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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..412a698 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #53371 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53371) diff --git a/old/53371-0.txt b/old/53371-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b67053b..0000000 --- a/old/53371-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1707 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Haslemere Museum Gazette, Vol. 1, No. -2, June 1906, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The Haslemere Museum Gazette, Vol. 1, No. 2, June 1906 - A Journal of Objective Education and Field-Study - -Author: Various - -Editor: Jonathan Hutchinson - E. W. Swanton - -Release Date: October 26, 2016 [EBook #53371] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HASLEMERE MUSEUM *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -[Illustration: The Historical Department.] - - * * * * * - - THE - MUSEUM GAZETTE. - - NO. 2. JUNE, 1906. VOL. 1. - - * * * * * - -OUR HISTORY ROOM. (_See Frontispiece._) - -A department of our Museum to which, as regards its educational -usefulness, we attach very great importance, is that which attempts the -illustration of Human History. It is displayed in a separate division -of the main building, and is arranged, as far as possible, on “the -space-for-time method.” This method, which, following the pattern of -an ordinary diary, allots to every period of time the same amount of -space, is, of course, possible only where the time-periods and dates -are fairly well established. It is not well adapted, excepting as -a sort of open and, to some extent speculative, framework for the -illustration of prehistoric times. A courageous example of such use of -it we ventured to offer in our last number in reference to prehistoric -man in Britain. It was not history in any other sense than that the -periods of time were real; the events assigned to them were largely -conjectural. In the Museum itself we do not attempt to deal with very -remote periods in this manner. Our space-for-time arrangement begins -only with 2000 B.C. It might now, perhaps, fairly begin with 4000 B.C., -but, unfortunately, we have not space enough. In this Schedule, which -occupies the whole of one side of a long room (70 feet), a measured -space on the wall, of nearly two feet, is allotted to each century. -The centuries are marked out by strong black lines, drawn vertically -from roof to the table-shelf below. This table-shelf is 18 inches wide, -and runs the whole length of the room. It is upon it that the busts -shown in our frontispiece are standing. Each bust is supposed to be in -its appropriate century, and with it are placed any other illustrative -objects belonging to the period--medals, coins, small architectural -models (when we have them), and the like. For instance, a model of -Stonehenge stands in the century in which it seems probable that that -most remarkable structure was built, and portions of Roman pavement -and other relics mark the period of the Italian occupation of Britain. -Upon the wall itself are placed engravings, photographs, and the like, -illustrative of the century, and representing either human personality -or some results of human effort. In order to aid the memory each -century is designated by the name of some prominent person of the time, -to whom other associations may conveniently cling. These names, painted -in bold characters, head the columns which represent the centuries. -Beneath these prominent names we have (in the case of a considerable -number of the most recent centuries) put up schedules of the principal -events, and lists of some of the principal persons. The appended -schedule is one of them and will illustrate what is meant:-- - - FOURTEENTH A.D. - - CHAUCER. - - The Three Edwards. - Bannockburn. - Famine in England. - The Hundred Years’ War begins. - Battle of Crecy. - The Black Death (Plague). - Battle of Poictiers. - Bolingbroke dethrones Richard II. - Froissart’s Chronicle. - - Wallace and Bruce. Dante. John of Gaunt. Rienzi. Van Artevelde. - Wickliffe. Huss. Boccaccio. Petrarch. William Tell. - -It will, if what we have tried to describe has conveyed its intended -meaning, be seen that an observer passing slowly down the length of -the room, may appreciate at a glance the relative position of the -principal events in the world’s history. He can hardly avoid noticing, -with fair accuracy, the distance between Homer and Socrates, between -Socrates and Paul, and between the Christian epoch and the times of -Milton and Shakespeare. He will be impressed at once, as, possibly, -he never was before, with a perception of the brief and very recent -portion of time which contains the whole of the annals of our own -nation. If, in addition to thus obtaining a sort of bird’s-eye view -of the progress of the world, it is desired to go into detail and -devote time to the enquiry, a certain amount of help will be found -to have been provided on the table-shelf. Detailed schedules taken -from the “The Centuries” (see advertisement) have been mounted on -board conveniently for hand use, and are placed on the table-shelf at -the foot of each century. A few books of reference in biography and -history, and numerous maps, have also been suitably placed, and there -are chairs. - -The “Historical Schedule” described takes up, as we have said, the -whole of one side of the long room. The other side of it, as well -as much of the floor-space, is occupied by somewhat miscellaneous -illustrations of prehistoric times, and of nations and races which -have not as yet attained to history. The anthropoids, anthropology -and ethnology in general here find illustration, in large part, but -not wholly, by pictorial aid. We have also a few interesting objects -suitable, as illustrating social progress, for what is now known as a -Folk-Museum. - -It is believed that this department of the Museum offers special -facilities to teachers, who bring their classes into it and give -explanations on the spot, and that by enabling the pupil to obtain a -wide purview of historical times, it may do somewhat to obviate the -inevitably cramping influence of the too detailed study of single -epochs. - - * * * * * - -FAMOUS WOMEN AT THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY. - -We have climbed to the third landing. Let us turn into the left-hand -gallery and we shall come to one of the most interesting groups in the -whole Museum. - -It is that which contains portraits of English women whose names -have become famous in literature. Here we have Mrs. Browning, Sarah -Austin, Mrs. Carter, Miss Strickland, George Eliot, Mary Somerville, -and many others. The collection is not nearly so complete as could -be wished--for Jane Austen, Anne and Jane Taylor, Hannah More, the -Brontës, and many others are wanting--still, it is very good. But -few males are admitted. Robert Browning is very properly allowed -to accompany his wife, and the fact, we presume, that his wife was -with him, has also gained access for Thomas Hood. A portrait of Lady -Hamilton strikes us as a little out of place, but the Museum has as -yet no department for female charm, and as this is by Romney it may -have been difficult to refuse it. With the exception of it and one of -Elizabeth Fry, all the others have more or less direct claim to be -associated with literature or science. To Mrs. Opie, Mrs. Browning -and Miss Strickland no one will hesitate to accord the praise of good -looks, and many others exhibit in a remarkable degree the bright-eyed -intelligence which we expect from authoresses. Several show a splendid -breadth of forehead, the accompaniment, no doubt, of a brachycephalic -or broad head. Mrs. Carter, Miss Mitford (of “Our village”), Mrs. -Trimmer, Miss Strickland and George Eliot are the best, but not the -only instances of this. It might be hardly good manners to describe -too exactly the various features of feminine faces, and the fact that -but few show the profile makes it difficult to judge accurately as to -size and shape of nose and chin. Few are, in any sense, disappointing. -That of Mrs. Carlisle might have been kept back without loss, since, -if it is in the least true to life, it gives a too painful sense -of justification to the rumours of married unhappiness, which were -probably to a large extent unfounded. The portrait of Sarah Austin, -when old and ill, might also perhaps be spared, since there is a very -pleasing one of her in earlier life. At any rate, the two ought to be -placed together. Declining, as we do, in reference to almost the whole, -the task of detailed analysis of features, we cannot, in the interests -of physiognomical research, exempt those behind which lay the most -profound intellect ever possessed by a woman. Mrs. Carter in classical -and literary attainments, and Mary Somerville in the domain of science, -must be accorded foremost places. Mrs. Browning is second, perhaps, to -none in depth of human sympathy and beauty of poetic expression; but -if we estimate character by profundity of insight, we shall probably -accord to George Eliot amongst women much the same position as that -which Shakespeare holds amongst men. We do not for a moment compare her -with Shakespeare. - -Of George Eliot the Museum possesses three portraits. Most fortunately, -it has also one of her father. It would add enormously to the value -of portraits as a means to the illustration of character, if we might -always have associated with that of a distinguished individual those -of his parents, and even of his brothers and sisters. The portrait of -Robert Evans (George Eliot’s father) is a very pleasing one--a grave, -serious face, with a large Roman nose, well-formed lips and chin, and -a really magnificent forehead. The nose probably gives a clue to his -family descent. - -Of those of the authoress herself, the first, taken when she was 23, -by a lady friend (Mrs. Bray), is a poor work of art, and exhibits a -commonplace face, surmounted by a very large rounded forehead. It is -impossible to judge of the nose. A second is of some years older, and -is much better executed. The forehead is still there, and the nose is -shown of good size and shapely, and the lips and chin are well formed. -The face is a shorter one than in the next, and the hair is of a much -lighter tint. The face is pleasing and attractive, not much unlike, if -we remember rightly, one which represented Jenny Lind. - -Lastly, we come to the often copied and well-known portrait at age 46, -by Sir F. Burton. In this the nose and face are long, almost suggesting -an approach to what is called a horse face. The chin is good, but as -the fine forehead is much concealed by folds of hair, the balance of -features is not perfect, and the whole result not pleasing. All the -three show the eyes light grey or blue. There can be no doubt that -George Eliot had a large forehead and a fairly large nose and chin, but -further than this these somewhat disaccording portraits do not take us. -We must fall back on her father’s Roman nose and really beautifully -balanced features. - -Mary Somerville’s face is a very intellectual one, but a trifle cold as -regards mouth and chin. Looking at Mrs. Carter’s width of forehead, no -one can doubt that she had “skull-room” for many languages and what had -been written in them. There is a most pleasant expression on her face, -suggesting a genial companion and ready conversation, but her chin is -weak and small. Mrs. Browning’s face is alive with graceful vigour, and -her forehead, as we have already said, is full and round. - -It is held that the heads of women are dolichocephalic (long in -proportion to breadth) in larger average than those of men. There is -certainly nothing in this collection of portraits which would oppose -the supposition that the higher developments of intellect in women, -as in men, are usually met with in heads unusually broad. Such an -inference must, however, be accepted with some caution. - - * * * * * - -THE BRAIN IN RELATION TO INTELLECT. - -When we speak of size of brain in reference to intellectual endowments -we must draw a clear distinction between the eminence of a specialist -and that of one of wide attainments. A man may become famous as a -specialist by the sedulous cultivation of one branch of knowledge, -whilst far from being distinguished by wide grasp of thought. Indeed, -the absence of interest in some branches of knowledge may greatly -favour the exclusive devotion to a single one. Peschell quotes -the weights of the brains of some Göttingen professors which were -considerably below the average: Gauss, Fuchs (pathologist), Hermann -(philologist), Haussmann (mineralogist). - -Cuvier and Lord Byron are usually cited as having had brains much -heavier than the average, but there is some uncertainty, especially as -to the latter. None of his lordship’s portraits suggest a large head. - -Although there are considerable discrepancies in the statements of -those who have examined the matter, there can be little or no doubt -that the brain increases somewhat with the advance of civilisation, and -that it was smaller in the prehistoric races of man than in the more -advanced ones of the present age. The differences are probably not so -great as many may expect, but they are real. The Australian natives -stand the lowest, and the Europeans the highest. The American Indian -had a larger brain than the Asiatic, and the Asiatic than the African. -The Chinese stand between the European and the Negro. Two Irish skulls -are perhaps the largest on record. - -The size of the skull may possibly not be always a safe indication of -the amount of useful brain matter contained in it. It is said that the -large-skulled Germans have brains which are of lower specific gravity -than those of others. - -There are many sources of fallacy as regards the weight of the brain -in different persons, different races, and in the two sexes. We must -not trust too implicitly to statistics or to tabulated records. It is -better to be content with general results, and to state even these with -great caution. - -There can, however, be but little doubt that the brain of woman weighs -less than that of man, and that this difference is greatest in highly -civilised races. The brains of the broad-headed are, as a rule, -somewhat heavier than those of the long-headed. This conclusion has -been arrived at by comparing the brains of different individuals of the -same race, not those of different races (Peschell, p. 70). - -There are some observations which support the conclusion that the brain -attains its greatest weight before 30 years of age, and then undergoes -diminution. At the age of 80 this diminution is supposed to reach 10 -per cent. The diminution concerns the brain proper and the cerebellum, -but not their connecting part, the pons, which increases up to the -fiftieth year. Whilst it is, however, difficult to imagine methods -by which, without risk of great fallacy, such conclusions could be -arrived at, we may safely believe that the advance of age is attended -by some reduction in the size of the skull cavity and the weight of its -contents. - -It appears to be a constant law that with advance of civilisation the -differences between the sexes in general become increased. This is seen -in measurements of the skull and in the weight of the brain. In the -brains of negroes the woman is but little below that of the man, 984 -to 1,000, but in the English it is only 860, and Germans 838. These -figures indicate, of course, proportions only, and like all other -calculations in this difficult subject, must be received with caution; -but they probably indicate, if they do not precisely express, the fact. - -The height of the skull is usually in inverse ratio to its breadth. The -variation in height is far less than is common in breadth. - -The brachycephalic have heavier brains than the dolichocephalic. - -In Hottentots both indices, breadth and height, are low. - -The following may be mentioned as examples of remarkably broad heads -(wide foreheads), in association with genius: Shakespeare, Beranger, -Mirabeau, Peacock (the novelist), Miss Austen, Blackmore (“Lorna -Doone”), Tennyson, Erskine. - -The following had heads both tall and broad: Scott, Goethe, Cervantes, -Ambrose Paré, John Foster, Father Paul, Galileo, Michael Angelo, -Machiavelli, Benjamin West. - -We shall be indebted to any of our readers who may direct our attention -to other well-marked examples. - -The following afford instances of remarkably tall heads: Motley (the -historian of the Netherlands), Remin (engineer), Richard Roberts -(engineer). - -The following had remarkably long faces: Francis I., Inigo Jones, -George Eliot (Miss Evans), Savonorola. - - * * * * * - -THE EGG MARKET IN ENGLAND. - -A wholesale dealer gives us the following items as to the consumption -of eggs in London: When eggs are 16 for a shilling the sale amongst -the working classes is enormous. When they are 12 a shilling it falls -at once 40 per cent., and when only 8 it drops very low. The bulk -of London eggs are imported; Italy supplies many, France many, and -some even come from Turkey. They will travel from Trebizond and be -perfectly fresh when they arrive in London. We are assured that most -of the new-laid eggs consumed in Haslemere come from Italy, and this -at all periods of the year. Our English housewives are not clever at -preserving eggs, and the witty classification of eggs into new-laid -eggs, fresh eggs, and eggs, is but too often illustrated. - - * * * * * - -ON OUTGROWTHS AND APPENDAGES. - -(_Part of a Museum Lecture._) - -Let us draw a clear distinction between “Appendages” and “Outgrowths.” -The prickles which are formed on the branch of a rose are appendages; -they may be detached without really breaking any part of the bush. -The spines which grow on the blackthorn are outgrowths, and cannot be -so detached. I wish that some better word than “appendages” could be -found, for it seems almost to imply insignificance, and many of the -appendages to plants are of the utmost importance. Still, it is true of -them all that they may be removed and yet leave the plant, as a plant, -complete, and many or most of them have only a transitory life, which -does not by any means equal that of the plant itself. They are like the -luncheon basket at the summer day’s ramble, not absolutely essential, -but very conducive to perfection. Now most forms of leaf, flower, fruit -and prickle are in this sense merely appendages. From the very earliest -stages of their formation arrangements exist for their separation, in -whole or part, from the plants on which they are produced. You will -see that I am cautious in my terms, and say in part or in whole, for -in truth some appendages never are detached as wholes, and very great -variety exists in the ways in which they are dealt with. For the most -part they are susceptible of death, and have their fixed duration -of life quite independently of the plant which bears them. In many -this independent death is the cause of their being cast off. In some -instances, however, it is not death, nor even sickness, but the fulness -of life and the attainment of adult age which causes them to leave the -parental home. I hold in my hand an oak twig with two empty acorn cups. -The acorns having attained maturity, have fallen out. Shall we say they -have detached themselves, or that the tree has detached them? They -have not fallen by mere weight, for they were doubtless nearly, if not -quite, as heavy whilst still green, and they were then firmly fixed. -You see at the bottom of the empty cup the large round scar which marks -the site of former attachment. It is brown and dry. It was by changes -which took place here that the acorn was loosened. The acorn had -ripened and ceased its growth. It no longer attracted sap through its -base of attachment, and the latter consequently became dry and brittle. -Possibly its feeding tubes were choked; at any rate, it is certain that -it underwent a sort of death and was no longer able to keep the acorn -in place. The process was much like that which occurs in the shedding -of leaves, with, however, the very noteworthy difference that the acorn -itself was still alive. - -We have not, however, done with our oak twig. The acorns which it -bore were only appendages to an appendage, and it now becomes the -turn of the cups themselves and the whole of the long foot-stalk on -which they are mounted to become detached. These are no part of the -tree, and are of no use to it. They were developed in order to bear -flowers and fruit; that function they have now discharged, and they -must die. Life is preserved only by the discharge of function, or at -any rate the effort to discharge it. Utter inactivity leads to death, -and death leads to separation from the living and to decay. You see -that the whole foot-stalk is brown and shrunken and evidently dead. -This condition ends abruptly where the foot-stalk joins the stem. At -this spot, if you look carefully, you will see that there is a ring -of constriction, marking definitely where detachment is in progress. -This was the spot at which the production of the whole appendage began, -and here a sort of joint was left at which the final detachment was -destined to occur. Just one word of caution, that we must not carry -our distinctions too far. After all, they are to some extent matters -of degree. The joint which separates the appendage from the twig on -which it is produced can hardly be termed a true joint, for certain -structures run in unbroken continuity from the stem to the appendage. -These are the fibro-vascular bundles by which the appendage is fed and -also fixed in place. These bundles are usually quite visible in the -scar-surface left when a leaf or fruit is broken off. They are “the -nails in the horse-shoe” of the leaf-scar of the horse chestnut. Still, -it is certain that a sort of joint is present, and that the structures -are continuous in a very different sense from that of a stem or true -branch. You may observe this difference in my acorn-bearing twig, for -there are two acorn cups, and one has been produced by a branching out -from the stem of the other. This little branch is smoothly continuous -with the parent branch, and shows no preparation for detachment -whatever. - -Thus we have seen that the arrangements under which leaves are shed -are exactly repeated in the case of fruits, and that it is by no means -needful that the object to be detached should be dead or dying. It -may perhaps surprise you to be told that sometimes appendages are -shed which have by no means accomplished their prospective work. Some -plants shed their flowers and do this deliberately, having made their -arrangements for a step which is apparently suicidal. In reality it is -not suicidal, nor is it one of limitation of population, but simply of -preferential employment of capital. The potato gives a good example of -this. Every spring you may see on the heads of this plant beautiful -flowers produced, which are destined in the course of another week to -be only flowerless foot-stalks. The flowers break off at a pre-existing -joint, just as leaves are shed. The influence which causes them to fall -is inability to attract sap, in consequence of inability to proceed to -the further stage of producing fruit. The young tubers underground make -such overpowering demands upon the sap-furnishing capabilities of the -roots that the flowers cannot obtain sufficient for their seed forming. -Thus they at once die: if not obviously, at any rate practically, and -detachment follows as a natural result. - -It is a case of competitive growth and the tubers win. After a time the -plant will in the course of inheritance learn that it is useless to -produce flowers, will give up the attempt; indeed, many varieties have -already done so to a considerable extent. - -No better instance could perhaps be given of the law which goes through -all animated Nature that activity is almost essential to continuance of -life, whether in individuals or their parts. - - * * * * * - -THE OLDEST FOSSILS (Lingula).--It is a noteworthy fact that these, the -oldest fossil animals known, belong to species by no means low in the -scale. Yet every trace of the many millions which must have preceded -them, and have gradually led up to their development, have perished. -The period of time which must have elapsed subsequent to the advent of -life upon the planet and the development of the lingula mollusc was -probably quite as long as that which has passed since the lingula left -its shell in the mud of the Portmadoc slate. The oldest fossils which -are known are found in the lower Cambrian rocks. They are small oval -shells, which were, during life, the protection of small soft-bodied -sea animals of highly complex structure: they had red blood. Their -descendants are still found in great numbers burrowing in sand on the -shores of tropical oceans. They have received the name of Lingula, and -have in turn conferred that name on certain hard rocks in which their -shells occur in abundance, the “Lingula flags” of Wales (RAY LANKESTER). - - * * * * * - -HUGE SHARK’S TEETH.--Ray Lankester figures, in his interesting lectures -on extinct animals from which we have quoted the above a gigantic -shark’s tooth. It is that of the _Carharodon megalodon_, and is three -times the length of the tooth of any living shark. Specimens of this -fossil tooth of smaller dimensions are common, and one should be found -in every museum. They are obtained from the bone bed of the Red Crag -at Felixstowe, but were not originally deposited in it. Many of them -have fragments of a yet older sandstone adhering to them. Lankester -calculates that his shark was 100 feet long. - - * * * * * - -THE GREAT FAMILY OF THE CAMELS AND DEER. - -The Camel, the Camelopard, the Musk-deer and the Deer are all more or -less nearly related. They constitute a branch of the great family of -Ruminants, and all chew the cud. With the Camel are associated the -Bactrian or two-humped Camel, the Alpaca, the Llama and the Vicuna. -With the Giraffe we have the Okapi, and several extinct animals. The -Musk-deer stands almost alone. Of Deer there are a great many species. -It is easy enough to distinguish these various animals the one from the -other when seen living in a Zoological Garden or stuffed in a museum. -Indeed, at first sight, there might seem to be no great similarity -between a Camel, a Giraffe, and a Fallow-deer. To the student of -natural history, however, it becomes of great interest to observe the -essential peculiarities of each. These may be grouped as those which -prove relationship and those which show differences. We will leave -aside the very important peculiarities in the stomach, because but few -of our readers will have opportunities for examining them, and will -confine our attention to the feet, horns, skull and teeth. All have two -hoofs or more, and the Camel group have behind their hoofs a pad which -covers the sole. None of them have hollow horns, and in none are their -weapons of offence--horns, teeth, tusks, &c.--very effective. In all -when adult the cutting teeth (incisors) in the upper jaw are absent, -and in most the canines are either absent or much modified. - -The Camel tribe differ from Giraffes in possessing a pad, and in -having, when young, incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and fewer lower -incisors by two. They have also strong canines in both jaws, no trace -of horns, and nothing to be called tusks. - -The Giraffes have two, three, or even five abortive horns of very -peculiar development. They have very long necks, no pads, no tusks. -The canine teeth in the lower jaw, which look like incisors, are much -specialised in being cleft or notched. - -The little Musk-deer has no sort of horn; but his upper canine teeth -are large and form tusks. - -The true Deer have antlers (in the male), which they shed every year. -The males, and sometimes the females, have canine teeth in the upper -jaw. The antlers are dermal bones, that is, are formed in the skin, and -do not grow from the skull. They have two rudimentary digits above the -hoofs. - -The whole of this group, which we may call the Camel and Deer family, -are almost wholly defenceless, the Giraffe the most so of all, and, -excepting those which are useful in domestication, are threatened with -extinction. The Camels and the Llamas, although separated as distantly -as Peru and Arabia, have in common the very peculiar habit of snorting -most offensively at those who oppress or annoy them. - -This large family of Camels and Deer stands between a small one which -comprises Pigs, and a very large one, to which Cattle, Sheep, Goats and -Antelopes are assigned. Pigs are not ruminants, and have incisor teeth -in the upper jaws. Cattle, sheep, &c., like camels and deer, ruminate, -and have no cutting teeth in the upper jaw. Their distinctive features -are hollow horns (which are present in both sexes), and the invariable -absence of tusks. - -The canine teeth in all members of the Giraffe group are peculiar, -in that they show a cleft in the free edge which divides them into -two lobes. These teeth look as if they belonged to the incisors, but -various facts prove them to be really the canines. Those of the extinct -Sivatherium, and those of the recently discovered Okapi, have similar -peculiarities, and thus prove their relationship. - -It is curious that our natural history authorities are not yet agreed -as to whether the Giraffe has his fore limbs longer than the hind ones -or not. Claus and Sedgwick say, “hind legs much shorter, and therefore -the back slopes backwards.” Those who have measured the bones, however, -say that there is no difference, and that the slope depends entirely -upon the setting of the shoulder blade. - - * * * * * - -ENGLISH EDIBLE SNAILS. - -“WALL-FISH.” - -The term “wall-fish” will be unknown to many of our readers. It is -applied by dealers in Covent Garden and other markets to the common -garden snail (_Helix aspersa_). This mollusc is held in especial esteem -by the poor in Bristol, and in consequence is now very scarce in the -environs of that city. There are men who make a livelihood during the -winter by collecting these snails from their hybernating places. In -November, 1896, the writer met a “wall-fish” collector in a remote -village in Somerset, and had an interesting conversation with him. He -was collecting for a Bristol dealer, his home being in Kent, where he -worked as a carpenter in summer and autumn. For many winters past he -had regularly visited Somerset to collect snails. According to his -experience these snails seldom hybernate in banks facing east or north, -but usually seek winter quarters in those facing south-west. - -They generally congregate in some numbers, and appear to have a -predilection for certain spots. From an hybernaculum near the village -he had that morning taken a gallon and a half of them, but this was -very unusual; his “takings” as a rule did not exceed a gallon per day. - -Ash stumps, or crannies at the base of ash-trees, are very favourite -haunts. They seldom hybernate under oaks, and although old walls are -favourite places in summer, whence they probably owe their name of -“wall-fish,” they seldom hybernate in them. - -Our “wall fisherman” carried an iron rod about 2 feet long, slightly -crooked at one end for probing likely nooks and corners. _H. aspersa_ -is quite the most nearly domesticated of the snail tribe. It loves the -haunts of man, and is seldom found in any numbers in places remote from -villages and roadsides. - -A conchologist should never miss an opportunity of examining the bag of -a wall-fish collector. Occasionally rare varieties--_scalariforme_ for -instance--may be secured in this way. I asked my friend to allow me to -inspect his “catch,” and he very obligingly turned out the contents of -his creel. I found nothing better than three or four examples of the -variety _exalbida_, which is greenish-white. It is, however, widely -distributed in the southern counties. It is stated by Forbes and Hanley -(“Hist. Brit. Moll.,” vol. iv., p. 46), that “owing to its being an -article of food in some countries, or else a supposed remedy for -pulmonary affections, _H. aspersa_ has been transported and distributed -by the agency of man to all parts of the world. It is especially -abundant in the neighbourhood of gardens.” In 1840, according to -Turton, _H. aspersa_ was sold in Covent Garden and elsewhere as a cure -for diseases of the chest, and was sent to the United States as a -delicacy. “The glassmen at Newcastle once a year have a snail feast; -they generally collect the snails themselves in the fields and hedges -the Sunday before the feast day.” This feast is, we believe, now given -up. - - * * * * * - -DORMANT LIFE.--The conditions under which vital activity may become -dormant obtained a curious illustration in the instance of a beetle -which was taken alive out of the wood of a desk which had been in the -office of the London Guildhall for twenty years. The wood was deal from -the Baltic, the beetle was the _Buprestis splendens_. It was alive and -in beautiful colour. The observation was confirmed by Sir Joseph Banks. -The description is given by Mr. Thos. Wrenham in the tenth volume of -_Transactions of Linnæan Society_, 1810. - - * * * * * - -DODDER AND IVY.--Ivy is a climber only, Dodder is a true parasite. -Ivy does not in any degree derive nourishment from the trees on which -it grows. It is obvious that it cannot get any from walls. It may be -plausibly disputed whether it does any injury to the trees to which it -clings, for it is often seen on very large ones. It is reputed to be -wholesome for sheep and deer in spite of its rank odour, and pheasants -are fond of its seed. - - * * * * * - -HOW TO FORM A TEMPORARY MUSEUM. - -A temporary museum will, in all probability, be a Vacation- or -Summer-museum; there will, therefore, be no need for stoves or fires, -and scarcely any for artificial light. The sun rises in summer as early -as any members of the museum committee are likely to be stirring, and -by sunset it will be time to close. We will suppose, then, that the -season is summer and the place a small town in the country. In the -first place a small local committee of those interested in the scheme -should be formed, and a small sum of money guaranteed. The next step -should be to borrow a set of school premises, or hire for a couple -of months an empty house. If only a small cottage were obtainable -it should have a back garden in which a large wooden shed could be -put up. The essentials are plenty of room, plenty of light, and good -protection from weather. If the premises secured be those of a school, -the next thing will be to arrange with some carpenter for the hire of a -quantity of boards which, laid across the desks, will make tables. It -may be possible, on similar terms, to obtain from a draper a quantity -of baize, or its very cheapest equivalent, but this would not be -absolutely necessary. Having secured plenty of table-space, the next -point is to prepare the walls. It will be required to display on these, -Portraits, Maps, Illustrations, &c., &c., and for pinning these up -some sort of framework is desirable. The carpenter will soon put this -together and cover it with baize or flannel. - -The rooms being made ready, the next step is to fill them, and about -this there will be no difficulty. As a preliminary measure a circular -will have been sent out, inviting all residents to contribute their -curiosities on loan. It will be strange if this be not bountifully -responded to by cases of stuffed animals and birds, collections of -eggs and of shells, and boxes of minerals. Ammonites, elephants’ -teeth, mammalian skulls, butterflies, wasps’ nests, flint implements, -and Missionaries’ curios will be brought in great abundance. All -these, properly arranged, with descriptive labels, may be made most -interesting and instructive. A certain number of glass-covered -display-cases, with locks, will now be required in order that fragile -or valuable specimens, and especially those on loan, may be properly -taken care of. Such cases may be made inexpensively, and our Haslemere -Museum will be glad to supply patterns, or even, if wished, to loan the -cases themselves. - -At this stage the Committee should remember that a museum has been -well defined as “a collection of labels illustrated by specimens,” and -should obtain, if it has not already done so, a set of our printed -labels, and ascertain for how many of them illustrative specimens -can be produced. Steps should next be taken to obtain elsewhere any -specially desirable exhibits which may not be forthcoming. Some -Horns, Antlers, Skulls, &c., are sure to be wanted, and no doubt -the Geological series and the Flint implements will need to be -supplemented. These deficiencies may be supplied in some instances by -borrowing from other adjacent museums, or they may be purchased at -various dealers. - -A very important and attractive department of the temporary museum -will be the display of Pictures, Maps and Portraits. These, like those -just mentioned, may be hired, if they cannot be begged or borrowed. -A diligent ladies’ sub-committee, well supplied with bundles of old -unbound copies of _The Illustrated London News_, _Graphic_, _Vanity -Fair_ and _Punch_ would soon construct an attractive portrait gallery, -as well as sundry most interesting series in illustration of social -history, scenery, geography and natural science. There is not anywhere -a small town in which material of this kind may not be brought to light -from the cupboards in which it is uselessly stowed away. The best way -of dealing with it would be to procure some false-backed frames, such -as we have in use at Haslemere. In many instances portraits, maps, &c., -will not need to be put into frames, but may be at once pinned up in -well-classified series on the walls. - -We have said nothing as yet as to a department which ought to be made -one of the most important, especially at a sea-side resort. A Vivarium -for the display of local specimens in their fresh and living states -should be arranged either in an ante-room or hall, or in a shed, or -under a verandah outside the building. In this should be a stand -for flowers (all named), and bell glasses and large saucers for the -reception of shell-fish, sea anemones, sponges _au naturel_, sea-weeds -and corallines. Illustrations and explanatory labels for most of these -our Haslemere press can supply. - -The charges for admission to the show should be: before its completion, -sixpence each person; when complete and in good order, threepence for -adults, half-price for children; and on Saturdays a penny all round. -Books of tickets, making a very liberal reduction, should be available. -The result would be, if circumstances were favourable and zeal -abounded, that the guarantors would lose nothing and might possibly -carry forward a modest balance to begin next year with. Meanwhile -the prosperity and reputation of the sea-side resort would have been -helped and a large number of persons would have been entertained and -instructed. - - * * * * * - -The following paragraph appeared a short time ago in one of the daily -papers:-- - - The complaint is often made that there is little opportunity - to learn anything about the specimens exhibited in museums. At - Brooklyn the experiment has been tried of placing for the use - of visitors books bearing upon the subjects exhibited alongside - the cases. This experiment seems to have been most successful. - -The Brooklyn experiment is not a new one. It has been practised for -many years past in our museum (_vide_ _Museums’ Journal_, vol. ii., -1902). - - * * * * * - -BRITISH SNAKES. - -[Illustration: The Viper. The Common Snake.] - -We have in Great Britain only three representatives of the class -Reptilia which come under the name of Snake. They are the Common Snake, -the Smooth Snake and the Viper. In Ireland there are--as the result of -events to which we referred in our previous number--none at all. Of -the three British Snakes, one, the Smooth Snake,[1] is so rare that -it is of interest only to the naturalist. It is met with in Hampshire -and Dorset, and perhaps in Scotland, but it is nowhere frequent. It -is more nearly allied to the Common Snake than to the Viper, and is -quite harmless. It is much smaller than the others. We will concern -ourselves for the present only with the other two. The Common Snake[2] -is quite harmless and should never be injured by any humane person. -The Viper[3] is venomous, and should be destroyed without mercy. It is -easy enough to distinguish between the two even when in movement. The -Common Snake is always, when full grown, much longer than the Viper. -It may measure 4 feet and is usually 3, whilst the Viper is never more -than 2. The Common Snake tapers off very gradually at its tail, whilst -the Viper has a short tail, which is abruptly constricted at its base. -The Viper is usually brown, often deeply coloured, whilst the Snake is -much lighter coloured, of a light grey-brown tinged with green. The -Common Snake has only spots of black, whilst the Viper is marked down -the whole of its back with large zig-zag black lozenges. This is a most -important feature, is characteristic at all ages of the animal, and is -easily seen under all conditions. - -We have named the characters which are most easily seen when the -animal is gliding about on the sward or path, there are others which -are available when the animal is dead or in captivity. Under such -conditions it will be seen that the scales which clothe the Viper are -much smaller in size than those of the Snake, more especially on the -head, and further, that the head of the Viper is marked with black, -somewhat in the form of the letter V. - -Snakes, as well as Vipers, have sharp teeth, but they use them only for -seizing their prey, and they have no poison fangs. - -The venom apparatus of the Viper consists of a gland which secretes the -poison, a receptacle which stores it, and a long, sharp fang, which -can be extruded and through a groove in which the poison is conveyed. -The animal darts open-mouthed at its enemy rather than bites. Its fang -being in its upper jaw it becomes well exposed when the mouth is agape. -As there is a fang on each side there will usually be two punctures in -the skin about a third of an inch apart. - -No doubt there occur every year in England a good many instances of -viper-bites in men and boys. There are, however, exceedingly few -deaths, and many persons of considerable experience have doubted -whether the bite is ever actually fatal. A very urgent and severe -illness is almost invariably the result; but the patient just pulls -through. - -In a case in which the writer was, in boyhood, a particeps, two fine -vipers were captured in mistake. They were put into a botanical box -and were repeatedly inspected, and their tongues freely touched. It -was only when on arrival at home that one of them, during an attempt -to transfer it to a cage, made a dart and struck the finger of a boy -of fourteen. The accident was concealed until, about a quarter of an -hour later in attempting to cross the floor, the victim fell down in a -deadly faint. He became very sick and having been got to bed remained -in collapse, apparently near death for several hours. Brandy was of -course freely given. - -The medical adviser who had been summoned, arrived in hot haste with a -big volume under his arm, in order to make reference to “snake-bite” -and its treatment. It was, however, too late to do anything more than -give stimulants, and happily these were successful. A fortnight’s -illness ensued, during the early part of which the whole arm was -enormously swollen, and later partly covered with boils. - -This case affords, we believe, a very fair example of what usually -follows the incautious capture of the English adder. The reptile does -not attack willingly, but only after much provocation, and he cannot, -as a rule, destroy the life of his human enemy. His poison fangs are -designed for other purposes, and for much smaller animals. - -Within the last few weeks a case at Folkestone has attracted much -attention, in which two school-boys in pursuit of what is called -“Nature Study,” were bitten by a viper, with the result that one of -them died. Several other well-authenticated instances of death have -been recorded. We repeat, however, that they are very rare. - -The early summer is the best time for killing vipers, since the males, -which at other seasons hide themselves, may now often be found. Warm -heaths and banks exposed to the sun are the places which they frequent. -The common snake, on the other hand, loves water, or may be found in a -hay-field or near an old barn or on a dung-heap. The snake lays eggs -and leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the dung or the rays of -the sun, taking no care whatever for her progeny. The viper, on the -contrary, brings forth her young alive and tends them carefully, even -allowing them, according to fairly well-accredited narratives, to -retreat in case of danger into her mouth and gullet. - -The first aid in case of viper-bite should consist in placing a tight -ligature (string or a boot-lace) around the limb above the punctures. -This should be as tight as possible so as to prevent the circulation -of the blood and passage of the venom towards the heart. Next, -incisions should be made across the punctures, or if circumstances -are favourable, the bit of skin comprising the two punctures may be -cut out. The wound thus made should be sucked or well bathed so as to -favour bleeding, and to remove as much of the poison as can be got -away. If ammonia or potash, or Jeye’s fluid or Condy’s fluid be at hand -the wound should be continuously bathed with a weak solution of it. -The ligature, if tight, should not be kept on for more than an hour, -but by this time medical advice will probably have been obtained. To -combat the faintness, &c., brandy, or still better ammonia (that is, -sal volatile or hartshorn well diluted), should be given. - -[1] _Coronella lævis_, or _austriaca_. - -[2] _Tropidonotus natrix_, or _Natrix vulgaris_. - -[3] _Pelias berus_, or _Coluber verus_. - - * * * * * - -THE VIVARIUM. (HASLEMERE MUSEUM.) - -During June and July the botany of a district may be very fully -illustrated in the Museum-vivarium. Mr. Douglas Taylor, who has -charge of that department in our Museum, experiences no difficulty in -exhibiting one hundred species simultaneously. No very rare species -are exhibited. At the present time the only plants in our collection -to which the term “uncommon” may be applied are herb Paris, bird’s -nest orchis, Solomon’s seal, and climbing corydalis. The flowers are -arranged, in zinc cylinders, on an ordinary florist’s stand. For the -printed labels now in use we are indebted to the generosity of E. E. -Lowe, Esq., F.L.S., of the Plymouth Museum. - -Vipers and grass snakes are not difficult to obtain (see page 53). -The former, when discovered, should be carefully pinned with a stick, -whilst a vasculum (or large bottle) containing leaves and heather is -placed before it. Upon release the viper, judiciously guided by the -stick, will take refuge in the receptacle prepared for it. Grass-snakes -thrive well in captivity, their chief food being frogs and mice. On the -other hand, the English viper nearly always refuses food under such -conditions. - -Our vivarium contains, in addition to the above, two of the three -British newts, viz., _Lophinus punctatus_ and _L. palmatus_. The -former, though usually spoken of as the “common newt” is in many -districts (as at Haslemere) not so common as the palmate newt. The -latter is smaller, and the tail terminates abruptly in a threadlike -filament, instead of gradually tapering to a point. - -An ants’ nest contained between sheets of glass, on the plan devised -by Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) and described in his “Ants, Bees, -and Wasps” (p. 2), always proves a source of attraction to visitors in -the winter, as well as summer months. We have had for two seasons past -a nest of the amber-coloured meadow ant (_Formica flava_) displayed -under these conditions. It is probably the most intelligent of European -species, forming the grassy hillocks from 9 to 18 inches high, so -commonly seen in some districts. The queen, which is much larger than -either workers or males, requires very careful searching for upon -opening a nest; but the peculiar little white woodlice (which delights -in the long name of _Platyarthous hoffmanseggii_, they are a sort of -guest of the ants) may be always easily discerned. - -Every spring we take out of the Museum and arrange in this department a -series of our summer migrants, accompanied with general notes on bird -migration. The following may be seen now: Swallow, martin, swift, sand -martin, cuckoo, corncrake, nightingale, wryneck, nightjar, redstart, -yellow wagtail, garden warbler, wheatear, chiffchaff and whinchat. - -Kept under a bell glass and fed with lettuce and cabbage leaves are -some half a dozen examples of the large edible or vine snail (_Helix -pomatia_), the largest of our native land molluscs. This species occurs -chiefly on the chalk in the southern counties. At one time it was -supposed to have been introduced by the Romans, but of late years the -opinion has gained ground that it was indigenous. In the same quarters -is an example of a shell-slug, the _Testacella haliotidea_, sent from -Torquay. The shell-slugs differ from ordinary slugs in having a shell -on the tail. They are carnivorous and feed upon earth-worms, which they -pursue in their burrows; hence may be considered as gardeners’ friends. - - * * * * * - -A GILBERT WHITE PAGE. - -(_Continued from p. 27._) - -The curious effect of insect attacks in stimulating the growth of -certain parts of the plant which they have damaged may be found -illustrated in hundreds of instances. We have just mentioned the -pine-apples on the spruce fir, but the currant gall on the male catkin -of the oak is yet more striking. In this case a structure which -is naturally very shortlived has its vigour enhanced and its life -prolonged by the presence of the parasite. In this instance the fly -attacks the pollen-bearing flowers and deposits its eggs. These flowers -would, in the ordinary course, wither and fall as soon as the pollen -has ripened and been blown away. Under the stimulating influence of -the larvæ, however, sap is attracted, their stems thicken and become -fleshy, and instead of withering, they produce what looks like a -handsome bunch of currants. - -Another instructive instance of parasitism stimulating growth may be -observed at this season in any patch of the common field thistle. Some -of the plants are almost sure to be affected by a parasitic fungus. It -is present in the stole of the plant, and its influence will cause the -affected plants to put forth leaves earlier than the healthy ones. They -will also grow faster, and in the course of a month be twice the height -of their fellows. The fungus grows in the stem, and finally it will -flower out on the surface of the leaves. When this happens the plant -will die, but up to that period its growth has been notably vigorous. -The fungus is the _Puccinia suaveoleus_ (_see_ Plowright, p. 183.) In -some plants it is visible even in early spring, and if abundant will -dwarf the plant so affected instead of stimulating its growth. - - * * * * * - -SEASONAL NOTES. JUNE. - -It is scarcely too much to say that “leafy June” is the month in the -year least favourable to natural history observation. Its glorious -beauty is distracting and the profusion of objects of interest hinders -attention to any. We hope, however, that our last month’s Notes -may have directed the attention of some of our readers to certain -special topics and particularly to the wonders of Gall-formation now -in progress. The pine-apple galls on the spruce firs are now in full -growth. Two varieties will be abundantly found. Some are small, not -bigger than large peas, and remain green. These are covered with spines -rather than scales. Others much larger have scales, which at their -margins are beautifully tinged with various shades of red and crimson. -These are the “pine-apples” and these alone simulate true cones. Their -changes will advance rapidly and already their valves may have opened -and allowed the aphis larva, which has escaped from its egg at their -base, to crawl up and enter. This most remarkable process may be -verified by any one who will watch carefully. - -Those objects of universal disgust, the Cuckoo-spits, may be shown to -have features of interest which will to some extent counteract the -repugnance of all juvenile naturalists. Hidden in a mass of iridescent -spume there will be found a little greenish insect revelling in the -double luxury of warmth and moisture, to which perhaps is added a -paradise of many-coloured light. The observer’s attention may be -attracted to the fact that the insect has chosen chiefly thistles and -nettles as its hosts, these not being likely to be eaten by cattle. -Later in the season it will be less careful. The insect here concerned, -although a relative of the “plant lice,” is not a true aphis. - -June is the month for the Orchis tribe. The Bee must be looked for in -its earliest weeks or never. So also of the Spider and the Frog. Others -continue in flower much longer, but almost all are in their perfection -in June. - -Rhododendrons are now plentiful, and the very interesting arrangement -by which their anthers open at their points to discharge their pollen -may easily be observed. It is characteristic of the whole family of -heaths, but as the anthers of rhododendrons are far larger than those -of our English heaths, it is best seen in them. - -Those who have never observed it before will be amused to be shown the -jack-in-the-box manner in which the curled up stamens of the Broom -spring out when the bee touches the shoulders of the petals. June is -the month for Broom and both will soon be past. - -Amongst our summer visitants the pretty little Turtle-dove is one of -the last to arrive. It waits until the season is well settled and -rarely comes to us before the middle of May. As perhaps a result of -this caution its numbers remain each year much the same. We have now -plenty of turtle-doves at Haslemere, whilst all representatives of the -Swallow tribe are scarce. Some observers think that Nightingales also -have been less frequently heard this spring than usual. Their song, -which ceases when the young are hatched and the business of feeding -begins, will soon be over for 1906. - -Speaking of Birds of Passage, we may say that we shall be glad to -receive from any readers in different parts of the kingdom, estimates -of the year’s abundance of the various species. The spring was -remarkably variable, and much of it cold, and this may have had the -result of much diminishing the supply of food which would await our -guests. So far as our enquiries have gone we believe that there is -a general impression that the early spring migrants are this year -somewhat defective in number. - -Peach and Almond trees, with their leaves curled, distorted and -thickened, some yellowish-green, others rosy or purplish, are infested -with a fungus, scientifically known as _Exoascus deformans_. It is -one of the ascomycetes; in the same genus is included the fungus -responsible for the “witches’ besoms” of our birch-trees. At maturity -the fungus bursts through the cuticle of the leaf, coming to the -surface to disperse its spores or seeds. The part of the leaf with the -ripe spores upon it, is minutely velvety; the whitish bloom may be -easily seen with the unaided eye, but of course individual spores could -not be seen without the aid of a powerful microscope. - -It is said that this disease is very rarely seen in seasons following -an uniformly mild spring. - -At the moment of writing we have not observed many oaks defoliated -by caterpillars. The following note is taken from the Museum Record -Book, June 1, 1899: “Oak-trees badly attacked by the larvæ of the -green leaf-roller (_Tortrix viridana_), which cause much damage to -the foliage. The continuous falling of the excreta of these small -caterpillars sounds like paper being pricked by a fine pin, and is very -noticeable in a quiet wood.” In 1902 these larvæ were again equally -troublesome in this district. - -The ingenious work of the leaf-rolling Beetles (_Genera apoderus_, -_Attelabus and Rhynchites_) may be observed at this time of the year. -The female, in some species, rolls a leaf into a tube, in others she -makes a compact little thimble of the upper half of the leaf, in the -centre of which she puts an egg. Hazel, oak and chestnut leaves so -folded are not uncommonly seen in this district. Specimens may be -usually seen in the vivarium towards the end of the month. - -June is a good month for the observation of what are termed Social -Flowers. The veronica, in many meadows, especially those in which the -grass is kept short by grazing, now exhibits round patches of several -yards in diameter, which are beautifully blue. The little mouse ear -(Myosotis) makes similar patches, but in much less conspicuous tints. -These plants appear to have the power not only of spreading themselves, -but of excluding intruders, and their territories sometimes show no -other form of vegetation. The common daisy is also a social flower, -but much less able to keep others at a distance. So also the wild -strawberry. - - * * * * * - -QUESTIONS FOR ANSWERS. - -(_Continued from p. 31, which see._) - -(14) Give the meanings of the following prefixes: (1) sub, (2) pseudo, -(3) ob, (4) hypo, (5) hyper, (6) para, (7) ab, (8) aero, (9) con, (10) -amphi, (11) ana, (12) pro. - -(15) The late Mr. Holyoake tells us that as the result of a street -accident in which he was much bruised he remembers “squalling for -a fortnight on being taken out of bed.” In another place we read -respecting an accident that “a huge dog had loitered behind, and -suddenly discovered his master had driven ahead, and he, like a Leming -rat, made straight for his master, quite regardless of our being in -his way.” Explain the reference to the Leming rat, and rewrite both -quotations so as to make them express what you think that the author -intended that they should. - -(16) What is meant by “a rootless tooth”? - -(17) When the number of digits differs on the front and hinder feet of -a quadruped, which has usually the most? - -(18) Amongst the principal divisions of the mammalian kingdom are -Rodentia, Carnivora, Insectivora, Cheiroptera, Primates and Ungulata. -Name an English representative of each. - -(19) Why are Bees named Anthophila? - -(20) Was Captain Cook killed at Owhyhee or in Hawaii? - -(21) What do the figures 2123 mean when applied to the teeth, and how -many teeth would the animal possess to which that formula would be -suitable? - -(22) At what time in the morning do Daisies open their flowers? - -(23) In the _Times_ of September 13, we read, respecting the Sakhalin -coast, “The number of walruses and sea-beavers have been greatly -reduced by the destructive methods of the American fishers.” What -animals are meant by the term “sea-beavers,” and is the name a suitable -one? - -(24) If you have watched a stableman washing the wheels of a carriage, -you will have seen him use an implement for lifting the vehicle from -the ground. Why does he use it? What is its name? Explain its mechanism. - -(25) If you pour hot water upon a dry sponge it will sink down to half -its size, whereas if the water were cold it would swell up. Try the -experiment and explain the different results. - -(26) When a man’s hands are cold he will swing his arms so as to strike -the hands violently against the sides of his shoulders. What is this -action called, and why is it practised? - - * * * * * - -NOTICES OF BOOKS RECEIVED. - -ORNITHOLOGY.--Messrs. West, Newman and Co., have recently published a -very handy and useful “Pocket Book of British Birds,” which we have -much pleasure in recommending to field ornithologists. The arrangement -followed is that given in Howard Saunders’ well-known “Manual of -British Birds.” Species “of which only a few specimens have been -observed or obtained in this country” are omitted. The notes are -arranged under the heads of localities, haunts, observation, plumage, -language, habits, food, nest, site, material, eggs. The size is very -convenient for the pocket. Price, 2s. 6d. - -THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE BRITISH MYCOLOGICAL SOCIETY for the season 1905 -(published, May 19, 1906) contain a full account of the Fungus Foray -held at Haslemere during the week ending September 30, 1905. - -The specimens collected were exhibited in the Museum. The exhibition -was a record one as regards the number of species, as no less than four -hundred and eighty-five were identified during the foray, including -twenty-five mycetozoa. Four plates, three coloured, accompany the -Transactions. - -Amongst the species depicted we may mention _Polystictus montagnei_, -a new British species found near Haslemere in 1898, and _Sparassis -laminosa_ (also a new British record) found by Mr. Douglas Taylor on -the occasion of the Society’s visit to Woolmer Forest on September 26, -last. - -Full particulars respecting the Society may be obtained of the Hon. -Secretary, Carelton Rea, Esq., B.C.L., M.A., at 34, Foregate Street, -Worcester. - - * * * * * - -DESCRIPTIONS OF MUSEUM SPECIMENS. - -[_These descriptions are adapted for Museum Labels, and they may be had -separately._] - -SKULL OF MONTJAC, OR BARKING DEER. - -The skull of the little Montjac, or Barking deer, is of interest -as showing better than any other the relation of the antler to its -pedestal. The pedestal is very long and the antler very small. The -latter usually possesses only two tines, the main one and a short stout -one which grows near its base. From the front of the pedestal there -runs a strong bony ridge down the outer border of the frontal bone as -far as the junction with the nasal. This evidently gives strength to -the prolonged and rather slender pedestal. - -SKULL OF A LLAMA (Camel of America). - -The skull of the Llama resembles that of the Camel, and both differ -from those of the other ruminants in having incisor teeth in the upper -jaw. “These teeth are placed at the side of the intermaxillary bone -close to the canines, and agree with them in form” (Van der Hoven, vol. -ii., 644). - -“There are six incisors only in the lower jaw, and this jaw is -undivided.” - -The camels and llamas form transition species between horses and oxen -(ruminants and solid-ungulates). - -THE HORNS OF A GNU. - -The Gnu’s horns are alike in both species and may be known at a glance -by their hook-like curves. They pass outwards and downwards and then -suddenly curve upwards and forwards. They resemble those of buffaloes -and perhaps most closely those of the American bison. They are never -very large, and always black. They are of fibrous structure and of -large girth at their bases, emulating those of the buffaloes. The Gnu -in some of its features resembles a little horse, possessing a mane -and having its face, tail, and hindquarters much like those of a pony. -It has, however, a cleft hoof and a beard which, as well as its horns, -distinguish it from the horse family. - -One of the gnus has a brindled neck and forequarters, pale streaks on -a dark ground, and a black and tufted tail; another has a white tail -covered with long hair from its base, and shows no brindling. The -latter has an almost straight back, whilst the former stands higher in -its forequarters like the bison. The horns of the brindled black-tailed -gnu do not pass forwards nearly so much as those of the other. - -All the Gnus are South African and would appear to bear the same -relation to the buffaloes of that continent that the North American -bison does to the American buffalo. - -They are active but rather awkward animals, and their self-important -airs are sometimes amusing. - -THE SKULL OF THE DUGONG, OR HALICORE. - -This animal is allied to the Manati, both belonging to the order -_Sirenia_. They are water-living mammals. The dugong occurs only in -Eastern and Australian seas, the manati on the coasts of South America -and Africa. The grotesquely misshapen aspect of the skull of the dugong -is due to the enormous development of the bones in its upper jaw which -carry the cutting teeth (premaxillary bones and incisor teeth), and -its clumsy lower jaw. The former bear a tusk in the male, which in the -female is present but is never cut. There are no canine teeth, and in -the massive lower jaw no incisor teeth are ever cut. The rudiment of -one is, however, present in the jaw. It may be noted that the bones -carrying the upper incisors do not become united to those of the upper -jaw. The back teeth (chewing teeth), are only four, five, or six in -number in the dugong, whereas in the manati there may be twenty. A -remarkable tendency to vary in their dentition is characteristic of -this group of animals, and is no doubt in relation with differences in -food. A recently extinct member of the family (Steller’s sea-cow) had -no teeth at all, but masticated the soft sea-weeds on which it fed by -the aid of a horny palate (_Rhytina Stelleri_). - -HEAD OF THE WART HOG (_Phacochœrus Æthiopicus_). - -The Wart Hog is a native of Africa. His name makes reference to a pair -of wart-like excrescences, which are formed, one under each eye. These -may be an inch and a half in length. - -There is an enormous development of the base of the zygoma. The incisor -teeth in the upper jaw are often wanting, and sometimes those in the -lower also. The snout is short and square. The so-called warts are -fleshy skin-growths and may be large enough to look like ears. - -There is another Wart Hog (_Œliani_), met with in Abyssinia. It differs -from the Cape Wart Hog in that its incisor teeth in both jaws are more -persistent. It has two “warts.” - -THE SKULL OF A PIG (_Sus scrofa_). - -The skulls of most of the swine family may be recognised by the long -face, and the large size, in both jaws, of their dog-teeth or tusks. -These are especially large in the male sex, and are often curiously -curved, those of the upper jaw upwards, and those of the lower outwards -and upwards. The incisor, or biting, teeth vary very much in different -species and at different ages. They are often shed early, especially -those of the upper jaw. In some pigs the lower incisors are strong -and slope directly forwards, as if for digging. The incisor teeth -are of less service in the pig than in most animals, and are only -exceptionally used for biting or grazing. The pig makes great use of -the snout, and the nasal bones are strong and prominent. The molar -teeth are well adapted for chewing, and are usually worn flat on their -surfaces. Pigs champ but do not ruminate. They are, for the most part, -root-eaters. The rim of the orbit is always imperfect. The normal -dentition is three incisors, one canine, and seven molars in each -jaw. If the upper canine is extracted the lower one will grow into a -complete circle and reach the gum close to the root of the tooth. When -thus curved it forms an ornament much valued in Fiji. - -SKULL OF THE BABIRUSSA. - -Note especially that the tusk of the upper jaw grows upward from the -first. No part of it is directed into the mouth. This tusk is of -extraordinary size, and it curves upwards so as to touch, and sometimes -even to pierce, the skull. They are, as compared with those of other -swine, slender tusks, more especially the under ones. The upper tusk -grows through the skin of the upper lip. In old animals, when it is -well curved, it must be useless as a weapon. It may serve to protect -the eyes when the animal rushes through brushwood. In the female the -tusks are small. - - * * * * * - -ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS, &c. - -CONCHOLOGIST.--Your shells are _Helix nemoralis_ (immature), _Hyalinia -(Vitrea) pura_, and _Buliminus obscurus_. _Vitrea pura_ is a much -smaller shell than _V. nitidula_, the latter may be distinguished from -_V. radiatula_ by the striæ not being continued from whorl to whorl. -_B. obscurus_ is much smaller than any member of the genus _Clausilia_. -If you examine in May the trunks of beech trees growing on calcareous -soils you will find _B. obscurus_ and _Clausilia laminata_ ascending -them in large numbers to spend the summer aloft, coming down again in -October to go into hybernation at the base of the trees during the -winter months. You will find _C. rugosa_ (in modern terminology, _C. -bidentata_) equally common on the trees, it is smaller and thinner than -_C. laminata_. _B. obscurus_ is a short, stout little shell, seldom -exceeding 9 millimetres in height. - -GARDENER. _Diseases of the Cultivated Chrysanthemum._--At the present -time three diseases are recorded for this country, viz., sclerotium -disease (_Sclerotinia sclerotiorum_, Massee); corticium disease -(_Peniophora chrysanthemi_, C. B. Plowright), and the only too familiar -Rust (_Puccinia hieracii_, Mart). The sclerotium, which first appears -as a white mould on the stem just above the ground, forms black lumps -within the stem. The stem becomes very brittle and falls. From the -black nodules in the following spring, small funnel-shaped brownish -fungi with long, weak, dark stems appear. The spores from these settle -upon dead organic matter, forming an abundant mycelium which ultimately -attacks the base of the stems of chrysanthemums. It is said that fresh -stable manure favours the spread of the disease. Diseased stems should -be carefully collected and burnt. - -The corticium disease also appears on the lower part of the stem, -forming a white growth in autumn; Dr. Plowright, who first discovered -it, says it resembles a splash of whitewash. It is not confined to the -stems but extends into the adjacent soil. Diseased plants are shorter -in height and thinner in the stem than healthy; they always die within -the year. This disease has hitherto been observed only at King’s Lynn -in Norfolk, but it is very possible it occurs in other parts of the -country. Dr. Plowright remarks that the only treatment is burning the -diseased plant. It is useless to separate the apparently healthy shoots. - -The well-known chrysanthemum rust first appeared in 1897, and spread -with great rapidity in the very dry summer of 1898. The snuff-coloured -uredo spores (summer form) are familiar to all cultivators of -chrysanthemums. This fungus occurs on many wild plants of the order -_Compositæ_, notably the hawk-weeds (_Hieracium_). All diseased plants -should be burnt. The disease may be prevented by spraying the new -leaves with potassium sulphide solution. - -It is to be hoped that the chrysanthemum leaf blight (_Cylindrosporium -chrysanthemi_), which has caused so much damage to cultivated plants -in Ontario, Canada, will not find its way into this country. It forms -large dark patches on the leaves, which turn yellow and hang down; the -flower buds do not expand. It is stated that fungicides are useless. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Haslemere Museum Gazette, Vol. 1, -No. 2, June 1906, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HASLEMERE MUSEUM *** - -***** This file should be named 53371-0.txt or 53371-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/3/7/53371/ - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The Haslemere Museum Gazette, Vol. 1, No. 2, June 1906 - A Journal of Objective Education and Field-Study - -Author: Various - -Editor: Jonathan Hutchinson - E. W. Swanton - -Release Date: October 26, 2016 [EBook #53371] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HASLEMERE MUSEUM *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus1.jpg" width="650" height="435" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Historical Department.</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> - -<h1><span class="smaller">THE</span><br /> -MUSEUM GAZETTE.</h1> - -<div class="bordered"> - -<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">No. 2.</span></p> - -<p class="center move-up">JUNE, 1906.</p> - -<p class="right move-up"><span class="smcap">Vol. 1.</span></p> - -</div> - -<h2>OUR HISTORY ROOM. (<i>See Frontispiece.</i>)</h2> - -<p>A department of our Museum to which, as regards its -educational usefulness, we attach very great importance, is -that which attempts the illustration of Human History. It is -displayed in a separate division of the main building, and is -arranged, as far as possible, on “the space-for-time method.” -This method, which, following the pattern of an ordinary -diary, allots to every period of time the same amount of space, -is, of course, possible only where the time-periods and dates -are fairly well established. It is not well adapted, excepting -as a sort of open and, to some extent speculative, framework -for the illustration of prehistoric times. A courageous -example of such use of it we ventured to offer in our last -number in reference to prehistoric man in Britain. It was -not history in any other sense than that the periods of time -were real; the events assigned to them were largely conjectural. -In the Museum itself we do not attempt to deal -with very remote periods in this manner. Our space-for-time -arrangement begins only with 2000 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> It might now, -perhaps, fairly begin with 4000 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>, but, unfortunately, we -have not space enough. In this Schedule, which occupies the -whole of one side of a long room (70 feet), a measured space -on the wall, of nearly two feet, is allotted to each century. -The centuries are marked out by strong black lines, drawn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -vertically from roof to the table-shelf below. This table-shelf -is 18 inches wide, and runs the whole length of the -room. It is upon it that the busts shown in our frontispiece -are standing. Each bust is supposed to be in its appropriate -century, and with it are placed any other illustrative objects -belonging to the period—medals, coins, small architectural -models (when we have them), and the like. For instance, a -model of Stonehenge stands in the century in which it seems -probable that that most remarkable structure was built, and -portions of Roman pavement and other relics mark the period -of the Italian occupation of Britain. Upon the wall itself are -placed engravings, photographs, and the like, illustrative of the -century, and representing either human personality or some -results of human effort. In order to aid the memory each -century is designated by the name of some prominent person -of the time, to whom other associations may conveniently -cling. These names, painted in bold characters, head the -columns which represent the centuries. Beneath these -prominent names we have (in the case of a considerable -number of the most recent centuries) put up schedules of the -principal events, and lists of some of the principal persons. -The appended schedule is one of them and will illustrate what -is meant:—</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center">FOURTEENTH A.D.</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chaucer.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<ul> -<li>The Three Edwards.</li> -<li>Bannockburn.</li> -<li>Famine in England.</li> -<li>The Hundred Years’ War begins.</li> -<li>Battle of Crecy.</li> -<li>The Black Death (Plague).</li> -<li>Battle of Poictiers.</li> -<li>Bolingbroke dethrones Richard II.</li> -<li>Froissart’s Chronicle.</li> -</ul> - -</div> - -<p class="center">Wallace and Bruce. Dante. John of Gaunt. Rienzi. Van Artevelde.<br /> -Wickliffe. Huss. Boccaccio. Petrarch. William Tell.</p> - -</div> - -<p>It will, if what we have tried to describe has conveyed its -intended meaning, be seen that an observer passing slowly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -down the length of the room, may appreciate at a glance the -relative position of the principal events in the world’s history. -He can hardly avoid noticing, with fair accuracy, the distance -between Homer and Socrates, between Socrates and Paul, -and between the Christian epoch and the times of Milton and -Shakespeare. He will be impressed at once, as, possibly, he -never was before, with a perception of the brief and very -recent portion of time which contains the whole of the annals -of our own nation. If, in addition to thus obtaining a sort of -bird’s-eye view of the progress of the world, it is desired to -go into detail and devote time to the enquiry, a certain -amount of help will be found to have been provided on the -table-shelf. Detailed schedules taken from the “The Centuries” -(see advertisement) have been mounted on board -conveniently for hand use, and are placed on the table-shelf -at the foot of each century. A few books of reference in -biography and history, and numerous maps, have also been -suitably placed, and there are chairs.</p> - -<p>The “Historical Schedule” described takes up, as we have -said, the whole of one side of the long room. The other side -of it, as well as much of the floor-space, is occupied by -somewhat miscellaneous illustrations of prehistoric times, and -of nations and races which have not as yet attained to history. -The anthropoids, anthropology and ethnology in general here -find illustration, in large part, but not wholly, by pictorial aid. -We have also a few interesting objects suitable, as illustrating -social progress, for what is now known as a Folk-Museum.</p> - -<p>It is believed that this department of the Museum offers -special facilities to teachers, who bring their classes into it -and give explanations on the spot, and that by enabling the -pupil to obtain a wide purview of historical times, it may do -somewhat to obviate the inevitably cramping influence of the -too detailed study of single epochs.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> - -<h2>FAMOUS WOMEN AT THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY.</h2> - -<p>We have climbed to the third landing. Let us turn into -the left-hand gallery and we shall come to one of the most -interesting groups in the whole Museum.</p> - -<p>It is that which contains portraits of English women whose -names have become famous in literature. Here we have -Mrs. Browning, Sarah Austin, Mrs. Carter, Miss Strickland, -George Eliot, Mary Somerville, and many others. The -collection is not nearly so complete as could be wished—for -Jane Austen, Anne and Jane Taylor, Hannah More, the -Brontës, and many others are wanting—still, it is very good. -But few males are admitted. Robert Browning is very -properly allowed to accompany his wife, and the fact, we presume, -that his wife was with him, has also gained access -for Thomas Hood. A portrait of Lady Hamilton strikes us -as a little out of place, but the Museum has as yet no department -for female charm, and as this is by Romney it may -have been difficult to refuse it. With the exception of it and -one of Elizabeth Fry, all the others have more or less direct -claim to be associated with literature or science. To Mrs. -Opie, Mrs. Browning and Miss Strickland no one will -hesitate to accord the praise of good looks, and many others -exhibit in a remarkable degree the bright-eyed intelligence -which we expect from authoresses. Several show a splendid -breadth of forehead, the accompaniment, no doubt, of a -brachycephalic or broad head. Mrs. Carter, Miss Mitford (of -“Our village”), Mrs. Trimmer, Miss Strickland and George -Eliot are the best, but not the only instances of this. It might -be hardly good manners to describe too exactly the various -features of feminine faces, and the fact that but few show -the profile makes it difficult to judge accurately as to size and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -shape of nose and chin. Few are, in any sense, disappointing. -That of Mrs. Carlisle might have been kept back without loss, -since, if it is in the least true to life, it gives a too painful -sense of justification to the rumours of married unhappiness, -which were probably to a large extent unfounded. The -portrait of Sarah Austin, when old and ill, might also perhaps -be spared, since there is a very pleasing one of her in earlier -life. At any rate, the two ought to be placed together. -Declining, as we do, in reference to almost the whole, the -task of detailed analysis of features, we cannot, in the interests -of physiognomical research, exempt those behind which lay -the most profound intellect ever possessed by a woman. -Mrs. Carter in classical and literary attainments, and Mary -Somerville in the domain of science, must be accorded foremost -places. Mrs. Browning is second, perhaps, to none in -depth of human sympathy and beauty of poetic expression; -but if we estimate character by profundity of insight, we shall -probably accord to George Eliot amongst women much the -same position as that which Shakespeare holds amongst men. -We do not for a moment compare her with Shakespeare.</p> - -<p>Of George Eliot the Museum possesses three portraits. -Most fortunately, it has also one of her father. It would -add enormously to the value of portraits as a means to the -illustration of character, if we might always have associated -with that of a distinguished individual those of his parents, -and even of his brothers and sisters. The portrait of Robert -Evans (George Eliot’s father) is a very pleasing one—a grave, -serious face, with a large Roman nose, well-formed lips and -chin, and a really magnificent forehead. The nose probably -gives a clue to his family descent.</p> - -<p>Of those of the authoress herself, the first, taken when she -was 23, by a lady friend (Mrs. Bray), is a poor work of art, -and exhibits a commonplace face, surmounted by a very -large rounded forehead. It is impossible to judge of the nose. -A second is of some years older, and is much better executed. -The forehead is still there, and the nose is shown of good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -size and shapely, and the lips and chin are well formed. The -face is a shorter one than in the next, and the hair is of a -much lighter tint. The face is pleasing and attractive, not -much unlike, if we remember rightly, one which represented -Jenny Lind.</p> - -<p>Lastly, we come to the often copied and well-known portrait -at age 46, by Sir F. Burton. In this the nose and face are -long, almost suggesting an approach to what is called a horse -face. The chin is good, but as the fine forehead is much -concealed by folds of hair, the balance of features is not -perfect, and the whole result not pleasing. All the three -show the eyes light grey or blue. There can be no doubt -that George Eliot had a large forehead and a fairly large -nose and chin, but further than this these somewhat disaccording -portraits do not take us. We must fall back on -her father’s Roman nose and really beautifully balanced -features.</p> - -<p>Mary Somerville’s face is a very intellectual one, but a -trifle cold as regards mouth and chin. Looking at Mrs. -Carter’s width of forehead, no one can doubt that she had -“skull-room” for many languages and what had been written -in them. There is a most pleasant expression on her face, -suggesting a genial companion and ready conversation, but -her chin is weak and small. Mrs. Browning’s face is alive -with graceful vigour, and her forehead, as we have already -said, is full and round.</p> - -<p>It is held that the heads of women are dolichocephalic -(long in proportion to breadth) in larger average than those -of men. There is certainly nothing in this collection of -portraits which would oppose the supposition that the higher -developments of intellect in women, as in men, are usually -met with in heads unusually broad. Such an inference must, -however, be accepted with some caution.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p> - -<h2>THE BRAIN IN RELATION TO INTELLECT.</h2> - -<p>When we speak of size of brain in reference to intellectual -endowments we must draw a clear distinction between the -eminence of a specialist and that of one of wide attainments. -A man may become famous as a specialist by the sedulous -cultivation of one branch of knowledge, whilst far from being -distinguished by wide grasp of thought. Indeed, the absence -of interest in some branches of knowledge may greatly favour -the exclusive devotion to a single one. Peschell quotes the -weights of the brains of some Göttingen professors which -were considerably below the average: Gauss, Fuchs (pathologist), -Hermann (philologist), Haussmann (mineralogist).</p> - -<p>Cuvier and Lord Byron are usually cited as having had -brains much heavier than the average, but there is some -uncertainty, especially as to the latter. None of his lordship’s -portraits suggest a large head.</p> - -<p>Although there are considerable discrepancies in the statements -of those who have examined the matter, there can be -little or no doubt that the brain increases somewhat with the -advance of civilisation, and that it was smaller in the prehistoric -races of man than in the more advanced ones of the -present age. The differences are probably not so great as many -may expect, but they are real. The Australian natives stand -the lowest, and the Europeans the highest. The American -Indian had a larger brain than the Asiatic, and the Asiatic -than the African. The Chinese stand between the European -and the Negro. Two Irish skulls are perhaps the largest on -record.</p> - -<p>The size of the skull may possibly not be always a safe -indication of the amount of useful brain matter contained -in it. It is said that the large-skulled Germans have brains -which are of lower specific gravity than those of others.</p> - -<p>There are many sources of fallacy as regards the weight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -of the brain in different persons, different races, and in the -two sexes. We must not trust too implicitly to statistics or -to tabulated records. It is better to be content with general -results, and to state even these with great caution.</p> - -<p>There can, however, be but little doubt that the brain of -woman weighs less than that of man, and that this difference -is greatest in highly civilised races. The brains of the broad-headed -are, as a rule, somewhat heavier than those of the -long-headed. This conclusion has been arrived at by comparing -the brains of different individuals of the same race, -not those of different races (Peschell, p. 70).</p> - -<p>There are some observations which support the conclusion -that the brain attains its greatest weight before 30 years of -age, and then undergoes diminution. At the age of 80 this -diminution is supposed to reach 10 per cent. The diminution -concerns the brain proper and the cerebellum, but not their -connecting part, the pons, which increases up to the fiftieth -year. Whilst it is, however, difficult to imagine methods by -which, without risk of great fallacy, such conclusions could be -arrived at, we may safely believe that the advance of age is -attended by some reduction in the size of the skull cavity -and the weight of its contents.</p> - -<p>It appears to be a constant law that with advance of civilisation -the differences between the sexes in general become -increased. This is seen in measurements of the skull and in -the weight of the brain. In the brains of negroes the woman -is but little below that of the man, 984 to 1,000, but in the -English it is only 860, and Germans 838. These figures -indicate, of course, proportions only, and like all other calculations -in this difficult subject, must be received with caution; -but they probably indicate, if they do not precisely express, -the fact.</p> - -<p>The height of the skull is usually in inverse ratio to its -breadth. The variation in height is far less than is common -in breadth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> - -<p>The brachycephalic have heavier brains than the dolichocephalic.</p> - -<p>In Hottentots both indices, breadth and height, are low.</p> - -<p>The following may be mentioned as examples of remarkably -broad heads (wide foreheads), in association with genius: -Shakespeare, Beranger, Mirabeau, Peacock (the novelist), -Miss Austen, Blackmore (“Lorna Doone”), Tennyson, -Erskine.</p> - -<p>The following had heads both tall and broad: Scott, -Goethe, Cervantes, Ambrose Paré, John Foster, Father Paul, -Galileo, Michael Angelo, Machiavelli, Benjamin West.</p> - -<p>We shall be indebted to any of our readers who may direct -our attention to other well-marked examples.</p> - -<p>The following afford instances of remarkably tall heads: -Motley (the historian of the Netherlands), Remin (engineer), -Richard Roberts (engineer).</p> - -<p>The following had remarkably long faces: Francis I., Inigo -Jones, George Eliot (Miss Evans), Savonorola.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2>THE EGG MARKET IN ENGLAND.</h2> - -<p>A wholesale dealer gives us the following items as to -the consumption of eggs in London: When eggs are 16 for -a shilling the sale amongst the working classes is enormous. -When they are 12 a shilling it falls at once 40 per cent., and -when only 8 it drops very low. The bulk of London eggs -are imported; Italy supplies many, France many, and some -even come from Turkey. They will travel from Trebizond -and be perfectly fresh when they arrive in London. We are -assured that most of the new-laid eggs consumed in Haslemere -come from Italy, and this at all periods of the year. Our -English housewives are not clever at preserving eggs, and the -witty classification of eggs into new-laid eggs, fresh eggs, and -eggs, is but too often illustrated.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> - -<h2>ON OUTGROWTHS AND APPENDAGES.</h2> - -<p class="center">(<i>Part of a Museum Lecture.</i>)</p> - -<p>Let us draw a clear distinction between “Appendages” and -“Outgrowths.” The prickles which are formed on the branch -of a rose are appendages; they may be detached without -really breaking any part of the bush. The spines which grow -on the blackthorn are outgrowths, and cannot be so detached. -I wish that some better word than “appendages” could be -found, for it seems almost to imply insignificance, and many -of the appendages to plants are of the utmost importance. -Still, it is true of them all that they may be removed and yet -leave the plant, as a plant, complete, and many or most of -them have only a transitory life, which does not by any -means equal that of the plant itself. They are like the -luncheon basket at the summer day’s ramble, not absolutely -essential, but very conducive to perfection. Now most forms -of leaf, flower, fruit and prickle are in this sense merely -appendages. From the very earliest stages of their formation -arrangements exist for their separation, in whole or part, -from the plants on which they are produced. You will see -that I am cautious in my terms, and say in part or in whole, -for in truth some appendages never are detached as wholes, -and very great variety exists in the ways in which they are -dealt with. For the most part they are susceptible of death, -and have their fixed duration of life quite independently of -the plant which bears them. In many this independent -death is the cause of their being cast off. In some instances, -however, it is not death, nor even sickness, but the fulness -of life and the attainment of adult age which causes them to -leave the parental home. I hold in my hand an oak twig -with two empty acorn cups. The acorns having attained -maturity, have fallen out. Shall we say they have detached<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -themselves, or that the tree has detached them? They have -not fallen by mere weight, for they were doubtless nearly, if -not quite, as heavy whilst still green, and they were then -firmly fixed. You see at the bottom of the empty cup the -large round scar which marks the site of former attachment. -It is brown and dry. It was by changes which took place -here that the acorn was loosened. The acorn had ripened -and ceased its growth. It no longer attracted sap through -its base of attachment, and the latter consequently became -dry and brittle. Possibly its feeding tubes were choked; at -any rate, it is certain that it underwent a sort of death and -was no longer able to keep the acorn in place. The process -was much like that which occurs in the shedding of leaves, -with, however, the very noteworthy difference that the acorn -itself was still alive.</p> - -<p>We have not, however, done with our oak twig. The -acorns which it bore were only appendages to an appendage, -and it now becomes the turn of the cups themselves and the -whole of the long foot-stalk on which they are mounted to -become detached. These are no part of the tree, and are of -no use to it. They were developed in order to bear flowers -and fruit; that function they have now discharged, and they -must die. Life is preserved only by the discharge of function, -or at any rate the effort to discharge it. Utter inactivity -leads to death, and death leads to separation from the living -and to decay. You see that the whole foot-stalk is brown -and shrunken and evidently dead. This condition ends -abruptly where the foot-stalk joins the stem. At this spot, -if you look carefully, you will see that there is a ring of -constriction, marking definitely where detachment is in progress. -This was the spot at which the production of the -whole appendage began, and here a sort of joint was left at -which the final detachment was destined to occur. Just one -word of caution, that we must not carry our distinctions too -far. After all, they are to some extent matters of degree. The -joint which separates the appendage from the twig on which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -it is produced can hardly be termed a true joint, for certain -structures run in unbroken continuity from the stem to the -appendage. These are the fibro-vascular bundles by which -the appendage is fed and also fixed in place. These bundles -are usually quite visible in the scar-surface left when a leaf or -fruit is broken off. They are “the nails in the horse-shoe” of -the leaf-scar of the horse chestnut. Still, it is certain that a -sort of joint is present, and that the structures are continuous -in a very different sense from that of a stem or true branch. -You may observe this difference in my acorn-bearing twig, for -there are two acorn cups, and one has been produced by a -branching out from the stem of the other. This little branch -is smoothly continuous with the parent branch, and shows no -preparation for detachment whatever.</p> - -<p>Thus we have seen that the arrangements under which -leaves are shed are exactly repeated in the case of fruits, and -that it is by no means needful that the object to be detached -should be dead or dying. It may perhaps surprise you to be -told that sometimes appendages are shed which have by no -means accomplished their prospective work. Some plants -shed their flowers and do this deliberately, having made their -arrangements for a step which is apparently suicidal. In -reality it is not suicidal, nor is it one of limitation of population, -but simply of preferential employment of capital. The -potato gives a good example of this. Every spring you may -see on the heads of this plant beautiful flowers produced, -which are destined in the course of another week to be only -flowerless foot-stalks. The flowers break off at a pre-existing -joint, just as leaves are shed. The influence which causes -them to fall is inability to attract sap, in consequence of -inability to proceed to the further stage of producing fruit. -The young tubers underground make such overpowering -demands upon the sap-furnishing capabilities of the roots that -the flowers cannot obtain sufficient for their seed forming. -Thus they at once die: if not obviously, at any rate practically, -and detachment follows as a natural result.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is a case of competitive growth and the tubers win. -After a time the plant will in the course of inheritance learn -that it is useless to produce flowers, will give up the attempt; -indeed, many varieties have already done so to a considerable -extent.</p> - -<p>No better instance could perhaps be given of the law -which goes through all animated Nature that activity is -almost essential to continuance of life, whether in individuals -or their parts.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Oldest Fossils</span> (Lingula).—It is a noteworthy fact that these, -the oldest fossil animals known, belong to species by no means low -in the scale. Yet every trace of the many millions which must have -preceded them, and have gradually led up to their development, have -perished. The period of time which must have elapsed subsequent -to the advent of life upon the planet and the development of the -lingula mollusc was probably quite as long as that which has passed -since the lingula left its shell in the mud of the Portmadoc slate. -The oldest fossils which are known are found in the lower Cambrian -rocks. They are small oval shells, which were, during life, the protection -of small soft-bodied sea animals of highly complex structure: -they had red blood. Their descendants are still found in great -numbers burrowing in sand on the shores of tropical oceans. They -have received the name of Lingula, and have in turn conferred that -name on certain hard rocks in which their shells occur in abundance, -the “Lingula flags” of Wales (<span class="smcap">Ray Lankester</span>).</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="smcap">Huge Shark’s Teeth.</span>—Ray Lankester figures, in his interesting -lectures on extinct animals from which we have quoted the above a -gigantic shark’s tooth. It is that of the <i>Carharodon megalodon</i>, and -is three times the length of the tooth of any living shark. Specimens -of this fossil tooth of smaller dimensions are common, and one should -be found in every museum. They are obtained from the bone bed -of the Red Crag at Felixstowe, but were not originally deposited in -it. Many of them have fragments of a yet older sandstone adhering -to them. Lankester calculates that his shark was 100 feet long.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> - -<h2>THE GREAT FAMILY OF THE CAMELS AND DEER.</h2> - -<p>The Camel, the Camelopard, the Musk-deer and the Deer -are all more or less nearly related. They constitute a branch -of the great family of Ruminants, and all chew the cud. -With the Camel are associated the Bactrian or two-humped -Camel, the Alpaca, the Llama and the Vicuna. With the -Giraffe we have the Okapi, and several extinct animals. -The Musk-deer stands almost alone. Of Deer there are a -great many species. It is easy enough to distinguish these -various animals the one from the other when seen living -in a Zoological Garden or stuffed in a museum. Indeed, at -first sight, there might seem to be no great similarity between -a Camel, a Giraffe, and a Fallow-deer. To the student of -natural history, however, it becomes of great interest to -observe the essential peculiarities of each. These may be -grouped as those which prove relationship and those which -show differences. We will leave aside the very important -peculiarities in the stomach, because but few of our readers -will have opportunities for examining them, and will confine -our attention to the feet, horns, skull and teeth. All have -two hoofs or more, and the Camel group have behind their -hoofs a pad which covers the sole. None of them have -hollow horns, and in none are their weapons of offence—horns, -teeth, tusks, &c.—very effective. In all when adult -the cutting teeth (incisors) in the upper jaw are absent, and -in most the canines are either absent or much modified.</p> - -<p>The Camel tribe differ from Giraffes in possessing a pad, -and in having, when young, incisor teeth in the upper jaw, -and fewer lower incisors by two. They have also strong -canines in both jaws, no trace of horns, and nothing to be -called tusks.</p> - -<p>The Giraffes have two, three, or even five abortive horns of -very peculiar development. They have very long necks, no -pads, no tusks. The canine teeth in the lower jaw, which look -like incisors, are much specialised in being cleft or notched.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> - -<p>The little Musk-deer has no sort of horn; but his upper -canine teeth are large and form tusks.</p> - -<p>The true Deer have antlers (in the male), which they shed -every year. The males, and sometimes the females, have -canine teeth in the upper jaw. The antlers are dermal bones, -that is, are formed in the skin, and do not grow from the -skull. They have two rudimentary digits above the hoofs.</p> - -<p>The whole of this group, which we may call the Camel and -Deer family, are almost wholly defenceless, the Giraffe the -most so of all, and, excepting those which are useful in -domestication, are threatened with extinction. The Camels -and the Llamas, although separated as distantly as Peru and -Arabia, have in common the very peculiar habit of snorting -most offensively at those who oppress or annoy them.</p> - -<p>This large family of Camels and Deer stands between a -small one which comprises Pigs, and a very large one, to -which Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Antelopes are assigned. -Pigs are not ruminants, and have incisor teeth in the upper -jaws. Cattle, sheep, &c., like camels and deer, ruminate, -and have no cutting teeth in the upper jaw. Their distinctive -features are hollow horns (which are present in both sexes), -and the invariable absence of tusks.</p> - -<p>The canine teeth in all members of the Giraffe group are -peculiar, in that they show a cleft in the free edge which -divides them into two lobes. These teeth look as if they -belonged to the incisors, but various facts prove them to be -really the canines. Those of the extinct Sivatherium, and -those of the recently discovered Okapi, have similar peculiarities, -and thus prove their relationship.</p> - -<p>It is curious that our natural history authorities are not yet -agreed as to whether the Giraffe has his fore limbs longer than -the hind ones or not. Claus and Sedgwick say, “hind legs -much shorter, and therefore the back slopes backwards.” -Those who have measured the bones, however, say that there -is no difference, and that the slope depends entirely upon the -setting of the shoulder blade.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> - -<h2>ENGLISH EDIBLE SNAILS.</h2> - -<p class="center">“<span class="smcap">Wall-fish.</span>”</p> - -<p>The term “wall-fish” will be unknown to many of our -readers. It is applied by dealers in Covent Garden and other -markets to the common garden snail (<i>Helix aspersa</i>). This -mollusc is held in especial esteem by the poor in Bristol, and -in consequence is now very scarce in the environs of that -city. There are men who make a livelihood during the -winter by collecting these snails from their hybernating places. -In November, 1896, the writer met a “wall-fish” collector in a -remote village in Somerset, and had an interesting conversation -with him. He was collecting for a Bristol dealer, his home -being in Kent, where he worked as a carpenter in summer and -autumn. For many winters past he had regularly visited -Somerset to collect snails. According to his experience these -snails seldom hybernate in banks facing east or north, but -usually seek winter quarters in those facing south-west.</p> - -<p>They generally congregate in some numbers, and appear -to have a predilection for certain spots. From an hybernaculum -near the village he had that morning taken a gallon and -a half of them, but this was very unusual; his “takings” as -a rule did not exceed a gallon per day.</p> - -<p>Ash stumps, or crannies at the base of ash-trees, are very -favourite haunts. They seldom hybernate under oaks, and -although old walls are favourite places in summer, whence -they probably owe their name of “wall-fish,” they seldom -hybernate in them.</p> - -<p>Our “wall fisherman” carried an iron rod about 2 feet -long, slightly crooked at one end for probing likely nooks and -corners. <i>H. aspersa</i> is quite the most nearly domesticated -of the snail tribe. It loves the haunts of man, and is seldom -found in any numbers in places remote from villages and -roadsides.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p> - -<p>A conchologist should never miss an opportunity of -examining the bag of a wall-fish collector. Occasionally rare -varieties—<i>scalariforme</i> for instance—may be secured in this -way. I asked my friend to allow me to inspect his “catch,” -and he very obligingly turned out the contents of his creel. -I found nothing better than three or four examples of the -variety <i>exalbida</i>, which is greenish-white. It is, however, -widely distributed in the southern counties. It is stated -by Forbes and Hanley (“Hist. Brit. Moll.,” vol. iv., p. 46), -that “owing to its being an article of food in some countries, -or else a supposed remedy for pulmonary affections, <i>H. aspersa</i> -has been transported and distributed by the agency of man to -all parts of the world. It is especially abundant in the neighbourhood -of gardens.” In 1840, according to Turton, <i>H. -aspersa</i> was sold in Covent Garden and elsewhere as a cure -for diseases of the chest, and was sent to the United States -as a delicacy. “The glassmen at Newcastle once a year -have a snail feast; they generally collect the snails themselves -in the fields and hedges the Sunday before the feast -day.” This feast is, we believe, now given up.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dormant Life.</span>—The conditions under which vital activity may -become dormant obtained a curious illustration in the instance of a -beetle which was taken alive out of the wood of a desk which had -been in the office of the London Guildhall for twenty years. The -wood was deal from the Baltic, the beetle was the <i>Buprestis splendens</i>. -It was alive and in beautiful colour. The observation was confirmed -by Sir Joseph Banks. The description is given by Mr. Thos. -Wrenham in the tenth volume of <i>Transactions of Linnæan Society</i>, -1810.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dodder and Ivy.</span>—Ivy is a climber only, Dodder is a true parasite. -Ivy does not in any degree derive nourishment from the trees on which -it grows. It is obvious that it cannot get any from walls. It may -be plausibly disputed whether it does any injury to the trees to which -it clings, for it is often seen on very large ones. It is reputed to be -wholesome for sheep and deer in spite of its rank odour, and pheasants -are fond of its seed.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p> - -<h2>HOW TO FORM A TEMPORARY MUSEUM.</h2> - -<p>A temporary museum will, in all probability, be a Vacation- -or Summer-museum; there will, therefore, be no need for -stoves or fires, and scarcely any for artificial light. The sun -rises in summer as early as any members of the museum -committee are likely to be stirring, and by sunset it will be -time to close. We will suppose, then, that the season is -summer and the place a small town in the country. In the -first place a small local committee of those interested in the -scheme should be formed, and a small sum of money -guaranteed. The next step should be to borrow a set of -school premises, or hire for a couple of months an empty -house. If only a small cottage were obtainable it should -have a back garden in which a large wooden shed could be -put up. The essentials are plenty of room, plenty of light, -and good protection from weather. If the premises secured -be those of a school, the next thing will be to arrange with -some carpenter for the hire of a quantity of boards which, -laid across the desks, will make tables. It may be possible, -on similar terms, to obtain from a draper a quantity of baize, -or its very cheapest equivalent, but this would not be absolutely -necessary. Having secured plenty of table-space, the next -point is to prepare the walls. It will be required to display -on these, Portraits, Maps, Illustrations, &c., &c., and for -pinning these up some sort of framework is desirable. The -carpenter will soon put this together and cover it with baize -or flannel.</p> - -<p>The rooms being made ready, the next step is to fill -them, and about this there will be no difficulty. As a preliminary -measure a circular will have been sent out, inviting -all residents to contribute their curiosities on loan. It will -be strange if this be not bountifully responded to by cases<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -of stuffed animals and birds, collections of eggs and of -shells, and boxes of minerals. Ammonites, elephants’ teeth, -mammalian skulls, butterflies, wasps’ nests, flint implements, -and Missionaries’ curios will be brought in great abundance. -All these, properly arranged, with descriptive labels, may be -made most interesting and instructive. A certain number -of glass-covered display-cases, with locks, will now be -required in order that fragile or valuable specimens, and -especially those on loan, may be properly taken care of. -Such cases may be made inexpensively, and our Haslemere -Museum will be glad to supply patterns, or even, if wished, -to loan the cases themselves.</p> - -<p>At this stage the Committee should remember that a museum -has been well defined as “a collection of labels illustrated by -specimens,” and should obtain, if it has not already done so, a -set of our printed labels, and ascertain for how many of them -illustrative specimens can be produced. Steps should next be -taken to obtain elsewhere any specially desirable exhibits -which may not be forthcoming. Some Horns, Antlers, Skulls, -&c., are sure to be wanted, and no doubt the Geological series -and the Flint implements will need to be supplemented. -These deficiencies may be supplied in some instances by -borrowing from other adjacent museums, or they may be -purchased at various dealers.</p> - -<p>A very important and attractive department of the temporary -museum will be the display of Pictures, Maps and Portraits. -These, like those just mentioned, may be hired, if they cannot -be begged or borrowed. A diligent ladies’ sub-committee, -well supplied with bundles of old unbound copies of <i>The Illustrated -London News</i>, <i>Graphic</i>, <i>Vanity Fair</i> and <i>Punch</i> would soon -construct an attractive portrait gallery, as well as sundry -most interesting series in illustration of social history, scenery, -geography and natural science. There is not anywhere a -small town in which material of this kind may not be brought -to light from the cupboards in which it is uselessly stowed -away. The best way of dealing with it would be to procure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -some false-backed frames, such as we have in use at Haslemere. -In many instances portraits, maps, &c., will not need to be -put into frames, but may be at once pinned up in well-classified -series on the walls.</p> - -<p>We have said nothing as yet as to a department which -ought to be made one of the most important, especially at a -sea-side resort. A Vivarium for the display of local specimens -in their fresh and living states should be arranged either in -an ante-room or hall, or in a shed, or under a verandah outside -the building. In this should be a stand for flowers (all -named), and bell glasses and large saucers for the reception -of shell-fish, sea anemones, sponges <i>au naturel</i>, sea-weeds -and corallines. Illustrations and explanatory labels for most -of these our Haslemere press can supply.</p> - -<p>The charges for admission to the show should be: before its -completion, sixpence each person; when complete and in good -order, threepence for adults, half-price for children; and on -Saturdays a penny all round. Books of tickets, making a -very liberal reduction, should be available. The result would -be, if circumstances were favourable and zeal abounded, that -the guarantors would lose nothing and might possibly carry -forward a modest balance to begin next year with. Meanwhile -the prosperity and reputation of the sea-side resort -would have been helped and a large number of persons would -have been entertained and instructed.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p>The following paragraph appeared a short time ago in one -of the daily papers:—</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>The complaint is often made that there is little opportunity to learn -anything about the specimens exhibited in museums. At Brooklyn -the experiment has been tried of placing for the use of visitors books -bearing upon the subjects exhibited alongside the cases. This experiment -seems to have been most successful.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The Brooklyn experiment is not a new one. It has been -practised for many years past in our museum (<i>vide</i> <i>Museums’ -Journal</i>, vol. ii., 1902).</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> - -<h2>BRITISH SNAKES.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus2.jpg" width="650" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Viper. The Common Snake.</p> -</div> - -<p>We have in Great Britain only three representatives of -the class Reptilia which come under the name of Snake. -They are the Common Snake, the Smooth Snake and the -Viper. In Ireland there are—as the result of events to -which we referred in our previous number—none at all. Of -the three British Snakes, one, the Smooth Snake,<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> is so rare -that it is of interest only to the naturalist. It is met with in -Hampshire and Dorset, and perhaps in Scotland, but it is -nowhere frequent. It is more nearly allied to the Common -Snake than to the Viper, and is quite harmless. It is much -smaller than the others. We will concern ourselves for the -present only with the other two. The Common Snake<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> is -quite harmless and should never be injured by any humane -person. The Viper<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> is venomous, and should be destroyed -without mercy. It is easy enough to distinguish between the -two even when in movement. The Common Snake is always, -when full grown, much longer than the Viper. It may -measure 4 feet and is usually 3, whilst the Viper is never -more than 2. The Common Snake tapers off very gradually -at its tail, whilst the Viper has a short tail, which is abruptly -constricted at its base. The Viper is usually brown, often -deeply coloured, whilst the Snake is much lighter coloured, -of a light grey-brown tinged with green. The Common -Snake has only spots of black, whilst the Viper is marked -down the whole of its back with large zig-zag black lozenges. -This is a most important feature, is characteristic at all -ages of the animal, and is easily seen under all conditions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> - -<p>We have named the characters which are most easily seen -when the animal is gliding about on the sward or path, there -are others which are available when the animal is dead or -in captivity. Under such conditions it will be seen that the -scales which clothe the Viper are much smaller in size than -those of the Snake, more especially on the head, and further, -that the head of the Viper is marked with black, somewhat -in the form of the letter <span class="sans">V</span>.</p> - -<p>Snakes, as well as Vipers, have sharp teeth, but they use -them only for seizing their prey, and they have no poison -fangs.</p> - -<p>The venom apparatus of the Viper consists of a gland -which secretes the poison, a receptacle which stores it, and -a long, sharp fang, which can be extruded and through -a groove in which the poison is conveyed. The animal -darts open-mouthed at its enemy rather than bites. Its fang -being in its upper jaw it becomes well exposed when the -mouth is agape. As there is a fang on each side there -will usually be two punctures in the skin about a third of -an inch apart.</p> - -<p>No doubt there occur every year in England a good many -instances of viper-bites in men and boys. There are, however, -exceedingly few deaths, and many persons of considerable -experience have doubted whether the bite is ever actually -fatal. A very urgent and severe illness is almost invariably -the result; but the patient just pulls through.</p> - -<p>In a case in which the writer was, in boyhood, a particeps, -two fine vipers were captured in mistake. They were put -into a botanical box and were repeatedly inspected, and their -tongues freely touched. It was only when on arrival at -home that one of them, during an attempt to transfer it to -a cage, made a dart and struck the finger of a boy of fourteen. -The accident was concealed until, about a quarter of an hour -later in attempting to cross the floor, the victim fell down in -a deadly faint. He became very sick and having been got -to bed remained in collapse, apparently near death for several -hours. Brandy was of course freely given.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> - -<p>The medical adviser who had been summoned, arrived in -hot haste with a big volume under his arm, in order to make -reference to “snake-bite” and its treatment. It was, however, -too late to do anything more than give stimulants, and -happily these were successful. A fortnight’s illness ensued, -during the early part of which the whole arm was enormously -swollen, and later partly covered with boils.</p> - -<p>This case affords, we believe, a very fair example of what -usually follows the incautious capture of the English adder. -The reptile does not attack willingly, but only after much -provocation, and he cannot, as a rule, destroy the life of his -human enemy. His poison fangs are designed for other -purposes, and for much smaller animals.</p> - -<p>Within the last few weeks a case at Folkestone has -attracted much attention, in which two school-boys in pursuit -of what is called “Nature Study,” were bitten by a -viper, with the result that one of them died. Several other -well-authenticated instances of death have been recorded. -We repeat, however, that they are very rare.</p> - -<p>The early summer is the best time for killing vipers, since -the males, which at other seasons hide themselves, may now -often be found. Warm heaths and banks exposed to the -sun are the places which they frequent. The common snake, -on the other hand, loves water, or may be found in a hay-field -or near an old barn or on a dung-heap. The snake lays -eggs and leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the dung or -the rays of the sun, taking no care whatever for her progeny. -The viper, on the contrary, brings forth her young alive and -tends them carefully, even allowing them, according to fairly -well-accredited narratives, to retreat in case of danger into her -mouth and gullet.</p> - -<p>The first aid in case of viper-bite should consist in placing -a tight ligature (string or a boot-lace) around the limb above -the punctures. This should be as tight as possible so as to -prevent the circulation of the blood and passage of the venom -towards the heart. Next, incisions should be made across<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -the punctures, or if circumstances are favourable, the bit of -skin comprising the two punctures may be cut out. The -wound thus made should be sucked or well bathed so as to -favour bleeding, and to remove as much of the poison as can -be got away. If ammonia or potash, or Jeye’s fluid or Condy’s -fluid be at hand the wound should be continuously bathed with -a weak solution of it. The ligature, if tight, should not be -kept on for more than an hour, but by this time medical -advice will probably have been obtained. To combat the -faintness, &c., brandy, or still better ammonia (that is, sal -volatile or hartshorn well diluted), should be given.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Coronella lævis</i>, or <i>austriaca</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Tropidonotus natrix</i>, or <i>Natrix vulgaris</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Pelias berus</i>, or <i>Coluber verus</i>.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<h2>THE VIVARIUM. (<span class="smcap">Haslemere Museum.</span>)</h2> - -<p>During June and July the botany of a district may be very -fully illustrated in the Museum-vivarium. Mr. Douglas -Taylor, who has charge of that department in our Museum, -experiences no difficulty in exhibiting one hundred species -simultaneously. No very rare species are exhibited. At the -present time the only plants in our collection to which the term -“uncommon” may be applied are herb Paris, bird’s nest orchis, -Solomon’s seal, and climbing corydalis. The flowers are -arranged, in zinc cylinders, on an ordinary florist’s stand. For -the printed labels now in use we are indebted to the generosity -of E. E. Lowe, Esq., F.L.S., of the Plymouth Museum.</p> - -<p>Vipers and grass snakes are not difficult to obtain (see -page 53). The former, when discovered, should be carefully -pinned with a stick, whilst a vasculum (or large bottle) containing -leaves and heather is placed before it. Upon release the -viper, judiciously guided by the stick, will take refuge in the receptacle -prepared for it. Grass-snakes thrive well in captivity, -their chief food being frogs and mice. On the other hand, the -English viper nearly always refuses food under such conditions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> - -<p>Our vivarium contains, in addition to the above, two of the -three British newts, viz., <i>Lophinus punctatus</i> and <i>L. palmatus</i>. -The former, though usually spoken of as the “common newt” -is in many districts (as at Haslemere) not so common as the -palmate newt. The latter is smaller, and the tail terminates -abruptly in a threadlike filament, instead of gradually tapering -to a point.</p> - -<p>An ants’ nest contained between sheets of glass, on the plan -devised by Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) and described -in his “Ants, Bees, and Wasps” (p. 2), always proves a -source of attraction to visitors in the winter, as well as summer -months. We have had for two seasons past a nest of the -amber-coloured meadow ant (<i>Formica flava</i>) displayed under -these conditions. It is probably the most intelligent of European -species, forming the grassy hillocks from 9 to 18 inches high, -so commonly seen in some districts. The queen, which is -much larger than either workers or males, requires very -careful searching for upon opening a nest; but the peculiar -little white woodlice (which delights in the long name of -<i>Platyarthous hoffmanseggii</i>, they are a sort of guest of the ants) -may be always easily discerned.</p> - -<p>Every spring we take out of the Museum and arrange in this -department a series of our summer migrants, accompanied -with general notes on bird migration. The following may be -seen now: Swallow, martin, swift, sand martin, cuckoo, -corncrake, nightingale, wryneck, nightjar, redstart, yellow -wagtail, garden warbler, wheatear, chiffchaff and whinchat.</p> - -<p>Kept under a bell glass and fed with lettuce and cabbage -leaves are some half a dozen examples of the large edible or -vine snail (<i>Helix pomatia</i>), the largest of our native land -molluscs. This species occurs chiefly on the chalk in the -southern counties. At one time it was supposed to have been -introduced by the Romans, but of late years the opinion has -gained ground that it was indigenous. In the same quarters is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -an example of a shell-slug, the <i>Testacella haliotidea</i>, sent from -Torquay. The shell-slugs differ from ordinary slugs in having -a shell on the tail. They are carnivorous and feed upon earth-worms, -which they pursue in their burrows; hence may be -considered as gardeners’ friends.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2>A GILBERT WHITE PAGE.</h2> - -<p class="center">(<i>Continued from p. 27.</i>)</p> - -<p>The curious effect of insect attacks in stimulating the -growth of certain parts of the plant which they have -damaged may be found illustrated in hundreds of instances. -We have just mentioned the pine-apples on the spruce fir, but -the currant gall on the male catkin of the oak is yet more -striking. In this case a structure which is naturally very -shortlived has its vigour enhanced and its life prolonged by -the presence of the parasite. In this instance the fly attacks -the pollen-bearing flowers and deposits its eggs. These -flowers would, in the ordinary course, wither and fall as soon -as the pollen has ripened and been blown away. Under the -stimulating influence of the larvæ, however, sap is attracted, -their stems thicken and become fleshy, and instead of -withering, they produce what looks like a handsome bunch -of currants.</p> - -<p>Another instructive instance of parasitism stimulating -growth may be observed at this season in any patch of the -common field thistle. Some of the plants are almost sure to -be affected by a parasitic fungus. It is present in the stole -of the plant, and its influence will cause the affected plants -to put forth leaves earlier than the healthy ones. They will -also grow faster, and in the course of a month be twice the -height of their fellows. The fungus grows in the stem, and -finally it will flower out on the surface of the leaves. When -this happens the plant will die, but up to that period its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -growth has been notably vigorous. The fungus is the <i>Puccinia -suaveoleus</i> (<i>see</i> Plowright, p. 183.) In some plants it is visible -even in early spring, and if abundant will dwarf the plant so -affected instead of stimulating its growth.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2>SEASONAL NOTES. JUNE.</h2> - -<p>It is scarcely too much to say that “leafy June” is the -month in the year least favourable to natural history observation. -Its glorious beauty is distracting and the profusion -of objects of interest hinders attention to any. We hope, -however, that our last month’s Notes may have directed the -attention of some of our readers to certain special topics and -particularly to the wonders of Gall-formation now in progress. -The pine-apple galls on the spruce firs are now in full growth. -Two varieties will be abundantly found. Some are small, -not bigger than large peas, and remain green. These are -covered with spines rather than scales. Others much larger -have scales, which at their margins are beautifully tinged -with various shades of red and crimson. These are the -“pine-apples” and these alone simulate true cones. Their -changes will advance rapidly and already their valves may -have opened and allowed the aphis larva, which has escaped -from its egg at their base, to crawl up and enter. This -most remarkable process may be verified by any one who -will watch carefully.</p> - -<p>Those objects of universal disgust, the Cuckoo-spits, may -be shown to have features of interest which will to some -extent counteract the repugnance of all juvenile naturalists. -Hidden in a mass of iridescent spume there will be found -a little greenish insect revelling in the double luxury of -warmth and moisture, to which perhaps is added a paradise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -of many-coloured light. The observer’s attention may be -attracted to the fact that the insect has chosen chiefly thistles -and nettles as its hosts, these not being likely to be eaten -by cattle. Later in the season it will be less careful. The -insect here concerned, although a relative of the “plant lice,” -is not a true aphis.</p> - -<p>June is the month for the Orchis tribe. The Bee must be -looked for in its earliest weeks or never. So also of the -Spider and the Frog. Others continue in flower much longer, -but almost all are in their perfection in June.</p> - -<p>Rhododendrons are now plentiful, and the very interesting -arrangement by which their anthers open at their points to -discharge their pollen may easily be observed. It is characteristic -of the whole family of heaths, but as the anthers -of rhododendrons are far larger than those of our English -heaths, it is best seen in them.</p> - -<p>Those who have never observed it before will be amused -to be shown the jack-in-the-box manner in which the curled -up stamens of the Broom spring out when the bee touches the -shoulders of the petals. June is the month for Broom and -both will soon be past.</p> - -<p>Amongst our summer visitants the pretty little Turtle-dove -is one of the last to arrive. It waits until the season is well -settled and rarely comes to us before the middle of May. -As perhaps a result of this caution its numbers remain each -year much the same. We have now plenty of turtle-doves -at Haslemere, whilst all representatives of the Swallow tribe -are scarce. Some observers think that Nightingales also have -been less frequently heard this spring than usual. Their -song, which ceases when the young are hatched and the -business of feeding begins, will soon be over for 1906.</p> - -<p>Speaking of Birds of Passage, we may say that we shall -be glad to receive from any readers in different parts of the -kingdom, estimates of the year’s abundance of the various -species. The spring was remarkably variable, and much of -it cold, and this may have had the result of much diminishing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -the supply of food which would await our guests. So far as -our enquiries have gone we believe that there is a general -impression that the early spring migrants are this year somewhat -defective in number.</p> - -<p>Peach and Almond trees, with their leaves curled, distorted -and thickened, some yellowish-green, others rosy or purplish, -are infested with a fungus, scientifically known as <i>Exoascus -deformans</i>. It is one of the ascomycetes; in the same genus -is included the fungus responsible for the “witches’ besoms” -of our birch-trees. At maturity the fungus bursts through -the cuticle of the leaf, coming to the surface to disperse its -spores or seeds. The part of the leaf with the ripe spores -upon it, is minutely velvety; the whitish bloom may be easily -seen with the unaided eye, but of course individual spores -could not be seen without the aid of a powerful microscope.</p> - -<p>It is said that this disease is very rarely seen in seasons -following an uniformly mild spring.</p> - -<p>At the moment of writing we have not observed many oaks -defoliated by caterpillars. The following note is taken from -the Museum Record Book, June 1, 1899: “Oak-trees badly -attacked by the larvæ of the green leaf-roller (<i>Tortrix viridana</i>), -which cause much damage to the foliage. The continuous -falling of the excreta of these small caterpillars sounds like -paper being pricked by a fine pin, and is very noticeable in a -quiet wood.” In 1902 these larvæ were again equally troublesome -in this district.</p> - -<p>The ingenious work of the leaf-rolling Beetles (<i>Genera -apoderus</i>, <i>Attelabus and Rhynchites</i>) may be observed at this time -of the year. The female, in some species, rolls a leaf into -a tube, in others she makes a compact little thimble of the -upper half of the leaf, in the centre of which she puts an egg. -Hazel, oak and chestnut leaves so folded are not uncommonly -seen in this district. Specimens may be usually seen in the -vivarium towards the end of the month.</p> - -<p>June is a good month for the observation of what are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -termed Social Flowers. The veronica, in many meadows, -especially those in which the grass is kept short by grazing, -now exhibits round patches of several yards in diameter, -which are beautifully blue. The little mouse ear (Myosotis) -makes similar patches, but in much less conspicuous tints. -These plants appear to have the power not only of spreading -themselves, but of excluding intruders, and their territories -sometimes show no other form of vegetation. The common -daisy is also a social flower, but much less able to keep others -at a distance. So also the wild strawberry.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2>QUESTIONS FOR ANSWERS.</h2> - -<p class="center">(<i>Continued from p. 31, which see.</i>)</p> - -<p>(14) Give the meanings of the following prefixes: (1) sub, -(2) pseudo, (3) ob, (4) hypo, (5) hyper, (6) para, (7) ab, -(8) aero, (9) con, (10) amphi, (11) ana, (12) pro.</p> - -<p>(15) The late Mr. Holyoake tells us that as the result of -a street accident in which he was much bruised he remembers -“squalling for a fortnight on being taken out of bed.” In -another place we read respecting an accident that “a huge -dog had loitered behind, and suddenly discovered his master -had driven ahead, and he, like a Leming rat, made straight -for his master, quite regardless of our being in his way.” -Explain the reference to the Leming rat, and rewrite both -quotations so as to make them express what you think that -the author intended that they should.</p> - -<p>(16) What is meant by “a rootless tooth”?</p> - -<p>(17) When the number of digits differs on the front and -hinder feet of a quadruped, which has usually the most?</p> - -<p>(18) Amongst the principal divisions of the mammalian -kingdom are Rodentia, Carnivora, Insectivora, Cheiroptera, -Primates and Ungulata. Name an English representative -of each.</p> - -<p>(19) Why are Bees named Anthophila?</p> - -<p>(20) Was Captain Cook killed at Owhyhee or in Hawaii?</p> - -<p>(21) What do the figures 2123 mean when applied to the -teeth, and how many teeth would the animal possess to which -that formula would be suitable?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> - -<p>(22) At what time in the morning do Daisies open their -flowers?</p> - -<p>(23) In the <i>Times</i> of September 13, we read, respecting -the Sakhalin coast, “The number of walruses and sea-beavers -have been greatly reduced by the destructive methods of -the American fishers.” What animals are meant by the term -“sea-beavers,” and is the name a suitable one?</p> - -<p>(24) If you have watched a stableman washing the wheels -of a carriage, you will have seen him use an implement for -lifting the vehicle from the ground. Why does he use it? -What is its name? Explain its mechanism.</p> - -<p>(25) If you pour hot water upon a dry sponge it will sink -down to half its size, whereas if the water were cold it would -swell up. Try the experiment and explain the different results.</p> - -<p>(26) When a man’s hands are cold he will swing his arms -so as to strike the hands violently against the sides of his -shoulders. What is this action called, and why is it -practised?</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2>NOTICES OF BOOKS RECEIVED.</h2> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ornithology.</span>—Messrs. West, Newman and Co., have recently -published a very handy and useful “Pocket Book of -British Birds,” which we have much pleasure in recommending -to field ornithologists. The arrangement followed is that -given in Howard Saunders’ well-known “Manual of British -Birds.” Species “of which only a few specimens have been -observed or obtained in this country” are omitted. The -notes are arranged under the heads of localities, haunts, -observation, plumage, language, habits, food, nest, site, -material, eggs. The size is very convenient for the pocket. -Price, 2s. 6d.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Transactions of the British Mycological Society</span> -for the season 1905 (published, May 19, 1906) contain a -full account of the Fungus Foray held at Haslemere during -the week ending September 30, 1905.</p> - -<p>The specimens collected were exhibited in the Museum. -The exhibition was a record one as regards the number of -species, as no less than four hundred and eighty-five were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -identified during the foray, including twenty-five mycetozoa. -Four plates, three coloured, accompany the Transactions.</p> - -<p>Amongst the species depicted we may mention <i>Polystictus -montagnei</i>, a new British species found near Haslemere in -1898, and <i>Sparassis laminosa</i> (also a new British record) found -by Mr. Douglas Taylor on the occasion of the Society’s visit -to Woolmer Forest on September 26, last.</p> - -<p>Full particulars respecting the Society may be obtained of -the Hon. Secretary, Carelton Rea, Esq., B.C.L., M.A., at -34, Foregate Street, Worcester.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2>DESCRIPTIONS OF MUSEUM SPECIMENS.</h2> - -<p class="center">[<i>These descriptions are adapted for Museum Labels, and they may -be had separately.</i>]</p> - -<h3>SKULL OF MONTJAC, OR BARKING DEER.</h3> - -<p>The skull of the little Montjac, or Barking deer, is of -interest as showing better than any other the relation of the -antler to its pedestal. The pedestal is very long and the -antler very small. The latter usually possesses only two -tines, the main one and a short stout one which grows near -its base. From the front of the pedestal there runs a strong -bony ridge down the outer border of the frontal bone as far as -the junction with the nasal. This evidently gives strength to -the prolonged and rather slender pedestal.</p> - -<h3>SKULL OF A LLAMA (Camel of America).</h3> - -<p>The skull of the Llama resembles that of the Camel, and -both differ from those of the other ruminants in having incisor -teeth in the upper jaw. “These teeth are placed at the -side of the intermaxillary bone close to the canines, and agree -with them in form” (Van der Hoven, vol. ii., 644).</p> - -<p>“There are six incisors only in the lower jaw, and this -jaw is undivided.”</p> - -<p>The camels and llamas form transition species between -horses and oxen (ruminants and solid-ungulates).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> - -<h3>THE HORNS OF A GNU.</h3> - -<p>The Gnu’s horns are alike in both species and may be known -at a glance by their hook-like curves. They pass outwards and -downwards and then suddenly curve upwards and forwards. -They resemble those of buffaloes and perhaps most closely -those of the American bison. They are never very large, and -always black. They are of fibrous structure and of large girth -at their bases, emulating those of the buffaloes. The Gnu -in some of its features resembles a little horse, possessing a -mane and having its face, tail, and hindquarters much like -those of a pony. It has, however, a cleft hoof and a beard -which, as well as its horns, distinguish it from the horse family.</p> - -<p>One of the gnus has a brindled neck and forequarters, pale -streaks on a dark ground, and a black and tufted tail; another -has a white tail covered with long hair from its base, and -shows no brindling. The latter has an almost straight back, -whilst the former stands higher in its forequarters like the -bison. The horns of the brindled black-tailed gnu do not -pass forwards nearly so much as those of the other.</p> - -<p>All the Gnus are South African and would appear to bear -the same relation to the buffaloes of that continent that the -North American bison does to the American buffalo.</p> - -<p>They are active but rather awkward animals, and their -self-important airs are sometimes amusing.</p> - -<h3>THE SKULL OF THE DUGONG, OR HALICORE.</h3> - -<p>This animal is allied to the Manati, both belonging to -the order <i>Sirenia</i>. They are water-living mammals. The -dugong occurs only in Eastern and Australian seas, the -manati on the coasts of South America and Africa. The -grotesquely misshapen aspect of the skull of the dugong is due -to the enormous development of the bones in its upper jaw -which carry the cutting teeth (premaxillary bones and incisor -teeth), and its clumsy lower jaw. The former bear a tusk -in the male, which in the female is present but is never cut.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -There are no canine teeth, and in the massive lower jaw no -incisor teeth are ever cut. The rudiment of one is, however, -present in the jaw. It may be noted that the bones carrying -the upper incisors do not become united to those of the upper -jaw. The back teeth (chewing teeth), are only four, five, or -six in number in the dugong, whereas in the manati there -may be twenty. A remarkable tendency to vary in their -dentition is characteristic of this group of animals, and is no -doubt in relation with differences in food. A recently extinct -member of the family (Steller’s sea-cow) had no teeth at all, -but masticated the soft sea-weeds on which it fed by the aid -of a horny palate (<i>Rhytina Stelleri</i>).</p> - -<h3>HEAD OF THE WART HOG (<i>Phacochœrus Æthiopicus</i>).</h3> - -<p>The Wart Hog is a native of Africa. His name makes -reference to a pair of wart-like excrescences, which are formed, -one under each eye. These may be an inch and a half in -length.</p> - -<p>There is an enormous development of the base of the -zygoma. The incisor teeth in the upper jaw are often wanting, -and sometimes those in the lower also. The snout is -short and square. The so-called warts are fleshy skin-growths -and may be large enough to look like ears.</p> - -<p>There is another Wart Hog (<i>Œliani</i>), met with in Abyssinia. -It differs from the Cape Wart Hog in that its incisor teeth in -both jaws are more persistent. It has two “warts.”</p> - -<h3>THE SKULL OF A PIG (<i>Sus scrofa</i>).</h3> - -<p>The skulls of most of the swine family may be recognised -by the long face, and the large size, in both jaws, of their -dog-teeth or tusks. These are especially large in the male -sex, and are often curiously curved, those of the upper jaw -upwards, and those of the lower outwards and upwards. The -incisor, or biting, teeth vary very much in different species -and at different ages. They are often shed early, especially -those of the upper jaw. In some pigs the lower incisors are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -strong and slope directly forwards, as if for digging. The incisor -teeth are of less service in the pig than in most animals, and -are only exceptionally used for biting or grazing. The pig -makes great use of the snout, and the nasal bones are strong -and prominent. The molar teeth are well adapted for -chewing, and are usually worn flat on their surfaces. Pigs -champ but do not ruminate. They are, for the most part, -root-eaters. The rim of the orbit is always imperfect. The -normal dentition is three incisors, one canine, and seven -molars in each jaw. If the upper canine is extracted the -lower one will grow into a complete circle and reach the gum -close to the root of the tooth. When thus curved it forms -an ornament much valued in Fiji.</p> - -<h3>SKULL OF THE BABIRUSSA.</h3> - -<p>Note especially that the tusk of the upper jaw grows upward -from the first. No part of it is directed into the mouth. -This tusk is of extraordinary size, and it curves upwards so -as to touch, and sometimes even to pierce, the skull. They -are, as compared with those of other swine, slender tusks, more -especially the under ones. The upper tusk grows through -the skin of the upper lip. In old animals, when it is well -curved, it must be useless as a weapon. It may serve to -protect the eyes when the animal rushes through brushwood. -In the female the tusks are small.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2>ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS, &c.</h2> - -<p><span class="smcap">Conchologist.</span>—Your shells are <i>Helix nemoralis</i> (immature), -<i>Hyalinia (Vitrea) pura</i>, and <i>Buliminus obscurus</i>. <i>Vitrea pura</i> is a -much smaller shell than <i>V. nitidula</i>, the latter may be distinguished -from <i>V. radiatula</i> by the striæ not being continued from whorl to -whorl. <i>B. obscurus</i> is much smaller than any member of the genus -<i>Clausilia</i>. If you examine in May the trunks of beech trees growing -on calcareous soils you will find <i>B. obscurus</i> and <i>Clausilia laminata</i> -ascending them in large numbers to spend the summer aloft, coming -down again in October to go into hybernation at the base of the trees<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -during the winter months. You will find <i>C. rugosa</i> (in modern terminology, -<i>C. bidentata</i>) equally common on the trees, it is smaller and -thinner than <i>C. laminata</i>. <i>B. obscurus</i> is a short, stout little shell, -seldom exceeding 9 millimetres in height.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gardener.</span> <i>Diseases of the Cultivated Chrysanthemum.</i>—At the -present time three diseases are recorded for this country, viz., sclerotium -disease (<i>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</i>, Massee); corticium disease -(<i>Peniophora chrysanthemi</i>, C. B. Plowright), and the only too familiar -Rust (<i>Puccinia hieracii</i>, Mart). The sclerotium, which first appears -as a white mould on the stem just above the ground, forms black -lumps within the stem. The stem becomes very brittle and falls. -From the black nodules in the following spring, small funnel-shaped -brownish fungi with long, weak, dark stems appear. The spores -from these settle upon dead organic matter, forming an abundant -mycelium which ultimately attacks the base of the stems of chrysanthemums. -It is said that fresh stable manure favours the spread of -the disease. Diseased stems should be carefully collected and -burnt.</p> - -<p>The corticium disease also appears on the lower part of the stem, -forming a white growth in autumn; Dr. Plowright, who first discovered -it, says it resembles a splash of whitewash. It is not confined -to the stems but extends into the adjacent soil. Diseased -plants are shorter in height and thinner in the stem than healthy; -they always die within the year. This disease has hitherto been -observed only at King’s Lynn in Norfolk, but it is very possible it -occurs in other parts of the country. Dr. Plowright remarks that the -only treatment is burning the diseased plant. It is useless to -separate the apparently healthy shoots.</p> - -<p>The well-known chrysanthemum rust first appeared in 1897, and -spread with great rapidity in the very dry summer of 1898. The -snuff-coloured uredo spores (summer form) are familiar to all cultivators -of chrysanthemums. This fungus occurs on many wild plants -of the order <i>Compositæ</i>, notably the hawk-weeds (<i>Hieracium</i>). All -diseased plants should be burnt. The disease may be prevented by -spraying the new leaves with potassium sulphide solution.</p> - -<p>It is to be hoped that the chrysanthemum leaf blight (<i>Cylindrosporium -chrysanthemi</i>), which has caused so much damage to cultivated -plants in Ontario, Canada, will not find its way into this -country. It forms large dark patches on the leaves, which turn yellow -and hang down; the flower buds do not expand. It is stated that -fungicides are useless.</p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Haslemere Museum Gazette, Vol. 1, -No. 2, June 1906, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HASLEMERE MUSEUM *** - -***** This file should be named 53371-h.htm or 53371-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/3/7/53371/ - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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