and the game was ended.</p>
-
-<p>Like the children of more civilised races, the young
-Papuans are fond of imitating their elders. The boys
-like to be seen walking about with men, to copy their
-swaggering walk, and to sit about smoking idly and
-watch the women at work. The little girls sometimes
-contrive to make grass garments like those worn by
-the women; they make small dolls’ houses in which
-they themselves, or infants still smaller than they,
-are the dolls, and they like to be seen baling out the
-canoes or carrying sand for the houses. But in their
-case pretence is soon changed to reality, and when they
-are quite young they are made to accompany their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span>
-mothers in the serious business of life, while the boys
-are still leading a gay life with no responsibilities.
-Both boys and girls very early become proficient in the
-management of canoes, and a child of tender years
-will confidently steer a canoe through rough water
-which would end in certain shipwreck for one of us.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE BUSINESS OF LIFE</div>
-
-<p>The chief business in the lives of the Papuans is
-that of all animals, human and others, namely, the
-search for food. But while the civilised races have
-learnt to foresee wants of the future, and have
-established a system of agriculture which provides
-food for everybody and leaves a part of the population
-free to pursue other occupations, the Papuans take
-no thought for the morrow, and the search for food
-becomes literally a hand to mouth business, which
-occupies the attentions of every member of the community.</p>
-
-<p>They have no cultivation in the Mimika villages,
-and even at those places such as Obota (see p. 88)
-where there is some cultivation, the crops that they
-raise are not nearly sufficient for the whole population,
-so it can easily be imagined that an improvident people
-living in a country constantly liable to sudden floods,
-which swamp the land for weeks at a time, is frequently
-faced with a prospect of complete starvation. At
-first you are inclined to think that the whole of the
-business of collecting food falls on the shoulders of
-the women, while the men sit at home and do nothing.
-This is certainly true of a great many days in the year,
-but certain tasks can only be performed by the men,
-such as hunting for game in the jungle, and felling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span>
-trees to make the canoes, without which the people
-must inevitably starve.</p>
-
-<p>Their working day begins fairly early, and by about
-eight o’clock the village is almost deserted by the
-women, who have all gone off in canoes to fish or collect
-sago. As a rule, two or three women go in each canoe,
-taking with them a few children, a dog or two, several
-fishing nets, rolls of matting, some spears and arrows,
-a little food, a bamboo filled with fresh water, if they
-are going down to the river mouth, and always a fire
-burning in the stern of the boat. The usual destination
-of the women is the muddy creeks among the
-mangrove swamps not far from the sea; there where
-the water is brackish and the tide rises and falls several
-feet they find in the mud banks large mussels
-(<i>Cyrena</i> sp.), which contain a good deal of food, and
-the shells of which are useful as knives and scrapers.
-Hopping all over the mud are seen hundreds of curious
-little fish (<i>Periophthalmus</i> sp.), whose eyes seem to be
-starting out of their heads; these little creatures climb
-up the steepest mud banks, and even up the stumps of
-trees.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p120.jpg" width="400" height="515" alt="PAPUAN WOMAN AND CHILD." />
-<p class="caption">PAPUAN WOMAN AND CHILD.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">FISHING</div>
-
-<p>The commonest type of fishing net is made in an oval
-framework of wood, or strips of rattan, about 5 feet long
-by 2 feet wide; the net is a close mesh of native string
-stretched tightly across the frame, except at the middle,
-where it sags a little. The usual method of using this
-kind of net is to grasp it at both ends and by wading
-through the shallow water to scoop up small fish much
-in the same way as shrimps are caught. There is
-another more ingenious method of using it, which
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span>sometimes results in large capture of little fish. When
-the tide is high the bushes along the river bank and many
-of the drooping branches of the trees are submerged;
-the natives approach quietly in their canoes, cautiously
-push the net under the submerged vegetation, and then
-with a sudden jerk lift it up out of the water, in this way
-capturing numbers of small fish which had been sheltering
-or looking for food among the leaves.</p>
-
-<p>Another form of fishing net—though there is no
-netting in its construction—is made of long, thin strips
-of bamboo tied parallel to each other at intervals of
-about half an inch, forming a sort of screen or trellis-work,
-which can be rolled up if necessary. Strong
-wooden stakes are driven into the mud at the mouth
-of the creeks which join the river in many places, and
-at high water the screens are fastened to the stakes
-in such a way as to touch the bottom and close the
-entrance of the creek; the water can run back when
-the tide falls, but not the fish which are sometimes
-caught in considerable numbers.</p>
-
-<p>The larger fish are all obtained by the men, who
-either catch them with a hook and line, or spear them
-in the shallow water near the river mouth, or along the
-sea shore. We saw very few hooks; one or two were
-made of rough metal, the others were neatly fashioned
-from fish bones, and all of them were plain without
-barbs. Now they have a large number of steel fishhooks,
-which they greatly value.</p>
-
-<p>The commonest types of fish-spear are made of
-thin bamboo or a light wood about ten feet long, and
-they end in three or four sharp prongs of bamboo or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span>
-hardened wood. They also use a barbed spear of which
-the head becomes detached from the shaft, when it
-becomes fixed in a fish; a light line connecting the shaft
-with the head causes the shaft to act as a drag on
-the movements of the fish, which can easily be followed
-up and killed; this kind of spear is only used for the
-larger fish, saw-fish and the like, but I never saw it in
-use. Considering the enormous number of fish that
-there are—at the mouth of the river the water is sometimes
-seen to be seething with large fish—it cannot
-be said that the men are very clever with their spears.</p>
-
-<p>They also shoot fish, using single- or three-pointed
-arrows; you may see a man standing quietly in a pool
-of water like a heron waiting for the fish to come up to
-him, or stalking a shoal of fish stealthily from the
-bank; in either case he will probably shoot arrow after
-arrow without effect, for they are absurdly indifferent
-marksmen with the bow.</p>
-
-<p>The most primitive methods of all of catching fish
-I saw practised one day coming down from Obota.
-A native paddling in the bow of my canoe saw a large
-fish near the bank, towards which he steered the canoe.
-When he judged that he was near enough to it, he
-hurled himself flat on to the water with a resounding
-splash that drenched everything in the boat, and a
-thud that would have stunned the fish at once had it
-not darted off an instant earlier.</p>
-
-<p>The sight of a fish, however small it is, always
-rouses a Papuan to action. When we were travelling
-with natives, we sometimes came to pools where small
-fish had been left by some receding flood. Instantly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span>
-their loads were thrown down and everyone darted
-into the water with sticks and stones and shouts and
-as much enthusiasm as if the fish had been salmon
-and a full meal for everyone.</p>
-
-<p>There is another method of fishing which was observed
-by the navigator, Captain Dampier, in use by the natives
-of this region. It is so remarkable that, although we
-did not see it employed by the people of the Mimika
-district, I shall make no excuse for repeating it here:—</p>
-
-<p>“They strike Fish very ingeniously with Wooden
-Fiss-gigs and have a very ingenious way of making
-the Fish rise: For they have a piece of Wood curiously
-carv’d and painted much like a Dolphin (and perhaps
-other Figures;) these they let down into the Water
-by a Line with a small weight to sink it; when they
-think it low enough, they haul the Line into their
-Boats very fast, and the Fish rise up after this Figure;
-and they stand ready to strike them when they are
-near the Surface of the Water.”<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a></p>
-
-<p>There are times when the natives get more fish
-than they know what to do with, and other times when
-no fish can be caught; but they have no idea of laying
-up a store for the lean times. It is true that they char
-some in the fire and keep them for a few days before
-the fish putrify, but if they learnt to smoke some of their
-surplus supply, they need never go hungry.</p>
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Food of the Papuans—Cassowaries—The Native Dog—Question of
-Cannibalism—Village Headman—The Social System of the
-Papuans—The Family—Treatment of Women—Religion—Weather
-Superstitions—Ceremony to avert a Flood—The Pig—A Village
-Festival—Wailing at Deaths—Methods of Disposal of the Dead—No
-Reverence for the Remains—Purchasing Skulls.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="sidenote">FOOD OF THE NATIVES</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> search for food furnishes occasionally some very
-curious scenes. One of the most remarkable occurs when
-the river in flood brings down a tree-trunk in a suitable
-stage of decay. A canoe is sent out with men to secure
-it and tow it to the bank. When it has been left stranded
-by the falling water, the people, men, women and children
-come out and swarm around it like bees about a honey-pot,
-and you wonder what they can be doing. When you go
-close you find that some are splitting up the log with their
-stone axes and others are cutting up the fragments with
-sharpened shells in the same way that their ancestors—and
-perhaps ours too—did centuries ago. The objects of
-their search are the large white <i>larvæ</i> of a beetle, about
-the size of a man’s thumb; I have seen natives eat them
-just as they cut them out of the wood, but usually they
-roast them in the fire and consider them a great delicacy.</p>
-
-<p>Nothing that can by any means be considered eatable
-comes amiss to the Papuans; there are two kinds of
-water tortoises which they like to eat, and rats, lizards,
-frogs and snakes, and the eggs of crocodiles they devour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span>
-greedily. A number of different kinds of fruits, most of
-them disagreeable to European tastes, are found growing
-in the jungle and form a welcome addition to their fare.
-Birds they get occasionally, but their skill with the bow
-and arrow is not remarkable.</p>
-
-<p>Most of their meat is obtained by hunting with dogs
-the wild pig, the wallaby and the cassowary. The pig
-(<i>Sus papuensis</i>), though it is not really a native of New
-Guinea, was introduced into the island so long ago that
-it has become as well established as the rabbit has become
-in this country. In some places, particularly near the
-foot of the mountains, pigs are fairly numerous, and the
-natives kill a good many; they are very savage beasts,
-and I saw a native terribly gashed by a large boar, which
-was shortly afterwards shot by one of our Gurkhas.</p>
-
-<p>The Wallaby (<i>Dorcopsis lorentzii</i>) is a small kangaroo,
-about two feet in height when it stands upright; it seems
-to be fairly evenly distributed all over the district. When
-the natives bestir themselves they seem to be able to catch
-the wallaby fairly easily; in four consecutive days we
-saw the remains of thirteen brought into the village of
-Parimau. The flesh is coarse and has a very strong musky
-flavour.</p>
-
-<p>There are two kinds of Cassowary in the Mimika district,
-a small species new to science (<i>Casuarius claudi</i>),
-which was discovered in the mountains at an altitude of
-about 1500 feet, and a large species (<i>Casuarius sclateri</i>),
-which was fairly abundant everywhere. We frequently
-heard their curious booming cry at night and we often saw
-their tracks in the mud of the jungle or on the river bank,
-but they are very shy birds and are seldom seen.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Once I had the luck to see an old cassowary with
-two young birds walking about in a stony river bed,
-a place which they particularly affect, and it was a very
-pretty sight to see how the mother bird, after she had
-caught sight of me, drove away the chicks to a place
-of safety and all the time kept herself between them
-and me. The natives hunt and kill and eat a good
-many cassowaries; the feathers are used for ornamental
-head-dresses and belts and for decorating spears and
-clubs, and the claws are often used as the points of
-arrows.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE NATIVE DOGS</div>
-
-<p>The Papuan Dog, without whose help the native
-would seldom, if ever, be able to get any meat, is a
-sharp-nosed prick-eared creature about the size of a
-Welsh terrier. The colour is yellow, brown or black,
-and the tail, which is upstanding, is tipped with white.
-Usually the hair is short and smooth, but we saw one
-dog, brought down to Parimau by a party of pygmies,
-which had a thick furry coat like a chow dog, which it
-also resembled in the carriage of its tail. The dogs
-in the village of the pygmies which we visited, were
-smooth-coated like those of the Papuans, so it is
-possible that that thick-coated animal came from some
-remote district where the natives live at a higher altitude.</p>
-
-<p>The Papuan dogs are very sociable creatures, and
-they like to accompany the natives on their journeys.
-They are particularly fond of going in canoes on the
-river, and two or three are seen in nearly every canoe
-even when the people are only out fishing. Their
-food is generally given to them by the women and it
-consists of raw meat, when there is any, and lumps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span>
-of sago. A remarkable peculiarity about them is that
-they never bark, but they make up for this defect by
-their extraordinary power of howling. Sometimes in
-broad daylight, if there was no wind, but more often
-on still fine nights, a party of dogs would sit together,
-usually on the river bank, and utter a chorus of the
-most piteous and blood-curdling howls. No amount
-of stone-throwing or beating with sticks, freely administered
-by their masters, had the smallest effect on them;
-they would only move away a few yards and begin
-again, apparently carried away by an ecstasy of sorrow.</p>
-
-<p>The natives value their dogs highly, as they well
-may do, for they provide the whole of their meat supply,
-and they use them to exchange for articles of which
-they have great need. The people at Parimau have a
-small piece of iron about the size of a chisel, used
-for carving their canoes and paddles, for which the
-enormous price of three dogs had been paid, so they
-informed us, to the people of the Wakatimi. One
-day one of our “boys” shot a dog, which had been
-in the habit of stealing food from our camp. When
-the natives knew that it was dead, all the people of the
-village began to wail in the same manner as they do
-when a person dies, and the owner of the dog smeared
-himself with mud and mourned bitterly. No doubt
-the display was somewhat exaggerated in the hope of
-getting a compensation from us, but at the back of it
-there was genuine emotion.</p>
-
-<p>Before leaving the subject of the food of the
-Papuans and their means of obtaining it, a word must
-be said on the question of cannibalism. It is popularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span>
-supposed that all the natives of New Guinea are
-cannibals, and fears were expressed by many of our
-friends that some, if not all, of us would end in a Papuan
-feast. But we saw no signs of cannibalism, and we
-have no reason to suppose that it is practised by the
-people of the Mimika district. Men whom we questioned
-about it denied it and showed expressions of disgust
-at the suggestion; but that is not a complete proof
-of their innocence, for I have known people elsewhere,
-who were undoubtedly cannibals, deny it in the same
-manner. The question of cannibalism is always difficult
-to decide without direct evidence, and in the case
-of these Papuans the verdict must be one of “Not
-proven.”</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">SOCIAL SYSTEM OF THE PAPUANS</div>
-
-<p>The account given in a preceding chapter of the
-difficulties we experienced in learning the language of
-the Papuans will serve to explain how it was that we
-learnt so little about the nature of their social system.
-The people of Wakatimi were called <i>Wakatimi-wé</i>
-(people of Wakatimi), the people of Obota were
-<i>Obota-wé</i>, and the people of other villages in like manner,
-but we never heard one word that included them all,
-nor indeed do we know whether or not they consider
-themselves all to belong to the same tribe.</p>
-
-<p>In every village that we visited there were one or
-two or even more men who called themselves <i>natoo</i>,
-a word signifying “chief.” But in no case did the
-<i>natoo</i> appear to have any authority over the other
-people; their houses were no bigger than the rest, and
-(except in one instance) they had no more personal
-property than the other members of the community.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p128.jpg" width="400" height="647" alt="A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA." />
-<p class="caption">A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA.</p></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The exceptional case was a man of unusual intelligence
-who became our intimate friend and gave us much
-information for which he was always well rewarded,
-so that before we left the country his house was filled
-with tins and bottles, and he was the possessor of axes
-and knives, yards of cloth and countless beads. In all
-the ordinary affairs of life the “chiefs” and their
-families have to work like everybody else, but it is
-possible that in their wars, of which we saw nothing
-at all, they may be persons of more consequence.</p>
-
-<p>Generally speaking, one would say that the society
-of the Mimika Papuans is a group of small families. It
-cannot by any means be described as a socialistic community;
-with one exception there is no sign of community
-of property, but it is rather a case of every man
-for himself, or (more accurately) of every family for
-itself. A canoe belongs to the family of the man who
-made it; the coconut trees, which grow here and there
-along the lower Mimika, do not belong to the community
-but to individuals, presumably the men or
-some of the men who planted them. Sometimes the
-trees are protected by a fence, a very flimsy structure
-of three or four sticks, placed across the track which
-leads to the trees; in other cases a few palm leaves or
-some pierced shells threaded on a string are tied round
-the tree itself; both of these devices appear to be
-enough to ensure the security of the trees. The exception
-mentioned is seen when game is brought in by
-the hunters; the meat, as I observed on several
-occasions, is distributed to every house in the village.</p>
-
-<p>As I have described above (p. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>) the houses in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span>
-village are joined together under a common roof, but
-each family enters by its own doorway, and, except
-for the publicity resulting from the lack of dividing
-walls or partitions, it finds itself in its own private
-house. It is difficult to say exactly of what the
-“family-group” consists. There are the man and his
-wife and the children, and sometimes an extra man or
-two, and, rarely, an extra woman, who is, I believe,
-always a second wife of the man of the house; but the
-position of the extra men and their relationship to
-the rest of the family I cannot define. At the village
-of Obota a detached house, rather larger than the rest,
-was said to be occupied by young men only; we did
-not see any other instance of this elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p>Families are small, as might be expected from the
-severity of their conditions of life and the long period
-of suckling by the mothers, and we did not know
-definitely of any couple who had more than three living
-children. Though the women do a large amount of
-the work of the community they are not mere drudges;
-they do a great deal of talking, and the men appear
-to pay considerable respect to their opinion. This
-was frequently noticeable when we wanted to buy
-something, such as canoes, from a native; he would
-say that he must first of all go and consult his wife,
-and when he returned it often happened that, prompted
-by his wife, he insisted on a higher payment than he
-had asked before.</p>
-
-<p>On one occasion only did we see a woman ill-treated,
-and the performance was a particularly brutal one.
-Two men and a woman walked down from the village<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span>
-of Wakatimi to the river bank, dragging another woman,
-who shrieked and struggled violently. After throwing
-her into the mud they dragged her into the shallow
-water and tried to drown her by holding her down under
-a fishing-net. We shouted at them, and were just going
-with some soldiers in a canoe across the river to rescue
-the woman, when they desisted and allowed the poor
-creature to crawl out on to the bank, where she lay for
-some time exhausted. Some natives who came over to
-us shortly afterwards laughed about it and treated the
-whole affair as a joke.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">PAPUAN SUPERSTITIONS</div>
-
-<p>With regard to the superstitions and beliefs of the
-Papuans, owing to our unfortunate difficulties with the
-language we learnt nothing whatever. Religion, in
-the accepted sense of that term, I am sure they have
-not. It is true that they make curious carved effigies,
-but these are not idols, and there is no evidence to show
-that they ever consult or worship them; on the contrary,
-they treat them with contempt and often
-point to them with laughter. These images are ingeniously
-and skilfully carved out of wood, and they
-represent a human figure always grotesque and sometimes
-grossly indecent. They vary in size from a few
-inches to twelve or fourteen feet, and when they are not
-neglected they are ornamented with red and white
-paint.</p>
-
-<p>We had opportunities of observing the outward
-signs of what were probably superstitions in connection
-with certain phenomena of the weather. For instance,
-the first peal of thunder that was heard in the day—it
-occurred almost every day—was greeted by the men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span>
-with a long-drawn tremulous shout. On the occasion
-of a particularly alarming thunderstorm, when the
-lightning flashes were almost unceasing, the men came
-out of doors and with long sticks beat the ground in
-front of their huts; then they waved the sticks in the
-air, shouting loudly meanwhile. Curiously enough the
-rare whistle of a certain bird, which we never identified,
-was always greeted by the men of Parimau with a shout
-precisely similar to that with which they greet the
-thunder.</p>
-
-<p>The first sight of the new moon was signalised by a
-short sharp bark rather than a shout. Several times
-on the day following the first sight of the new moon
-I noticed a spear decorated with white feathers exposed
-conspicuously in the village, but whether it had any
-connection with the kalendar I cannot say.</p>
-
-<p>When the first drops of rain of the day began to
-fall, the men were sometimes seen to snap their fingers
-four times towards the four quarters of the compass.</p>
-
-<p>A curious ceremony was twice observed at a time
-of heavy rain, when the Mimika was rising rapidly and
-threatening to sweep away the village of Parimau. A
-party of men walked down to the edge of the river,
-and one of them with a long spear threshed the water,
-while the others at each stroke shouted, “<i>Mbu</i>” (water,
-flood). Then they went up to the village, and in front
-of each door they dug a hole, into which they poured
-a coconut-full of water; again they shouted “<i>Mbu</i>,”
-and then filled up the hole with sand.</p>
-
-<p>That they have some belief in the supernatural is
-certain. We learnt a word <i>niniki</i>, which undoubtedly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span>
-means ghosts; they described <i>niniki</i> as things which
-you could not see but were here and there in the air
-about you. When they were asked where a dead man
-had gone to, they talked of <i>niniki</i>, and pointed vaguely
-to the horizon, saying the word which means “far.”</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">PIGS</div>
-
-<p>If there is one thing in heaven or earth to which it
-may be said that the Papuans pay some sort of respect
-it is the pig. They hunt and kill a good many wild
-pigs in the jungle and eat their flesh, but the lower
-jaw of each animal is carefully cleaned and hung up
-on a sort of rack in front of the houses; on one of
-these racks I counted no fewer than thirty-two pigs’
-jaws. The grass and leaves in which the animal is
-wrapped and the ropes used for tying it up when it is
-carried home from the jungle, are not thrown away
-but are hung up on a similar sort of rack in a conspicuous
-place in the village.</p>
-
-<p>In every village there may generally be seen two
-or three pigs running about freely; they are probably
-not bred in the village, but are caught in the jungle,
-when they are young. They very soon become quite
-tame and accompany the people on their migrations
-from one place to another until they are full grown,
-when they provide food for a festival. The only
-elaborate popular ceremony that took place while we
-were in the country happened early in May at Parimau,
-and the principal feature of it was the slaughter of pigs.
-Unfortunately for me I was at the base-camp at the
-time and did not see the festival, so I will make extracts
-from Marshall’s graphic account.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a></p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">A VILLAGE FESTIVAL</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span></p>
-<p>“Yesterday the natives gave us an excellent show.
-For some days previously natives had been arriving
-from distant parts until the small village of 40 huts
-contained 400 people, and it was evident from the
-tomtomming and other signs that something of importance
-was about to take place. On the night of
-the 3rd inst. they lit a big bonfire, and all night long
-they were howling and yelling as if to drive away evil
-spirits. Soon after daybreak they came over to fetch
-us, and, expecting something unusual, I slipped a film
-into my cinematograph camera and went over. They
-gave me every opportunity of obtaining a good
-picture, keeping an open space for me in the best
-positions. First of all the women, draped in leaves,
-slowly walked down the beach, driving two full-grown
-boars in front of them, and then disappeared
-in the jungle. About 150 men with faces painted
-and heads and spears decorated with feathers, formed
-up in three sides of a square, one end of which was
-occupied by a band of tomtoms. A slow advance
-on the village then commenced, the men shouting
-in chorus and the women dancing on the outskirts.
-The centre of the square was occupied by single
-individuals, who, following each other in quick
-succession, gave a warlike display, finally shooting
-arrows far over the trees.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p134.jpg" width="400" height="637" alt="A TYPICAL PAPUAN OF MIMIKA." />
-<p class="caption">A TYPICAL PAPUAN OF MIMIKA.</p></div>
-
-<p>“The next scene took place around a large sloping
-erection which we soon found was an altar, on which
-the two boars were about to be sacrificed. The
-women and boars who had disappeared into the
-forest now marched from the jungle at the far end of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span>the village. The boars were seized, and a struggle
-with the animals ensued, but the two huge brutes
-were bound up with rattan, chalk meanwhile being
-rubbed into their eyes, apparently in order to blind
-them. The women set up a tremendous wailing,
-and appeared on the scene plastered in wet mud from
-head to foot. The two boars, on each of which a man
-sat astride, were now hoisted up and carried to the
-altar, on which the animals were tightly lashed. Then
-amid much shouting, tomtomming, and fanatical
-displays, the boars were clubbed to death. As soon
-as life was extinct, the women cut the carcases free,
-and, pulling them to the ground, threw themselves
-on the dead bodies, wailing loudly, and plastering
-themselves with wet mud in ecstasies of grief. This
-continued for some ten minutes, when the men, many
-of whom were covered with mud and uttered strange
-dirges, picked up the bodies, and the whole assembly
-following suit marched into the river, where a much-needed
-washing took place. Just previous to this
-a three-year-old child, painted red and crying loudly,
-had been roughly seized and dragged towards the
-dais, and for a moment we thought something more
-serious than a boar sacrifice was about to take place.
-But we were much relieved to see that it was only
-having its ears pierced. The whole performance
-lasted about an hour and a half.</p>
-
-<p>“The afternoon was given over to innocent play,
-the women and girls—many of them quite pretty—chasing
-the men up to the river side and into the
-water. This is one of the few ceremonies when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span>
-women are allowed to beat the men, the latter not
-being permitted to retaliate. The damsels finally
-became so bold that they stormed the camp.”</p>
-
-<p>Of ceremonies connected with birth, if any take
-place, we saw nothing at all. The only marriage
-ceremony that took place during our stay in the country
-has been referred to on a preceding page.</p>
-
-<p>Deaths were unfortunately more frequent, and if
-they were not accompanied by any elaborate ceremonial
-they were, at all events, widely advertised, sometimes
-indeed even before the event itself. A wretched man
-became very ill at Parimau in August, and it was soon
-evident that his days were numbered. Members of
-his family carried him out of the house and laid him in
-the sunlight for a time, and then took him back into the
-house again at least half a dozen times a day. Now
-and again, when he dozed, they set up the dreadful
-wail that is customary when a person dies, and he had
-to wake up and assure them of his continued life. At
-night his hut was crowded with sympathetic watchers,
-and with the smoke of the fire and much tobacco the
-atmosphere must have been nearly insupportable. As
-our own house was distant only about forty yards across
-the river we could plainly hear his laboured breathing,
-and when it grew softer they wailed again until the
-wonder was that he did not die. On the third day
-they dug a grave for him, but still he lingered on, and
-it was not until the fifth night, when a tremendous
-flood came down and swept away the village so that
-all the people had to take refuge in their canoes, that he
-died.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">WAILING AT DEATH</div>
-
-<p>When a death occurs the people in the hut at once
-begin to wail, then the people in the neighbouring huts
-join in and soon the whole village is wailing. It is a
-very peculiar and very striking chorus. Each individual
-wails on one note, and as there are perhaps five
-notes ranging from a very high pitch to a deep
-murmured bass being sung at once, the effect is most
-mournful. The occasional beat of a drum adds not a
-little to the general effect of lamentation. It must
-be admitted, however, that the wailing is not always
-a musical performance. Sometimes the mourning man
-behaves in the way that a child does when it is described
-as “roaring”; he puckers up his face in the most
-extraordinary contortions, “roars” at the top of his
-voice with occasional heart-breaking sobs, while the
-tears course down his face, and the complete picture
-is ludicrous in the extreme.</p>
-
-<p>The disposal of the dead nearly always takes place
-just before dawn, but the method of it is not always
-the same. The most common practice is to bury the
-body in a shallow grave dug in the nearest convenient
-spot, sometimes within a few yards of the huts. The
-body is wrapped in mats and laid flat in the grave,
-which is then filled up, and its place is perhaps marked
-by a stick, but in a day or two it is forgotten and people
-trample on it without heed.</p>
-
-<p>We observed one instance of a more elaborate kind
-of burial. The corpse, wrapped in leaves and mats,
-was taken out into the jungle and placed on a platform
-about four feet high, which had been put up for the
-purpose. After placing the body on the platform the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span>
-men who had carried it walked down to the river, shouted
-once in unison, and then, having received an answering
-shout from the men in the village, one of them threw
-a small triangular piece of wood out into the stream.
-In the meantime the family of the dead man disappeared
-into the jungle, from which they soon emerged
-quite naked, plastered all over with mud and decorated
-with wisps of climbing plants. The next two days
-were spent in digging a grave and making a coffin
-shaped like a small canoe; this however was found
-to be too small and was not used. On the third day
-the body was placed in the grave, and an ornamental
-post placed in the ground at each end, but contrary
-to our hopes (for the state of that man was becoming
-very offensive) they did not fill in the grave. They
-merely covered the body with leaves and turned it
-over every day. At intervals the widow, quite naked,
-save for a plastering of mud, crawled on hands and knees
-from her hut, which was less than five yards distant,
-and visited the grave. In a few days a providential
-flood came and filled up the grave and put an end to what
-had become for us an almost intolerable nuisance.</p>
-
-<p>Both at Wakatimi and at Parimau our camp commanded
-a good view of the native village, and a death
-always provided us with the mild excitement of wondering
-in what new way they would celebrate the event.
-On one occasion when a woman died, the bereaved
-husband and another man walked slowly down to the river
-and waded out into about three feet of water. There
-the widower submitted to being washed all over by
-the other man and finally to being held under water by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span>
-him for half a minute or more, after which they walked
-solemnly back to the village.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD</div>
-
-<p>Early in the morning of the day after the death of
-the <i>natoo</i> of Wakatimi all the women and girls of the
-village, to the number of sixty or seventy, came down
-to the river, all of them without a vestige of clothing,
-and in the shallow water a foot or two deep they swam
-and crawled and wriggled up the river for a hundred
-yards or more, wailing loudly all the time. Sometimes
-they came out on to the bank and rolled in the mud,
-and finally they all went out of the water and stood
-wailing in front of the dead man’s house.</p>
-
-<p>Another method of disposing of the dead, which is
-very frequently adopted, is to place the body wrapped
-in mats in a rude coffin, which is usually constructed
-from pieces of broken canoes. The coffin containing
-the body is supported on a trestle of crossed sticks about
-four feet from the ground (see illustration opposite),
-and there it remains until decomposition is complete.
-As these coffins are often placed within a yard or two
-of the houses, it can be imagined that a Papuan village
-is not always a pleasant place to visit.</p>
-
-<p>At the village of Nimé we saw two or three pathetic
-little bundles containing the remains of infants exposed
-on racks within a few feet of the houses, from which
-they doubtless came.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p139.jpg" width="400" height="560" alt="DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. A COFFIN ON TRESTLES." />
-<p class="caption">DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. A COFFIN ON TRESTLES.</p></div>
-
-<p>When decomposition is complete no account is taken
-of the bones, excepting the skull, which is taken and
-preserved in the house. Sometimes it is buried in the
-sand of the floor of the house, and sometimes it is tied
-up in a sort of open basket-work of rattan and hung
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>up in the roof, where it becomes brown with smoke and
-polished by frequent handling.</p>
-
-<p>Though the people take the trouble to bring the
-skulls into their houses, they show no real respect for
-them, and they are eager enough to part with them if a
-chance occurs. Two of us went one day to Obota, a
-village a few miles from Wakatimi, in the hopes of
-buying some bananas. In one of the huts we saw a skull
-and offered to buy it, not at all expecting that the owner
-would be willing to sell, but the offer of (I think) a piece
-of cloth was gladly accepted and the skull was ours.
-In a few minutes, when it became known that we had
-given good cloth for a common skull, everybody was
-anxious to sell his family remains, and outside every
-doorway were placed one or two or even three grinning
-skulls. They do not treat the skulls very carefully,
-and a good many were damaged, so we only bought
-about half a dozen that were perfect.</p>
-
-<p>One day a man walked into our camp at Wakatimi
-carrying a skull under his arm. He stood outside our
-house for some time, grinning and saying nothing, then
-he gave us unmistakably to understand that it was
-the skull of his wife, who, as we knew for a fact, had only
-died a short time previously. The skull was indeed
-so fresh that we declined the offer.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Papuans’ Love of Music—Their Concerts—A Dancing House—Carving—Papuans
-as Artists—Cat’s Cradle—Village Squabbles—The Part
-of the Women—Wooden and Stone Clubs—Shell Knives and Stone
-Axes—Bows and Arrows—Papuan Marksmen—Spears—A most
-Primitive People—Disease—Prospects of their Civilisation.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> most pleasing characteristic of the Papuans is their
-love of music. When a number of them are gathered
-together and when they have eaten well, or are for any
-other reason happy, they have a concert. Sometimes
-the concerts take place in the afternoon and continue
-till nightfall, but more often they begin after dark and
-go on almost through the night. The orchestra is simple
-and consists of two or three men who beat drums and
-sit before a small fire in the middle. Round them are
-grouped the chorus all sitting on the ground. The
-drums are hollowed cylinders of wood, which are often
-elaborately carved; one end is open, the other is closed
-by a piece of lizard’s or snake’s skin (see illustration p.
-142). When this skin becomes slack, as it very quickly
-does, the drummer holds it towards the fire until it
-regains its pitch. It is not the custom to tune up both
-drums, when there are more than one, to the same pitch,
-usually an interval of about half a tone is left between
-them. The leader of the orchestra sometimes wears a
-remarkable head-dress made of plaited fibre and ornamented
-with bunches of plumes of the Bird of Paradise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span>
-(see illustration p. 78). The effect of these plumes waving
-backwards and forwards as the man moves his head
-to mark the phrases of the song is exceedingly striking,
-and it must be admitted that if there is anybody, who
-can becomingly wear those gorgeous plumes, it is the
-naked black man.</p>
-
-<p>The most usual kind of song begins with a slow tapping
-of the drums, then these are beaten quicker and
-the singer (one of the drummers) begins a sort of recitative
-song, to which the chorus contributes a low humming
-accompaniment. Then the drums are beaten very
-loudly and rapidly, all the men in chorus sing, or rather
-growl, a deep guttural note, followed by a prolonged
-musical note at about the middle of the register of a
-normal man’s voice, and the song ends with one or more
-short sharp barks, “Wah! wah! wah!” with a loud
-drum accompaniment. The song, or probably different
-verses of it, is repeated very many times. The final
-shouts of the song, which for want of a better word I
-have called “barks,” are uttered by all the men in
-unison and recall, as was pointed out by Mr. Goodfellow,
-the harsh croaking call of the Greater Bird of Paradise,
-which is heard almost daily in the jungle. It is possible
-that the song is in some way connected with the bird
-and that there is an intentional imitation of its note.</p>
-
-<p>The scheme of all these songs is the same, viz., a recitative
-with drums and a humming accompaniment, but
-some of them have really rollicking choruses, and we
-used to listen to them at night with extreme pleasure as
-they came, somewhat softened by distance, over the
-water to our camp at Wakatimi. The voices of the men
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span>are often rich, and they have a true musical ear. Their
-intervals are very similar to ours and not at all like
-those of the Malays and many other Eastern singers,
-who recognize perhaps five notes where we have only
-two. Beside the drum the only instrument of music they
-have is a straight trumpet made from a short piece of
-bamboo. This produces only a single booming note and
-is not used at the concerts.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p142.jpg" width="500" height="758" alt="Stone Axe, Head-rests for sleeping, Drums." />
-<p class="caption">1. <span class="smcap">Stone Axe.</span><br />
-2. 3. 4. <span class="smcap">Head-rests for sleeping.</span><br />
-5. 6. 7. <span class="smcap">Drums.</span></p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">A DANCING HOUSE</div>
-
-<p>As an amusement of the Papuans even more important
-than singing is dancing, of which they often talked,
-but though we saw some of their dancing halls (see
-illustration p. 48), we never had the good fortune to
-witness a performance. At the coast village of Nimé, a
-few miles to the East of the Mimika River, there was a
-very elaborate dancing house, which must have cost an
-immense amount of labour to build. The length of the
-house from front to back was about 100 feet, the width
-about 25 feet, and it rested on poles which were about
-8 feet high in front, rising up to about 14 feet high at
-the back. The side walls and the back were of “atap”
-as was also the roof, which sloped from a long ridgepole
-running the whole length of the house. The ridgepole
-was remarkable as being made from a single tree
-trunk (<i>Casuarina</i>) shaved down very smoothly to a uniform
-thickness of about 10 inches; the ends of it, which
-projected about 8 feet both at the front and back of
-the house, were carved in very lifelike representations
-of the head of a crocodile and were painted red. The
-weight of the beam must have been immense and one
-wondered how it had been hoisted into position. Between
-the ridge of the roof and the eaves there projected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span>
-both in front and at the back six other smaller poles
-grotesquely carved to represent fish and reptiles and
-hideous human heads. The front of the house was open,
-and when you had climbed up the supporting poles and
-had stepped over a low fence you found yourself in a
-spacious hall with a floor well made of sheets of bark,
-which sloped up gradually from front to back. Along
-either side at regular intervals on the floor were sand
-fireplaces and above these were wooden racks, from
-which it was evident that something was hung to be
-cooked. Round the walls on all sides was a strip of
-carved and painted wood, and exactly in the middle
-of the hall, fixed to the floor and the roof were two
-posts about 3 feet apart and tied between them, at
-about half the height of a man, was an elaborately
-carved and painted board about twelve inches wide.
-In the middle of this board was carved the eye, which
-is a familiar feature of the ornamental carving on the
-canoes and drums, and it appeared that this eye is the
-centre of the ceremonies which take place in the house.</p>
-
-<p>So far as I could understand from the description of
-the natives who accompanied me in my visit to the
-house, the people, both men and women, who take
-part in the ceremony, dance slowly upwards from the
-front of the house singing as they go, and when they
-reach the carved board each one in turn touches the
-eye, while all the people shout together. But what the
-object of the whole performance is and what the people
-cook and eat, are questions to which I was unable to
-find an answer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p144.jpg" width="500" height="391" alt="Bamboo Penis-cases, Carved Blades of Paddles." />
-<p class="caption">1-7. <span class="smcap">Bamboo Penis-cases.</span> 8-12. <span class="smcap">Carved Blades of Paddles.</span></p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">PAPUAN ARTISTS</div>
-
-<p>I have had occasion above to mention the artistic
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span>carvings on the canoes and drums. Their paddles too
-show a very good idea of design, as will be seen from
-the illustration p. 144. Nothing amused them more
-than to be provided with a pencil and pieces of paper
-and to attempt to draw figures. Their efforts were not
-always very successful, and some of the drawings which
-I have kept would be quite unrecognisable for what
-they are, if I had not labelled them at the time. Like
-the young of civilised races they always preferred to
-draw the figures of men and women, and some of these
-are remarkable for having the mouth near the top of
-the head above the level of the eyes. The method of
-drawing is very simple; the pencil is held almost upright
-on the paper and the outline of the figure, begun at
-an arm or leg or anywhere indifferently, is drawn in
-one continuous stroke without removing the pencil
-from the paper. The end is always rather exciting,
-like the feat of drawing a pig when you are blindfolded,
-for the artist is never quite certain of finishing at the
-point whence he started. Besides human figures they
-liked drawing dogs, pigs, birds and fishes. Two pictures
-of a dog and a bird both done by the same man are
-peculiarly interesting, because they were both drawn
-upside down. I watched the man making the drawings,
-and when they were finished I saw that the legs of the
-creatures were uppermost; so I turned the papers the
-right way round and handed them back to him, but
-he inverted them again and admired them in that position.
-Curiously enough the same man drew human figures in
-the correct attitude, head uppermost, so that the state
-of his mental vision offers rather a puzzling problem.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p146.jpg" width="400" height="582" alt="Various drawings." />
-<p class="caption"><i>a.</i> Cockatoo.    <i>a<sub>1</sub> b</i>. Designs for scarification.    <i>b.</i> Hornbill.<br />
-<i>c.</i> Pig.    <i>d.</i> Dog.    <i>e.</i> Bird.    <i>f.</i> Man.    <i>g.</i> Woman.</p></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Most of them had a keen appreciation of pictures
-and they were surprisingly quick in identifying photographs
-of themselves; in this respect they showed a
-good deal more intelligence than some of our Gurkhas,
-who held a photograph sideways or upside down and
-gazed at it blankly, as if they had not the faintest
-idea of what it portrayed. The illustrated papers were
-a source of endless delight to them, and the portraits
-of beautiful ladies, who they felt sure were our wives,
-were greatly admired. Horses, sheep, cattle and all
-other animals were declared to be dogs.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">CAT’S CRADLE</div>
-
-<p>Another amusement—it can hardly be called an art—of
-the Papuans is the game of cat’s cradle, at which
-many of them are extraordinarily proficient. It is not,
-as with us, a game played by two persons; with them
-the part of the second person is performed by the
-player’s teeth, and he contrives to produce some wonderfully
-intricate figures, none of which, I regret to say,
-we had patience or skill enough to learn. The most
-elaborate figure I saw was supposed to represent a bird,
-and when the features of it had been pointed out some
-resemblance was certainly apparent.</p>
-
-<p>But it must be admitted that their amusements
-are not always so innocent as drawing pictures and
-playing cat’s cradle. I have referred above to the
-gang of drunkards, who used to create such turmoil at
-Wakatimi. The people of Parimau, who had no means
-of getting intoxicated, were just as quarrelsome as the
-Wakatimi people, and fights were of frequent, almost
-daily occurrence. Some one does something, it matters
-not what, to offend some other person, and in an instant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span>
-the village is in an uproar. Spears fly through the air—we
-never saw anybody touched by one—and stone clubs
-are brandished furiously, the combatants all shout horrible
-threats at the tops of their voices, while a few people
-look on stolidly or hardly take any notice at all. There
-seems to be a certain etiquette about the use of clubs,
-for the person about to be hit generally presents a soft
-part of his person, the back or shoulders, to the clubber,
-and we never saw a man intentionally hit another on
-the head, a blow which might easily be fatal; but blood
-flowed in plenty from the flesh wounds.</p>
-
-<p>The part of the women in these village squabbles is
-always to scream loudly and generally to begin by banging
-the houses with sticks or spears and to end with
-pulling them to pieces. In a fight at Wakatimi we saw
-a party of infuriated women absolutely demolish three or
-four houses. The fights end almost as suddenly as they
-begin and in a short time the village settles down to its
-usual tranquillity. Neither the sight nor the sound of
-these village quarrels is very agreeable, but they have no
-regularly organised games and, at the worst, not a very
-great amount of damage is done.</p>
-
-<p>The clubs used in these village fights and doubtless
-also in their tribal wars—but of those we know nothing—are
-of two kinds, wooden and stone-headed. The wooden
-clubs are about four feet long and consist of a plain shaft,
-of which the last foot or rather more is carved into a
-saw-like cutting edge; some of these are made of a
-very heavy wood and they are exceedingly formidable
-weapons. A more simple type of wooden club is a plain
-wooden shaft rather thinner at the handle end than at
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span>the other, round which is fixed a piece of shark’s skin or
-the prickly skin from the back of the Sting Ray and
-often with it is tied the saw of a small Saw fish; such
-a club appears to be capable of inflicting a very nasty
-wound.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p148.jpg" width="400" height="591" alt="SPLITTING WOOD WITH A STONE AXE." />
-<p class="caption">SPLITTING WOOD WITH A STONE AXE.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">STONE CLUBS</div>
-
-<p>There is a great variety of stone-headed clubs, but
-they are all alike in being furnished with a wooden shaft,
-which is usually a plain piece of wood, but occasionally
-carved near the club end. The stone head is pierced in
-the middle by a round hole about an inch in diameter,
-through which the shaft is passed and fixed firmly by
-wedges. Most of the heads are made of a rather soft
-limestone, but where the people obtain it we do not
-know, for there is no stone of any kind near the coast.
-The simplest type is merely a round water-worn pebble
-with a hole bored through it. More commonly they are
-worked and the labour of producing them must have
-been considerable. Some are flat discs with sharp cutting
-edges or blunt and roughly milled edges, and some are
-cut into the form of five or six or more pointed stars;
-rarely they are triangular. Others again are round or
-oval and are cut into more or less deep teeth, or they
-have small bosses left projecting here and there, but no
-two of them are exactly alike. The weight of the club
-head is usually two or three pounds. The most savage-looking
-club we saw was simply a rough lump of coral,
-not trimmed in any way. It was pierced and mounted
-on a finely carved shaft of extremely heavy wood, and
-the whole thing must have weighed fifteen or twenty
-pounds.</p>
-
-<p>Not a little credit is due to the Papuans for their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span>
-industry in making these elaborate weapons, for it must
-be remembered that until we visited the country they had
-no metal tools whatever, with the exception of two or
-three scraps of soft iron, and all their work was done
-with shell knives and stone axes. The knives are simply
-the shells of a common freshwater bivalve (<i>Cyrena</i> sp.);
-when these are rubbed down on a stone, they take on an
-exceedingly sharp edge and are used by the natives for
-carving the canoes and drums and sharpening their spears
-and arrows.</p>
-
-<p>The stone axes used in the Mimika district are all of
-the same type, though they vary greatly in size from
-about four inches to large ones of nearly twelve inches in
-length. The stone of which they are made is always the
-same, a quartzite. The shaft is about two feet long and
-is invariably made of the butt end of a bamboo. A hole
-is bored and burnt in the lower end of the bamboo, that
-is to say in the solid part of the wood below the first
-joint, and the pointed end of the stone is jammed into
-the hole. The stone is always fixed axe-fashion, <i>i.e.</i> with
-its broad surface and cutting edge in the same plane with
-the long axis of the handle, and not adze-fashion, as is
-the custom in some other parts of New Guinea (see
-illustration p. 142). The axes quickly become blunt
-with use and they are sharpened by being rubbed upon
-another stone. At Wakatimi stones are very rare and
-one man appeared to be the stone-smith of the village.
-I remember seeing him one day sitting outside his hut
-sharpening an axe, with three or four others lying beside
-him waiting to be done, while a few yards away a woman
-was splitting a log of wood with a stone axe. It struck
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span>me as being one of the most primitive scenes I had ever
-witnessed, really a glimpse of the Stone Age.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p150.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt="Bows, arrows and spears." />
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-<div class="stanza">
-<div class="line">&nbsp;</div>
-<div class="line">1. <span class="smcap">Bow.</span></div>
-<div class="line">2,&nbsp;7. <span class="smcap">Wooden fish spears.</span></div>
-<div class="line">3. <span class="smcap">Plain Wood-pointed Arrow.</span></div>
-<div class="line">4. <span class="smcap">Notched Wood-pointed Arrow.</span></div>
-<div class="line">5. <span class="smcap">Arrow tipped with Cassowary claw.</span></div>
-<div class="line">6. <span class="smcap">Bamboo-pointed Arrow.</span></div>
-<div class="line">8. <span class="smcap">Hunting Spear, pointed with sharp bone.</span></div>
-9,&nbsp;10. <span class="smcap">Wooden Spear used at ceremonies.</span></div>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">BOWS AND ARROWS</div>
-
-<p>The bows of the Mimika natives are about five feet
-long and are made of a simple straight piece of a very hard
-wood (usually a species of <i>pandanus</i>), tapering towards
-the ends, which are sometimes ornamented with the claw
-of a cassowary or a tuft of feathers and shells or the
-claw of a crab. The “string” is a piece of rattan and it
-requires a strong arm to bend the bow. The arrows are
-of various types (see illustration p. 150); they are all
-made of reed stems, and none are ever feathered nor have
-they nocks. They vary only in their points, which are
-sometimes merely the sharpened end of the reeds themselves
-and sometimes a plain sharpened tip of hard wood
-or bamboo. Some are tipped with the sharpened claw of
-a cassowary or with the spine that lies along the back
-of the Sting Ray, and the arrows used for shooting fish
-have often three points of sharp bamboo.</p>
-
-<p>Most people have the idea that the savage man
-performs prodigies of skill with his bow and arrows, but
-whenever I saw the Papuans shooting, they made
-astonishingly bad practice. I remember seeing two
-Papuans trying to kill an iguana in a tree not more than
-twenty feet above the ground; they shot arrow after
-arrow at it, but the creature, which was as long and
-almost as thick as a man’s arm, climbed slowly up from
-branch to branch until it was lost to view.</p>
-
-<p>The hunting spears are of two kinds, a plain straight
-shaft of heavy wood, very sharp and hardened by fire at
-the tip; and a straight shaft of a lighter wood, to the end
-of which is fixed part of a straight bone (generally the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span>
-<i>tibia</i>) of a pig, sharpened to a fine point. There is
-another kind of spear made of a soft wood, finely pointed
-and with a wide blade carved in a sort of open-work
-fashion (see illustration p. 150); the blade and the point
-are painted red with clay and the shaft is generally
-decorated with feathers or plaited fibre. Spears of this
-sort are of no use in hunting but are employed at dances
-and other ceremonial functions.</p>
-
-<p>Two more pieces of furniture, the head-rest and the
-sago bowl, complete the list of articles made by the
-Papuans. The head-rests, which were seen only in the
-villages of Obota and Nimé, are made of a strip of
-elaborately carved wood four or five inches wide and
-between two and three feet in length, and are supported
-at each end by a stout wooden prop, which raises the
-head-rest about four inches above the ground. The
-longer head-rests are supposed to support the heads of
-two sleeping persons.</p>
-
-<p>Fire is nearly always taken by the Papuans wherever
-they go; in almost every canoe a fire is kept burning,
-and when they travel through the jungle the men
-carry a smouldering stick. There must be occasions
-when all these fires are extinguished, but how they produce
-them we were unable to learn; the Papuans of
-Parimau could not make fire with the friction stick and
-rattan used by their neighbours, the Tapiro Pygmies.</p>
-
-<p>From the description of them which has been given in
-this and the two preceding chapters it will be seen that
-the conditions of life of the Papuans are as primitive as
-those of any people now living in the world. There are
-very few other places, where you can find a people who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span>
-neither make nor possess any metal and who have no
-knowledge of pottery. The only vessels that they have
-for holding water are scraped-out coconuts and simple
-pieces of bamboo. Water boiling they had never seen
-before we came among them. Their implements and
-weapons are, as I have shown, of the most primitive
-kind, and their ornaments are of the rudest possible
-description.</p>
-
-<p>Cultivation of the soil is only practised by the people
-of one or two villages, and even then it produces but a
-very small proportion of their food, so it follows that
-most of their time and energies are devoted to procuring
-the necessaries of life.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE</div>
-
-<p>The struggle for existence is keen enough, the birth-rate
-is low and the rate of infant mortality is, I believe,
-very high. Nor do diseases spare them; syphilis is
-exceedingly prevalent, and was probably introduced by
-Chinese and Malay traders to the West end of the island,
-whence it has spread along the coast. Tuberculosis is
-happily absent, but two natives of Wakatimi were suffering
-from what appeared to be certainly leprosy. Skin
-diseases, notably <i>tinea imbricata</i>, are very common; and
-almost every person appears to suffer occasionally from
-fever of one sort or another.</p>
-
-<p>But in spite of all these drawbacks the Papuans of the
-Mimika are not such a very miserable people. They are
-strong, those of them that survive the ordeals of infancy
-and sickness; they have food in plenty to eat, if they
-choose to exert themselves sufficiently to obtain it; they
-have their amusements, songs and dances; and the manner
-of their lives is suited to the conditions of the country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span>
-in which they live. It is this last consideration which
-ought ultimately to determine their fate: they live in a
-wretchedly poor country which is constantly liable to
-devastating floods, and their habit of wandering from
-one place to another, where food may be obtained, is the
-only way of life suitable to the physical and climatic
-conditions of the country.</p>
-
-<p>Any attempt to “civilise” them must inevitably
-destroy their primitive independence, and if it succeeded
-in establishing the people in settled communities it would
-reduce them at many seasons to absolute starvation.
-We were visited once by the Director of the Sacred Heart
-Mission at Toeal, which has done admirable work amongst
-the natives of the Ké Islands and at one or two places
-in New Guinea itself. When he had seen the people and
-the nature of the country and had been told something
-of their habits, he decided that the Mimika was not, at
-present at all events, a proper field for missionary enterprise.
-Setting aside all other considerations, one dares
-to hope that such an interesting people may for a long
-time be left undisturbed; they do no harm to their
-neighbours and the effects on them of civilising influences
-would be at the best uncertain.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>The Camp at Parimau—A Plague of Beetles—First Discovery of the
-Tapiro Pygmies—Papuans as Carriers—We visit the Clearing of
-the Tapiro—Remarkable Clothing of Tapiro—Our Relations with
-the Natives—System of Payment—Their Confidence in Us—Occasional
-Thefts—A Customary Peace-offering—Papuans as
-Naturalists.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">While</span> it was the business of some of us during the
-early months of the expedition to stop at the base-camp
-and despatch canoes laden with stores up the river,
-others remained at Parimau to establish there a second
-permanent camp and to find, if possible, a way of
-approaching the higher mountains. It should be said
-that Parimau is some distance from the mountains—the
-high point nearest to it. Mount Tapiro (7660 ft.) is some
-twelve miles to the North, but it was no longer possible
-to travel in the direction of the mountains by way of
-the Mimika River, which had dwindled to a very small
-size at Parimau, therefore it was necessary to find a
-new route from there onward.</p>
-
-<p>The first camp at Parimau was made on the shallow
-sandy side of the river close to the native village; the
-Papuans generally place their villages on gently sloping
-rather than on steep banks for convenience in hauling
-up their canoes. The coolies, such as there were of
-them, were occupied on the river, the natives for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span>
-first few months were of little or no assistance in
-building, and the work was done almost entirely by
-half a dozen of the Gurkhas. Their greatest achievement
-was the construction of a log-house in the best
-Himalayan style, probably by far the solidest building
-that was ever put up in Dutch New Guinea. The floor
-was raised about three feet above the ground and it
-was well that the workmanship was good, for it had
-not been finished many weeks before a flood swept over
-the camp and everyone took refuge in the house, the
-floor of which was just awash. Afterwards the camp
-was moved to the high bank across the river and the
-subsequent floods swamped the house and carried it
-away piecemeal, but two of the uprights survived and
-were still standing a year later.</p>
-
-<p>We were a good deal annoyed at Parimau by the
-<i>larvæ</i> of a small red and black beetle, which infested
-the wood of which the frames of our huts were made.
-These <i>larvæ</i>, which look like small hairy caterpillars,
-were continually dropping from the roof and when they
-were killed, or even touched, they emitted the most
-disagreeable musky smell. They sometimes dropped
-upon you during the night and the smell of them would
-wake you from your sleep. The beetle itself too, if
-crushed or irritated, has the same disgusting peculiarity.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">DISCOVERY OF THE PYGMIES</div>
-
-<p>It has been mentioned above (Chapter V.) that
-Captain Rawling in exploring to the N.W. of Parimau
-came to the big river Kapare, which we unsuccessfully
-tried to navigate in canoes from below to the point
-where he had met it. While he was walking up the
-river bed one day, the Papuans who were with him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span>
-caught after an exciting chase two small men, whose
-build and dress and appearance proclaimed them to
-belong to another race than the Papuan. A day or
-two later two more were captured, while they were
-crossing the river; they were kindly treated and
-presents were given to them, but they showed no
-inclination to conduct strangers to their home, a large
-clearing in the jungle on the hill side, which could be
-plainly seen from the Kapare River. We learnt from
-the Papuans that these little people were called Tapiro.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a></p>
-
-<p>At the beginning of March I accompanied one of the
-food-transports up the Mimika and went with Rawling
-out to the Kapare, where he had made a camp and was
-occupied with some of the Gurkhas in cutting a track
-through the jungle. By that time we had no coolies
-available for land transport; in six weeks our fifty
-coolies had diminished to ten, who were all wanted for
-the canoes, so we were entirely dependent on native
-assistance for land journeys. There was not much
-difficulty in persuading people to carry loads for us
-from Parimau to the nearest point of the Kapare River,
-for they were accustomed to go over there to fish. But
-it was a different business on the second day, when we
-wanted to push the camp a few miles further up the
-river so as to be in a better position for reaching the
-clearing of the Tapiro. At first they resolutely refused
-to start at all and retired to the shelters they had made
-at a little distance from the camp. From there they
-had to be led back by the hand one by one and then be
-severally introduced to their loads, but even so a number
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span>of them ran away again, and it was hours before we
-moved from the camp.</p>
-
-<p>When once they were started they went steadily
-enough for about a mile and then they all put down their
-loads and refused to go on, but as they had stopped in
-the middle of the bed of the river it was impossible to
-remain there, so with promises of cloth and beads we
-urged them on a little further. The same performance
-was repeated a dozen times at intervals, which became
-shorter and shorter until our coaxing and cajoling availed
-no longer and there was nothing for it but to stop and
-make a camp. It had taken us more than four hours to
-cover less than three miles, most of which was easy going
-over sand and stones in the bed of the river. We should
-have been awkwardly situated if they had all gone away
-and left us to carry the loads, as they did a few weeks
-later to Marshall, who was deserted by them and forced
-to leave some of his baggage behind him. Needless to
-say, these misfortunes would not have occurred if our
-Malay coolies had been suited to their work. As it was,
-there were considerable periods when we had either to
-make use of what help the natives consented to give us,
-or else be content to do nothing at all.</p>
-
-<p>When it suits them to do so, the Mimika Papuans
-can carry very heavy loads and they manage to cover
-the ground at a very respectable pace. They wrap up
-the load in the mat made of <i>pandanus</i> leaves, which
-every man always carries with him to serve both as a
-sleeping mat and as a shelter from the rain. The mat is
-securely tied by ropes of rattan or any of the other
-innumerable creepers of the jungle, and two strong loops<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span>
-are made to pass over the shoulders so that the load
-may be carried on the back, ruck-sack fashion. The
-women carry loads as well as the men and sometimes
-also the children, when the whole family is making a
-journey.</p>
-
-<p>From our upper camp on the Kapare River Rawling
-and I made two attempts to reach the forest clearing of
-the Tapiro, which could be easily seen from the camp at
-a distance of about three miles in a straight line; but
-though careful bearings of its direction were taken, it
-turned out to be a most puzzling place to reach. Not
-more than a mile above the camp the Kapare emerges
-from a deep and narrow gorge in the foot hills—or rather
-the spurs of the mountains, they are too steep to call
-foot hills—which descend very abruptly to the almost
-level country below. Just after it emerges from the
-gorge, the river is joined by a stream of the clearest
-water I have ever seen, which we afterwards came to call
-the White Water (see illustration opposite).</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">BIRDS OF PARADISE</div>
-
-<p>In our first attempt to reach the clearing we wandered
-in the jungle for ten hours and came nowhere near to it.
-But the day was not altogether wasted, for we climbed
-up the hillside to about fifteen hundred feet and by
-cutting down some trees we obtained a wonderful view
-across the plain of the jungle to the distant sea. The air
-of the jungle was heavy with the scent of the wild Vanilla,
-and all around us were calling (but we could not see
-them) Greater Birds of Paradise; sometimes we were
-within sound of as many as six at one time. On that
-day too I first saw the Rifle Bird (<i>Ptilorhis intercedens</i>),
-one of the most beautiful though the least gaudy of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span>birds of Paradise, whose long-drawn whistle can never
-be mistaken or forgotten.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p159.jpg" width="400" height="575" alt="A TRIBUTARY STREAM OF THE KAPARE RIVER." />
-<p class="caption">A TRIBUTARY STREAM OF THE KAPARE RIVER.</p></div>
-
-<p>In our second attempt we profited by some of the
-mistakes made on the former, but even so the irregularity
-of the ground and the complexity of the watercourses
-nearly succeeded in baffling us. “Rawling and I left
-camp early with two Gurkhas. A mile and a half up
-the left bank of the river we struck off N.E. from the
-path we followed the other day. Cut a new path
-through the jungle for about a mile until we came to a
-faint native track, which we followed for another mile
-or so, chiefly along fallen tree trunks overhung by a
-network of rattan and other creepers, a fearful struggle
-to get through. Then for a mile or more up the bed
-of a stony stream encumbered with the same obstructions,
-dead trees and rattans, until we came to a deep
-gorge with a torrent about three hundred feet below
-us and on the opposite side the steep slope of another
-great spur of the mountain, on which the clearing
-presumably lay. We slithered and scrambled down to
-the river, which was full of water and only just fordable.
-Then up the other slope, not knowing at all accurately
-the direction of the clearing. Very steep and the jungle
-very dense with rattan and tree-ferns, so the leading
-Gurkha was kept busily occupied in cutting with his
-<i>kukrí</i> and progress was slow.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">WE VISIT THE PYGMIES</div>
-
-<p>“About one o’clock, when we had been going for
-nearly six hours, the clouds came down and it began to
-rain and we were ready to turn back. Luckily the
-Gurkhas were convinced that the clearing was not far
-ahead and when we found a pig-trap, a noose of rattan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span>
-set in a faint track, it seemed that they might perhaps
-be right. So we went on and in a few minutes we came
-out of the forest into the clearing. About thirty yards
-from us was a hut with three men standing outside it.
-We called out to them and they waited until we came
-up. A minute or two later two more men came out
-from the forest behind us, no doubt they had been
-following us unseen. The hut was a most primitive
-structure of sticks roofed with leaves, leaning up
-against the hillside. There was a fire in the hut and
-beside it was sitting an old man covered with most
-horrible sores. We went on up the hill for a couple of
-hundred yards to a place (about 1900 feet above the
-sea) where we had a fine view. Rawling put up the
-plane-table and got angles on to several points for the
-map.</p>
-
-<p>“During the hour or more that we stayed there, eight
-men came to see us. Excepting one rather masterful
-little man, who had no fear of us, they were too shy to
-approach us closely and remained about ten yards
-distant, but even so it was plainly evident from their
-small stature alone, that they were of a different race
-from the people of the low country.</p>
-
-<p>“The most remarkable thing about them is the case
-that each man wears, his only article of clothing; it is
-made of a long yellow gourd, about two inches in
-diameter at the base and tapering to about half an inch
-at the pointed end. It is worn with the pointed end
-upwards and is kept in position by a string round the
-waist. As the length of the case—some of them
-measure more than fifteen inches—is more than a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span>
-quarter of the height of the man himself, it gives him
-a most extraordinary appearance. Every man carries
-a bow and arrows in his hand and a plaited fibre bag of
-quite elaborate design slung on his back. Two men
-wore necklaces of very rough scraps of shell and one
-had a strip of fur round his head. Two others wore on
-their heads curious helmet-like hats of grass ornamented
-with feathers.</p>
-
-<p>“One man had a diminutive axe made of a piece of
-soft iron about three inches long, set in a handle like
-those of the stone axes. They must have some bigger
-axes, as they have cut down some very large trees and
-the marks on the stumps look as if they had been made
-with fairly sharp instruments. The clearing altogether
-is very considerable, probably fifty acres or more.
-The ground is covered with the sweet-potato plant, and
-in many places ‘taro’ has been carefully picked out.
-They have a few coarse-looking bananas, some of which
-they offered to us.</p>
-
-<p>“Their voices are rather high-pitched and one of
-them, who met us first and called several of the others
-to come and see us, ended his calls with a very curious
-shrill jodelling note. When we came away we offered
-them cloth and beads to come with us and show us a
-better way, but they were either too frightened or too
-lazy to do so. We got back to camp after ten hours’
-hard going, drenched with rain and covered with
-leeches, but well-pleased with the success of the day.”<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p>
-
-<p>That was the last that we saw for a long time of the
-Tapiro pygmies, for it was evident that the Kapare River
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span>was useless as a means of approach to the Snow Mountains
-and we had to turn our attention to the country to the
-N.E. of the Mimika. Moreover, it was impossible to keep
-the camp there supplied with provisions, as we were at
-that time entirely dependent for transport on the goodwill
-of the Papuans.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">NATIVES AS CARRIERS</div>
-
-<p>Generally speaking we always remained on excellent
-terms with the natives and very rarely had any trouble
-with them. Except that we bought from them the
-“atap” for our houses, we got little or no help from the
-people of Wakatimi, but the people of Parimau assisted
-us in a number of ways. At first, as I have shewn, we
-had considerable difficulty in persuading them to work
-for us as carriers; but when they found that they really
-did receive the payment they were promised, they were
-willing and sometimes even anxious to carry loads for us,
-though we often had to wait a few days until it suited
-their convenience to start. It was a pity that they were
-never willing to travel further than about three days’
-march from their village, but as there were long periods
-when we were entirely dependent on them for land transport,
-we counted ourselves lucky in their agreeing to work
-at all.</p>
-
-<p>Chiefly owing to the help of the natives we were able
-to make and keep supplied for several months another
-camp on the Wataikwa River, three days’ march north-east
-from Parimau. When they went out there first,
-they were accustomed to receive their pay, cloth and
-beads or a small knife at the end of the journey; but
-later, when wages rose, as they inevitably did with every
-successive journey, it seemed to be absurd to waste<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span>
-perhaps half a load by carrying axes and knives to be
-given in payment at the end of the march. So a plan was
-adopted of giving them at the Wataikwa camp a paper
-authorising them to demand payment on their return to
-Parimau, and it was a gratifying tribute to the confidence
-that they had in us that they readily fell in with the
-scheme. Before starting they were shewn the knife or
-axe or whatever it was that they would receive for
-their labour, and at the end they raced back with their
-scraps of paper to Parimau, covering in a few hours the
-distance that had taken them three days on the outward
-journey. Some of the less energetic people in the village,
-when they saw that their friends received a knife or an
-axe by merely presenting a small piece of paper to the
-man in charge of the camp at Parimau, thought that
-they might easily earn the same reward, and they were
-rather astonished to find that the small scraps of paper,
-which they handed in, produced nothing at all or only a
-serious physical rebuff. But they were so childlike in
-their misdemeanours that one could not be seriously
-angry with them.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">OUR RELATIONS WITH THE NATIVES</div>
-
-<p>They shewed their confidence in our honesty in another
-very flattering way. During the period of the most
-frequent floods at Parimau, when they were liable to be
-washed away at any moment, the people took most of
-their movable possessions out of their houses and hid
-them in safe places in the jungle. But many of them
-merely brought their goods across to our side of the river
-and deposited them without any attempt at concealment
-within a few yards of our camp, apparently knowing that
-there they would be perfectly secure from theft.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span></p>
-
-<p>They are by nature unconscionable thieves and a
-chance of stealing is to them merely a chance of acquiring
-property in the easiest way. On one occasion, when a
-party of our coolies were returning alone from Parimau
-to Wakatimi, they were waylaid at a narrow place in
-the river by some Papuans, who relieved them of their
-baggage and disappeared into the jungle; most of the
-stolen goods were subsequently returned, when the
-natives were threatened with punishment. The same
-thing happened another time when the coolies were
-accompanied by armed Javanese soldiers, who apparently
-forgot the use of their rifles until the thieves
-had got away. But they had a proper respect for a
-white man and whenever one of us, armed or not, was
-with the canoes, the natives never tried to molest us.
-They occasionally stole from the camps a knife or an
-axe, but though they were constantly about our houses
-and often inside them for hours at a time, we never lost
-anything of value.</p>
-
-<p>A temptation, which often proved too strong for
-them, was our fleet of canoes. At Wakatimi the canoes
-were moored in front of the camp at the place where the
-natives, who came to visit us, were accustomed to land.
-They came mostly in the late afternoon and stayed till
-sunset, and it happened several times that when they
-went away they contrived to put two or three men into
-one of our canoes and slip away with it unnoticed in the
-dusk. But when on the following day we made a fuss,
-the canoe was generally brought back with a long story
-of its having been found floating down the river towards
-the sea.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span></p>
-
-<p>An opportunity of looting, which was not to be
-resisted, occurred one day when a party of discharged
-coolies were leaving the country. The boat, in which
-they were being taken off to the ship, capsized as it
-came alongside the steamer and thirty coolies and all
-their belongings were upset into the sea. The captain
-of the ship was only anxious to save his boat and the
-coolies hastened to escape from the sharks. In the
-meantime a crowd of natives, who had come down in
-their canoes to visit the ship, lost no time in picking up
-the floating boxes and bundles of clothing, and before
-anybody was aware of their action they were fast paddling
-away to their villages.</p>
-
-<p>On such occasions and at other times when we had
-reason to be angry with them, the people of Wakatimi
-observed a curious custom. There was in the village a
-coloured china plate and a piece of bent silver wire,
-which was sometimes used by the owner as an ear-ring.
-On the morning following their misdemeanour two men
-came over from the village bringing the ear-ring on the
-plate, which they gave to us, shook hands and departed.
-Later in the day they returned and we gave them back
-their gifts; this happened several times.</p>
-
-<p>At one time there was a serious epidemic of drunkenness
-among the people of Wakatimi and they shewed
-their ill-manners by shooting arrows into the camp.
-This was of no consequence when only one person misbehaved
-himself. But when one day a number of men
-waded half-way across the river and began to send
-arrows into the camp, it had to be stopped. The Dutch
-sergeant, who was alone in charge of the place at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span>
-time, held up his rifle, a weapon the use of which they
-very well understood, and signalled to them that unless
-they went away he would fire. As they took no notice
-of his warning he fired, aiming at the legs of the ringleader,
-but unfortunately he hit him in the groin.
-Shortly afterwards, so little animosity did they show
-and so complete was their confidence in us, they brought
-the wretched man over to our camp, but nothing could
-be done for him and in a few hours he died.</p>
-
-<p>They were very appreciative of medical treatment
-and at different times we were able to do a good deal
-for them. One man actually went so far as to pay a
-fee of half a dozen coconuts for the saving of his little
-daughter’s ulcerated foot, which was rapidly going from
-bad to worse under native treatment. They often cut
-themselves severely with our axes and knives before
-they learnt their sharpness, and their wounds healed
-astonishingly quickly with ordinary clean methods;
-the only trouble was that they liked to take off the
-bandages and use them for personal adornment.</p>
-
-<p>As well as acting as carriers for us, the people at
-Parimau did a considerable amount of work for us
-about the camp in cutting down trees, an occupation
-which they always enjoyed, and in helping to build
-some of the houses. They were even more useful to us
-as naturalists and, thanks mainly to them, we made a
-very complete collection of the reptiles of the district.
-They were particularly adept at catching snakes and
-often five or six men in a day would stroll into the
-camp carrying a deadly poisonous snake wrapped up
-in leaves. One day Goodfellow was walking through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span>
-the jungle with some natives and the man in front
-of him stooped down and picked up a poisonous viper
-without even pausing in his stride.</p>
-
-<p>We always encouraged the natives to bring us snakes
-in the hope of getting new species, and when we did
-not want those that they brought, they were quite
-content to take them away and eat them. They seemed
-to have a peculiar knack of catching poisonous things,
-for besides snakes they often brought scorpions and
-centipedes in their parcels of leaves. With the more
-delicate creatures such as lizards they were less successful
-and among the hundreds that they brought us
-there were very few which they had not damaged.
-They always assumed an air of importance and somewhat
-of mystery, when they brought some animal for
-sale, and you always knew that when you had bought,
-or refused, as the case might be, the creature that was
-offered, the man would instantly produce something
-else, but the puzzle was always to know whence he
-produced it, for his scanty costume does not admit of
-pockets.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Visit of Mr. Lorentz—Arrival of Steam Launch—A Sailor Drowned—Our
-Second Batch of Coolies—Health of the Gurkhas—Dayaks the
-best Coolies—Sickness—Arrival of Motor Boat—Camp under
-Water—Expedition moves to Parimau—Explorations beyond the
-Mimika—Leeches—Floods on the Tuaba River—Overflowing Rivers—The
-Wataikwa—Cutting a Track.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">A pleasant</span> interlude in the monotony of the early part
-of the expedition occurred one day towards the end of
-March, when the natives of Wakatimi signalled in the
-usual way the approach of a boat and presently a steam
-launch appeared with Europeans on board. They turned
-out to be the Dutch explorer, Mr. H. A. Lorentz, who
-was on his way back from his second and successful
-expedition to Mount Wilhelmina by way of the Noord
-River, with his companions Captain J. W. van Nouhuys
-and Lieutenant Habbema, and the Captain of the
-Government steamer <i>Java</i>, which had anchored off the
-mouth of the Mimika. Mr. Lorentz looked like a man
-hardly returned from the dead, as indeed he well might,
-for after climbing to the snows of Mount Wilhelmina he
-had fallen down a cliff on his return, with a result of two
-broken ribs and serious concussion of the brain, and he
-had endured untold sufferings on his way back to the
-foot of the mountain. But he had achieved the principal
-object of his expedition, and his spirits were in
-better condition than his body. They stayed for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>
-night with us and at dinner, though I was in a minority
-of one to six, with characteristic courtesy they all spoke
-English; the entertainment, assisted by luxuries brought
-from the <i>Java</i>, lasted until the small hours, and it was
-the pleasantest evening I spent in New Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>Java</i> brought for us the long-expected steam
-launch, and its career began, as it ended, with disaster.
-Before dawn one of the men of the boat wished to fetch
-something that he had left on the launch, which was
-moored in the river about fifteen yards from the bank.
-The sentry on duty did his best to prevent him, because
-it was a rule of the camp that no man was allowed to
-bathe before sunrise, but he insisted on swimming out to
-the launch. In a few yards he found that the current
-was stronger than he had expected, he called for help,
-and in a few moments a canoe set out in the gloom to
-look for him, but no more was seen of him until his
-body was recovered by the natives at the mouth of the
-Mimika a few days later. Shortly after the accident
-happened our guests left us on their way back to Europe,
-and we watched their departure with somewhat envious
-eyes.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">COOLIES AND GURKHAS</div>
-
-<p>The history of the middle period of the expedition,
-that is to say, from April to December, is chiefly a history
-of floods and sickness and disappointment. In the
-middle of April Goodfellow, who had gone away early in
-March, returned with a fresh batch of forty-eight coolies,
-whom he had recruited in Banda and Amboina. About
-a half of these men were natives of the island of Buton,
-and the rest were Ambonese, and though they were the
-best men that could be found at such short notice, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span>
-were greatly superior to our first batch of coolies, they
-were really not fit for the work they had to do, and the
-majority of them soon became useless to us.</p>
-
-<p>The steam launch towed the canoes for a short distance
-up the river once or twice, but it very soon broke
-down and thenceforward until the middle of June all the
-transport between Wakatimi and Parimau was done by
-the coolies themselves. For them it was literally a killing
-work; in the first few weeks two men died, one of
-pneumonia, the other of dysentery, both causes resulting
-from the circumstances of their work, while several
-others developed the first signs of beri-beri and had to
-be sent away at the earliest opportunity.</p>
-
-<p>About the same time one of the Gurkhas died; he
-was from the beginning a very unhealthy man, who
-ought not to have been engaged for the expedition. Of
-the other nine Gurkhas three were invalided home before
-the end of the year and the remaining six stayed with us
-until we left the country. Although they came from the
-highlands of Darjeeling—or perhaps for that very reason—our
-Gurkhas, who were by no means a carefully
-selected lot, withstood the trials and the climate of the
-country better than any of the other “native” people in
-the expedition and, if expense were no drawback, it is
-probable that an expedition to New Guinea would have
-the best chance of success if coolies were taken from
-Northern India.</p>
-
-<p>That is, however, rather a counsel of perfection, and
-an expedition to New Guinea must make use of natives
-of the Malay Archipelago. The Ambonese and the
-Butonese have been tried and have been found wanting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span>
-so also have the Ké Islanders and the Sundanese from
-the mountains of central Java. Possibly the wild hillmen
-of Timor, if enough of them could be engaged,
-would work well, but the only people who have hitherto
-worked successfully as coolies in Dutch New Guinea are
-the hill-Dayaks of Borneo. Mr. Lorentz, who took with
-him eighty Dayaks, most of them from the Mendalen
-River, on his expedition to Mount Wilhelmina, spoke
-with enthusiasm of the admirable behaviour of his men,
-and if Indian or other Asiatic coolies are not available,
-it may be said that an expedition to the mountainous
-districts of Dutch New Guinea can only be properly
-conducted with Dayaks.</p>
-
-<p>Our coolies were not the only people in the
-expedition who began to feel the ill effects of the
-climate; the Javanese soldiers and convicts quickly
-filled the hospital which had been put up at Wakatimi,
-and in May and June there were many mornings when
-I saw more than forty sick men. Most of them suffered
-from fever and a more or less severe form of dysentery,
-and a good many cases of beri-beri occurred. Unfortunately
-sickness was not confined to our native
-followers only; the Europeans began also to suffer from
-the very adverse conditions in which they found themselves.
-One or two of the Dutch non-commissioned
-officers became seriously ill; Goodfellow, who returned
-with the second batch of coolies from Banda about the
-middle of April, was never free from fever for more than
-a few days from that time until he left the country in
-October; and Shortridge became such a wreck from
-almost continuous fever, which began about the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span>
-beginning of March, that by the end of May he had
-to be sent away for three months’ change of air to
-Australia. Soon after his return in August he succumbed
-again to the evil climate, and though he pluckily
-pretended that there was nothing the matter with him,
-he went from bad to worse, and I am fully persuaded
-that his almost forcible deportation at the end of
-November saved his life.</p>
-
-<p>At the end of May, Goodfellow and Rawling went
-over to Dobo, and after about eight days returned with
-the motor boat, which had been bought from the pearl-fishers.
-Like most things of which a great deal is expected
-the motor boat turned out to be a disappointment, and it
-eventually led us into serious difficulty, but for a short
-time it did good service in towing boats up the river, and
-it considerably shortened the voyage from Wakatimi to
-Parimau.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE FIRST FLOOD</div>
-
-<p>The day of the arrival of the motor boat was
-memorable for being the occasion of the first of the
-really serious floods that beset us. Late in the evening
-a party of our coolies on their way back from Parimau,
-who were not due to arrive until the following day,
-reached the camp at Wakatimi, most of which was by
-that time under water. The journey down the river
-usually occupied two days, but they had found all the
-usual camping places, some of which were high above
-the ordinary river bed, under water, and they had been
-unable to find any safe resting-place.</p>
-
-<p>The three following days were among the most
-unpleasant that I had ever spent, though worse were to
-follow later. On the morning of the first day the water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span>
-fell a little and we spent laborious hours in piling up our
-stores and movable gear on to the top of empty boxes,
-and when those were all used on posts driven into the
-ground. All through the afternoon the water rose, the
-coolies’ and soldiers’ houses were quickly flooded, and
-our own house, which was on the highest part of the
-camp, was nearly a foot under water. On the two
-succeeding days the conditions were much more serious,
-and we had two feet of water in our house. The river
-took a short cut over the neck of land formed by a wide
-bend of the river on which the camp was placed and
-flowed straight through the camp. Our beds were raised
-up on empty kerosene-tin boxes, and when these were
-submerged there was a mild excitement in guessing how
-far up the frame-work of the bed the water would rise.
-Fires were put out and cooking was impossible, so the
-coolies and soldiers, who depended on their boiled rice,
-had rather a hungry time. Our own food consisted of
-biscuits and cold tinned stuff, which is not very exhilarating
-when you have been in water all day long. An
-unprejudiced observer looking in upon us from the outside
-in the evening might well have wondered what kind of
-lunatics we were to come to New Guinea. Goodfellow
-was lying in bed very sick with fever, while Rawling and
-I, up to our knees in water, were making a poor pretence
-at having dinner. The only humour that we managed
-to extract from the situation was in the novel experience
-of being able, without moving from our seats, to wash
-our plates between the first course of biscuits and
-sardines and the second course of biscuits and marmalade;
-the Mimika river was flowing under our chairs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span>
-and we had only to lower our plates into it to clean
-them.</p>
-
-<p>On the fourth day the water fell, and the camp was
-not flooded again for several weeks, but there was left
-everywhere a thick deposit of mud, which kept the houses
-sodden for a long time afterwards. In spite of all our
-precautions, a quantity of stores were irreparably spoilt
-and, worse still, the flood left behind it an increased
-amount of sickness, and indeed the wonder was that the
-prolonged soaking had not ill effects on every one of us.</p>
-
-<p>At the beginning of July Cramer and I arrived at
-Parimau, bringing with us the last loads of provisions
-to complete the store, which we had been working hard
-for three months with our second batch of coolies to
-accumulate at that place. It was hoped that that store
-would be sufficient to enable us to use Parimau as a
-second base camp for making a prolonged expedition
-into the mountains without wasting any more time on
-transports up the river; but in that we had reckoned
-without the vagaries of the New Guinea climate and the
-consequent diminution of the effective strength of our
-coolies, who were already too few for our purpose.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">EXCURSIONS BEYOND MIMIKA</div>
-
-<p>In the meantime Rawling and Marshall had been
-making excursions to the North-east of Parimau, in the
-direction of the high mountains. About five miles from
-Parimau they had come to the Tuaba River and about
-the same distance further on they had come to the
-Kamura River, a few miles above its junction with the
-Tuaba. Continuing in the same direction they came
-to another river, bigger than either of the others, the
-Wataikwa, which was so often impassable that it seemed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>
-likely to prevent any further progress. But a short
-excursion up the valley of the Wataikwa showed the
-impossibility of reaching the highest mountains by that
-route, and a camp was accordingly established on the
-Wataikwa with a view to crossing that river when an
-opportunity should occur.</p>
-
-<p>These excursions were all made with the assistance of
-natives, without whose assistance no advance beyond
-Parimau would have been possible, so long as all the
-coolies were occupied in the work on the river. Very
-little reliance could be placed on the natives, when they
-were working as carriers alone without coolies, and most
-of us at one time or another had the disagreeable experience
-of being deserted by them and left unable to move
-either backwards or forwards. It was in circumstances
-such as these that the Gurkhas, some of whom always
-accompanied us in journeys through the jungle, shewed
-to the best advantage.</p>
-
-<p>When the store of provisions at Parimau was completed,
-the next step was to establish a further depôt of
-provisions at the Wataikwa camp. Though the distance
-between the two places was less than fifteen miles in a
-straight line, it was a three days’ march for a loaded
-coolie and two camping places were made on the way,
-one on an island in the Tuaba River, the other on the
-bank of the Kamura. The first day’s march from
-Parimau began by crossing and recrossing the Mimika
-several times and here and there wading up the river
-itself. About three miles up the river we struck off
-Eastwards through the jungle along a hardly visible
-native track used by the people going to the village of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span>
-Ibo; this was the only regular native track we used, and
-these few miles across from the Mimika to the Tuaba
-were the only place where we had not to cut our own
-path. The mud in that part of the jungle was quite
-exceptionally bad, even for New Guinea; in the comparatively
-dry weather it was like walking through porridge,
-and in the wet weather you were continually
-struggling through liquid slime almost up to your knees.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">LEECHES</div>
-
-<p>We were very much annoyed there, though not more
-in that than in other parts of the jungle, by the leeches
-which swarmed everywhere. These hateful little creatures
-sit on the leaves or twigs stretched out to their
-fullest length and expectant of the passer-by. It is not
-necessary to believe, as some people do, that they jump
-or even that they fall upon you as you pass beneath
-them; there are so many that as you brush through the
-jungle you must inevitably touch many outstretched
-heads and as soon as they are touched they attach themselves
-immediately to you. They are extremely rapid in
-their movements, and their touch is so delicate that you
-do not feel their presence until they have nearly gorged
-themselves with blood. Your legs, unless they are well
-protected with putties, are most liable to their attacks,
-but you find leeches on all parts of your body, and I
-have found them in my eyes and in my mouth and once
-just captured one as it was preparing to enter one of my
-nostrils. They are able to consume an astonishingly
-large quantity of blood, and when, as often happens,
-they open a small vein, the bleeding continues after they
-have dropped from their feeding place. It is not advisable
-to pull a leech from your body; it often results in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span>
-the creature leaving behind a part of its clasper, which
-may give rise to a serious sore. Pigs do not appear to
-be attacked by leeches, but the soft parts of the heads of
-some of the cassowaries that were shot were found to be
-covered with them. Cassowaries are few and far between,
-and there must be millions of leeches that go through
-life without once tasting blood. Some of the leeches are
-prettily marked with stripes of yellow and brown, but
-none that we saw in the jungle were of large size; the
-longest were perhaps two inches in length.</p>
-
-<p>Besides leeches there was not much to distract or to
-amuse us in passing through that stage of the march—certainly
-there were always plenty of the Greater Birds
-of Paradise to be heard calling, but they were very
-seldom to be seen—and we were chiefly anxious to
-struggle to the end of it ourselves and to push the coolies
-along until we heard the welcome sound of heavy water
-and light showed through the trees ahead. The Tuaba,
-at the place where we were accustomed to cross it, is a
-wide river flowing in about half a dozen channels, which
-extend over half a mile or more of ground. All of these
-channels are considerable torrents even in the most
-favourable conditions and it is by no means easy to cross
-them, but in the very frequent times of flood they are
-absolutely impassable. The camping place was made on
-an island across the first channel, as the river bank proper
-was covered with very dense jungle, and at low water
-the island was surrounded by a stretch of dry sand and
-shingle, which afforded us a pleasant drying ground after
-struggling through the sweltering jungle.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;">
-<img src="images/i_p178.jpg" width="375" height="592" alt="TYPICAL JUNGLE, MIMIKA RIVER." />
-<p class="caption">TYPICAL JUNGLE, MIMIKA RIVER.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">A DANGEROUS FLOOD</div>
-
-<p>But it was not always a place of calm; it could be
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span>quite a dangerous place, and I had a very unpleasant
-experience the first time I camped there. I was on my
-way out to the Wataikwa river with a Gurkha, four
-coolies and about twenty natives of Parimau laden with
-tins of rice. The river was comparatively low when we
-pitched our camp, but it began to rain in the afternoon,
-and the almost continuous thunder and the black clouds
-in that direction showed us that it was raining heavily
-in the mountains. By nightfall the rising flood had completely
-covered the sandbank in front of the camp, and
-before midnight the river was flowing right through the
-camp. The coolies were taking refuge like birds in the
-trees, and the water had just covered my piece of ground,
-which was an inch or two higher than any other spot.
-The Gurkha came and helped me to secure the stores
-from the water, which was still rising fast. We arranged
-all the rice tins upright, and on them we placed my bed;
-on the bed we placed all the other stores and baggage, and
-finally I took refuge there myself. The water rose above
-the top of the rice tins and about half way up the framework
-of my bed and then happily it began to fall rapidly,
-and in an hour or two the camp was land again. Shoes
-of mine and odd garments of the coolies were washed
-away, but we had been in no danger of being swept
-away, for the current was not rapid enough over the
-comparatively shallow water of the island; the only risk
-was from the large logs and trees which came sweeping
-down on the flood. The Papuans, who were encamped
-on another island a short distance below ours, had kept
-up all night a constant and most melancholy wailing,
-which did not at all add to the humour of the situation.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span></p>
-
-<p>For three more days we stayed on that sandbank,
-while the rain poured down and the river swept past us
-on both sides, unable either to proceed or to retreat. I
-made two attempts to cross the river, but found it impossible
-to struggle across the flood. In the meantime
-the natives, who were well able to swim naked across
-the first channel, threatened all the time to return to
-Parimau. A few of them did leave me, but the rest
-by constant cajoling and by liberal gifts of rice, for
-which they had acquired a great liking, I persuaded
-to stay with me until after four days we were able to
-get away.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">OVERFLOWING RIVERS</div>
-
-<p>From the Tuaba to the Kamura river, a distance of
-about four miles, a track had been cut by Marshall and
-the Gurkhas. It was a curious piece of country, almost
-level and covered with not very dense jungle, but remarkable
-for the number of streams flowing through it.
-Between the two rivers we crossed eighteen streams of
-various sizes; some were rivulets, and others swift and
-strong so that one was glad of a supporting Papuan
-on either hand. The Kamura river is of less size than
-the Tuaba, but it is still a large river and subject to
-heavy and sudden floods. It flows in a bed of sand
-and shingle two or three hundred yards from bank to
-bank, though, except at times of flood, it only occupies
-a narrow channel. Mostly it runs swiftly over the
-stones, but here and there are long stretches of still
-water like the pool of a salmon river; unluckily there
-are no big fish in it, or New Guinea would be a pleasanter
-place than it is.</p>
-
-<p>It was an agreeable change to come out on to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span>
-bank of the Kamura, for from there we had our first
-wide view of the mountains that we hoped to reach.
-The foothills, if mountains eight or nine thousand feet
-high may be so described, sloped down to within a few
-miles of us to the North, and behind them and stretching
-far to East and West rose range beyond range of steep
-and precipitous ridges, culminating in the snowy top of
-Mount Carstensz, thirty miles to the North-east. Our
-route took us for several miles along the course of the
-Kamura; it was certainly not comfortable walking over
-the big and often slippery stones and wading waist-deep
-across the river three or four times to cut off big bends,
-but it was pleasant indeed to have a wide free space
-about us after having been for so long hemmed in by
-trees, and anything was preferable to the mud and
-leeches of the jungle.</p>
-
-<p>A few miles up the Kamura we left the main river
-and turned off up the bed of a smaller river, which joins
-it from the East. This is actually a branch of the
-Wataikwa connecting the two rivers, and down it comes
-a great volume of water when the Wataikwa is full,
-while at other times it becomes almost dry. The rivers
-of this district of New Guinea are somewhat peculiar in
-this respect; they are very numerous, and they flow out
-from the mountains in a North to South direction, with
-not many miles intervening between one river and the
-next. As soon as they emerge from the mountains they
-find themselves on quite low ground and with forty or
-more miles to run to the sea. There are no outlying
-hills or depressions to guide them in any particular
-course, thus it happens that they overflow in convenient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span>
-directions, and connections are established between one
-river and another. As well as in the case of the Wataikwa
-this was observed on the Utakwa river, close to
-the foot of the mountains, and I believe the same thing
-happens on the Kapare river. Further on in their
-courses, when they approach the mangrove swamps
-near the sea, the rivers again break up into an extraordinary
-network of branches. Judging from the appearance
-of the country and from the considerable changes,
-which we observed in the case of the Wataikwa during a
-period of only a few months, it is probable that these
-great rivers change their courses very often.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">CUTTING A TRACK</div>
-
-<p>Whilst parties of coolies, rapidly diminishing in
-numbers, were occupied at lengthening intervals in
-transporting stores from Parimau to the camp on the
-Wataikwa river, Rawling and Marshall had found a
-way of crossing that river. It is true that there were
-a great many days when it was quite impossible to cross
-it, and there was always a certain amount of risk of
-being swept away, not to mention the discomfort of
-beginning your day’s work by getting wet up to your
-chest; but it was absolutely necessary to continue cutting
-the track, wet or dry. On the other side of the
-river, they had tried to continue in the North-east direction
-and had come to broken lumpy ground covered
-with the densest jungle that we met with in any part
-of the country. The trees were not so very big, indeed
-most of them were quite small, but they were of a peculiarly
-hard wood, which quickly blunted the <i>kukris</i> of
-the Gurkhas and they grew so close together that it was
-quite impossible to push your way between them.
-Eventually a track was cut to the Iwaka River, five
-miles to the east of the Wataikwa.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p182.jpg" width="400" height="598" alt="AT THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE." />
-<p class="caption">AT THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE.</p></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Some idea of the difficulty of cutting this track may
-be learnt, when it is said that Rawling and Marshall
-with three Gurkhas and five natives were occupied for
-three weeks in cutting five thousand yards of the way,
-and the whole distance of five miles was cut in five
-weeks. Unfortunately it was labour in vain, the path
-when finished was too difficult for men to traverse with
-loads. We cut another track, which avoided the hilly
-ground and brought us to the Iwaka close to the point
-reached by the first; by the new track, which was cut in
-a week, we were able to reach the Iwaka in three hours’
-walk from the Wataikwa.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>The Camp at the Wataikwa River—Malay Coolies—“Amok”—A
-Double Murder—A View of the Snow Mountains—Felling Trees—Floods—Village
-washed Away—The Wettest Season—The Effects
-of Floods—Beri-beri—Arrival of C. Grant—Departure of W.
-Goodfellow.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">If</span> I were to write a true and complete account of the
-expedition, I should fill many pages with repeated stories
-of rain and floods, sickness among the coolies and our
-consequent inaction; but that would be as wearisome
-to the reader as it was trying to our own patience.
-During July and a part of August we sent out parties of
-coolies to the Wataikwa camp, where a considerable
-depôt of food was formed, but about the middle of the
-latter month the number of our coolies was reduced to
-twenty, of whom not more than half were capable of any
-hard work, and it became quite evident that any further
-progress in the direction of the mountains was out of the
-question until we should get a fresh supply of men.</p>
-
-<p>As the number of coolies grew fewer we sent natives
-with them to carry stores out to the Wataikwa, but the
-supply of willing natives was very uncertain and it
-became a matter of some difficulty to keep up a regular
-communication with that camp. Two Gurkhas and two
-Javanese soldiers remained always at the Wataikwa and
-one or other of us went out there and stopped to make
-natural history collections or to superintend the cutting
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span>of the road on the other side of the river for a few weeks
-at a time, while the others were at Parimau or at Wakatimi.
-We managed to continue this arrangement until
-the end of October, when it became no longer possible to
-keep an European supplied out there; thenceforward
-until the beginning of January the camp at the Wataikwa
-was occupied only by the guard of Gurkhas and
-Javanese, who in the meantime consumed nearly all the
-stores that had been so laboriously accumulated there.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p184.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT PARIMAU." />
-<p class="caption">CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT PARIMAU.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">MALAY COOLIES</div>
-
-<p>We often said hard things to and of our Malay coolies,
-but the poor wretches were not to blame for being such
-incompetent carriers. At their proper occupations of
-carrying cargo to and from the ships at Macassar, or
-working on the boats of the pearl-fishers, or doing odd
-jobs in their native places, no doubt they excelled; but
-at struggling through the New Guinea jungle with even
-the lightest of loads they were hopeless failures and the
-wonder was that they survived as long as they did.
-Taking them all round, the majority of them worked as
-well as they could, and some of them even became quite
-attached to us.</p>
-
-<p>To a large number of people the name of Malay
-immediately suggests a savage person who runs <i>amok</i>,
-but you may live for years in a Malay country and never
-see a single <i>amok</i>. Fortunately our Malays never behaved
-in this dangerous fashion, though one day a man
-who was suffering from fever went suddenly mad and
-inflicted a serious knife-wound on the body of another
-coolie; the wounded man was successfully treated by
-Marshall, who was happily but seldom required in this
-way to exercise his vocation as surgeon. Malays are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span>
-indeed rather too handy with their knives and a more
-serious encounter took place one day between two of
-Cramer’s convicts. These two men, a <i>mandoer</i> (head
-man) and another, quarrelled one morning about some
-trifle connected with their food, and before anybody
-knew what was amiss, knives were out and one was
-chasing the other through the camp. By a clever backward
-thrust the pursued man dealt the pursuer a deep
-wound under the heart, but he was unable to escape before
-the pursuer had given him too a mortal wound.
-One died in a few minutes and the other during the
-course of the day, fortunately perhaps for both of them.</p>
-
-<p>But ordinarily our Malays were most quiet and
-peaceable fellows. Certainly they were liars and thieves
-when it suited their convenience to be so, but these
-two faults are almost universal in the East. They were
-enthusiastic fishermen (a sure sign of grace) and spent
-many hours of their leisure time in angling for small
-fish, which they very seldom caught. Another of their
-virtues, though it sometimes became a little wearisome,
-was their love of singing, in which they indulged on
-fine evenings. The Ambonese used to sing, accompanied
-by a soloist on a sort of penny whistle, some
-really pretty songs, possibly of Portuguese origin, to
-which one could listen with real pleasure. But the
-singing of the Javanese, usually in a high falsetto
-voice, was a burden hardly to be borne.</p>
-
-<p>In dealing with people like the Malays it is essential
-to keep them constantly occupied in order to prevent
-them from brooding too much over their untoward
-circumstances and becoming, as they easily do,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span>
-physically ill. Accordingly, during the times when for one
-reason or another they were not carrying out loads to
-the Wataikwa camp, we set them to clearing the jungle
-about the camp at Parimau, and in the course of time
-some ten or twelve acres were cleared. Apart from
-the object of drying and letting light into the camp,
-this clearing was made with the purpose of obtaining
-from Parimau a view of the Snow Mountains. This
-latter object was ultimately attained and proved of
-great service to the surveyors, who were enabled to
-fix more definitely the various points of the range seen
-from a place of which they had already determined
-the position by astronomical observations. To the
-non-surveyor too the view of the mountains was a
-boon, though rather a tantalising one, and I used to
-spend many hours in the mornings, before the mists
-had hidden them, in scanning the snows of Idenburg
-and Carstensz and planning routes by which they might
-be reached.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">FELLING TREES</div>
-
-<p>Cutting down trees in the New Guinea jungle differs
-from cutting down trees here in that the tree does not
-always fall, even when the trunk is cut completely
-through. Amongst the tops of the trees grows an extraordinary
-network of rattans and other creepers of
-sufficient strength to support a tree, even if it is inclined
-to fall. We spent some time one day in firing shots
-with a rifle at a single creeper, thicker than a man’s
-arm, which was holding up a tree without any other
-support; though I believe we sometimes pierced the
-creeper with bullets, it held on and only gave way some
-hours later. As a rule we did not take the trouble to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span>
-cut the creepers, but if a tree did not fall we cut down
-those about it until they all fell together in one splendid
-crash. On sloping ground the best method of felling
-trees is to cut their trunks only half way through and
-leave them, and then to cut completely through a big
-tree above them in such a way that it will fall down
-hill and complete the felling of those below it.</p>
-
-<p>Some of the trees that we cut down in our clearing
-fell in the most unexpected directions, but though there
-were some narrow escapes, there were no accidents.
-The most unpleasant was a tree which fell midway
-between two houses, one full of coolies and the other
-full of stores, and shaved off the projecting roof of
-both; it might easily have killed half-a-dozen sleeping
-men, but the only harm it did was to fill the camp with
-a swarm of large and furiously biting ants, which had
-had a nest in its topmost branches. The natives, who
-never tired of using our steel axes, helped a good deal
-in felling the trees and in this way some of them earned
-large quantities of coloured beads.</p>
-
-<p>Another occupation for the coolies in their idle
-moments, and at the same time a very necessary work,
-was the business of keeping the camp in a state of repair.
-When the high river bank opposite the village of Parimau
-was chosen for a camping ground, it was thought that
-floods at all events could do no harm. The houses
-nearest to the river were built five or six yards back from
-the edge of the bank, which was there about fifteen feet
-above the usual level of the water, and it seemed quite out
-of the question that the river could ever invade the camp.
-It was necessary, in order to prevent it from becoming
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span>the dumping ground of camp-refuse, to clear away the
-rank vegetation that grew on the bank down to the
-water’s edge, and this was the beginning of what almost
-ended in our downfall. After the tangle of creepers had
-been removed, the first rains began to wash the bank
-away, and when the river rose three or four feet, as it
-speedily did after a few hours’ downpour, it undermined
-the lower part of the bank and large landslips took place
-from above.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p188.jpg" width="400" height="544" alt="THE CAMP AT PARIMAU. A PRECAUTION AGAINST FLOODS." />
-<p class="caption">THE CAMP AT PARIMAU. A PRECAUTION AGAINST FLOODS.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">SECURING THE CAMP</div>
-
-<p>In the course of a few weeks several yards of land
-disappeared, and the safety of our houses, which had
-come to be almost overhanging the river, was seriously
-imperilled. To save them we erected a strong palisade
-of long poles thrust deeply into the bottom of the bank
-and secured them by rattan ropes, which passed through
-our house and were attached to posts at the back. The
-interval between the palisade and the bank was
-laboriously filled up with shingle from the river bed, and
-this provided a never-ending occupation, because the
-stones were always trickling through the palisade and
-required to be renewed. The natives were of great
-assistance to us in this work, and on one occasion—it was
-the only time that we ever persuaded them to come into
-our camp, although we lived within a few yards of their
-village—the women and children came and helped in the
-work and thoroughly enjoyed themselves.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">FLOODS</div>
-
-<p>It was well that we took these precautions, for as the
-weather grew steadily wetter and wetter (though that
-seemed hardly possible) through July and August, so the
-river rose higher and higher and each succeeding flood
-was greater than the last. The night of the 18-19th of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span>
-August was one that I shall never forget: it had been
-raining steadily for some days and the river was fairly
-full, but about sunset on the 18th the rain really began
-to come down solidly, as it does in the Tropics. About
-midnight a terrific thunderstorm began, which continued
-with almost incessant thunder and lightning until dawn,
-but long before this the river had risen many feet and
-was already threatening the village. As soon as the
-waters began to rise the natives appeared at the edge of
-the river with blazing torches, while canoes were baled out
-and brought nearer to the shore. When the flood, rising
-visibly by that time, reached the lowest house, a most
-extraordinary Bedlam broke loose and it sounded as if all
-the people in the village were being drowned. The men
-all shouted at once, the women and children screamed
-and the dogs whined and howled. By the light of the
-flashes of lightning we could see them scurrying hither
-and thither, bundling all their belongings into the canoes
-and trying to save the roofs and matting walls of their
-huts by throwing them among the branches of the trees
-at the back of the village. In a very short time all the
-houses were swamped and the people were in their
-canoes, about twenty in all, moored to the branches of
-the trees along the edge of the jungle, where they kept
-up an unceasing turmoil until daylight.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p190a.jpg" width="400" height="297" alt="THE MIMIKA AT PARIMAU. LOW WATER." />
-<p class="caption">THE MIMIKA AT PARIMAU. LOW WATER.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p190b.jpg" width="400" height="294" alt="THE SAME IN FLOOD. THE VILLAGE HAS DISAPPEARED AND THE PEOPLE ARE
-IN CANOES." />
-<p class="caption">THE SAME IN FLOOD. THE VILLAGE HAS DISAPPEARED AND THE PEOPLE ARE
-IN CANOES.</p></div>
-
-<p>In the meantime our own position was not very
-secure. The river was swirling down at ten or twelve
-miles an hour and bringing with it huge tree-trunks,
-which carried away our fleet of canoes and threatened
-to destroy our protecting palisade. If that had gone
-nothing could have prevented our houses from falling
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span>into the river, but happily it held well. The whole of
-the jungle on our side of the river was under water and
-all sorts of creatures sought the shelter of our houses,
-which occupied the highest position. When even these
-were flooded, armies of ants and beetles and other insects
-climbed up our beds and other furniture to escape from
-drowning, moths washed out of their resting places
-fluttered aimlessly about, and a family of rats, which
-inhabited my hut, ran about squeaking in terror.</p>
-
-<p>Beyond the loss of our canoes, some of which were
-afterwards recovered, no great damage was done, and
-the flood fell almost as quickly as it had risen. Soon
-after daybreak the ground, on which the village had
-been, began to appear above the falling water, and it
-was seen that not one stick of the huts was standing.
-But the natives were anxious to get out of their canoes,
-and by mid-day half the huts in the village were re-built
-with the fragments that they had crammed into the
-canoes or had put up into the trees. During the next
-two or three days they brought back quantities of housing
-materials, which had been carried for miles down
-the river, and very soon the village resumed its normal
-appearance.</p>
-
-<p>On two subsequent occasions in the following month
-the village was completely swept away by floods, and it
-was a matter of surprise to us that they did not adopt
-the custom of their neighbours the Tapiro pygmies and
-build their houses on piles. The third great flood swept
-away the sandbank on which the village stood, and they
-were accordingly compelled to build their houses on the
-top of a high bank further down the river. Such a place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span>
-as that necessitated cutting down a number of big trees,
-but now that a great many of them have the steel axes,
-which we gave them, it is to be hoped that they have
-learnt to place their dwellings in safer positions, even
-though it costs them a little extra labour.</p>
-
-<p>The wet season, which we hoped had reached its
-maximum of wetness in July, when sometimes for
-days together the rain hardly ceased, continued in a
-series of greater or less floods through the months of
-August and September. Often it was impossible to
-move a yard from the camp, and without books life
-would have been almost insupportable. On one of
-the wettest of those days I came across the following
-passage, which seemed to describe the situation
-exactly:—</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-<div class="stanza">
-<div class="line">“With five ... what we call qualities of bad,</div>
-<div class="line">Worse, worst, and yet worse still, and still worse yet.”</div>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<p>It need hardly be said that this very disagreeable
-season produced ill effects on all the members of the
-expedition. The Europeans became depressed, and if
-we were not sick of life itself, we were certainly sick of
-New Guinea, while in the case of the coolies and soldiers,
-who were accustomed to sunnier climates, and who had
-no interest or goal to look forward to in the country, the
-results were disastrous indeed. Hardly a man escaped
-fever of greater or less severity and chills brought on by
-the unceasing rain and the consequent impossibility of
-securing a change of dry clothing. Several men suffered
-too from dysentery of a very intractable type, which
-completely incapacitated them from any further service.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">BERI-BERI</div>
-
-<p>But worse than either fever or dysentery was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span>
-beri-beri, which made its appearance after we had been
-in the country for a few months. This is not the place
-to give a scientific account of beri-beri; it will suffice to
-say that it is a disease, of which the most important
-feature is a degeneration of the nervous system. The
-results of this are seen in the curious and characteristic
-walk, loss of sensation in various parts of the body,
-interference with the circulation and swelling of the
-body and particularly of the face and limbs, and in very
-many cases sudden heart failure. It is almost conclusively
-proved now that the cause of the disease is an
-error of diet, and it appears to be certain that the fine
-milling and polishing of the rice, which forms the staple
-food of the natives of so many countries in the East,
-deprives the rice of a very necessary constituent as a
-food. Those people, who grind their own rice and do not
-mill or polish it finely, but leave a small portion of the
-husk still adhering to the grain, are free from beri-beri.
-The disease varies in severity from time to time and
-from place to place, but at its best it is a very deadly
-scourge and it causes a very large number of deaths.
-Occasionally it occurs in an epidemic form, but fortunately
-that did not happen to our expedition.</p>
-
-<p>In the six months from the beginning of June to
-the end of November, thirty-nine men shewed definite
-symptoms of beri-beri, and seven deaths were directly
-attributable to this cause. Our coolies, who came from
-the Eastern islands of the Archipelago, were much less
-susceptible to the disease than were the convicts and
-soldiers, most of whom came from Java and Sumatra;
-these latter contracted the disease in a much more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span>
-serious form and most of the fatal cases took place
-among them. It was a curious circumstance that at
-Parimau, which was in most respects by far the healthier
-place, many more cases of beri-beri occurred than at
-Wakatimi, where it is doubtful if any cases originated.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">SICKNESS</div>
-
-<p>Still more remarkable was the case of the camp on
-the Wataikwa River, which ought to have been the
-healthiest place we occupied anywhere in the country.
-For several months a guard of two Javanese and two
-Gurkhas was kept there to look after the store of food,
-and though they were very frequently changed and
-replaced by others, several of the Javanese developed
-beri-beri and two of them died. The Gurkhas, perhaps
-because they led more active lives than the Javanese,
-remained free of the disease until one of them, Havildar
-Mahesur, a most useful man, had the misfortune to
-damage one of his eyes; it was necessary for him to
-remain in the darkness of his tent for some days and
-within a fortnight he developed all the signs of beri-beri
-so that he had to be sent away from the country.</p>
-
-<p>A welcome interruption in those dreary months was
-caused by the arrival at Parimau on August 26 of canoes
-bringing Mr. C. H. B. Grant, who had come out from
-England as naturalist to the expedition in the place of
-W. Stalker. He brought with him two Dayak collectors<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a>
-and a quantity of various and excellent stores, and a
-large mail, the first we had received since the end of May.
-Shortridge had arrived in the country by the same ship
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>on his return from Australia, but his change of air had
-not completely cured him and he was compelled to leave
-the country at the end of November. Goodfellow, whose
-fever continued almost without interruption, became so
-weak that he also was obliged to leave the country early
-in October. From that time we had only a dozen men
-and no forward movement was possible until the arrival
-of our third batch of coolies on the 22nd December. By
-the same boat that brought the new coolies in December
-came instructions to Captain Rawling to take over the
-command of the expedition.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Pygmies visit Parimau—Description of Tapiro Pygmies—Colour—Hair—Clothing—Ornaments—Netted
-Bags—Flint Knives—Bone
-Daggers—Sleeping Mats—Fire Stick—Method of making Fire—Cultivation
-of Tobacco—Manner of Smoking—Bows and Arrows—Village
-of the Pygmies—Terraced Ground—Houses on Piles—Village
-Headman—Our Efforts to see the Women—Language and
-Voices—Their Intelligence—Counting—Their Geographical Distribution.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE TAPIRO PYGMIES</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Pygmy people—or Tapiro as they are called by the
-Papuans—whom we saw in March, visited us occasionally
-in small parties of three or four at Parimau and later we
-went to one of their villages in the hills, to which they
-were reluctantly persuaded to show us the way. When
-they come down to Parimau they were warmly welcomed
-by the Papuans, with whom they seemed to be on very
-friendly terms, and stayed in their houses for two or
-three days. They appeared to be particularly attractive
-to the women, one of whom we saw affectionately embrace
-a Tapiro on his arrival; it was said that she kissed him,
-but if that was so it was the only occasion on which that
-form of endearment was seen practised by the Papuans.
-It was noticeable that when they arrived at Parimau
-they had not their bows and arrows, which they always
-carry elsewhere; probably they had left them hidden in
-the jungle before they came to the village. Similarly,
-when we went up to visit the Tapiro, the Papuans who
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span>were with us left their spears behind them at the last
-camp before we reached their village.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p196.jpg" width="400" height="654" alt="A TAPIRO PYGMY." />
-<p class="caption">A TAPIRO PYGMY.</p></div>
-
-<p>Their visits were always very welcome because they
-brought with them from the hills quantities of tobacco
-to exchange with the natives of Parimau, who grow
-none themselves. At first they were very shy of crossing
-the river, but by the offer of gifts we persuaded
-them to come into our camp, where we had better
-opportunities of observing them than in the crowded
-village.</p>
-
-<p>At one time or another we took measurements of
-40 adult men, most of them men in the prime of life,
-and their average height was found to be 144·9 cm. (4 ft.
-9 in.). It is possible that one or two rather tall men
-of 150 cm. and upwards, whose appearance led us to
-suspect that they were Tapiro-Papuan half-breeds, may
-have been included among those measured, but the
-correction of that error will not appreciably reduce
-the true average height. The height of the smallest
-man measured was 132·6 cm. By contrast with the
-Papuans they looked extremely small and, what was
-rather a curious thing, though many of our Malay
-coolies were no taller than they, the coolies looked
-merely under-sized and somewhat stunted men, while
-the Tapiro looked emphatically <i>little</i> men. They are
-cleanly-built, active-looking little fellows, rather big in
-the buttocks as mountain people are apt to be, and
-their well-made calves are noticeable in contrast with
-the long, straight legs of the Papuans. They walk
-with an easy swinging gait, the knees a little bent and
-the body slightly leaning forwards.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The colour of their skin is paler than that of the
-Papuans—some of them indeed are almost yellow—but
-they are so indescribably dirty that it is not easy to
-know what is their true colour; they have also an ugly
-habit of smearing their faces with a black oily mixture.
-Neither tattooing nor cicatrization appears to be practised
-by them. The <i>septum</i> of the nose is always
-pierced and in it they occasionally wear a curved boar’s
-tusk planed down to a thin slip, or a short piece of
-straight bone; the <i>alae nasi</i> are not pierced. The nose
-is straight and very wide at the nostrils. The upper lip
-of many of the men is long and curiously convex.</p>
-
-<p>The hair is short and woolly and black; many of
-the men give a lighter shade to the hair with lime or
-mud, and in two or three cases it seemed to be of a
-brown colour without any artificial treatment. They
-appear to begin to grow bald at a comparatively early
-age. The younger men grow whiskers and the older
-have short bushy black beards. There is a good deal
-of short downy black hair scattered about the body.
-Their eyes are noticeably larger and rounder than those of
-the Papuans, and there is in them something sleepy and
-dog-like which gives a pathetic expression to their faces.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">DRESS AND ORNAMENTS</div>
-
-<p>When we first saw them one or two men wore
-curious helmet-like caps of plaited fibres and another
-had a strip of fur round his head; otherwise they are
-completely naked except for the remarkable gourd
-case described above (p. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>). Strangely enough they
-are extremely modest and unwilling to expose themselves;
-when with some difficulty we had persuaded
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span>a man to part with his case, he would not remove it
-then and there, but always disappeared into the jungle and
-returned after an interval decently covered with leaves.</p>
-
-<p>Their ornaments are few and simple; a number of
-men wear arm-bands and leg-bands of plaited fibre
-similar to those worn by the Papuans, and several of
-them wear necklaces of seeds, short pieces of bamboo,
-scraps of broken shell, teeth of wallabies and (in one
-instance) the bones of a small mammal. The lobes of
-both ears are pierced and a few men wear in one ear an
-ornament made of a small piece of gourd to which are
-attached seeds, scraps of fur, claws of birds and other
-ornamental odds and ends. One young man, with more
-originality than the rest, thrust through his front hair a
-piece of sharpened bone, which projected downwards
-over his face and gave him a most distinguished appearance
-(see Frontispiece).</p>
-
-<p>The most elaborate and ornamental of their possessions
-are the bags, which every man carries. Most of
-them carry two, a large bag like a haversack slung
-across the shoulders and usually hanging down the back,
-and a small bag only a few inches square slung round
-his neck and hanging down on the chest. They are
-made of fine fibres of different colours, cleverly netted<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a>
-in ornamental patterns, and they show the best attempt
-at decorative art that we saw in the country. In these
-bags the Pygmy man keeps all his portable property.
-The small wallet round the neck contains his bone and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span>shell ornaments when they are not in use, and his knives;
-these latter are sharp flakes of a flint-like stone shaped
-exactly like the flint-knives and scrapers that are found
-in this country; they are used for scraping down the
-wood of their bows and for pointing and ornamenting
-their arrows as well as for other cutting purposes, and it
-is profoundly interesting in these days of steel to see
-people still using the implements of prehistoric man.
-One or two men also carried in their wallets a short
-dagger made of a pointed cassowary’s bone, and they
-explained to us by graphic gestures how they were
-accustomed to shoot a cassowary with their arrows and
-then after a long chase to stab it with the dagger.</p>
-
-<p>The contents of the larger bag usually are the sleeping
-mat, the fire-stick and rattan, and tobacco. The
-sleeping mat is a fabric of <i>pandanus</i> leaves, which can
-be used either as a mat to lie upon or as a shelter from
-the rain; it measures usually about six by three feet and
-is neatly folded to be carried in the bag. The manufacture
-of these mats is always the work of the women and
-is a very ingenious process. The long ribbon-like leaves
-of the <i>pandanus</i> are split horizontally into two strips;
-the shiny upper one alone is used and the lower is
-thrown away. Strips of two leaves are placed with their
-split surfaces together and their shiny surfaces outwards,
-and then numbers of these pairs of split leaves are sown
-together, edge to edge, until the mat is of the required
-size. Thus the mat is made entirely of the outer
-surfaces of the leaves; it is very strong and is quite
-impervious to rain.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p200.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt="MAKING FIRE: (1) BY THE FRICTION OF WOOD AND RATTAN." />
-<p class="caption">MAKING FIRE: (1) BY THE FRICTION OF WOOD AND RATTAN.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">MAKING FIRE</div>
-
-<p>By far the most interesting of the possessions of these
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span>people is the apparatus for making fire, which consists
-of three different parts, the split stick, the rattan, and
-the tinder. The split stick is a short stick of wood an
-inch or so in diameter, which is split at one end and is
-held open by a small pebble placed between the split
-halves. The rattan is a long piece of split rattan wound
-upon itself into a neatly coiled ring (see illustration p. 202),
-and the tinder is usually a lump of the fibrous sheath
-of a palm shoot and sometimes a piece of dried moss.</p>
-
-<p>The method of making fire is as follows: In the split
-of the stick, between the stone which holds the split ends
-apart and the solid stick, is placed a small fragment of
-tinder. The operator—if one may use so modern a word
-in describing so ancient a practice—places the stick upon
-the ground and secures the solid, <i>i.e.</i> the unsplit end with
-his foot. Then, having unwound about a yard of the
-rattan, he holds the coil in one hand and the free end in
-the other and looping the middle of it underneath the
-stick at the point where the tinder is placed he proceeds
-to saw it backwards and forwards with extreme rapidity.
-In a short space of time, varying from ten to thirty
-seconds, the rattan snaps and he picks up the stick with
-the tinder, which has probably by this time begun to
-smoulder, and blows it into flame. At the point where
-the rattan rubs on the stick a deep cut is made on the
-stick, and at each successive use the stick is split a little
-further down and the rattan is rubbed a little further
-back, so that a well-used fire-stick is marked with a
-number of dark burnt rings. It was only with the
-greatest difficulty and after many attempts that we
-succeeded in producing fire in this manner, but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span>
-Tapiro do it with the utmost ease and they scorned our
-boxes of matches, which we offered them in exchange for
-their apparatus, and showed no signs of surprise at a
-suddenly kindled match.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a></p>
-
-<p>The most frequent use of the fire-stick is in lighting
-the tobacco, of which nearly every man carries a supply
-in his larger bag. These people cultivate tobacco in
-sufficient quantities to be able to supply the Papuans of
-the low country. The leaves are dried and neatly rolled
-up into long bundles weighing three or four pounds; the
-flavour is strong and rather bitter, but it is not unpleasant
-to smoke. The Tapiro smoke tobacco chiefly
-as cigarettes, using for the wrapper a thin slip of dry
-<i>pandanus</i> leaf. When, as is often the case, the wrapper
-is very narrow and the tobacco is inclined to escape, the
-man smokes his cigarette in a peculiar manner; he holds
-the unlighted end in his fingers and with his mouth
-draws out the smoke from between the edges of the
-wrapper in the middle of the cigarette, this he continues
-to do until the cigarette is about half consumed when he
-puts the end in his mouth in the ordinary way.</p>
-
-<p>The Tapiro also smoke tobacco in a pipe in a fashion
-of their own. The pipe is a simple cylinder of bamboo
-about an inch in diameter and a few inches in length.
-A small plug of tobacco is rolled up and pushed down to
-about the middle of the pipe, and the smoker holding it
-upright between his lips draws out the smoke from below.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>The Tapiro never make large cigars like those of the
-Papuans of the Mimika, and the Papuans never smoke
-pipes, nor did they take readily to those that we gave
-them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p202.jpg" width="400" height="658" alt="MAKING FIRE: (2) BLOWING ON THE SMOULDERING TINDER." />
-<p class="caption">MAKING FIRE: (2) BLOWING ON THE SMOULDERING TINDER.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">WEAPONS OF THE PYGMIES</div>
-
-<p>Besides the bone daggers mentioned above the only
-weapon of the Tapiro are the bow and arrows, which they
-always carry. The bows are a very little shorter than
-those of the Papuans, but otherwise they are very
-similar, viz.: straight tapered strips of hard wood
-“strung” with a slip of rattan. The arrows are shorter
-and lighter and of finer workmanship than those of the
-Mimika Papuans, but like those they have neither
-feathers nor nocks. The best, which they were not at
-all anxious to sell to us, are ornamented with simple
-carvings and are tipped with a very sharp point of black
-wood. An arrow which ended in a curious blunt lump
-of wood was used, so we understood, for shooting birds.</p>
-
-<p>The Tapiro have no spears and neither they nor the
-Mimika Papuans know the use of the sling. They set
-quantities of little nooses for small animals, and we once
-found a rattan noose fixed to a root of a tree and evidently
-set with the purpose of catching a pig.</p>
-
-<p>Many of them carry in their bags a small Jew’s harp,
-made of a thin piece of bamboo, from which they extract
-faint music that is pleasing to their ears. Two men
-possessed instruments of a more original design: these
-were made of pieces of polished bone fitting together in
-such a way that when one was turned round over the
-other it produced peculiarly discordant squeaks, which
-were highly appreciated by the player.</p>
-
-<p>Wamberi Merbiri or Wamberimi, the village of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span>
-Tapiro which was visited by different members of our
-party on three separate occasions, is situated on the
-lower slopes of Mount Tapiro, the mountain nearest to
-Parimau, at about 1800 feet above the sea. It is in
-fact within a stone’s throw of that large clearing which
-Rawling and I had reached with so much difficulty, but
-when approached by the track used by the people themselves
-it is an easy walk of two or three hours from the
-Kapare River.</p>
-
-<p>The track climbs by a steep almost knife-edged ridge
-densely covered with forest to the rounded shoulder of
-the hill where the village lies. The first sign of the
-village is a flimsy fence of tall poles, which bars the track
-and extends for a short distance on either side of it.
-Passing through a narrow opening in the fence you come
-to a cleared space occupied by three or four houses. A
-couple of hundred yards beyond these and separated
-from them by a small gully, which is bridged by an
-enormous fallen tree, is a second group of six houses,
-constituting the village of Wamberi Merbiri.</p>
-
-<p>The houses are scattered about over three or four
-acres of steeply sloping ground, from which most of the
-trees have been cleared. Between the houses the ground
-has been levelled in three places to form almost level
-terraces, measuring about fifteen by five yards, completely
-cleared of vegetation and covered with small
-stones. These terraces are held up on the lower side by
-logs and stumps of trees, and the labour of making them
-by people whose only tools are stone axes and pieces of
-wood is difficult to imagine; they are used, so far as we
-could understand, for dances and other ceremonies.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p204.jpg" width="500" height="405" alt="WAMBERI-MERBIRI, THE VILLAGE OF THE TAPIRO PYGMIES." />
-<p class="caption">WAMBERI-MERBIRI, THE VILLAGE OF THE TAPIRO PYGMIES.</p></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">HOUSES OF THE PYGMIES</div>
-
-<p>The houses are greatly superior to those of the Mimika
-Papuans, from which they differ in every respect. They
-are built on piles, which raise the floor of the house from
-four to ten feet above the ground according to the steepness
-of the slope underneath. The walls are made of long
-laths of split wood with big sheets of bark fastened on
-to the outside. The roof is a fairly steep pitched angular
-structure of split wood covered with over-lapping leaves
-of the Fan-palm. The floor is made like the walls and
-covered with large sheets of bark; in the middle of the
-floor is a square sunken box filled with sand or earth in
-which a fire is kept burning, and over the fire hanging
-from the roof is a simple rack, on which wood is placed
-to dry. The house consists of one nearly square compartment,
-measuring about ten feet in each direction.
-The way of entering is by a steep ladder made of two
-posts tied closely together, which leads to a narrow
-platform or balcony in front of the front wall of the
-house. There are no notches on the posts, but the
-lashings of rattan, which tie them together, answer
-the purpose of steps or rungs for the feet. As well as
-in the excellence of their houses, the Tapiro show another
-point of superiority over the neighbouring Papuans in
-their habit of using a common retiring place at the edge
-of a small stream.</p>
-
-<p>There was an old man in the village, bald and white-bearded,
-and horribly disfigured by disease,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> who appeared
-to be unquestionably the headman of the place.
-He sat in one of the huts all day and shouted shrilly to
-the other men who were constantly going in and out to
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span>speak to him, and I think it was due to him that we
-were never allowed to see the women. We were particularly
-anxious to see some of the women of the tribe,
-and we offered them large rewards of knives and axes
-merely for the sight of them. The other men were
-willing enough to produce the women, and several times
-they were on the point of fetching them, but were
-always prevented by the old man. Finally we had a
-personal interview with him, and held out three bright
-axes, which made his one eye glisten with greed, but
-he still remained obdurate.</p>
-
-<p>Though we never saw the women I have no doubt
-that they saw us; at night we saw their camp fires up
-on the hillside opposite the village, and when we departed
-we heard their shrill voices quite close to us before we
-had gone a quarter of a mile from the place. They had
-no reason to distrust us when we assured them that our
-only wish was to see their women, and I think the reason
-for their keeping them hidden was the presence of the
-Papuans who accompanied us from Parimau. The supply
-of Papuan women is very scanty, and it is likely enough
-that the men would seize any chance of abducting a
-Tapiro woman, as indeed they boasted of having
-done.</p>
-
-<p>The language of these Tapiro pygmy people is certainly
-different from that of the Papuans, but I regret to
-say that we were unable to make even the smallest
-vocabulary of it. Their voices are rather high-pitched
-and nasal, and many of their words contain curious
-throat sounds, which I was not able to spell much less
-to imitate. In talking they have a curious habit of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span>protruding the lips, which recalls in a striking manner a
-familiar grimace of the anthropoid apes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p206.jpg" width="500" height="363" alt="HOUSE OF THE TAPIRO." />
-<p class="caption">HOUSE OF THE TAPIRO.</p></div>
-
-<p>They appeared to understand a good deal that the
-Papuans said to them, but I doubt if the latter understood
-them when they were talking amongst themselves.
-When we were trying to persuade the headman to allow
-the women to be produced, it was a strange experience
-to be using the Papuans, of whose language we knew
-only the rudiments, as interpreters to an even less known
-people.</p>
-
-<p>In consequence of our entire lack of knowledge of
-their language we were not able to form a very reasonable
-estimate of their intelligence. When they were seen
-in company with the Papuans, the latter, who usually
-looked dull and expressionless, appeared by contrast to
-be full of life and animation. The Tapiro, as a rule,
-looks blank and rather sad, and when a smile does appear
-upon his face, it dawns slowly and reluctantly.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">COUNTING</div>
-
-<p>A rough test of an uncivilised man’s intelligence is
-the extent to which he is able to count, but in the case
-of the Tapiro there is an unfortunate difference of evidence
-in this respect. Capt. Rawling (<i>Geograph. Journal</i>,
-Vol. xxxviii., page 246) affirms that they are able to
-count up to ten. If this is so, it is a very interesting
-and remarkable fact. On several occasions I tried to
-make these people count, with a view to learning their
-numeral words, and I found that like the Papuans they
-only had words for one and two, and that those two words
-were the same as the Papuan words; but it appeared
-that, unlike the Papuans, they had not the custom of
-using their fingers and toes for the higher numbers.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span></p>
-
-<p>On the credit side of their intelligence must be placed
-their admirably constructed houses, their decorated
-arrows and ingeniously woven bags, and their cultivation.</p>
-
-<p>As well as the village and clearing of Wambiri Merbiri
-we saw other small patches of cleared ground on the
-spurs of Mount Tapiro, and on the slopes of Mount
-Tuaba we saw from a distance another large clearing
-which we were never able to reach. Further to the East
-we saw no sign of them and we were informed by the
-Papuans that there were no more in that direction. That
-is probably true, for the mountains are so excessively
-steep to the East of Mount Tuaba that there appears to
-be no country suitable for them. It seems likely that
-we were fortunate enough to meet these people at the
-Eastern limit of their range and that more of them would
-be found living in the hills N.W. from the Kapare River
-towards the Charles Louis Mountains, where the slopes
-are less steep than in the Nassau Range. The thick-coated dog,
-which was brought down to Parimau by the
-Tapiro (see p. 126), might suggest that they have dealings
-with other natives living high up in the mountains, but
-so far we have no definite knowledge of the existence of
-such a people.</p>
-
-<p>This account of our observations, which were necessarily
-very superficial, will suffice to show that there is a
-most promising field for some future investigator, who
-has opportunity and time to spend among these most
-interesting people.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p208.jpg" width="400" height="604" alt="MOUNT TAPIRO, FROM THE VILLAGE OF THE PYGMIES." />
-<p class="caption">MOUNT TAPIRO, FROM THE VILLAGE OF THE PYGMIES.</p></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Communication with Amboina and Merauke—Sail in the “Valk”
-to the Utakwa River—Removal of the Dutch Expedition—View of
-Mount Carstensz—Dugongs—Crowded Ship—Dayaks and Live
-Stock—Sea-Snakes—Excitable Convicts—The Island River—Its
-Great Size—Another Dutch Expedition—Their Achievements—Houses
-in the Trees—Large Village—Barn-like Houses—Naked
-People—Shooting Lime—Their Skill in Paddling—Through the
-Marianne Straits—An Extract from Carstensz—Merauke—Trade
-in Copra—Botanic Station—The Mission—The Ké Island Boat-builders—The
-Natives of Merauke described—Arrival of our Third
-Batch of Coolies—The Feast of St. Nicholas—Return to Mimika.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">It</span> has been mentioned in the preceding chapters that
-after the expedition landed in New Guinea, a more or
-less regular communication was kept up between the
-Mimika and Amboina. The South-west coast of New
-Guinea as far East as the Utanata River is in the
-administrative district of Amboina, and beyond that, as
-far as the boundary of British New Guinea, the country
-is nominally under the control of the station of Merauke.
-Thus the Mimika is actually within the Merauke district,
-but it was for many reasons found more convenient for
-the Government to communicate with the expedition
-directly from Amboina rather than by way of Merauke;
-accordingly the soldiers forming our escort were attached
-as an outpost to the garrison of Amboina and communications
-were established with that place.</p>
-
-<p>For several months a steamer came from Amboina<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span>
-to the Mimika, bringing men and stores and letters
-and taking away invalids; usually it came every six or
-eight weeks, and the longest interval that occurred was
-twelve weeks, during which for one reason or another
-it was found impossible to send a ship to the Mimika.
-In October an alteration was made, and it was decided
-that the Merauke steamer, which was in regular communication
-with the Dutch expeditions on the Utakwa
-and Island rivers, should visit the Mimika also. It was
-in consequence of this new arrangement on the part of
-the Government that I was enabled to make the journey
-described below, and although these places do not fall
-strictly within the sphere of our expedition, yet they are
-so little known that I shall make no apology for giving
-a short description of them here.</p>
-
-<p>Towards the end of November, the Government
-steamer <i>Valk</i> called at the Mimika on its way to the
-Utakwa and Island rivers to take away our sick men,
-who had accumulated in some numbers during the last
-two months. Our work was practically at a standstill,
-and nothing more could be done until our next batch of
-coolies arrived, so it was agreed that I should go down
-to Merauke in company with Shortridge, who was going
-home an invalid, and bring back our new coolies who
-were due to arrive there by the next boat early in
-December.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE UTAKWA RIVER</div>
-
-<p>A few hours’ steaming from the Mimika brought us
-to the mouth of the Utakwa, where we lay outside the
-bar all night waiting for daylight to find our way into
-the channel. When we had entered the river it was
-evident that the Utakwa was something very different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span>
-from the Mimika, which is a mere ditch in comparison
-with it; it is indeed to the Mimika as the Severn is to
-the Wye. It was tantalising to remember that this was
-the river by which we had originally intended to enter
-the country, and one could not help regretfully wondering
-what would have been the result if we had followed
-out that plan; but it was at the best an unprofitable
-speculation, and one had to rest content (or as content
-as possible) with the course we had taken. In any case
-it was certain that even if we had taken the Utakwa as
-our point of entering into the country, we could not
-possibly have reached any considerable height in the
-Snow Mountains with the means, i.e. the men, at our
-disposal.</p>
-
-<p>Near its mouth and for some miles inland the
-Utakwa is about half a mile wide and bounded by low
-banks of Mangrove and Nipa-palm. The <i>Valk</i> was a
-ship of about five hundred tons drawing twelve feet of
-water. We steamed up the river for about seventeen
-miles and there anchored, not from lack of water, but
-on account of the risk of turning the ship round against
-a strong current in the somewhat narrowing channel.
-From the anchorage a steam launch and boats were sent
-on to the base camp of the Government expedition,
-which had been established rather more than thirty
-miles further up the river.</p>
-
-<p>We waited for three days while that expedition was
-being brought away, and after the first day the <i>Valk</i>
-went down to the mouth of the river on account of the
-mosquitoes at the anchorage; they were a small black
-species, and they came out of the swamps by day as well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span>
-as by night in swarms, and attacked everybody on board
-so furiously that life became quite intolerable. Before
-we left the anchorage up the river we saw a magnificent
-view of the snows of Mount Carstensz towering up over
-the morning mists. From there the Snow Mountains,
-making as it were a steep wall across the view to the
-North, appear far more imposing than they do in the
-rather sidelong view from the Mimika; and the different
-aspect of the precipices as seen from the Utakwa was
-most instructive.</p>
-
-<p>Whilst we were waiting at the mouth of the river
-we were visited by several parties of natives in canoes,
-who came, they informed us, from a large village on the
-Kupera Pukwa, the next river to the west of the
-Utakwa. They appeared to use the same, or almost
-the same, language as the people of Mimika, and they
-were very anxious that we should go and visit their
-village, but unfortunately we had no means of doing so.</p>
-
-<p>An interesting sight at the mouth of the Utakwa
-were the Dugongs (<i>Halicore australis</i>), which were seen
-feeding on the weeds in the shallow water and occasionally
-rose up and stared at us in a curiously human
-manner. They are about eight feet long and are
-perfectly inoffensive creatures, but they have been
-“fished” for with nets and almost exterminated in
-many places on account of their valuable oil.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p212a.jpg" width="400" height="297" alt="TYPES OF TAPIRO PYGMIES." />
-<p class="caption">TYPES OF TAPIRO PYGMIES.</p></div>
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;">
-<img src="images/i_p212b.jpg" width="499" height="371" alt="TYPES OF TAPIRO PYGMIES." />
-<p class="caption">TYPES OF TAPIRO PYGMIES.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">DUTCH EXPEDITION</div>
-
-<p>The Dutch expedition came down to us in detachments
-during the three days that we waited at the
-mouth of the river. There were Captain Van der Bie, in
-command; Mr. J. M. Dumas, surveyor and naturalist;
-three white sergeants, about fifty native soldiers and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span>convicts, and twenty Dayaks of Dutch Borneo, who
-came down the river in the long canoes they had built
-themselves. There was also an Australian collector,
-Mr. Meek and two assistants, who had been attached to
-the Dutch expedition to make collections of birds and
-butterflies for a private museum in England. With Mr.
-Meek were ten natives of Port Moresby in British New
-Guinea, little brown, fuzzy-headed fellows full of life and
-merriment; they were in every way so different from the
-sombre and unemotional Papuans that it was difficult to
-realise that they were both natives of the same island.</p>
-
-<p>The Utakwa expedition had been in the country for
-seven months and had traversed a considerable extent of
-country, but those months coincided with the period of
-the worst weather—one cannot talk of wet and dry
-seasons in that region—and like us they had suffered
-from the shortcomings of their coolies; the Dayaks had
-reached them too late to be of much service to the expedition.
-From their base camp at the head of steam-launch
-navigation they had gone two days further up
-the river in canoes, and then had gone a distance of
-seven marches towards Mount Carstensz. The furthest
-point they reached was at an altitude of about 3000 feet,
-and was less than twenty miles distant from the snow,
-but the views of the country that they saw were not sufficient
-to show whether that was the best route to the
-highest mountains. One of the principal objects of the
-Government in despatching that expedition to the Utakwa
-was to discover a convenient way of crossing New
-Guinea, and when it was found that the Utakwa led
-apparently to the highest mountain in the island, it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span>
-decided to withdraw the expedition, and to concentrate
-all the exploring energies on the Island River, which
-seemed to offer a better prospect of accomplishing that
-purpose.</p>
-
-<p>When all these people had been taken on board the
-<i>Valk</i>, the decks of the little ship were crowded to overflowing
-with gear and men and wild animals. They had
-brought some young wild pigs, a number of crowned and
-other kinds of pigeons, and several young cassowaries.
-Mr. Dumas brought on board three eggs, from which
-were hatched pretty little cassowary chicks during the
-next few days. We were particularly struck by the
-appearance of the Dayaks, any one of whom looked more
-than a match for three of our Malay coolies. Apart from
-their apparent strength, they differed noticeably from
-the Malays, who like to spend their days in sleeping
-between meals, in their unceasing industry; they had
-brought on board quantities of bamboo, from which
-they at once started making bird cages, and pieces of
-hard wood, out of which they carved handles for their
-knives and other ornamental objects.</p>
-
-<p>The ship was so heavily laden that it was impossible
-to take on board all the boats that had been used by
-the Utakwa expedition, and three or four were towed
-in a long string astern. Fortunately the sea was exceptionally
-smooth, but even so one of these, an almost
-new “long-boat,” broke adrift, and we lost a day in
-searching for it unsuccessfully.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">CONVICT LUNATIC</div>
-
-<p>Whilst we were cruising about looking for the lost
-boat, one of our passengers, a fever-stricken soldier from
-the Mimika, caused some excitement by stabbing with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span>
-his knife another man and then jumping hastily into
-the sea. The sudden plunge cooled his fever and the
-appearance of a sea-snake swimming not far from him
-made him as anxious to return to the ship as he had
-been to leave it.</p>
-
-<p>During the voyage down the coast we saw a number
-of sea-snakes, sometimes as far as thirty or forty
-miles from land, but there was no opportunity of
-catching one; they appeared to be yellowish with dark
-markings and were about three or four feet in length.
-I was told that they sometimes travel in large numbers
-together and will climb up the sides of ships at anchor,
-but I cannot vouch for the correctness of this statement.</p>
-
-<p>Another episode, which enlivened the voyage down
-to Merauke, was caused by the strange behaviour of
-one of the convicts, who was being taken away from the
-Mimika. This man had suffered from the common
-form of delusion that everybody was against him, and
-after he had run away from the camp at Wakatimi
-and had spent thirty-six hours in the jungle without
-food I certified that he was of unsound mind and
-recommended that he should be sent back to Java.
-He was found prowling about the ship with an exceedingly
-sharp knife, with which (so he said) he intended
-to murder me, so he was promptly secured in chains.
-We made friends in a day or two and he was set at
-liberty again before we reached Merauke, but I confess
-I was not sorry when we were no longer together in the
-same ship.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE ISLAND RIVER</div>
-
-<p>On the second day after leaving the Utakwa we
-entered the Island River by one of its many mouths,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span>
-and after we had gone up it a few miles we realised
-that in the matter of size it is to the Utakwa as that
-river is to the Mimika. The banks are low and swampy
-and mostly covered with mangroves for several miles
-from the coast. Further on the banks are a few feet
-above the level of high water and we saw many trees
-that looked like good timber trees and others of considerable
-beauty, notably a wide-spreading acacia-like
-tree (<i>Albizia moluccana</i>), and a very graceful palm
-(<i>Oncosperma filamentosum</i>) like a Betel-nut palm growing
-in clumps by the waterside. We noticed also a
-number of Bread-fruit trees (<i>Artocarpus</i> sp.) bigger
-than any I have seen elsewhere, but none of them
-appeared to bear fruit.</p>
-
-<p>We steamed up the river for one hundred and twelve
-nautical miles to the <i>Swallow</i>, the depôt ship and base
-camp of the Dutch exploring expedition. The river at
-that point is about three hundred yards wide, but the
-current is swift and there are many shallow sand banks,
-which make further navigation impossible for a ship as
-large as the <i>Valk</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p216.jpg" width="400" height="641" alt="A PAPUAN WITH TWO TAPIRO PYGMIES." />
-<p class="caption">A PAPUAN WITH TWO TAPIRO PYGMIES.</p></div>
-
-<p>The Dutch expedition had been established for several
-months in the country and had made very considerable
-progress towards the North. From the <i>Swallow</i> they
-had proceeded up the river two days’ journey by steam
-launch and six days beyond that by canoes as far as the
-river was navigable, a distance of more than one hundred
-miles. Thence they had gone North, and in nine marches
-they had reached a height of ten thousand feet at a point
-which appeared to be on the watershed of the main
-mountain range of the island. One of the principal
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span>objects of the expedition was to cross New Guinea from
-South to North, and it was hoped that from the furthest
-point they had reached they would soon arrive at one of
-the upper tributaries of the Kaiserin Augusta, the large
-river which enters the sea in German territory. They
-were at that time busily occupied in transporting supplies
-up to their furthest camp with a view to continuing the
-journey, but shortly afterwards the expedition was
-crippled by sickness and the project was abandoned.
-We spent two days alongside of the <i>Swallow</i> transferring
-to her the stores and many of the men that we had
-brought from the Utakwa and taking away the sick and
-time-expired members of the Island River expedition,
-amongst them being Lieut. Van der Wenn of the Netherlands
-Navy, who was attached to the expedition as
-surveyor.</p>
-
-<p>On our way down the Island River we saw many
-things which we had missed on the way up, because we
-had entered the river and steamed up through several
-hours of darkness. First we came to isolated houses by
-the river bank of the same type as the Mimika houses,
-but larger and better built; near them we saw a few
-natives, who appeared to be very shy and retreated hastily
-into the jungle when the steamer approached.</p>
-
-<p>Lower down, when we were within about thirty miles
-of the sea, we came to a large village of fifty or sixty
-houses, some of which were raised on piles near the edge
-of the river and the others were built in the trees, where
-they presented a most astonishing appearance. They
-are square and apparently well-made houses with ridgepole
-roof and walls of “atap,” the entrance is by a hole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span>
-in the floor which is reached by a vertical ladder of
-bamboo from the ground. One house was at a height of
-certainly not less than sixty feet above the ground in a
-very slender tree, and the position of the inhabitants,
-when the wind blew, must have been far from enviable.
-Unfortunately the sun was low and directly behind the
-village so that I was unable to obtain photographs of the
-tree-dwellings. The people there showed no fear of us,
-but stood on the bank and shouted and waved their
-spears.</p>
-
-<p>A few miles further down the river we came to
-another large village of yet a different character. The
-houses there were all built on piles, but while a few of
-them were of the usual small size, the majority were
-quite unlike anything else we had seen in that part of
-New Guinea. They were huge barn-like structures raised
-on piles ten or more feet above the ground, and the
-length of some of them must have been from one hundred
-and fifty to two hundred feet. It was quite evident that
-these were communal dwellings, indicating a social
-system entirely different from that of the surrounding
-districts, and it was very tantalising to pass them within a
-few yards and not to be able to visit them. The village
-extended for about a mile along the East bank and the
-natives that we saw must have numbered at least a
-thousand. The men were all entirely naked and the
-women were only dressed in the scantiest strip of bark-cloth.
-In other respects they appeared, as far as one
-could tell from such a rapid survey of them, to be very
-similar to the Mimika Papuans in their features and
-their short hair and their absence of adornments.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">INTERESTING PEOPLE</div>
-
-<p>Crowds of people lined the river bank and some of
-them, holding short bamboos in their hands, jerked them
-in our direction and from the end came out a white cloud
-of powdered lime, which looked like smoke. This custom
-was noticed by Rawling when he first visited the village
-of Nimé, and it was recorded by some of the early
-voyagers,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> but the meaning of it has not yet been
-explained. The suggestion that it is a means of imitating
-the appearance of fire-arms is ingenious, but it can hardly
-be seriously considered.</p>
-
-<p>While most of the people stood on the bank to see us
-pass, a number of men jumped into their canoes and came
-racing after us. The current of the river was about two,
-and the speed of the <i>Valk</i> was seven knots, so they had
-to move quickly, but they easily overtook us and followed
-us for some distance down the river. Their canoes are
-simple “dug-outs,” but they differ from those of the
-Mimika in coming to a fine point at both ends. The bow
-is roughly notched on the upper side, which gives it
-somewhat the appearance of a bird’s beak. They seem
-also to be considerably lighter than the Mimika craft, and
-so narrow that a man could hardly sit down in them.
-The usual number of a crew is nine or ten men, who all
-stand up and all paddle on the same side of the canoe.
-The regular swing of their bodies and the perfect precision
-of the paddling was a sight prettier than any
-“eight” I have ever seen. They called to us and waved
-bundles of arrows, evidently anxious to trade with us,
-but the captain of the <i>Valk</i> was unable to stop, so we
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span>threw overboard for them empty tins and bottles, and it
-was marvellous to see how they raced up to these things,
-and with a sudden backward stroke of their paddles
-brought the canoes to a standstill, while they recovered
-the prize, and then raced on again.</p>
-
-<p>From the mouth of the Island River, as we went out
-to sea, we saw through a break in the clouds to the far
-North the snow on Mount Wilhelmina, which was
-reached by Mr. H. A. Lorentz in November, 1909.
-Steaming in a south-easterly direction we kept some
-way out from the land, which is so low as to be invisible
-at a distance of a few miles. When we were opposite
-the Digoel, the greatest (excepting the Fly) of all the
-South New Guinea rivers, we found the sea strewn with
-logs and trees, in some places so many together as to
-form floating islands, on which crowds of gulls and terns
-were seen to settle at nightfall.</p>
-
-<p>The tide favouring us, we chose the Marianne Strait
-between the mainland and Prince Frederick Henry
-Island. Sometimes, when the south-east monsoon has
-been blowing regularly for a few days, it is quite impossible
-for a ship of only moderate power to steam
-through it against the current. The Strait is a winding
-channel about ninety miles long and has an average
-width of about two miles, and it is not surprising that
-early voyagers, even as late as Kolff, in the Dutch
-brig-of-war, <i>Dourga</i>, in 1826, mistook it for a river.
-The banks are low and forest-covered, and we only
-saw two small clusters of houses. From one of these
-some men put off in a canoe to intercept us and
-followed us for some distance, calling “<i>Kaya-Kaya</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>”
-(friend).<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> They were tall and powerful-looking men,
-entirely naked except for a small shell attached to a
-string about the middle, and their great mats of hair
-extending down to the shoulders and beyond showed
-most clearly that we had come to yet another tribe
-quite distinct from the people of the Island River.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">JAN CARSTENSZ</div>
-
-<p>Jan Carstensz, who visited this coast in 1623, gives
-a good description of the land and the people:<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> “It
-is impossible to land here with boats or pinnaces
-owing to the clayey and muddy bottom into which
-a man will sink up to the waist, the depth of the
-water being no more than three or four fathoms at
-three or four miles distant from the land. The land
-is low-lying and half submerged, being quite under
-water at high tide; it is covered with wild trees,
-those on the beach resembling the fir-trees of our
-country, and seemingly bear no fruit. The natives
-are coal black like the Kaffirs and they go about
-stark naked. They have two holes in the midst of
-the nose, with fangs of hogs or sword-fishes through
-them, protruding at least three fingers’ breadth on
-either side, so that in appearance they are more like
-monsters than human beings, they seem to be evil-natured
-and malignant. The lands which we have
-up to now skirted and touched at not only are barren
-and inhabited by savages, but also the sea in these
-parts yields no other fish than sharks, sword-fishes,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span>and the like unnatural monsters, while the birds too
-are as wild and shy as the men.” Further to the East
-he found the people “cunning and suspicious, and no
-stratagem on our part availed to draw them near
-enough to us to enable us to catch one or two with
-nooses which we had prepared for the purpose.”
-Suspicion of the unknown is in the nature of savage
-people, and when we read that “in order to frighten
-them the corporal fired a musket, which hit them
-both, so that they died on the spot,” we no longer
-wonder that they appeared to Jan Carstensz to be
-“evil-natured and malignant.” But times have changed
-and the Dutch navigator of to-day is not less humane
-than any other.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">MERAUKE</div>
-
-<p>After coming out of the Marianne Straits we noticed
-a change in the appearance of the land; the smoke of
-villages appeared at frequent intervals and the shore was
-seen to be fringed by a continuous belt of coco-palms
-in place of the mangrove to which we had become
-accustomed. In a few hours from the Marianne Straits
-we came to the mouth of the Merau River and after
-steaming up it for about four miles we dropped anchor
-opposite the Dutch station of Merauke, where we left
-the ship and went ashore.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p222.jpg" width="500" height="338" alt="Various ornaments." />
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-<div class="stanza">
-<div class="line">1. <span class="smcap">Arm-band of Fibres, ornamented with Cowry shells.</span></div>
-<div class="line">2. <span class="smcap">Part of Waist-band, ornamented with shells and seeds.</span></div>
-<div class="line">3. <span class="smcap">Arm-band of Fibre.</span></div>
-<div class="line">4. <span class="smcap">Basket of plaited strips of leaves.</span></div>
-<div class="line">5. <span class="smcap">Bamboo ornament worn on the neck.</span></div>
-<div class="line">6. <span class="smcap">Collar made of Fibre and Cassowary Feathers.</span></div>
-<div class="line">7. <span class="smcap">Bamboo tobacco-pipe, used by the Tapiro Pygmies.</span></div>
-<div class="line">8. <span class="smcap">Basket of Fibre.</span></div>
-<div class="line">9. <span class="smcap">Part of the bill of a Hornbill, worn in the Nose.</span></div>
-</div></div></div></div>
-
-<p>The Dutch people have an inborn preference for low-lying
-land on which to place their stations, but not the
-most enthusiastic fenman would have voluntarily chosen
-Merauke as a place for a settlement. The reason of its
-existence is a political one. Formerly the natives of the
-district, the Tugeri, a very fierce and warlike people,
-used to have the habit of making raids to the Eastward
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span>into British territory, whence they brought slaves and
-the heads of their fallen enemies. This became such a
-nuisance that the Australian Government addressed protests
-to the Dutch about the lawless behaviour of their
-subjects, and in 1902 the Dutch made the station of
-Merauke, and established there a small garrison of about
-one hundred men. The place was chosen partly because
-it was in the centre of the district of the Tugeri, and
-partly because on that shallow coast the Merau River
-alone offered a safe harbour for ships. It is a dreary
-enough place on the muddy bank of the river and surrounded
-on the other sides by swamps, but the Dutch
-have made the best of a bad job, and by laborious ditching
-and dyking they have made the place fairly secure
-from floods; in spite of all their draining, however, there
-are more mosquitoes there than in any other inhabited
-place I have ever visited.</p>
-
-<p>Like other Dutch settlements Merauke is laid out on
-a regular and spacious plan, plenty of room being left
-between the houses of the officials and the quarter
-occupied by the shops of the Chinese, of which there are
-about a dozen. There are (or were in 1910) sixteen
-Europeans<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a>
-in the place, all of them in the employment
-of the Government except two, the representatives of an
-European trading firm. The principal trade of the place
-is in copra obtained from the hundreds of thousands
-of coco-palms, which line the neighbouring sea-shore.
-These palms are the property of the natives, who are too
-lazy to take advantage of the wealth that lies (or rather
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span>hangs) at their doors, and they do not encourage other
-people to come and make use of it.</p>
-
-<p>There is a small force of native police under a Dutch
-officer, and a few convicts are employed in keeping the
-station in order. It may not be out of place to remark
-here that the nearest Dutch settlement is at Fak-fak on
-the S.W. corner of the MacCluer Gulf, seven hundred
-miles in a straight line from Merauke. Besides these two
-places the only other Dutch garrison is at Manokwari
-(Dorei Bay) on the north coast, where there has been a
-mission station for more than fifty years. Apart from
-civilian and military officials, missionaries and two or
-three agents of a commercial firm there are no settlers in
-the huge territory of Dutch New Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>A former Resident of Merauke, who had somewhat
-inflated ideas of the future of the country, established
-an experimental botanic garden on the only patch of
-dry ground near Merauke. Attached to the garden is a
-large building containing rooms for three Europeans,
-laboratories, a dark room and so on, which (it was
-hoped) would attract scientific agriculturists and botanists
-from other countries to come and study the local
-<i>flora</i>. But no sane person wishes to study the <i>flora</i> of
-New Guinea in the middle of a swamp, and already the
-scanty soil was showing signs of exhaustion at the roots
-of the experimental bananas, and the practically-minded
-Resident was considering the removal of the house to
-Dobo or elsewhere as a dwelling for himself, when the
-contemplated abandonment of Merauke as a “Residency”
-should take place.</p>
-
-<p>Another interesting building at Merauke is the house<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span>
-of the Mission of the Sacred Heart, an offshoot from the
-mission at Toeal. It must, I am afraid, be admitted
-that Merauke is not a favourable field for missionary
-enterprise, and the most notable achievements of the
-good fathers there are the admirable house they have
-built, and the herd of cattle which they contrive to keep.
-They teach a very small class of the native children, but
-nearly all of them relapse again very soon into savagery,
-and the adults, who have remained faithful to the mission,
-are very few, and they are not the best specimens
-of their race.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">BOAT BUILDERS</div>
-
-<p>Recently the ubiquitous Chinese have discovered that
-the sea in the neighbourhood of Merauke is a most
-profitable fishing ground, and the results of their labours
-are spread abroad to dry in the sun, so that there are
-times when the air is almost too strong to be breathed.
-The fishery has attracted some men from the Ké Islands,
-who are the best boat builders in the Eastern Archipelago,
-and I spent many hours watching them at their
-work. Their tools consist only of an axe, an adze and
-an auger, and no nails or metal are used in the construction
-of a boat. The planks are about three inches thick
-and are made each from a single tree hewn to the
-required shape. Holes are bored at intervals along the
-edge of the plank, and into these are fixed pegs of wood
-which fit into corresponding holes in the edge of the succeeding
-plank. When the shell of the boat is completed,
-the ribs, each made from a single piece of bent wood, are
-fitted to the inside. The fitting of the planks is so accurate
-that the boats require little or no caulking, and they
-are ready to take the water as soon as they are built.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">NATIVES OF MERAUKE</div>
-
-<p>But by far the most interesting feature of Merauke
-are the natives of the place, whose independent mien
-and conservative customs fill the observer with admiration
-if not with approval. It is now nearly ten
-years since the Dutch settled at Merauke, but in all
-that time, apart from curbing somewhat their head-hunting
-propensities, they have made very little impression
-on the natives, who still cling (if one may
-use somewhat of an Irishism) to their scanty costume
-of nothing at all, and refuse absolutely the beads and
-cloth and other “trade-goods” of the invading white
-man. They stroll about the place in a most lordly
-manner, and they like to visit the houses of the
-Europeans, where they spend hours disdainfully watching
-other people at their work.</p>
-
-<p>In appearance they differ from the Papuans of
-the Mimika in their somewhat paler skin and in
-their features, which are markedly of the (so-called)
-“Semitic” type with prominent eyes and long, curving,
-fleshy nose. They are very fond of personal adornment
-and paint their faces with white, red, and yellow colours;
-a fashionable but very unsightly decoration is to paint
-the eyelids and eyelashes white. Through the <i>septum</i> of
-the nose is thrust a long piece of white bone or shell, and
-in the <i>alae nasi</i>, which are also pierced, are often worn
-the claws of a large eagle which project forwards, and
-give the man a most ferocious aspect (see illustration
-opposite).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_p226a.jpg" width="300" height="374" alt="A NATIVE OF MERAUKE." />
-<p class="caption">A NATIVE OF MERAUKE.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>Wearing the claws of an eagle in the nose.</i>)</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p226b.jpg" width="400" height="265" alt="NATIVES OF MERAUKE." />
-<p class="caption">NATIVES OF MERAUKE.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Some of the more dandyfied individuals are loaded
-with necklaces of shells or teeth of dogs, sharks and
-crocodiles, and bands or belts of the same things are
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span>crossed on the chest. Rings of boars’ tusks and plaited
-fibres almost cover the upper arms, and in the ears are
-worn bunches of large rings of tortoiseshell and bamboo.
-The hair is long and is plaited with a mixture of mud
-and grass and feathers into a solid bunch, which hangs
-down beyond the level of the shoulders. In some of
-these head-dresses I saw plumes of the Greater, the Red
-and the King birds of Paradise; it appears that when
-once they are made these head-dresses may be added to,
-but they can never be undone, and they are accordingly
-indescribably dirty. These people are characterised by
-a pungent and most disagreeable odour, quite different
-from the sickly sweet smell of the sago-eating Mimika
-people.</p>
-
-<p>Another curious custom of the Merauke natives is
-their habit of wearing round the waist a belt of pigskin,
-which cannot be removed, and is so tight that
-it constricts the man to an (apparently) most painful
-degree; the women of the tribe do not indulge in this
-practice.</p>
-
-<p>Two days after our arrival the monthly mail-steamer
-came bringing our forty-eight new coolies from Macassar,
-and on the following day it sailed again, taking Shortridge
-on his way back to England. For a week longer
-I received the most kind hospitality from the Resident,
-Mr. E. Kalff, until we returned to the Mimika. During
-that week of waiting our new coolies, who had heard
-terrible stories of the Mimika, declared that they would
-never go there, and they attacked with knives the
-guards who were placed to keep them in order. When
-I told them that if they had no liking for the Mimika<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>
-they were perfectly at liberty to go and live near
-Merauke, the stories they heard of the habits of the
-Tugeri put an immediate end to the strike, and they
-came contentedly enough to the Mimika. They were
-more fortunate than some of their predecessors, and all
-returned to their homes at the end of the expedition.</p>
-
-<p>The Dutch have a pleasant sentiment with regard to
-the customs of their native land, and at Merauke, the
-most remote outpost of Holland, the feast of S. Nicholas
-was celebrated with due ceremony. All the Europeans
-in the place, as well as the Javanese sergeants and clerks
-and their children, assembled to meet the Saint, a huge
-Dutchman disguised out of all recognition, and all of us,
-brown and white alike, received at his hands a present or
-a mock flogging according to our deserts.</p>
-
-<p>After spending ten very agreeable days at Merauke
-we sailed on December 18th and going by way of the
-Island River, where we landed fresh men for that expedition,
-we arrived again at the Mimika on the 22nd
-December.</p>
-<hr />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Difficulty of Cross-country Travel—Expedition moves towards the
-Mountains—Arrival at the Iwaka River—Changing Scenery—The
-Impassable Iwaka—A Plucky Gurkha—Building a Bridge—We
-start into the Mountains—Fording Rivers—Flowers—Lack of Water
-on Hillside—Curious Vegetation—Our highest Point—A wide
-View—Rare Birds—Coal—Uninhabitable Country—Dreary Jungle—Rarely
-any Beauty—Remarkable Trees—Occasional Compensations.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">When</span> our third and last batch of forty-eight coolies
-reached the Mimika towards the end of December, it
-was at once evident from their appearance that the
-majority of them would not last very long, and as we
-had ourselves been already for a year in the country,
-it was agreed that we should make a final effort to penetrate
-as far as possible towards the mountains, and
-that when our means of transport came to an end we
-should take our departure from New Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>We had long realised the impossibility of reaching
-the Snow Mountains from our present base. If we
-had possessed an efficient steam-launch or motor boat,
-the Mimika was still too small a river and too frequently
-unnavigable to be useful as a route for water transport.
-Another consideration even more important than this
-was the fact that had the Mimika been ten times the
-size it was, it would still have taken us in a direction
-many miles to the West of the mountains we hoped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span>
-to reach. The result of these two circumstances was
-that we travelled by water with great labour to a
-place (Parimau), which was still in low and often
-flooded country, and from there we had to travel across
-country for many miles before we came to the first
-rising ground.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">CROSS-COUNTRY JOURNEYS</div>
-
-<p>It is difficult enough in New Guinea to make a way
-up a river valley, but you always have the comforting
-reflection that the river itself leads you back to your
-base, when stores are exhausted and it is time to return.
-But when you attempt to make a cross-country journey,
-not only is the trouble of cutting a track much greater
-than it is in a river bed, but there is the difficult and
-often somewhat dangerous business of crossing the
-rivers; added to this is the risk, which increases with
-every river you cross, of being cut off for a longer or
-shorter period from your base camp and supplies by
-a sudden flood in those same rivers. For this reason,
-when coolies were sent back from an advanced camp
-to the base, they had to be supplied with an extra
-allowance of food in the event of their being stopped by
-floods on the way; such a proceeding meant diminishing
-to some extent the store of food they had carried out
-and a consequent waste of labour. It is essential, therefore,
-in trying to make a long journey in such a country,
-to discover beforehand the river valley which will take
-you nearest to your goal and thus avoid the risks of a
-long cross-country journey.</p>
-
-<p>No time was lost in sending a fleet of canoes heavily
-laden with stores up the river from Wakatimi, and
-early in January the whole expedition was assembled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span>
-at Parimau with supplies sufficient for three months.
-On the 14th January Marshall and Grant with two
-Dayak collectors, forty-six coolies, thirty-one Papuans,
-and about forty soldiers and convicts, by far the largest
-number of men we had ever sent off at one time, set out
-for the Wataikwa river. A few of them went on with
-the Europeans to the Iwaka, where a track was cut
-for two marches up the valley of that river, while the
-rest, after leaving their loads at the Wataikwa depôt,
-returned to Parimau to fetch more loads of stores.
-From the Wataikwa the coolies carried on the stores
-to the upper camp on the Iwaka river, a three days’
-march, and at the beginning of February Cramer and
-I went up there with the last party. About a hundred
-and fifty loads of one kind or another had been carried
-up from Parimau in these various excursions, but unhappily
-the coolies ate up a good many of the loads
-on the way, and still more unhappily many of the
-coolies fell sick, so that if we had wished to send back
-to Parimau for yet another transport of stores, it would
-probably have ended in our having no coolies to carry
-them any further.</p>
-
-<p>The nett result of all this carrying was that when
-we arrived with the last loads at the Iwaka depôt we
-found that we had only twelve days’ provisions for
-our party of three Europeans, two Dayaks and the
-twenty-two coolies who survived from the forty-eight
-of a month earlier. Cramer had food for about the
-same number of days for his party of soldiers and
-convicts. Such a meagre supply of provisions as that
-obviously made it out of the question for us to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span>
-penetrate far into the mountains; but you must in
-New Guinea, as elsewhere, cut your coat according to
-your cloth.</p>
-
-<p>The Iwaka at the place where we first came to it
-is a tremendous torrent flowing in rather a narrow
-stony bed. A little way further down it spreads out
-into a wider channel like that of the Wataikwa, but it
-is much larger than that river and though we searched
-down stream for three or four miles, we found no place
-where it was possible to cross.</p>
-
-<p>As we went up the river we very soon found that
-the river banks became steeper, and it was soon evident
-that we were at last among the hills. There was a
-peculiar satisfaction in bending one’s legs to go up
-hill after having been for so many months on almost
-level ground. The track was not at all easy, for it
-appeared that in many places large slices of the hillside
-had slipped down, bringing with them a chaos of dead
-and living trees over which we had to pick a precarious
-way. In some places we crept along the edge of the
-torrent, and in others we climbed high up the hillside
-to avoid a precipice where the river ran through a
-narrow gorge; but it was all a pleasant change from the
-monotonous jungle of the plains. There was more
-variety in the vegetation too as we went on; creepers
-arranged themselves prettily on the rocky river bank,
-and Fan-palms, which we had not seen before, grew in
-groups in the more level places. There was a tree
-growing in many places whose lower branches were
-covered at that season with small pink flowers, which
-lent a grateful splash of colour to the usually gloomy
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span>green of the jungle. There was an invigorating air
-of mountains in the river as it came thundering over
-the huge boulders in its bed, and now and again we
-even got a glimpse through the trees of the mountains
-themselves, apparently not so very far distant
-from us.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p232.jpg" width="400" height="590" alt="LOOKING UP THE MIMIKA RIVER FROM THE CAMP AT PARIMAU." />
-<p class="caption">LOOKING UP THE MIMIKA RIVER FROM THE CAMP AT PARIMAU.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE UNFORDABLE IWAKA</div>
-
-<p>Two days’ scrambling up the valley brought us
-to the rest of the party at the depôt camp, and there we
-learnt the very unwelcome news of a discovery, which
-seemed likely to put an immediate end to our explorations.
-The advanced party had climbed up a spur
-to the west of the river and had seen that the Iwaka,
-instead of flowing (as we imagined) from the North-east
-by an apparently wide valley, actually flowed from
-the North through a deep, and in some places precipitous
-gorge, which we could not possibly attempt
-to traverse with our feeble coolies in the short time
-that remained to us.</p>
-
-<p>If we were to advance at all, it was necessary for
-us to go in a North-easterly direction, but there we seemed
-to be completely cut off by the torrent of the Iwaka
-River. Attempts were made both upstream and downstream
-to wade across, but nobody succeeded in doing
-it, and no better luck attended those who tried to make
-a bridge by felling a tree across the river, the bridge
-was at once swept away. As a last expedient a large
-reward of money was offered to the first man who
-should find a way across the river, and again they all
-set out full of hope and armed with axes. The luck
-fell to two of the Gurkhas, who cleverly felled a large
-tree straight across the river. Had it fallen a few feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>
-to one side or the other it would not have been long
-enough to reach the other bank, and if it had bent a little
-more in the middle, the water would have snatched it
-up like a straw and carried it away in a moment. But
-it kept just clear above the water and made a safe
-temporary bridge by which they could cross, and before
-nightfall a single rope of rattan was securely tied across
-the narrowest part of the river.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">A RATTAN BRIDGE</div>
-
-<p>During the night the river rose and carried away
-the tree, and it seemed that with only one strand of
-rattan across the river the prospect of our reaching the
-other side was not very good. Nobody seemed inclined
-to risk the passage, even with the promise of a large
-reward, until one of the Gurkhas, Jangbir by name,
-said he would go. “There was only one way to go
-over—hand over hand, with a rattan round his
-waist held by us in case the bridge strand broke, a
-very likely thing, for it was extremely flimsy. Again
-the rope to hold him had to be very thin, or the
-weight would tear him from his hold. He got across
-finely, being dragged out straight by the torrent,
-until nearly over, when he could make no more
-headway. The rope tied to his waist was paid out
-fast, but was caught by the current, and then it was
-touch and go. Thus he hung for half a minute,
-dragged out in a horizontal position. If both rattans
-gave, it meant certain death; if he let go, the great
-strain would snap the rope round him with a like
-result. The rope was pulled in as quickly as possible,
-and then the lucky thing occurred. The strain was
-too great, and the rope we were pulling on snapped.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span>This freed him, and he pulled himself up further and
-gained the bank.”<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">24</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p234.jpg" width="500" height="309" alt="BRIDGE MADE BY THE EXPEDITION ACROSS THE IWAKA RIVER." />
-<p class="caption">BRIDGE MADE BY THE EXPEDITION ACROSS THE IWAKA RIVER.</p></div>
-
-<p>When once a man was on the other side, it was
-simple to throw over another rattan, and so to pull
-over many more which he tied to the trees on his bank.
-On our side of the river was a large boulder with a hole
-conveniently bored through it, into which stout posts
-were jammed Y-fashion, and over them the rattans were
-strained and fastened to the trees behind. When more
-men were able to cross the river, a similar structure was
-erected on the other bank.</p>
-
-<p>The plan of the bridge was very simple, two hand-rails
-made of a number of twisted rattans, and a foot
-piece made of a long thin tree, which was secured to the
-hand-rails by loops of rattan. The span of the bridge
-was about one hundred feet, and there must have been
-several hundred yards of rattan used in its construction.
-The credit of the idea and of most of the work in making
-the bridge is due to the Gurkhas, without whose help
-we should never have crossed the Iwaka.</p>
-
-<p>But all this work had occupied valuable time, and
-when the bridge was finished we found that we had
-provisions left for only eight days longer. On
-February 8th Rawling, Marshall and I, with three
-Gurkhas and nineteen coolies, and Cramer with a small
-party of convicts, crossed the Iwaka and made a way
-Eastwards. After crossing a moderately steep ridge
-we came down to a stream of marvellously clear water,
-which brought us in a short time to another large river
-flowing out of the mountains in a Southerly direction.</p>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span></p>
-<p>So many rivers are there in this region that this was
-in some places separated by less than two miles from the
-Iwaka; it was eventually found that this was a branch
-of the Wania, a large river which enters the sea in a
-common mouth with the Kamura, of which the Iwaka
-is a tributary. It was evident that this river came from
-the slopes of Mount Godman (9,500 ft.) a huge mass
-immediately to the North of us, and it was our intention
-to climb up on to the ridge of that mountain in the
-hopes of obtaining a view of the country to the North
-of it, and of the Snow Mountains.</p>
-
-<p>Going up the valley we found ourselves in the midst
-of really beautiful scenery. The mountains soon closed
-in about us, and the river, though not running through
-an actual gorge, was walled by precipices of white limestone
-rock, now on one side and now on the other.
-This necessitated our frequently crossing the river, a
-task by no means easy even when the water is low, as
-it happened to be at that time. The best way of crossing
-those rapid rivers is not to fight your way upwards
-and across the stream, but to go rather with the stream
-in a sloping direction towards the other bank, and to
-go as quickly as may be. The bottom is made of very
-slippery stones, and a false step means disaster, as we
-all found at different times, but in that way you cross
-with far less exertion than by breasting the stream.</p>
-
-<p>In this valley, for the first time since we came to
-New Guinea, we found several flowering plants; among
-the rocks by the river grew clumps of a large pink Balsam,
-and on the moss at the foot of the tree trunks was a
-beautiful scarlet <i>Begonia</i> with a remarkably hairy leaf.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There was a curious green-flowered aroid with a large
-blotched leaf, and growing everywhere over the cliffs
-and the tree trunks were Pitcher plants (<i>Nepenthes</i>) of
-two species.</p>
-
-<p>On the second day we camped on a sort of shelf
-on the hillside, two or three hundred feet above the
-river, and as our progress up the valley had been so
-slow, it was certain that we should not be able to reach
-the summit ridge before we were obliged to turn back
-by lack of food. So it was decided to go straight up the
-spur on which we then were in the hope that from the
-top we might see a view of the surrounding country.
-On the following day we climbed up about two
-thousand feet; the hillside was exceedingly steep, and
-the men had to haul themselves up by the roots of the
-trees above them.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">LACK OF WATER</div>
-
-<p>At our camp on the hillside—there was not a square
-yard of level ground—we were troubled for the first time
-in New Guinea by a lack of water. No rain had fallen
-for two days, and the ground was so steep that all the
-water had run off, and it was a long time before the
-Gurkhas found a trickle of water in a gully some
-distance away, whence a supply was laboriously fetched
-to the camp.</p>
-
-<p>On the fourth day we climbed up about two
-thousand feet further, but with a great deal more difficulty.
-The trees became smaller as we went up, but
-infinitely denser, and for a great part of the way we
-scrambled up, not along the ground, but over a
-fantastic network of roots and trunks of dead and living
-trees, all of them covered with mosses and festooned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span>
-with a wonderful variety of creepers. In some places
-we were clambering over the topmost branches of the
-tangle of vegetation, and in others we were burrowing
-into mossy caves and grottoes among the roots. It was
-a weird and rather uncanny place and, except that it
-lacked the beauty of colour that is found there, it
-recalled the forest at ten thousand feet in Ruwenzori
-more than any other place I have seen.</p>
-
-<p>At 5,000 feet we found ourselves on the ridge, a
-narrow knife-edged spur of Mount Godman, and there
-we camped. It was a most unlikely looking spot for a
-camp, but the ridge beyond was a great deal worse—it
-took the Gurkhas many hours to cut the narrowest
-track along it for half a mile—so we had to make the
-best of the place that we had reached. A number of
-trees were cut down and the irregularities of the ground
-were more or less filled up with the branches, and
-there we pitched our tents and spread our beds. There
-was a small shrub (a species of <i>Erica</i>, I think), which,
-when burnt, filled the air with a delicious smell of
-incense, strangely out of keeping with our surroundings.</p>
-
-<p>Though we had been surrounded by dense clouds
-since we reached the ridge, it obstinately refused to
-rain for the third day in succession, a thing quite unprecedented
-in our experience of the country. Happily
-the mosses, which clothed everything, were full of
-moisture and we had only to squeeze them like sponges
-to get water in plenty; the coolies of course complained
-of the dirty colour of their rice when it was cooked in
-mossy water, but we found that it gave to ours an unfamiliar
-and not unpleasant taste.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p238a.jpg" width="400" height="307" alt="LOOKING WESTWARDS FROM ABOVE THE IWAKA RIVER." />
-<p class="caption">LOOKING WESTWARDS FROM ABOVE THE IWAKA RIVER.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p238b.jpg" width="400" height="304" alt="THE COCKSCOMB MOUNTAIN (10,050 FT.) SEEN FROM MOUNT GODMAN." />
-<p class="caption">THE COCKSCOMB MOUNTAIN (10,050 FT.) SEEN FROM MOUNT GODMAN.</p></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">A WIDE VIEW</div>
-
-<p>The greater part of the next day was spent in cutting
-a way along the ridge to a point (5800 ft.) from which
-it was hoped that a view of the country might be seen.
-Long before the track was cut the clouds were down
-upon us, and no view could be seen, so we decided to
-stay for another day, although we had only one day’s
-food remaining. But the view that we saw on the
-following day was more than compensation for our
-rather scanty fare.</p>
-
-<p>Due North of us, and rising from the spur on which
-we stood, was the great mass of Mount Godman, and
-to the West of that the even more imposing peak of
-Wataikwa Mountain (9923 ft.). Between the two
-could be seen a part of the tremendous cliffs of Mount
-Leonard Darwin (13,882), the southern face of which
-appears to show an almost vertical precipice of upwards
-of ten thousand feet. To the West ridge beyond ridge
-of forest-covered heights stretched away to the ranges
-of the Charles Louis Mountains in the far distance.
-To the East rose the beautiful three-topped mountain
-called the Cock’s Comb (10,050 ft.), behind and to the
-North of which heavy banks of clouds showed where
-the snows of Mount Carstensz lay hidden. Five thousand
-feet below us the mountains ended almost abruptly,
-and the southern half of the circuit of our view was
-occupied by the hideous plain of dull green jungle to a
-hazy line of the sea forty miles away. Here and there
-the sunlight caught the waters of innumerable rivers,
-and we could distinctly see those that we had crossed,
-the Tuaba, Kamura, Wataikwa, and the Iwaka. Further
-to the East was a still bigger river, the Wania, which we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span>
-could trace down to its lagoon-like estuary, and beyond
-it was the Aiika, and a very distant river, possibly the
-Newerip.</p>
-
-<p>Nobody who has not spent a year and more in a
-dreary jungle country, where you are seldom more
-than a yard or two from the nearest tree, and where the
-limit of your view is the opposite bank of a stagnant
-river, can realise the rest, to the mind and to the eye
-alike, that a wide horizon gives. Although there were
-points of interest to be seen by the cartographical eye,
-there was nothing, excepting the outlines of some of
-the nearer mountains, of beauty in that view; there
-were no striking features of the land and no gorgeous
-effects of colour, but one will always treasure a recollection
-of the physical delight of seeing far and wide
-to the horizon, and of the feeling of satisfaction in looking
-down godlike on the world that we had so painfully
-traversed.</p>
-
-<p>But views, like all other good things, have their
-ends, and ours was all too soon interrupted by the daily
-thick blanket of white cloud, which rolled up and enveloped
-us until nightfall. We groped our way back
-to the camp where we found our coolies very miserable
-and shivering with cold—poor wretches, they had
-never before endured, nor even imagined, a temperature
-so low as 50° F. To us the coolness was very pleasant,
-and it provoked a hunger to which we had long been
-strangers; very small quantities of boiled rice, and
-<i>chupatties</i> made by the Gurkhas of mildewed and
-weevilly flour, only served to stimulate our appetites
-for more.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">RARE BIRDS</div>
-
-<p>On the following day we retreated hastily downhill
-by the way we had come, and by forced marches,
-perhaps a little accelerated by our lack of food, in two
-days we arrived at the Iwaka camp. In the meantime
-Grant had been camped with the two Dayak collectors
-on a hill about three thousand feet high above the Iwaka,
-where they had made a very fine collection of birds.
-Among them was a new dwarf species of Cassowary
-(<i>Casuarius claudi</i>) and specimens of the rare Six-plumed
-Bird of Paradise (<i>Parotia meeki</i>). Another
-bird very characteristic of the Iwaka and neighbouring
-valleys is the Moustached Swift (<i>Macropteryx mystacea</i>),
-which measures more than two feet across the wings,
-and is remarkable for its long pointed tail and its
-tapering white moustache. This bird seldom appears
-until late in the afternoon, when it is seen sailing
-majestically with outstretched wings at a height over
-the river.</p>
-
-<p>Near the Iwaka on a hillside laid bare by a landslip
-we found two seams of coal a few inches in thickness;
-it was poor stuff and only burnt with difficulty
-when put into a fire. Mr. Lorentz found combustible
-coal in the hills near Mount Wilhelmina, and it is
-probable that a careful search would reveal the existence
-of better coal in this region too. Near the same place,
-as well as in one or two other localities, we found indications
-of petroleum, but all our searches for gold and
-other precious metals resulted in nothing except
-occasional traces of copper.</p>
-
-<p>During the following days, while we were stumbling
-back to Parimau along the now familiar track, we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span>
-wondered whether we should be the last as well as being
-the first Europeans to penetrate into that forsaken
-region. It has been mapped now, and our wanderings
-have shown that it is not the way by which any sane
-person would go who wished to explore the Snow Mountains.
-It is a region absolutely without inhabitants,
-and the Papuans, who live on the upper waters of the
-Mimika and Kamura rivers, shun it even as a hunting
-ground. There are no precious metals or other products
-of the soil to be won, and not until all the other
-forests in the world are cut down will its timber be of
-value. So it may safely be supposed that it will long
-be left untouched; the Birds of Paradise will call by
-day, the cassowaries will boom by night, and the leeches
-will stretch themselves anxiously on their leaves, but it
-will be a long time before another white man comes to
-disturb them.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE DREARY JUNGLE</div>
-
-<p>Many people have the idea that a tropical forest is
-full of gorgeous flowers, about which brilliant butterflies
-are constantly flitting and birds of splendid plumage
-flash from tree to tree. This idea is no doubt due in a
-great measure to the habit of gathering together in hothouses
-the flowering plants of all the Tropics, though
-they may have come from Central America, from Africa
-and from Borneo or Java. It is true that there are
-many splendid birds, but the vegetation is so dense
-that you seldom, if ever, see them; the brilliant butterflies
-are mostly out of sight near the topmost branches
-of the trees; and you may travel for days together
-without seeing a single flowering plant. Many of the
-trees are covered with orchids on all their branches, but
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span>they very seldom flower, and the flowers of most of them
-are so insignificant that they do not attract your
-attention.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p242.jpg" width="400" height="642" alt="THE SUPPORTS OF A PANDANUS (30 FEET HIGH)." />
-<p class="caption">THE SUPPORTS OF A PANDANUS (30 FEET HIGH).</p></div>
-
-<p>Occasionally you may see high above your head
-the white flower of a <i>Dendrobium</i> or the long spike of
-the gigantic <i>Grammatophyllum</i>, but I have only once
-(in a small island on the North coast of New Guinea)
-seen such a mass of flowering orchids as to make a splash
-of colour in the view. In the Tropics there is nothing
-comparable in colour with the blue hyacinths, the fields
-of buttercups, or the gorse and hawthorns of this
-country.</p>
-
-<p>But if there is little that is beautiful in the jungle
-vegetation, there is a great deal that is curious and
-interesting. The ubiquitous Rattans, climbing Palms,
-are a constant source of wonder for their snake-like
-meanderings through the jungle until they climb to
-the top of some tree where they end in a bunch of leaves.
-We found three species of Screw Pines (<i>Pandanus</i>),
-fantastic trees on stilts, and branching like irregular
-candelabra. The wood of the <i>Pandanus</i> is very tough,
-and is used by the natives for making bows and spears;
-the long ribbon-like leaves are used for mats and the
-walls of their huts, and the fruits of some are eatable,
-but exceedingly hard. One species bears a cluster of
-small red fruit about the size of a banana; and another
-bears a huge melon-shaped fruit of a brilliant scarlet
-colour and weighing as much as thirty pounds and
-upwards.</p>
-
-<p>Equally remarkable are the trees which stand
-propped on a number of aerial roots and seem, as Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span>
-Wallace noted,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> to have started growing in mid air;
-where several of these trees grow together, it is difficult
-to say where one ends and another begins. Too rarely
-you come across a magnificent forest tree (usually, I
-believe, a species of <i>Dammara</i>) supported on huge
-buttresses, which begin twenty or more feet above the
-ground and spread out for many yards from the foot
-of the tree. We had occasion to cut down some of
-these trees, and found the wood intensely hard; if there
-were seven or eight buttresses a single one would still
-hold up the tree after all the rest had been cut. When
-the tree had been felled, the stump looked like a great
-starfish sprawling over the ground with a centre not
-more than a foot across, while the trunk a few feet
-up had been a yard or more in thickness.</p>
-
-<p>It has happened to me to walk through many
-hundreds of miles of forest in different parts of the
-world, but I have never seen any so dreary as that
-New Guinea jungle with its mud, its leeches, its almost
-unbroken stillness, and its universal air of death.
-Happily the mind of man is of a curiously selective
-habit, and it chooses to retain only the more pleasant
-things; you forget the long wet weeks of rain and mud,
-the hunger and the nasty food, and remember rather
-those glorious moments when you came out of the
-twilit jungle into an open river bed and saw the distant
-mountains, or those rare sunny afternoons when the
-“implacable cicala” creaked in the treetops above
-your tent.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">FUTURE TRAVELLERS</div>
-
-<p>There are indeed a thousand things to interest one
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span>in the jungle, however blank and monotonous it may
-seem to be. The trouble is that so much of your attention
-in these places must be devoted to the trivial duties
-of the day, the eternal question of food, the care of
-the sick, the precautions against floods, and so on, that
-but little time is left over for studying the hidden wonders
-of the world about you. The geographers and the
-naturalists of the future will live in comfortable ships
-on the coast, whence they will fly daily into the heart
-of New Guinea where they will find things undreamt
-of now. But the time for that is not yet, and in the
-meantime those who plod on foot do the best they can.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Departure from Parimau—Parting Gifts—Mock Lamentation—Rawling
-explores Kamura River—Start for the Wania—Lose the Propeller—A
-Perilous Anchorage—Unpleasant Night—Leave the Motor Boat—Village
-of Nimé—Arrival of “Zwaan” with Dayaks—Their
-Departure—Waiting for the Ship—Taking Leave of the People of
-Wakatimi—Sail from New Guinea—Ké Islands—Banda—Hospitality
-of the Netherlands Government—Lieutenant Cramer—Sumbawa—Bali—Return
-to Singapore and England—One or Two
-Reflexions.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">After</span> our return to Parimau in February, Rawling and
-Grant went down to Wakatimi, while Marshall and I
-spent a week in visiting the village of the Tapiro in
-a last but vain attempt to see the pygmy women. The
-first few days of March were occupied in packing up
-the accumulated odds and ends of our year’s occupation
-and on the 9th of March we were ready to depart.
-We had told the natives that we were going away and
-for days before we went they pestered us with questions
-as to whether we were coming back and what we would
-give them when we went, and they quickly decided
-which of our houses they intended to occupy.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p246.jpg" width="400" height="633" alt="BUTTRESSED TREES." />
-<p class="caption">BUTTRESSED TREES.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">PARTING WITH THE NATIVES</div>
-
-<p>On the morning of our departure from Parimau
-we allowed no natives to come into the camp until all
-the canoes were loaded up and ready for a start.
-Then we called out to them to come over and about
-forty men and boys splashed across the river and came
-swarming into the camp. We had kept for them a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span>number of axe-heads, knives and other pieces of steel
-and iron, and when the people saw what they were
-going to be given they became a crowd of madmen.
-I distributed the things, while Marshall stood by with
-a big piece of wood and kept them from rushing into the
-place and seizing everything at once. They shouted
-and raved and screamed and grew almost pale with
-excitement, and the various expressions of greed and
-cunning and anger and delight in their faces were most
-interesting to watch.</p>
-
-<p>After we had given them their presents we walked
-towards the canoes, and then they began to set up their
-horrible wail. A few of them picked up pieces of cloth
-and matting, through the middle of which they thrust
-their heads and then began to howl with their hands
-over their eyes. I took a last look round the houses
-to see that nothing of value had been left behind and on
-going to the store-house I met a man, one of our best
-friends, coming out of it with a tin of rice under his
-arm. He immediately put down the tin, tore off from
-a climbing bean that grew by the house a trail of
-leaves a yard or two long, and wound them about his
-head and body. Then he burst into tears and the
-most heartrending sobs, which changed in a moment,
-when he caught my eye, into a shout of laughter.</p>
-
-<p>When we finally got into the canoes all the men
-came down to the water’s edge and wailed, while some
-of them sat down in the water and smeared themselves
-with mud. In the meantime we could see their
-women going off into the jungle carrying tins full of
-their possessions to hide there, and it is probable that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span>
-after we left there was a good deal of quarrelling and
-fighting over the spoil. The wailing is a purely perfunctory
-politeness, but I think there were a few men
-who were genuinely sorry to lose us. On the following
-day a strong ebb-tide bore us quickly down to Wakatimi
-and our navigations of the upper Mimika river
-were at an end.</p>
-
-<p>In the meantime Rawling had made an interesting
-exploration of the coast and of the river mouths to the
-East of the Mimika. The motor boat, which had been
-badly damaged some months earlier, had been repaired
-by two Dutch pioneer soldiers and was more or less
-sea-worthy. In a four days’ trip he had entered the
-Atuka river, or rather the Atuka mouth of the Kamura
-river, a few miles up which he came to Atuka, a
-large village of about six hundred huts surrounded
-by coconut palms and tobacco plantations. Proceeding
-up the river into the main Kamura river he went
-on almost to the junction with the Wataikwa river,
-thus filling in a large gap of unknown river. On his
-way back he chose the left (East) branch and after
-passing the village of Kamura, where the inhabitants
-showed an inclination to plunder the boat, he came
-to the lake-like estuary of the Kamura and Wania
-rivers and entered the sea by a deep channel. It is
-worth noting that the inhabitants of Atuka and Kamura
-villages, many of whom visited us two or three
-times at Wakatimi, are of a decidedly lower type (in
-appearance) than the people of the Mimika district,
-though the distance that separates them is only a few
-miles. They have a fiercer and more brutal aspect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span>
-and many of them, both men and women go completely
-naked, a habit which is never practised by the people
-of Wakatimi. Scarcity of petrol and an irregularly
-sparking plug brought that excursion to an untimely
-end, before the lower waters of the Wania had been
-investigated.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">EXCURSION TO THE WANIA</div>
-
-<p>From our hill-top (see p. 239) the Wania was
-evidently by far the most considerable of all the rivers
-of the district, and apart from our desire to see the
-people of the Wania, of whom the Mimika natives
-always spoke with great respect, we felt bound to
-explore that river as far as possible. Accordingly on
-March 14, Rawling, Marshall and I, with a Dutch
-pioneer, two Gurkhas and three coolies, set off in the
-motor boat towing the yawl, a ship’s boat about
-twenty feet long, laden with tents and provisions for
-a week. In a few hours we arrived at the mouth of
-the Wania river and found that owing to the low tide
-there was no way of crossing the sand-bar that lay
-across the entrance. This circumstance was the more
-remarkable, because only a few days earlier Rawling
-had come through this bar by a very deep channel.
-The frequent changes in the banks make the navigation
-of this coast and particularly of the river mouths
-exceedingly difficult.</p>
-
-<p>On this occasion the sea was already rather rough,
-so that we could not anchor and wait until the tide
-rose, and as the wind was increasing in force there
-was nothing for it but to turn back and try to take
-shelter in one of the rivers between the Wania and the
-Mimika, if not in the Mimika itself. All went well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span>
-for a few miles and then, as happened frequently, the
-leather band jumped off the driving wheel and the
-engine was stopped. When it was replaced and the
-engine was started again, there was no churning of
-water in the stern and we realized with some consternation
-that we had lost our propeller. We were about
-twelve miles from the mouth of the Mimika, in a
-shallow sea of less than three fathoms, with a strong
-wind blowing towards the shore where the waves began
-to break within a few hundred yards of us, and we
-were ten men with a heavy motor boat and a heavily-laden
-yawl to get along somehow. We put four men
-into the yawl to row and they tried to tow, but the
-current was so strong against them that they made
-no headway at all, so we had to anchor where we were
-and hoped for better things. We pitched and rolled
-and bumped about most horribly and soon most of the
-party were deadly sea-sick, perhaps luckily for them,
-because in that condition one cares nothing for the
-prospect of shipwreck.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_p250.jpg" width="400" height="597" alt="SCREW PINES." />
-<p class="caption">SCREW PINES (<i>Pandanus</i>).</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">AN UNPLEASANT EXPERIENCE</div>
-
-<p>Our anchor rope was short and none too strong,
-and the rope between us and the yawl was thoroughly
-rotten—it had snapped once earlier in the day—and
-we expected that every sudden jerk of the lumpy sea
-would break it again. Had that happened, there
-might have been a nasty accident, as the men were
-too sick to row, even if they had known the art, and
-their chances of swimming ashore through a sea swarming
-with sharks were not very bright. Our own predicament
-in the helpless motor boat would have been unpleasant
-too, if the yawl had gone adrift, but happily the ropes
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span>held. Another drawback was that the motor boat
-leaked like a sieve, so that a man was kept constantly
-at work baling her out, and we did not know that the
-strain might not open her old timbers even more.
-There was a glorious full moon which one would have
-enjoyed seeing from the smooth deck of a steamer,
-but there we could only think how uncomfortable it
-was lying (without having had dinner) on boxes and
-tins and gear of all sorts huddled in the bottom of the
-boat.</p>
-
-<p>The wind continued all through the night and the
-sea did not moderate, so at daylight, after having been
-for sixteen hours at anchor, we decided to leave the
-motor boat hoping that it would not be swamped before
-we were able to come back and fetch it. We all got
-into the yawl, which we pulled through quite a nasty
-sea for about three miles to a sand-bank in the estuary
-of the Timura river, where we camped until the rising
-tide enabled us to reach the mainland about midnight.
-On the following day, the sea having become calmer,
-we rescued the motor boat, which was by that time
-half full of water, and towed it slowly to the Timura.</p>
-
-<p>But it was a most arduous business and without the
-help of a party of natives, who fortunately came along
-the coast in canoes and were prevailed upon to assist
-us in paddling, we should never have been able to
-bring back both of the boats. The arrival of the motor
-boat at the Mimika on the fifth day, propelled by native
-paddles instead of by its own power, was not a very
-dignified affair—it resembled rather the formerly familiar
-sight of the motor-car in tow of a horse from the plough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span>
-—but it was a piece of good fortune that it and we
-returned at all.</p>
-
-<p>We stopped for a night on the way at Nimé, a village
-at the mouth of the Keaukwa River. This is a very
-large village—I counted four hundred and thirty huts—but
-there were hardly a dozen people in the place,
-the whole population having gone off on one of their
-periodical migrations to a vegetable diet up the river.
-It was evident from the immense piles of fishbones and
-empty shells about the houses that the inhabitants must
-live largely by fishing, when they are there. The houses
-are better made than those at Wakatimi, and they are
-arranged in terraces and crescents along the water’s
-edge. It was there that we saw the elaborate dancing-houses
-described above (p. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Just as we paddled laboriously into the Mimika
-estuary we saw far down on the horizon the smoke of
-a steamer, and in an hour or two a white painted vessel,
-which turned out to be the Dutch Government ship
-<i>Zwaan</i>, drew inshore and anchored outside the bar.
-We naturally supposed that this was a ship that had
-come to take away the expedition, as we had informed
-the Government some months earlier that we hoped to
-be ready to leave the country by the end of March.
-But that communication had taken a long time, as
-everything does in those regions, in reaching its destination,
-and the <i>Zwaan</i> had come, not to take away
-the expedition, but to bring the means of prolonging
-the expedition still further.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p252.jpg" width="500" height="362" alt="AT SUMBAWA PESAR." />
-<p class="caption">AT SUMBAWA PESAR.</p></div>
-
-<div class="sidenote">LATE ARRIVAL OF DAYAKS</div>
-
-<p>It appeared that in the previous December the Committee
-of the Expedition at home, hearing of our
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span>scarcity of coolies some months earlier, had decided
-that a further supply of coolies should be sent to us
-without delay. Though cables work quickly enough
-between London and Singapore, communications beyond
-that are matters of days and weeks, and it was not until
-the 18th of March that the party of Dayak coolies,
-who had been engaged in Sarawak by the kind permission
-of H.H. the Raja, arrived at the Mimika. They
-were in the charge of Mr. C. B. Kloss, Curator of the
-Government Museum at Kuala Lumpor, who had
-brought with him six months’ provision for himself and
-the men. Almost at the same time that the Committee
-in England had taken this step, we in New Guinea
-had decided that three months more was as long as
-we were prepared to stay in the country, and a request
-had been sent to the Dutch Government to take us
-away at the end of that time.</p>
-
-<p>When the <i>Zwaan</i> arrived we were all ready to
-depart, and Cramer’s party, numbering more than a
-hundred men, were chafing with impatience to get
-away; it would have been impossible for the Government
-to keep them there yet another six months. Even
-if there had been a possibility of our staying on in the
-country, the number of Dayaks, thirty-eight, was
-quite insufficient for a long journey into the interior
-and the prospect of reaching the moderately high
-ground of Tapiro Mountain, the best that could be
-hoped for, was not sufficient inducement to tempt any
-one to paddle again up the Mimika river. Added to
-this was the further consideration that in a week or
-two the more rainy season would begin and that for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span>
-five or six months very little progress would be possible
-even with an unlimited supply of the best coolies.</p>
-
-<p>So there was nothing for it but for Mr. Kloss and
-the Dayaks to go back in the <i>Zwaan</i>, which sailed for
-Amboina on the following day, taking also Marshall,
-as many sick and useless coolies and soldiers as could
-be crammed on board, and an urgent request to the
-authorities to remove us as soon as might be. The
-Dayak episode was altogether an unfortunate one;
-had the men reached us six months earlier, we should
-have made a very good use of them, few though they
-were; but coming as they did when we were on the
-point of leaving the country they merely illustrated
-the uselessness of attempting to conduct an expedition
-from the other side of the world.</p>
-
-<p>During the next three weeks we waited for the
-ship with what patience we could. By that time we
-were all somewhat stale and disinclined for any exertion,
-and those days of waiting at Wakatimi seemed
-interminably long. The only pleasant moments were
-when on fine evenings we could sit outside and watch
-the sun go down behind the palm trees across the
-river and hope each time that that would be the last.
-There were times when for two or three days a strong
-wind blew and we could hear the surf thundering on
-the beach, and we knew that even if the ship came it
-could not approach the shore. Then there were false
-alarms of whistles having been heard, or of boats seen
-coming up the river, but our suspense at last came to
-an end on April 5th, when a steam-launch towing a
-string of empty boats came puffing up to the camp,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span>
-where they were received with immense enthusiasm.
-They came from the Dutch gunboat <i>Mataram</i>, which had
-been despatched to take away the native escort, and
-the next day came boats from the <i>Zwaan</i>, which had
-come to transport us and our men and the remaining
-stores of the expedition to Amboina. There followed
-two days of busy loading and coming and going of boats,
-during which our impatience to be off was a little
-allayed by the forethought of one of the officers of
-the <i>Mataram</i>, who stayed ashore with us and had brought
-with him that rare luxury, bread, and one or two
-other welcome delicacies.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">DEPARTURE FROM WAKATIMI</div>
-
-<p>Before sunset on April 7th the last boat was loaded
-and ready to go, and we had an amusing leave-taking
-with the people of Wakatimi. It was known that
-we were going to depart and for some days people from
-other villages had been crowding into Wakatimi. A
-large number of men were waiting outside the fence
-of the camp, but when we invited them to come inside
-they became unaccountably shy and would not venture.
-So I went outside and took one bolder fellow, a man
-whom we knew well, and led him by the arm to a hut,
-where there were a quantity of old mosquito nets; he
-seized one and bolted as fast as he could run, apparently
-thinking that there was something suspicious in this
-unwonted generosity. Then a few more came very
-warily after him and then fifty or sixty men dashed
-into the house and out again as soon as they had
-snatched up something, it mattered not what. Most of
-them were armed with spears or bows and arrows, and
-as there were men fighting to get into and out of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span>
-house at the same time it was wonderful that nobody
-was damaged.</p>
-
-<p>When the people in Wakatimi saw what was going
-on in the camp they began to yell with excitement,
-and in a few seconds twenty or more canoes packed
-with men came paddling madly across the river; they
-were so excited that some of them upset the canoes, a
-thing they very seldom do, and they had to swim to
-the shore. For ten minutes or so the camp was a
-pandemonium. About two hundred raving lunatics were
-dashing madly from one house to another and carrying
-off boxes, sacks, mosquito nets, cases of empty bottles,
-bits of iron, tables, beds, mats and everything they
-could possibly move. They howled and raved and
-fought like wild beasts in a manner horrible to see.</p>
-
-<p>Several women came over and danced and sang in
-a canoe just in front of the camp, while the crowd of
-people who had not been able to find a place in the
-canoes shrieked from the opposite bank.  When they
-could carry no more, they loaded their canoes to the
-brim with miscellaneous cargoes and went back across
-the river to the village. There they at once began
-to squabble over the spoils, and the last we heard of
-Wakatimi, as darkness came down, were the shrill
-shrieks of quarrelsome women and the angry shouts
-of men.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE LAST OF NEW GUINEA</div>
-
-<p>New Guinea treated us kindly in farewell, and we
-steamed down the river in a glorious starlight, the
-kind of night which many people think is usual in the
-tropics, but is in fact most lamentably rare. We left
-Cramer on board the <i>Mataram</i> and went on to the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span>
-<i>Zwaan</i>, where we soon were lulled to sleep by the
-pleasant music of the screw. Early the next morning
-a dull cloud on the northern horizon was our last view
-of New Guinea, and before night we had reached civilisation
-again in the anchorage of Dobo.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_p256.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="NEAR BULELING. ISLAND OF BALI." />
-<p class="caption">NEAR BULELING. ISLAND OF BALI.</p></div>
-
-<p>Two days later we came to the Ké Islands and went
-ashore to visit the Catholic Mission at Toeal. There is
-nothing of great interest to see there except the magnificent
-“iron wood” timber, which is cut in the forests
-of the larger island, and is used for boat-building; it
-is obtained in larger pieces than teak, and it is said to be
-equally good. The fathers occupy themselves with
-carpentry and boat-building and with teaching a class
-of small children. The few people whom we saw
-appeared to be of a mixed Malay-Papuan race and were
-dressed in unspeakably dirty clothes.</p>
-
-<p>From Toeal we went on to Banda, where we spent
-a day of pouring rain, a great pity, for a walk through
-the nutmeg woods of Banda is one of the pleasantest
-excursions in the islands, and a day later we dropped
-anchor in the harbour of Amboina.</p>
-
-<p>It will be fitting to remark here that on the
-outward journey from Java to New Guinea and on our
-return from the Mimika to Amboina, the members of
-the expedition were the guests of the Netherlands
-Government. The thanks of the Secretary of State
-for Foreign Affairs have been conveyed to the captains
-of the ships and to the other officials, who helped the
-expedition in a hundred different ways.</p>
-
-<p>At Amboina, where we waited a few days for the
-arrival of a steamer to Singapore, we parted with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span>
-Cramer, who was prevented by a sharp attack of fever
-from coming with us. He was the one other man,
-beside Rawling, Marshall and myself, who remained
-with the expedition from the beginning to the end,
-and it is not paying him an empty compliment to
-say that few other people would have managed more
-successfully than he did to live with a party of foreigners
-in circumstances, which were often exceedingly difficult.</p>
-
-<p>We sailed from Amboina on April 17th in the mail
-steamer <i>Van Riebeeck</i>, and amongst our fellow-passengers
-we found Captain Van der Bie and Lieut. Van der
-Wenn (Netherlands Navy), both of whom were returning
-to Java invalided from the expedition to the
-Island River in New Guinea. The expedition had
-penetrated a long way into the interior of the country,
-but all the Europeans fell ill and the expedition was
-withdrawn a few months later.</p>
-
-<p>After calling at Macassar we went South past the
-Postilion Islands to the little known island of Sumbawa,
-where we went ashore for a few hours at Sumbawa
-Pesar. It looked a pretty country with well-wooded
-hills and level cultivated plains. We were much struck
-by the appearance of the natives, who have a longer
-type of face and a much fairer skin than any other of
-the Malay races I have seen. The men all go armed
-with a <i>kris</i>, and they smoke cigars of an incredible
-length.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">ISLAND OF BALI</div>
-
-<p>From Sumbawa we steamed along the Northern
-shore of Lombok, from whose Peak (12,000 feet), the
-clouds rolled off magnificently at sunset, and early
-the next morning we came into the harbour of Buleling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span>
-in the island of Bali. There we took a native carriage
-(<i>sado</i>), and drove a few miles out into the country to
-see a very interesting Hindu temple, where there are
-some remarkable good stone carvings, which shew
-signs of being carefully tended. The Hindu religion
-still survives, though it cannot be said to flourish, both
-in this island and in Lombok. The native villages
-that we saw have quite characteristic features of their
-own; they are surrounded by a high mud wall with
-a brick coping and are guarded by a swarm of fiercely
-barking dogs. Inside the wall, if you are bold enough
-to enter, you find a neatly swept compound, round the
-sides of which are well-made dwelling-houses, and in
-the middle are granaries of rice; both the houses and
-the granaries are raised on posts several feet above
-the ground and all are neatly thatched with rice straw.
-In the corner of the compound is a place set apart for
-a number of little stone shrines, some of them very
-elaborately carved, in which votive offerings of flowers
-and fruit are placed.</p>
-
-<p>The Balinese seem to be a sturdy and industrious
-people; they have a free and independent appearance,
-very different from that of their somewhat grovelling
-neighbours, the Javanese. The roads are picturesquely
-lined with shady trees, and a very pleasant feature of
-them is the number of little mouse-coloured ponies,
-which carry panniers on a high-peaked saddle and are
-the coolies of Bali; most of them have an elaborate
-leather harness and many carry a large number of
-little bells, which make a pretty music along the roads.
-They appear to be hungry little animals, and they have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span>
-the rare and valuable faculty of being able to eat out of
-a basket tied round their necks as they walk along.
-The country, what little we saw of it, looks extremely
-prosperous, and the beauty of the cultivated lands,
-interrupted here and there by groves of trees and
-backed by mountains, is beyond dispute.</p>
-
-<p>From Bali to Java is only a few hours’ steaming,
-and from Batavia another ship brought us to Singapore,
-where we arrived on May 2nd. A month later we
-landed in England and the English Expedition to
-Dutch New Guinea, 1910-11, was a thing of the past.</p>
-
-<div class="sidenote">THE END</div>
-
-<p>It is not easy to put down in words what were our
-thoughts on our homeward journey from the Mimika
-River to Plymouth Sound. Naturally enough there
-were feelings of pleasant anticipation in returning to
-the comforts of civilised life, and there were feelings
-of profound thankfulness that we had left behind us
-neither our bones nor our health, as too many others
-less fortunate had done. There was also a sense of
-(I think pardonable) satisfaction at having accomplished
-something; the surveyors had made an accurate map
-of a large tract of quite unknown country; the
-naturalists had made valuable collections of birds and
-animals, and some most interesting races of men had
-been visited and studied.</p>
-
-<p>But beneath these was another feeling of vague
-disappointment. We had set out full of hope, if not
-of confidence, of reaching the Snow Mountains, and
-the disappointment of not having set foot on them
-was aggravated by the fact that we had been so long
-in sight of them. It was exasperating beyond words<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span>
-to see the mountains month after month only forty
-miles away and not to be able to move a foot in their
-direction; to study them so that we came to know
-the changing patches of lower snow and almost the
-very crevasses in the glaciers, and still to be forced
-to be content with looking and longing for “the hills
-and the snow upon the hills.”</p>
-
-<p>To look for fifteen months at that great rock precipice,
-and those long fields of snow untrodden yet by
-foot of man, to anticipate the delight of attaining to
-the summits and to wonder what would be seen beyond
-them on the other side, those were pleasures that kept
-one’s hopes alive through long periods of dull inaction.
-The aching disappointment of turning back and leaving
-the mountains as remote and as mysterious as they
-were before words of mine cannot express; but happily
-there is always comfort to be found in the reflexion
-that</p>
-
-<p class="center f09">“Some falls are means the happier to arise.”</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">262/263</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>APPENDIX A</h2>
-
-<p class="center">NOTES ON THE BIRDS COLLECTED; BY THE B.O.U.
-EXPEDITION TO DUTCH NEW GUINEA</p>
-
-<p class="center f09"><span class="smcap">By W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT</span></p>
-
-<p>Our knowledge of the Birds of New Guinea is based
-mainly on Count T. Salvadori’s monumental work <i>Ornitologia
-della Papuasia e delle Molluche</i>, which appeared
-in three large volumes in 1880-82, and on his <i>Aggiunte</i>
-to the above work published in three parts in 1887-89.
-Since that date our knowledge of the avi-fauna has
-vastly increased and a very large number of splendid
-Birds-of-Paradise and other remarkable new species have
-been discovered.</p>
-
-<p>A list of the principal works subsequently published,
-placed in chronological order, will be found at the end of
-this chapter, the most important papers being no doubt
-those by the Hon. Walter Rothschild and Dr. E. Hartert,
-which have appeared from time to time in the Tring
-Museum periodical <i>Novitates Zoologicæ</i>. Mr. Rothschild
-is to be congratulated on the success which has
-attended the efforts of his various collectors in New
-Guinea and on the energy which he has displayed in
-obtaining birds from unknown districts of the most
-interesting island in the world.</p>
-
-<p>To give in a single chapter a brief and partly scientific,
-partly popular, summary of the ornithological work
-accomplished by our Expedition in Dutch New Guinea is
-a more difficult task than might be imagined, for there
-is not only an immense number of species to be dealt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span>
-with, but in most instances very little is known about
-their habits. The jungles of South-western New Guinea
-are so dense that white men can scarcely traverse them,
-and most of the collecting had to be done by the trained
-natives from the Malay Peninsula, kindly supplied by
-Mr. H. C. Robinson, and by the Gurkhas who accompanied
-the Expedition.</p>
-
-<p>By dealing with each family in turn, I shall endeavour
-to refer to all the more important species in the collection
-in their proper scientific order, briefly describing
-some of the more beautiful, so that those without any
-special knowledge of birds may, if they care to do so,
-form some idea of the marvellous types which have
-been brought home from the interior of South-western
-New Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>It is certain that the resources of that wonderful
-island are not nearly exhausted: on the contrary, every
-fresh collecting expedition sent to the interior produces
-remarkable novelties, and large chains of high mountains
-are still unexplored. The members of our Expedition
-were fortunate in procuring no less than 2,200 skins of
-birds in New Guinea, representing about 235 species, of
-which ten proved to be new to Science. A number
-of new birds were also obtained by the late Mr. Wilfred
-Stalker in the mountains of Ceram, which he visited
-before joining the main Expedition at Amboina. His
-premature death by drowning, a few days after he landed
-in New Guinea, was an immense loss to the Expedition,
-though his place was ably filled by Mr. Claude Grant,
-who worked with his characteristic zeal and enthusiasm.</p>
-
-<p>It will be noticed that the great bulk of the birds
-inhabiting New Guinea belong to a comparatively small
-number of families, but that each of these is represented
-by a large number of different species, especially in such
-groups as the Pigeons, Parrots, Flycatchers, and Honey-eaters.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Amongst the Pigeons of which no fewer than twenty-seven
-different kinds were obtained, it would seem as
-though, in some instances at least, Nature had almost
-come to the end of her resources in devising new and
-wonderful arrangements of colour and markings; for in
-some of the smaller Fruit-Pigeons, such as <i>Ptilopus
-gestroi</i> and <i>P. zonurus</i> we find two perfectly distinct
-species, occurring side by side, possessing almost exactly
-the same remarkable scheme of colouration, and only
-differing in certain minor points to be found in the
-markings of the wing-coverts. Another very similar
-instance is to be seen in <i>Ptilopus coronulatus</i> and <i>P. nanus</i>
-almost the same colours and pattern being repeated in
-both.</p>
-
-<p>The collection obtained by our expedition is a very
-valuable one, and has added many new and interesting
-forms of bird-life to the incomparable series in the
-Natural History Museum, to which the bulk of the
-specimens have been presented by the subscribers. A
-large proportion of the birds were obtained at low elevations
-from sea-level to 2,000 feet, only a comparatively
-small number being procured at from 3000-4000 feet.
-It is to be regretted that the immense physical difficulties
-encountered and other causes prevented our collectors from
-reaching a higher zone between 5000 and
-10,000 feet, where no doubt much of interest remains to
-be discovered by those who are fortunate enough to get
-there.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SPECIES COLLECTED
-AND THE FAMILIES TO WHICH THEY BELONG</h3>
-
-<table class="table" summary="NUMBER OF SPECIES" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Family.</td><td class="tdr" colspan="3">No. of<br />species.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Corvidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Crows</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Paradiseidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Birds-of-Paradise, Bower-Birds and Manucodes</td><td class="tdr">13</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Eulabetidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tree-Starlings</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Dicruridæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Drongos</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Oriolidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Orioles</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Ploceidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Weaver-Finches</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Motacillidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wagtails</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Meliphagidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Honey-eaters</td><td class="tdr">26</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Nectariniidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sun-birds</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Dicæidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Flower-peckers</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Zosteropidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">White-eyes</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Laniidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shrikes</td><td class="tdr">8</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Prionopidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wood-Shrikes</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Artamidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Swallow-Shrikes</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Timeliidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Babblers</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Campophagidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cuckoo-Shrikes</td><td class="tdr">11</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Muscicapidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Flycatchers</td><td class="tdr">30</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Hirundinidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Swallows</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Pittidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pittas or Ant-Thrushes</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Cuculidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cuckoos</td><td class="tdr">11</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Cypselidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Swifts</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Caprimulgidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Nightjars</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Podargidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Frog-mouths</td><td class="tdr">3</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Bucerotidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hornbills</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Meropidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bee-eaters</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Coraciidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rollers</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Alcedinidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Kingfishers</td><td class="tdr">11</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Psittacidæ</i></td><td class="tdl">Parrots</td><td class="tdl padr5" rowspan="2"><big><big><big>}</big></big></big></td><td class="tdr vertm" rowspan="2">22</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Loriidæ</i></td><td class="tdl">Lories or Brush-tongued Parrots</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Bubonidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Horned and Wood-Owls</td><td class="tdr">7</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Phalacrocoracidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cormorants</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Anatidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ducks</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Ibididæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ibises</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Ardeidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Herons</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Œdicnemidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Stone-Plovers</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Charadriidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plovers</td><td class="tdr">8</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Laridæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Gulls and Terns</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Rallidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rails</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Columbidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pigeons</td><td class="tdr">26</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Megapodiidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Megapodes or Mound-builders</td><td class="tdr">3</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Casuariidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cassowaries</td><td class="tdr">3</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdr" colspan="4">——</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2">Total&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">235</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>From the above table it will be seen that out of 235 species procured, 150 are
-included in eight of the Families; <i>viz.</i> Birds-of-Paradise 13; Honey-eaters 26;
-Cuckoo-Shrikes 11; Flycatchers 30; Cuckoos, 11; Kingfishers 11; Parrots, 22;
-Pigeons, 26.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>CORVIDAÆ</i>—CROWS.</h3>
-
-<p>Though the true Crows are never brightly coloured
-birds, many are extremely handsome, but this epithet
-cannot be applied to the Bare-faced Crow (<i>Gymnocorax
-senex</i>) which is common on the Mimika River and
-distributed over New Guinea generally.</p>
-
-<p>The adult is brownish-black with a slight purplish
-or bluish gloss on the wings, but is generally in worn
-and shabby plumage. Even when freshly moulted it
-is rather a disreputable looking bird, its naked pink
-face, pale watery blue eyes, slate-coloured bill and livid
-feet adding to its dissipated appearance. Young birds
-in their first year’s plumage are even plainer than their
-parents, being dull drab-brown inclining to brownish-white
-on the head and neck, and appear to be clad
-in sackcloth and ashes. They have a weak uncrow-like
-call pitched in a high key and their flight is feeble and
-seldom sustained.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to this Crow of unprepossessing appearance,
-there is a handsome Raven (<i>Corvus orru</i>), much
-like our familiar bird but smaller, which was met with
-in pairs on the coast.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>PARADISEIDÆ</i>—BIRDS-OF-PARADISE AND
-BOWER-BIRDS.</h3>
-
-<p>Closely allied to the well-known Greater Bird-of-Paradise
-(<i>Paradisea apoda</i>) from the Aru Islands is the
-New Guinea form <i>P. novæ-guineæ</i>, the males being
-distinguished by their smaller size and by having the
-long ornamental side-plumes of a much richer orange-yellow.
-Though the call of this bird was frequently
-heard on the upper parts of the Mimika, it was rarely
-seen; but on the Wataikwa quite a number were
-procured in all stages of plumage. The species was,
-however, nowhere plentiful and confined to the foot-hills.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Pygmies often brought plumes of the Lesser
-Bird-of-Paradise (<i>P. minor</i>) to Parimau and traded
-them with the natives, but the species was not found
-on the Mimika, the Charles Louis mountains probably
-forming its southern boundary.</p>
-
-<p>My account of the display of that species, as witnessed
-in the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, will be found
-in the <i>Ibis</i>, 1905, p. 429, accompanied by various
-drawings and a coloured plate by Mr. G. E. Lodge. The
-display resembles that of the Greater Bird-of-Paradise
-(<i>P. apoda</i>) and the Red Bird-of-Paradise (<i>P. raggiana</i>)
-and no doubt also that of <i>P. novæ-guineæ</i>. It is a
-wonderful and beautiful sight to see these birds erect
-their splendid side-plumes in an arch over the back,
-which is concealed in a shivering cascade of colour,
-orange and white, or red according to the species.</p>
-
-<p>Numbers of the beautiful little King Bird-of-Paradise
-(<i>Cicinnurus regius</i>) were brought home in all stages of
-plumage from the young to the fully adult male, with
-its scarlet head, shading into glittering carmine on the
-back and wings and into purplish-carmine on the throat,
-which is bordered below by a rich dark green band.
-The sides of the chest are ornamented with fan-like
-arrangements of grey feathers tipped with glittering
-golden green; the breast and the rest of the under-parts
-are of the purest white: the outer tail-feathers are
-earthy-brown edged with orange-red, while the middle
-pair, which cross one another, have the bare shafts
-enormously lengthened, and terminate in a tightly
-curled disc, golden green above and reddish-brown
-beneath.</p>
-
-<p>These beautiful ornaments are seen to the greatest
-advantage when the King is displaying, the green-tipped
-fan-like feathers on the sides and the white
-feathers of the breast being spread out to form a
-circular shield in front of the bird, while the green<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span>
-metallic discs of the long middle tail-feathers are
-erected and waved overhead. An interesting description
-of the display of this species is given by Sir William
-Ingram in the <i>Ibis</i>, 1907, p. 225, with a coloured
-plate and figures drawn by Mr. G. E. Lodge from a
-living specimen.</p>
-
-<p>Mr. Walter Goodfellow made an interesting observation
-on the habits of this species. While watching some
-Pigeons on the opposite bank of the river through his
-glasses he saw a small bird rise from the top of a tree
-and soar into the air like a Sky-Lark. After it had
-risen about 30 feet, it suddenly seemed to collapse and
-dropped back into the tree as though it had been shot.
-It proved to be a King Bird-of-Paradise and probably
-this soaring habit is a part of the display not indulged
-in by captive birds confined in comparatively small
-cages.</p>
-
-<p>A Rifle-Bird (<i>Ptilorhis magnifica</i>) was fairly common
-both on the coast and near the mountains and its call
-consisting of two long-drawn notes, one ascending, the
-other descending, might be heard at all hours of the day.
-Its plumage is mostly velvety black on the head and
-upper-parts, but the crown, middle of the throat and
-chest, as well as the middle pair of tail-feathers, are
-metallic blue and a bronze-green band separates the
-chest from the deep purplish-maroon under-parts. The
-outer flight feathers are curiously pointed and strongly
-falcate and some of the side-feathers terminate in long,
-narrow decomposed plumes. The long curved bill and
-the legs are black, while the inside of the mouth is pale
-apple-green as is the case in several other species of
-Paradise-Birds.</p>
-
-<p>Though a well-known species, we must not omit to
-mention the splendid Twelve-wired Bird-of-Paradise
-(<i>Seleucides niger</i>). The plumage of the male is like dark
-brown plush shot with bronze-green on the back and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span>
-deep violet on the wings, while the long dark breast-feathers
-are edged with rich metallic emerald-green.
-The long ornamental side-plumes and the rest of the
-under-parts are beautiful bright cinnamon-yellow when
-freshly moulted, but this colour is so volatile that it soon
-fades to nearly white in skins which have been kept for
-a few years. The shafts of six of the long side-plumes
-on either side extend far beyond the vane of the feather
-and look like twelve recurved wires, hence the bird’s
-popular name. The eye is crimson, the bill black, the
-gape bright apple-green, and the legs and toes yellowish
-flesh-colour.</p>
-
-<p>The Expedition procured three examples of a new
-form of <i>Parotia</i> or Six-plumed Paradise-Bird on the
-Iwaka River, but unfortunately did not succeed in shooting
-a fully adult male. Simultaneously A. S. Meek, who
-was collecting for Mr. Rothschild, procured specimens of
-the same bird on the Oetakwa River a few miles to the
-east, but he likewise did not secure the fully adult male.
-The species has been named <i>Parotia carolæ meeki</i> by
-Mr. Rothschild.</p>
-
-<p>The plumage of this bird is like brownish-black plush
-and equally soft to the touch. The head is ornamented
-very wonderfully; on either side behind the eye there
-are three long racket-like plumes on long bare shafts, (a
-character common to all the members of this remarkable
-genus of Paradise-Birds): the middle of the crown is of
-a beautiful “old” gold colour in a setting of silvery
-white and golden brown: on the occiput there is a
-marvellous patch of stiff metal-like feathers, golden-green
-bordered with deep violet; the sides of the head
-before and behind the eye are golden-brown, the chin
-and upper part of the throat deep brown, and the lower
-part whitish, spotted with rufous. A lovely metallic
-breast-plate of bronze-green and violet feathers with dark
-middles covers the chest and the long flank-feathers are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span>
-white. The two outer flight feathers are curiously
-attenuated near the extremity and terminate in a sharp
-point, the shaft bearing only a very narrow web. No
-doubt all these ornaments are displayed in a similar
-manner to those of <i>P. lawesi</i> from British New Guinea,
-males of which have been living for some years in the
-Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park.</p>
-
-<p>Another very handsome species is the Golden-winged
-<i>Diphyllodes chrysoptera</i>. The male has the bill and a
-bare space behind the eye bluish-white, the inside of the
-mouth apple-green and the feet Prussian blue. The
-head is clad in short velvety reddish-brown feathers with
-two metallic green spots between the eyes; the nape
-bears a frill of lengthened brown-tipped plumes; the
-mantle is light golden-yellow like spun glass and forms
-a lengthened tippet; the inner secondary quills and
-shoulder-feathers are orange-yellow, and the back
-carmine and dull orange shading into sooty black on the
-upper tail-coverts. The throat is deep velvety brown,
-the neck and breast rich dark green bordered below
-with metallic bluish-green, and with a row of metallic
-green bars like steps down the middle of the neck and
-chest; the rest of the under-parts are black. The short
-outer tail-feathers are sooty brown, while the middle pair
-which cross one another are very long and narrow and
-of a metallic bluish-green. The female is very soberly
-clad, dull brown above and narrowly barred with brown
-and buff below.</p>
-
-<p>The Bower-Birds have received their name from their
-peculiar habit of constructing bowers or runs where the
-males meet to play or pay their court to the females.
-The bowers are built long before the birds begin to build
-their nests which are placed in trees.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most noteworthy species procured by the
-Expedition was the gorgeously coloured Bower-Bird,
-<i>Xanthomelus ardens</i>. The male has the eye yellow and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span>
-the head, sides of the neck and mantle orange-scarlet,
-the feathers of the latter being very long and loose and
-forming a dense cape; the rest of the plumage is orange-yellow
-above and golden-yellow below: the ends of the
-quills and the tail-feathers, being black.</p>
-
-<p>The female has the iris brown and is more sombrely
-clad, the head and upper-parts, including the wings and
-tail, being earthy-brown, while the under-parts, under
-wing-coverts and wing-lining, are yellow, like those of
-the male, but less bright.</p>
-
-<p>This beautiful species was originally described from
-an imperfect native-made skin obtained by the Italian
-naturalist, D’Albertis, on the Fly River. Subsequently,
-Dr. H. A. Lorentz shot two adult males on the Noord
-River, which were described and figured by Dr. Van Oort.
-Our expedition was fortunate enough to secure not only
-adult males, but also the immature male and adult female,
-these latter being hitherto unknown.</p>
-
-<p>The display of the male bird must be a very beautiful
-sight, his scarlet cape being no doubt erected, and forming
-a great hood over the head.</p>
-
-<p>Among the Bower-Birds, one of the most interesting
-was a remarkable female example of a species of <i>Chlamydodera</i>
-procured on the Kamura River. Unlike any of
-the allied forms, it has the under-surface washed with
-yellow, and appears to be the female of <i>C. lauterbachi</i>,
-of which the brilliantly coloured male was described by
-Dr. Reichenow from an example procured in German
-New Guinea.</p>
-
-<p>The male has the crown and sides of the face golden-orange,
-the upper-parts olive-brown, edged with yellowish,
-and the under-parts bright yellow. It is a very striking
-bird and much the most brightly coloured member of the
-genus.</p>
-
-<p>Though the two specimens were obtained in localities
-so far apart, there seems to be no reason why they should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span>
-not be male and female of the same species. The female
-obtained by the Expedition possesses many characteristics
-in common with the male type of <i>C. lauterbachi</i> and the
-differences in plumage are just what one would expect
-to find in the female of that species.</p>
-
-<p>The beautiful Cat-bird (<i>Ælurœdus stonei</i>) was fairly
-plentiful, and is remarkable on account of its peculiar
-colouring. The cap is brown, the back grass-green, and
-the neck and under-parts buff, spotted with black, or
-green on the longer flank-feathers. The eye is hazel
-and the bill and legs slate-blue. The sexes are alike in
-plumage. It derives its popular name from its peculiar
-hissing alarm note, not unlike the sound made by an
-angry cat.</p>
-
-<p>Of the Manucodes, four different kinds were met
-with. They are all crow-like birds with brilliant metallic
-black plumage glossed with purple, green or blue, and
-form a link between the Paradise-Birds and the true
-Crows. The Purple-and-Violet Manucode (<i>Phonygama
-jamesi</i>) is distinguished by possessing tufts of long,
-narrow metallic green plumes behind the eye, and by
-having the neck-feathers similarly lengthened; while the
-other three belonging to the genus <i>Manucodia</i> have the
-head and neck covered with short curly feathers. These
-curly-headed species are much alike in general appearance,
-but <i>M. orientalis</i> has the short curly feathers on
-the chest and breast glittering golden-green, while in
-<i>M. jobiensis</i> and <i>M. altera</i> the same parts are dark steel-blue.
-<i>Inter se</i> the two latter kinds differ considerably,
-both structurally and in colour. <i>M. jobiensis</i> is
-smaller and has the feathers of the throat rounded and
-crinkled, and the upper-parts glossed with a strong shade
-of violet; while <i>M. altera</i> is larger and has the throat-feathers
-short but rather pointed, and the general colour
-above purplish-blue or steel-blue.</p>
-
-<p>In most of the Manucodes the trachea is very long<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span>
-and convoluted, that of the Purple-and-Violet species
-possessing no fewer than twelve coils which lie between
-the skin and the pectoral muscles. In spite of this
-marvellous instrument its cries are not nearly so loud
-as those of the Birds-of-Paradise of the genus <i>Paradisea</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Mr. Claude Grant discovered a nest of <i>M. altera</i> with
-two eggs at Parimau, an interesting find, as no properly
-authenticated eggs of that species had hitherto been
-obtained.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>EULABETIDÆ</i>—TREE-STARLINGS.</h3>
-
-<p>Among the smaller Glossy Starlings we must specially
-mention a new species, <i>Calornis mystacea</i>, discovered by the
-Expedition. It has the plumage purplish-bronze and is
-especially remarkable in having long semi-erect plumes
-on the forehead as well as long neck-hackles. Three
-specimens were obtained flying in company with large
-flocks of <i>C. metallica</i>, a rather widely distributed species,
-which ranges to North Australia, the Moluccas and the
-Solomon Islands.</p>
-
-<p>The Grackles or Talking Starlings are represented by
-two lovely species, the first being the well-known
-Dumont’s Grackle (<i>Mino dumonti</i>) a dark glossy greenish-black
-bird with a yellow belly and white under tail-coverts.
-It has a brown eye surrounded by a large naked orange
-patch partially covered with short stiff filaments. The
-second species Robertson’s Golden Grackle (<i>Melanopyrrhus
-robertsoni</i>) is an equally handsome, but much rarer bird,
-and the fine series of adults obtained by the Expedition
-proves that it is a species quite distinct from <i>M. orientalis</i>,
-the form found in British New Guinea which has a large
-black patch on the occiput.</p>
-
-<p>Robertson’s Grackle has the cheeks and upper part of
-the throat, as well as the back, wings and breast, black
-glossed with green; the rest of the head, neck and chest,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span>
-as well as the lower back, rump, upper tail-coverts and
-belly, are orange-yellow. In the adult there is no trace
-of a black patch on the occiput, but the quite young
-bird has the entire crown black and specimens which
-have not assumed the fully adult plumage and still
-retain some black feathers on the occiput might be
-mistaken for <i>M. orientalis</i>. That they have been is
-proved by the fact that Count Salvadori and many others
-have regarded <i>M. robertsoni</i>, Sharpe, as a synonym of
-<i>M. orientalis</i>, Schlegel, but they are really quite distinct.</p>
-
-<p>A few very high trees left standing near the huts at
-Wakatimi were the resort, morning and evening, of these
-Starlings and various other species of birds. For a long
-time during the hot mid-day hours Mr. Goodfellow had
-observed that some bird, possessing a remarkably sweet
-Thrush-like song, rested there, and, after many days of
-watching, he found it to be Robertson’s Golden Grackle.
-He says that the notes of this Starling would not pass
-unnoticed, even in countries where the birds, as a rule,
-have sweeter voices than those inhabiting New Guinea.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>DICRURIDÆ</i>—DRONGOS.</h3>
-
-<p>The Drongos, small Crow-like Flycatchers with
-pugnacious habits, are represented in the collection
-by two species—<i>Chibia carbonaria</i> and <i>Chælorhynchus
-papuensis</i>.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>ORIOLIDÆ</i>—ORIOLES.</h3>
-
-<p>The Orioles are represented by one species only,
-<i>Mimeta striata</i>, belonging to the dull coloured brown-backed
-group with heavily streaked under-parts and the
-sexes alike in plumage. It was commonest in the
-mangrove swamps near the coast.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>PLOCEIDÆ</i>—WEAVER-BIRDS.</h3>
-
-<p>This widely distributed group of Weaver-Finches is
-not very numerous in New Guinea and the only representative
-met with was a small species, <i>Munia tristissima</i>,
-which was common in the clearing round the camp at
-Wakatimi.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>MOTACILLIDÆ</i>—WAGTAILS.</h3>
-
-<p>The Grey Wagtail (<i>Motacilla melanope</i>) and the Blue-headed
-Wagtail (<i>M. flava</i>) were both met with on the
-Mimika and other rivers. It is interesting to note that
-both species are included in the British List, the former
-being a regular breeding-species in our islands. The
-birds wintering in far-off New Guinea, no doubt formed
-part of the eastern colonies of these species which nest in
-Siberia and visit the Indo-Malayan Islands in winter.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>MELIPHAGIDÆ</i>—HONEY-EATERS.</h3>
-
-<p>The Honey-eaters are very numerously represented
-in South-western New Guinea and no fewer than twenty-seven
-species were met with by our Expedition.</p>
-
-<p>The family is divided in two sections, the first
-including the comparatively brightly coloured genus
-<i>Myzomela</i> the members of which resemble true Sun-birds
-(<i>Nectariniidæ</i>) in general appearance. Seven species were
-met with; the most brilliantly coloured being <i>M.
-cruentata</i> which has the plumage of the body scarlet and
-the wings washed with the same colour, another species
-<i>M. obscura</i> has the entire plumage smoky-grey, and four
-forms are intermediate between these two types of
-colouration, being partly scarlet and partly grey. The
-seventh is a very small and very rare species (<i>Œdistoma
-pygmæum</i>), which was described by Count Salvadori
-from the Arfak Peninsula.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The other section contains a number of larger species,
-mostly with dull greenish or brownish plumage and
-nearly all with a yellow tuft or patch on the ear-coverts.
-Though rather uninteresting-looking birds several are
-really of great scientific value, being new to the National
-Collection, and one, <i>Ptilotis mimikæ</i> proved to be new to
-Science. The largest form is the curious Friar-bird
-(<i>Philemon novæ-guineæ</i>) with the bare sides of the face
-and neck black and a swollen knob on the base of the
-bill. It was generally met with in pairs and inhabited
-the tops of the tallest forest trees whence its peculiar cry
-might constantly be heard.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>NECTARINIIDÆ</i>—SUN-BIRDS.</h3>
-
-<p>The Sun-birds are represented by two species <i>Cinnyris
-aspasiæ</i> and <i>C. frenata</i>. The male of the former is
-deep black with a dark metallic green cap, shoulders and
-lower back, and purple throat, while the female is olive
-above, and dull yellow below, with a grey head and
-throat. The latter species is dull yellow above, brilliant
-yellow below, with a purple throat in the male, which is
-absent in the female.</p>
-
-<p>Mr. Goodfellow tells us that among the riot of parasitic
-plants which covered the trees a few Sun-birds and
-Honey-eaters might always be seen. The nests of the
-former, suspended from fallen and partially submerged
-dead trees, were continuously swinging from side to side,
-the strong current in the river keeping the trees in perpetual
-motion. These nests might easily be mistaken
-for a handful of drift left there by the river.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>DICÆIDÆ</i>—FLOWER-PECKERS.</h3>
-
-<p><i>Dicæum diversum</i> and <i>Melanocharis chloroptera</i>, a
-dull-looking greenish-grey species described by Count<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>
-Salvadori, were the only Flower-peckers met with. They
-are small Tit-like birds allied to the Sun-birds, but with
-a short bill serrated along the edges of the mandibles.
-Both species were very common everywhere except on
-the coast and were extremely tame.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>ZOSTEROPIDÆ</i>—WHITE-EYES.</h3>
-
-<p><i>Zosterops chrysolæma</i>, a beautiful little species with
-the upper-parts golden-olive, the throat and under tail-coverts
-yellow, and the breast and belly pure white, was
-the only species met with of this most numerous and
-widely distributed group. The popular name White-eye
-is derived from the ring of tiny white plumes which encircles
-the eye in all. They resemble Titmice both in
-their mode of life and notes. The only pair observed
-were met with on the Iwaka River, and the species is
-probably more numerous in the higher parts of the
-mountains.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>LANIIDÆ</i>—SHRIKES.</h3>
-
-<p>The large Shrike-like birds with powerful hooked bills
-known as the Piping-Crows are represented by two members
-of the genus <i>Cracticus</i>; <i>C. cassicus</i>, a black and
-white species, and <i>C. quoyi</i>, with uniform black plumage.
-Both are much like their well-known Australian representatives,
-but smaller. <i>C. cassicus</i> was much the
-commoner bird and was generally observed feeding on
-berries and fruits in high trees, its actions being very
-Crow-like.</p>
-
-<p>The Pachycephaline group of birds allied to the true
-Shrikes is represented by half-a-dozen species, two of
-which proved to be undescribed: a grey form with a
-white throat <i>Pachycephala approximans</i> and a black
-species with a white breast and belly, <i>P. dorsalis</i>.
-Brilliantly coloured orange-yellow and black, or orange<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span>yellow
-and grey species were represented by <i>Pachycephala
-aurea</i> and <i>Pachychare flavogrisea</i>.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>PRIONOPIDÆ</i>—WOOD-SHRIKES.</h3>
-
-<p>This group is represented by <i>Rhectes cristatus</i> and <i>R.
-ferrugineus</i> in which both sexes are rufous and by <i>R.
-nigripectus</i> with the sexes different, the male being partly
-black and partly chestnut. <i>Pinarolestes megarhynchus</i>,
-an allied species with the sexes alike, is brown above and
-dull rufous below. Some of these Wood-Shrikes lay
-peculiar looking eggs of a long oval shape and large for
-the size of the bird. The ground-colour is purplish- or
-pinkish-grey with scattered spots or small blotches of
-dark purplish-brown or maroon-brown, often blurred at
-the edges and running into the ground-colour. These
-eggs have on several occasions been palmed off on
-travellers in British New Guinea as eggs of the Red
-Bird-of-Paradise, which they do not in any way
-resemble.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>ARTAMIDÆ</i>—SWALLOW-SHRIKES.</h3>
-
-<p>These birds which closely resemble Swallows in their
-mode of life are represented by one species only, <i>Artamus
-leucopygialis</i>, a grey bird with the breast and rump white.
-It was common along the coast, and was generally seen
-either perched on some dead tree or skimming swiftly
-over the sands.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>TIMELIIDÆ</i>—BABBLERS.</h3>
-
-<p>We now come to the Timeline group of birds: of
-these we may mention two striking-looking species of
-<i>Eupetes</i>. One, <i>E. nigricrissus</i>, with the plumage slate-blue
-and the throat white, edged with black, was met
-with on the Mimika; the other, <i>E. pulcher</i>, was only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span>
-seen further east on the Wataikwa River. It is very
-similar to the above, but has the crown and back rich-chestnut,
-instead of slate. Both species are ground-birds
-and usually found in pairs; they are rather difficult to
-procure as, when disturbed, they instantly conceal themselves
-among the trunks of the trees and vegetation.
-The Scimitar Babblers were represented by the reddish-brown
-<i>Pomatorhinus isidori</i>.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>CAMPOPHAGIDÆ</i>—CUCKOO-SHRIKES.</h3>
-
-<p>The Cuckoo-Shrikes are well represented in the collection,
-no fewer than eleven species having been obtained.
-They belong to four genera and vary much in colour:
-the large <i>Graucalus cæruleogrisea</i> has the entire plumage
-bluish-grey, except the axillaries and under wing-coverts
-which are pale cinnamon and the male has a black patch
-in front of eye. Another genus <i>Edoliisoma</i> is represented
-by <i>E. melas</i> of which the male is entirely black, and the
-female chestnut and brown. A very attractive and
-brilliantly coloured species is <i>Campochæra sloetii</i>, forming
-a marked contrast to other members of the group. The
-greater part of its plumage is orange-yellow, the forehead
-white, the middle of the crown yellow and the wings black
-and white; the male has the cheeks, throat and chest black
-glossed with dull green, while in the female these parts
-are dull grey. Several examples of this very rare Cuckoo-Shrike
-were procured on the Mimika River. It is no
-doubt most nearly allied to the Minivets (<i>Pericrocotus</i>)
-which inhabit the Indo-Chinese countries and islands,
-the predominant colour of most of the males being scarlet
-and of the females yellow.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>MUSCICAPIDÆ</i>—FLYCATCHERS.</h3>
-
-<p>Flycatchers are very numerously represented and
-among them two new forms were discovered, a Fan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span>tailed
-Flycatcher (<i>Rhipidura streptophora</i>) and a broad-billed
-species <i>Myiagra mimikæ</i>. Among the more notable
-forms we may mention <i>Monarcha aruensis</i>, a brilliant
-yellow and black species; <i>Todopsis bonapartei</i>, the male
-being vivid ultramarine-blue, purple and black, while the
-female differs in having the back and sides dark chestnut
-and the breast mostly white; lastly <i>Peltops blainvillei</i>, a
-black bird with the rump, vent and tail-coverts scarlet, a
-large white patch on each side of the head and another
-on the middle of the mantle; the sexes are alike in
-plumage.</p>
-
-<p>The Fan-tailed Flycatchers were commonly seen on
-the Mimika River in May and June when numbers were
-busy hawking the canary-coloured May-flies which
-swarmed at that time.</p>
-
-<p>The Black-and-white Flycatcher (<i>Malurus alboscapulatus</i>)
-frequented the tall grasses near the camp on the
-Wataikwa River. It was a delightful little bird, very
-tame and might constantly be seen crossing the open
-spaces with an undulating flight.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>HIRUNDINIDÆ</i>—SWALLOWS.</h3>
-
-<p>Two species of Swallows were met with <i>Hirundo
-javanica</i> and <i>H. gutturalis</i>.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>PITTIDÆ</i>—PITTAS OR ANT-THRUSHES.</h3>
-
-<p>Of the Ant-Thrushes or Pittas two species were met
-with, both brilliantly plumaged birds. <i>Pitta mackloti</i>
-which was far the commoner of the two, has a dark
-crown, reddish-chestnut nape, and greenish-blue upper-parts;
-the throat is black, the chest shining greyish-blue
-and the breast and belly scarlet, divided from the chest
-by a wide black band.</p>
-
-<p>The other species, <i>Pitta novæ-guineæ</i>, which was much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span>
-less frequently met with, has the head and neck black
-and the rest of the plumage dark green washed with
-bluish on the breast, which is black down the middle.
-The shoulders are shining silvery-blue and the vent and
-under tail-coverts scarlet.</p>
-
-<p>These long-legged Thrush-like birds are entirely
-terrestrial in their habits and frequent the depths of the
-forests. They can hop with great agility and escape on
-the slightest alarm, but are easily taken in snares.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>CUCULIDÆ</i>—CUCKOOS.</h3>
-
-<p>Among the Cuckoos, the largest is a species of
-“Crow-pheasant” or “Lark-heeled” Cuckoo, <i>Centropus
-menebiki</i>, a bird of black plumage glossed with dark green,
-with a large whitish-horn bill and heavy slate-coloured
-legs and toes.</p>
-
-<p>An allied, but smaller and rarer species, <i>C. bernsteini</i>,
-was met with near the mouth of the Mimika. It is very
-similar in plumage to the above, but is easily distinguished
-by its smaller size, black bill and long, nearly
-straight hind-claw. Both are almost entirely ground-birds
-of skulking habits. Several other species of
-Cuckoo were met with, and among these <i>Cuculus micropterus</i>,
-the eastern form of the Common Cuckoo, closely
-resembling our familiar bird. The rarest species
-obtained was <i>Microdynamis parva</i>, a remarkable little
-Cuckoo about the size of a Thrush, first described by
-Count Salvadori in 1875. The origin of the type
-specimen is uncertain, but it is believed to have been
-obtained by Beccari in the Moluccas. Subsequently, Dr.
-H. O. Forbes procured female examples in the Astrolabe
-Mountains. Mr. Claude Grant obtained an adult male
-and female which form a valuable addition to the
-National Collection. The general plumage is brown,
-but in the male the top of the head and the malar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span>
-stripe are black, glossed with steel-blue and the cheeks
-and throat are cinnamon. In both sexes the bill is
-short, thick and curved. The male has the eye bright
-red, while in the female it is hazel.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>CYPSELIDÆ</i>—SWIFTS.</h3>
-
-<p>The Swifts, though of especial interest, are not very
-numerously represented in the collection. The commonest
-species was that known as the Esculent Swiftlet (<i>Collocalia
-fuciphaga</i>) which produces the best kind of edible
-nest.</p>
-
-<p>A very interesting discovery was the existence in
-New Guinea of the large fork-tailed species <i>Collocalia
-whiteheadi</i> originally described by myself from the highlands
-of Luzon, Philippine Islands.</p>
-
-<p>A remarkable Spine-tailed Swift (<i>Chætura novæ-guineæ</i>)
-is new to the National Collection. It was fairly
-common on the Mimika River and originally described
-by Count Salvadori from specimens procured by D’Albertis
-on the Fly River.</p>
-
-<p>A pair of the magnificent Moustached Swift (<i>Macropteryx
-mystacea</i>) with a wing expanse of more than two
-feet were also procured. The plumage of this bird is
-mostly grey, but the crown, wings, and long deeply-forked
-tail are black glossed with purplish-blue. The
-eye-brows and moustache-stripes as well as the scapulars
-are white, the two former being composed of lengthened,
-narrow, pointed plumes. The male has a small chestnut
-spot behind the ear-coverts which is absent in the female.
-The nesting-habits of this species are very curious, it
-makes a very small exposed half-saucer-shaped nest of
-bark and feathers gummed by saliva to a branch or
-stump barely large enough to contain the single white
-egg, and ridiculously small in comparison with the size
-of the bird. When incubating, the greater part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span>
-bird’s body must rest on the branch to which the nest
-is attached.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILIES <i>CAPRIMULGIDÆ</i> AND <i>PODARGIDÆ</i>—NIGHTJARS
-AND FROG-MOUTHS.</h3>
-
-<p>The common Nightjar of the country found along
-the shingly banks of the rivers was <i>Caprimulgus macrurus</i>,
-a widely distributed species. After the ground had been
-cleared for the base camp at Wakatimi it was visited
-every evening by a number of Nightjars, which no doubt
-found such a large open space an admirable hunting-ground
-and the members of the Expedition derived great
-pleasure from watching their graceful evolutions. Another
-very rare Nightjar was <i>Lyncornis papuensis</i>, not previously
-included in the National Collection. Frog-mouths
-were represented by the larger species <i>Podargus
-papuensis</i> and the smaller, <i>P. ocellatus</i>. At some of the
-stopping places on the river night was made hideous
-by their mournful cries repeated to distraction on every
-side, and ending up with a sharp snap.</p>
-
-<p>A single example of the rare Wallace’s Owlet-Nightjar
-(<i>Ægotheles wallacei</i>) was collected by Mr. G. C. Shortridge
-on the Wataikwa River. It has a peculiar uniform
-blackish upper plumage, without any trace of a distinct
-nuchal collar. No doubt, like its Australian ally, it
-roosts in holes in trees during the daytime and captures
-its prey on the wing at night, like the true Nightjars,
-though the flight is said to be less tortuous.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>BUCEROTIDÆ</i>—HORNBILLS.</h3>
-
-<p>The only representative of the <i>Bucerotidæ</i> is the
-Wreathed Hornbill (<i>Rhytidoceros plicatus</i>) a large bird
-with a casque formed of overlapping plates on the base
-of the upper mandible. The male is black with the head
-and neck chestnut and the tail white, while the female<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span>
-differs in having the head and neck black. It was plentiful
-everywhere and its flesh was reported to be good eating.
-It frequented the fruit-bearing trees in company with
-various species of Pigeons and Mr. Claude Grant on one
-or two occasions observed pairs at what he took to be
-their nesting-holes high up in the bare trunks of very tall
-trees. Their heavy noisy flight and raucous call, continually
-repeated, renders these birds difficult to overlook.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>MEROPIDÆ</i>—BEE-EATERS.</h3>
-
-<p>A species of Bee-eater, <i>Merops ornata</i>, was common
-about the base camp. It ranges to Australia, the
-Moluccas and westwards to the Lesser Sunda group. Mr.
-Goodfellow says it swarmed in some places after the
-month of April; though previous to that date none had
-been met with.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>CORACIIDÆ</i>—ROLLERS.</h3>
-
-<p>Two species of Rollers inhabit the Mimika district
-<i>Eurystomus crassirostris</i>, a greenish-blue species with
-brilliant ultramarine throat, quills and tail-feathers and
-vermilion bill and feet; and a smaller species <i>E. australis</i>
-with brownish-green upper-parts, verditer-blue breast
-and bluish-green bases to the tail-feathers.</p>
-
-<p>Both Bee-eaters and Rollers were common in flocks
-along the banks of the Mimika during April and May
-when preying on the canary-coloured May-fly, which
-swarmed on the waters at that season.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>ALCEDINIDÆ</i>—KINGFISHERS.</h3>
-
-<p>Kingfishers were well represented in the Mimika
-district and Mr. Goodfellow says that the Sacred Kingfisher
-(<i>Halcyon sanctus</i>) was undoubtedly the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span>
-conspicuous bird about the base camp, where its harsh
-cry could be heard all through the hot hours of the day.
-The huts and storehouses were infested by myriads of
-black crickets, which take the place of the cockroaches
-found in other countries and commit fearful havoc
-among stores and personal possessions. The constant
-packing up of goods to send up river drove thousands of
-these insects to seek shelter in other parts of the camp,
-and, at such times, Kingfishers became very tame and
-darted in and out among the buildings, taking advantage
-of the feast thus afforded. Mr. Claude Grant shot a
-single specimen of the lovely Kingfisher <i>H. nigrocyanea</i>,
-the only one obtained. It has the crown, wings, upper
-tail-coverts, tail, and breast dark ultramarine blue, the
-rump cobalt-blue, the throat and a band across the
-breast pure white, and the remainder of the plumage
-black. Another species met with at the base camp was
-<i>H. macleayi</i> with purple head, wings and tail, verditer-blue
-back, white lores, collar and under-parts, and
-cinnamon flanks. Only one example of this fine bird was
-procured. Others were the dark purplish-blue and
-chestnut <i>Alcyone lessoni</i>, about the size of our Common
-Kingfisher and the much smaller <i>A. pusilla</i> similarly
-coloured above, but with the under-parts pure white.</p>
-
-<p><i>Ceyx solitaria</i>, a closely allied species, with purple
-spangled upper-parts and cinnamon-yellow under-parts
-was also found on the Mimika and Mr. Goodfellow was
-surprised to find this diminutive species which he had
-believed to be exclusively a fish-eater, greedily devouring
-a canary-coloured May-fly which swarmed on the waters
-of the Mimika during April and May.</p>
-
-<p>On the river a few specimens of the large “Jackass”
-Kingfisher (<i>Dacelo intermedia</i>) were obtained, but the
-species was by no means common. The most conspicuous
-bird was Gaudichaud’s Kingfisher (<i>Sauromarptis gaudichaudi</i>)
-and its loud grating call might be heard in all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span>
-directions. The adult is a very handsome bird, the black
-of the upper-parts being relieved by the electric-blue tips
-to the wing-coverts and feathers of the lower back and
-rump, the wings and tail are washed with dull purplish-blue,
-the throat is white and extends in a buff collar
-round the neck, the under wing-coverts are buff and the
-breast and rest of the under-parts deep chestnut. The
-natives brought numbers of the half-fledged young of
-this species to the base camp during May and June and
-many were purchased by the Javanese soldiers and
-convicts; but as they fed them on boiled rice only, their
-lives were brief. The great Shoe-billed Kingfisher
-(<i>Clytoceyx</i>) was not met with by the members of our
-Expedition, but Dr. Van Oort has described a new form
-which he calls <i>Clytoceyx rex imperator</i>, from a specimen
-procured by Dr. Lorentz on the Noord River. Another
-large species, <i>Melidora macrorhinus</i>, with a curious brown
-spotted plumage above was not uncommon; it usually
-frequented the lower branches and undergrowth within a
-few feet of the ground and when disturbed merely
-mounted to a more conspicuous perch.</p>
-
-<p>The lovely Racquet-tailed species of the genus
-<i>Tanysiptera</i> were not procured, though Dr. H. A.
-Lorentz met with a specimen on the Noord River.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILIES <i>PSITTACIDÆ</i> AND <i>LORIIDÆ</i>—PARROTS
-AND LORIES.</h3>
-
-<p>Another very numerously represented group is the
-Parrots of which twenty-two different species were
-procured, varying in size from the Great Black Cockatoo
-(<i>Microglossus aterrimus</i>), which is about the size of a
-Raven and has an enormously powerful bill, to the
-tiny Pygmy Parrot (<i>Nasiterna keiensis</i>) which is about
-the size of a Golden-crested Wren. This latter species
-has recently been described by Mr. Walter Rothschild
-as new, under the name of <i>Nasiterna viridipectus</i> from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span>
-specimens obtained by A. S. Meek in the Oetakwa district,
-but they do not seem to differ from the birds found
-on the Kei and Aru Islands and also in the neighbourhood
-of the Fly River. The plumage is green, paler
-below, the crown dull orange, the shoulders spotted
-with black, the middle-tail feathers blue and the outer
-pairs black with yellow and green tips. A few solitary
-Black Cockatoos might be seen on the lower River,
-sitting on the tops of the highest trees; their loud
-whistle always attracted attention and even on their
-high perches their red faces and erect crests were conspicuous.
-The Common Cockatoo of the country was
-<i>Cacatua triton</i>, a moderate sized species with a yellow
-crest which was met with in small numbers throughout
-the mangrove belt, but it was a shy bird and when
-approached always flew away, screaming. Lories of
-different kinds were numerous and included some of the
-most brilliantly coloured species, <i>Lorius erythrothorax</i>
-combining in its plumage black, crimson, scarlet, purple,
-blue, green and bright yellow. The adult has the under
-wing-coverts uniform scarlet in marked contrast to the
-bright yellow inner webs of the primary quills, but in
-younger birds the smaller under wing-coverts are mottled
-with scarlet, blue, black, green and yellow and the long
-outer series are yellow with greyish-black ends, making
-a dark band at the base of the quills. In this stage the
-bird has been described by Dr. A. B. Meyer as <i>Lorius
-salvadorii</i>.</p>
-
-<p>A less brilliantly coloured and more common species
-in the neighbourhood of the Mimika was <i>Eos fuscatus</i>
-which has the general colour above sooty-black shaded
-on the middle of the crown, neck, etc. with reddish-orange
-and the under-parts widely banded with scarlet.
-A lovely species with a longer tail was <i>Trichoglossus
-cyanogrammus</i> which is green with a blue face and greenish-yellow
-collar, and has the scarlet chest-feathers edged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span>
-with purple, while the belly and flanks are yellow barred
-with green.</p>
-
-<p>The tiniest Lory is <i>Loriculus meeki</i>, a minute species,
-about the size of a Blue Titmouse, with brilliant green
-plumage, orange-yellow forehead, and the rump and
-upper tail-coverts as well as a spot on the throat scarlet.
-The female differs in having the forehead and cheeks
-verditer-green.</p>
-
-<p>The genus <i>Geoffroyus</i> is represented by two species:
-the commoner <i>G. aruensis</i> with the plumage green, the
-male having the crown and nape violet-blue and the
-rest of the head and neck scarlet, while in the female
-these parts are brown; also the much rarer <i>G. simplex</i>
-which is entirely green with a dull lilac blue ring round the
-neck. This latter is a very rare bird in collections, but
-was seen on the higher parts of the mountains above the
-Iwaka River in flocks of upwards of twenty individuals.</p>
-
-<p>Other small and brilliantly coloured species of Lories
-are <i>Charmosynopsis pulchella</i> and <i>C. multistriata</i>, the
-latter a remarkable new species with green plumage, and
-the whole of the under-parts streaked with bright yellow.
-It was recently described by Mr. Rothschild from a male,
-shot by A. S. Meek on the Oetakwa River; a second
-specimen, a female, was obtained on the Mimika by
-Mr. Goodfellow. We must also mention <i>Chalcopsittacus
-scintillans</i>, <i>Hypocharmosyna placens</i>, <i>Charmosyna josephinæ</i>,
-the rare <i>Glossopsittacus goldiei</i>, and three species
-of <i>Cyclopsittacus</i>, viz. <i>C. melanogenys</i>, which is green
-with a white throat, black cheeks, deep orange breast,
-and ultramarine wings; <i>C. diophthalmus</i>; and <i>C. godmani</i>,
-a new and handsome species with the general
-colour green, the head and nape orange-scarlet, the
-upper mantle orange-yellow, the cheeks covered with
-long, pointed, yellowish feathers, and the chest verditer-blue.</p>
-
-<p>Behind the camp at Wakatimi lay a swamp which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span>
-Mr. Goodfellow tells us was every night the roosting-place
-of thousands of Lories, chiefly <i>Eos fuscatus</i>, and
-there were also smaller flocks of <i>Trichoglossus cyanogrammus</i>.
-Long before sunset and until it was quite
-dusk flocks of many hundred birds coming from all
-directions flew over with a deafening noise. Often some
-weak branch would give way under their weight, causing
-a panic just as the noise was beginning to subside, and
-clouds of these birds would again circle around, seeking
-a fresh roosting place and keeping up a continual din.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most peculiar Parrots, and bearing a
-marked external resemblance to the Kea of New Zealand,
-is the Vulturine Parrot (<i>Dasyptilus pesqueti</i>) which has
-the black skin of the face almost entirely bare, the
-plumage black and scarlet on the wings, rump and belly,
-the breast feathers having pale sandy margins. Its
-hoarse, grating call, quite unlike that of any other
-species, could be heard a long way off, and was continually
-uttered when on the wing. Mr. Goodfellow
-says it usually moves about in parties of four or five
-individuals, and that occasionally as many as seven may
-be seen together. When not feeding they always select
-the tallest trees to rest in, preferring dead ones which
-tower about the general level of the jungle, and in
-which they remain for hours at a time in rain or sunshine.
-They do not climb after the usual manner of
-Parrots, but jump from branch to branch with a jerky
-movement, like the Lories, and with a rapid flicking
-movement of the wings. They feed entirely on soft
-fruits, chiefly wild figs. Apparently the species feeds on
-the plains and retires to the mountains to roost, for
-every evening flocks or pairs were observed passing high
-over the camp at Parimau, and making their way
-towards the Saddle-peak range.</p>
-
-<p>A handsome new Parroquet of the genus <i>Aprosmictus</i>
-was discovered, and has been named <i>A. wilhelminæ</i>, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span>
-honour of the Queen of Holland. The male has the
-head, neck and under-parts scarlet, the wings green, with
-a pale yellow green band across the coverts, the mantle
-and back mostly deep purplish-blue, and the tail black
-tinged with purplish.</p>
-
-<p>Finally, the Eclectus Parrot (<i>Eclectus pectoralis</i>) was
-common. The remarkable difference in the colouration
-of the sexes might lead some to believe that they belonged
-to quite different species, the male being mostly green
-with scarlet sides and under wing-coverts, while the
-female is maroon with the head, neck and breast scarlet,
-and the mantle, belly, sides and under wing-coverts blue.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILIES <i>BUBONIDÆ</i> AND <i>STRIGIDÆ</i>—WOOD-OWLS AND
-BARN-OWLS.</h3>
-
-<p>The only Owl of which examples were obtained was
-a small species of Brown Hawk-Owl (<i>Ninox theomaca</i>),
-with the upper-parts, back, wings and tail uniform dark
-brown, and the under-parts deep chestnut. It was a
-strictly nocturnal species, and confined to the jungle along
-the base of the mountains, where its weird double call
-“yon-yon” might constantly be heard after dark.</p>
-
-<p>A form of the Barn-Owl (<i>Strix novæ-hollandiæ</i>),
-which occurs in the district, was not obtained by the
-Expedition.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>FALCONIDÆ</i>—EAGLES AND HAWKS.</h3>
-
-<p>New Guinea possesses a very remarkable Harpy-Eagle
-(<i>Harpyopsis novæ-guineæ</i>) allied to the Harpy Eagles of
-America and to the Great Monkey-eating Eagle (<i>Pithecophaga
-jefferyi</i>) which inhabits the forests of the Philippine
-Islands. The New Guinea bird is like a large
-Goshawk, having a long tail and comparatively short and
-rounded wings; the feet are armed with very powerful
-claws, but in strength and power it is far inferior to its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span>
-great Philippine ally or to the still more powerful species
-inhabiting Central America. Mr. Claude Grant says that
-this species was seldom met with; it has a rather loud
-cry and a beautiful soaring flight, often in ascending
-circles. Besides this large Eagle, two species of Goshawk
-<i>Astur etorques</i> and <i>A. poliocephalus</i> were met with, likewise
-a small chestnut and white Brahminy Kite (<i>Haliastur
-girrenera</i>). A small Sparrow-Hawk was obtained near
-the mouth of the Mimika River, but being in immature
-plumage its identification is at present uncertain. Reinwardt’s
-Cuckoo-Falcon (<i>Baza reinwardti</i>) with a crested
-head and banded breast, was rather a rare bird and
-appears to feed largely on insects.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>PHALACROCORACIDÆ</i>—CORMORANTS.</h3>
-
-<p>The small black-backed white-breasted species <i>Phalacrocorax
-melanoleucus</i> is the only representative of this
-group. Several specimens were shot on the upper waters
-of the Mimika, at Parimau and at the base camp at
-Wakatimi.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>ANATIDÆ</i>—DUCKS.</h3>
-
-<p>The handsome white-necked Sheld-duck (<i>Tadorna
-radjah</i>) differs from the Australian form in being much
-darker on the back, the plumage being practically black
-with indistinct mottlings of dull rufous on the mantle.
-This dark form, found also in the Moluccas, was common
-about the mouth of the Mimika River. The more rufous-backed
-Australian form has been named <i>T. rufitergum</i> by
-Dr. Hartert.</p>
-
-<p>The only other species of duck brought home was an
-immature male Garganey (<i>Querquedula discors</i>) shot on
-the Kapare River.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>IBIDIDÆ</i>—IBISES.</h3>
-
-<p>The Eastern form of the Sacred Ibis (<i>Ibis stictipennis</i>)
-was met with at the mouth of the Mimika. It is easily
-distinguished from its western ally by having the innermost
-secondaries mottled with black and white.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>ARDEIDÆ</i>—HERONS.</h3>
-
-<p>Several different species of Herons were procured including
-the Night Heron (<i>Nycticorax caledonica</i>); the
-Yellow-necked Heron (<i>Dupetor flavicollis</i>); the White
-Heron (<i>Herodias timoriensis</i>); and a Tiger-Bittern
-(<i>Tigrisoma heliosylus</i>). The last named is a very fine bird
-with the general colour above black boldly barred with
-rufous and buff; the under-parts buff barred on the neck
-and chest with black. The feathers on the neck and
-chest are very long and broad and no doubt form a most
-imposing ruff when the bird is displaying.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILIES <i>ŒDICNEMIDÆ</i>, <i>CHARADRIIDÆ</i> AND <i>LARIDÆ</i>—STONE-PLOVERS,
-PLOVERS, AND GULLS.</h3>
-
-<p>A number of small wading birds were also procured
-near the mouth of the river, and two species of Terns,
-but as all belong to well-known, widely distributed species,
-there is no special interest attaching to them. I may
-however mention that the great Australian Curlew
-(<i>Numenius cyanopus</i>), and the large Australian Thicknee
-(<i>Esacus magnirostris</i>) were among the species found at
-the mouth of the Mimika.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>RALLIDÆ</i>—RAILS.</h3>
-
-<p>The only Rail met with was an example of <i>Rallina
-tricolor</i> which has the head, neck and chest bright chestnut,
-and the rest of the plumage dark brown with white
-bars on the wing-feathers. It is also met with in some
-of the Papuan Islands and in North-eastern Australia.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>COLUMBIDÆ</i>—PIGEONS.</h3>
-
-<p>Pigeons were very numerously represented, no fewer
-than twenty-six different species being obtained by
-the Expedition. Some of the smaller forms are among
-the most beautifully coloured birds met with in New
-Guinea. The Crowned Pigeons (Goura) are represented
-by <i>G. sclateri</i> which was fairly common near the base
-camp and met with in all places visited by the Expedition.
-In spite of the numbers shot for food during the
-whole time the Expedition remained in the country,
-the supply did not appear to diminish. This fine Pigeon
-and a few others afforded the only fresh meat to be had.
-On the canoe-journeys up the river Sclater’s Goura was
-frequently met with in the early mornings in parties of
-two or three searching for aquatic life along the muddy
-banks. When disturbed they did not immediately take
-flight, but with raised wings pirouetted around for a few
-seconds and then flew to the nearest high tree. Mr.
-Goodfellow found the remains of small crabs in their
-stomachs and a large percentage of the birds shot were
-infested by a small red parasite, the same, or similar to
-that which is known in other parts of New Guinea as
-“Scrub-itch.”</p>
-
-<p>Another very handsome bird is the Ground-Pigeon
-(<i>Otidiphaps nobilis</i>) with the head bluish-black, the nape
-dull metallic green, the mantle and wings purplish-chestnut
-and the rest of the plumage deep purple, all being
-more or less metallic. Its long legs and the upward
-carriage of its long tail give it much the appearance of a
-Bantam hen. It was fairly common, but being extremely
-shy was rarely met with.</p>
-
-<p>Among the larger Fruit-Pigeons we must specially
-mention <i>Carpophaga pinon</i> which has the general appearance
-of a large Wood-Pigeon. It was met with in large
-flocks and proved an excellent bird for the table. Another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span>
-very striking species, of rather lesser proportions and
-very much rarer, was Muller’s Fruit-Pigeon (<i>Carpophaga
-mulleri</i>) easily distinguished by its white throat, the bold
-black ring round its neck and its shining chestnut mantle.
-Among the handsomest was <i>Carpophaga rufiventris</i>, a
-bird with the breast cinnamon and the wings and back
-metallic green, copper and purple. Lastly a very striking
-form was the large creamy-white Pigeon (<i>Myristicivora
-spilorrhoa</i>) with the flight feathers, tips of the tail-feathers
-and under tail-coverts blackish. It appears
-to be entirely confined to the mangrove swamps and was
-observed breeding in May along the creeks near the
-mouth of the river, no less than seven nests being found
-in one tree.</p>
-
-<p>As already stated among the smaller Fruit-Pigeons
-many are very beautifully marked and brilliantly
-coloured, but always with the most harmonious shades.
-It would seem as though Nature had almost exhausted
-her scheme of colouration in dealing with some of these
-birds; for we find two totally different species, <i>Ptilopus
-zonurus</i> and <i>P. gestroi</i>, occurring together in which the
-markings and colours of the plumage are almost identical;
-on the under-surface the two species are practically alike,
-both have the chin and throat pale lavender, extending
-in a ring round the neck, the throat orange, the chest
-washed with vinous and the remainder of the under-parts
-green; on the upper-surface, the top of the head and
-nape are greenish-yellow and the rest of the upper-parts
-green, but in <i>P. zonurus</i> the median wing-coverts are
-green with a subterminal spot of bright pink, while in
-<i>P. gestroi</i> the least wing-coverts are crimson and the
-next series grey fringed with greenish-yellow. Another
-parallel case of close resemblance is found between the
-small <i>Ptilopus nanus</i> and the larger <i>P. coronulatus</i>.
-Though really extremely distinct species the under-parts
-are very similarly coloured both being green with a bright<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span>
-magenta patch on the middle of the breast and the belly
-and under-tail coverts mostly bright yellow: viewed
-from the upper surface the two birds are, however, very
-different, <i>P. coronulatus</i> having the crown lilac-pink,
-edged posteriorly with bands of crimson and yellow,
-while <i>P. nanus</i> has the head green, but the ends of the
-scapulars and secondaries are deep shining bluish-green,
-tipped with bright yellow. Even more brilliantly
-coloured species than the above are <i>Ptilopus pulchellus</i>,
-<i>P. superbus</i>, <i>P. aurantiifrons</i> and <i>P. bellus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Near the camp at Wataikwa large flocks of D’Albertis’
-Pigeon (<i>Gymnophaps albertisii</i>) were observed coming in
-every evening from their feeding-grounds on the high
-mountains to roost on the plains below. Mr. Goodfellow
-tells us that their flight is extremely rapid and that their
-strange aerial evolutions remind one of the common
-“Tumbler” Pigeons.</p>
-
-<p>The Long-tailed Cuckoo-Doves were represented
-by the very large <i>Reinwardtœnas griseotincta</i> and the
-smaller chestnut-plumaged <i>Macropygia griseinucha</i>; the
-former being a large and abnormally long-tailed bird
-with the head, mantle and under-parts grey, and the
-back and tail chestnut.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>MEGAPODIIDÆ</i>—MEGAPODES OR MOUND-BUILDERS.</h3>
-
-<p>The Game-birds are represented by three species of
-Mound-builders, two being Brush-Turkeys and the other
-a true Megapode (<i>Megapodius freycineti</i>). The fact that
-two closely allied species of Brush-Turkeys are found in
-the same district is of considerable interest. The common
-species of the country <i>Talegallus fuscirostris</i> has a very
-wide coastal range, being also found in S.E. New
-Guinea and extending along the north coast to the
-middle of Geelvinck Bay. The other species <i>T. cuvieri</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span>
-is of western origin being hitherto known from the Arfak
-Peninsula, and the islands of Salwatti, Mysol and Gilolo.
-Its occurrence on the Iwaka river was quite unexpected
-and no doubt the range of the two species overlap in the
-neighbourhood of the Mimika in the south and in the
-vicinity of Rubi on Geelvinck Bay in the north. In
-both the plumage is black, but <i>T. cuvieri</i> is a larger bird
-than <i>T. fuscirostris</i> and is easily recognised by having
-the tibia feathered right down to the tibio-tarsal joint
-and the bill orange-red instead of sooty-brown.</p>
-
-<p>All these species are of the greatest interest on
-account of their remarkable nesting habits, and their
-nesting mounds of decaying vegetable matter were
-conspicuous objects in the jungle. The eggs, which are
-very large for the size of the birds, are buried among
-the débris which the birds rake together into a large
-heap, the young being hatched, as in an incubator, by the
-warmth of the decaying leaves. The parent bird, after
-burying its eggs, takes no further notice of them, but the
-young on leaving the shell are fully feathered and able
-to fly and take care of themselves.</p>
-
-<h3>FAMILY <i>CASUARIIDÆ</i>—CASSOWARIES.</h3>
-
-<p>The discovery made by Mr. Walter Goodfellow that
-two distinct forms of two-wattled Cassowary occur side
-by side on the Mimika River has greatly modified Mr.
-Rothschild’s views on the classification of the genus, and
-he now finds that the ten forms possessing two wattles,
-when placed side by side fall naturally into two groups,
-one consisting of the Common Cassowary (<i>Casuarius
-casuarius</i>), divisible into six sub-species or races, and
-the other of <i>C. bicarunculatus</i> which may be divided
-into four sub-species. The large forms found on the
-Mimika are <i>C. sclateri</i>, representing the first group, and
-<i>C. intensus</i> representing the second. Both these birds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span>
-have a large elevated casque or helmet and differ chiefly
-in the pattern and colouration of the bare neck-wattles.</p>
-
-<p>These Cassowaries were seen at various times searching
-for food in the pools and shallow waters of the
-river-beds, and during the cross-country marches would
-sometimes dash across the trail, affording but a momentary
-glimpse.</p>
-
-<p>The natives have distinct names for the male and
-female birds and judging from the quantities of feathers
-in their possession must often succeed in capturing them.
-Eggs and newly-hatched chicks were brought in during
-January and February. On one occasion at Parimau
-some eggs must have been kept by the natives for a few
-days before they hatched, for young were brought to the
-camp which had evidently just emerged from the shells.</p>
-
-<p>A very interesting discovery was made by Mr. Claude
-Grant on the foot-hills, where he met with a new dwarf
-species of Cassowary, <i>C. claudii</i>. It is allied to <i>C. papuanus</i>,
-but has the hind part of the crown and occiput
-black instead of white. Like that bird it has a low
-triangular casque and belongs to a different section of
-the genus from the two larger species already mentioned.</p>
-
-<p><i>C. claudii</i> has very brilliantly coloured soft parts.
-The occiput and sides of the head are entirely black;
-between the gape and the ear is a patch of deep plum-colour;
-the upper half of the back of the neck is electric-blue,
-shading into violet-blue on the sides and fore-part
-of the neck including the throat; the lower half of the
-back of the neck is orange-chrome, this colour extending
-down the upper margin of a bare magenta-coloured area
-situated on each side of the feathered part of the neck.
-This fine bird is now mounted and on exhibition in the
-Bird Gallery at the Natural History Museum.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 class="indent">LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PAPERS RELATING TO THE BIRDS
-OF NEW GUINEA, INCLUDING THE KEI AND ARU
-ISLANDS.</h3>
-
-<table summary="PRINCIPAL PAPERS" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1875-88.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Gould.</i> Birds of New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands.
-(Completed by R. B. Sharpe) (1875-88).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1880-82<br />&amp;&nbsp;1889-91.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molluche. Vols. I-III.
-      (1880-82). Aggiunte, pts. I.-III. (1889-91).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1883.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ramsay.</i> Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. VIII. pp. 15-29 (1883).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1884.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sharpe.</i> Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. XVII. pp. 405-408 (1884).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Zeit. Ges. Orn 1. pp. 269-296, pls. XIV.-XVIII. (1884).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1885.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch and Meyer.</i> Zeit. ges. Orn. II. pp. 369-391, pls. XV.-XXII. (1885).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Guillemard.</i> P.Z.S. 1885, pp. 615-665, pl. XXXIX.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1886.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Monat. Schutze Vogelw. 1886, pp. 85-88, pl.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> P.Z.S. 1886, pp. 297-298.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch and Meyer.</i> Zeit. ges. Orn. III. pp. 1-29, pls. I.-VI. (1886).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Zeit. ges. Orn. III. pp. 30-38 (1886).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ibis 1886, pp. 151-155.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1887.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ramsay.</i> Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2) II. pp. 239-240 (1887).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Bartlett.</i> P.Z.S. 1887, p. 392.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Oustalet.</i> Le Nat. I. pp. 180-182 (1887).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1888.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Reisen in Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und Englisch New-Guinea
-in dem Jahren 1884 u. 1885 an Bord des Deutschen Damfers<br />
-“Samoa.” Leipsig, 1888.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Cabanis.</i> J.f.O. 1888, p. 119.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1889.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Cabanis.</i> J.f.O. 1889, p. 62, pls. 1 &amp; 2.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> J.f.O. 1889, pp. 321-326.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland VI. pp. 245-248 (1889).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1890.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> British New Guinea. Report of the Administration for the
-period 4th Sept. 1888 to 30th June, 1889.<br />
-App. G. Report on Birds from British New Guinea, pp. 105-116 (1890).<br />
-(Reprinted, Ibis 1891, pp. 25-41).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Goodwin.</i> Ibis 1890, pp. 150-156.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Ibis 1890, p. 412, pl. XII.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvad.</i> Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) IX. pp. 554-592 (1890).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1891.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Oustalet.</i> Le Nat. V. pp. 260-261 (1891).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sclater.</i> Ibis 1891, p. 414, pl. X.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Abh. Zool. Mus. Dresden 1891, No. 4, pp. 1-17.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1891-98.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sharpe.</i> Monogr. <i>Paradiseidæ</i> and <i>Ptilonorhynchidæ</i> (1891-98)</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1892.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Ann. Queensland Mus. II. pp. 4-11 (1892).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Annual Report Brit. New Guinea, 1890-91. App. CC.
-pp. 93-97. pl. (1892).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvad.</i> Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) X. pp. 797-834 (1892).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> J.f.O. 1892, pp. 254-266.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Crowley.</i> Bull. B.O.C. 1. p. XVI. (1892).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1893.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Abh. Zool. Mus. Dres. 1892-93, No. 3. pp. 1-33, pls. 1 &amp; 2.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Oustalet.</i> Nouv. Archiv. Mus. Paris, (3) IV. pp. 218-220, pl. XV.;
-V. pp. 295-299, pl. VI.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sclater.</i> Ibis 1893, pp. 243-246, pl. VII. text fig.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch.</i> Ibis 1893, pp. 463-464.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Ibis 1893, pp. 481-483, pl. XIII.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1894.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Annual Report, Brit. New Guinea, 1894, pp. 99-105.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvad.</i> Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) XIV. pp. 150-152 (1894).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Bull. B.O.C. IV. pp. VI., VII., XI., XII. (1894).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1894.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span></td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. IV. p. XI. (1894).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sharpe.</i> Bull. B.O.C. IV. pp. XII.-XV. (1894).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Reichenow.</i> Orn. Monatsb. II. p. 22 (1894).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Abh. Zool. Mus. Dres. 1894-95. No. 2. pp. 1-4. pl. (1894).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Büttikofer.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XVI. pp. 161-165 (1894).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Mead.</i> Amer. Natural. XXVIII. pp. 915-920. pls. XXIX.-XXXI.
-(1894).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1895.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Bull. B.O.C. IV. p. XVII. (1895).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Abh. Zool. Mus. Dres. 1894-95, no. 5. pp. 1-11. pls. 1 &amp; 2.
-No. 10. pp. 1-2, pl. I. figs. 1-4 (1895).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. II. pp. 22, 59, 480, pls. III. &amp; V. (1895).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. II. p. 67 (1895).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. IV. pp. XXI., XXVI., XLII. (1895).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Bull. B.O.C. V. p. XV. (1895).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Mead.</i> Amer. Natural. XXIX. pp. 1-9, 409-417, 627-636, 1056-1065,
-pl. VII. (1895).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sanyal.</i> P.Z.S. 1895, pp. 541-542.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Oustalet.</i> Bull. Mus. Paris. 1895, pp. 47-50.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sclater.</i> Ibis 1895, pp. 343, 344, pl. VIII.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1896.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild and Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. III., pp. 8, 252, 530, 534, pl. I.
-(1896).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. III., pp. 10-19 (1896).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. (2) XVI., pp. 55-120 (1896).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Bull. B.O.C. V. p. XXII. (1896).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. VI. pp. XV.-XVI. (1896).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Oustalet.</i> Nouv. Archiv. Mus. Paris (3) VIII. pp. 263-267, pls. XIV.
-&amp; XV. (1896).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1897.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. VI. pp. XV., XVI., XXIV., XXV., XL.,
-XLV., LIV. (1897).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. VII. pp. XXI.-XXII. (1897).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Reichenow.</i> Orn. Monatsb. V. pp. 24-26, 161, 178, 179 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Kleinschmidt.</i> Orn. Monatsb. V. p. 46 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Kleinschmidt.</i> J.f.O. 1897, pp. 174-178, text-fig.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Reichenow.</i> J.f.O. 1897, pp. 201-224, pls. V. &amp; VI.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. IV. p. 169, pl. II. fig. 2 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. IV. p. 396 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Ibis 1897, pp. 250-252, 371-392, pl. VII.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Madarasz.</i> Termes, Füzetek XX. pp. 17-54, pls. 1 &amp; 2 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Mead.</i> Amer. Natural. XXXI. pp. 204-210 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1898.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Bull. B.O.C. VIII. pp. VIII. &amp; IX. (1898).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. VIII. p. XIV. (1898).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Das Tierreich <i>Paradiseidæ</i>, 52 pp. Berlin, 1898.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Annual Report, New Guinea, App. AA. Report on birds for
-1896-97, pp. 81-90 (1898).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XX. pp. 129-136 (1898).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. V. pp. 84-87, 418, 509, 513, pl. XVIII. (1898).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Reichenow.</i> J.f.O. 1898, pp. 124-128, pl. 1.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Caley-Webster.</i> Through New Guinea and the Cannibal Countries.
-Appendices on birds by Messrs. Rothschild and Hartert (1898).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1899.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) XIX. pp. 578-582 (1899).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. VI. pp. 75 &amp; 218, pls. II. &amp; III. (1899).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. VI. p. 219, pl. IV. (1899).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Madarasz.</i> Termes, Füzetek. XXII. pp. 375-428, pls. XV.-XVII.
-(1899).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1900.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXII. pp. 49-69 &amp; 70 (1900).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. X. pp. C. CI. (1900).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XI. pp. 25, 26, 30 (1900).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Madarasz.</i> Orn. Monatsb. VIII. pp. 1-4 (1900).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Renshaw.</i> Nature Notes XI. pp. 164-167 (1900).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Currie.</i> P.U.S. Nat. Mus. XXII. pp. 497-499, pl. XVII. (1900).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1900.<span class="pagenum">301</span></td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Le Souëf.</i> Ibis 1900, pp. 612, 617, text-fig. 1.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1901.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XII. p. 34 (1901).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Reichenow.</i> Orn. Monatsb. IX. pp. 185-186 (1901).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Madarasz.</i> Termes Füzetek, XXIV. p. 73 (1901).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. VIII. pp. 1, 93 (1901).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild and Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. VIII. pp. 53, 102, pls. II.-IV.
-(1901).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1902.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Weiske.</i> Ein Beitrag zur Naturgeschichte der Laubenvogel. Monat.
-Schutze Vogelw. XXVII. pp. 41-45 (1902).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sclater.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIII. p. 23 (1902).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1903.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIII. p. 32 (1903).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch.</i> Orn. Monatsb. XI. p. 167 (1903).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Renshaw.</i> Avicult. Mag. (2) II. pp. 26-27, fig. (1903).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild and Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. X. pp. 65-89, pl. I. 196-231,
-435-480, pls. XIII. &amp; XIV. (1903).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. X. pp. 232-254 (1903).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1904.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIV. pp. 38-40 (1904).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIV. p. 40 (1904).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1905.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Ibis 1905, pp. 429-440, pl. VIII. text-figs. 22-26.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Pycraft.</i> Ibis 1905, pp. 440-453.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sharpe.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XV. p. 91 (1905).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ibis 1905, pp. 401-429, 535-542.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1905-10.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> In Wytsman, Genera Avium. Psittaci, pts. 5, 11, &amp; 12
-(1905-1910).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1906.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ibis, 1906, pp. 124-131, 326-333; 451-465, 642-659.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIX. pp. 7-8, 27 (1906).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Foerster and Rothschild.</i> Two new birds of Paradise Zool. Mus. Tring.
-3 pp. Tring. 1st October, 1906.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXVIII. p. 129-130 (1906).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIX. p. 39 (1906).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>North.</i> Vict. Nat. XXII. pp. 147, 156-8, pl. (1906).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1907.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ibis 1907, pp. 122-151; 311-322.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ingram, (Sir W.).</i> Ibis 1907, pp. 225-229, pl. V. text-figs. 8 &amp; 9.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Simpson.</i> Ibis 1907, pp. 380-387, text-figs.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild and Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. XIV. pp. 433, 447 (1907).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. XIV. p. 504, pls. V.-VII. (1907).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXI. p. 25 (1907).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXI. p. 26 (1907).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>North.</i> Vict. Nat. XXIV. p. 136 (1907).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ingram</i>, (C.). Avicult. Mag. (2) V. p. 364, pl. (1907).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Le Souëf.</i> Emu. VI. p. 119-120 (1907).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1908.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXIX. pp. 170-180, 2 pls. pp. 204-206
-1 pl. (1908).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXX. pp. 127-128 (1908).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. XV. p. 392 (1908).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sharpe.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXI. p. 67 (1908).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXIII. p. 7 (1908).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Goodfellow.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXIII. pp. 35-39 (1908).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1909.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Beaufort.</i> Nova Guinea V. Zoologie Livr. 3, pp. 389-420 (1909).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Nova Guinea IX., Zoologie Livr. 1. Birds from South-western
-and Southern New Guinea, pp. 51-107, pl. III. (1909).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXX. pp. 225-244 (1909).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Horsbrugh</i>, (C. B.). Ibis, 1909, pp. 197-213.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sassi.</i> J.f.O. 1909, pp. 365-383.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Nehrkorn.</i> Orn. Monatsb. XVII. p. 44 (1909).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Astley.</i> Avicult. Mag. (2) VII. pp. 156-158 (1909).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1910.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXXII. pp. 78-82, 211-216 (1910).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Madarasz.</i> Ann. Hist. Nat. Mus. Nat. Hung. Budapest VIII., pp. 172-174,
-pl. II. (1910).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Goodfellow.</i> Avicult. Mag. (3) 1, pp. 277-286 (1910).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1910.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span></td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXVII. p. 10 (1910).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXVII. pp. 13, 35, 36, 45 (1910).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. XVII. p. 484, pl. X. (eggs) (1910).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1911.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Ibis 1911, pp. 350-367, pls. V. &amp; VI.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild and Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. XVIII. pp. 159-167 (1911).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXVII. pp. 66, 68, 83, 84 (1911).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1912.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Ibis 1912, pp. 109-112, pl. II.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Ibis 1912, pp. 112-118, pl. III.</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. XVIII. p. 604. pls. VII. &amp; VIII. (1912).</p></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXIX. pp. 50-52 (1912).</p></td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>APPENDIX B</h2>
-
-<h3>THE PYGMY QUESTION</h3>
-
-<p class="center f09"><span class="smcap">By Dr. A. C. HADDON, F.R.S.</span></p>
-
-<p>Pygmies, as their name implies, are very short men,
-and the first question to decide is whether this short
-stature is normal or merely a dwarfing due to unfavourable
-environment. Although stature cannot be taken as
-a trustworthy criterion of race, since it is very variable
-within certain limits among most races, there are certain
-peoples who may be described as normally tall, medium,
-or short. The average human stature appears to be
-about 1·675 m. (5 ft. 6 ins.). Those peoples who are
-1·725 (5 ft. 8 ins.) or more in height are said to be tall,
-those below 1·625 m. (5 ft. 4 ins.) are short, while those
-who fall below 1·5 m. (4 ft. 11 ins.) are now usually
-termed pygmies. One has only to turn to the investigations
-of the Dordogne district by Collignon and others to
-see how profoundly <i>la misère</i> can affect the stature of a
-population living under adverse conditions, for example
-in the canton of Saint Mathieu there are 8·8 per cent.
-with a stature below 1·5 m. But when one finds within
-one area, as in the East Indian region, distinct peoples
-of medium, short and pygmy stature, living under conditions
-which appear to be very similar, one is inclined
-to suspect a racial difference between them, and the
-suspicion becomes confirmed if we find other characters
-associated with pygmy stature.</p>
-
-<p>Pygmy peoples are widely distributed in Central<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span>
-Africa, but these Negrillos, as they are often termed, do
-not concern us now.</p>
-
-<p>Asiatic pygmies have long been known, but it is only
-comparatively recently that they have been studied
-seriously, and even now there remains much to be
-discovered about them. There are two main stocks on
-the eastern border of the Indian Ocean, who have a very
-short stature and are respectively characterised by curly
-or wavy hair and by hair that grows in close small spirals—the
-so-called woolly hair.</p>
-
-<p>(i.) The Sakai or Senoi of the southern portion of the
-Malay Peninsula are typical examples of the former
-stock, their average stature is slightly above the pygmy
-limit, but they need not detain us longer as they belong
-to a different race of mankind from the woolly-haired
-stock. It may be mentioned however that cymotrichous
-(curly-haired), dolichocephalic (narrow-headed), dark-skinned
-peoples of very short stature, racially akin to the
-Sakai, have been found in East Sumatra and in Celebes
-(Toala) more or less mixed with alien blood; and quite
-recently Moszkowski, as will be mentioned later, has
-suggested that the islands of Geelvink Bay, Netherlands
-New Guinea, were originally inhabited by the same stock.
-All these peoples together with the Vedda and some
-jungle tribes of the Deccan are now regarded as remnants
-of a once widely distributed race to which the term Pre-Dravidian
-has been applied; it is also believed by many
-students that the chief element in the Australians is of
-similar origin.</p>
-
-<p>(ii.) For a long time it has been known that there are
-three groups of ulotrichous (woolly-haired), brachycephalic
-(broad-headed), dark-skinned, pygmy peoples
-inhabiting respectively the Andaman Islands, the Malay
-Peninsula and the Philippines; to this race the name
-Negrito is universally applied. We can now include in
-it a fourth element from New Guinea. The physical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span>
-characters of these several groups may be summarised as
-follows:</p>
-
-<p>1. The <span class="smcap">Andamanese</span>, who are sometimes erroneously
-called Mincopies, inhabit the Andaman Islands in
-the Bay of Bengal. Their head <i>hair</i> is extremely
-frizzly (woolly), fine in texture, lustreless and seldom
-more than two or three inches long, or five inches when
-untwisted, its colour varies between black, greyish
-black, and sooty, the last perhaps predominating. Hair
-only occasionally grows on the face and then but
-scantily. There is little or no hair over the surface of
-the body. The <i>skin</i> has several shades of colour between
-bronze or dark copper, sooty, and black, the predominating
-colour being a dull leaden hue like that of a black-leaded
-stove. The average <i>stature</i> of 48 males is 1·492 m.
-(4 ft. 10-3/4 ins.), the extremes being 1·365 m. (4 ft. 5-3/4 ins.)
-and 1·632 m. (5 ft. 4-1/4 ins.). The <i>head</i> is moderately
-brachycephalic, the average <i>cranial index</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the ratio
-of the breadth to the length, the length being taken as
-100) in male skulls is 81, thus the <i>cephalic index</i> of the
-living would be about 83. The <i>features</i> may be described
-as: face broad at the cheek-bones; eyes prominent;
-nose much sunken at the root, straight and small; lips
-full but not everted; chin small; the jaws do not
-project.</p>
-
-<p>2. The <span class="smcap">Semang</span> live in the central region of the
-Malay Peninsula, some of them are known under the
-names of Udai, Pangan, Hami and Semán. The <i>hair</i>
-of the head is short, universally woolly, and black.
-Skeat says it is of a brownish black, not a bluish black
-like that of the Malays, and Martin alludes to a reddish
-shimmer when light falls on it, but says there is not a
-brownish shimmer as in the Sakai. Hair is rare and
-scanty on face and body. Skeat describes the <i>skin</i>
-colour as dark chocolate brown approximating in some
-Kedah Negritos to glossy black, and Martin says the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span>
-skin of the chest is dark brown with reddish tinges,
-while that of the face is mainly dark brown, the remainder
-being medium brown, with reddish or pure
-brown tinges. The data for the <i>stature</i> are not very
-satisfactory, the best are a series of 17 males by Annandale
-and Robinson, the average being 1·528 m.
-(5 ft. 0-1/4 in.), with extreme, of 1·372 m. (4 ft. 6 ins.) and
-1·604 (5 ft. 3 ins.). The average <i>cephalic index</i> is
-about 78 or 79, the extremes ranging from about 74 to
-about 84. The Semang are thus mesaticephalic on the
-average. According to Skeat the <i>face</i> is round; the
-forehead rounded, narrow and projecting, or as it were
-“swollen”; the nose short and flattened, the nostrils
-much distended, the breadth remarkably great, five
-adult males having an average nasal index of 101·2, the
-20 measured by Annandale and Robinson varied from
-81·3 to 108·8 with an average of 97·1, but four men
-measured by Martin had an average index of 83·5. The
-cheek-bones are broad; jaws often protrude slightly; lips
-not as a rule thick, Martin remarks that very characteristic
-of both the Semang and the Sakai is the great
-thickening of the integumental part of the upper lip,
-the whole mouth region projecting from the lower edge
-of the nose; this convexity occurs in 70 per cent., and
-is well shown in his photographs.</p>
-
-<p>3. The <span class="smcap">Aeta</span> live in the mountainous districts of
-the larger islands and in some of the smaller islands
-of the Philippines. It is convenient to retain this name
-for the variously named groups of Philippine Negritos,
-many of whom show admixture with other peoples.
-The <i>hair</i> of the head is universally woolly except when
-mixture may be suspected or is known; Reed says it is
-uniformly of a dirty black colour, sometimes sunburnt
-on the top to reddish brown; Worcester describes it as
-usually black but it may be reddish brown, and Meyer as
-a dark seal-brown to black. Reed says that the beard is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span>
-very scanty but all adult males have some and that
-there is very little body hair, but Worcester states that
-the men often have abundant beards and a thick growth
-of hair on the arms, chest and legs. The <i>skin</i> is described
-as being of a dark chocolate brown, rather than
-black, with a yellowish tinge on the exposed parts
-(Reed), sooty black (Sawyer), or dark, sooty brown
-(Worcester). The average <i>stature</i> of 48 men is 1·463 m.
-(4 ft. 9-1/2 ins.), ranging from 1·282 m. (4 ft. 2-1/2 ins.) to
-1·6 m. (5 ft. 3 ins.), but some of these were not pure
-breeds (Reed); other observations also show a considerable
-range in height. The <i>cephalic index</i> of 16
-males averages 82·2, ranging from 78·8 to 92·3, ten
-range between 80 and 85 (Reed). <i>Features</i>: typically
-the nose is broad, flat, bridgeless, with prominent
-arched alæ and nostrils invariably visible from the front.
-Of 76 persons measured by Reed 4 males and 3
-females had nasal indices below 89, 10 and 3 of 90-99,
-20 and 13 of 100-109, 7 and 7 of 110-119, 6 and 3 above
-120; the median of the males is 102, the extremes being
-83·3 and 125, the median of the females is 105, their
-extremes being 79·5 and 140·7; in other words they are
-extremely platyrhine. The eyes are round. The lips
-are moderately thick, but not protruding. A somewhat
-pronounced convexity is sometimes seen between the
-upper lip and the nose in the photographs of Meyer’s
-and Folkmar’s Albums. Meyer says the projecting jaw
-gives an ape-like appearance to the face, but Reed says
-the Aeta have practically no prognathism, a statement
-which is borne out by his and Folkmar’s photographs.</p>
-
-<p>4. The discovery of pygmies in Netherlands New Guinea
-by the Expedition has drawn public attention to a
-problem of perennial interest to ethnologists. Nearly
-twenty-five years ago Sir William Flower stated, “that
-it (the Negrito race) has contributed considerably to form
-the population of New Guinea is unquestionable. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span>
-many parts of that great island, small round-headed
-tribes live more or less distinct from the larger and
-longer-headed people who make up the bulk of the
-population.” (Lecture at the Royal Institution, April
-13, 1888, reprinted in <i>Essays on Museums</i>, 1898, p. 302.)
-No further information is given, nor are his authorities
-mentioned. Perhaps he was alluding to the following
-statement by de Quatrefages, “L’extension des Négritos
-en Mélanésie est bien plus considérable. Ici leurs tribus
-sont mêlées et juxtaposées à celles des Papouas probablement
-dans toute la Nouvelle Guinée” (<i>Rev. d’Ethn.</i>, 1882,
-p. 185); subsequently he wrote, “La confusion regrettable
-(namely the confusion of the brachycephalic
-Negrito-Papuans with the dolichocephalic Papuans, of
-which Earl, Wallace, Meyer and others have been guilty)
-est cause que l’on n’a pas recherché les traits differentiels
-qui peuvent distinguer les Negritos-Papous des vrais
-Papouas au point de vue de l’état social, des mœurs, des
-croyances, des industries.” (<i>Les Pygmées</i>, 1887, p. 97,
-English Translation, 1895, p. 62.) Dr. A. B. Meyer,
-from whose essay these quotations have been taken,
-adds, “No, the confusion has not been in this case in
-the heads of the travellers; a Negritic race, side by side
-with the Papuan race, nobody has been able to discover,
-just because it does not exist, and it does not exist
-because the Papuan race, in spite of its variability, is on
-the one hand a uniform race, and on the other as good
-as identical with the Negritos.” (<i>The Distribution of the
-Negritos</i>, 1899, p. 85.) When reviewing this essay in
-<i>Nature</i> (Sept. 7, 1899, p. 433), I stated that I was inclined
-to adopt the view that the various types exhibited by
-the natives of New Guinea “point to a crossing of different
-elements,” and do not “simply reveal the variability
-of the race,” as Dr. Meyer provisionally believed.
-While agreeing with Dr. Meyer that the “different conditions
-of existence” (p. 80) in New Guinea probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span>
-have reacted on the physical characters of the natives
-(about which, however, we have extremely little precise
-information), we have now sufficient evidence to prove
-that the indigenous or true Papuan population has been
-modified in places by intrusions from elsewhere, and of
-late years data have been accumulating which point to
-the existence of a pygmy population. Shortly before his
-death, Dr. Meyer drew my attention to a more recent
-statement of his views, in which he says, “Although I
-formerly stated (<i>Negritos</i>, p. 87) that the question
-whether the Papuans, <i>i.e.</i> the inhabitants of New Guinea,
-are a uniform race with a wide range of variation or a
-mixed race is not yet ripe for pronouncement, I am now
-more inclined, after Mr. Ray’s discovery of the Papuan
-linguistic family, to look upon them as a mixed race of
-‘Negritos’ and Malays in the wider sense. I am eagerly
-looking forward to the exploration of the interior of that
-great island, for may it not be possible there to discover
-the Negrito element in that old and more constant form
-in which it persists in the Philippines, Andamans, and in
-Malakka.” (<i>Globus</i>, <span class="smcap">XCIV.</span>, 1908, p. 192.) This later
-view appears to me to be less tenable than his earlier
-one, as it is difficult to see how a mixture of pygmy,
-woolly-haired brachycephals with short, straight-haired
-brachycephals (Malays) could give rise to the taller,
-woolly-haired dolichocephalic Papuans.</p>
-
-<p>The racial history of New Guinea has proved to be
-unexpectedly complicated. We are now justified in
-recognising at least two indigenous elements, the Negrito
-and Papuan; the effect of the island populations to the
-east has not yet been determined, but in the south-west
-two immigrations at least from Melanesia have taken
-place, which, with Seligmann, we may term Papuo-Melanesian.
-(<i>Journ. R. Anth. Inst.</i>, <span class="smcap">XXXIX.</span> 1909,
-pp. 246, 315; and <i>The Melanesians of Brit. New Guinea</i>,
-1910.) It is, however, almost certain that future<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span>
-researches will reveal that the problem is not so simple
-as that just indicated.</p>
-
-<p>Writing in 1902, Dr. Weule states (<i>Globus</i>, <span class="smcap">LXXXII.</span>
-p. 247) that he has no further doubts as to the existence
-of pygmies in New Guinea, though it is not yet clear
-whether they live in definite groups or as scattered
-remnants among the taller peoples. He points out that
-information as to the pygmies was of necessity scanty,
-as expeditions had always followed the course of rivers
-where encounter with them might least be expected,
-since they are for the most part mountain people.
-Through the activity of Sir William MacGregor and
-others, British New Guinea is “the least unknown” part
-of the whole island; there is therefore more likelihood of
-pygmy peoples being discovered in German or Netherlands
-New Guinea, the latter being entirely a <i>terra incognita</i>
-from the geographical standpoint. Dr. Weule’s
-article contains various references to previous literature
-on the pygmy question, and three photographs of
-pygmies from the middle Ramu are reproduced, which
-show three men well under 142 cm. (4 ft. 8-3/4 ins.) in
-height.</p>
-
-<p>The later history of the discovery of a pygmy substratum
-in the population of parts of New Guinea is as
-follows:—</p>
-
-<p>Dr. M. Krieger had visited the Sattelberg and the
-neighbourhood of Simbang where he heard reports of
-dwarfs from natives, but no European had seen them
-(<i>Neu Guinea</i>, 1899, p. 143); subsequently Dr. R. Pöch
-stayed from December 1904 to February 1905 in the Kai
-area, which lies inland from Finschhafen in German New
-Guinea. In the <i>Mitt. aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten</i>,
-1907, he writes (p. 225): “During the first part of the
-time I remained chiefly on the Sattelberg itself, and
-observed and measured the various Kai frequenting the
-Mission Station. In them I became acquainted with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span>
-mountain tribe entirely different from the coast peoples
-previously visited. In fifty men I found the average
-height to be 152·5 cm. (5 ft.); the skulls are, as a rule,
-mesocephalic to brachycephalic. Towards the coast
-(Jabim) dolichocephaly becomes more usual and the
-type also changes. Very small people are not infrequently
-met with among the Kai.” Among 300 adult
-males he found twelve ranging from 133 to 145·6 cm.
-(4 ft. 4-1/2 ins. to 4 ft. 9-1/4 ins.). “For the present,” he adds,
-“it cannot be determined whether this is merely a
-variation in stature or whether we have here survivals
-of an older smaller race not yet entirely merged in the
-Kai” (<i>cf.</i> also <i>Sitzungsber. der Anth. Gesellschaft in Wien</i>,
-1905, pp. 40 ff.). In the <i>Zeitschr. f. Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XXXIX.</span>, 1907,
-p. 384, he states that on the north coast of British New
-Guinea and in Normanby Island he often came across very
-small people. Dr. O. Reche, in describing a journey up the
-Kaiserin-Augusta river, says that, “the population consists
-of three clearly distinguishable types or races, two
-of which have long, very narrow skulls, and one a short
-broad skull. Inland from the river bank there seems to
-be in addition to these a pygmy-like people of small
-growth; at all events, I found in some of the villages
-situated on the upper river, among other skulls, some
-which were remarkably small and of a special type, and
-which must have been taken from enemies living further
-inland.” (<i>Globus</i>, <span class="smcap">XCVII.</span> 1910, p. 286.)</p>
-
-<p>Neuhauss studied the Sattelberg natives and is very
-certain that a pygmy element occurs there. He notes
-the stockiness of certain individuals, who have a long
-powerful trunk and short limbs, whereas the Papuans
-are lean and slender; the shortest man measured by him
-was 1·355 m. (4 ft. 5-1/2 ins.). Again, the <i>cephalic index</i> of
-260 Papuans averages 76·8, while that of thirty-two short
-individuals averages 78·8, and on the Sattelberg 79·7,
-some even ranging from 83-84·6. He also noticed that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span>
-the ears were short, wide and without lobe; the hands
-and feet were unusually small. Von Luschan draws
-attention to the convexity of the whole upper lip area
-as in African pygmies. Neuhauss insists that the
-pygmies are almost merged into the rest of the population,
-and that their low stature is not due to poor
-conditions. (<i>Zs. f. Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XLIII.</span>, 1911, p. 280.)</p>
-
-<p>Dr. M. Moszkowski found that in Geelvink Bay the
-hair is not always ulotrichous (woolly), as is usual with
-Papuans, especially on Biak and Padeido Islands the hair
-often recalls the cymotrichous (curly) hair of Veddas.
-Other points of resemblance with wild tribes of Further
-Asia are:—A very dainty graceful bone-structure, small
-hands and feet, relatively short limbs compared to the
-trunk, low stature, few being above 156 cm. and most
-below 150 cm. (4 ft. 11 ins.), and now and then the
-characteristic convex upper lip of the wild tribes (<i>Zs. f.
-Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XLIII.</span> 1911, pp. 317, 318). On these grounds
-Moszkowski inclines to think that the islands of Geelvink
-Bay were originally peopled by pre-Malayan wild tribes
-allied to the Vedda, Sakai, Toala, etc., and thus the
-present population is the result of crossing between these
-and immigrant Melanesians; true Malays came later.
-Moszkowski has not yet published any head measurements
-of these interesting people, and the evidence is insufficient
-to decide whether this is a Pre-Dravidian or a
-Negrito element in the population of these islands, the
-curly character of the hair may be due as elsewhere in
-New Guinea to racial mixture; the photograph of a
-“Vedda-type” from Padeido island is by no means
-convincing (<i>l.c.</i> p. 318).</p>
-
-<p>Finally Guppy, Ribbe and Rascher report the occurrence
-of very short people in the interior of the larger
-islands of the Bismarck Archipelago and of the Solomon
-Islands; recently Thurnwald refers to very small people
-in the mountainous interior of Bougainville who speak a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span>
-non-Melanesian language, one man from Mari mountain
-had a stature of 1·39 m. (4 ft. 6-1/2 ins.). In the mountains
-the mixed population consists of types recalling the
-Solomon Islanders and “representatives of a small short-legged,
-broad-faced, short-skulled, very hairy, wide-nosed
-people.” (<i>Zs. f. Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XLII.</span> 1910, p. 109.)</p>
-
-<p>Discussing the pygmies of Melanesia von Luschan referred
-in 1910 (<i>Zs. f. Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XLII.</span>, p. 939) to bones brought
-a century ago from the Admiralty Islands which must
-have belonged to individuals 1·32-1·35 m. (4 ft. 4 ins.-4 ft.
-5 ins.) in stature; it is unlikely that the type persists,
-though Moseley mentions an unusually short man,
-a little over 5 ft. (<i>Journ. Anth. Inst.</i> 1877, p. 384). In
-the collection made by the German Marine Expedition
-there are a number of extremely small skulls from New
-Ireland, which von Luschan is convinced belong to
-pygmies. Finsch brought from New Britain over thirty
-years ago the smallest known skull of a normal adult
-person; it came from the S.W. coast of Gazelle
-Peninsula. Like four other extremely small feminine
-skulls from New Britain this one is dolichocephalic (ceph.
-index 73). Von Luschan is of opinion that the small
-people of Melanesia represent an older stratum of population
-than their tall neighbours.</p>
-
-<p>While other travellers have come across what is now
-accepted as a pygmy element in the population, the
-members of this Expedition have for the first time
-proved the existence of a pygmy people, known as the
-<span class="smcap"><i>Tapiro</i></span>, who may be regarded as predominantly Negritos.
-The <i>hair</i> is short, woolly and black, but seemed brown
-in two or three cases, there is a good deal of hair on the
-face and of short downy hair scattered about the body.
-The <i>skin</i> is of a lighter colour than that of the neighbouring
-Papuans, some individuals being almost yellow. The
-<i>stature</i> averages 1·449 m. (4 ft. 9 ins.), ranging from
-1·326 m. (4 ft. 4-1/4 ins.) to 1·529 m. (5 ft. 0-1/4in.). The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span>
-<i>cephalic index</i> averages 79·5, varying from 66·9 to 85·1.
-<i>Features</i>: The nose is straight and though described as
-“very wide at the nostrils,” the mean of the indices is
-only 83, the extremes being 65·5 to 94. The eyes are
-noticeably larger and rounder than those of Papuans.
-“The upper lip of many of the men is long and curiously
-convex.”</p>
-
-<p>At the same time that the Expedition discovered
-pygmies in Netherlands New Guinea, Mr. R. W. Williamson
-was investigating the Mafulu, a mountain people on
-the upper waters of the Angabunga river in the Mekeo
-District. He has shown (<i>The Mafulu Mountain People
-of British New Guinea</i>, 1912) that in all probability these
-and some neighbouring tribes are a mixture of Negritos,
-Papuans and Papuo-Melanesians. Their invariably
-woolly <i>hair</i> is generally dark brown, often quite dark,
-approaching to black and sometimes perhaps quite black,
-but frequently it is lighter and often not what we in
-Europe should call dark; a beard and moustache are
-quite unusual. The <i>skin</i> is dark sooty-brown. The
-average stature is 1·551 m. (5 ft. 1 in.) ranging from
-1·47 m. (4 ft. 10 ins.) to 1·63 m. (5 ft. 4 ins.). They are
-fairly strong and muscular, but rather slender and slight
-in development. The average <i>cephalic index</i> is 80 and
-ranges from 74·7 to 86·8. <i>Features</i>: The average nasal
-index is 84·3, the extremes being 71·4 and 100. The
-eyes are dark brown and very bright. The lips are fine
-and delicate.</p>
-
-<p>It is worth noting that Pöch had in 1906 measured
-two Fergusson Island men with statures 1·403 and
-1·425 m. (4 ft. 7-1/4 ins., 4 ft. 8 ins.), who told him that “all
-the people in that tribe were as small or smaller.” (<i>Zs.
-f. Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XLII.</span> 1910, p. 941.)</p>
-
-<p>On reading through the brief synopses which I have
-given it is apparent that, with the possible exception of
-the Andamanese, each of the Negrito peoples shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span>
-considerable diversity in its physical characters and this
-is more evident when more detailed accounts and photographs
-are studied. There appears to be sufficient
-evidence to show that a very ancient ulotrichous, low
-brachycephalic, pygmy population once extended over
-the Malay Peninsula and a great part (at least) of
-Melanesia and New Guinea, but the existing groups do
-not appear to be homogeneous judging from the diversity
-in stature, head index and nasal index. Stature, as has
-already been stated, is always recognised as subject to
-considerable variation, but the bulk of the measurements
-of these peoples fall below 1·5 m., and therefore indicate
-a predominant very short population. The head indices
-mainly show low brachycephaly; the occasional very low
-indices may be due either to a Pre-Dravidian mixture or
-in New Guinea, at all events, to a Papuan strain. The
-former existence of a Pre-Dravidian stock in New Guinea
-is highly probable, nor must it be overlooked that there
-may have been a hitherto undescribed pygmy or very
-short dolichocephalic ulotrichous stock in New Guinea
-and Melanesia. The nasal index of these Negrito peoples
-is very suggestive of racial complexity. Judging from
-photographs, in the absence of measurements, the
-Andamanese have by no means a broad nose, and a
-mesorhine index is found in all the other groups, some
-of the Tapiro and Mafulu are even leptorhine. A constantly
-recurring feature is the convex upper lip, but
-that also occurs among the Sakai. The problem now is
-to determine what foreign elements have modified these
-pygmies, and whether the Negrito stock itself will not
-have to be subdivided into at least two groups.</p>
-
-<p>The Negritos have certain cultural characters more
-or less in common, some of which differentiate them
-from their neighbours. There is very little artificial
-deformation of the person. The Tapiro and Mafulu
-alone do not tattoo or scarify the skin; Skeat says that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span>
-the Semang “do not appear as a race to tattoo or
-scarify,” and the Aeta scarify only occasionally. The
-nasal septum is not pierced for a nose-stick by the
-Andamanese and Aeta nor among the purer Semang
-tribes, but the Tapiro and Mafulu do so. The Semang
-women possess numerous bamboo combs which are
-engraved with curious designs of a magical import,
-similar combs are possessed by nearly every Aeta man
-and woman. The Andamanese have no combs.</p>
-
-<p>With regard to clothing, the male Andamanese are
-nude, the females wear a small apron of leaves or a single
-leaf, but one tribe, the Jarawa, go nude. The male
-Semang frequently wear a loin-cloth, or simply leaves
-retained by a string girdle, sometimes the women wear
-this too or a fringed girdle made of the long black strings
-of a fungus, but more usually a waist-cloth. The Aeta
-men wear a loin-cloth and the women a waist-cloth.
-The Mafulu men and women wear a perineal band of
-bark cloth, while the Tapiro men wear a unique gourd
-penis-sheath. A gourd or calabash is also worn by men
-on the north coast of New Guinea, but not further west
-than Cape Bonpland, in this case the hole is in the side
-and not at the end as among the Tapiro.</p>
-
-<p>The Negritos are collectors and hunters, and never
-cultivate the soil unless they have been modified by
-contact with more advanced peoples.</p>
-
-<p>The Andamanese make three kinds of simple huts on
-the ground and large communal huts are sometimes
-built. The Semang construct “bee-hive” and long
-communal huts and weather screens similar to those of
-the Andamanese. They also erect tree shelters, but
-direct evidence is very scanty that pure Semang inhabit
-huts with a flooring raised on piles; they sleep on bamboo
-platforms. The Aeta usually make very simple huts
-sometimes with a raised bamboo sleeping platform inside.
-The pile dwellings of the Tapiro have evidently been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span>
-copied from those of other tribes in the interior. The
-Mafulu build a different kind of pile dwelling which has
-a peculiar hood-like porch.</p>
-
-<p>All the Negritos have the bow and arrow. The Great
-Andamanese bow is peculiar while that of the Little
-Andamanese appears to resemble that of the Semang.
-The Great Andamanese and the Tapiro have very long
-bows. Harpoon arrows with iron points are used by the
-Andamanese and Aeta, the arrows of the Andamanese,
-Semang and Aeta are nocked, but only those of the two
-latter are feathered. No nocked or feathered arrows
-occur in New Guinea. Only the Semang and Aeta are
-known to poison their arrows, and they may have
-borrowed the idea from the poisoned darts of the blow-pipe.
-Some Semang have adopted the blow-pipe.</p>
-
-<p>The Andamanese appear to be one of the very few
-people who possess fire but do not know how to make
-it afresh. The Semang usually make fire by “rubbing
-together short blocks of wood, bamboo or cane. A
-common method consists in passing a rattan line round
-the portion of a dried branch, and holding the branch
-down by the feet whilst the line is rapidly worked to
-and fro with the hands.” Flint and steel are also used.
-(The Sakai employ similar methods.) (<i>Skeat and Blagden</i>,
-<span class="smcap">I</span>, pp. 111-114, 119.) Among the Aeta flint and steel
-have almost replaced the old method of making fire by
-one piece of split bamboo being sawed rapidly across
-another piece. Semper collected from Negritos of N.E.
-Luzon, a split stick, bark fibre and a strip of rattan
-used in fire-making, these are described and figured by
-A. B. Meyer (<i>Publ. der K. Ethn. Mus. zu. Dresden</i>, <span class="smcap">IX</span>,
-<i>Negritos</i>, p. 5, pl. 11, fig. 7 a-c). It is interesting to find
-that the Tapiro employ the same method and apparatus
-(p. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>). Thus there occurs among Negritos in the
-Philippines and New Guinea the method of making
-fire by partly splitting a dry stick, keeping the ends<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span>
-open by inserting a piece of wood or a stone in the cleft,
-stuffing some tinder into the narrow part of the slit and
-then drawing rapidly a strip of rattan to and fro across
-this spot till a spark ignites the tinder. Pöch found it
-among the Poum, dwelling in the mountains inland from
-the Kai (<i>Geog. Jnl.</i> <span class="smcap">XXX</span>, 1907, p. 612, and <i>Mitt. Anth. Ges.
-in Wien</i>, <span class="smcap">XXXVII.</span> 1907, p. 59, fig. 2, 3). Precisely the
-same method was described by the Rev. Dr. W. G. Lawes
-who found it among the Koiari of Tabure on Mt. Warirata
-(<i>Proc. R. Geog. Soc.</i> <span class="smcap">V</span>, 1883, p. 357). Finsch
-collected the apparatus from the same people (<i>Ann.
-des K.K. naturhist. Hofmus. in Wien</i>, <span class="smcap">III</span>, 1888, p. 323;
-Leo Frobenius, <i>The Childhood of Man</i>, 1909, fig. 313,
-but Frobenius is mistaken in representing the rattan
-as going twice round the stick). Dr. H. O. Forbes had
-found it at Ubumkara on the Naoro, also in the Central
-Division (<i>P.R.G.S.</i> <span class="smcap">XII.</span> 1890, p. 562). Mr. C. A. W.
-Monckton noticed it in 1906 among the Kambisa tribe,
-in the valley of the Chirima, Mt. Albert Edward (<i>Ann.
-Rep. Brit. New Guinea</i>, 1907). Pöch suggests that N.
-von Miklucho-Maclay was wrong in thinking that the
-strip was rubbed in the split of a stick (<i>l.c.</i> p. 61);
-this is the earliest Papuan record (1872).</p>
-
-<p>From the above account it is possible that the split
-stick and rattan strip method of fire-making may be a
-criterion of Negrito culture, but it should be noted that the
-stick is not reported as split among the Semang, and that
-the unsplit stick is found among the Sakai and the Kayans
-and Kenyahs of Sarawak who are not Negritos. Also the
-split stick is found at several spots in the mountainous
-interior of the south-east peninsula of New Guinea where
-Negrito influence has not yet been recorded, but Mr.
-Williamson’s observations are very suggestive in this
-respect. Pöch (<i>l.c.</i> p. 62) points out that this method is
-nearest akin to “fire-sawing with bamboo, both in
-principle and distribution,” of which he gives details. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span>
-somewhat similar method is that described by W. E.
-Roth. A split hearth-stick is held by the feet, but fire
-is made by sawing with another piece of wood, a device
-which appears to be widely spread in Queensland and
-occurs also on the Lachlan River, N.S.W. (<i>N. Queensland
-Ethnogr. Bull.</i> 7, 1904, sect. 9, pl. <span class="smcap">II</span>. figs. 17, 18).</p>
-
-<p>So far as is known the social structure of the Negritos
-is very simple. Among the Andamanese there is no
-division of the community into two moieties, no clan
-system nor totemism, neither has a classificatory system
-of kinship been recorded; the social unit appears to be
-the family, and the power of the head-man is very
-limited. Our knowledge concerning the Semang and
-Aeta is extremely imperfect but they probably resemble
-the Andamanese in these points. The Andamanese and
-Semang are strictly monogamous, polygyny is allowed
-among the Aeta, but monogamy prevails. The only
-restriction at all on marriage appears to be the prohibition
-of marriage between near kindred, and divorce is very
-rare. All bury their dead, but it is considered by the
-Andamanese more complimentary to place the dead on a
-platform which is generally built in a large tree, and the
-more honourable practice of the Semang is to expose
-the dead in trees. The Mafulu bury ordinary people,
-but the corpses of chiefs are placed in an open box either
-on a platform or in the fork of a kind of fig tree.
-Nothing is known about the social life of the Tapiro,
-and Williamson says, “The very simple ideas of the
-Mafulu, as compared with the Papuans and Melanesians,
-in matters of social organization, implements, arts and
-crafts, religion and other things may well, I think, be
-associated with a primitive Negrito origin” (<i>l.c.</i> p. 306).</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h3>
-
-<p class="p f085">This is not the place to attempt to give a record of the very voluminous
-bibliography of the Negritos, and most of the works here recorded are those from
-which the foregoing facts have been collected. Books referred to in the text are,
-with one or two exceptions, not here repeated.</p>
-
-<p class="center f085"><i>The General Question.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot3">
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Danielli, G., “Studi di Antropogeografia generale.” <i>Memorie Geografiche</i>,
-N. 18. Vol. VI. 1912.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Flower, W. H. <i>The Pygmy Races of Men.</i> Royal Inst. Lecture, 1888, reprinted
-in <i>Essays on Museums</i>, 1898.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Lapicque, L. “La Race Negrito.” <i>Ann. de Géographie</i>, 1896, p. 407.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Meyer, A. B. <i>The Distribution of the Negritos</i>, 1899; translation with additions
-from <i>Publikationen d. K. Ethn. Mus. zu Dresden</i>, IX. 1893.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Quatrefages, A. de. <i>The Pygmies</i>, 1895. (English Translation).</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Schmidt, W. <i>Die Stellung der Pygmäenvölker in der Entwicklungsgeschichte des
-Menschen</i>, 1910.</p>
-
-<p class="p padl2 f085">Pater W. Schmidt has gone into the whole pygmy question with great
-thoroughness. He extends his comparison to the African pygmies
-(Negrillos), between whom and the Asiatic pygmies he attempts to prove a
-connection through Southern India. Emphasis is laid on the “infantile”
-physical characters of both African and Asiatic pygmies and the extremely
-primitive features of their culture. He is inclined to regard the Pre-Dravidian
-Vedda, Senoi and Toala as of mixed pygmy origin, finding
-support for this theory in the proximity of the Senoi to the Semang in the
-Malay Peninsula. The eastward extension of the pygmies into Melanesia
-and New Guinea is not dealt with.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Tyson, E. <i>A Philological Essay concerning the Pygmies of the Ancients</i>, 1699.
-Edited by B. C. A. Windle, 1894.</p>
-
-<p class="center f085"><i>The Andamanese.</i></p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Dobson, G. E., “On the Andamans and Andamanese.” <i>Journ. Anth. Inst.</i>
-IV. 1875, p. 457.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Flower, W. H., “On the Osteology and Affinities of the Natives of the
-Andaman Islands,” <i>J.A.I.</i>, IX. 1879, p. 108, <i>cf.</i> also X., p. 124, XIV., p. 115,
-XVIII., p. 73.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Lane Fox, A., “Observations on Mr. Man’s Collection of Andamanese and
-Nicobarese Objects,” <i>J.A.I.</i>, VII. 1877, p. 434.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Man, E. H., “On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands,” <i>J.A.I.</i>,
-XII. 1882-3, pp. 69, 117, 327, <i>cf.</i> also VII. p. 105, XI. p. 268.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Portman, M. V., “Notes on the Andamanese,” <i>J.A.I.</i>, XXV. 1896, p. 361.</p>
-
-<p class="center f085"><i>The Semang.</i></p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Skeat, W. W., and Blagden, C. O., <i>Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula</i>, 1906.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Martin, R., <i>Die Inlandstämme der Malayischen Halbinsel</i>, 1905.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Annandale, N., and Robinson, H. C., <i>Fasciculi Malayensis</i>, Anthropology,
-Part I, 1903, p. 105.</p>
-
-<p class="center f085"><i>The Aeta.</i></p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Folkmar, D., <i>Album of Philippine Types</i>, Manila, 1904.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Koeze, G. A., “Crania Ethnica Philippinica,” <i>Publicatiën uit ’s rijks ethnographisch
-Museum</i>, Serie II. No. 3, Haarlem, 1901-1904.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Meyer, A. B., <i>Album of Filipino Types</i>, 1885, Vol. II., 1891, and Vol. III., 1904,
-with photographs taken by Dr. A. Schadenberg.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Meyer, A. B., “Die Philippinen, II., Negritos,” <i>Publikationen des K. Ethnogr.
-Mus. zu Dresden</i>, IX. 1893 (and <i>cf.</i> <i>J.A.I.</i>, XXV. p. 172).</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Reed, W. A., “Negritos of Zambales,” <i>Department of the Interior, Ethnological
-Survey Publications</i>, II. Manila, 1904.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Sawyer, F. H., <i>The Inhabitants of the Philippines</i>, 1900.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2 f085">Worcester, Dean C., “The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon,” <i>The
-Philippine Journal of Science</i>, I. 1906, p. 791.</p></div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="center padb1"><span class="smcap">Measurements of 22 Tapiro Pygmies (Males).</span></p>
-
-<table class="tableleft" summary="key" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">KEY:</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">A.  No. of man.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">B.  Height of stature.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">C.  Girth of chest.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">D.  Vertexto tragus.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">E.  Head length.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">F.  Head breadth.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">G.  Face breadth.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">H.  Bigonial breadth.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">I.  Face length.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">J.  Nose length.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">K.  Nose breadth.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="3">L.  Interocular breadth.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="3">Indices.</td><td class="tdr f3" rowspan="3">{</td>
-<td class="tdl">a. Head index.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">b. Face Index.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">c. Nasal Index.</td></tr></table>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<table class="table2" summary="Measurements" border='0'><tr>
-<td class="tdc bt bb width3 vertb" rowspan="2">A.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">B.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">C.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">D.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">E.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">F.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">G.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">H.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">I.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">J.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">K.</td>
-<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">L.</td>
-   <td class="tdc bl bt" colspan="3">Indices<br />
-╭━━━^━━━╮</td></tr><tr>
-<td class='tdc bb bl br  width3'>a.</td>
-<td class='tdc bb br width3'>b.</td>
-<td class='tdc bb width3'>c.</td>
-      </tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc padt1">17</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">152·7</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">80·5</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">18·2</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">14·1</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">13·6</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">12·7</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">10·7</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">5·1</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">3·9</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">3·4</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">77·5</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">78·7</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">76·5</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">18</td><td class="tdc bl">148·0</td><td class="tdc bl">77·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·7</td><td class="tdc bl">17·7</td><td class="tdc bl">13·8</td><td class="tdc bl">13·4</td><td class="tdc bl">12·7</td><td class="tdc bl">10·0</td><td class="tdc bl">4·7</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">2·8</td><td class="tdc bl">78·0</td><td class="tdc bl">74·6</td><td class="tdc bl">87·2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">19</td><td class="tdc bl">142·5</td><td class="tdc bl">71·0</td><td class="tdc bl">11·2</td><td class="tdc bl">18·1</td><td class="tdc bl">13·9</td><td class="tdc bl">13·1</td><td class="tdc bl">11·1</td><td class="tdc bl">11.5</td><td class="tdc bl">5·5</td><td class="tdc bl">3·6</td><td class="tdc bl">3·4</td><td class="tdc bl">76·8</td><td class="tdc bl">87·8</td><td class="tdc bl">65·5</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">20</td><td class="tdc bl">142·1</td><td class="tdc bl">71·5</td><td class="tdc bl">11·0</td><td class="tdc bl">17·2</td><td class="tdc bl">11·5</td><td class="tdc bl">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·0</td><td class="tdc bl">10·3</td><td class="tdc bl">4·8</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">3·1</td><td class="tdc bl">66·9</td><td class="tdc bl">79·5</td><td class="tdc bl">85·4</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">21</td><td class="tdc bl">147·9</td><td class="tdc bl">78·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·6</td><td class="tdc bl">17·4</td><td class="tdc bl">13·7</td><td class="tdc bl">12·5</td><td class="tdc bl">9·3</td><td class="tdc bl">11·7</td><td class="tdc bl">6·0</td><td class="tdc bl">4·5</td><td class="tdc bl">3.2</td><td class="tdc bl">78·7</td><td class="tdc bl">93·6</td><td class="tdc bl">75·0</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">22</td><td class="tdc bl">140·2</td><td class="tdc bl">74·0</td><td class="tdc bl">11·2</td><td class="tdc bl">17·7</td><td class="tdc bl">14·2</td><td class="tdc bl">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl">10·7</td><td class="tdc bl">10·6</td><td class="tdc bl">5·2</td><td class="tdc bl">4·2</td><td class="tdc bl">3·4</td><td class="tdc bl">80·2</td><td class="tdc bl">81·5</td><td class="tdc bl">80·8</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">23</td><td class="tdc bl">145·4</td><td class="tdc bl">74·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·9</td><td class="tdc bl">17·8</td><td class="tdc bl">14·3</td><td class="tdc bl">13·6</td><td class="tdc bl">12·5</td><td class="tdc bl">10·6</td><td class="tdc bl">4·5</td><td class="tdc bl">3·9</td><td class="tdc bl">3·3</td><td class="tdc bl">80·3</td><td class="tdc bl">77·9</td><td class="tdc bl">86·7</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">152·9</td><td class="tdc bl">78·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·1</td><td class="tdc bl">17·7</td><td class="tdc bl">14·3</td><td class="tdc bl">12·7</td><td class="tdc bl">11·1</td><td class="tdc bl">11·6</td><td class="tdc bl">5·2</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">3·2</td><td class="tdc bl">80·8</td><td class="tdc bl">91·3</td><td class="tdc bl">84·6</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">25</td><td class="tdc bl">138·9</td><td class="tdc bl">74·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·6</td><td class="tdc bl">16·7</td><td class="tdc bl">14·1</td><td class="tdc bl">11·8</td><td class="tdc bl">9·6</td><td class="tdc bl">10·4</td><td class="tdc bl">5·0</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">2·8</td><td class="tdc bl">84·4</td><td class="tdc bl">88·1</td><td class="tdc bl">88·0</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">26</td><td class="tdc bl">149·0</td><td class="tdc bl">72·7</td><td class="tdc bl">12·6</td><td class="tdc bl">17·4</td><td class="tdc bl">13·6</td><td class="tdc bl">12·3</td><td class="tdc bl">11·8</td><td class="tdc bl">10·7</td><td class="tdc bl">4·8</td><td class="tdc bl">3·9</td><td class="tdc bl">3·2</td><td class="tdc bl">78·2</td><td class="tdc bl">87·0</td><td class="tdc bl">81·3</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">27</td><td class="tdc bl">148·2</td><td class="tdc bl">81·4</td><td class="tdc bl">11·3</td><td class="tdc bl">18·5</td><td class="tdc bl">13·9</td><td class="tdc bl">12·8</td><td class="tdc bl">11·0</td><td class="tdc bl">11·3</td><td class="tdc bl">5·2</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">3·2</td><td class="tdc bl">75·1</td><td class="tdc bl">88·3</td><td class="tdc bl">84·6</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">28</td><td class="tdc bl">132·6</td><td class="tdc bl">72·8</td><td class="tdc bl">12·8</td><td class="tdc bl">17·5</td><td class="tdc bl">14·7</td><td class="tdc bl">12·8</td><td class="tdc bl">9·8</td><td class="tdc bl">11·2</td><td class="tdc bl">5·1</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">3·0</td><td class="tdc bl">84·0</td><td class="tdc bl">87·5</td><td class="tdc bl">80·4</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">29</td><td class="tdc bl">150·7</td><td class="tdc bl">79·5</td><td class="tdc bl">13·6</td><td class="tdc bl">17·4</td><td class="tdc bl">14·8</td><td class="tdc bl">13·6</td><td class="tdc bl">12·3</td><td class="tdc bl">11·1</td><td class="tdc bl">5·5</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">3·4</td><td class="tdc bl">85·1</td><td class="tdc bl">81·6</td><td class="tdc bl">80·0</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">30</td><td class="tdc bl">148·8</td><td class="tdc bl">74·0</td><td class="tdc bl">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl">18·1</td><td class="tdc bl">14·1</td><td class="tdc bl">12·6</td><td class="tdc bl">11·0</td><td class="tdc bl">10·6</td><td class="tdc bl">4·9</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">3·3</td><td class="tdc bl">77·9</td><td class="tdc bl">84·1</td><td class="tdc bl">89·8</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">31</td><td class="tdc bl">150·1</td><td class="tdc bl">79·0</td><td class="tdc bl">13·5</td><td class="tdc bl">17·8</td><td class="tdc bl">14·8</td><td class="tdc bl">13·1</td><td class="tdc bl">11·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·2</td><td class="tdc bl">5·5</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">3·1</td><td class="tdc bl">83·2</td><td class="tdc bl">93·1</td><td class="tdc bl">80·0</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">32</td><td class="tdc bl">139·8</td><td class="tdc bl">76·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·5</td><td class="tdc bl">17·4</td><td class="tdc bl">14·7</td><td class="tdc bl">13·4</td><td class="tdc bl">10·8</td><td class="tdc bl">10·4</td><td class="tdc bl">5·5</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">3·1</td><td class="tdc bl">84·5</td><td class="tdc bl">77·6</td><td class="tdc bl">74·6</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">33</td><td class="tdc bl">134·3</td><td class="tdc bl">71·8</td><td class="tdc bl">12·2</td><td class="tdc bl">16·2</td><td class="tdc bl">13·4</td><td class="tdc bl">13·2</td><td class="tdc bl">11·7</td><td class="tdc bl">10·6</td><td class="tdc bl">4·8</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">3·1</td><td class="tdc bl">82·7</td><td class="tdc bl">80·3</td><td class="tdc bl">85·4</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">34</td><td class="tdc bl">150·6</td><td class="tdc bl">78·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·8</td><td class="tdc bl">18·2</td><td class="tdc bl">14·6</td><td class="tdc bl">13·8</td><td class="tdc bl">11·4</td><td class="tdc bl">11·6</td><td class="tdc bl">5·9</td><td class="tdc bl">5·0</td><td class="tdc bl">3·6</td><td class="tdc bl">80·2</td><td class="tdc bl">84·1</td><td class="tdc bl">84·8</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">35</td><td class="tdc bl">144·2</td><td class="tdc bl">79·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·0</td><td class="tdc bl">17·8</td><td class="tdc bl">13·7</td><td class="tdc bl">13·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·8</td><td class="tdc bl">11·2</td><td class="tdc bl">4·8</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">3·1</td><td class="tdc bl">77·0</td><td class="tdc bl">83·0</td><td class="tdc bl">85·4</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">36</td><td class="tdc bl">144·8</td><td class="tdc bl">77·7</td><td class="tdc bl">11·1</td><td class="tdc bl">18·1</td><td class="tdc bl">13·9</td><td class="tdc bl">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·2</td><td class="tdc bl">11·0</td><td class="tdc bl">5·1</td><td class="tdc bl">4·8</td><td class="tdc bl">3·3</td><td class="tdc bl">76·8</td><td class="tdc bl">84·6</td><td class="tdc bl">94·1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc">37</td><td class="tdc bl">140·5</td><td class="tdc bl">71·3</td><td class="tdc bl">12·2</td><td class="tdc bl">18·4</td><td class="tdc bl">14·6</td><td class="tdc bl">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl">9·7</td><td class="tdc bl">12·5</td><td class="tdc bl">5·5</td><td class="tdc bl">3·9</td><td class="tdc bl">3·3</td><td class="tdc bl">80·7</td><td class="tdc bl">96·2</td><td class="tdc bl">70·9</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tdc bb padb1">38</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">142·8</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">79·0</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">11·5</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">18·1</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">14·2</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">13·4</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">11·9</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">12·1</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">6·1</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">4·3</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">3·0</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">78·5</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">90·3</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">70·5</td></tr>
-
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>APPENDIX C</h2>
-
-<p class="center">NOTES ON LANGUAGES IN THE EAST OF
-NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA</p>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By SIDNEY H. RAY, M.A.</span></p>
-
-<h3>I. INTRODUCTION</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">In</span> considering the languages of Netherlands New Guinea
-it is convenient to divide the territory into six geographical
-divisions. These are:—</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot3">
-
-<p class="indent2">1. The North-western Coast and Islands (Waigiu,
-Salawati, and Misol).</p>
-
-<p class="indent2">2. The Western shore of Geelvink Bay and the islands
-adjacent (Mefor, Biak, and Jobi).</p>
-
-<p class="indent2">3. The Peninsula of Kumava (Orange Nassau) with
-the islands between Ceram and the Ké group.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2">4. The Southern and Eastern Shores of Geelvink
-Bay.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2">5. The North Coast from Kurudu Islands to Humboldt
-Bay.</p>
-
-<p class="indent2">6. The South-eastern Coast from Kamrau Inlet to
-the Bensbach River on the boundary between
-Netherlands and British territory.</p></div>
-
-<p>The present notice only refers to languages in the
-three last of these divisions.</p>
-
-<p>At the Western end of the South shore of Geelvink
-Bay is the district of Wandammen, of which the language
-is fairly well known. For this we have a vocabulary
-with grammatical examples (9),<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> and also for Windessi,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span>which is the same language, a mission text-book. Eastward
-from Wandammen the numerals only are recorded
-(7), but at the Southern point of the Bay, in the district
-around Jamur Lake we have the collections made by
-Van der Sande during the Wichmann Expedition of 1903
-(8). He gives a vocabulary of Angadi, an island in the
-Jamur Lake, some words of the Nagramadu dialect on
-the North-west, and the numerals of Goreda on the South
-of the lake. The languages of the Western Shore of
-Geelvink Bay are represented only by numerals (7) but
-there is more information of the language of Pauwi at the
-mouth of the Wamberam or Amberno or Mamberamo
-River, where F. van Braam Morris collected a vocabulary
-published by Robidé van der Aa in 1885 (6). This was
-considered faulty by de Clercq.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p>
-
-<p>Westward along the Northern coast very little
-linguistic material is available, and the few words recorded
-show great differences. The places of which the
-speech is known are, on the mainland: Takar, Tarfia and
-Tana Merah, and on the islands: Liki (in the Kumamba
-Group), Moar (called also Wakde), Masimasi and Jamna
-(4, 5).</p>
-
-<p>For the region about Humboldt Bay we have short
-vocabularies of Jotafa by various collectors, and a fuller
-one by G. L. Bink (2), also Sentani lists by P. E. Moolenburg
-(3) and van der Sande (8). Moolenburg also gives
-a list from Seka, West of the Bay.</p>
-
-<p>For the Southern shore of Netherlands New Guinea,
-we have nothing but vocabularies, none of very large
-extent, the most extensive being that of Merauke in the
-extreme West (15) which has also been ably discussed by
-Dr. N. Adriani.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p>
-
-<p>Commencing at Kamrau Inlet, the languages of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">324</a></span>shore and islands are illustrated by the Kowiai vocabularies
-of Miklucho-Maclay (13), the papers of G. W. Earl<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">29</a>
-and the lists of S. Muller (10), the last two being derived
-from the collections made during the voyage of the
-<i>Triton</i> under Lieut. Modera in 1828. The following
-languages are named:—</p>
-
-<p class="p f09 padl2">
-Lobo at Triton Bay (including Namatote, Aiduma, Mawara, and Kaju-Mera).<br />
-Wuaussirau, inland on the Kamaka-Wallar Lake.<br />
-Mairassis, inland from Lobo.<br />
-Lakahia, on Telok Lakahia.<br />
-Kiruru, on Telok Kiruru.<br />
-Utanata, on the Utanata River.
-</p>
-
-<p>Westward of the Utanata a vocabulary of the language
-spoken on the Mimika River people was obtained by Mr.
-Wollaston in 1910-11. A list of the same language is
-given also in the account of the South-west New Guinea
-Expedition of the Royal Netherlands Geographical
-Association.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> The latter work contains a few words of
-the language used at the mouth of the Kupĕra Pukwa
-River.</p>
-
-<p>The language of Mĕraukĕ has been recorded by J.
-Seijne Kok (15), and by J. C. Montague and E. F. Bik,[C]
-that of Toro by S. Bik.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">31</a></p>
-
-<h3>II.  CLASSIFICATION OF THE LANGUAGES.</h3>
-
-<p>Of the three languages in the northern part of Eastern
-Netherlands New Guinea that of the Jotafa of Humboldt
-Bay has been ably discussed by Dr. Kern,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> who
-decides that in phonology, construction, numeration and
-word store it presents many points of agreement with
-the Mefoor or Nufōr of the North-west. But it undoubtedly
-also contains many words which are of non-Indonesian
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span>
-origin. The Sentani and Pawi languages
-seem to have very few or no words similar to the
-Indonesian, and may probably be found to be Papuan
-languages. But nothing is known of the grammar. The
-language of Wandammen presents agreements with the
-Mefoor (or Nufōr) in vocabulary and also in some points
-of grammar. It will probably be found to fall into the
-same class as the Nufōr and Jotafa. The languages of
-the north coast and islands also show a mixture of
-Indonesian with other words. So little is known of the
-structure of the languages in the Kumava Peninsula that
-their place cannot be determined with certainty. The
-numerals and much of the vocabulary appear to be
-Indonesian,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> but there are Papuan forms in the
-Grammar.</p>
-
-<p>The Lobo languages of the Kowiai district on the
-south coast appear to be Indonesian, but those inland
-and south of Geelvink Bay have a distinct connection
-with those on the south coast west of the Kowiai district,
-and with those at the Utanata River and beyond the
-Mimika, at least as far as the Kupera Pukwa River.
-Beyond this point nothing is recorded until Princess
-Marianne Strait is reached, and here of two words
-known, one is Mĕraukĕ.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> The latter language extends
-to the Boundary. All west of the Lobo appear to be
-Papuan.</p>
-
-<p>Using the scanty means available, the languages of
-the Eastern part of Netherlands New Guinea may be
-thus provisionally classified:—</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span></p>
-
-<h4>NORTH COAST AND ISLANDS (INCLUDING EAST AND
-SOUTH SHORE OF GEELVINK BAY).</h4>
-
-<table class="tableleft" summary="NORTH COAST AND ISLANDS" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Papuan.</i></td><td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl">West of Lake Sentani.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Sentani</td><td class="tdl">Lake Sentani.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Moki (?)</td><td class="tdl">Hinterland of Tana Mera Bay.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">...</td><td class="tdl">Tana Mera.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Tarfia (?)</td><td class="tdl">Coast West of Tana Mera Bay.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Takar</td><td class="tdl">Mainland East of Mamberamo R.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Wamberan</td><td class="tdl">? Mamberamo R.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl">Villages on Lower Mamberamo R.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Angadi</td><td class="tdl">Island in Jamur Lake.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Goreda</td><td class="tdl">South of Lake Jamur.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl">North-West of L. Jamur.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Manikion</td><td class="tdl">North of McCleur Inlet (Telok Berau).</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Indonesian</i><a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">35</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl">Humboldt Bay.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Jamna</td><td class="tdl">Island opposite Takar.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Masimasi</td><td class="tdl">Island West of Jamna.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Moar</td><td class="tdl">Islands West of Masimasi.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Kumamba</td><td class="tdl">Islands and Coast West of Moar and Takar.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Waropin</td><td class="tdl">East shore of Geelvink Bay.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Mohr</td><td class="tdl">Island opposite Waropin.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Tandia</td><td class="tdl">Coast South of Waropin.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Jaur</td><td class="tdl">South-West shore of Geelvink Bay.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Dasener</td><td class="tdl">West of Jaur.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Wandammen&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">North of Dasener.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<h4>SOUTH COAST.</h4>
-
-<table class="tableleft" summary="SOUTH COAST." border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Papuan.</i></td><td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl">Inland from Lobo.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl">On Kamaka Wallar Lake.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl">On Telok Lakahia.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Kiruru</td><td class="tdl">On Telok Kiruru.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Utanata</td><td class="tdl">Inland from Utanata River.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Mimika</td><td class="tdl">Inland from Mimika River.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Kupera&nbsp;Pukwa&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Kupera Pukwa River.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Mĕraukĕ</td><td class="tdl">Coast between the Kumbĕ River and&nbsp; the
-British Boundary.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Toro</td><td class="tdl">Bensbach R.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl"><i>Indonesian.&nbsp;&nbsp;</i></td><td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl">North of Kumava Peninsula.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Kapauer</td><td class="tdl">North-West of Kumava Peninsula.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl">South of Kumava Peninsula.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Lobo</td><td class="tdl">Kowiai Coast and Islands of Namatote, Mawara,
-Aiduma, and Kaju-mera.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3>III. COMPARATIVE NOTES ON THE ANGADI-MIMIKA GROUP
-OF LANGUAGES.</h3>
-
-<p>This group consists of the Angadi, Nagramadu,
-Goreda, Utanata, Lakahia, Mimika and Kupera Pukwa
-dialects, and perhaps also Kiruru.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">327</a></span></p>
-
-<p>1. <i>Sound changes.</i><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p>
-
-<p>A comparison of vocabularies shows a certain amount
-of sound change between the dialects. Thus Angadi <i>m</i>
-becomes <i>b</i> in Utanata and Mimika and <i>vice versa</i>.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></p>
-
-<table class="table" width="90%" summary="dialects" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Ex. </td><td class="tdl">Angadi <i>muti</i>, Mimika and Utanata <i>buïti</i>, bamboo.<br />
-Angadi <i>mopere</i>, Nagramadu <i>mobere(bu)</i>, Mimika <i>bopere</i>, navel.<br />
-Angadi <i>mirimoi</i>, Utanata <i>birimbu</i>, Mimika <i>birim</i>, nose.<br />
-Angadi <i>mau</i>, Utanata <i>mouw</i>, Mimika <i>bauwe</i>, foot.<br />
-Angadi <i>tohoma-pare</i>, Mimika <i>to-mari</i>, arm.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>The Angadi <i>m</i> is represented sometimes by <i>mb</i> in
-Mimika, but is retained in Lakahia and Kiruru. Utanata
-examples are not found.</p>
-
-<table class="table" width="90%" summary="dialects" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Ex. </td><td class="tdl">
-Angadi <i>mi</i>, Lakahia <i>mu</i>, Kiruru <i>mi</i>, Mimika <i>mbi</i>, <i>mbu</i>, water.<br />
-Angadi <i>metaho</i>, Mimika <i>mbatau</i>, spit.<br />
-Angadi <i>imiri</i>, Mimika <i>imbiri</i>, shin.<br />
-Mimika <i>amuri</i> is Kupera Pukwa <i>ambori</i>.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>Angadi in some words loses <i>k</i> or <i>g</i> which appears in
-Mimika and Lakahia.</p>
-
-<table class="table" width="90%" summary="dialects" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Ex.</td><td class="tdl">Angadi <i>irĕa</i>, Mimika <i>irĕka</i>, Utanata <i>eriki</i>, fish.<br />
-Angadi <i>kauwa</i>, Mimika <i>kaukwa</i>, woman.<br />
-Angadi <i>maare</i>, Mimika <i>makarĕ</i>, armlet.<br />
-Angadi <i>măe</i>, Mimika <i>mbage</i>, Utanata <i>make</i>, cry, weep.<br />
-Angadi <i>hehe</i>, Lakahia <i>eika</i>, finger-nail.<br />
-Angadi <i>(nata)pairi</i>, Mimika <i>pigeri</i>, skin.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>A few words show an interchange of <i>r</i> and <i>n</i> between
-Mimika and Lakahia.</p>
-
-<table class="table" width="90%" summary="dialects" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl">
-Mimika <i>marĕ</i>, Lakahia <i>mana</i>, finger. (Utanata <i>to-mare</i>, Angadi <i>mahare</i>, hand.)<br />
-Mimika <i>iribu</i>, Utanata and Angadi <i>iripu</i>, Lakahia <i>ini-fa</i>, knee.<br />
-Mimika <i>amuri</i>, Utanata <i>amure</i>, Angadi <i>amore</i>, Lakahia <i>amuno</i>, bow, Kupera
-Pukwa <i>ambori</i>.</td></tr></table>
-
-<p>2.  <i>Vocabulary.</i></p>
-
-<p>The great likeness of the dialects may be illustrated
-by the following examples:—</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span></p>
-
-<table summary="dialects" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><i>Angadi.</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>Utanata.</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>Mimika.</i></td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Arm.</td><td class="tdl"><i>to</i> (in compounds)</td><td class="tdl"><i>tō</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>to</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>esu-rua</i> (?)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Arrow.</td><td class="tdl"><i>ka-tiaro</i> (in bundle)</td><td class="tdl"><i>tiăre</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>tiari</i></td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Boat.</td><td class="tdl"><i>ku</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ku</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ku</i></td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Chin.</td><td class="tdl"><i>kepare</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl"><i>kepare</i></td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Coconut.</td><td class="tdl"><i>utiri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uteri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uteri</i></td><td class="tdl">Kupera Pukwa <i>otiri</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dog.</td><td class="tdl"><i>uwiri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>wuri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>wiri</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>iwora</i>, Nagramadu
-<i>iwŏra</i>, Kupera Pukwa <i>uweri</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Ear.</td><td class="tdl"><i>ihani</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>iänī</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ene</i></td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Eye.</td><td class="tdl"><i>măme</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>mame</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>mame</i></td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Fire.</td><td class="tdl"><i>utămai</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uta</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uta</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>ŭsia</i>, Kiruru  <i>uta</i>,
-Nagramadu <i>uha</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Give.</td><td class="tdl"><i>kema</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl"><i>kema</i></td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Hair.</td><td class="tdl"><i>rup-ere</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uirī</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>viri</i></td><td class="tdl">Kupera Pukwa, <i>uïri</i></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Hand. <i>mahare</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>tu-mare</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>marĕ</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia, <i>mana</i> (finger).</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Head.</td><td class="tdl"><i>rupau</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>upauw</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>kapa-uĕ</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>uwua</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">House.</td><td class="tdl"><i>kăme</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>kamī</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>kamĕ</i></td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Iron.</td><td class="tdl"><i>jau</i> (pot)</td><td class="tdl">(<i>puruti</i>)</td><td class="tdl"><i>tau</i></td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Laugh.</td><td class="tdl"><i>oko</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>oku</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>oko</i></td><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lip.</td><td class="tdl"><i>iri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>iri</i> (mouth)</td><td class="tdl"><i>iri</i></td><td class="tdl">Kiruru <i>uru</i> (mouth).</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Moon.</td><td class="tdl"><i>pură</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uran</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>pura</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>bura</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mountain</td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl">(<i>pamogo</i>)</td><td class="tdl"><i>pukare</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>bugura</i>, Wuaussirau<br />
-<i>wara</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Neck.</td><td class="tdl"><i>amoiï</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ema</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ima</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>umia</i>, Nagramadu
-<i>umeke</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Paddle.</td><td class="tdl"><i>pá</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>pō</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>poh</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>boa</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Pig.</td><td class="tdl"><i>ŏhŏ</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ū</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>u</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>u(fa)</i>, Nagramadu
-<i>ŏhă</i>, Kupera Pukwa <i>uwĕ</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Rain.</td><td class="tdl"><i>keke</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>komak</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ke</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>ge(fa)</i>,  Kiruru <i>kē</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sago.</td><td class="tdl"><i>amata</i></td><td class="tdl">(<i>kinani</i>)</td><td class="tdl"><i>amota</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>ama</i>, Nagramadu
-<i>ĕma</i>, Kupera Pukwa <i>amĕta</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sleep.</td><td class="tdl"><i>ete</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ete</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ete</i></td><td class="tdl">Kupera Pukwa <i>ete</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sugarcane.</td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl"><i>mone</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>mŏni</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>moni(fa)</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sun.</td><td class="tdl"><i>jăū</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>youw</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>yau</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>aya</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tongue.</td><td class="tdl"><i>mere</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>mare</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>malī</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>mara</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tooth.</td><td class="tdl"><i>titi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>titi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>titi</i></td><td class="tdl">Nagramadu <i>si</i>.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wind.</td><td class="tdl"><i>kimiri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>lowri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>kimire</i></td><td class="tdl">Kiruru <i>kemuru</i>.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>3. <i>Pronouns.</i> These are given only in Mimika for the
-singular number, and in Utanata for the first person
-singular, but the words for “I,” Mimika <i>doro</i> and Utanata
-<i>area</i> are unlike. In Mimika the possessive is shown by
-the suffix <i>-ta</i>, which is used also with other words.
-<i>Dorota</i>, mine, <i>oro-ta</i>, yours, <i>amare-ta</i> his, <i>wehwaída-ta</i> of
-another man. <i>Wehwaída</i> is compounded apparently of
-<i>uwe</i> (<i>rí</i>) man and <i>awaída</i> other. In Mairassis “I” is
-<i>omona</i>.</p>
-
-<p>4.  <i>Numerals.</i> No numerals are given by Müller or
-Earl for Utanata. “People of Utanata had very little
-knowledge of counting. When wishing to make known<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span>
-any number, they made use of the word <i>awerí</i> and
-counted on their fingers and toes.”<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> In Angadi, Nagramadu,
-Goreda, Lakahia and Mimika, the numbers appear
-as follows:</p>
-
-<table summary="numbers" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdc">Angadi.</td><td class="tdc">Nagramadu.</td><td class="tdc">Goreda.</td><td class="tdc">Lakahia.</td><td class="tdc">Mimika.</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">1.&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><i>janăūwă</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>nadi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>unakwa</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>onarawa</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>inakwa</i></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">2.&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><i>jaminatia</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ăbåmă</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>jămanini</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>aboma</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>yamani</i></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">3.&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><i>jaminati-janăūwa</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ăbåmă-nadi</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl">(<i>torua</i>)</td><td class="tdl"><i>yamani-inakwa</i></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">4.&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><i>awaitămă-jaminatia&nbsp;&nbsp;</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>abama-båmŏ</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl"><i>(fāt)</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ama-yamani</i></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">5.&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><i>măhăre-ajăherauri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>măma-riba</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>maheri-herori&nbsp;&nbsp;</i></td><td class="tdl">(<i>rim</i>)</td><td class="tdl">..</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">6.&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl"><i>măhăre-janăūwa</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>mariba-nadi</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl"><i>rim-onarawa</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">10. </td><td class="tdl"><i>măhăre-jăminatia</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>măma răbåmă</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>tăoru</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl">..</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>These show a numeration only as far as two.
-“Three” and “four” are made by additions, 2 + 1 = 3
-and 2 + 2 = 4, except in Angadi where <i>awaitămă-jaminatia</i>
-means “another two” with which cf. the
-Mimika <i>awaida</i>, other. <i>Măhăre</i>, <i>maheri</i>, <i>mari</i> in the
-words for “five” also mean “hand,” abbreviated to <i>mă</i> in
-<i>măma</i> of Nagramadu. The Goreda <i>tăoru</i> given for
-“ten,” is the Angadi <i>tăöru</i>, much, Mimika <i>takiri</i>, many.
-In Lakahia the words for “three,” “four,” “five,” “six”
-have the Ceram numerals which are also used in Lobo
-and Namatote. The Mairassis and Wuaussirau numerals
-agree with one another, but differ entirely from those of
-the Angadi-Mimika group.</p>
-
-<table summary="numbers" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdc">One</td><td class="tdc">Two</td><td class="tdc">Three</td><td class="tdc">Four</td><td class="tdc">Five</td><td class="tdc">Six</td><td class="tdc">Ten</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;tangauw</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;amoōi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;karia</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;āi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;iworo</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;iwora-mōi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;werowa-mōi</i></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;anau</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;amōi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;karia</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;aiwera</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;iworo</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;iwor-tanau</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>&nbsp;iwor-toki-tani</i></td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>The low numeration in all these languages may be
-regarded as an indication of their Papuan character.</p>
-
-<p>5.  <i>Construction.</i></p>
-
-<p>A few grammatical forms which appear to be indicated
-in the vocabularies may be noted here.</p>
-
-<p><i>a.</i> The possessive with pronouns and pronominal
-words is indicated by a suffix <i>-ta</i>. Mimika, <i>doro-ta</i>, of
-me, mine; <i>oro-ta</i>, thine; <i>amare-ta</i>, his; <i>wehwaída-ta</i>, of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span>another man. In Angadi several compound words end
-in <i>nata</i>, which thus appears to be a noun, <i>na</i> (thing?),
-with the possessive suffix; and it seems possible to
-explain such words as <i>ută-nata</i>, firewood; <i>kara nata</i>,
-head of javelin—<i>i.e.</i> fire-thing-of, javelin-thing-of. Cf.
-also <i>nata pairi</i> given by v. d. Sande for “skin,” with
-Mimika <i>pīgīri</i>, skin, which suggests that <i>nata pairi</i> means
-skin of something.</p>
-
-<p><i>b.</i> The adjective follows the noun. Utanata <i>warari
-napetike</i>, water big, river.</p>
-
-<p><i>c.</i> A noun in the genitive relation precedes its substantive.
-Mimika <i>bau mame</i>, leg’s eye, ankle; <i>iwau
-makarĕ</i>, belly’s band. Angadi <i>mahare hehe</i>, finger nail;
-<i>māū hehe</i>, toe nail; <i>mirimoi ipa</i>, nose hole, nostril; <i>ihani
-ipa</i>, hole in ear lobe; <i>ămore eme</i>, bow’s rattan, bowstring.</p>
-
-<p><i>d.</i> The subject precedes the verb. Angadi <i>jăū hinau-mara</i>,
-sun rises (?), morning; <i>jăū emapojemia</i>, sun sets (?),
-evening.</p>
-
-<p><i>e.</i> The object also precedes the verb. Angadi <i>ihani
-aimeri</i>, ear pierce; <i>mirimoi aimeri</i>, nose pierce.</p>
-
-<p>These five points indicate a Papuan structure of the
-languages.</p>
-
-<p>6. <i>Comparison with Merauke and the Languages of British
-New Guinea West of the Fly River.</i></p>
-
-<p>The Papuan languages usually show so few agreements
-in vocabulary that the likeness of words, unless
-frequent, cannot be held to establish relationship. In
-the comparative vocabulary, words and numerals are
-added from the languages on British Territory.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> These
-show a few likenesses, which may, however, be accidental.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot2">
-<p class="indent">Arm. Mimika <i>to</i>, Dungerwab <i>tond</i>, Dabu <i>tang</i>, Miriam <i>tag</i>, Kiwai <i>tu</i></p>
-<p class="indent">Arrow. Mimika <i>tiari</i>, Kiwai <i>tere</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Arrow barb. Mimika <i>imari</i>, Kiwai <i>were</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Basket. Mimika <i>temone</i>, Kunini <i>diba</i>, Jibu <i>dimba</i>,
-Mimika <i>eta</i>, Kiwai <i>sito</i>, Mowata <i>hito</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Bird. Mimika <i>pateru</i>, Bugi <i>pa</i> (?), Dabu <i>papa</i> (?).</p>
-<p class="indent">Earth. Mimika <i>tiri</i>, Bangu <i>tiritari</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Eat. Mimika <i>namuka</i>, Bangu <i>jamukwa</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Elbow. Mimika <i>to-mame</i>, Mowata <i>tu-pape</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Fire. Mimika <i>uta</i>, Miriam <i>ur</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Forehead. Mimika <i>metar(re)</i>, Bangu <i>mithago</i>, Miriam <i>mat</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Head. Mimika <i>kapane</i>, Bangu <i>kambu</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Iron. Mimika <i>tau</i>, Dungerwab <i>tod</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Nose. Mimika <i>birim</i>, Dabu <i>murung</i>, Saibai, Miriam <i>pit</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Pig. Mimika <i>ap</i>, Meranke <i>sapi</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Rat. Mimika <i>kemako</i>, Bugi <i>makata</i>, Saibai <i>makas</i>, Miriam <i>mokeis</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Shore. Mimika <i>tiri</i>, Dungerwab <i>tredre</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Sleep. Mimika <i>ete</i>, Bangu <i>ete-betha</i>, Dungerwab <i>eda-bel</i>, Miriam <i>ut-eid</i>.</p>
-<p class="indent">Tree. Mimika <i>uti</i>, Kiwai <i>ota</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3>IV.  MALAYAN INFLUENCE ON THE SOUTH COAST OF
-NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA.</h3>
-
-<p>In a discussion of the languages of the south-eastern
-shores of Netherlands New Guinea, the extent of Malay
-influence in that region must be taken into account.
-Mr. William Churchill has lately put forward a theory
-that the Polynesian people entered the Pacific not only
-by coasting along the northern shores of New Guinea to
-the Solomon Group, but also by a passage through Torres
-Straits, and thence along the south-eastern coast of
-British New Guinea to the New Hebrides.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> On tracing
-the languages westward from Polynesia, it is an indisputable
-fact that many words which are identical with Polynesian
-are found in use along the shores of British New
-Guinea, though they are not used in a Polynesian syntax,
-or in the simplified forms usual in the Eastern tongues.
-It is also a fact that many of these same words are
-current also in the western islands of Indonesia. For
-example, <i>hua</i>, fruit; <i>ina</i>, mother; <i>lala</i>, blood; <i>lau</i>, leaf;
-<i>au</i>, I; <i>ruma</i>, house; <i>inu</i>, drink; <i>utu</i>, louse; <i>tohu</i>, sugar
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">332</a></span>cane, and many other words are identical in the south-east
-of British New Guinea and in Ceram. But in
-British New Guinea the languages which show likeness
-to Polynesian end abruptly at Cape Possession, and are
-not found west of that point.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> Hence it becomes important
-to inquire how far the similar tongues of Amboyna
-and Ceram have influenced the New Guinea languages to
-the east of them. That there is such an influence is
-plain from the vocabularies of the languages. Indonesian
-words, such as the Onin (10) <i>kayu</i>, wood; <i>tanigan</i>,
-ear; <i>nifan</i>, tooth; <i>fenu</i>, turtle; <i>mani</i>, bird; <i>afi</i>, fire, are
-of common occurrence in the islands of the Arafura Sea,
-and on the coast of the mainland. But these words are
-more common in the west, and gradually disappear
-towards Torres Straits, and are not found beyond. In
-Rosenberg’s Karufa list (12) we find such characteristically
-Indonesian words as <i>ulu</i>, hair; <i>mata</i>, eye; <i>uhru</i>,
-mouth; <i>taruya</i>, ear; <i>nima</i>, hand; <i>ora</i>, sun; <i>uran</i>, moon;
-<i>niyu</i>, coconut. Words of this kind are found also in
-Lobo (10) and Namatote (13), as, for example, <i>wuran</i>,
-moon; <i>labi</i>, fire; <i>nima</i>, hand; <i>nena</i>, mother; <i>rara</i>,
-blood; <i>metan</i>, black; <i>tobu</i>, sugar cane; <i>wosa</i>, paddle;
-<i>matoran</i>, sit; <i>mariri</i>, stand. Some of these words seem
-to have passed into Utanata (10) and Lakahia (13), and
-apparently, though not so freely, into Wuaussirau (13),
-Mairassis (10), and Mimika (14). The Kiruru vocabulary
-of Maclay does not appear to show any words of this
-kind. The following are examples of Indonesian or
-Ceram words in the Utanata-Mimika group of languages.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot2">
-<p class="indent">Utanata <i>uran</i>, Lakahia <i>bura</i>, Mairassis <i>furan</i>, Mimika <i>pura</i>, Ceram <i>wulana</i>,
-moon. The Angadi has also <i>pura</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="indent">Lakahia <i>bugura</i>, Wuaussirau <i>wara</i>, Mimika <i>pukare</i>, Ceram <i>uhara</i>, mountain.
-Utanata has <i>pamogo</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="indent">Utanata <i>pō</i>, Lakahia <i>boa</i>, Mimika <i>poh</i>, Ceram <i>wosa</i>, paddle.</p>
-
-<p class="indent">Utanata <i>kai</i>, Ceram <i>kai</i>, wood. For this the Mimika is <i>uti</i>.</p>
-</div>
-<p>A word of much interest in this region is <i>turika</i>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span>or <i>turi</i>. This is given by Muller in his Ceram list as
-<i>turika</i>, knife, in Lobo <i>turi</i>, Onin <i>tuni</i>. Maclay gives the
-Ceram (Keffing) as <i>turito</i>, Namatote and Wuaussirau <i>turi</i>,
-also for “knife.” The word does not appear in Angadi
-or in the list of Ekris (19). Though not apparently used
-in Merauke <i>turik</i> has travelled eastward as far as Torres
-Straits and the Fly River, and even to the borders of the
-Papuan Gulf. Thus Bangu <i>turik</i>, Dabu <i>turikata</i>, Sisiami
-(Bamu R.) <i>turuko</i>, and Tirio <i>turuko</i> mean “knife” (<i>i.e.</i> iron
-knife). In Bugi, Saibai, Mowata and Kiwai, <i>turika</i> and
-in Murray Island <i>tulik</i> mean “iron.”<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></p>
-
-<p>Dr. N. Adriani has pointed out some words adopted
-from Malay in Merauke and also some apparent agreements
-between that language and Indonesian languages
-generally,<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> but there is no evidence of any language from
-Ceram having passed through the Torres Straits. Agreements
-between the Merauke and Papuan languages to the
-east are also pointed out by Dr. Adriani<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> but these are no
-evidence of the passage of a Polynesian fleet, as they
-are not Polynesian words, and the languages using them
-have no Polynesian syntax. Mr. Churchill’s theory of
-the Polynesian entry into the Pacific by way of Torres
-Straits cannot therefore be maintained.</p>
-
-<h3>V. A COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF LANGUAGES IN THE
-NORTH EAST AND SOUTH EAST OF NETHERLANDS
-NEW GUINEA AND OF BRITISH NEW GUINEA WEST
-OF THE FLY RIVER.</h3>
-
-<p>The following vocabulary is arranged strictly in
-Geographical order. The North Eastern Languages
-follow from East to West, from Seka to Manikion, and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span>the South Eastern from Onin to the Boundary and
-thence along the South Coast of British Territory to the
-Western or Right Bank of the Fly River.</p>
-
-<p>The following authorities have been quoted:—<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">45</a></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot2">
-
-<p>1.  <i>Seka.</i> P. E. Moolenburg. Tijd. v. Indische Taal
-xlvii. 1904.</p>
-
-<p>2.  <i>Jotafa</i> [and <i>Sentani</i> in ( )]. G. L. Bink in ibid.
-xlv. 1902.</p>
-
-<p>3. <i>Sentani.</i> P. E. Moolenburg. Bijdragen. t.d.
-Taal. Ned Indië (7) v. 1906.</p>
-
-<p>4.  <i>Tanah Merah</i>, <i>Tarfia</i>, <i>Takar</i>, <i>Jamna</i>, <i>Masimasi</i>,
-<i>Moar</i> (i.e. <i>Wakde</i>) and <i>Kumamba</i>. G. G.
-Batten. Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago,
-1894.</p>
-
-<p>5.  <i>Arimoa.</i> A. B. Meyer. Über die Mafoor’sche,
-1874.</p>
-
-<p>6.  <i>Pauwi.</i> P. J. B. C. Robidé v. d. Aa. “Reisen van
-Braam Morris.” Bijd. t.d. Taal. Ned. Indië. (4)
-x. 1885.</p>
-
-<p>7.  <i>Wamberan</i>, <i>Waropin</i>, <i>Mohr</i>, <i>Tandia</i>, <i>Dasener</i>,
-<i>Jaur</i>. Fabritius. Tijd. v. Indische Taal. iv.
-1885.</p>
-
-<p>8.  <i>Angadi</i>, <i>Goreda</i>, <i>Nagramadu</i>, <i>Manikion</i>. G. A. J.
-v. d. Sande in “Nova Guinea.” Vol. III.
-1907.</p>
-
-<p>9.  <i>Wandammen.</i> G. L. Bink. Tijd. v. Indische
-Taal. xxxiv. 1891.</p>
-
-<p>10.  <i>Onin</i>, <i>Lobo</i>, <i>Mairassis</i>, <i>Utanata</i>. S. Muller.
-Reisen, 1857.</p>
-
-<p>11.  <i>Kapaur.</i> C. J. F. le Cocq d’Armandville. Tijd.
-v. Indische Taal. xlvi. 1903.</p>
-
-<p>12.  <i>Karufa.</i> H. v. Rosenberg. Der Malayische
-Archipel. 1878.</p>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span></p>
-
-<p>13.  <i>Namatote</i>, <i>Wuaussirau</i>, <i>Lakahia</i>, <i>Kiruru</i>. N. v.
-Miklucho Maclay. Tijd. v. Indische Taal. xxiii.
-1876.</p>
-
-<p>14.  <i>Mimika.</i> MS. Dr. A. F. R. Wollaston.</p>
-
-<p>15.  <i>Merauke.</i> J. Seijne Kok. Verband. v. h. Batav.
-Genootsch. v. Kunsten lvi. 1906.</p>
-
-<p>16.  <i>Bangu</i>, <i>Bugi</i>, <i>Dabu</i>, <i>Mowata</i>, <i>Kunini</i>, <i>Jibu</i>,
-<i>Tagota</i>. Reports of Cambridge Anthropological
-Expedition. Vol. III. 1907.</p>
-
-<p>17.  <i>Parb</i>, <i>Saibai</i>, <i>Kiwai</i>, and <i>Tirio</i>. MSS. S. H.
-Ray.</p>
-
-<p>18.  <i>Nufor.</i> J. L. v. Hasselt. Hollandsch. Noefoorsch
-Woordenboek, 1876.</p>
-
-<p>19.  <i>Ceram.</i> A. v. Ekris. Woordenlijst v. Ambonsche
-Eilanden. Mededeel. v. h. Ned. Zendings
-Genoots, viii. 1864-65.</p>
-
-<p>20.  <i>Tuburuasa</i>, <i>Karas</i>. (<i>Islands between Ceram and
-Onin.</i>) P. J. B. C. Robidé v. d. Aa. Reisen
-naar Ned. Nieuw-Guinea, 1879.</p></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.</h3>
-
-<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Man.<br />Man.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Woman.<br /> Vrouw.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Head.<br />Hoofd.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Eye.<br />Oog.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Ear.<br />Oor.</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">subi</td><td class="tdl bl">rutja</td><td class="tdl bl">re</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">tante</td><td class="tdl bl">moi</td><td class="tdl bl">rabunadu</td><td class="tdl bl">windu</td><td class="tdl bl">tĕni</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">doh</td><td class="tdl bl">mī</td><td class="tdl bl">farem,<br />(panem</td><td class="tdl bl">yŏrå, (yeroh</td><td class="tdl bl">anggei,<br />(angei</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Arimoa</td><td class="tdl bl">kabun<br />(<i>white</i></td><td class="tdl bl vertt">...</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">dabro</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">masamana</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">seroro</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">maomba</td><td class="tdl bl">nedba</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">kikia</td><td class="tdl bl">knĭperemba</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl">were</td><td class="tdl bl">kauwă</td><td class="tdl bl">rupau</td><td class="tdl bl">măme</td><td class="tdl bl">ihani</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">yabimă</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">ehăra</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wandammen&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">mua</td><td class="tdl bl">babien</td><td class="tdl bl">rupai</td><td class="tdl bl">rĕne</td><td class="tdl bl">tatelajau</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">marara</td><td class="tdl bl">matapais</td><td class="tdl bl">onimpatin</td><td class="tdl bl">matapatin</td><td class="tdl bl">tanigan</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kapaur</td><td class="tdl bl">neméhār</td><td class="tdl bl">tombŏhār</td><td class="tdl bl">kenda</td><td class="tdl bl">kendep</td><td class="tdl bl">per</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">mutangki</td><td class="tdl bl">maisoida</td><td class="tdl bl">umuh</td><td class="tdl bl">mata</td><td class="tdl bl">taringa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">murwana</td><td class="tdl bl">merwine</td><td class="tdl bl">umu</td><td class="tdl bl">matatungu</td><td class="tdl bl">zingangu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">marowana</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">mawina</td><td class="tdl bl">monongo,<br />umun</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">matalongo</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">tringango</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">fatakowa</td><td class="tdl bl">ewei</td><td class="tdl bl">nanguwu</td><td class="tdl bl">nambutu</td><td class="tdl bl">newirana</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">taturobu</td><td class="tdl bl">ewei</td><td class="tdl bl">kotera</td><td class="tdl bl">obiatu</td><td class="tdl bl">obiru</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">odacira</td><td class="tdl bl">yama</td><td class="tdl bl">uwua</td><td class="tdl bl">managa</td><td class="tdl bl">yawana</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kiruru</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">yawatsha</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Utanata</td><td class="tdl bl">marowana</td><td class="tdl bl">kuranī</td><td class="tdl bl">upauw</td><td class="tdl bl">mameh</td><td class="tdl bl">ianī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">uweri</td><td class="tdl bl">kaukwa,<br />aina</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">kapane</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">mame</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">ene</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">amnangga</td><td class="tdl bl">bubtī, savĕ,<br />īsus(?) iwogĕ</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">pa</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">kīndĕ</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">kambīt</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">kambu</td><td class="tdl bl">ti</td><td class="tdl bl">taroba, tarup</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">ar</td><td class="tdl bl">temarb</td><td class="tdl bl">mor</td><td class="tdl bl">taramb</td><td class="tdl bl">tongal</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">la</td><td class="tdl bl">mala</td><td class="tdl bl">beneqet</td><td class="tdl bl">kalye</td><td class="tdl bl">laandra</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">rabu</td><td class="tdl bl">mure</td><td class="tdl bl">bunkut</td><td class="tdl bl">ikapa</td><td class="tdl bl">ran, ika</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">garakazi</td><td class="tdl bl">ipökazi</td><td class="tdl bl">kuikö</td><td class="tdl bl">dan, purka</td><td class="tdl bl">kaura</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">auana</td><td class="tdl bl">orobo</td><td class="tdl bl">epuru</td><td class="tdl bl">damari</td><td class="tdl bl">hepate, gare</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">binam, ima</td><td class="tdl bl">magebi, ule</td><td class="tdl bl">mope</td><td class="tdl bl">ireu</td><td class="tdl bl">tablame</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jibu</td><td class="tdl bl">vientete, rega</td><td class="tdl bl">konga</td><td class="tdl bl">mopu</td><td class="tdl bl">yere</td><td class="tdl bl">yekrom</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl bl">dubu</td><td class="tdl bl">orobo</td><td class="tdl bl">epuru</td><td class="tdl bl">damari</td><td class="tdl bl">sepate, gare</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">amiami</td><td class="tdl bl">kinasu</td><td class="tdl bl">yapuru</td><td class="tdl bl">pariti</td><td class="tdl bl">pamata</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">moream</td><td class="tdl bl">kana</td><td class="tdl bl">pari</td><td class="tdl bl">tuap</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl bl">snun</td><td class="tdl bl">bien</td><td class="tdl bl">rewuri</td><td class="tdl bl">mgasi</td><td class="tdl bl">knasi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Ceram</td><td class="tdl bl">malona,<br />mandai,<br />makwai,<br />manawal</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">mahina,<br />bina, leuto<br />pepina</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">uru, ulu</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">mata, maa</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">tarina, talina</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tuburuasa</td><td class="tdl bl">maruana</td><td class="tdl bl">mapata</td><td class="tdl bl">unīn</td><td class="tdl bl">matanpuon</td><td class="tdl bl">taningan</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl bb">Karas</td><td class="tdl bl bb">kianam</td><td class="tdl bl bb">paas</td><td class="tdl bb bl">nakalun</td><td class="tdl bb bl">kangiri</td><td class="tdl bb bl">kulokeim</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span></p>
-
-<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Nose.<br />Neus.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Tongue.<br />Tong.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Tooth.<br />Tand.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Hand.<br />Hand.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Sun.<br />Zon.</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">hā</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">na (nabērā,<br /><i>arm</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">su</td><td class="tdl bl">meriki</td><td class="tdl bl">ñoh</td><td class="tdl bl">tibimi</td><td class="tdl bl">tap</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">yoi</td><td class="tdl bl">fēuw</td><td class="tdl bl">je, (tje</td><td class="tdl bl">megeragera,<br />(posadi</td><td class="tdl bl">su</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Arimoa</td><td class="tdl bl">sirino</td><td class="tdl bl">mataro</td><td class="tdl bl">umata</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">kimparia</td><td class="tdl bl">kimsiba</td><td class="tdl bl">kabrua</td><td class="tdl bl">kibawia (<i>arm</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">tebia</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl">mirimoi</td><td class="tdl bl">mere</td><td class="tdl bl">titi</td><td class="tdl bl">mahare</td><td class="tdl bl">yăū</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">yămănărai</td><td class="tdl bl">si</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wandammen&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">swŏnê</td><td class="tdl bl">taperê</td><td class="tdl bl">derĕnesi</td><td class="tdl bl">waraba</td><td class="tdl bl">wor</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">wirin</td><td class="tdl bl">eri</td><td class="tdl bl">nifan</td><td class="tdl bl">nemien</td><td class="tdl bl">rera</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Kapaur</td><td class="tdl bl">kănomba,<br />kănunga</td><td class="tdl bl">gengabu</td><td class="tdl bl">mĕhien-tāb</td><td class="tdl bl">tān</td><td class="tdl bl">kĕmina</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">sikai</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">nimang-uta</td><td class="tdl bl">ohra</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">iyaongu</td><td class="tdl bl">yaeiyongu</td><td class="tdl bl">zwiutiongu</td><td class="tdl bl">siŭsiongu</td><td class="tdl bl">oro-matawuti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl">sikaiongo</td><td class="tdl bl">kariongo</td><td class="tdl bl">ruwotongo</td><td class="tdl bl">nimango-uta</td><td class="tdl bl">orah</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">nambi</td><td class="tdl bl">nenegun</td><td class="tdl bl">sika</td><td class="tdl bl">okorwita</td><td class="tdl bl">onguru</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">ombi</td><td class="tdl bl">onsabi</td><td class="tdl bl">oras</td><td class="tdl bl">uadu</td><td class="tdl bl">unguru</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">onoma</td><td class="tdl bl">mara</td><td class="tdl bl">ifa</td><td class="tdl bl">esurua</td><td class="tdl bl">aya</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Kiruru</td><td class="tdl bl">unuga</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">uru</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">yauburawa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Utanata</td><td class="tdl bl">birimbu</td><td class="tdl bl">mare</td><td class="tdl bl">titi</td><td class="tdl bl">mareh</td><td class="tdl bl">dyauw</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl">bīrim</td><td class="tdl bl">malī</td><td class="tdl bl">titi</td><td class="tdl bl">marĕ</td><td class="tdl bl">yau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl">anggīp</td><td class="tdl bl">unum</td><td class="tdl bl">manggat</td><td class="tdl bl">sangga</td><td class="tdl bl">katŏnī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">thamina</td><td class="tdl bl">ter</td><td class="tdl bl">tambia</td><td class="tdl bl">epotha</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">mebele</td><td class="tdl bl">penji</td><td class="tdl bl">tol</td><td class="tdl bl">tond</td><td class="tdl bl">abiard</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">wede</td><td class="tdl bl">dangamai</td><td class="tdl bl">lenge</td><td class="tdl bl">trang-qab</td><td class="tdl bl">yabada</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">murung</td><td class="tdl bl">dogmar</td><td class="tdl bl">ngui, ngoia</td><td class="tdl bl">tang-kor</td><td class="tdl bl">yabada</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">piti</td><td class="tdl bl">nöi</td><td class="tdl bl">dang</td><td class="tdl bl">get</td><td class="tdl bl">goiga</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">wodi</td><td class="tdl bl">watotorope</td><td class="tdl bl">ibuanara</td><td class="tdl bl">tu-pata (<i>palm</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">iwio</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">keke</td><td class="tdl bl">weta</td><td class="tdl bl">giriu</td><td class="tdl bl">imwe</td><td class="tdl bl">bimu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Jibu</td><td class="tdl bl">soku</td><td class="tdl bl">vrate</td><td class="tdl bl">orkak</td><td class="tdl bl">yema</td><td class="tdl bl">loma</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl bl">wodi</td><td class="tdl bl">wototorope</td><td class="tdl bl">iawa</td><td class="tdl bl">tu-pata (<i>palm</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">sai</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">norose</td><td class="tdl bl">ima</td><td class="tdl bl">sū</td><td class="tdl bl">tikiri</td><td class="tdl bl">uainea</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">miu</td><td class="tdl bl">uo</td><td class="tdl bl">kam</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">dari</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl bl">snŏri</td><td class="tdl bl">kaprēndi</td><td class="tdl bl">nasi</td><td class="tdl bl">rwasi</td><td class="tdl bl">ori</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Ceram</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">hiru, inu,<br />ninu, ili</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">mei, mē, mā</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">niki, niri,<br /> nityi, nio</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">rima, lima,<br />barau</td><td class="tdl bl">rematai,<br />leamatai,<br />leamanyo,<br />deamatae</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Tuburuasa</td><td class="tdl bl">nirīng</td><td class="tdl bl">kwēri</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">tangan</td><td class="tdl bl">nera</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt bb">Karas</td><td class="tdl bb bl">bustang</td><td class="tdl bb bl">belein</td><td class="tdl bb bl">...</td><td class="tdl bb bl">taan</td><td class="tdl bb">ïōn</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span></p>
-
-<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Moon.<br />Maan.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Star.<br />Ster.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Rain.<br />Regen.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Stone.<br />Steen.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Fire.<br />Vuur.</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">sembi</td><td class="tdl bl">endor</td><td class="tdl bl">tāb</td><td class="tdl bl">āt</td><td class="tdl bl">aijări</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">ara, (aroh</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">(ya</td><td class="tdl bl">tuga, (duwa</td><td class="tdl bl">ī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Arimoa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">fati</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl">pură</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">kehe</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">ută-mai</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">emoya</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">uhă</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wandammen&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">sembai</td><td class="tdl bl">siberere</td><td class="tdl bl">rama</td><td class="tdl bl">rebuki</td><td class="tdl bl">adia, adyat</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">punono</td><td class="tdl bl">apatin-no-farere</td><td class="tdl bl">unano</td><td class="tdl bl">pāti</td><td class="tdl bl">api</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Kapaur</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">koba, keba,<br />kabah</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">mbāb</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">kĕri</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">wār</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">tōm</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">uran</td><td class="tdl bl">ŏma</td><td class="tdl bl">kama</td><td class="tdl bl">langerah</td><td class="tdl bl">lawi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">wuran</td><td class="tdl bl">omoma</td><td class="tdl bl">omo</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">labi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl">furan</td><td class="tdl bl">komakoma</td><td class="tdl bl">komah</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">lawi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">furan</td><td class="tdl bl">waniwani</td><td class="tdl bl">yamo</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">iworo</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">angane</td><td class="tdl bl">onburi</td><td class="tdl bl">yamu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">iworo</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">bura</td><td class="tdl bl">mawena</td><td class="tdl bl">gefa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">ŭsia</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kiruru</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">imaru</td><td class="tdl bl">kē</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">uta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Utanata</td><td class="tdl bl">uran</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">koma</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">uta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl">pura</td><td class="tdl bl">mako</td><td class="tdl bl">ke</td><td class="tdl bl">omanī</td><td class="tdl bl">uta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl">mandau</td><td class="tdl bl">ovom, uvum</td><td class="tdl bl">heĕ</td><td class="tdl bl">katarĕ</td><td class="tdl bl">takavĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">narunjar</td><td class="tdl bl">tan</td><td class="tdl bl">meni</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">tugiu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">nou</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">pend</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">kak</td><td class="tdl bl">qatai</td><td class="tdl bl">yugula</td><td class="tdl bl">dader</td><td class="tdl bl">iu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">qar, qak</td><td class="tdl bl">piro</td><td class="tdl bl">igurai</td><td class="tdl bl">dadar</td><td class="tdl bl">yu, dumbrel</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">mulpal, kizai</td><td class="tdl bl">titui</td><td class="tdl bl">ari</td><td class="tdl bl">kula</td><td class="tdl bl">mui</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">ganume</td><td class="tdl bl">zogubo</td><td class="tdl bl">wiari</td><td class="tdl bl">nora-api</td><td class="tdl bl">era</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">mabie</td><td class="tdl bl">wale</td><td class="tdl bl">ngupe</td><td class="tdl bl">magezuli</td><td class="tdl bl">muie</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jibu</td><td class="tdl bl">mobi</td><td class="tdl bl">guje</td><td class="tdl bl">piro</td><td class="tdl bl">nora</td><td class="tdl bl">para</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">sagana</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">gugi</td><td class="tdl bl">mauburo,<br />wisai</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">kuraere</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">era</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">korame</td><td class="tdl bl">apapa</td><td class="tdl bl">iōuko</td><td class="tdl bl">kuma</td><td class="tdl bl">suze</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">mano</td><td class="tdl bl">durupa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">tamaga</td><td class="tdl bl">jau</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">paik</td><td class="tdl bl">ătaruwa,<br />samfari</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">mĕkem,</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">kĕru</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">fōr</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Ceram</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">huran, ulano,<br />buran</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">marit, kolomali,<br />kamali, umalio</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">uran, ulan,<br />kial</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">hatu, batu</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">hau, au</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tuburuasa</td><td class="tdl bl">puna</td><td class="tdl bl">finma</td><td class="tdl bl">unang</td><td class="tdl bl">pati</td><td class="tdl bl">lawi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl bb">Karas</td><td class="tdl bl bb">pak</td><td class="tdl bl bb">masseer</td><td class="tdl bl bb">kekal</td><td class="tdl bl bb">jaar</td><td class="tdl bl bb">dien</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span></p>
-
-<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl"> Water.<br /> Water.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Pig.<br />Varken.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Fish.<br />Visch.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Coconut.<br />Kokos-noot.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">House.<br />Huis.</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">pā</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">nanu</td><td class="tdl bl">por</td><td class="tdl bl">igeh</td><td class="tdl bl">nīno</td><td class="tdl bl">duma</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">bu</td><td class="tdl bl">(yoku</td><td class="tdl bl">ka</td><td class="tdl bl">koh</td><td class="tdl bl">ime</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Arimoa</td><td class="tdl bl">dano</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">niwi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">memba</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">hŭsia</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl">mi</td><td class="tdl bl">ŏhŏ</td><td class="tdl bl">ireă</td><td class="tdl bl">utiri</td><td class="tdl bl">kãme</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">ŏhă</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">măgrabe</td><td class="tdl bl">ya</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wandammen&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">kambu</td><td class="tdl bl">pisai</td><td class="tdl bl">diya</td><td class="tdl bl">ankadi</td><td class="tdl bl">anio</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">weari</td><td class="tdl bl">papio</td><td class="tdl bl">sairi</td><td class="tdl bl">ruroh</td><td class="tdl bl">rumaso</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kapaur</td><td class="tdl bl">kĕra</td><td class="tdl bl">ndur, kalapaji,<br />măma </td><td class="tdl bl">heir</td><td class="tdl bl">no’ur</td><td class="tdl bl">wuri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">ualar</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">dohndi</td><td class="tdl bl">niyu</td><td class="tdl bl">tsaring</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">wălar</td><td class="tdl bl">boi</td><td class="tdl bl">dondi</td><td class="tdl bl">niu (?)</td><td class="tdl bl">sarin</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl">walar</td><td class="tdl bl">bōi</td><td class="tdl bl">donde</td><td class="tdl bl">niu</td><td class="tdl bl">sarin</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">wata</td><td class="tdl bl">bemba</td><td class="tdl bl">kuratu</td><td class="tdl bl">owah</td><td class="tdl bl">watara</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">kai</td><td class="tdl bl">wembe</td><td class="tdl bl">kuratu</td><td class="tdl bl">obo</td><td class="tdl bl">wata</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">mura</td><td class="tdl bl">ufa</td><td class="tdl bl">nema</td><td class="tdl bl">wuina</td><td class="tdl bl">yafa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kiruru</td><td class="tdl bl">mi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Utanata</td><td class="tdl bl">warari</td><td class="tdl bl">uh</td><td class="tdl bl">erika</td><td class="tdl bl">uteri</td><td class="tdl bl">kami</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl">mbi, mbu</td><td class="tdl bl">u, api</td><td class="tdl bl">irĕka</td><td class="tdl bl">utēri</td><td class="tdl bl">kamĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl">daka</td><td class="tdl bl">basikĕ</td><td class="tdl bl">pararĕ,<br />parara</td><td class="tdl bl">misĕ, onggat,<br />wīmap</td><td class="tdl bl">sava, aha</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl">tauqar</td><td class="tdl bl">rougu</td><td class="tdl bl">thaua</td><td class="tdl bl">nangar</td><td class="tdl bl">boot, munka</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">nou</td><td class="tdl bl">kimb</td><td class="tdl bl">angur</td><td class="tdl bl">argh, kwogh,<br />keu</td><td class="tdl bl">mongo</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">ngi</td><td class="tdl bl">simbel</td><td class="tdl bl">galba</td><td class="tdl bl">nge</td><td class="tdl bl">māē</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">ine</td><td class="tdl bl">mule,chimela,<br />sasa</td><td class="tdl bl">pudi</td><td class="tdl bl">ngoi, guvi</td><td class="tdl bl">ma</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">nguki</td><td class="tdl bl">burum</td><td class="tdl bl">wapi</td><td class="tdl bl">urab</td><td class="tdl bl">mud</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">obo</td><td class="tdl bl">boromo</td><td class="tdl bl">arimina</td><td class="tdl bl">oi</td><td class="tdl bl">moto</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">nīe</td><td class="tdl bl">blome</td><td class="tdl bl">ibu</td><td class="tdl bl">ia</td><td class="tdl bl">mete</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jibu</td><td class="tdl bl">nia</td><td class="tdl bl">woroma</td><td class="tdl bl">waji</td><td class="tdl bl">u</td><td class="tdl bl">meta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl bl">obo</td><td class="tdl bl">boromo</td><td class="tdl bl">irisina</td><td class="tdl bl">oi</td><td class="tdl bl">moto</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">opa</td><td class="tdl bl">sepera</td><td class="tdl bl">kopoma</td><td class="tdl bl">sapu-mutira</td><td class="tdl bl">turie</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">mauka</td><td class="tdl bl">minao</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl bl">wār</td><td class="tdl bl">beyen</td><td class="tdl bl">iyen</td><td class="tdl bl">srabon</td><td class="tdl bl">rum</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Ceram</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">waer, wael,<br />kwael</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">hahu, apal</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">ian, iano</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">niwer, niwel,<br />nimel, nikwel,<br />noolo</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">ruma, luma</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tuburuasa</td><td class="tdl bl">wêre</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">se</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">kapalla</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl bb">Karas</td><td class="tdl bl bb">pere</td><td class="tdl bl bb">...</td><td class="tdl bl bb">soor</td><td class="tdl bl bb">...</td><td class="tdl bl bb">kawe</td></tr>
-</table>
-<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY, NUMERALS.</h3>
-
-<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">One. Een.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Two. Twee.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Three. Drie.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Four. Vier.</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">ahi (ari?)</td><td class="tdl bl">hitjun</td><td class="tdl bl">hetun</td><td class="tdl bl">nabu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">the</td><td class="tdl bl">ros</td><td class="tdl bl">for</td><td class="tdl bl">au</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">imbai</td><td class="tdl bl">be</td><td class="tdl bl">name</td><td class="tdl bl">gŭri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tana Merah</td><td class="tdl bl">ogosarai</td><td class="tdl bl">saibona</td><td class="tdl bl">ondoafi</td><td class="tdl bl">soronto</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tarfia</td><td class="tdl bl">tukse</td><td class="tdl bl">arho</td><td class="tdl bl">tor</td><td class="tdl bl">fauk</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Takar</td><td class="tdl bl">afateni</td><td class="tdl bl">nawa</td><td class="tdl bl">nawa-jengki</td><td class="tdl bl">nawa-nawa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jamna</td><td class="tdl bl">tes</td><td class="tdl bl">ru</td><td class="tdl bl">tau</td><td class="tdl bl">fau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Masimasi</td><td class="tdl bl">kīs</td><td class="tdl bl">ru</td><td class="tdl bl">tou</td><td class="tdl bl">fo</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Moar</td><td class="tdl bl">hibeti</td><td class="tdl bl">ru</td><td class="tdl bl">tou</td><td class="tdl bl">fau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kumamba</td><td class="tdl bl">tès</td><td class="tdl bl">lu</td><td class="tdl bl">taur</td><td class="tdl bl">fau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">pa-sari</td><td class="tdl bl">pa-ri</td><td class="tdl bl">pa-rosi</td><td class="tdl bl">pa-rasi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wamberan</td><td class="tdl bl">tenama</td><td class="tdl bl">bisa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Waropin</td><td class="tdl bl">wo-sio</td><td class="tdl bl">wo-ruo</td><td class="tdl bl">wo-ro</td><td class="tdl bl">wo-ako</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mohr</td><td class="tdl bl">tata</td><td class="tdl bl">ruru</td><td class="tdl bl">oro</td><td class="tdl bl">ao</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">janăūwă</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">jăminatia</td><td class="tdl bl">jaminati-janăūwă</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">awaitămă-jaminatia</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Goreda</td><td class="tdl bl">unakwa</td><td class="tdl bl">jămanini</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">nadi</td><td class="tdl bl">ăbåmă</td><td class="tdl bl">ăbåmă-nadi</td><td class="tdl bl">ăbåmŏ-båmŏ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tandia</td><td class="tdl bl">nei</td><td class="tdl bl">rusi</td><td class="tdl bl">turusi</td><td class="tdl bl">attesi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dasener</td><td class="tdl bl">joser</td><td class="tdl bl">suru</td><td class="tdl bl">toru</td><td class="tdl bl">ati</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jaur</td><td class="tdl bl">rebe</td><td class="tdl bl">redu</td><td class="tdl bl">reü</td><td class="tdl bl">rea</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Wandammen</td><td class="tdl bl">siri</td><td class="tdl bl">mondu</td><td class="tdl bl">tŏru</td><td class="tdl bl">atê</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Manikion</td><td class="tdl bl">hom</td><td class="tdl bl">hŏai</td><td class="tdl bl">homoi</td><td class="tdl bl">hŏku</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">sa</td><td class="tdl bl">nuwa</td><td class="tdl bl">teni</td><td class="tdl bl">fāt</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kapauer</td><td class="tdl bl">hĕre-wo</td><td class="tdl bl">hĕre-rīk</td><td class="tdl bl">hĕre-terī</td><td class="tdl bl">hère-ngara</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">simoksi</td><td class="tdl bl">rueiti</td><td class="tdl bl">tohru</td><td class="tdl bl">bahdi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">samosi</td><td class="tdl bl">rueiti</td><td class="tdl bl">toru</td><td class="tdl bl">fāt</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl">samosi</td><td class="tdl bl">rueti</td><td class="tdl bl">tuwru</td><td class="tdl bl">fāt</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">tangauw</td><td class="tdl bl">amōi</td><td class="tdl bl">karia</td><td class="tdl bl">āi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">anau</td><td class="tdl bl">amoi</td><td class="tdl bl">karia</td><td class="tdl bl">aiwera</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">onarawa</td><td class="tdl bl">aboma</td><td class="tdl bl">torua</td><td class="tdl bl">fāt</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">inakwa</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">yamani</td><td class="tdl bl">yamani-īnakwa</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">ama-yamani</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl">zakod</td><td class="tdl bl">iena</td><td class="tdl bl">iena-zakod</td><td class="tdl bl">iena-iena</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">nambu, nambi</td><td class="tdl bl">yethombi,<br />kethembi</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">yetho</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">asar</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">ambiur</td><td class="tdl bl">tumbi</td><td class="tdl bl">lambi</td><td class="tdl bl">tutubiar</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">tarangesa</td><td class="tdl bl">metakina</td><td class="tdl bl">gingi-metakina</td><td class="tdl bl">topea</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">tupi-dibi</td><td class="tdl bl">kumi-rivi</td><td class="tdl bl">kumi-reriga</td><td class="tdl bl">kumi-rivi-kumi-rivi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">wara, urapon</td><td class="tdl bl">uka, ukasar</td><td class="tdl bl">uka-modobigal</td><td class="tdl bl">uka-uka</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">nau</td><td class="tdl bl">netoa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">iepa</td><td class="tdl bl">neneni</td><td class="tdl bl">nesae</td><td class="tdl bl">neneni-neneni</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt">Jibu</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">yepa</td><td class="tdl bl">kuraiepa<br />(<i>finger</i>)</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">kuraiepa</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">kuraiepa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl bl">nau</td><td class="tdl bl">netewa</td><td class="tdl bl">netewa-nau</td><td class="tdl bl">netewa-netewa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">oroka</td><td class="tdl bl">miseka</td><td class="tdl bl">misorako</td><td class="tdl bl">miseka-miseka</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">uradaga</td><td class="tdl bl">mitiga</td><td class="tdl bl">nan</td><td class="tdl bl">mitiga-mitiga</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl bl">sai, ŏsēr</td><td class="tdl bl">dui, suru</td><td class="tdl bl">kior</td><td class="tdl bl">fiak</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertt bb">Ceram</td><td class="tdl vertt bl bb">isa, sā</td><td class="tdl bl bb">rua, lua,<br />dua, roti</td><td class="tdl bl bb">teru, telu,<br />tolu, toru</td><td class="tdl bl bb">haa, hata,<br />ata, fāt</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span></p>
-
-<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl bt bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Five. Vijf.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Six. Zes.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Ten. Tien.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Twenty. Twintig.</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">naplan</td><td class="tdl bl">naplahi</td><td class="tdl bl">amplahari</td><td class="tdl bl">amplanaplan</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">mimiām</td><td class="tdl bl">măndŏsīm</td><td class="tdl bl">ronduminarōs</td><td class="tdl bl">manisayām</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">mehembai</td><td class="tdl bl">mehinimbai</td><td class="tdl bl">mehinmehembai</td><td class="tdl bl">megohri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tana Merah</td><td class="tdl bl">ogosarai</td><td class="tdl bl">demean</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tarfia</td><td class="tdl bl">rim</td><td class="tdl bl">mana-tuksi</td><td class="tdl bl">mafarufaru</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Takar</td><td class="tdl bl">nawa-nawa-jengki</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jamna</td><td class="tdl bl">jim, rim</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">sinafui</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Masimasi</td><td class="tdl bl">rim</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">sanafu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Moar</td><td class="tdl bl">rim</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kumamba</td><td class="tdl bl">lim</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">sanafun</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">pa-rinisi</td><td class="tdl bl">ponensi</td><td class="tdl bl">putaonsi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wamberan</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Waropin</td><td class="tdl bl">rimo</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mohr</td><td class="tdl bl">rimo</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl">măhărè-ajăhe-rauri</td><td class="tdl bl">măhărè-jană-ūwă</td><td class="tdl bl">măhăre-jămi-natia</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Goreda</td><td class="tdl bl">mahère-hèrori</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">tăóru</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">măma-riba</td><td class="tdl bl">mariba-nadi</td><td class="tdl bl">măma-răbåmă</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tandia</td><td class="tdl bl">marasi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dasener</td><td class="tdl bl">rimbi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jaur</td><td class="tdl bl">breiare</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wandammen</td><td class="tdl bl">rīm</td><td class="tdl bl">rīmi-siri</td><td class="tdl bl">sura</td><td class="tdl bl">snun-tupesi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Manikion</td><td class="tdl bl">sirkem</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">nima</td><td class="tdl bl">nem</td><td class="tdl bl">pusua</td><td class="tdl bl">puti-nuwa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kapauer</td><td class="tdl bl">hĕre-tembu</td><td class="tdl bl">here-tembu-here-wo</td><td class="tdl bl">pra’a</td><td class="tdl bl">to mdijowo</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">rimi</td><td class="tdl bl">rom-simoksi</td><td class="tdl bl">putja</td><td class="tdl bl">siúmput-rueiti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">rim</td><td class="tdl bl">rim-samoti</td><td class="tdl bl">futsa</td><td class="tdl bl">ombutueti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl">rimi</td><td class="tdl bl">rim-samosi</td><td class="tdl bl">wutsya</td><td class="tdl bl">sekumat-rueti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">iworo</td><td class="tdl bl">iwora-mōi (? 7)</td><td class="tdl bl">werowa-moi</td><td class="tdl bl">yauw-nat-makia</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">iworo</td><td class="tdl bl">iwor-tanau</td><td class="tdl bl">iwor-toki-tani</td><td class="tdl bl">toki-amoi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">rim</td><td class="tdl bl">rim-onarawa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl">iena-iena-zakod</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl">tambothoi</td><td class="tdl bl">nimbo</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">tumbi-tumbi-yambia</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">manda</td><td class="tdl bl">gaben</td><td class="tdl bl">dala</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">tumu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">imegube</td><td class="tdl bl">matemate (<i>wrist</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">dare (<i>breast</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Jibu</td><td class="tdl bl">kuraiepa</td><td class="tdl bl">ribenda (<i>wrist</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">mua (<i>breast</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">miseka-miseka-oroka</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">uradaga (?)</td><td class="tdl bl">moti-taba-nan</td><td class="tdl bl">moti-tatan</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop">
-<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl bl">rīm</td><td class="tdl bl">onem</td><td class="tdl bl">samfur</td><td class="tdl bl">samfur-di-suru</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl bb">Ceram</td><td class="tdl bl bb">rima, lima, dima</td><td class="tdl bl bb">nē, nena, nō, onam</td><td class="tdl bl bb">husane, husā, utsya</td><td class="tdl bl bb">huturua</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1500px;"><a href="images/i_p342.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_p342.jpg" width="1500" height="1286" alt="LANGUAGE MAP" /></a>
-<p class="caption">LANGUAGE MAP<br />
-of the<br />
-Eastern Part of Netherlands New Guinea<br />
-Sidney H. Ray</p></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">343</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="center">LIST OF WORDS USED BY THE PAPUANS IN THE DISTRICT
-OF THE MIMIKA RIVER, S. W. DUTCH NEW GUINEA.</p>
-
-<table summary="LIST OF WORDS" border="0"><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Above</td><td class="tdl">Opo</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Acid</td><td class="tdr"><big><big><big>{</big></big></big></td><td class="tdl">Tite<br />Imakemàn</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Animal</td><td class="tdl">Irĕka (also<br />“fish”</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ankle</td><td class="tdl">Bau-mámĕ</td>
-</tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ant</td><td class="tdl">Wámé</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm">Arm</td><td class="tdr"><big><big><big>{</big></big></big></td><td class="tdl">To-marī<br />To</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Arm-band</td><td class="tdl">Maka-rĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Arrive</td><td class="tdl">Mainaumà</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Arrow</td><td class="tdl">Tīari</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(barb of)</td><td class="tdl">Imari</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Atap</td><td class="tdl">Wurī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Axilla</td><td class="tdl">Emmabu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Back (of man)</td><td class="tdl">Ata</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bamboo</td><td class="tdl">Búiti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Banana</td><td class="tdl">Kau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(plantation of)</td><td class="tdl">Kauti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Band (of rattan worn round middle)&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Iwau-mákarĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bandicoot</td><td class="tdl">Púruga</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bark (of tree)</td><td class="tdl">Pīkī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Basket</td><td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><big><big><big>{</big></big></big></td><td class="tdl">Temme</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Eta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Beads</td><td class="tdl">Kamburi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bean</td><td class="tdl">Kawetī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="4">Beard</td><td class="tdr f4" rowspan="4">{</td><td class="tdl">Keparise</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Kepa bíri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Burídi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Pakúti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bed (mat)</td><td class="tdl">Kápiri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bee</td><td class="tdl">Imoho</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Beetle</td><td class="tdl">Buruta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Belch</td><td class="tdl">Mbau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Belly</td><td class="tdl">Iwau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Big</td><td class="tdr f2" rowspan="2">{</td><td class="tdl">Atwa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Iwáko</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Bird</td><td class="tdr f2" rowspan="2">{</td><td class="tdl">Páteru</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Páturu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">(of Paradise</td><td class="tdr f2" rowspan="2">{</td><td class="tdl">Yamuku</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Yau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Bitter</td><td class="tdr f2" rowspan="2">{</td><td class="tdl">Tite</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Imakemàn</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Black</td><td class="tdl">Ikako</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Blood</td><td class="tdl">Maréte</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Blunt</td><td class="tdl">Yamenà</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boat</td><td class="tdl">Ku</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bodice (of woven fibre)</td><td class="tdl">Paitĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Body</td><td class="tdl">Nata</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bottle</td><td class="tdl">Kárepa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bow</td><td class="tdl">Amúri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bow-string</td><td class="tdl">Kima</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Breast (of woman)</td><td class="tdl">Auwĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(of man)</td><td class="tdl">Pītī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Breathe</td><td class="tdl">Túa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Broken</td><td class="tdl">Táka</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Butterfly</td><td class="tdl">Wīrī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Buttock</td><td class="tdl">Atabú</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Calf (of leg)</td><td class="tdl">Ewambugu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Canoe</td><td class="tdl">Ku</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cap (worn by widows)</td><td class="tdl">Ubauta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Carve (to)</td><td class="tdl">Maramu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cassowary</td><td class="tdl">Tu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Centipede</td><td class="tdl">Arowī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Coconut</td><td class="tdl">Utēri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cheek</td><td class="tdl">Awár(re)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Child</td><td class="tdl">Aidru</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chin</td><td class="tdl">Kepáre</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cicada</td><td class="tdl">Wéako</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cloth</td><td class="tdl">Pīkī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Club</td><td class="tdl">Moánne</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Clouds</td><td class="tdl">Apu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cockatoo</td><td class="tdl">Pukī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cold</td><td class="tdl">Yu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Comb</td><td class="tdl">Ta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Copulate</td><td class="tdl">Ipĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cough</td><td class="tdl">Otah</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="3">Crab</td><td class="tdr f3" rowspan="3">{</td><td class="tdl">Peja</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Epor(re)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Bī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Crayfish</td><td class="tdl">Bĭ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Crocodile</td><td class="tdl">Tīmaku</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cry (weep)</td><td class="tdl">Mbágĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cut (to)</td><td class="tdl">Embe</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cuscus (Phalanger)</td><td class="tdl">Apui</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Dance</td><td class="tdl">Dirin-dirin</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Deep</td><td class="tdl">Emúku</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Dog</td><td class="tdl">Wīrī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Drink</td><td class="tdl">Tomagu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Drum</td><td class="tdl">Emmĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ear</td><td class="tdl">Éne</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ear-ring</td><td class="tdl">Tīrawōnĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Earth (sand)</td><td class="tdl">Tīrī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Eat</td><td class="tdl">Namúka</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Eel</td><td class="tdl">Mbatarúbia</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Egg</td><td class="tdl">Tareté</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Elbow</td><td class="tdl">To-mámé</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Exchange</td><td class="tdl">Akóra</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Eye</td><td class="tdl">Mámé</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Eyebrow</td><td class="tdl">Mambīrī<br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span></td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Far</td><td class="tdl">Awakopíre</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fat</td><td class="tdl">Atwa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Feather</td><td class="tdl">Idī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Finger</td><td class="tdl">Márĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Finger-nail</td><td class="tdl">Marē</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fire</td><td class="tdl">Utá</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(stick)</td><td class="tdl">Utamau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fish</td><td class="tdl">Irĕka</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fly (insect)</td><td class="tdl">Oboö</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Flying-fox</td><td class="tdl">Iéa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Foot</td><td class="tdl">Bauwe</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Forehead</td><td class="tdl">Métár(re)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ghost</td><td class="tdl">Níniki</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Give</td><td class="tdl">Kéma</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Grass</td><td class="tdl">Umetir(re)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Grasshopper</td><td class="tdl">Atŏkŏ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Green</td><td class="tdl">Otopu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hair</td><td class="tdl">Vīrī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hand</td><td class="tdl">Marĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">He</td><td class="tdl">Amárepa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Head</td><td class="tdl">Kapa-uĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Heavy</td><td class="tdl">Ikīti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Heel</td><td class="tdl">Mbautep(e)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">His</td><td class="tdl">Amareta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hiccough</td><td class="tdl">Urri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hornbill</td><td class="tdl">Kumai</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hornet</td><td class="tdl">Imŏkŏ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">House</td><td class="tdl">Kámĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">I</td><td class="tdl">Doro</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ill</td><td class="tdl">Namúti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Image (carved)</td><td class="tdl">Betoro</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Iron</td><td class="tdl">Tau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Knee</td><td class="tdl">Irību</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lance</td><td class="tdl">Uruna</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Laugh</td><td class="tdl">Oko</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Leaf</td><td class="tdl">E</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Leg</td><td class="tdl">Atīrī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lightning</td><td class="tdl">Marapiti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lips</td><td class="tdl">Irī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Little</td><td class="tdl">Mimiti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lizard</td><td class="tdl">Inamo</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lizard (frilled)</td><td class="tdl">Wago</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Loins</td><td class="tdl">Yaïmi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Man</td><td class="tdl">Uweri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Many</td><td class="tdl">Tákiri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mat (of pandanus)</td><td class="tdl">Au</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Melon</td><td class="tdl">Anĕtĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mine</td><td class="tdl">Dorota</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Moon</td><td class="tdl">Pura</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mosquito</td><td class="tdl">Itjī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mountain</td><td class="tdl">Púkare</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mouth</td><td class="tdl">Ba</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Moustache</td><td class="tdl">Mbu-tīrĭ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Navel</td><td class="tdl">Boporĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Neck</td><td class="tdl">Ima</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">New</td><td class="tdl">Aigu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Nod</td><td class="tdl">Kiparu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Nose</td><td class="tdl">Bīrim</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(secretion of)</td><td class="tdl">Bīndī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Old man of village</td><td class="tdl">Natu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">One</td><td class="tdl">Inakwa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Orchid</td><td class="tdl">Idarōnĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Other</td><td class="tdl">Awaida</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Other man</td><td class="tdl">Wehwaida</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Other man’s</td><td class="tdl">Wehwaidata</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Paddle</td><td class="tdl">Poh</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Palate</td><td class="tdl">Tībanne</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Papaya</td><td class="tdl">Tĕnà</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Parrot</td><td class="tdl">Akīma</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pearl</td><td class="tdl">Omab(e)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Penis</td><td class="tdl">Kamàrē</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(case)</td><td class="tdl">Kamare-po(ko)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Pig</td><td class="tdr f2" rowspan="2">{</td><td class="tdl">U</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Api</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pigeon</td><td class="tdl">Parúa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pillow (wooden)</td><td class="tdl">Yamate</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pine-apple</td><td class="tdl">Makadĕtĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Prawn</td><td class="tdl">Mbi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pumpkin</td><td class="tdl">Nabru</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Python</td><td class="tdl">Pīmī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rain</td><td class="tdl">Ke</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rainbow</td><td class="tdl">Parakĕta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rapids</td><td class="tdl">Kamáwa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rat</td><td class="tdl">Kemako</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rattan</td><td class="tdl">Kima</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Red</td><td class="tdl">Epĕró</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ribs</td><td class="tdl">Párĕrŏ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rice</td><td class="tdl">Wátē</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ripe</td><td class="tdl">Pu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">River</td><td class="tdl">Iuata</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Road (track)</td><td class="tdl">Mako</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rope</td><td class="tdl">Temmà</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sacrum</td><td class="tdl">Wagamau(e)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sago</td><td class="tdl">Amŏta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(beater)</td><td class="tdl">Wapúri</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sago-bowl</td><td class="tdl">Pámagu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sap</td><td class="tdl">Namī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Scorpion</td><td class="tdl">Purumbaä</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sea</td><td class="tdl">Takarī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shallow</td><td class="tdl">Taparī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sharp</td><td class="tdl">Yánakŏ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shell</td><td class="tdl">Parau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shell-fish</td><td class="tdl">Uwo</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shin</td><td class="tdl">Imbīrī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shore</td><td class="tdl">Tīrī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shoulder</td><td class="tdl">Ta-rī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shoulder-blade</td><td class="tdl">To-bābŭ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Skin</td><td class="tdl">Pīgerī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span>Skull</td><td class="tdl">Upau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sleep</td><td class="tdl">Eté</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Snail</td><td class="tdl">Tapoko</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Snake</td><td class="tdl">Apako</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sneeze</td><td class="tdl">Yaiē</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Spear</td><td class="tdl">Uruna</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(wooden)</td><td class="tdl">Potaku</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Spit</td><td class="tdl">Mbatau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Star</td><td class="tdl">Mako</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Steal</td><td class="tdl">Otemu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Stick (of club)</td><td class="tdl">Wu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sting-ray</td><td class="tdl">Kaū</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Stone</td><td class="tdl">Omanī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Suck</td><td class="tdl">Au</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sugar-cane</td><td class="tdl">Mŏnī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sun</td><td class="tdl">Yau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sweat</td><td class="tdl">Papitī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sweet potato</td><td class="tdl">Pamu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Swim</td><td class="tdl">Tīmago</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tear (a)</td><td class="tdl">Bágumbú</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Thigh</td><td class="tdl">I</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Throat</td><td class="tdl">Kīmárĭ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Thumb</td><td class="tdl f2 padr5" rowspan="2">}</td><td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Ipau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Great&nbsp;Toe</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Thunder</td><td class="tdl">Uraki</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tired</td><td class="tdl">Toh</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tobacco</td><td class="tdl">Kapakī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">To-day</td><td class="tdl">Wauwà</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Toes</td><td class="tdl">Bauwē</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">To-morrow</td><td class="tdl">Kaúmuta</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tongue</td><td class="tdl">Malī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tooth</td><td class="tdl">Tītī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tree</td><td class="tdl">Uti</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Turtle</td><td class="tdl">Mbiambu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Two</td><td class="tdl">Yamani</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Upset</td><td class="tdl">Pīro</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Viper</td><td class="tdl">Mágu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Vomit</td><td class="tdl">Mbau</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Water</td><td class="tdl">Mbi</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Mbu</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(make)</td><td class="tdl">Gīgī</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wet</td><td class="tdl">Nata</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Whistle</td><td class="tdl">Wiramogo</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">White</td><td class="tdl">Naputiàre</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wind</td><td class="tdl">Kīmīr(e)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl vertm" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Woman</td><td class="tdl">Kaukwa</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl">Aina</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wound</td><td class="tdl">Natŭ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wrist</td><td class="tdl">Marapŭmĕ</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Yawn</td><td class="tdl">Mbápoh</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Yellow</td><td class="tdl">Taier(re)</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">You</td><td class="tdl">Oro</td></tr><tr>
-<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Your</td><td class="tdl">Orota</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">346-347</a></span></p>
-
-<h2>INDEX</h2>
-
-<ul class="IX"><li class="li padt1 padl8">
-A</li><li>
-Acton, Lord, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li><li>
-Albinos, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li><li>
-Alcohol, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li><li>
-Amberno River, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li><li>
-Amboina, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,<a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<ul><li>
-communication with, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li><li>
-inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li><li>
-market at, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Ambonese coolies, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li><li>
-Ambonese, dress of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<ul><li>
-names of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li></ul></li><li>
-<i>Amok</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li><li>
-Arafura Sea, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li><li>
-Arfak Mountains, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li><li>
-Arrows, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li><li>
-Aru Islands, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li><li>
-<i>Atap</i>, method of making, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li><li>
-Atuka River, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li><li>
-Atjeh, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8">
-B</li><li>
-Balfour, H., <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li><li>
-Bali, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li><li>
-Bamboo, throwing lime from, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li><li>
-Banana, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li><li>
-Banda, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li><li>
-Batavia, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<ul><li>
-washing in, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Bees, stingless honey-, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li><li>
-Beetles, as food, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;<ul><li>
-larva of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Beri-beri, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li><li>
-Bird of Paradise, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li><li>
-Birds, collection of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li>
-Boat-builders, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li><li>
-Boni, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li>
-Bonnets of widows, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li><li>
-Borneo, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li><li>
-Boro-Boder, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li>
-Botanic station at Merauke, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li><li>
-Bougainville, de, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li>
-Bows, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li><li>
-Bridge, building a, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li><li>
-British New Guinea, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li><li>
-British Ornithologists’ Union, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li>
-Brush Turkey, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li><li>
-Buddhist Temples, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li>
-Buitenzorg garden, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li><li>
-Buleling, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li><li>
-Butonese, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li><li>
-Butterflies, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8">
-C</li><li>
-Camp, health of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<ul><li>
-repairing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Cannibalism, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li><li>
-Canoes, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;<ul><li>
-building of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li><li>
-description of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li><li>
-method of paddling, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li><li>
-the price of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Carstensz, Mt., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li><li>
-Carstensz, Jan, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li><li>
-Cape York, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li>
-Carteret, Philip, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li>
-Cassowaries,  <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li><li>
-Cassowary,  <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li>
-Casuarina trees, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li>
-Cat’s cradle, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li><li>
-Celebes, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li>
-Celebes Trading Company, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li>
-Ceram, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li>
-Ceremonies, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li><li>
-Charles Louis Mountains, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li><li>
-Chief, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li><li>
-Children, games of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li><li>
-Chinese, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li><li>
-Christians at Amboina, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li><li>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span>
-Cicatrisation, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li><li>
-Clothing of Dutch, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;<ul><li>
-of natives, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Clouds on mountains, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li><li>
-Clubs, Dutch, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<ul><li>
-stoneheaded, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li><li>
-wooden, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Coal, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li>
-Coast, description of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<ul><li>
-navigation of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Coconuts, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li><li>
-Comet, Halley’s, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li><li>
-Convicts, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<ul><li>
-madness of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Cook, Captain, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li><li>
-Coolies, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;<ul><li>
-Ambonese, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li><li>
-failure of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li><li>
-feebleness of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li><li>
-sickness of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Corals, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li>
-Counting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li><li>
-Cramer, H. A., <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li><li>
-Crickets, a plague of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li><li>
-Crocodiles, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li><li>
-Crowned pigeon, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li><li>
-Crows, pale, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li><li>
-Cultivation, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<ul><li>
-in Java, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li></ul></li><li class="li padt1 padl8">
-D</li><li>
-Daggers of bone, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li><li>
-d’Albertis, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li><li>
-Dampier, Captain, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li><li>
-Dancing, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;<ul><li>
-houses, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Darwin, Mt. Leonard, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li><li>
-Dayaks, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;<ul><li>
-arrival of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li><li>
-industry of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Dead, disposal of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-140</li><li>
-Death, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li><li>
-Digoel River, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li><li>
-Disease, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li><li>
-Djokjakarta, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li>
-Dobo, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li><li>
-Dog, Papuan, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li><li>
-Dorei, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li><li>
-Drawing, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li><li>
-Drowning of sailor, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li><li>
-Drums, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li><li>
-Ducks, penguin, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<ul><li>
-perching in trees, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Dugongs, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li><li>
-Dumas, J. M., <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li><li>
-Dumas, Mr., <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li><li>
-Dutch, Government, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<ul><li>
-food of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li><li>
-house of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li><li>
-habits of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li><li>
-tree-planting by, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li><li>
-hospitality of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li><li>
-rule in New Guinea, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li><li>
-explorations of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li><li>
-East India Company, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li><li>
-Expeditions, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li></ul></li><li class="li padt1 padl8">
-
-E</li><li>
-Earthquake at Amboina, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li><li>
-Effigies, carved, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li><li>
-<i>Endeavour</i>, voyage of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li>
-Escort, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li><li>
-Expedition, members of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<ul><li>
-leave Java, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li></ul></li><li class="li padt1 padl8">
-
-F</li><li>
-Fak-fak, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li><li>
-Families, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li><li>
-Festival, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li><li>
-Fiji, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li><li>
-Fire, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li><li>
-Fire-making, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li><li>
-Fish, many coloured, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li>
-Fishing-net, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li><li>
-Flies, a plague of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<ul><li>
-on water, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Flint knives, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li><li>
-Flood, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li><li>
-Flores, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li><li>
-Flowers, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li><li>
-Fly River, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li>
-Food of natives, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li><li>
-Forbes, H. O., <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li><li>
-Forest, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-245</li><li>
-Fortnum and Mason, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li><li>
-Frogmouth, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8">
-
-G</li><li>
-Garden at Amboina, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li>
-Garoet, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li>
-Geographical Society, Royal, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li><li>
-German New Guinea, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li><li>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span>
-Ghosts, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li><li>
-Goa, Raja of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li>
-Godman, F. D., <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li>
-Godman, Mt., <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li><li>
-Goodfellow, W., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li><li>
-Grant, C. H. B., <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li>
-Grant, W. R. Ogilvie, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li>
-Grey, Sir E., <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li><li>
-Guillemard, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li><li>
-Gurkhas, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8">
-H</li><li>
-Habbema, Lieut., <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li><li>
-Half-castes, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li><li>
-Halley’s Comet, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li><li>
-Head-rests, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li><li>
-Herwerden, Captain, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li><li>
-Hindu Temple, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li><li>
-Hornbills, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li><li>
-Houses of the natives, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;<ul><li>
-in trees, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li><li>
-communal, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Humboldt Bay, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8">
-
-I</li><li>
-<i>Ibis</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li>
-Iguanas, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li><li>
-Intoxication of natives, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li><li>
-Incense, smell of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li><li>
-Island River, Dutch Expedition, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<ul><li>
-description of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Iwaka River, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8">
-
-J</li><li>
-Java, prosperity of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<ul><li>
-half-castes in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Javanese soldiers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li><li>
-Jew’s harp, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li><li>
-Jungle, clearing the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-K</li><li>
-Kaiserin Augusta River, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li><li>
-Kalff, Mr. E., <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li><li>
-Kamura River, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li><li>
-Kapare River, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li><li>
-Ké Islands, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<ul><li>
-natives of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Kingfishers, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li><li>
-Kloss, C. B., <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li><li>
-Kolff, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li><li>
-Kris, abolition of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-L</li><li>
-Language, difficulty of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li><li>
-La Perouse, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li>
-<i>La Seyne</i>, wreck of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li><li>
-Leeches, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li><li>
-Le Maire, Jacques, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li><li>
-Lombok, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li><li>
-Lorentz, H. A., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li>
-Lories, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-M</li><li>
-Macassar, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li>
-MacCluer Gulf, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li>
-MacCluer, John, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li>
-Macgregor, Sir W., <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li><li>
-Malays, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;<ul><li>
-food of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li><li>
-music of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Mangrove, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li>
-Marianne Strait, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li><li>
-Marriage, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li><li>
-Marshall, E. S., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li><li>
-Medical treatment, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li><li>
-Meek, Mr., <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li><li>
-Megapode, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li><li>
-Meneses, Don Torge de, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li>
-Merauke, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;<ul><li>
-communication with, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li><li>
-natives of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Mimika, first voyage on, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;<ul><li>
-description of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li><li>
-water of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li><li>
-tides on the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li><li>
-obstacles in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Mission at Dorei, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li><li>
-Missions, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li><li>
-Mosquitoes, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li><li>
-Motor-boat, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li><li>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span>
-Murderer, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li><li>
-Music, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-N</li><li>
-Natives, trading with, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<ul><li>
-communicating with, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li><li>
-dislike of rain, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li><li>
-migrations of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li><li>
-language of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_322">Appendix C</a>;</li><li>
-description of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li><li>
-height of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li><li>
-clothing of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li><li>
-age of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li><li>
-food of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li><li>
-social system of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li><li>
-property of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li><li>
-music of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li><li>
-dancing of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li><li>
-as artists, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li><li>
-mock sorrow of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li><li>
-quarrels of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li><li>
-as marksmen, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li><li>
-health of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li><li>
-as carriers, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li><li>
-our relations with, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li><li>
-as thieves, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Naturalists, explorations by, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li>
-New Guinea, position of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<ul><li>
-size of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li><li>
-mountains of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li><li>
-natives of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li><li>
-discovery of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li><li>
-name of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li><li>
-recent explorations of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li><li>
-first sight of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li><li>
-shore of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li><li>
-lack of food, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li><li>
-rivers of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li><li>
-departure from, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Newton, Professor Alfred, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li>
-<i>Nias</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li><li>
-Nimé, dancing house at, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li><li>
-Noord River, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li><li>
-Nouhuys, J. W. van, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li><li>
-Numerals, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-O</li><li>
-Obota, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li><li>
-Ogilvie-Grant, W. R., <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-P</li><li>
-Palm, coconut, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li><li>
-Pandanus, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li><li>
-Papua, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<ul><li>
-meaning of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Papuans, description of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<ul><li>
-behavior of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li><li>
-dress of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li><li>
-apathy of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li><li>
-asleep, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li><li>
-dancing, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li><li>
-as traders, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li><li>
-communicating with, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li><li>
-dislike of rain, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li><li>
-food of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li><li>
-migrations of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li><li>
-drink of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li><li>
-language of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_322">Appendix C</a>;</li><li>
-height of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li><li>
-age of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li><li>
-social system of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li><li>
-property of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li><li>
-music of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li><li>
-as artists, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li><li>
-quarrels of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li><li>
-as marksmen, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li><li>
-health of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Paradise, bird of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li><li>
-Parimau, arrival at, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;<ul><li>
-departure from, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Payment of natives, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li><li>
-Peace-offering, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li><li>
-Pearls, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li>
-Pearl-shell, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li>
-Penguin ducks, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li>
-Periepia, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li><li>
-Petroleum, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li>
-Pickles, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li><li>
-Pig, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-136</li><li>
-Pigeons, crowned, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li><li>
-Pineapples, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li><li>
-Plants, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li><li>
-Plants at Buitenzorg, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li><li>
-Ponies, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li><li>
-Pool, Thomas, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li><li>
-Port Moresby, natives of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li><li>
-Portuguese, remains of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<ul><li>
-navigators, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Precipice, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li><li>
-Prince Frederick Henry Island, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li><li>
-Propeller, loss of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li><li>
-Provisions, storing of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<ul><li>
-packing of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li><li>
-depôt of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Pygmies, discovery of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;<ul><li>
-visit to, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li><li>
-dress of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li><li>
-description of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li><li>
-voices of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li><li>
-visit Parimau, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li><li>
-measurements of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_303">Appendix B</a>;</li><li>
-ornaments of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li><li>
-possessions of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li><li>
-methods of smoking, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li><li>
-village of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li><li>
-houses of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li><li>
-women of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li><li>
-intelligence of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li><li>
-distribution of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li></ul></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-R</li><li>
-Races, mixture of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<ul><li>
-harmony of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Raffles, Sir Stamford, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li><li>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">351</a></span>
-Rain, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li><li>
-Rattan, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li><li>
-Rawling, C. G., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-5, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li><li>
-Relationship, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li><li>
-Reptiles, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li><li>
-Retes, Ynigo Ortiz de, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li>
-Rice, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<ul><li>
-cultivation in Java, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Rifle bird, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li><li>
-Rijst-tafel, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li><li>
-Rivers, branching, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;<ul><li>
-crossing, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li><li>
-in New Guinea, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Robinson, H. C., <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li><li>
-<i>Roebuck</i>, voyage of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li>
-Ruwenzori, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-S</li><li>
-Sago, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-92</li><li>
-St. Nicholas, feast of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li><li>
-Sandpiper, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li><li>
-Sarawak, H. H. the Raja of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li><li>
-Sarong, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li><li>
-Schouten Islands, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li>
-Schouten, Willem, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li><li>
-Screw-pines, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li><li>
-Sea, depth of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li><li>
-Sea-snakes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li><li>
-Seasons, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;<ul><li>
-wet, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Shackleton Expedition, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li><li>
-Sharks, fishing for, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li><li>
-Shortridge, G. C., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li><li>
-Sickness, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-192</li><li>
-Sindanglaya, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li>
-Skulls, preservation of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li><li>
-Smith, Stamford, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li><li>
-Snakes, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li><li>
-Snow Mountains, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<ul><li>
-discovery of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li><li>
-first sight of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li><li>
-distant view of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li><li>
-attempt to reach, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Social system, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li><li>
-Soldiers, native, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li><li>
-Songs, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li><li>
-Spanish navigators, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li>
-Spears, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li><li>
-Spices, Dutch monopoly of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li>
-Spiders, tameness of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li><li>
-Stalker, W., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<ul><li>
-death of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li><li>
-funeral of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Steam-launch, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li><li>
-Stone Age, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li><li>
-Stone implements, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li><li>
-Stones, gifts of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li><li>
-Sugar-palm, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li><li>
-Sumbawa, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li><li>
-Superstitions, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li><li>
-Swift, Moustached, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li>
-Swimming, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-T</li><li>
-Tapiro (<i>see</i> Pygmies)</li><li>
-Tasman, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li><li>
-Tattooing, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li><li>
-Tears, a welcome of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li><li>
-Temples at Boro-Boder, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li>
-Ternate, Sultan of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<ul><li>
-traders of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Thunderstorms, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li><li>
-Tides of the river, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li><li>
-Timura River, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li><li>
-Tobacco, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li><li>
-cultivation of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li><li>
-Torres, Luis Vaz de, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li>
-Torres Strait, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li>
-Tosari, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li><li>
-Track, used by natives, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;<ul><li>
-cutting a, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Trade goods, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li><li>
-Transport, difficulty of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li><li>
-Travelling, difficult, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li><li>
-Trees, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;<ul><li>
-falling at night, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li><li>
-cutting down, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li><li>
-houses in, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Tuaba River, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li><li>
-Tugeri, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li><li>
-Tugeri tribe, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-U</li><li>
-Utakwa, Dutch expedition to, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li><li>
-Utakwa River, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-V</li><li>
-Van der Bie, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li><li>
-Vanilla, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li><li>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">352</a></span>
-Vegetation, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li><li>
-View, a rare, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li><li>
-Volcano, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li><li>
-Volcanoes in Java, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1">
-
-W</li><li>
-Wailing at death, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li><li>
-Wakatimi, arrival at, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;<ul><li>
-camp at, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li><li>
-description of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li><li>
-departure from, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Wallaby, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li><li>
-Wallace, A. R., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li><li>
-Wamberi Merbiri, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li><li>
-Wania, excursion to, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li><li>
-Wania River, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li><li>
-Wataikwa, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li><li>
-Wataikwa River, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li><li>
-Water, lack of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;<ul><li>
-squeezed from moss, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li></ul></li><li>
-Water-lilies, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li><li>
-Weather, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li><li>
-Wilhelmina, Mt., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li><li>
-Wives, number of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li><li>
-Women, 148;<ul><li>
-clothing of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li><li>
-treatment of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li><li>
-dress of Dutch, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li><li>
-Pygmies, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li></ul></li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">353</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1500px;"><a href="images/i_p353.jpg">
-<img src="images/i_p353.jpg" width="1500" height="1400" alt="DUTCH NEW GUINEA" /></a>
-
-<p class="caption">PART OF<br />
-
-<big>DUTCH NEW GUINEA</big><br />
-
-drawn by<br />
-
-Captain. C. G. Rawling, C.I.E. and M<sup>r</sup>. E. Marshall, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.<br />
-
-to illustrate the explorations of<br />
-
-THE BRITISH EXPEDITION<br />
-
-1909-11.</p>
-
-<p class="center">—Note—</p>
-
-<p><i>This map is based on a plane table
-survey, adjusted to points fixed by
-theodolite angles, and astronomical
-observations for latitude and azimuth.
-Heights of peaks are from theodolite
-vertical angles.</i></p></div>
-
-<p class="center">THE END</p>
-
-<p class="center">PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> leader of a gang.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> <i>Malay Archipelago</i>, Chapter XX.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> <i>Malay Archipelago</i>, Chapter XXIX.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> F. H. H. Guillemard, <i>The Cruise of the “Marchesa,”</i> Chapter XXI.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> A note in the <i>Geographical Journal</i>, Vol. xxxviii. p. 211, points
-out the interesting fact that this custom of shedding tears in welcome
-was observed by some of the early travellers in many places on the
-American Continent, both North and South. It has also been noticed
-among the Andamanese and other Negroid inhabitants of South-Eastern
-Asia and Australasia.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> Like the Megapodes the Brush Turkeys are most interesting
-birds, which have the habit of making large mounds of rubbish in
-which they place their eggs, where they are hatched by the heat of
-fermentation. This species is about the size of a domestic hen, and
-its large brown egg is very good eating.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> The very interesting discovery was made by Mr. Staniforth
-Smith of sago growing at an altitude of 3500 feet in the region of
-Kikor River, British New Guinea.—<i>Geog. Journal</i>, vol. xxxix. p. 329.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> See <a href="#Page_322">Appendix C.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> The number of individuals examined was not very great and
-the difference in their measurements are so insignificant, that they
-may be considered all to belong to one race.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> <i>Tuan</i> = master, v. p. 103. The natives always addressed us as
-“Tuana,” and many babies, of whom their parents were particularly
-proud, were called “Tuana.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> <i>A Continuation of a Voyage to New Holland, etc., in the year 1699</i>,
-by Captain William Dampier.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> <i>Standard</i>, 4, 8, 1910.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> The accent is placed on the first syllable—Tápĭro.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> Extract from diary, 12th March 1910. A.F.R.W.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> The services of these two men were secured to the expedition
-through the generosity of Mr. H. C. Robinson, Director of the Museums
-of the Federated Malay States.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> For their cranial measurements see <a href="#Page_303"><i>Appendix</i>.</a></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> The stitch used is a “figure of eight.” An exactly similar
-pattern is used by the natives near Humboldt Bay, North Dutch
-New Guinea, in making caps. See Van der Sande, <i>Nova Guinea</i>,
-Vol. III. Illustration, p. 37.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> I am informed by Mr. H. Balfour, of the Pitt Rivers Museum,
-Oxford, that a similar method of making fire is employed by people
-in Assam, the Chittagong Hills, at certain places in the Malay Peninsula,
-in Borneo, at numerous places in different parts of New Guinea,
-and at one place in West Africa.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> I saw three men who showed unmistakable signs of syphilis.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> “Capt. Cook, H.M.S. <i>Endeavour</i>, 1770.” “Kolff’s Voyages in
-Dutch Brig of War <i>Dourga</i>, 1825-6.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> This is the usual friendly greeting of the people in the Merauke
-district. The word is now used by the Dutch as a slang name for the
-natives of any part of New Guinea.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> Voyage of the ships <i>Pera</i> and <i>Arnhem</i>, under command of Jan
-Carstenszoon or Carstensz, 1623.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> Here, as elsewhere in the Dutch colonies, half-castes in official
-positions are reckoned as Europeans.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> Capt. C. G. Rawling. <i>Country Life.</i> 20 May, 1911.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> <i>Malay Archipelago.</i> Chapter V.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> The numerals in brackets refer to the list of authorities prefixed to the
-comparative vocabulary.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> <i>Cf.</i> Translation by G. G. Batten in “Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago,”
-1894.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> Dr. N. Adriani. Eenige opmerkingen over de Mĕraukĕ-Taal naar aanleiding
-der Woordenlijst van Contr. J. Seijne Kok, in “De Zuidwest Nieuw-Guinea-expeditie
-van het Kon. Ned. Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, 1904-5.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> G. W. Earl, Native Races of the Indian Archipelago, Papuans, 1853, Appendix,
-and Jour. Roy. Geographical Society, 1837, p. 393-395.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> De Zuidwest Nieuw-Guinea-expeditie van het Kon. Ned. Aardrijkskundig
-Genootschap, 1904-5. Leiden, 1908.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> <i>Cf.</i> Internat. Archiv. für Ethnographie, 16, 1905, and Reports of Cambridge
-Anthropological Expedition, III., p. 387.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> H. Kern. Over de taal der Jotafa’s aan de Humboldtbaai, Bijdragen tot de
-Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië, 6 Volg. deel VII.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> <i>Cf.</i> G. von der Gabelentz und A. B. Muller, Melanesischen Sprachen, 1882,
-p. 536-541. Also C. J. F. le Cocq d’Armandville in Tijds. v. Taal, etc., 46, 1903.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> P. J. B. C. Robidé van der Aa in Bijdragen tot de Taal etc., 1883, p. 197. The
-word is <i>mes</i>, coconut, the Mĕraukĕ <i>mise</i>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> The term “Indonesian” is used here only to imply that the languages so
-designated appear to contain some words and constructions which are found
-commonly in the languages of the Indian Archipelago. The data are too few for
-definite classification. The term “Papuan” may be taken to mean “non-Indonesian”
-or “Non-Malayo-Polynesian” with a similar limitation.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> In the Examples following, the vowels should be sounded as in Italian, and
-the consonants as in English. The Dutch <i>oe</i> and <i>ie</i> are written <i>u</i> and <i>ī</i>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> This interchange is very common in the languages of the Papuan Gulf.
-<i>Cf.</i> Reports of Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, III., pp. 325, 334.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> G. W. Earl in Jour. Royal Geographical Society, 1837, p. 394.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> Those quoted are: <i>Dungerwab</i> (or <i>Parb</i>) on Wai Kasa R., <i>Bangu</i>, Morehead
-River; <i>Bugi</i>, Mai Kasa River, <i>Dabu</i>, Paho R., <i>Mowata</i>, mouth of Binaturi R.,
-<i>Saibai Is.</i> in Western Torres Straits, <i>Miriam</i>, Murray Is. Torres Straits, <i>Kunini</i> and
-<i>Jibu</i> West shore of Fly Delta, <i>Kiwai Is.</i> in Fly Delta.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> William Churchill, “The Polynesian Wanderings.” Washington. 1911.
-Pp. v., 147.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> Reports of Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, III, p. 290.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> The writer was however told by Murray Island natives that “tulik” was the
-name of the old shell axe.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> Eenige opmerkingen over de Mĕraukĕ-taal, in “De Zuidwest Nieuw-Guinea-expeditie
-van het Kon. Ned. Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, 1904-5,” p. 661-2.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> Op. cit., p. 664-665.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> The number prefixed is that by which these authorities have been referred to
-in the preceding pages.</p></div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-02-06 16:14:59 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-02-06 16:14:59 -0800
commit	732f8996aa5d3b8823a7cd9d0246eb8f7ef51f44 (patch)
tree	27d401a35edae49367ef577ed3cd40a6222cf18e
parent	b14dcccc89839ca1499600c67fe5d009d775f870 (diff)