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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fcefa80 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #53352 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53352) diff --git a/old/53352-8.txt b/old/53352-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5efc6db..0000000 --- a/old/53352-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3205 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., -No. 3, July, 1890, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., No. 3, July, 1890 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: October 23, 2016 [EBook #53352] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, JULY 1890 *** - - - - -Produced by Ron Swanson - - - - - -Vol. II. No. 3. - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. - - - - -PUBLISHED BY THE - -NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, - -WASHINGTON, D. C. - - -Price, 50 Cents. - - - - -CONTENTS. - -The Arctic Cruise of the U. S. S. Thetis in the Summer and Autumn of - 1889: Lieut. Comdr. Chas. H. Stockton, U. S. N. - (Illustrated with view of Herald Island, and one map.) - -The Law of Storms, considered with special reference to the North - Atlantic: Everett Hayden, Marine Meteorologist, Navy Dept. - (One View and seven Illustrations.) - -The Irrigation Problem in Montana: H. M. Wilson - - - - -PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN. - - - - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. - -Vol. II. 1890. No. 3. - - - - -THE ARCTIC CRUISE OF THE U. S. S. THETIS IN THE SUMMER AND AUTUMN OF -1889. - -BY CHARLES H. STOCKTON. - - -A German writer of note once said, in the course of a discussion upon -certain French characteristics, that "the trouble with the French -people is,--they do not _know_ Geography." - -Whether this is still true of the French, as a nation, or whether the -authority may be considered a good one, it is not pertinent for me here -to say; but I feel that of the nations of the world, this country, -above all others (England, perhaps, alone excepted), should not have -the want of knowledge of geography classed among its national failings. - -We have, however, very much geography yet to learn, as individuals and -as a nation; not only of countries beyond our own but particularly of -our own continent and our own domain, while commercial geography is -almost an unknown and forbidden study. - -Professional geographer as I am, as member of the naval service, I find -that every cruise adds to my geographic knowledge, and in giving an -account of the cruise during last summer of the ship which I had the -honor to command, I trust that I may be enabled to present some -geographic facts as interesting to my fellow-members of the Geographic -Society as they were novel and instructive to myself. - -Before beginning my narrative, however, let me give you an idea of the -extent of the shore-line of the territory or semi-colonial province -along which so much of our cruise was made. - -Alaska has an area of about 580,000 square miles, consisting of a large -mainland with a coast-line 6,650 miles in length, and also of more than -1,100 islands, with a coast-line of 2,950 miles, the entire coast-line -being 9,600 miles. The coast-line of the rest of the United States, -including islands, is only 6,580 miles, thus making the coast-line of -Alaska 3,020 miles more than the coast-line of all of the rest of the -United States. - -Of this great country the part known best and visited annually by -tourists is that insignificant portion of southeastern Alaska which -consists of the Alexander archipelago and its neighboring main -coast-line, differing in its scenery, topography, climate, and native -inhabitants, from the greater part of this vast territory. - -It is fortunate, however, that this corner of Alaska is so easily and -comfortably reached by the summer traveler, as, with the exception of -the coast-line and inlets between Sitka and Kodiak, which includes the -Fairweather ground and the St. Elias range of mountains, this portion -contains perhaps the finest and most striking scenery and the largest -and grandest glaciers in the territory, if not in all North and South -America. - -The U. S. S. Thetis was assigned in 1889 to the duty of looking out for -the commercial and whaling interests of the United States in Bering sea -and the Arctic ocean, to which was subsequently added the duty of -assisting in the establishment and erection of a house of refuge in the -vicinity of Point Barrow, the most northerly point of our Arctic -possessions. The duty assigned to the Thetis did not include the -protection of the sealing interests of the United States, nor of those -interests enjoyed by the Alaska Commercial Company as the regular -lessees from the United States of the Pribyloff group of islands. This -was confided to the Revenue Marine Service of the Treasury Department. - -[Illustration: The Arctic Cruise of the U. S. S. "Thetis" Lieut. -Comd'r. Chas. H. Stockton, U. S. N., Comd'g. in the summer and autumn -of 1889. The Norris Peters Co., Photo-litho., Washington, D. C.] - -The Thetis left San Francisco on the 20th of April, 1889, and after a -detention of a month at Tacoma, upon the placid waters of Puget sound, -awaiting supplementary orders, reached Port Tongass, in extreme -southeastern Alaska, on the 31st of May, and Sitka, the territorial -capitol, upon the 2d of June. After a stay of six days at the latter -place the vessel left for the island of Ounalaska, one of the Aleutian -chain, which was safely reached, after a stormy passage, early on the -morning of the 17th of June. - -The revenue-steamer Richard Rush, commanded by Captain Shepherd, was -found at anchor at this place, having arrived a few hours before the -Thetis; she had entered upon the duty of patrolling Bering sea, between -Ounalaska and the Pribyloff group, for the protection of the sealing -interests. The seals approach the hauling-out grounds and breeding -places upon the islands of St. Paul and St. George in lanes, as it -were, from the Pacific, reaching Bering sea by means of the various -passages between the Aleutian islands, and converging as they approach -the Seal islands, the position of which seems so well known to them. -The "marauders," as the men on the sealing schooners are called who -hunt them on their way north, shoot them from small boats, killing the -many in order to procure the few. - -Ounalaska, or rather the village and harbor of Iliuliuk, upon the -island of Ounalaska, is the principal and most frequented harbor in the -Aleutian islands, and from its position is a most convenient port for -coaling, watering and provisioning en route to the Seal islands, St. -Michaels (at the mouth of the Yukon river), the anchorages in and near -Bering strait, and the Arctic ocean. This harbor is the headquarters of -all of the districts of the Alaska Commercial Company, and is the -principal coaling and distributing station and rendezvous of their -vessels in Alaska. The company here affords facilities in the way of -buoyage, wharfage, etc., which are not only useful to their own vessels -but of great service to government and other vessels whose duty or -interests call them to these waters. - -The revenue steamer Bear was to be met by us at Ounalaska, in order -that we could take from her any portion of the stores and material to -be used in the constructing and provisioning of the house of refuge at -Point Barrow that her commanding officer desired to transfer to us. - -While awaiting the arrival of the Bear, the Thetis was watered and -coaled and prepared for the northerly trip before her. An opportunity -offered me by the delay was availed of to inspect the store-houses of -the Alaska Commercial Company at this point. The most interesting of -the store-houses was that containing the skins and furs collected in -the various parts of the district of which this place was the dépôt. -The finest of the furs was that of the sea-otter, probably the most -valuable fur in the world, a very superior skin of that animal having -been sold at the great fur market in London for £170. Such otters are -found in the vicinity of Ounalaska and the outlying rocks and islands -as far east as Kodiak, and are becoming more and more difficult to -obtain, causing greater risk and hardships every year to the Aleuts, -who hunt these animals as a principal means of livelihood. - -Besides the otters the store-house held the furs of the beautiful -silver-gray fox, and those of the blue, the cross, and the snowy white -Arctic fox. There were also black and brown bear skins, beaver, and -fur-seal, the latter, though the greatest and most profitable source of -revenue to the Company, being by no manner of means among the more -valuable of the raw furs. - -To exchange for furs collected, either directly by natives or by -independent traders, the Alaska Commercial Company has a large -assortment of stores, provisions, and goods, worthy of a large -country-store, or a Macy's in miniature, which are sold to the natives -for money or in exchange for the furs they bring to the company. And -just here can be seen the commercial aspects of civilization: as the -natives become used to the luxuries and comforts of a civilized and -semi-civilized state of life, their wants and their purchases increase -and the securing of one otter-skin will not, as in times past, satisfy -their wants or the requirements of their wives and families. Hence they -become both greater producers and consumers, more otters are hunted -for, and the Company is the gainer. - -The houses in which the Aleuts and Creoles reside at Ounalaska were -found to be well built of frame, sufficiently large and fairly clean. -The old houses of earth and sod standing near by show the great -improvement that has been made of late years in the method of living. - -Upon the 22d of June the Revenue Steamer Bear came in to the anchorage, -and the Thetis and the Bear, once companion ships in the Greely Relief -Expedition, met again in the far north. - -Upon conference with the commanding officer of the Bear, Captain M. A. -Healy, it was found that he did not consider it desirable to break the -bulk of his cargo and share the stores for the refuge-station with us; -hence, being free to pursue our course, we left on the 24th of June for -the island of St. Paul, one of the Seal (or Pribyloff) islands. - -We arrived at these islands on the evening of the 25th of June, after -groping around in the heavy and almost constant fog and mist that -envelop them. During our short stay at St. Paul we were able to see a -drive of seals from a rookery and the killing, skinning, and packing, -which followed; but what we found to be the most interesting was the -visit to the rookeries, both from the inshore side and from boats along -the sea front. The systematic partition of the grounds, the formation -of the harems, the exclusion of the young males, and the aggressive -conduct of the older ones, all proved most interesting and novel. This, -however, has been described so often that I will not here repeat it. - -Leaving these islands, so unlike any others in the world, we proceeded -to the north and west to St. Mathew Island, a large and uninhabited -island in the middle of Bering sea. The object in visiting this island -was twofold, the first being to ascertain if there were any shipwrecked -persons upon the island, the other being to verify the statement made -upon the chart we possessed that the island was infested with polar -bears. Upon our arrival and landing upon the island we found plenty of -old tracks but no recent evidences of the existence of polar bears. -This was ascertained after honest and fatiguing endeavor to find them -by parties of officers and men from the ship, who scoured the eastern -part of the island, both upon the hills and upon the low tundra, but -without success. - -St. Mathew island is probably the southern limit of the solid ice in -winter in this part of Bering sea, the ice below it to the southward -and toward the Aleutian chain being made up of newer ice and detached -floes of well broken ice. It is surrounded by the ice during seven -months of the year, and generally enveloped with fog during the -remaining five months. Winds and rains sweep over it during the summer, -the low land being composed of wet, grassy tundra, while the higher -elevations are formed of scoriæ and volcanic rock. - -A large quantity of drift-wood found piled up upon the steep shingle -beaches probably came down the Yukon river from the interior of Alaska, -there being no growth of trees upon this desolate land. - -After leaving St. Mathew island we stood over to the Siberian side of -Bering sea, in order to ascertain the whereabouts of the whaling fleet, -and, if possible, to gather some news concerning the fate of the -whaling bark "Little Ohio," a vessel that had been missing since the -previous autumn. - -Plover bay, Cape Tchaplin and St. Lawrence bay, upon the Siberian side, -were all visited in turn, but without success, and I then determined to -pass through Bering strait and enter the Arctic ocean. This was done -upon the 3d of July, after a heavy snow-storm in the morning, followed, -later in the day, by a fog so dense that we passed through the straits -without seeing land on either side, or the Diomede islands, in the -middle. - -Entering the Arctic we pushed on toward Point Hope, to the northward of -which the "Little Ohio" had last been seen. On the morning of the 4th -of July the land about Point Hope was sighted and soon afterwards we -met our first ice, coming out in floes from Kotzebue sound, stretching -some distance from the shore and slowly moving to the northward and -westward with the current. - -Skirting along this ice with the hope of getting around it to the -northward of Point Hope, without success, we entered it, and after -working through it for several miles with considerable difficulty we -finally cleared it and came to anchor off the native village at Point -Hope, finding there two whalers who had just preceded us, and obtaining -the news that the bark "Little Ohio" had been wrecked directly opposite -the point where we were then at anchor. Taking on board, the next day, -those survivors of this shipwreck who still remained at this place, we -left for St. Michaels, near the mouth of the Yukon river, there to -transfer the survivors to the steamer of the Alaska Commercial Company, -and to send the news of this sad disaster to the Navy Department and to -the world. In passing through the ice outside of Point Hope the first -polar bear of the season was sighted, posing upon a high floe of ice. A -few shots settled his case and his body was fortunately secured, his -skin now forming one of the trophies of the cruise. - -On our way back through Bering strait we found the vexatious -combination (to be met with again and again in the cruise) of a heavy -fog, much drift ice, and an opposing current. - -Reaching St. Michaels we found there two steamers of the Alaska -Commercial Company at anchor, besides several river-steamers, and a -summer rendezvous of natives from the coast, miners from the interior, -and traders and missionaries from the Yukon,--all here to meet their -annual mails and supplies. In addition there was a party of government -surveyors to determine the boundary-line, an account of whose early -journey has been given to the Society by Mr. Russell. There were -seventy-three tents, by actual count, pitched about St. Michaels at the -time of our stay, the abodes of these temporary residents. - -St. Michaels is the most northerly settlement and trading post of the -Alaska Commercial Company. It is the outlet of the Yukon river trade -and also the source of supplies for the country bordering upon the -Yukon and its many tributaries, reaching in this way a portion of the -Northwest Territory of the Dominion of Canada, west of the Rocky -Mountains. - -In the winter-time the post consists of the offices and store-houses of -the Alaska Commercial Company, with a few residences for their white -employees, and a small native village. - -Small, light-draught, stern-wheel steamers ascend the Yukon and its -tributaries for a distance of 1,700 miles, reaching the mouth of that -river in part by an inside channel and in part by sixty miles of -outside coasting. - -After a short stay at St. Michaels we proceeded to Port Clarence, where -a large number of the whaling fleet were met, consisting of seven -steam-whalers, six sailing whalers, one trading vessel, and a sailing -tender. From the tender these vessels receive coal, provisions, and -supplies, sending back to San Francisco the oil and whale-bone of the -spring catch. - -Port Clarence is the best, as it is the last, harbor on the American -side before reaching the Arctic, where no harbors exist worthy of the -name, west of Herschel island. There is no native settlement of any -size on the bay, but natives assemble here from the surrounding country -and islands to trade with the whale-ships in summer. - -Leaving Port Clarence we ran to the southward by King island to St. -Lawrence island, in search of a sailing tender that was long over-due; -returning, after a short stay off the village near Cape Prince of -Wales, we again entered the Arctic ocean. As it was too early to go to -Point Barrow we proceeded to Kotzebue sound and Hotham inlet. In the -vicinity of the latter place, every year, a summer rendezvous of -natives occurs for trading purposes, the Eskimos from the Diomedes and -Cape Prince of Wales bringing articles of trade from Siberia, while the -Eskimos from Point Hope bring articles obtained from the whalers; these -Eskimos are met by the inland natives from the rivers that flow into -Hotham inlet and Kotzebue sound, principally from the Kowak, the Noatak -and Salawik rivers. The nearest available anchorage we found was Cape -Blossom, from which place we visited the rendezvous and were visited in -turn by the natives. We had now been enjoying for some time -twenty-fours hours of daylight, the midnight-sun having lighted our way -to and from Point Hope during our first visit to that place. - -Leaving Cape Blossom upon the 24th of July we stood out of Kotzebue -sound for the northward, running the greater part of the time in a -heavy fog. We passed Point Hope on the 25th, Cape Lisburne on the 26th, -and anchored off Cape Sabine early in the morning of the 27th of July. -Near by was a very wide vein of lignite coal, from which the Thetis had -been coaled the previous year and to which the name of "Thetis coal -mine" had been given. This had been worked during the present summer, -also, and a party of natives who were encamped near by had furnished -coal to some of the whalers. - -Being now in the vicinity of a stream known to the natives as the -Pitmegea, I went in a whaleboat to examine its mouth and entrance, as -this stream was unknown to but few whites and did not exist upon any -charts or maps. It was found to have but three feet of water on the bar -at its entrance, but after crossing this a depth of six feet was found. -The stream was found so full of bars and shoals that we could ascend -but a short distance after entering it. The river and its narrow valley -were very winding, the general course being northwest from its source -to the coast. After the spring thaw, and the rains that follow, the -stream rises to a depth sufficient for the natives to ascend and -descend it with their light-draught skin-boats for a distance of about -forty miles. Its length is estimated to be over one hundred miles. The -river had been explored the previous year by John W. Kelly, who was -this summer employed on board the Thetis as the official interpreter, -and to him I am indebted for the following description of the ice-cliff -existing upon the banks of the Pitmegea, and also of a peculiarly built -stone hut near the source of one of the tributaries. - - -ICE-CLIFF ON THE PITMEGEA. - -This ice-cliff is about twenty-five miles from the mouth of the -Pitmegea, at a place where the hills run their spurs out to the banks -of the river, closing the picturesque valley that stretches away to the -sea-coast in an almost unbroken width of a mile. A glacier faces -southward, and receives the full benefit of the sunlight during the -short polar summer. Gales have deposited particles of soil and débris -of plants, along with their seeds, upon the surface of the ice to a -depth of from four inches to a foot. The snow-fall of winter soon -vanishes before the June sun, while the light covering above the -glacier preserves it intact. Vegetation is warmed into life in a -remarkably short time, and the brown coat left by the receding snow is -almost miraculously transformed to a robe of green and studded here and -there with bright polar flowers, there being buttercups, dandelions, -yellow poppy, bright astragals, gentians, daffodils and marguerites. -The latter are small and unobtrusive, making a showing in a modest way -as if they wished to apologize to their sister flowers for their -appearance among them. Like beautiful orphan girls, one cannot resist a -compassionate tenderness of feeling toward them. But these innocent -little flowers, chaste as the ice field upon which they grow, bloom in -the polar garden with as much right as the glacier's gentian. Besides -flowers, there are the hardy grasses whose roots penetrate the light -covering of soil to the ice-bed, whence they derive their nourishment. -A few Arctic willows are to be seen, but they only grow about a foot in -length, and trail upon the ground. The Pitmegea river is gradually -cutting into the glacier, receding from its opposite bank and leaving a -bed of gravel behind. During the summer the ice melts away, leaving the -protruding soil above it like the eaves of a house; when it protrudes -too far for the strength of the grass roots, it topples over into the -river. At the freezing in September, icicles freeze from the -overhanging sod to the river ice below, forming a narrow portico four -miles in extent. - - -OLD STONE HUT. - -On the highest peak at the source of Ikuk creek, a southerly tributary -of the Pitmegea, are the ruins of a hut and smaller outhouse, the like -of which has never been met with in Northwestern Alaska. Above the -grass line, past perpetual beds of snow, up where wild storms sweep -away ice, snow, and soil, where only a few gray lichens are to be seen, -man, at some former time, has placed a habitation. On the crest of the -mountain there is a ragged limestone comb twelve feet high, cracked and -shattered into flakes by the vigor of the polar winters. On the south -side of this comb, sheltered from the prevailing north winds, -excavations have been made into the rock. Taking the comb of rock for -one side of the house, the other side of the semicircle has been built -up with flat stones, laid up like bricks in masonry, but without -mortar. Moss and soil have been in all probability used here instead of -mortar, but years of fierce winds have blown it out from the crevices. -The structure is conic in shape, after the manner of a Greenlander's -snow-hut. This one is about seven feet in diameter. Facing its entrance -is a smaller house of similar construction, most likely used as a -shelter for game. Winter storms have crumbled away the roofs of both so -that they have fallen in, and the fragments of stones are partially -covered with soil. The whole bears the impression of age, and no -natives have been found who have ever heard of it. From the summit of -this peak a splendid view is obtained of the surrounding country, the -Arctic ocean, and herds of passing reindeer. - - * * * * * - -Gold has been found near the Pitmegea, at the head of the same creek -and tributary, it being contained in sulphurets of iron, which exist in -large quantities in that vicinity, there being from $3.50 to $8.00 -worth of gold in a ton; the country is all but impassable, however, and -this, together with the shortness of the season, would prevent any -mining with profit. - -Our party returned from the Pitmegea with a few ptarmigan and ducks, -and upon our arrival the ship was at once gotten under way and we stood -to the northward for Point Barrow. Drift-ice was constantly passed, but -fortunately so scattered as not to form any obstruction to free -navigation. - -On the next day we enjoyed a superb Arctic summer's day, and began to -fall in with the whaling fleet on the way north to Point Barrow. -Fifteen vessels were sighted and passed, most of them vessels under -sail. Rounding the dangerous Blossom shoals and the Icy cape of Captain -Cook, we stood to the northeast, finding generally clear water, with -scattered drift-ice. Upon the floes we found great quantities of -walrus, in some cases stretched at full length, sound asleep. One huge -fellow remained so undisturbed at our approach that he was supposed to -be dead, but a well aimed Irish potato aroused him so rudely that he -quickly slid off the floe and disappeared beneath the water. - -Pushing on we passed Pt. Belcher at 9.30 in the evening, in the fog and -rain, and came to heavy masses of ice over which a low fog had settled. -With some delay and difficulty we worked out of both the fog and the -ice and at five o'clock in the morning sighted four -vessels--steamers--at anchor off the village of Ootkavie at Cape Smyth, -8 miles from Point Barrow, and the site of Captain Ray's Signal Service -meteorologic station of some years ago, the house that sheltered the -party being still standing. One of the steamers proved to be our old -friend the "Bear," which had passed to the northward when we had -returned southward from the Arctic with the survivors of the "Little -Ohio." The other vessels were made out to be steam-whalers, and at -seven o'clock we anchored near them, off the site determined upon for -the house of refuge. - -Finding the Bear had commenced to discharge her stores and materials, -all of our facilities were at once used in tending her assistance, our -steam launch Achilles (now, as of yore, the child of the Thetis) being -busily at work towing boats to and fro, while our men and mechanics, -with officers, were busily engaged in aiding the construction of the -house of refuge. - -Our arrival at Cape Smyth and vicinity of Point Barrow was on the 29th -of July, the Bear having arrived on the 27th, the Saturday previous. -While we were lying at anchor engaged in the erection of the house of -refuge, the rest of the whaling fleet, both sail and steam, gradually -arrived and came to anchor off the coast, reaching from Cape Smyth to -Point Barrow. After a short stay the steamers went on to the eastward -of Point Barrow, following along the ice-pack, which was in sight from -Point Barrow, until they reached the heavier ice off Point Tangent. -When the last of the whaling vessels had arrived, a fleet of -forty-seven vessels carrying the American flag had assembled within -sight of the most northerly point of the United States, composed of -steamers, barks, brigantines and schooners. These vessels, manned by -about twelve hundred men, I venture to say formed the largest -assemblage of vessels and men under the American flag to be found -anywhere during that year. I cannot speak too highly of the skill, -seamanship, courage, and endurance of the whaling masters. They are a -fine body of American seamen. - -The scene on shore was one of abnormal activity for this region, the -erection of the house of refuge, the hasty landing and transportation -of stores (in which the whalers assisted), the movements of the Eskimos -about their village (which was dotted with the white summer tents of -the residents and the visiting inland Eskimos), and the clustering and -trading about the Whaling Company's station (Ray's old station), gave a -life and movement which was as shortlived as the season. Fortunately -the weather proved most favorable and the heavy ice kept off shore -while the stores were landed; the wind then freshened, but -communication could still be kept up and the work of erection went on. - -The site of the house of refuge is within a few hundred yards of Ray's -old house and near the village, and its keeper, Captain Borden (an old -New Bedford whaler) was busy in putting his house in order before the -autumn should come on. During our stay at this place we were enabled to -make a hydrographic survey of the anchorage, which demonstrated that -the contour of the bottom is constantly changed by the ploughing and -planing done by the heavy ice grounded and driven up by the pressure of -the mighty ice-pack, under the influence of northerly winds and gales. - -And here let me say a word about the ice of this part of the Arctic -ocean. The ice in summer consists of floes and fields of various sizes, -which are cemented together in winter by the young or newly frozen ice. -No icebergs exist in this part of the Arctic, as there are no glaciers -near the sea coast to form them. The shore along the entire Arctic -coast of Alaska shows evidence of former glacial action, but the only -glaciers to be found are in the southeastern part of the territory. - -The Arctic pack, which never melts, consists of hard blue ice, made up -of fields and floes of comparatively level ice, which are surrounded -and interspersed with hummocks varying from ten to forty feet in -height. These hummocks are formed by the broken and telescoped ice -resulting from the collision and grinding together of heavy ice-floes, -the hummocks being often rounded and smoothed in outline by heavy falls -of snow. - -In the spring, under the influence of the prevailing southerly winds -and northerly currents, the packs break off from the shore and move to -the north, the position of the southern edge varying in latitude with -the season and the winds. - -The shore-ice, which remains fast to the coast line after the pack -moves off, gradually breaks up as the season advances, and, becoming -scattered, is taken to the northeastward from the vicinity of Point -Barrow and northwestward from the vicinity of Herald island and Wrangel -land. - -Sometimes a long line of heavy floe-ice from the pack grounds in the -shallow water near the shore during northerly winds, pressed from -behind by the force and weight of the entire northern pack. It is -gradually forced up, ploughing its way through the bottom, at the same -time rising gradually along the ascent of the bottom toward the land. -The effect of this solid wall of cold and relentless blue ice slowly -rising and advancing upon those imprisoned between the ice and the -shore is one of the most sublime and terrible things that can be -experienced. - -The normal current running north through Bering strait forks a short -distance to the north, one branch going through Kotzebue Sound and -thence along the mainland by Cape Seppings, Point Hope, and Icy cape, -to Point Barrow, at which point it goes off to the unknown northeast; -the other branch, to the northwestward along the Siberian coast, and -thence to the northward toward Herald island. The whalers burned by the -Confederate vessel Shenandoah near Bering strait were found in the -vicinity of Herald island. - -The only portion of the whalers at the time actively cruising had gone -to the eastward of Point Barrow. On that day a seaman named Tuckfield -returned from the Mackenzie in a whaleboat, and reported the ice -conditions unusually favorable as far east as Mackenzie Bay, in the -vicinity of which he had wintered. He was a seaman belonging to the -whaling station and had been reported to me by a missionary I met at -St. Michaels as having visited his station at Rampart house, upon the -Porcupine river, a branch of the Yukon. - -Upon the 8th of August the house of refuge was virtually finished, and -as my orders were to devote my time to the whaling fleet, after the -completion of this structure, I concluded to cruise after and with the -vessel to the eastward of Point Barrow, leaving the Bear to remain with -the vessels lying at anchor off Cape Smyth and Point Barrow. As -Tuckfield wanted to go east with his Eskimo guide, I took him and his -whaleboat and whaling outfit on board, leaving Cape Smyth on the -evening of the 8th. The ice in sight at the time was somewhat -scattered, but plentiful, and entering it about nine o'clock we slowly -stood on a course parallel to the land. We were occupied in working -through this ice all night and all of the next day; it was not the pack -ice but shore ice broken off from the vicinity of Point Tangent, Smyth -bay, and Harrison bay. At times we found it so closely packed together -by current and wind that we had to turn back and work our way closer -inshore. Three vessels under sail were sighted during this time off -Tangent point, and by this time we had also demonstrated the -uselessness of Little Joe Tuckfield as an ice pilot or prophet. The -winds were very light and we had now gotten out of the strong northeast -current running off Point Barrow. On the night of the 9th we passed off -the north of the Colville river, the water offshore becoming very -muddy. - -The first important error found in the charts and maps of this region -was found here by the observation of the non-existence of the Pelly -mountains. This observation was confirmed upon our return by the -concurrent testimony of the whaling masters who had cruised here, and -the natives who hunt in the neighborhood. The mountains certainly do -not exist where placed by the charts, and I judge that some small -hummocks near the beach were mistaken for a far off range of mountains, -when Dease and Simpson first explored this coast in 1837. - -Early on the morning of the 10th of August we sighted the first steam -whaler, and as we steamed toward her we skirted along some long low -islands parallel to the coast line and stretching from the Return reef -of Sir John Franklin to the mouth of the Colville river. The islands, -one being about three miles long, are not shown upon the charts, and -not having any known names were designated as the Thetis islands. - -The steam-whaler was found to be the Balæna, commanded by Captain -Everett Smith, one of the most intelligent of the whalemen of the -Arctic. He was anchored off Return reef, which he was enabled -definitely to locate by the traditions of the natives. It was at this -point that Sir John Franklin, in one of his earliest boat journeys, was -obliged to turn back while endeavoring to explore the coast from -Mackenzie bay to Point Barrow. After a long interview with Captain -Smith, from which I gathered much information as to the ice-conditions -and the probable positions of the steam-whalers to the eastward, he -returned on board of his ship, and the good ship Thetis once more -turned her head to the eastward. - -Soon afterwards another steam-whaler was sighted, made fast by -ice-anchors to an ice-floe; we did not stop, but, exchanging colors, -proceeded on our way. The ice seemed to be getting thicker, and shortly -afterwards a third whaler was sighted, at anchor off a small low -island, with apparently heavy ice ahead. As the weather seemed -uncertain I determined to anchor for the night in the vicinity of the -island. - -The steamer was found to be the whaler Beluga, commanded by Captain -Brooks, and the island, though nameless, was marked by a wooden cross, -from which fact it was called Cross island. Captain Brooks stated that -he had been struggling with the ice to the eastward of Cross island, -the day before, in company with some other steam-whalers who had left -him and gone to the eastward, so he had turned back and anchored off -Cross island. I sounded out the vicinity of the island, finding shoal -water to the southward, too shoal for the Thetis to anchor in, and so I -remained upon the west side. The wind shifting, our position became -insecure on account of the masses of ice drifting toward us; the whaler -left the anchorage, stood out into the heavy ice, and made fast to a -high hummocky floe. Seeing no good place near by, I held on with the -chain on the steam windlass, ready to leave in a moment. Heavy ice -coming down and grounding close by on both sides, we left and got out -the ice-anchors to a heavy floe, where we rode out the gale until early -in the morning, when we were obliged to move on, as the ice packed -about our rudder. After moving again and again the wind fell away, the -day cleared up, and the ice began to scatter and disappear about the -island, the leads to the eastward looking more promising. - -The next day at 5 in the morning, in company with our whaling friend, -we left the vicinity of Cross island and, entering the ice, stood -toward the northeast. The ice-floes grew heavier and larger as we -progressed and the canal-like leads more confused, until at 10 o'clock -the lead stopped and we both made fast to a very large, long, hummocky -floe, at least ten miles in length, several miles in breadth, and -aground in 80 feet of water. The day was mild and clear, and, after -both of the ice-anchors had been secured and the rope-ladders lowered -over the bows, a number of the officers and men went on the ice, the -men playing foot-ball and snow balling, while the officers posed for -their photographs. This is the time that we were reported (by a -steam-whaler that we had passed) as being in a position of extreme -danger, and the news was taken to the outside world. - -About 4 o'clock in the afternoon we started ahead with the Beluga; the -Thetis, now taking the lead, rammed her way through some pack-ice and -reached another lead going inshore, the Beluga following very slowly -after us. We continued forcing our way until we got into clear water by -Lion reef. At midnight we made fast to a small floe and after an -anxious night (caused by ice-floes setting against our stern and -rudder) we proceeded, followed at along distance by the Beluga, which -joined us in the afternoon at Camden Bay, and we anchored there for the -night. We found that the Beluga in attempting to follow us had gotten -on an ice-foot, or protruding spur, and bent her propeller-blades, and -had finally to seek another lead out, to the westward of where we had -rammed through. As we ran from off Lion reef to Camden bay we sighted -the beautiful ranges of mountains close to the coast known as the -Franklin and Romanzoff mountains, making an agreeable change in the -topography of the shore, which had been low and monotonously flat since -leaving Point Hope and the vicinity of Cape Lisburne. We found here -that the shore-line was put upon the charts too far north, as our -position near Flaxman island, on the west side of Camden bay, was well -inland of the coast-line and reefs. Camden bay was the last wintering -place of Collinson, in the Enterprise, upon his return from his search -for Sir John Franklin, and here we fell in with the track of this -distinguished navigator, whose cruise is so little known and whose -efforts have been so much eclipsed by his fellow voyager, McClure, who -has the distinction given him of being the actual discoverer of the -Northwest passage, and who was, indeed, with his little body of men in -1850-1854, the first as well as the last to pass from the Pacific to -the Atlantic, north of the American continent. - -Upon a long point named Collinson point, and upon the neighboring -island known as Barter island, are to be found, during the summer, -encampments and rendezvous of Eskimos, who meet there for purposes of -trade, similar to the same rendezvous in Kotzebue sound. Here the -Alaskan and the Mackenzie river Eskimos meet, also the Lucia or Prat -river Indians, who are nomads and come from the vicinity of the -Porcupine and Prat rivers, and whose winter rendezvous and habitation -is at the Rampart house, a Hudson Bay Company's station and Church of -England mission, upon the Porcupine. They are mostly professing -Christians and are related to the Athabascans, or Rock mountain -Indians, in family. There are no permanent settlements here or -elsewhere between the vicinity of Herschel island and Point Barrow. The -country is sterile, affording but little upon which to live, the sea -also having little or no animal life in its waters. The Eskimos give to -this part of the Arctic ocean a native name which signifies _the sea -where there is always ice_. - -Early the next morning, August 14th, at 5 o'clock, we pushed on in -company with the Beluga, standing out of Camden bay and delaying a -short time off Barter island, to communicate with the natives. At noon, -while off Manning point, the smoke of several steamers was seen to the -eastward, and when they had come up we found all but two of the -steam-whalers that had gone east. They were led by the steamer William -Lewis, commanded by Captain Albert Sherman, probably the boldest and -most active of the Arctic whalers. They were all in the cabin of the -Thetis in a short time, and I found that they had reached Mackenzie bay -and the vicinity of the Mackenzie river. The two missing ones, the Orca -and Thrasher, had last been seen in the vicinity of Herschel island. -The ice-conditions were reported to be better than those we had passed -through. After reflection I considered it my duty, as it was my desire, -to go on to the eastward to ascertain the cause of the detention of the -two missing whalers, and as time was precious I determined to run on, -day and night. By this time night had assumed the conditions of -twilight, and the stars had begun to appear in the skies. The -threatening appearance of the weather detained us at first, but at 9 -o'clock in the evening we got under way, and with her colors hoisted -the good ship started again on her easterly course, followed in about -half an hour by our old friend and companion, the Beluga. Before -leaving we had hoisted out the whale-boat with Joe and native friends, -who had been joined at this point by the women of the family. Joe was -uncertain about his movements here, and as he expected to secure stores -from some of the whalers I left him in their company. - -We found the shore bolder as we progressed, and the mountains nearer -the coast; as a result, the ice generally sets directly and in heavy -masses on the shore without grounding, and this point has never been -passed before by the whalers, but fortunately a wide lane was open. The -sight of the mountains, standing in their silent and gloomy grandeur, -was peculiarly impressive, and our inability to make a closer -examination and exploration is to be regretted. So far as I can -ascertain, no white man has ever penetrated these mountainous regions, -which are known upon the maps in turn under the varying names of the -Romanzoff, British, Buckland and Richardson mountains, being so named -by Sir John Franklin during his boat journey along the coast. The -British mountains are at the extreme northeastern corner of our -territory of Alaska, reaching also across the boundary-line into -British America. We passed Demarcation point, where our boundary-line -reaches the Arctic ocean, early upon the morning of the 15th of August, -and commenced again our cruising in British waters. The character of -the shore remained the same, the mountains, however, showing little -traces of snow, testifying in this way both to the extreme mildness of -the winter and our approach to the valley of the Mackenzie. A few -Eskimo huts were seen as we came up to the shoal ground developed by -our lead in the vicinity of the mouth of the Malcolm river. The lead -was constantly going while we were in these waters, and the ship was -steered by it as much as by our compass. In fact the three L's -(latitude, lead, lookout) are the great necessities for navigation in -these unknown regions, as the three R's are supposed to be in -elementary schooling. At 11 o'clock in the morning Herschel island was -sighted, this large island forming the western boundary of Mackenzie -bay, or, as the ancient explorers often termed it, Mackenzie sea. At -1.30 in the afternoon we anchored off the southwest end of the island -inside some grounded ice and off a long gravelly spit, thickly covered -with heavy drift-wood from the Mackenzie river. - -The island is about 500 feet in height and has a rounded outline, -sloping gradually down from the center upon all sides. It shows the -appearance of former glacial action, and appears to be an ancient -moraine covered with a black vegetable mould. The vegetation was -confined to grasses and small Arctic flowers, diminutive in size, -delicate in color, and evidently shortlived. - -Soon after we anchored a party was sent on shore to erect a sign to -mark our visit; it consisted of a board with the name of the ship and -the date of the visit in brass letters; under the staff supporting it -there are placed in a glass bottle the names of the officers and men of -the ship. The Beluga joined us soon after our arrival, and when the -party from shore had returned we got under way to continue our look for -the two whalers. Captain Brooks came on board the Thetis and shared my -perch and lookout in the foretop, while his ship followed, in charge of -his mate. As we reached the bluffs at the north end of the island we -saw a noble expanse of open water stretching to the northward as far as -the eye could reach. The ice was still heavy to the westward and -northwestward, but to the north, beyond the light, scattering ice -through which we were going, was clear sea, the waves leaping in the -beautiful Arctic sunshine. - -We looked with eagerness to the sea which stretched, apparently, to the -north pole, and then headed to the southward into Mackenzie bay. - -After three hours' steaming from our first anchorage we reached the -southeast side of the island and found the two missing whalers lying -quietly at anchor, Captain Brooks giving a hearty and relieved cry of -_Sail ho!_, when the vessels were seen, and we were all pleased to see -them safe and secure. We came to anchor close by them and the two -captains were soon on board. They reported that they had remained -behind to watch for the return of whales from the northeastward, but so -far without any success. They had determined to remain until September, -and contemplated the possibility of wintering at this place. Soon after -we anchored, Eskimos who lived at the mouth of the Mackenzie came on -board, and they looked at the ship with the greatest surprise and -interest. They had not seen vessels before this summer, though the -traditions concerning the "Enterprise" and "Investigator," under -Collinson and McClure, still survived. - -Sleeping soundly that night, for the first time in many days, the -following morning boat parties were dispatched to complete the -circumnavigation of the island and to make running surveys in the -vicinity. - -A small, snug harbor was found and surveyed near-by our anchorage, -capable of receiving vessels of less than 16 feet draught; this was -named Pauline cove. It would prove a fairly good place for one of the -light-draught steamers going up this year to use as winter-quarters. - -The waters between Herschel island and the mainland were found after -examination too full of shoals and sand- and gravel-bars to form a -ship-channel. A rise and fall of tide of three feet was found, and the -ship swung regularly to an ebb and flood. - -While the boats were out sounding I went ashore and, climbing nearly to -the top of the island, had a beautiful view of the clear and open water -of Mackenzie bay, to the east and northeast; while to the southeastward -were the islands clustering about the shallow mouth of the Mackenzie, -and directly to the south were the British and Buckland mountains, -merging gradually into the Rocky mountains and the great chains which -form the backbone of the American continent. - -The temperature of the water and air was found higher upon this side of -the island, and I have no doubt but that the climate of the vicinity of -Mackenzie bay is materially modified by the comparatively warm water -coming out in great volume from the Mackenzie river. The strong current -running to the northward from the river would naturally sweep the ice -out of the bay and to the northward, as far as the vicinity of -Banksland and the extreme northern Arctic. - -Where it goes to and where it ceases is now a matter of conjecture. It -is to be hoped that the drift-floats which were launched by us from -this point, and from various points between here and Herald island, may -contribute something to the solution of this question. - -As the chances of being shut in by the ice were easily among the -possibilities to the whalers who were in our company, and with whose -fate our companion the Beluga had joined for the time, the whole -question of supplies and retreat was gone over with the whaling -masters. A retreat up the valley of the Mackenzie, the Porcupine, and -Yukon, seemed feasible, as reindeer were to be found in this vicinity -in the winter months. - -As the masters of the whalers would not return with me to the eastward, -I determined to start back, in order to make my westerly cruise with -the sailing fleet. Recalling the boats, we got underway, standing first -to the northeast to put over our first drift-float clear of the tidal -influence of the waters immediately about Herschel island, and in the -open water and northerly current of the Mackenzie. These floats were -made of wood about two feet long and nine inches thick, with the name -of the ship, the date, and the words, _for drift_, cut upon the face. -In a cavity at one end of the float, plugged with soft wood, there was -placed a copper cylinder containing a letter requesting the finder to -inform the U. S. Hydrographic office at Washington, the nearest U. S. -Consul, or the commanding officer of the Thetis, the time and place -where the float was found. - -After launching the float upon its unknown journey, a lookout was sent -to the highest masthead: from there it was reported that to the -northward and northeastward there was nothing in sight but open water, -neither ice nor ice-blink was visible, and the western entrance to the -Northwest passage stretched before us invitingly, as clear and as free -as the waters of our own Chesapeake bay. But I had reached my limit, -and turning back, to the regret of many on board, faced once more the -icy sea that lay before us toward Point Barrow and the westward. - -The weather, however, was superb, clear, cold, and sunny, during the -day, while in the now darkening shades of the evening for the first -time the moon appeared, silvering most beautifully the chain of -mountains along the coast and the fantastic shapes of the grounded ice. - -On the 17th we began to meet and overtake the whalers, who still -delayed in the vicinity of Camden bay, waiting for whales. Five were -passed, some cruising and some fast to the ice-floes. After -communicating with them and informing them of our probable movements, -we kept on to the westward. The ice-conditions were favorable and we -made very good headway, making fast to an ice-floe, off our old -island-friends of the midway group, on the evening of the 17th of -August. - -The wind is always a subject of constant watchfulness and anxiety in -this part of the Arctic; it virtually makes the currents and brings -down the ice, or sends it off and clears a narrow lane along the -shore-line. A northerly shift of wind caused a desire to push on, and -passing on we sighted Return reef again and skirted along the long and -narrow island which now bears the name of the Thetis. Passing the mouth -of the Colville we steamed at a good rate of speed through Harrison bay -and found there the wind blowing strong from the west, bringing much -ice with it and accompanied by a cold fog. The outlook being -discouraging I determined to press on for Point Barrow, not very far -distant. The early morning of the 19th of August opened cloudy, -overcast, and cold, with a gale and snow from the westward, the ice -increasing in quantity and size. - -There being no protection from the wind this side of Point Barrow, I -ordered full speed so as to get to the point and beyond it before the -almost inevitable shift to the northward which would bring the ice down -and shut us out. The leads between the ice-floes became narrower and -fewer in number, and but little better outlook was found as we edged -inshore as far as the shoal water would allow us to go. At this time we -sighted as many as eight polar bears on the ice, but this was no time -to hunt "bear." Coming to the end of our lead we rammed through some -pack-ice into another one, which, however, again led into water too -shoal for us. Finding from my perch aloft that the ice seemed even -heavier to the west, I determined to stand back to the eastward into -the more open water we had left by the lead we had come through; but it -was too late: this lead had closed and we were prisoners in the pack. -There being no other place to go, I reluctantly selected the largest -pool, or pocket, got out our ice-anchors, and made fast to a heavy -floe, to await further developments. It was found to be in slow motion, -and four times during the night we had to move to avoid the heavy floes -closing in around us. From this time, the 19th, until the morning of -the 24th, we were close prisoners in the heavy pack which had set down -with the wind, now northerly, between Point Barrow and Point Tangent. - -In the words of the Ancient Mariner of Coleridge: - - "The ice was here, the ice was there, - The ice was all around; - It cracked and growled, and roared and howled, - Like noises in a swound." - -By incessant watchfulness, almost constant movement, vigorous ramming, -faithful working of the engines, and (most important of all) a -favorable shift of wind, the good ship, under Divine Providence, -escaped without damage or accident. Fortunately within easy reach of -land and but twenty-five miles from Point Barrow refuge-station, I had -no undue anxiety for life; but I have no hesitation in stating that the -readiness, endurance, and subordination of the officers and men of the -ship shown in the bringing out of the ship intact from the ice pack, -after nearly five days' imprisonment, entitle them to great credit from -the proper authorities and justify their commanding officer in the -present expression of his high appreciation of their conduct and his -warm feelings toward themselves. - -About noon of the 25th of August, after a night of hard ramming, we -anchored off the west side of Point Barrow, greeted by salutes from the -whalers anchored there and by the hearty congratulations of the -masters, who soon came on board and learned for the first time that -Mackenzie Bay had been reached. - -We found that the sailing fleet had gone to the westward, after having -been shut in by the ice coming down on Point Barrow and Cape Smyth for -several days, during our absence. The few whalers that remained had -been watching us from their crows' nests during our imprisonment, but -were unable, of course, to afford us any assistance, each ship having -to work out her own salvation: companion-vessels are of great service -only in case of damage or abandonment. Fortunately, the steam-whalers -remaining behind us did not have the pack set down upon them in the -shallow bights in which they were cruising, and the long continued -north-easter which aided us in our escape enabled them to find leads to -get through, not very long after we had escaped. We remained at Point -Barrow for a week until they had all returned, except the two most -easterly ones, left at Herschel island. As their return was so -uncertain, at the end of a week I dropped down to the house of refuge -at Cape Smyth, landing provisions to fill the deficiency in their -stores, and went to the westward, first going to Icy cape to erect a -needed beacon as a warning of the vicinity of Blossom shoals. - -Leaving this vicinity on the 5th of September for the northward and -westward, and rounding Blossom shoals, we stood to the north, reaching -the supposed vicinity of the edge of the ice pack that night. As the -nights were now dark we lay-to until morning, when the rapid fall of -the temperature of the water and the lessening wind gave indications of -its proximity, and a half hour's steaming brought us to the rugged -white outline of the pack. Along this we skirted, having reached our -highest north (less than 72° N. latitude). - -All of that day and the next we continued our course, sighting a -portion of the sailing fleet of whalers on the 7th. Communicating with -them of our proposed movements and whereabouts during the rest of -September and the beginning of October, we then stood to the westward. -I must not forget to mention an interesting incident that occurred. A -schooner stood down to us from the fleet, and was recognized as the -schooner Jane Grey, picked up by the Thetis when under the command of -my predecessor the previous summer in the ice--abandoned. She had been -righted, pumped out, repaired, and restored to her owner, who had -literally sold his farm and put his all into the vessel. As he came -within hail our notification was given him, but I noticed that he -fairly danced with impatience during its delivery, which was accounted -for at the end of the message by his bringing out his men, who were -gathered behind the foresail, and giving hearty and prolonged cheers -for the Thetis which fairly rang in the silent Arctic air. To this we -responded and then went on our way. - -We now left the pack and steered through open water for Herald island, -which we sighted at half past twelve the next day, the 8th of -September; as we approached it closely the bareness and forbidding -appearance, which had been concealed at first sight by the bluish -dimness of the outline, became very marked. Its sides were almost -inaccessible, except from the western end, and it was free from ice, an -almost exceptional state of affairs. In close seasons it is impossible -to reach it, and, even more than Point Barrow, it may be shut out of -the world by ice that refuses to move during the short summer. - -[Illustration: Herald Island, bearing about W. by S. (magnetic). From a -photograph by Assistant Paymaster J. Q. Lovell, U. S. N.] - -We passed the island late in the afternoon within a comparatively short -distance, standing on to the west with the hope of seeing Wrangel land -before dark. At half past five land was reported ahead from aloft, and -soon the high snowy peaks and mountainous outline of Wrangel land was -sighted from deck. It stood out beautifully in the late Arctic -afternoon, and as we approached it more closely its outline became more -and more fantastic and brilliant. At sunset we were a little over ten -miles distant, and at dark, as we turned to the southeast for Point -Hope, we exchanged hearty congratulations upon our successful passage -from Mackenzie Bay to Wrangel land. Arriving at Point Hope upon the -evening of the 10th of September, we found that many of the hunting -parties had returned from the interior, and preparations were going on -for the winter season. - -The natives of Point Hope, like the Eskimos generally of northwestern -Alaska, have no tribal or other form of government except what exists -by control of the head man, oomalik, or chief, whose superiority arises -from his wealth and influence. The previous chief had lived a life that -made him a terror to the community. His rule was by force alone and by -the influence of the rifle, which was his inseparable companion. After -a career distinguished for license, murder and robbery, he had come to -a timely end by being assassinated by the brother of a wife he was -tormenting to death. Since his death, up to the time of our stay in -September, anarchy had prevailed. On account of the very indifferent -treatment received by the survivors of the wrecked whaler "Little Ohio" -from the Eskimos at Point Hope the previous winter, I determined to -appoint a head man or chief who would be charged with the -responsibility and duty of caring for any shipwrecked persons or -destitute whites. Anokolut, who was appointed by me and whose -appointment was afterwards confirmed by the Governor of Alaska, had -married the niece of the previous chief, and was the best whaleman and -hunter of the district. He had been in the employ of the whaling -station established the previous year at Point Hope, and had been -satisfactory in all his dealings with the whites. His wife was a very -superior woman, and their desire for civilized usages was so great that -a bread-pan of tin, some granite-ware bowls, and candles, were given -and eagerly accepted as contributing to make their domestic lives more -comfortable and civilized. An urgent request was made for a -cooking-stove, which I promised to give them if I should return the -following summer. - -The Eskimo lamp which serves as a light, and to some extent as a stove, -is a crescent-shaped stone utensil with a shallow trough scooped out; -this is a receptacle for the whale-oil, the wick being some native moss -laid along the edge of the lamp and trimmed from time to time, the -supply of oil being kept up by a lump of blubber suspended over the -lamp. The light being indifferent, candles are welcomed as a great -improvement and a marked relief to the over-taxed eyes of the men and -women during the long nights of the Arctic winter. - -During our stay at Point Hope we found much of interest in connection -with the Eskimos living there. Their long winters give them an -opportunity to keep alive their traditions in their daily meetings in -the council-house, and they give an account of their early days in this -wise: In the beginning the people had heads like ravens, with eyes in -the upper part of their breasts. All the world at this time was wrapt -in gloom, with no change of day and night. At that time there lived a -powerful chieftain on top of the highest peak. In his hut were -suspended two balls that were considered very precious and were -therefore carefully guarded. One day, the chief being absent and the -guards asleep, some children who had long admired the beautiful balls -knocked them down with a stick and they rolled across the floor of the -hut and down the side of the mountain. The noise awakened the guards, -who hurried after them, while their extraordinary beauty attracted the -attention of the people, who also rushed after them, a wild struggle -ensuing for their possession; this ended in the breaking of the balls. -Light sprang from one and darkness from the other; these spirits of -light and darkness claimed sole dominion, but, neither yielding, a -compromise was made by which they agreed to an alternate rule. The -violent struggle for the mastery so disturbed the world that the -anatomy of the people and the surface of the earth were both changed. -Light being upon the earth, men began to catch whales in the sea and to -carry the flesh and bones to their mountain-homes. One family wandering -over the country recently risen from the sea came down upon Point Hope: -finding vegetation springing up and whales abundant, they built a hut -and made it their home. From this originated the settlement at Point -Hope. Their modern history goes on in this wise: Point Hope being -favorably situated for whaling and hunting the seal and walrus and for -obtaining the reindeer, it naturally became a center of power and -population. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, as well as -can be determined, the village upon Point Hope, known by the natives as -Tigara, had a population of 2,000 souls, with six council-houses. At -that time the Eskimos residing upon the Noatok, or Inland river, began -to encroach upon the territory of the Tigaramutes until matters came to -the pass that about the beginning of this century a great land- and -boat-fight took place between the Tigaramutes and the Noatokmutes near -Cape Seppings, in which the Tigaramutes were defeated and forced to -yield a large portion of the territory formerly controlled by them. So -crushed were the Tigaramutes that they lost one-half of their -population, which led to the gradual abandonment of all the -out-standing villages. Since this time the population has gradually -decreased, the diminution being materially aided by the contact of -whites, who are principally represented here by the crews of the -whaling ships, rendezvousing during the early summer. - -As a rule the Arctic coast Eskimos are short in stature, the average -height of ten men measured at Point Hope being 5 feet 5.8 inches, and -of ten women, 5 feet 2.4 inches. The legs are short in comparison to -the length of the body and are always much bowed, this being due to the -manner in which they are carried in infancy upon their mother's back, -the legs being brought tightly around under the mother's arms. The feet -and hands of the women are generally well shapen and small. - -All of the Eskimos have good teeth, but as they are subjected to severe -usage they deteriorate in every way. They are used as substitutes for -pincers, carpenter's vices, and fluting machines. They are used in -drawing bolts, untying knots, holding the mouth-piece of a drill, -shaping boot-soles, and stretching skins. When they become uneven from -constant use in this way, the unevenness is corrected by a levelling -down by means of a file or a whetstone, until they finally reach a -level too low for mechanical purposes. - -Between sixteen and twenty-two years of age the male natives have their -lips pierced under each corner of the mouth for labrets.[1] The -incision is made and at first sharp-pointed pieces of ivory are put in; -when the wound heals the hole is gradually stretched by inserting -larger labrets until half an inch in diameter is reached. The poorer -natives wear labrets made of coal, walrus ivory, common gravel, and -glass stoppers which they obtain from ships and adapt to this use. The -stopper of a Worcestershire sauce bottle is very useful for the -purpose. The richer ones have agate labrets, the most valued one, -however, consisting of a white porcelain-like disk 1½ inches wide, in -the center of which is mounted a turquoise nut, hemispherical in shape, -nearly an inch wide, fastened with a spruce gum obtained from the -interior. We could not ascertain where the turquoise or porcelain-like -disk was obtained. The Eskimos say they have always been in the -country, and sell them only with the greatest reluctance. - -[Footnote 1: _Labrets_ is the name used along the coast for the -lip-ornaments worn by the natives.] - -Tattooing is general among the women, and is apparently a custom of -great antiquity. At the age of six one narrow line is drawn down the -center of the chin from the lower lip downward, powdered charcoal being -used as coloring matter. At twelve years the line is broadened to half -an inch, and a narrow line made parallel to it on each side. But I will -not detain you by giving other particulars. - -On the 20th of September the Thetis left Point Hope for the south, the -rugged season of the Arctic ocean having fully set in. Strong winds and -gales from the northeast had compelled us to move from the northern to -the southern side of Point Hope, where better protection and anchorage -had been found. On the 21st of September we passed out of the Arctic -ocean and through Bering Strait, reaching Ounalaska again on the 26th -of September. After remaining there until the beginning of October the -ship returned to Sitka, and after a prolonged stay in the waters of -southeastern Alaska we finally reached the Golden gate of San -Francisco, shortly after midnight on the 7th of December. - -The cruise of the Thetis was remarkable in several respects, among -others in that, thanks to the open season, her stanch build, and -successful battling with the ice-pack, she was enabled to reach -Mackenzie bay, in British North America, the first government vessel to -carry the American flag in those waters. She also made the long stretch -from Mackenzie bay to Herald island and Wrangel land in one season, -never before done, and she had the honor of being the first vessel of -any kind to follow the entire main coast line of Alaska from Port -Tongass, in extreme southeastern Alaska, to Demarcation point, in the -Arctic ocean. - - - - -THE LAW OF STORMS, CONSIDERED WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE NORTH -ATLANTIC. - -BY EVERETT HAYDEN. - -(Abstract of a paper read before the National Geographic Society, Nov. -15, 1889.) - - -In preparing an abstract of this paper it is of course difficult to -adhere very closely to the original, inasmuch as that was illustrated -by forty-five lantern slides, while it is only practicable to present a -few plates with this abstract. I may therefore be permitted to give -only a general outline of the subject, with perhaps a more detailed -discussion of one or two of the most notable recent hurricanes off our -Atlantic coast. - -The term "Law of Storms" is applied to the code of rules that should -govern the action of the master of a vessel when he has reason to -suspect the approach of a dangerous storm. It will be seen that this -definition, like the code itself, is somewhat vague. So many -considerations enter as factors in the question that it is wholly -impossible to lay down any rules that shall be applicable alike to a -high-powered, well-manned steamship, and to a heavily-laden, -poorly-equipped and short-handed sailing vessel. Disregarding such -differences of conditions (which are, of course, of vital importance in -each individual case, but which cannot be discussed in a brief general -essay), the two grand divisions of the subject may be compared to -_grand strategy_ and _field tactics_. By this I mean that a broad, -comprehensive view of the whole subject of ocean storms--their regions, -seasons, size, severity, and tracks--is one very important part of the -navigator's duty in planning a long campaign, or voyage; and, secondly, -the handling of his vessel when actually in the fight--the coolness, -clear-headedness, and trained experience that utilizes every resource -of the best seamanship and navigation in a fearful struggle with the -fury of a hurricane--all of these are also an essential part of the -education of the ideal sea-captain. - -Thanks to the progress of meteorologic research it is comparatively -easy nowadays for anyone to get a very good general idea of the great -hurricane regions of the globe, and the seasons when these dreaded -tropic cyclones prevail in each of these regions. The evidence on this -subject is cumulative and practically conclusive, so that it is -universally known and recognized that the hurricane months are the -summer months in each hemisphere; hurricanes originate in the tropics, -move westward, then poleward into the temperate zones, and finally -eastward in higher latitudes, receding gradually from the equator; -moreover, the essential difference between hurricanes north and south -of the line is as follows: In the Northern Hemisphere the rotation of -the cyclonic whirl is _against_ the hands of a watch, and in the -Southern, _with_. The noted hurricane regions are the West Indies, -coast of China and Japan, Bay of Bengal (especially in May and October, -at the time of the change of the monsoons), and the South Indian Ocean -(about Mauritius). Less noted regions are the South Pacific (East of -Australia), the North Pacific (west of the Mexican coast), and the -Arabian Sea. In planning a distant voyage a navigator should therefore -consider the hurricane regions through which he must pass, just as he -considers the prevailing winds--the trades, monsoons, and ocean -currents. - -The handling of a ship in a hurricane is a very different sort of a -thing from this general survey of the entire field, and, without the -eminently practical qualities that we all associate with a good officer -of the navy or mercantile marine, no mere theoretic knowledge can avail -much. And yet this is one of those cases where practice and theory -should go hand in hand,--not theory as something vague and unreal, but -theory as based upon a firm foundation of observed facts. If a vessel -encounter a hurricane, certain conclusions can be drawn from -observations of the shifts of wind, the fluctuations of the barometer, -the appearance of the clouds, and the direction of the ocean swell; the -master of that vessel will undoubtedly draw such conclusions, and store -them away in his mind as part of his fund of experience upon which to -base action at some future time. But if he can consider his own -observations, while fresh in mind, in connection with the observations -made on board many other vessels that encountered the same storm, and -modify or verify his conclusions by such comparison, there cannot be a -doubt but that the lesson will be of far greater value. Sailors lead a -rough life, and their training is often acquired by experience alone. -Moreover, there are certain things that tend to discourage effort on -the part of junior officers, even on board naval vessels: they realize -that their duty is not to originate orders but to execute them, and -sooner or later they get out of the habit of reflecting upon the action -taken to avoid a storm or manoeuver in one, not knowing at the time -what considerations lead to the action that was taken, and not always -having anything brought forcibly to their attention to indicate with -certainty whether the action was well-considered or ill-advised. Upon -finally attaining command themselves they are not, therefore, as well -posted as they might otherwise have been. I mention these things to -explain the undoubted fact that comparatively few masters of vessels -are well posted in certain very important additions to the old law of -storms, as it was discovered by Redfield and enforced by Reid, -Piddington, Thom, and other early writers. In fact, of all the -navigators of various nationalities who have charge to-day of the -commerce of the world, probably four-fifths are wholly ignorant of the -progress that has been made in this direction in the past fifty years. -That such is the case is not, in my opinion, wholly their fault: it is -owing to the fact that far too little attention has been paid to clear, -forcible, and convincing explanation; it is the fault of the teachers, -no less than the scholars,--of meteorologists who talk over the heads -of their audiences, instead of stating facts and conclusions in a way -to command attention and respect from the practical men who furnish the -data, and who deserve some tangible results in return for their long -years of voluntary observation. - -[Illustration: A ship in the heart of a cyclone. From Reid's "Law of -Storms."] - -It is difficult to put this matter very clearly to those who are not -familiar with the conditions that govern the management of a vessel at -sea, and I shall only attempt to do so in a very general way. It should -be understood, first of all, that a hurricane is an enormous whirlwind, -so large, in fact, that its circular nature was generally recognized -only about fifty years ago. At the immediate center of the whirl there -is a calm space, from five or ten to thirty or forty miles in diameter, -generally with blue sky and bright sunlight. Within a short distance of -this central calm the wind blows with frightful violence, and here a -vessel is driven along in absolute helplessness, enveloped in midnight -darkness, buried in a flying mass of foam and spray, with every sound -annihilated by the roar and shrieks of the elements. The core of the -hurricane, as this region has been called, is small, relative to the -entire area, and it thus happens that a few miles may make all the -difference between shipwreck and safety. The question is, then, to -avoid getting into the core, or heart, of the hurricane. It is evident -enough that if the wind blow in a strictly circular direction around -the center, the bearing or direction of the center must be at exactly -right angles (eight points) to the right (or left) of the direction of -the wind. In other words, in the Northern Hemisphere (where the -direction of rotation is against the hands of a watch) the center bears -eight points to the right of the wind (that is, to the right of the -direction from which the wind blows); in the case of a hurricane off -our coast, for instance, if the wind be NE. at Hatteras the center -would bear (according to the 8-point rule) SE. Considering, further, -that the entire whirl has a progressive motion along a path, or track, -if an observer at Hatteras find that the NE. wind freshens rapidly, -without any shift or change of direction, it is equally evident that -the center of the storm is approaching directly toward that point. In a -similar situation at sea, a shipmaster would naturally see that his -vessel was in a position of great danger: evidently the best thing to -do would be to run before the wind, thus getting out of the way of the -approaching hurricane. This simple case will explain pretty clearly, I -think, how rules were at once formulated and adopted, as soon as -Redfield had proved the approximately circular character of these -storms. - -Without going further into this subject, inasmuch as this 8-point rule -is perhaps the most important of all the rules--indeed, all of them -follow directly from it,--suppose that subsequent research, based upon -careful observation and the accurate charting of hundreds of reports -from vessels in similar storms in various oceans, proved conclusively -that the wind in a hurricane does not blow in strictly circular whirls, -but rather spirally inward, so that with a NE. wind off Hatteras the -center bears probably S SE., or even South: evidently this is a matter -of vital importance to the navigator, and all the old rules should be -remodeled to suit the discovery. Such is, indeed, actually the fact, -and in most cases nothing could be worse than to run directly before -the wind; in any event it would be dangerous, and in the case of a -slow-moving cyclone it might readily lead the vessel directly into the -core of the hurricane. This is known to have been the case in many -instances, and vessels have thus been drawn into the inner whirls of -hurricanes and kept there for several days, making one or more complete -revolutions around the center before they could extricate themselves. -In fact, they might never have gotten out, if the storm itself had not -moved off and left them. - -The first of the accompanying plates, entitled, - -WEST INDIAN HURRICANES, AND OTHER NORTH ATLANTIC STORMS, - -gives a brief and yet complete résumé of what is perhaps the best -modern practice. In these brief statements the attempt has been made to -put concisely, intelligibly, and _completely_ (if one will but read -each and every sentence as carefully as they were written), the very -latest, most important, and best-established facts, with which every -navigator should be familiar. The paragraph entitled "Intensified -trade-wind belt," for instance, is very important. A close -consideration of the caution expressed in these few lines may prevent a -serious mistake that might be made by a too rigid adherence to the old -rules. The idea is as follows: It has been proved by Meldrum, from his -studies of Mauritius hurricanes, that the SE. trade-winds blow toward a -part of the _track_ of a hurricane, rather than at right angles to the -direction of its center, and it is therefore unsafe to assume that the -center bears at right angles to the wind, or that, because the trade -wind increases in strength without any decided change of direction, the -center is approaching directly toward the vessel. This principle might -naturally be expected to hold for similar storms in other regions, and -Abercromby, in a thorough study of the whole subject, has shown that -such is the case, although he states that "the position of this belt -[of intensified trades] differs in every hurricane region, so that a -special set of rules are necessary for each country." It seems to me, I -must say, that in the absence of such special rules the law may safely -be assumed to be general; its importance to navigators is certainly -very great, and its principal effect must be to urge the greatest -caution in making any attempt to cross the track of a hurricane, from -the dangerous to the navigable semicircle. - -{PLATE: WEST INDIAN HURRICANES, AND OTHER NORTH ATLANTIC STORMS. - -From the Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, August, 1889, with -Additional Paragraphs. [_Edition of July, 1890._] - -Explanation.--These diagrams are for practical use in West Indian -hurricanes. The upper one will also answer for ordinary storms along -the transatlantic route. The small arrows fly with the wind, the -direction being stated at the end of each dotted line; the long arrow -on each diagram is the STORM TRACK, that is, the probable path of the -cyclone through the belt of latitude to which the diagram applies. - -[Illustration: JUNE and OCTOBER, lat. 23° to 55°. JULY and SEPT., lat. -29° to 55°. AUGUST, lat. 33° to 55°. STORM TRACK, N NE. TO E NE. Motion -of storm center along track, 20 to 30 miles per hour.] - -[Illustration: JUNE and OCTOBER, lat. 20° to 23°. JULY and SEPT., lat. -27° to 29°. AUGUST, lat. 30° to 33°. STORM TRACK, N NW. to N NE. Motion -of storm center along track, 5 to 10 miles per hour.] - -[Illustration: JUNE and OCTOBER, lat. 10° to 20°. JULY and SEPT., lat. -10° to 27°. AUGUST, lat. 10° to 30°. STORM TRACK, W. by N. to N NW. -Motion of storm center along track, about 17 miles per hour.] - -Use of the Diagrams.--When a falling barometer, freshening rain -squalls, &c., indicate a hurricane, select the proper diagram -(according to the MONTH and LATITUDE), plot your position upon it by -means of the direction of the wind, and thus ascertain the approximate -bearing of the storm center. The probable storm track is indicated by -the long arrow. If the wind shift, plot your position by means of the -new wind-direction (nearer the center if the wind has freshened and the -barometer has fallen). In this way you can readily observe every change -of position relative to the storm center, and decide what action to -take, according to the character of your vessel, the lay of the land, -&c. These storms vary greatly in size, but are smallest and most -violent in the tropics, where the cloud ring averages about 500 miles -in diameter and the region of stormy winds 300 miles, or even less. You -can therefore only roughly estimate the DISTANCE of the center, -although its BEARING can be obtained from the diagrams with a high -degree of probability. There is also considerable variation in the -direction of motion and the velocity of the storm along its track, but -the general tendency is as stated herewith. - -Cyclonic Circulation.--One of the most important indications that an -approaching storm is of hurricane violence is the marked cyclonic -circulation of the wind, lower and upper clouds, etc. This may be -easily appreciated by remembering that a cyclone of any great intensity -is an ascending spiral whirl, with a rotary motion (in the Northern -Hemisphere) against the hands of a watch, as shown on the diagrams. The -surface wind, therefore, blows spirally inward (_not_ circularly, -except very near the center); the next upper current (carrying the low -scud and rain clouds), in almost an exact circle about the center; the -next higher current (the high cumulus), in an outward spiral--and so -on, up to the highest cirrus clouds, which radiate directly outward. -The angle of divergence between the successive currents is almost -exactly two points of the compass. Ordinarily, with a surface wind from -N., for instance, the low clouds come from N., also; on the edge of a -hurricane, however, they come from N NE., _invariably_. In rear of a -hurricane, the wind blows more nearly inward; with a SE. wind, for -instance, the center will bear about W., the low clouds coming from S -SE. (two points to the right of the wind), etc. Great activity of -movement of the upper clouds, while the storm is still distant, -indicates that the hurricane is of great violence. If the cirrus plumes -that radiate from the distant storm are faint and opalescent in tint, -fading gradually behind a slowly thickening haze or veil, the -approaching storm is an old one of large area; if of snowy whiteness, -projected against a clear blue sky, it is a young cyclone of small area -but great intensity. - -Intensified Trade-wind Belt.--Another very important fact (established -by Meldrum, at Mauritius) may be stated thus: When a hurricane is -moving along the equatorial limits of a trade-wind region, there is a -belt of intensified trades to windward of its track: not until the -barometer has fallen about six-tenths of an inch it is safe to assume -that, because the trade-wind increases in force and remains steady in -direction, you are on the track of the storm. By attempting too early -to cross its track, running free as soon as the wind begins to freshen, -you are liable to plunge directly into the vortex of the hurricane. - -General Information.--Hurricanes are especially liable to be -encountered from July to October, inclusive, in the tropics (north of -the 10th parallel), the Gulf of Mexico, and Gulf Stream region. -Earliest indications: Barometer above the normal, with cool, very -clear, pleasant weather; a long, low, ocean swell from the direction of -the distant storm; light, feathery cirrus clouds, radiating from a -point on the horizon where a whitish arc indicates the bearing of the -center. Unmistakable signs: Falling barometer; halos about the sun and -moon; increasing ocean swell; hot, moist weather, with light variable -winds; deep red and violet tints at dawn and sunset; a heavy, -mountainous cloud bank on the distant horizon; barometer falling more -rapidly, with passing rain squalls. - -Brief Rules for Action.--If the squalls freshen without any shift of -wind, you are on the storm track: run off with the wind on the -starboard quarter and keep your compass course (see caution in -paragraph entitled "Intensified Trade-wind Belt"). If the wind shift to -the right, you are to the right of the storm track: put the ship on the -starboard tack and make as much headway as possible, until obliged to -lie-to. If the wind shift to the left, you are to the left of the storm -track: bring the wind on the starboard quarter and keep your compass -course; if obliged to lie-to, do so on the port tack. In scudding, -always keep the wind well on the starboard quarter, in order to run out -of the storm. Always lie-to on the coming-up tack. Use oil to prevent -heavy seas from breaking on board.} - -The next plate, - -THE HURRICANE OF NOVEMBER 25, 1888, - -is a very instructive illustration of an actual hurricane, and one of -the most severe on record off our Atlantic coast. The spiral lines have -been added to bring out conspicuously the wind-circulation, and several -features will at once attract attention: the elongated shape of the -storm, along a north and south line (the direction of motion); the wide -region where there is a southeasterly gale (exactly analogous to the -belt of intensified trades); the long sweep of northeasterly winds -along the coast; and the marked variation from a strictly circular -whirl. The right-hand side is the dangerous semicircle, and it is here -that the navigator is called upon to decide whether he shall dare make -the attempt to run before the wind and cross the track of the storm; -the left-hand side is the navigable semicircle,--not very _navigable_ -in this particular case, we may well believe, with no sea-room to the -westward, a fearful N NE. gale, and a terrific sea. This is a case -where every resource of seamanship and navigation may fail to save a -ship, as the loss of the steamship "Samana" and a dozen other strong -vessels, with all on board, bears sad testimony. Let me quote a few -lines from a thrilling report by Captain Drew, of the American ship -"Sea Witch" (this vessel's position is plotted on the chart about lat. -32° N., long. 75° W.): "Nov. 24: Hurricane from NE.; our position a -perilous one, the ship rolling heavily and filling the decks with -water; an awful gale, the worst we have ever had,--how will it end? At -3 P.M., the sun out a moment through the thick sky. Nov. 25: Still -blowing a hurricane, with awful squalls of rain; the seventh day of the -gale. No side-lights can burn; the binnacle-light goes out as fast as -we can light it. One blast from the north blew our brand-new -lower-maintopsail away like brown paper. We performed the critical -manoeuver of wearing ship, which saved the vessel: we were foundering." -Verily, this was "out of the jaws of death," and probably there were -few more sincere thanksgiving services than those held on board this -vessel on Nov. 29th, 1888, as recorded in her log. One other report may -be referred to here, as it is of especial interest. It is from the -British steamship "Effective," whose position is plotted about half way -between Bermuda and New York. At this time the wind was S SE., force 8, -and the storm center was moving directly toward her. We learn from -Captain Crosby's report that by noon, local time, the wind was strong -from south; at 4:30 P.M., a hard gale from east, moderating until -midnight, barometer falling very rapidly. Nov. 26th, very heavy gale -from NE., ship heading bow to sea; noon, wind east, barometer 28.60; 5 -P.M., wind N NE., 28.20; 10 P.M., SW.; midnight, W., 28.20. This report -illustrates the experience of a vessel close to the line of sudden -shift of wind from SE. to N NE., and sustains very well the spiral -lines drawn on the chart, just where there is an absence of data on the -chart itself. - -{PLATE: THE HURRICANE OF NOVEMBER 25, 1888: NOON, G. M. T. - -THE HURRICANE SEASON.--June may be fairly said to be the first of the -five hurricane months in the North Atlantic, and the above diagram is -presented in order to call special attention to the Law of Storms, -especially to certain important modifications of the old laws. The -spiral lines indicate the general wind-circulation in this particular -hurricane, and the complete data presented on the Chart must convince -any one that conclusions based upon such evidence must be worthy of the -most careful consideration. This hurricane was one of the most severe -on record off our Atlantic coast, and, though much larger than a -hurricane in the tropics, similar evidence can be presented to show -that the 8-point rule is seldom a safe guide for obtaining the bearing -of the center; a 10-point or even a 12-point rule is generally better, -although the 8-point rule is fairly correct if applied to the direction -of the low clouds, rather than the wind. The long sweep of NE'ly winds -along the coast, when there is a hurricane below Hatteras, is a very -characteristic and important feature. With a NE'ly wind off Block -Island, for instance, it should not be assumed that the center bears -SE.: the Chart shows that it may be almost due south. There is likewise -a wide region where the wind is from the SE., and a vessel running -before this steady SE. wind would plunge deeper and deeper into the -hurricane. Similarly in the trades, to windward of the track of a -hurricane: not until the barometer has fallen about 6-tenths of an inch -is it safe to assume that, because the trade-wind increases in force -and remains steady in direction, you are on the track of the storm; by -attempting too early to cross its track, running free as soon as the -wind begins to freshen, you are liable to plunge directly into the -vortex.} - -Lack of space does not allow of further details, and I must go on to -the next plate, - -THE ST. THOMAS-HATTERAS HURRICANE OF SEPT. 3-12, 1889. - -This plate is copied exactly from a Supplement issued with the Pilot -Chart for October, 1889 (published Sept. 27th), with only the addition -of the tracks of the two storms (as indicated by later data) and the -tracks of a few vessels (see small charts dated Sept. 3, 4-7, 10). -Considering the early date of publication, the wide expanse of ocean -covered by the charts, and their essential accuracy (as indicated by -later data), it must be acknowledged, I think, by anyone who is at all -acquainted with the difficulties incident to this sort of work, that -this supplement to the Pilot Chart hit more closely to the truth in -this matter than would probably be possible under similar circumstances -in one case out of ten. Had later data materially modified conclusions -drawn at such an early date, it could not have been a matter of -surprise, although this prompt publication would still have served a -most valuable purpose in interesting navigators to contribute data -likely to help us in establishing the facts. Indeed, the following -quotations from the Pilot Chart and Supplement illustrate exactly what -was desired, and what was actually accomplished by this publication: -"This preliminary publication, issued two weeks after the storm reached -our coast, well illustrates the cordial support this office receives -from masters of vessels in its efforts to collect and utilize data -regarding marine meteorology. It is desired to collect as complete data -as possible regarding this storm, in order to publish a final report, -and the present publication will be useful as a good working basis for -a more complete detailed study of the hurricane." Also, "Special -attention is called to the fact that this preliminary publication is -only intended to give a brief outline of the facts as indicated by data -received up to date of publication." Moreover, the name, nationality, -and rig of every vessel whose report had been received in time to be -used was published, and every statement made in the accompanying text -was based on an exhaustive study of all the data. - -It is interesting to note how slightly the very complete data now at -hand have modified this hastily-prepared history, and all the -circumstances urge similar quick work and prompt publication in every -case, before other storms and other conditions have dulled public -interest and directed attention elsewhere. The track of the easternmost -of the two storms, as plotted on the first little chart, shows that it -moved more rapidly than was anticipated, and recurved farther north: -the fact is, its very existence was not even suspected till _two hours_ -before the final draft of the maps was made, and then only because the -German steamship "Savona," from Baltimore for Brazil, suffered such -damage from the hurricane on Sept. 5th (see chart dated Sept. 3rd for -position) that she was obliged to run in to St. Thomas for repairs, and -our consul, Mr. M. A. Turner, forwarded her report by the first steamer -to New York. The following is a brief extract from this report, -beginning at 10 P.M., Sept. 4th: "Full hurricane, ship lying in trough -of sea, laboring heavily and shipping much water. Cargo shifted; -jettisoned 600 barrels of flour and 60 tons of coal. Broke steam -steering gear and wheel, found rudder adrift, 3 feet of water in the -hold, foundations of engines seriously loose and getting worse. Bore up -for St. Thomas." - -It is impossible, in the space at my disposal, to refer even briefly to -the reports of the few vessels whose tracks are plotted on the charts: -the stanch steamship "Earnmoor," foundering in the heart of the -hurricane on Sept. 5th, eleven of her crew of thirty escaping in an -open boat, and of these only seven surviving that fearful drift of -twenty-three days; the "Sépet," between the two storms and escaping -both; the "Lassell," from the tropics to Block Island, all the way in -the grasp of the hurricane, without a sight of sun, moon, or stars, to -fix her position; the "Ada Bailey," rolling in the long swell off -Hatteras and watching the early indications of the approaching storm -for nearly a week before it struck her; the "Hernan Cortes," forced to -stand off into fearful danger by the still greater danger of a -lee-shore at Hatteras; and the "City of New York," "Teutonic," and -"City of Rome," starting on their Titanic race from Liverpool for New -York the day after this great hurricane swept past St. Thomas, and -reaching their goal with it, and in spite of all its fury. I must -dismiss this whole interesting history with the following abstract of -the report of Capt. Simmons, of the British brigantine "Victoria," -whose original report is brief and to the point, like all the rest (see -track of the "Victoria," northwest from St. Thomas, on the first small -chart): - -I passed through the cyclone, resulting in the total loss of the spars, -sails, etc., of my vessel. The SE. sea became so heavy that I was -obliged to heave-to. The sky was one sheet of dark gray, at times -approaching black. The lightning was excessive only during the latter -part of the storm; it appeared as a continuous quivering sheet around a -great part of the horizon, extending about 10° above it and lasting -many seconds, unaccompanied by thunder; the compass could not be read, -the card spinning so that the points were indistinguishable. The lowest -barometer reading was 27.86 (aneroid, corrected by comparison at Boston -shortly before and at Halifax the following month). - -{PLATE: THE ST. THOMAS-HATTERAS HURRICANE OF SEPTEMBER 3-12, 1889. - -[Illustration: _Sept. 3_.--A hurricane of great intensity is passing -close to the northward of St. Thomas, moving about W. NW. Lowest -barometer at St. Thomas during the day, 28.97. Steepest observed -barometric gradient (between St. Thomas and Puerto Rico), .75 inch in -65 miles. The cyclone is a large one, and of terrific energy,--an -enormous whirlwind more than 500 miles in diameter, with a central calm -area about 16 miles in diameter. It was experienced with destructive -violence amongst the Windward Islands, from Martinique to Barbuda, on -the 2d, and the vortex passed over St. Christopher's about midnight, -the central calm lasting from 10.15 p.m. of the 2d till 12.45 a.m. of -the 3d. There are evidences of another hurricane about 1,000 miles -eastward of the first, moving about W. NW.] - -[Illustration: _Sept. 4_.--The hurricane is central north of Puerto -Rico, where strong northerly, westerly, and southerly gales are -experienced, but not of full hurricane force. During the forenoon its -massive, towering cloud-bank is clearly visible from Turk's island, 300 -miles away, causing great alarm till it is seen to be moving well to -the northward of the island. A violent storm in Santo Domingo this -afternoon seems to be either an offshoot from the cyclone or the effect -of another storm crossing the island to join the great -hurricane--possibly a storm that was felt at Curaçao the previous day. -The second hurricane has continued its motion toward W. NW. and its -present position is clearly indicated about the eastern limits of the -Chart.] - -[Illustration: _Sept. 5_.--The hurricane is moving rather slowly along -a northwesterly course, toward Hatteras. The enormous seas started by -the great whirlwind during its progress thus far have overspread almost -the entire western half of the Atlantic: heavy northeasterly swell at -Jamaica and through the Windward Channel; northeasterly and easterly, -all along the Bahama Islands and northern Florida; very heavy surf at -Bermuda; long rolling swell from S. SE. off Hatteras, perceptible as -early as the 2d and increasing daily; long, low southerly swell off -Nantucket as early as the 4th, when the storm-center was 1,300 miles -away. The second hurricane is moving northwestward, and is beginning to -recurve about 600 miles S. E. from Bermuda.] - -[Illustration: _Sept. 6_.--The concentric isobars on the Chart show -that the hurricane is now central about midway between Bermuda and -Eastern Cuba, with barometric pressure at the center probably below -28.40. All the characteristics of a tropical cyclone are still -exhibited, and to a marked degree: storm area noticeably circular in -outline; very steep gradients and enormous wind velocities near the -center; sudden shifts of the wind in terrific squalls; heavy driving -rain mingled with foam caught up from the crests of the waves; sky of -inky blackness, with masses of flying scud so low as to touch the -masts. Close by, in front, and on either side, calm, sultry, hazy -weather, with a tremendous swell rolling in from the direction of the -distant but massive cloud-bank of the hurricane. A long ridge of high -pressure is building up to the northward of the hurricanes.] - -[Illustration: _Sept. 7_.--The hurricane continues its slow but steady -march toward Hatteras. Yesterday morning the observer at Santiago de -Cuba reported the cyclone recurving. This morning the meteorologist at -Havana, 900 miles away, reports the cyclone's movements, guided by the -motions of the upper clouds,--the cirrus veil that overspreads the -entire sky with a thick haze, and the long feathery plumes of cirrus -cloud that are faintly visible above it, radiating from the distant -storm. The influence of the great hurricane begins to be felt along the -outer edge of the Gulf Stream, below Hatteras. A heavy surf is rolling -in on the coast all the way from Cape Florida to Block Island, and the -long southerly swell has reached beyond Sable Island to Cape Breton. -The second hurricane is moving NEd., and a ridge of high pressure is -extending Sd. between the two.] - -[Illustration: _Sept. 8_.--The hurricane is central about the axis of -the Gulf Stream, off Hatteras. The area of high barometer in advance is -retarding its northward progress, and preventing it from recurving to -the northeastward. The heavy surf and the increased height of the -tides, due to the storm-wave of the hurricane, begin to attract general -attention and to cause damage along the low-lying portions of the coast -between Norfolk and Newport; warm, moist ocean air is being driven in -over the cold inshore current, and dense fogs are encountered off the -coast north of the 35th parallel. The storm is losing a little of its -tropical intensity, but its area is increasing and winds of hurricane -force are raging over a vast area between Hatteras and Bermuda.] - -[Illustration: _Sept. 9_.--The storm is still raging with great -violence between Nantucket, Hatteras, and Bermuda. Tremendous seas and -tides are driving in on the coast. It is blowing with hurricane force -close in shore near Hatteras. The storm-center is still moving -northward, but more slowly, and the great area of high barometer into -which the hurricane has forced its way stands fast, the pressure rising -to 30.30 over the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the isobar of 30.00 reaching -south on either side well down toward the tropics. To the -northwestward, northward, and northeastward, close to the outer limits -of the great whirlwind, warm, sultry weather prevails, with calms or -light, variable winds, hazy weather, and barometer above the normal.] - -[Illustration: _Sept. 10_.--The hurricane seems to be gathering all its -strength for a last desperate struggle to force its way along its -normal track to the northeast. The wind-arrows plotted on the Chart -illustrate very graphically the marked circular character of the great -whirlwind. The storm-wave, or general elevation of the oceanic surface -caused by the in-rushing and whirling winds, and the reduced barometric -pressure (acting as a partial vacuum), bank up the water in the bight -of the coast about Sandy Hook, and cause the greatest floods on record -at many places along the eastern coast of New Jersey and the southern -shore of Long Island.] - -[Illustration: _Sept. 11_.--The barometric pressure at the storm-center -has increased noticeably. The low area is filled up, and the barometric -gradients are very much less steep. Very few winds of full hurricane -force are reported. The storm-center has moved in toward shore, -however, and stormy winds are still felt along the coast. The clouds -are breaking away in places, and the cyclonic circulation is no longer -so well marked. The warm waters of the Gulf Stream have been driven in -toward the coast off Block Island by the long-continued and furious -southeasterly gales on the right of the storm track, and, mingling with -the cold in-shore current, cause dense fogs and squally, unsettled -weather.] - -[Illustration: _Sept. 12_.--The great hurricane has blown itself out, -and although a few reports still give a force of wind as high as 10 of -Beaufort's scale, the storm has practically ended. The remnants drift -inland during the 13th and 14th, with cloudy, rainy weather in eastern -Virginia and Maryland. It leaves a mountainous cross-sea that lasts for -several days, a coast line strewn with wreckage and already some twenty -additions have been made to the list of derelicts and drifting wrecks -whose positions are plotted on the Pilot Chart as a caution to -navigators. How many vessels it wrecked at sea can never be fully -known, but its entire track is marked by wrecks and wreckage.]} - -The importance to navigators of a true appreciation of the law of -storms--not the mere memorization of a set of rules, but an intelligent -comprehension of the subject--is now perhaps clearly evident to the -reader: at any rate, that is the object I have aimed at, rather than a -mere formal statement of generally accepted principles and an abstruse -discussion of isobars and gradients. - -It will be seen that _the probable bearing of the center, as indicated -by the direction of the wind at a single station_, is the great -question, so far as the navigator is concerned. There are men who want -and must have a hard-and-fast rule,--an 8-point, a 10-point, or a -12-point rule--something to act on without thought, while every nerve -is strained to save the ship's spars, sails, boats, engines, and cargo, -from damage or destruction. Under such circumstances, I think that -perhaps the safest general plan is to use the old 8-point rule, but -_applied to the low clouds, instead of to the wind_. This is -equivalent, generally speaking, to a 10-point rule, applied to the -wind. That any such rule, if intended for general application, is only -roughly approximate, goes without saying, or ought to do so, at least. -The angle of bearing changes in different parts of the storm, it varies -with the quadrant, with the latitude, with different storms, and with -various other conditions, too numerous to be mentioned or even wholly -known. One good general rule is that in rear of a hurricane the wind -blows somewhat decidedly toward it; and yet that there are marked -exceptions is well illustrated by the chart of the hurricane of -November 25, 1888, already referred to. As a good example of the wind -circulation in a hurricane in the tropics the accompanying diagram is -of interest. This represents two days (the 3d and 5th) of the great -Cuban hurricane of September, 1888, the intervening day (September 4th) -being omitted, for the sake of clearness. Its severity is sufficiently -indicated by the fact that it caused the loss of fully a thousand lives -in Cuba, and destroyed property of the estimated value of $5,000,000 in -the single province of Sagua. Now take any point on any one of these -spiral lines, and observe the bearing of the center: in rear of the -storm, especially, the 8-point rule is hardly applicable, and action -based upon it might result disastrously. - -[Illustration: The Cuban Hurricane of September, 1888, illustrating the -surface wind-circulation on September 3d and 5th, at noon, Greenwich -mean time.] - -The next and last plate, entitled, - -HURRICANES IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC.--TYPICAL CIRCULATION OF THE WIND, -FROM ACTUAL OBSERVATION, - -gives a still more complete illustration of the wind-circulation in -hurricanes, with a brief discussion of the application of the 8-point -rule. Especial attention is called to the statement made thereon -(referring, of course, to hurricanes in the North Atlantic, but no -doubt true for the entire Northern Hemisphere) that - -"although the 8-point rule is nearly true when the wind is anywhere -from north to south by way of west (that is, generally speaking, in the -navigable semicircle), it is liable to be a very poor guide when the -wind is from any point in the first or second quadrant." - -Also to the following, which is applicable to the Southern Hemisphere -by the substitution of "to the left" for "to the right:" - -"Perhaps the best general rule is that the center bears about eight -points to the right of the direction from which the low clouds come, -or, what is practically the same thing, eight points to the right of -the wind at the moment of a sudden shift in a heavy squall; after such -a shift the wind will remain steady in direction for a time, but the -center is meanwhile moving along and the angle of bearing changes until -the next shift, when it goes again to eight points, and so on." - -Such diagrams, carefully prepared from complete and reliable data, are -of far greater practical value to navigators than volumes of -explanation: they appeal to the eye and will live in memory long after -ideas conveyed by printed words have been forgotten. - -{PLATE: HURRICANES IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC.--TYPICAL CIRCULATION OF THE -WIND, FROM ACTUAL OBSERVATION. [From the Pilot Chart of the North -Atlantic Ocean, July, 1890.] - -The above diagrams have been prepared from a large number of -observations in order to illustrate the actual circulation of the wind -in hurricanes, as a practical guide for navigators during the present -hurricane season. The small chart that was presented on the Pilot Chart -last month gave all the observations upon which the spiral lines were -based for that particular hurricane (Nov. 25, 1888), and the same -method has been followed here, only the observations themselves are -omitted, for the sake of clearness. Perhaps the most important point to -notice is that the surface wind blows in an inward spiral curve, and -not circularly, except very near the center. The center therefore -generally bears more than eight points to the right of the wind. -Another very important point is the fact that although the 8-point rule -is nearly true when the wind is anywhere from _North to South by way of -West_ (that is, generally speaking, in the navigable semicircle), it is -liable to be a very poor guide when the wind is from any point in the -first or second quadrant. With the wind from NE., for instance, the -center may bear anywhere from South to SE.; with the wind East it may -bear from SW. to South; and with the wind SE. it may bear SW., West, or -even (in the tropics) W NW. Perhaps the best general rule is that the -center bears about eight points to the right of the direction from -which the low clouds come, or, what is practically the same thing, -eight points to the right of the wind at the moment of a sudden shift -in a heavy squall; after such a shift the wind will remain steady in -direction for a time, but the center is meanwhile moving along and the -angle of bearing changes until the next shift, when it goes again to -eight points, and so on. - -It will be noticed that the northernmost of these two hurricanes was -moving very slowly during the two days selected for illustration: had -it been moving faster, the in-draught (or departure from the circular -direction) would no doubt have been somewhat less in advance and -considerably greater in rear than what is indicated. It is exceptional -also to find a storm in this region growing smaller, as this seems to -have done on Sept. 10th; it died out altogether in a few days, instead -of continuing its motion toward E NE., as is usually the case. In the -tropics the usual progressive motion is about W. by N., and this, -together with the steady increase in size, is well illustrated in the -case of the Cuban hurricane; it should be noted, however, that the -interval is here two days, and not one, as in the upper diagram. - -Masters of vessels are earnestly requested to keep regular observations -for this Office during the hurricane season, even if only position, -wind, weather, and barometer, at noon, G. M. T., are noted. A single -additional report often adds greatly to the completeness of the data -used in preparing these diagrams.} - -Finally, let us look for a moment at two sketches that I have made to -give a graphic and I hope not incorrect idea of the cloud formation and -the internal structure of a hurricane. In both sketches the vertical -scale is of course greatly exaggerated. The first illustrates -particularly the great cloud bank (with the "bull's eye," or clear -central space, shown in cross-section); the storm-wave or general -elevation of the surface of the ocean caused by the spirally in-blowing -winds and low barometric pressure (the cause, oftentimes, of fearful -floods along low-lying coasts); and the probable, or possible, -circulation of the upper atmosphere over the whirl, together with the -direct and reflected rays of a vertical sun as they pour into the -central calm. The second sketch is to aid a clear mental conception of -the actual motions of the particles of air as they flow inward below, -whirl about the central core and flow outward above; this may help to -free the mind from an erroneous idea that may be suggested by thinking -of or seeing the enormous, piled-up, apparently stationary mass that -constitutes the _barra_, or cloud-bank of the hurricane, but which is -really only the stationary and visible _locus_ where the conditions are -such that the whirling, rushing masses of humid atmosphere condense -their tons of aqueous vapor and leave it, as they pass upward and -outward. It is analogous to the cloud-cap, or banner, that hangs -stationary over a lofty mountain peak, although if you visit the peak -you may there find a living gale of wind. - -[Illustration: Sketch, in cross-section, to illustrate the -cloud-formation, storm-wave, etc., in a hurricane. The dotted lines -represent the probable circulation of the upper atmosphere.] - -[Illustration: Sketch, in perspective, to illustrate graphically the -lower-atmosphere-wind-circulation in a hurricane. The inward spiral at -the base is the surface wind.] - -In both of these sketches my object has been to try to convey an idea -of the marked individuality, symmetry, and intensity of a tropic -cyclone, and its grasp upon and intimate connection with the ocean, -which it joins to the upper atmosphere by a huge, hollow trunk, with -widely extended roots and spreading branches,--no doubt an enormous and -effective conductor of atmospheric electricity, too, whose power is -quickly shattered and destroyed by contact with the land; the notable -absence of thunder (illustrated by the report of the "Victoria," quoted -above) is of interest in this connection. If I have succeeded in this, -and thereby given a clearer idea to the casual reader or suggested a -fertile train of thought to any physicist, I shall feel more than -repaid for the effort. - -I have thus attempted little more than to touch upon the practical side -of this great question, and this in a popular way, to induce my readers -to follow me to the end. The many other interesting questions that -might be raised and discussed must here be left untouched. Our efforts -in the Hydrographic Office must be primarily to help the navigator, and -only secondarily to try to collect and publish facts for the scientist -to study at his leisure. The causes of these terrific storms are of -interest to us as they may help us to predict their coming, rather than -for the proof of any theory, or the gratification of any pet idea. And -if Science will but improve the Law of Storms, as practical men use it -for the guidance of their vessels and the safety of the lives and -cargoes intrusted to their care, it will be one more welcome proof that -theory and practice go hand in hand. - - - - -THE IRRIGATION PROBLEM IN MONTANA. - -BY H. M. WILSON. - - -The development of the irrigation resources of a region under the -supervision of the Government, requires study of the social and -political conditions and of the industrial occupations of its -inhabitants. - -The determination of the best plan for the utilization of its waters -and agricultural lands is a problem in irrigation engineering. The -solution of this problem calls for an intimate knowledge not only of -the best methods of construction, but also of the values of its various -agricultural products and soils; for a knowledge of its rainfall, -evaporation, and steam volumes and of the duty of water. It further -requires such an understanding of the topography of the region as will -enable the engineer to determine the area of the catchment basin of -each stream, and to intelligently select sites for the construction of -canals and storage reservoirs and to determine from what source of -water supply each district may be best irrigated. - -Experience and practice in various parts of the world have already -proven that irrigation enterprises, undertaken on a large scale by -private capital have seldom been remunerative investments, in fact, -have frequently been financial failures. This is due to many causes -among which may be mentioned the fact that, though all the irrigable -land may be finally settled and the works made to do their highest -duty, taxes must be paid for many years and considerable sums expended -annually for maintenance before the entire amount of available water is -utilized, and interest is realized on the whole expenditure. - -Most of the successful irrigation enterprises undertaken in the United -States owe their prosperity to the ownership and sale of lands under -their canals. In order to secure a proper remuneration to the capital -which provides the water, and an efficient water service to the farmer -who uses it with justice to both interests, State legislation must -fully define the rights and responsibilities of appropriators, the -units and methods of measuring the flow of streams, granting the right -of way and appointing proper officers to see that the various laws are -enforced. - -That irrigation enterprises will have great and rapid development in -Montana in the near future will be readily perceived from the facts -shown later on in this article, while I am fully convinced that it is -now entering on that period. The histories of both California and -Colorado have shown that great mining activity have brought to them a -large population who were enabled to gain a livelihood by mining -pursuits, while the demand for farm products created by the miners, -caused these people to turn their attention to agriculture, which is -now rapidly surpassing in money value the output of the mines. - -In California in the "fifties" mining was the supreme and only -occupation, to-day agriculture is her mainstay; in the early -"seventies" the same was true of Colorado, and now agriculture is -rapidly becoming her most important industry. While Montana is to-day -in the van in mining resources and output, the time for the supremacy -of agriculture within her borders has received an increased impetus by -her recent accession to Statehood. - -In Montana the irrigation problem presents some features which are -scarcely encountered in any other country. - -Usually irrigation is practiced in semi-tropic and desert regions where -though water is scarce, the climate is such that a great variety of -agricultural products usually of the better paying varieties can be -raised, in consequence of which enormous sums may be spent in -irrigation works, thus imposing a heavy tax per acre on the land for -their construction, and still, such is the productiveness of these -regions, that the lands will yield fair profits. - -In Montana the reverse is the case, water is generally abundant though -sufficiently inaccessible in the larger streams to require extensive -works in order to render it available, while the land though equally -abundant also, will owing to the climate admit of the cultivation only -of the less profitable crops, mainly hay, grain and potatoes, in -consequence of which the cost of construction of the irrigation works -becomes a question of vital moment, since a tax of a few cents per acre -one way or the other will render the pursuit of agriculture a success -or a failure, and decide the fate of the irrigation enterprises. - -It is probable that $10.00 per acre for a water right in perpetuity, or -$2.00 per acre per annum for the use of water is the maximum charge -which the crops will bear. - - -AGRICULTURAL AND MINERAL RESOURCES. - -It will be advisable now to take a hasty glance at the State of -Montana, and see what are her agricultural capabilities and what need -exists for irrigation as a factor in their development. - -According to the report of the State Auditor for 1888 there were in -that year 143,700 horses and mules valued at $4,900,000; 488,500 cattle -valued at $9,060,000; 1,153,000 sheep valued at $2,165,000; 3,741,000 -acres of improved lands, valued inclusive of improvements at -$12,300,000; 55,000 town lots valued with improvements at $14,940,000; -and including all kinds of personal and real property a total -assessment for the State of $67,500,000. - -There were raised in the State during the same year 770,000 bushels of -wheat on 26,000 acres, an average yield of about 30 bushels per acre; -3,000,000 bushels of oats on 85,000 acres, an average yield of over 35 -bushels per acre; 843,000 bushels of potatoes on 3700 acres, or 230 -bushels per acre; and 6,000,000 lbs. of all other vegetables on 450 -acres; 235,000 tons of hay were cut, and 7,500 bushels of apples and -other fruits were raised, while 4,500,000 lbs. of wool were sheared. - -The gross receipt of the quartz mills were $20,300,000, the value of -the product of the reduction furnaces was $15,900,000 in bullion, and -the coal mines produced 500,000 bushels of coal. - -The wool product for the present year, 1889, exceeded in amount that of -any other State west of the Missouri River, and its quality was such -that it brought a higher price per pound than that of any other western -State, the price paid in California ranging from 15 to 17 cents per -pound against 20 to 23 cents paid in Montana. - -The accompanying table will show the relative value of the production -of precious metals in the three leading States during 1887, from which -it will be seen that Montana led Colorado by $4,200,000, and California -by $15,580,000. - - 1887. Montana. Colorado. California. - Silver $15,500,000 $15,000,000 $1,500,000 - Gold 5,230,000 4,000,000 13,000,000 - Copper 8,970,000 400,000 180,000 - Lead 630,000 6,730,000 70,000 - ----------- ----------- ----------- - Totals $30,330,000 $26,130,000 $14,750,000 - -Since 1887 Montana has been rapidly gaining in its lead, especially in -the production of copper, and it now leads not only in the total value -of the precious metals produced, but also in the values of the silver -and copper products separately, and is only surpassed by California in -the production of gold. - -While as shown above Montana produces large quantities of vegetables -and grain, its heavy mining population and vast herds of live stock -furnish a home market for all of its present product, in fact, during -this year many hundreds of tons of hay and carloads of grain are being -imported from the eastern States to feed the range stock during the -coming winter. - - -TOPOGRAPHY. - -The topography of Montana is very different from what is generally -supposed by those who are not familiar with it, and this erroneous -impression is largely due to the fact that the country is very -mountainous in the older inhabited and better known portion of the -State, which lies in its southern corner near the Idaho and Wyoming -lines; this region was first inhabited by those pioneers of western -civilization, the prospector and miner, and in consequence of this and -of the wild grandeur of the Yellowstone National Park, the generally -preconceived notions of the topography and resources of the State are -of forests and streams teeming with game and fish, and rugged mountains -occupied by a few isolated mining camps and cattle ranches. - -On the contrary there are scattered over various parts of the State -many large towns, two of which, Butte and Helena, have each about -20,000 inhabitants, while only one-fourth of the area of the State is -over 5,000 feet in altitude, and at least two-thirds of it is below -4,000 feet. - -The mountainous district of the State, which occupies but two-fifths of -the total area, is in the southwestern portion; these mountains are in -fact but the last remnants of the great rockies breaking down from -Wyoming and Idaho and terminating in the broad flat plains of the -Saskatchewan River on the north, and of the Missouri River on the north -and east. - -It is in these great mountain ranges that the Clarke's Fork and Snake -Rivers, two of the principal branches of the Columbia, after rising in -the western and southern portions of the State join the Columbia on its -way to the Pacific Ocean; among these mountains in the northern portion -of the State the Saskatchewan River rises and flows thence to the -Arctic Ocean; while the great Missouri and one of its principal -branches, the Yellowstone River, rise in these mountains and after -flowing northward nearly to the British line turn and flow eastward and -join the Mississippi on its way to the Atlantic. - -The highest mountains in Montana are in Park, Gallatin, Madison and -Beaver Head Counties, in which latter the furthermost branches of the -Missouri, the Beaver Head and Big Hole Rivers, which form the Jefferson -river, have their sources at the summit of the Rocky mountains, and it -was here that those intrepid explorers, Lewis and Clarke, first crossed -the Continental Divide in 1805 to the headwaters of one of the branches -of the Snake river. - -In these counties a few of the highest peaks reach an elevation of -11,000 feet, and from here the main range of the Rockies bears off to -the north in a long, continuous and rugged ridge of sandstone and -porphyry, with extensive beds of limestone north of the headwaters of -the Dearborn River, and gradually falling off in elevation, until near -the British line the highest peaks are less than 7,000 feet above the -sea. - -From this same axial point in the southwest corner a main spur or -branch of the Rockies, called the Bitter Root Mountains, bears -northwesterly and falling away in height, gives out with an elevation -of 2,200 feet in northern Missoula County where the Clarke's Fork river -leaves the State, cutting across the foot of this range. - -East of Madison and Jefferson Counties, and along the southern border -of the State, are numerous short mountain ranges, often 10,000 feet and -sometimes 11,000 feet in elevation, which have generally a north and -south trend and fall off near the middle of the State to a continuous, -broad, and nearly level high prairie, or as it is locally called "bench -land," which continues to fall slowly in the same direction. - -Do not imagine that these great ranges of mountains are wild and -uninhabited for such is not the case; they are merely great mountain -masses, and between, among and on top of them are other minor ranges of -mountains, usually having symmetrical and regularly sloping sides, -which are separated by broad, level and very fertile valleys, -everywhere inhabited and cultivated by the aid of irrigation, while -herds of cattle, horses and sheep graze on the hillsides. - -Even among the roughest mountains a man may travel alone on horseback -sure of finding shelter and food somewhere in the course of a day's -journey, as was done by the author during the past summer, when he rode -over 2,000 miles in various parts of the State. In the more rugged -places mining camps may be met with when everything else fails. - -At present these mountain valleys are the more thickly inhabited -portions of the country, both because of the mines and because farming -pursuits are more cheaply and conveniently followed owing to the -greater abundance of small and easily controlled streams of water, -which render irrigation possible even by the poorest settler. Only in -the southern portions of Gallatin and Park Counties are the mountains -so forbidding as to be uninhabited, and then in limited areas only. - -One of the remarkable characteristics of the Montana mountains is their -great regularity and smoothness of contour. It is probable that ice -action during the glacial period may have planed off the -irregularities, so characteristic of the elsewhere rugged outline of -the Rocky Mountains. Between these symmetrical ranges of mountains lie -the broad and fertile valleys before referred to. These are generally -valleys of construction, and in some former geologic period were -occupied by lakes whose beds have since been drained by the streams, as -they cut their way out of the mountains. - -It is the extensive deposits from the ancient lakes which give to these -valleys their fertile soils, while the unusual mildness of their -climate is largely due to the fact that they are seldom over 5,000 feet -in altitude, and the high mountains surrounding them shelter them from -the severe winds which, sweeping over the plains of Dakota, become the -much dreaded "blizzards." - -East of the Tongue River and north of the Yellowstone and Missouri -Rivers, the level bench lands are everywhere below 3,500 feet in -elevation, and often below 2,500 feet, and are very dry and devoid of -water, though covered by an abundant growth of fine bunch grass. These -bench lands are traversed by a few narrow, deep "couleés" or "washes" -having bluff banks 50 to 300 feet high, dry during most of the year, -though roaring torrents in the early spring months. - -It is on these bench lands that irrigation will find its greatest -field, for here is a comparatively mild climate owing to the low -altitude, and here the soil is fertile, warm and deep. - - -AREA AND KINDS OF LANDS. - -The total area of Montana is 146,080 square miles, or 93,491,200 acres. -Of this vast empire 31,373,000 acres or about one-third of the whole is -agricultural land, while of this 18,157,000 acres or a little less than -one-fifth of the entire area is irrigable land, so classified not only -because it will, if provided with water, raise profitable crops, but -also because, in my opinion, water can with proper management be -provided for it. - -Of the total area of the State only about 1,200,000 acres or less than -one-sixteenth of the irrigable area may be easily cultivated, by this I -do not mean that this whole amount is now reclaimed, but that it may -with the means liable to be employed by private parties with limited -capital, be readily brought under cultivation by the same methods by -which most of the lands in Montana are now irrigated. - -The amount of land actually under cultivation, according to the -assessment of 1888, was 348,070 acres, and this should probably be -increased by about one-half, since the farmers doubtless greatly -underestimated the amounts of their cultivated lands to the assessor: -perhaps then, 500,000 acres under cultivation would be nearer the -truth. - -It is estimated that three-fourths of the remaining 75,000,000 acres -not classed above as irrigable, or say 55,000,000 acres, which is -nearly two-thirds of the total area of the State, will, with the -increased facilities for watering live stock and for domestic use -offered by the highest state of irrigation development, become valuable -as grazing land, since it is naturally covered with an abundant growth -of bunch grass, and only needs better facilities for watering and for -the establishment of home farms, to cause it to be entirely occupied -for grazing purposes. - -Nearly, or quite all, of the lands above classified as agricultural and -pasture lands, are now covered with an abundant growth of bunch grass, -occasional patches of sage brush or prickly pear, and devoid of any -timber other than patches of willows and cottonwoods along the streams, -or a few isolated clumps of scrub pines and junipers on the highest -lands. - -About 10,000,000 of the remaining 20,000,000 acres are excellent timber -lands and are situated on the slopes and sides of the higher mountains, -though west of the Continental Divide the valleys and flat bench lands -are sometimes covered with timber. - -The remaining 10,000,000 acres may be classed as barren and rugged -mountain peaks and some little barren "bad lands" near the southeastern -corner of the State, and the broken and rough cut banks of rivers, -"couleés," etc. - -It is in these more rugged mountain regions that the great gold, silver -and copper deposits are found. - - -CLIMATE. - -The climate of Montana is far more moderate and agreeable than is -generally supposed, the spring and fall months in the valleys, which -are the principal inhabited and cultivated portions, being delightfully -mild and pleasant, with frost generally only at night, though these -last till May and begin in early October. - -The accompanying table shows the dates of the first and last killing -frosts at Helena, also the mean monthly temperature at Helena, which -place is chosen as a typical station, its altitude being 4,262 feet. -From this table, which extends over a period of ten years, from 1880 to -1889, inclusive, with few interruptions, it appears that the earliest -killing frost occurred on September 6th, 1881, and the latest killing -frost on May 3d, 1888, but these were very exceptional frosts, the -average dates for the same periods being September 26th and April 26th. -The maximum temperature during the same period occurred in July, 1886, -and was 103 degrees in the shade, while no other year showed a higher -temperature than 97 degrees; and the average maximum temperature for -the ten years was 94 degrees. The minimum temperature for the same -period was -40 degrees, occurring in February, 1887, while the average -minimum for ten years was -29 degrees. Great ranges of temperature are -sometimes experienced, however, especially in local areas in the higher -mountain valleys, where unusual frosts and snow flurries have occurred, -though rarely, killing potatoes and other tender crops even in July and -August. - - _Monthly Mean Temperatures at Helena, Mont._ - - | 1880. | 1881. | 1882. | 1883. - | Mean |Killing| Mean |Killing| Mean |Killing| Mean |Killing - | Temp.|Frost. | Temp.|Frost. | Temp.|Frost. | Temp.|Frost. - ---------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------------- - January | | | 9.8 | | 20.0 | | 18.5 | - February | | | 25.8 | | 24.4 | | 14.1 | - March | | | 39.4 | | 31.1 | | 34.2 | - April | | | 47.6 | | 40.5 | | 40.4 | - May | | | 55.4 | | 50.4 | | 49.8 | - June | | | 61.4 | | 60.7 | | 61.8 | - July | 66.3 | | 68.3 | | 66.8 | | 67.9 | - August | 63.7 | | 66.1 | | 71.4 | | 67.2 | - September| 56.7 | | 54.6 | 6th | 60.1 | 29th | 59.2 | 20th - October | 46.3 | 22d | 37.9 | | 41.7 | | 38.9 | - November | 19.3 | | 28.8 | | 30.9 | | 33.0 | - December | 9.0 | | 30.8 | | 27.3 | | 27.4 | - Mean, | | | | | | | | - Annual | | | 43.8 | | 43.8 | | 42.7 | - ---------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------------- - - _Monthly Mean Temperatures at Helena, Mont. (Continued)_ - - | 1884. | 1885. | 1886. | 1887. - | Mean |Killing| Mean |Killing| Mean |Killing| Mean |Killing - | Temp.|Frost. | Temp.|Frost. | Temp.|Frost. | Temp.|Frost. - ---------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------------- - January | 11.6 | | 21.0 | | 10.1 | | 20.6 | - February | 14.6 | | 28.2 | | 34.5 | | 5.0 | - March | 29.1 | | 40.6 | | 29.1 | | 40.3 | - April | 41.6 | | 45.7 | | 42.9 | | 42.4 | 20th - May | 53.9 | | 51.0 | | 54.9 | | 51.5 | - June | 62.9 | | 56.8 | | 61.1 | | 57.6 | - July | 62.5 | | 64.7 | | 69.9 | | 66.6 | - August | 66.8 | | 64.1 | | 68.1 | | 63.0 | - September| 49.7 | 6th | 55.4 | | 52.9 | 29th | 56.0 | - October | 47.0 | | 47.5 | | 43.3 | | 42.9 | 8th - November | 36.4 | | 39.1 | | 29.4 | | 33.9 | - December | 7.0 | | 31.1 | | 27.1 | | 23.0 | - Mean, | | | | | | | | - Annual | 40.3 | | 43.6 | | 43.8 | | 41.9 | - ---------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------------- - - _Monthly Mean Temperatures at Helena, Mont. (Continued)_ - - | 1888. | 1889. - | Mean |Killing| Mean |Killing - | Temp.|Frost. | Temp.|Frost. - ---------+------+-------+------+------- - January | 5.3 | | 16.7 | - February | 35.0 | | 25.2 | - March | 23.2 | | 39.1 | - April | 48.8 | | 49.2 | - May | 50.1 | | 53.2 | - June | 58.8 | | 63.4 | - July | 67.1 | | 66.8 | - August | 65.3 | | 67.2 | - September| 61.2 | | 55.2 | - October | 46.6 | | 50.7 | - November | 24.2 | | 31.4 | - December | 23.6 | | 22.6 | - Mean, | | | | - Annual | 42.1 | | 45.0 | - ---------+------+-------+------+------- - -On September 5th of this year in the upper Madison Valley above 6500 -feet of elevation, a temperature was experienced in the forenoon of 70 -degrees, while at about 8 o'clock on the same evening, a snow squall -occurred during which the thermometer must have fallen several degrees -below the freezing point; by 9 o'clock on the following morning all of -the snow had disappeared and the temperature had greatly moderated. - -The summer months in these mountain valleys are always agreeably warm -during the day time, while the nights are cool and pleasant. In the -winter the climate is very cold, though not so uncomfortable as the -temperature would indicate, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere and -the absence of very high winds in the mountain valleys. The more -exposed plains to the north are subject to the frequent and agreeable -visits of the famous "Chinook" winds, which blow from the west, and -under whose influence heavy falls of snow disappear in a single day. - -The following table shows the mean annual rain-fall at various Signal -Service stations in Montana, and from these it will be seen that during -a period of ten years the maximum rain-fall for the entire State has -only been 20.33 inches in 1880, while the minimum has occurred during -1886 and was but 12.52 inches; the average precipitation for this -period was 15.25 inches. - - _Mean Precipitation in Montana during Growing Season._ - - A = Ft. Assinaboine. B = Ft. Benton. C = Ft. Buford, N.D. - D = Ft. Custer. E = Ft. Keogh. F = Helena. - - | A | B | C | D | E | F - ----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+------+----- - Growing season of '80 | | 7.33 | 12.82 | 9.77 | 8.87 | 2.63 - " " " '81 | | 7.05 | 5.81 | 3.90 | 5.67 | 7.15 - " " " '82 | 4.47 | 1.29 | 5.01 | | 3.64 | 1.96 - " " " '83 | 2.63 | 4.25 | 3.94 | | | - " " " '84 | 17.22 | 5.69 | 3.46 | 6.31 | | 8.09 - " " " '85 | | 9.57 | 10.33 | 6.07 | | 6.29 - " " " '86 | 2.52 | 2.94 | 2.65 | 5.13 | | 1.91 - " " " '87 | 12.13 | | 8.00 | 2.96 | | 5.88 - " " " '88 | 7.10 | | 10.16 | 8.22 | 7.28 | 4.37 - " " " '89 | 5.03 | | 3.48 | 2.90 | 2.27 | 2.00 - ----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+------+----- - | 7.21 | 5.45 | 6.57 | 5.66 | 5.55 | 4.48 - ----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+------+----- - Growing season, May 15 to August 15. - - _Mean Precipitation in Montana during Growing Season. (Continued)_ - - G = Ft. Maginnis. H = Ft. Missoula. I = Poplar River. J = Ft. Shaw. - - | G | H | I | J | Average. - ----------------------+-------+------+------+------+---------- - Growing season of '80 | | | | | 8.28 - " " " '81 | | 3.70 | | 5.78 | 5.58 - " " " '82 | | 2.78 | | 4.23 | 3.00 - " " " '83 | 2.27 | | 1.65 | 4.17 | 3.16 - " " " '84 | 2.90 | | 5.80 | 4.30 | 6.72 - " " " '85 | 5.98 | | 7.14 | 6.49 | 7.41 - " " " '86 | 3.56 | | 2.67 | 2.87 | 3.03 - " " " '87 | 9.47 | | 8.67 | | 7.85 - " " " '88 | 10.54 | | 8.16 | | 7.98 - " " " '89 | 7.47 | 1.74 | 2.23 | 1.91 | 3.23 - ----------------------+-------+------+------+------+---------- - | 6.03 | 2.74 | 5.19 | 4.25 | 5.23 - ----------------------+-------+------+------+------+---------- - Growing season, May 15 to August 15. - - _Annual Rain-fall in Montana, 1880-1888._ - - 1880. | 1881. | 1882. | 1883. | 1884. | 1885. - ----------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------|------- - Ft. Assinaboine | | | 12.76 | 15.10 | 25.67 | - Ft. Benton | 16.00 | 16.81 | 10.18 | 13.01 | 13.13 | 14.94 - Ft. Buford, N.D.| 23.25 | 13.90 | 12.73 | 10.82 | 7.37 | 15.56 - Ft. Custer | 19.65 | 11.88 | | | 16.60 | 9.34 - Ft. Keogh | 15.64 | 11.44 | 10.13 | | | - Helena | | 19.94 | 10.32 | | 19.18 | 10.99 - Ft. Maginnis | | | | 13.29 | 9.00 | 13.96 - Ft. Missoula | | 20.56 | 13.24 | | | - Poplar River | | | | | | 10.25 - Ft. Shaw | | | 14.77 | 14.21 | 12.64 | 13.64 - Ft. Ellis | 30.16 | 17.55 | 19.28 | 15.72 | 22.02 | 32.63 - Virginia City | 17.29 | | | | | - ----------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - | 20.30 | 16.01 | 12.93 | 13.69 | 15.73 | 15.41 - ----------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - - _Annual Rain-fall in Montana, 1880-1888. (Continued)_ - - 1886. | 1887. | 1888. - ----------------+-------+-------+------- - Ft. Assinaboine | 11.48 | 18.94 | 13.99 - Ft. Benton | | | 14.00 - Ft. Buford, N.D.| 10.24 | 15.43 | 14.70 - Ft. Custer | 13.25 | 12.18 | 14.00 - Ft. Keogh | | | - Helena | 12.63 | 14.05 | 10.14 - Ft. Maginnis | 15.44 | 26.00 | 25.70 - Ft. Missoula | | | - Poplar River | 11.93 | 7.41 | 15.51 - Ft. Shaw | 12.56 | | - Ft. Ellis | | | - Virginia City | | | - ----------------+-------+-------+------- - | 12.79 | 15.67 | 15.45 - ----------------+-------+-------+------- - -Moreover, from the first table, showing the average monthly -precipitation at the Helena station, it will be seen that but 4.48 -inches fall during May 15th to August 15th, inclusive, which is the -growing season when the crops require moisture. - -The information regarding evaporation is as yet very meagre, but from -four stations observed in different parts of the State during August, -September and October, it appears that the total average evaporation -for the three months was 18 inches, and from the best information -obtainable it appears that the total annual evaporation is 36 inches, -that is to say, the surface of the water in a lake or reservoir will be -lowered by evaporation 3 feet in a year. - - -WHY MONTANA IS AN ARID COUNTRY. - -It has been stated by Major J. W. Powell, that in a general way the -line between the humid and arid regions, or the amount of precipitation -below which irrigation becomes necessary for the cultivation of crops, -is from 24 to 28 inches per annum. This of course depends largely on -the distribution of the rainfall, the proportion falling during the -growing season, the humidity of the atmosphere, the character of the -soil, etc. - -The average annual precipitation in Montana is 14.92 inches, while the -total average precipitation during the growing season is but 5.23 -inches; from these considerations alone it is evident that the State -lies wholly in the arid region. - -This statement is further born out by the fact that no native farmer -will settle a ranch or undertake to raise any kind of crops without -facilities for irrigating, since experience has taught them all, that, -though there may occasionally be an exceptionally wet season in which -they can raise good crops without artificial aid, still, the years when -crops depending wholly upon rain-fall for their moisture would be -entirely lost, are so frequent as to render farming without irrigation -very hazardous and unprofitable. - - -SOIL. - -The soil along the stream bottoms at a slight elevation above their -beds is usually a heavy, black, clayey loam, and though rich and -fertile is soon clogged by water, and then in drying, cakes on the -surface, killing the young plants. On this account the irrigators -seldom water these bottom lands until after the crop has acquired a -healthy growth, preferring to trust to the early rains to force the -young sprouts above the surface, rather than run the risk of its -crusting and thus preventing them from breaking through. - -These bottom lands though really the poorest for irrigating, are nearly -the only lands now cultivated, because of the greater ease and -cheapness of supplying them with water. From two to three tons of hay -and from 35 to 50 bushels of grain per acre are raised even on these -inferior soils. - -The best, and by far the more abundant agricultural lands, are the -"bench lands," these are situated high above the stream beds and the -soil is usually a warm open, rich, sandy-loam, several feet in depth -and usually underlain by a deep bed of gravel. Though in irrigating, -this soil at first requires more water, it will, owing to its excellent -natural drainage, last for all time and will neither clog with water -nor cake on the surface. - -It is these bench lands which will be rendered irrigable by government -aid and surveys, though to develop them will require large amounts of -capital; still, they are so extensive in area that the work can -generally be conducted on a grand and economical scale. - - -DUTY OF WATER. - -From the meagre information now obtainable it is probable that in -average soils and for the staple hay, grain and vegetable crops in -Montana, about one cubic foot of water per second, flowing during the -irrigating season, will be sufficient for 100 acres; this quantity is -known as the "duty of water." - -The irrigating season lasts about three months. While the crops are -maturing during part of May, June and July, they will receive two or -three waterings, and in early September the hay lands are again watered -in order to start the growth of grass before the frosts. - -In case all the surplus water of a given stream is stored, the duty of -that stream will be increased by the amount of water now flowing to -waste during the remaining nine months, and as a portion of this time -is the flood period, owing to the melting of the snows in the mountains -and to the spring rains, this storage water will increase the duty of -the stream at least five-fold; that is, five times as many acres may be -irrigated by the stream as at present, provided that storage capacity -can be found for all of its waste waters. - -In considering the duty of a stream it must be remembered that there is -a great loss of water by seepage through the sides of a canal and -evaporation from its surface, between the headworks and the irrigated -lands, this loss may amount to from 25 to 35 per cent., according to -climate, soil, and the length and cross-section of the canal. - - -PRESENT STATE OF IRRIGATION--PROGRESS AND LAWS. - -The earlier stages of irrigation development are better illustrated in -Montana than in any other State in the Union. - -There irrigation practice and laws are exceedingly crude and remain so -chiefly because of the abundance of water, and the ease and facility -with which it can be diverted to the land; as a consequence of this -latter fact the laws were framed in the most liberal spirit, declaring -right of eminent domain, acknowledging the right of priority in -appropriating the waters, and further stating, that any person having a -ditch leading to irrigable lands may use the waters of the territory -for irrigation. - -The latest law, framed in 1885, is a very slight improvement; it -requires persons appropriating water, to post the usual notice in a -conspicuous place; to file with the county recorder a notice of -appropriation, with names and proper description of place, stream, -etc., and that work must be commenced within forty days of the posting -of the notice and be prosecuted with due diligence until completed. - -Persons who have heretofore acquired title to the use of water, may -within six months from the passage of this law file a statement of the -above facts in the office of the recorder, but failure to do this shall -not forfeit his rights. - -Provision is made for the measurement of water, using that very -uncertain and elastic unit, the miner's inch, and defining the same. - -The difficulties arising under these laws will be appreciated, when I -state that it is impossible to construct a rating flume that will -measure the number of inches of water flowing in a large stream, by the -method provided in the law. - -Then, because previous appropriators are not compelled to record the -amount of water appropriated, and those acquiring titles under the -first law now invariably claim much more water than they need, in fact -often appropriate and even record more water than there is flowing in -the stream. This is owing to the fact that they were not at first -compelled to construct their works, "with due diligence until -completed," nor to make ditches of capacities capable of carrying the -volumes claimed, and above all because there is no officer having the -power to measure the quantities of water diverted or to see that the -works are prosecuted with due diligence. Endless and unsatisfactory -litigation results, hastened by the occupation of lands lower down on -some stream which in a very dry season may not flow sufficient water -for all the appropriators who have acquired titles, whereupon the later -settlers who have recorded their appropriations claim the water, while -those who diverted water before the passage of the last law claim the -right to it, though unrecorded, and as a consequence the case is -carried to the courts, often with unjust and always with expensive -results. - -During the past exceptionally dry season these conditions led to much -bitter litigation, often to bloodshed, and equally often to financial -ruin owing to the supply of water being insufficient to mature the -crops planted. - -Water being very abundant in the smaller mountain valleys has led to -great wastefulness in its use, the irrigator after applying what water -his crops needed, instead of turning it back into the stream for the -use of settlers lower down, generally turns his ditch loose on the open -prairie and allows the water to run to waste. Then wasteful methods of -applying the water to the crops are employed, and owing to the cheap -and hasty construction of a vast number of small ditches the loss by -seepage is very great; it has been estimated that there is on an -average a ditch for every 200 acres of land cultivated, making a total -of about 2500 irrigating ditches in the State. - -In the last two years there has been a marked increase in the interest -taken in irrigation enterprises, and though this has resulted in the -formation of several large companies, which intend to take water by -long and expensive canals to sections now uncultivated, yet in these -cases are universally seen the same crude methods employed in first -beginnings, without the aid and advice of experienced engineers. Large -canals are being constructed at great cost, capable of carrying many -times the amount of water flowing in the stream appropriated, whereas a -much smaller and less expensive one would have carried the entire water -supply. Again small canals have been constructed to carry small volumes -of water very long distances, often 50 to 80 miles, while in reality -owing to the great percentage of loss by seepage and evaporation, -little or none of the water entering at the headgates will ever reach -the irrigable lands. - -Such illy advised projects are to be even more deplored than the -smaller operations before spoken of, since the certain ultimate failure -of this class of enterprise will result in discouraging capitalists -from investing in even well-planned irrigation projects, and will -retard the construction of valuable and necessary works. - - -POSSIBLE IRRIGATION ENTERPRISES. - -During the past season the author made an extensive though hurried -reconnoisance of Montana, in the progress of which he rode on horseback -2,200 miles and traveled 3,700 miles by rail, examining with some -degree of detail all of the central counties and making a few hasty -trips into Choteau, Dawson and Custer Counties. In the course of this -reconnoisance the sites for sixty storage reservoirs, having a combined -storage capacity of about 3,250,000 acre feet were carefully examined, -and lines of ten great irrigating canals approximately decided on. It -may be well to state here that an acre-foot of water is a very -convenient unit of measure adopted by the U. S. Geological Survey in -speaking of the contents of large reservoirs, and refers to a body of -water one acre in superficial area and one foot in depth. - -In every case these proposed reservoirs are so situated, that their -storage water will be convenient to large bodies of irrigable land, -which, without some such provision for water supply must forever remain -uncultivated, but which with irrigation from these reservoirs will -ultimately become thickly inhabited and very productive regions. The -same statements apply to the canals projected, though of course -detailed surveys may prove the impracticability of some of these works -as financial investments. - -Mention will be made of a few of the more important of these projects; -those which appear most likely to prove financial successes. - -North of the Yellowstone and between it and the Musselshell and -Missouri Rivers is an immense high bench land, traversed by a few long -couleés, dry excepting in the times of melting snow or heavy spring -storms, and then raging torrents for a period of a few days or hours. -This bench land between the couleés is flat topped and has a regular -and gentle slope to the eastward, falling about six feet per mile, a -little more rapidly north of Big Timber, and decreasing in grade to the -eastward. The general elevation of this bench above the Yellowstone -River varies from 600 feet north of Stillwater, to 300 feet north of -Miles City, and includes about 11,000,000 acres, of which at least -5,225,000 acres are of the best quality for agricultural purposes and -readily accessible by the great canal. In all this vast area there is -not even sufficient water for the few horses and cattle which range on -it, and they are compelled to congregate near the occasional pools and -springs scattered at long intervals over it. - -From numerous examinations made hastily with aneroid and hand-level, it -seems likely that a great canal can be taken from the Yellowstone, -somewhere in the neighborhood of Livingston, or lower down the river, -and led upon the summit of the bench with a diversion line not over 100 -miles in length. Taken out at Livingston the canal would encounter no -difficult construction, and would chiefly consist in earth excavation -with very little rock work. It would require a few fills and flumes in -crossing the larger side streams, such as the Little and Big Timber, -Otter and Sweet Grass Creeks. It would reach the summit somewhere north -of Merrill at an altitude of about 4,400 feet and thence could be -conducted with an easy alignment eastward, with occasional falls to -loose grade. - -The water flowing in the Yellowstone River at Livingstone during the -irrigating season this year averaged 2,300 cubic feet per second, -which, with an allowance of thirty per cent. for loss by seepage and -evaporation in the canal, would leave about 1,600 second feet at the -point of utilization or sufficient to irrigate 160,000 acres. - -The average normal discharge from Yellowstone Lake is 700 second feet, -and a dam about 300 feet long and less than ten feet high, constructed -below the outlet of the lake, would store the outflow from October to -May, inclusive, eight months, a total including flood discharges of at -least 600,000 acre feet, an amount which, allowing for loss by -evaporation in the lake, and by seepage and evaporation in the canal, -would irrigate 425,000 acres, in addition to the 160,000 acres -previously mentioned. Besides this volume probably half as much more -can be readily stored on the Lamar and Gardner Rivers, and the other -branches of the Yellowstone which join it above Livingston, bringing -the total area of reclaimed land to nearly 1,000,000 acres. - -There are many similar and even better opportunities for irrigation -development, such as the construction of a canal from the West Gallatin -River near Bozeman. This canal would require no expensive diversion -line, as its waters would become immediately available at the -headworks, and by appropriating the 500 second feet of water flowing in -the river, would reclaim at a minimum cost 50,000 acres, or twice the -amount of land now cultivated there. Storage on the Upper Gallatin -River would greatly increase the amount of reclaimed land. - -Storage reservoirs can be easily constructed on the headwaters of the -Beaver Head River, whereby at least 150,000 acres could be added to the -25,000 acres now under cultivation in the Beaver Head Valley near -Dillon. - -A canal requiring no diversion line can be taken out on the east side -of the Missouri River near Toston, which will irrigate all of the good -land in the Missouri Valley, at least 100,000 acres. This canal would -require some fills and aqueducts in crossing the various side steams -such as Deep and Duck Creeks, and Confederate Gulch. - -Detailed surveys have been made during the past summer on the Sun River -which indicate that storage will add some 250,000 acre feet to the -amount of water in that stream now available for irrigation. There are -at least 600,000 acres of good agricultural land between the Dearborn, -Sun, and Teton Rivers, which must forever remain barren of cultivated -products unless provided with water by means of storage on these -streams, and the surveys above alluded to indicate that by this means -160,000 acres of this land can be reclaimed by the Sun River alone. - -Mention might be made to many more similar projects, such as the -construction of a simple canal from the Missouri River to irrigate -Chestnut Valley, south of Great Falls, whereby 120,000 acres would be -reclaimed; or one from the Upper Madison River whereby 230,000 acres of -the Madison Valley might receive water, but the foregoing will suffice -to show the possibilities of irrigation development in Montana. - -It would be doing the resources of a great and vast area of Montana -injustice if reference were not made to the Milk River country, the -great Indian reservation of 17,680,000 acres in the northern part of -the State which has recently been open to settlement. This region has -not been examined by the author, but from conversations with a number -of its well-informed inhabitants it appear that the soil is very -fertile, and that during average moist years excellent crops can be -raised there without irrigation. This last statement, however, should -not be too readily accepted. It is probable that some storage water may -be retained in the hills along the British line, though its development -will doubtless involve international questions. - - -A GLANCE AT THE FUTURE. - -This interesting subject cannot be passed by without a little castle -building, and accordingly an attempt will be made to show what the -future of Montana may owe to irrigation. - -It has just been shown how and where 1,750,000 acres may be added to -the area at present under cultivation; many times this amount, however, -can be reclaimed. Settled as closely as a large irrigated district -would naturally be, these 1,750,000 acres will be increased by about 15 -per cent. or 262,500 acres, the area which will be occupied by roads, -buildings, and towns; that is to say over 2,000,000 acres will be -rendered capable of sustaining the highest degree of settlement, though -in reality this amount will be much greater since a large portion of -the land will not be directly irrigated, since it will indirectly -receive sufficient moisture from the neighboring fields to render it -serviceable for pasturage. - -It has been claimed by various authorities that a homestead of forty -acres is abundant for the support of a family, assuming this estimate -to be correct, then 2,000,000 acres will support 50,000 families; at -five persons each this would give a farm population of 250,000. This -number of farm workers would require a town and village population of -one and one-half more, or our 2,000,000 acres would add in all 375,000 -people to the State. - -On the same basis the 18,000,000 acres which have been classified as -irrigable land, (and this estimate is below that of the Montana Society -of civil engineers and other authorities), would support 3,120,000 -inhabitants. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. -II., No. 3, July, 1890, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, JULY 1890 *** - -***** This file should be named 53352-8.txt or 53352-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/3/5/53352/ - -Produced by Ron Swanson -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/old/53352-8.zip b/old/53352-8.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4064505..0000000 --- a/old/53352-8.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53352-h.zip b/old/53352-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3f4929f..0000000 --- a/old/53352-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53352-h/53352-h.htm b/old/53352-h/53352-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index a861367..0000000 --- a/old/53352-h/53352-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4134 +0,0 @@ - -<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> - -<html> -<head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> - <title>The Project Gutenberg e-Book of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 3, by Various</title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/img-cover.jpg"> - <style type="text/css"> - <!-- - body {margin:10%; text-align:justify} - h1 {text-align:center} - h2 {text-align:center} - h3 {text-align:center} - h4 {text-align:center} --> - </style> -</head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., -No. 3, July, 1890, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., No. 3, July, 1890 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: October 23, 2016 [EBook #53352] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, JULY 1890 *** - - - - -Produced by Ron Swanson - - - - - -</pre> - -<center><img src="images/img-cover.jpg" alt="cover"></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<p><a href="#chap1">The Arctic Cruise of the U. S. S. Thetis in the Summer and Autumn of -1889</a>: Lieut. Comdr. Chas. H. Stockton, U. S. N.<br> - (Illustrated with view of Herald Island, and one map.)</p> - -<p><a href="#chap2">The Law of Storms, considered with special reference to the North -Atlantic</a>: Everett Hayden, Marine Meteorologist, Navy Dept.<br> - (One View and seven Illustrations.)</p> - -<p><a href="#chap3">The Irrigation Problem in Montana</a>: H. M. Wilson</p> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<center><small><small>PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN.</small></small></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h4>THE</h4> -<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2> -<hr> -<center>Vol. II. -1890. No. 3.</center> -<hr> -<br> -<br><a name="chap1"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>THE ARCTIC CRUISE OF THE U. S. S. THETIS IN THE SUMMER AND AUTUMN OF -1889.</h3> - -<center>B<small>Y</small> C<small>HARLES</small> H. S<small>TOCKTON</small>.</center> -<br> - -<p>A German writer of note once said, in the course of a discussion upon -certain French characteristics, that "the trouble with the French -people is,—they do not <i>know</i> Geography."</p> - -<p>Whether this is still true of the French, as a nation, or whether the -authority may be considered a good one, it is not pertinent for me here -to say; but I feel that of the nations of the world, this country, -above all others (England, perhaps, alone excepted), should not have -the want of knowledge of geography classed among its national failings.</p> - -<p>We have, however, very much geography yet to learn, as individuals and -as a nation; not only of countries beyond our own but particularly of -our own continent and our own domain, while commercial geography is -almost an unknown and forbidden study.</p> - -<p>Professional geographer as I am, as member of the naval service, I find -that every cruise adds to my geographic knowledge, and in giving an -account of the cruise during last summer of the ship which I had the -honor to command, I trust that I may be enabled to present some -geographic facts as interesting to my fellow-members of the Geographic -Society as they were novel and instructive to myself.</p> - -<p>Before beginning my narrative, however, let me give you an idea of the -extent of the shore-line of the territory or semi-colonial province -along which so much of our cruise was made.</p> - -<p>Alaska has an area of about 580,000 square miles, consisting of a large -mainland with a coast-line 6,650 miles in length, and also of more than -1,100 islands, with a coast-line of 2,950 miles, the entire coast-line -being 9,600 miles. The coast-line of the rest of the United States, -including islands, is only 6,580 miles, thus making the coast-line of -Alaska 3,020 miles more than the coast-line of all of the rest of the -United States.</p> - -<p>Of this great country the part known best and visited annually by -tourists is that insignificant portion of southeastern Alaska which -consists of the Alexander archipelago and its neighboring main -coast-line, differing in its scenery, topography, climate, and native -inhabitants, from the greater part of this vast territory.</p> - -<p>It is fortunate, however, that this corner of Alaska is so easily and -comfortably reached by the summer traveler, as, with the exception of -the coast-line and inlets between Sitka and Kodiak, which includes the -Fairweather ground and the St. Elias range of mountains, this portion -contains perhaps the finest and most striking scenery and the largest -and grandest glaciers in the territory, if not in all North and South -America.</p> - -<p>The U. S. S. Thetis was assigned in 1889 to the duty of looking out for -the commercial and whaling interests of the United States in Bering sea -and the Arctic ocean, to which was subsequently added the duty of -assisting in the establishment and erection of a house of refuge in the -vicinity of Point Barrow, the most northerly point of our Arctic -possessions. The duty assigned to the Thetis did not include the -protection of the sealing interests of the United States, nor of those -interests enjoyed by the Alaska Commercial Company as the regular -lessees from the United States of the Pribyloff group of islands. This -was confided to the Revenue Marine Service of the Treasury Department.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="map of arctic cruise"> - <tr> - <td width="797"> - <img src="images/01.jpg" alt="Map of arctic cruise"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="797" align="right"> - <small><small>THE NORRIS PETERS CO., PHOTO-LITHO., WASHINGTON, D. C.</small></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The Thetis left San Francisco on the 20th of April, 1889, and after a -detention of a month at Tacoma, upon the placid waters of Puget sound, -awaiting supplementary orders, reached Port Tongass, in extreme -southeastern Alaska, on the 31st of May, and Sitka, the territorial -capitol, upon the 2d of June. After a stay of six days at the latter -place the vessel left for the island of Ounalaska, one of the Aleutian -chain, which was safely reached, after a stormy passage, early on the -morning of the 17th of June.</p> - -<p>The revenue-steamer Richard Rush, commanded by Captain Shepherd, was -found at anchor at this place, having arrived a few hours before the -Thetis; she had entered upon the duty of patrolling Bering sea, between -Ounalaska and the Pribyloff group, for the protection of the sealing -interests. The seals approach the hauling-out grounds and breeding -places upon the islands of St. Paul and St. George in lanes, as it -were, from the Pacific, reaching Bering sea by means of the various -passages between the Aleutian islands, and converging as they approach -the Seal islands, the position of which seems so well known to them. -The "marauders," as the men on the sealing schooners are called who -hunt them on their way north, shoot them from small boats, killing the -many in order to procure the few.</p> - -<p>Ounalaska, or rather the village and harbor of Iliuliuk, upon the -island of Ounalaska, is the principal and most frequented harbor in the -Aleutian islands, and from its position is a most convenient port for -coaling, watering and provisioning en route to the Seal islands, St. -Michaels (at the mouth of the Yukon river), the anchorages in and near -Bering strait, and the Arctic ocean. This harbor is the headquarters of -all of the districts of the Alaska Commercial Company, and is the -principal coaling and distributing station and rendezvous of their -vessels in Alaska. The company here affords facilities in the way of -buoyage, wharfage, etc., which are not only useful to their own vessels -but of great service to government and other vessels whose duty or -interests call them to these waters.</p> - -<p>The revenue steamer Bear was to be met by us at Ounalaska, in order -that we could take from her any portion of the stores and material to -be used in the constructing and provisioning of the house of refuge at -Point Barrow that her commanding officer desired to transfer to us.</p> - -<p>While awaiting the arrival of the Bear, the Thetis was watered and -coaled and prepared for the northerly trip before her. An opportunity -offered me by the delay was availed of to inspect the store-houses of -the Alaska Commercial Company at this point. The most interesting of -the store-houses was that containing the skins and furs collected in -the various parts of the district of which this place was the dépôt. -The finest of the furs was that of the sea-otter, probably the most -valuable fur in the world, a very superior skin of that animal having -been sold at the great fur market in London for £170. Such otters are -found in the vicinity of Ounalaska and the outlying rocks and islands -as far east as Kodiak, and are becoming more and more difficult to -obtain, causing greater risk and hardships every year to the Aleuts, -who hunt these animals as a principal means of livelihood.</p> - -<p>Besides the otters the store-house held the furs of the beautiful -silver-gray fox, and those of the blue, the cross, and the snowy white -Arctic fox. There were also black and brown bear skins, beaver, and -fur-seal, the latter, though the greatest and most profitable source of -revenue to the Company, being by no manner of means among the more -valuable of the raw furs.</p> - -<p>To exchange for furs collected, either directly by natives or by -independent traders, the Alaska Commercial Company has a large -assortment of stores, provisions, and goods, worthy of a large -country-store, or a Macy's in miniature, which are sold to the natives -for money or in exchange for the furs they bring to the company. And -just here can be seen the commercial aspects of civilization: as the -natives become used to the luxuries and comforts of a civilized and -semi-civilized state of life, their wants and their purchases increase -and the securing of one otter-skin will not, as in times past, satisfy -their wants or the requirements of their wives and families. Hence they -become both greater producers and consumers, more otters are hunted -for, and the Company is the gainer.</p> - -<p>The houses in which the Aleuts and Creoles reside at Ounalaska were -found to be well built of frame, sufficiently large and fairly clean. -The old houses of earth and sod standing near by show the great -improvement that has been made of late years in the method of living.</p> - -<p>Upon the 22d of June the Revenue Steamer Bear came in to the anchorage, -and the Thetis and the Bear, once companion ships in the Greely Relief -Expedition, met again in the far north.</p> - -<p>Upon conference with the commanding officer of the Bear, Captain M. A. -Healy, it was found that he did not consider it desirable to break the -bulk of his cargo and share the stores for the refuge-station with us; -hence, being free to pursue our course, we left on the 24th of June for -the island of St. Paul, one of the Seal (or Pribyloff) islands.</p> - -<p>We arrived at these islands on the evening of the 25th of June, after -groping around in the heavy and almost constant fog and mist that -envelop them. During our short stay at St. Paul we were able to see a -drive of seals from a rookery and the killing, skinning, and packing, -which followed; but what we found to be the most interesting was the -visit to the rookeries, both from the inshore side and from boats along -the sea front. The systematic partition of the grounds, the formation -of the harems, the exclusion of the young males, and the aggressive -conduct of the older ones, all proved most interesting and novel. This, -however, has been described so often that I will not here repeat it.</p> - -<p>Leaving these islands, so unlike any others in the world, we proceeded -to the north and west to St. Mathew Island, a large and uninhabited -island in the middle of Bering sea. The object in visiting this island -was twofold, the first being to ascertain if there were any shipwrecked -persons upon the island, the other being to verify the statement made -upon the chart we possessed that the island was infested with polar -bears. Upon our arrival and landing upon the island we found plenty of -old tracks but no recent evidences of the existence of polar bears. -This was ascertained after honest and fatiguing endeavor to find them -by parties of officers and men from the ship, who scoured the eastern -part of the island, both upon the hills and upon the low tundra, but -without success.</p> - -<p>St. Mathew island is probably the southern limit of the solid ice in -winter in this part of Bering sea, the ice below it to the southward -and toward the Aleutian chain being made up of newer ice and detached -floes of well broken ice. It is surrounded by the ice during seven -months of the year, and generally enveloped with fog during the -remaining five months. Winds and rains sweep over it during the summer, -the low land being composed of wet, grassy tundra, while the higher -elevations are formed of scoriæ and volcanic rock.</p> - -<p>A large quantity of drift-wood found piled up upon the steep shingle -beaches probably came down the Yukon river from the interior of Alaska, -there being no growth of trees upon this desolate land.</p> - -<p>After leaving St. Mathew island we stood over to the Siberian side of -Bering sea, in order to ascertain the whereabouts of the whaling fleet, -and, if possible, to gather some news concerning the fate of the -whaling bark "Little Ohio," a vessel that had been missing since the -previous autumn.</p> - -<p>Plover bay, Cape Tchaplin and St. Lawrence bay, upon the Siberian side, -were all visited in turn, but without success, and I then determined to -pass through Bering strait and enter the Arctic ocean. This was done -upon the 3d of July, after a heavy snow-storm in the morning, followed, -later in the day, by a fog so dense that we passed through the straits -without seeing land on either side, or the Diomede islands, in the -middle.</p> - -<p>Entering the Arctic we pushed on toward Point Hope, to the northward of -which the "Little Ohio" had last been seen. On the morning of the 4th -of July the land about Point Hope was sighted and soon afterwards we -met our first ice, coming out in floes from Kotzebue sound, stretching -some distance from the shore and slowly moving to the northward and -westward with the current.</p> - -<p>Skirting along this ice with the hope of getting around it to the -northward of Point Hope, without success, we entered it, and after -working through it for several miles with considerable difficulty we -finally cleared it and came to anchor off the native village at Point -Hope, finding there two whalers who had just preceded us, and obtaining -the news that the bark "Little Ohio" had been wrecked directly opposite -the point where we were then at anchor. Taking on board, the next day, -those survivors of this shipwreck who still remained at this place, we -left for St. Michaels, near the mouth of the Yukon river, there to -transfer the survivors to the steamer of the Alaska Commercial Company, -and to send the news of this sad disaster to the Navy Department and to -the world. In passing through the ice outside of Point Hope the first -polar bear of the season was sighted, posing upon a high floe of ice. A -few shots settled his case and his body was fortunately secured, his -skin now forming one of the trophies of the cruise.</p> - -<p>On our way back through Bering strait we found the vexatious -combination (to be met with again and again in the cruise) of a heavy -fog, much drift ice, and an opposing current.</p> - -<p>Reaching St. Michaels we found there two steamers of the Alaska -Commercial Company at anchor, besides several river-steamers, and a -summer rendezvous of natives from the coast, miners from the interior, -and traders and missionaries from the Yukon,—all here to meet their -annual mails and supplies. In addition there was a party of government -surveyors to determine the boundary-line, an account of whose early -journey has been given to the Society by Mr. Russell. There were -seventy-three tents, by actual count, pitched about St. Michaels at the -time of our stay, the abodes of these temporary residents.</p> - -<p>St. Michaels is the most northerly settlement and trading post of the -Alaska Commercial Company. It is the outlet of the Yukon river trade -and also the source of supplies for the country bordering upon the -Yukon and its many tributaries, reaching in this way a portion of the -Northwest Territory of the Dominion of Canada, west of the Rocky -Mountains.</p> - -<p>In the winter-time the post consists of the offices and store-houses of -the Alaska Commercial Company, with a few residences for their white -employees, and a small native village.</p> - -<p>Small, light-draught, stern-wheel steamers ascend the Yukon and its -tributaries for a distance of 1,700 miles, reaching the mouth of that -river in part by an inside channel and in part by sixty miles of -outside coasting.</p> - -<p>After a short stay at St. Michaels we proceeded to Port Clarence, where -a large number of the whaling fleet were met, consisting of seven -steam-whalers, six sailing whalers, one trading vessel, and a sailing -tender. From the tender these vessels receive coal, provisions, and -supplies, sending back to San Francisco the oil and whale-bone of the -spring catch.</p> - -<p>Port Clarence is the best, as it is the last, harbor on the American -side before reaching the Arctic, where no harbors exist worthy of the -name, west of Herschel island. There is no native settlement of any -size on the bay, but natives assemble here from the surrounding country -and islands to trade with the whale-ships in summer.</p> - -<p>Leaving Port Clarence we ran to the southward by King island to St. -Lawrence island, in search of a sailing tender that was long over-due; -returning, after a short stay off the village near Cape Prince of -Wales, we again entered the Arctic ocean. As it was too early to go to -Point Barrow we proceeded to Kotzebue sound and Hotham inlet. In the -vicinity of the latter place, every year, a summer rendezvous of -natives occurs for trading purposes, the Eskimos from the Diomedes and -Cape Prince of Wales bringing articles of trade from Siberia, while the -Eskimos from Point Hope bring articles obtained from the whalers; these -Eskimos are met by the inland natives from the rivers that flow into -Hotham inlet and Kotzebue sound, principally from the Kowak, the Noatak -and Salawik rivers. The nearest available anchorage we found was Cape -Blossom, from which place we visited the rendezvous and were visited in -turn by the natives. We had now been enjoying for some time -twenty-fours hours of daylight, the midnight-sun having lighted our way -to and from Point Hope during our first visit to that place.</p> - -<p>Leaving Cape Blossom upon the 24th of July we stood out of Kotzebue -sound for the northward, running the greater part of the time in a -heavy fog. We passed Point Hope on the 25th, Cape Lisburne on the 26th, -and anchored off Cape Sabine early in the morning of the 27th of July. -Near by was a very wide vein of lignite coal, from which the Thetis had -been coaled the previous year and to which the name of "Thetis coal -mine" had been given. This had been worked during the present summer, -also, and a party of natives who were encamped near by had furnished -coal to some of the whalers.</p> - -<p>Being now in the vicinity of a stream known to the natives as the -Pitmegea, I went in a whaleboat to examine its mouth and entrance, as -this stream was unknown to but few whites and did not exist upon any -charts or maps. It was found to have but three feet of water on the bar -at its entrance, but after crossing this a depth of six feet was found. -The stream was found so full of bars and shoals that we could ascend -but a short distance after entering it. The river and its narrow valley -were very winding, the general course being northwest from its source -to the coast. After the spring thaw, and the rains that follow, the -stream rises to a depth sufficient for the natives to ascend and -descend it with their light-draught skin-boats for a distance of about -forty miles. Its length is estimated to be over one hundred miles. The -river had been explored the previous year by John W. Kelly, who was -this summer employed on board the Thetis as the official interpreter, -and to him I am indebted for the following description of the ice-cliff -existing upon the banks of the Pitmegea, and also of a peculiarly built -stone hut near the source of one of the tributaries.</p> -<br> - -<center>I<small>CE</small>-C<small>LIFF ON THE</small> P<small>ITMEGEA</small>.</center> - -<p>This ice-cliff is about twenty-five miles from the mouth of the -Pitmegea, at a place where the hills run their spurs out to the banks -of the river, closing the picturesque valley that stretches away to the -sea-coast in an almost unbroken width of a mile. A glacier faces -southward, and receives the full benefit of the sunlight during the -short polar summer. Gales have deposited particles of soil and débris -of plants, along with their seeds, upon the surface of the ice to a -depth of from four inches to a foot. The snow-fall of winter soon -vanishes before the June sun, while the light covering above the -glacier preserves it intact. Vegetation is warmed into life in a -remarkably short time, and the brown coat left by the receding snow is -almost miraculously transformed to a robe of green and studded here and -there with bright polar flowers, there being buttercups, dandelions, -yellow poppy, bright astragals, gentians, daffodils and marguerites. -The latter are small and unobtrusive, making a showing in a modest way -as if they wished to apologize to their sister flowers for their -appearance among them. Like beautiful orphan girls, one cannot resist a -compassionate tenderness of feeling toward them. But these innocent -little flowers, chaste as the ice field upon which they grow, bloom in -the polar garden with as much right as the glacier's gentian. Besides -flowers, there are the hardy grasses whose roots penetrate the light -covering of soil to the ice-bed, whence they derive their nourishment. -A few Arctic willows are to be seen, but they only grow about a foot in -length, and trail upon the ground. The Pitmegea river is gradually -cutting into the glacier, receding from its opposite bank and leaving a -bed of gravel behind. During the summer the ice melts away, leaving the -protruding soil above it like the eaves of a house; when it protrudes -too far for the strength of the grass roots, it topples over into the -river. At the freezing in September, icicles freeze from the -overhanging sod to the river ice below, forming a narrow portico four -miles in extent.</p> -<br> - -<center>O<small>LD</small> S<small>TONE</small> H<small>UT</small>.</center> - -<p>On the highest peak at the source of Ikuk creek, a southerly tributary -of the Pitmegea, are the ruins of a hut and smaller outhouse, the like -of which has never been met with in Northwestern Alaska. Above the -grass line, past perpetual beds of snow, up where wild storms sweep -away ice, snow, and soil, where only a few gray lichens are to be seen, -man, at some former time, has placed a habitation. On the crest of the -mountain there is a ragged limestone comb twelve feet high, cracked and -shattered into flakes by the vigor of the polar winters. On the south -side of this comb, sheltered from the prevailing north winds, -excavations have been made into the rock. Taking the comb of rock for -one side of the house, the other side of the semicircle has been built -up with flat stones, laid up like bricks in masonry, but without -mortar. Moss and soil have been in all probability used here instead of -mortar, but years of fierce winds have blown it out from the crevices. -The structure is conic in shape, after the manner of a Greenlander's -snow-hut. This one is about seven feet in diameter. Facing its entrance -is a smaller house of similar construction, most likely used as a -shelter for game. Winter storms have crumbled away the roofs of both so -that they have fallen in, and the fragments of stones are partially -covered with soil. The whole bears the impression of age, and no -natives have been found who have ever heard of it. From the summit of -this peak a splendid view is obtained of the surrounding country, the -Arctic ocean, and herds of passing reindeer.</p> -<br> - -<p>Gold has been found near the Pitmegea, at the head of the same creek -and tributary, it being contained in sulphurets of iron, which exist in -large quantities in that vicinity, there being from $3.50 to $8.00 -worth of gold in a ton; the country is all but impassable, however, and -this, together with the shortness of the season, would prevent any -mining with profit.</p> - -<p>Our party returned from the Pitmegea with a few ptarmigan and ducks, -and upon our arrival the ship was at once gotten under way and we stood -to the northward for Point Barrow. Drift-ice was constantly passed, but -fortunately so scattered as not to form any obstruction to free -navigation.</p> - -<p>On the next day we enjoyed a superb Arctic summer's day, and began to -fall in with the whaling fleet on the way north to Point Barrow. -Fifteen vessels were sighted and passed, most of them vessels under -sail. Rounding the dangerous Blossom shoals and the Icy cape of Captain -Cook, we stood to the northeast, finding generally clear water, with -scattered drift-ice. Upon the floes we found great quantities of -walrus, in some cases stretched at full length, sound asleep. One huge -fellow remained so undisturbed at our approach that he was supposed to -be dead, but a well aimed Irish potato aroused him so rudely that he -quickly slid off the floe and disappeared beneath the water.</p> - -<p>Pushing on we passed Pt. Belcher at 9.30 in the evening, in the fog and -rain, and came to heavy masses of ice over which a low fog had settled. -With some delay and difficulty we worked out of both the fog and the -ice and at five o'clock in the morning sighted four -vessels—steamers—at anchor off the village of Ootkavie at Cape Smyth, -8 miles from Point Barrow, and the site of Captain Ray's Signal Service -meteorologic station of some years ago, the house that sheltered the -party being still standing. One of the steamers proved to be our old -friend the "Bear," which had passed to the northward when we had -returned southward from the Arctic with the survivors of the "Little -Ohio." The other vessels were made out to be steam-whalers, and at -seven o'clock we anchored near them, off the site determined upon for -the house of refuge.</p> - -<p>Finding the Bear had commenced to discharge her stores and materials, -all of our facilities were at once used in tending her assistance, our -steam launch Achilles (now, as of yore, the child of the Thetis) being -busily at work towing boats to and fro, while our men and mechanics, -with officers, were busily engaged in aiding the construction of the -house of refuge.</p> - -<p>Our arrival at Cape Smyth and vicinity of Point Barrow was on the 29th -of July, the Bear having arrived on the 27th, the Saturday previous. -While we were lying at anchor engaged in the erection of the house of -refuge, the rest of the whaling fleet, both sail and steam, gradually -arrived and came to anchor off the coast, reaching from Cape Smyth to -Point Barrow. After a short stay the steamers went on to the eastward -of Point Barrow, following along the ice-pack, which was in sight from -Point Barrow, until they reached the heavier ice off Point Tangent. -When the last of the whaling vessels had arrived, a fleet of -forty-seven vessels carrying the American flag had assembled within -sight of the most northerly point of the United States, composed of -steamers, barks, brigantines and schooners. These vessels, manned by -about twelve hundred men, I venture to say formed the largest -assemblage of vessels and men under the American flag to be found -anywhere during that year. I cannot speak too highly of the skill, -seamanship, courage, and endurance of the whaling masters. They are a -fine body of American seamen.</p> - -<p>The scene on shore was one of abnormal activity for this region, the -erection of the house of refuge, the hasty landing and transportation -of stores (in which the whalers assisted), the movements of the Eskimos -about their village (which was dotted with the white summer tents of -the residents and the visiting inland Eskimos), and the clustering and -trading about the Whaling Company's station (Ray's old station), gave a -life and movement which was as shortlived as the season. Fortunately -the weather proved most favorable and the heavy ice kept off shore -while the stores were landed; the wind then freshened, but -communication could still be kept up and the work of erection went on.</p> - -<p>The site of the house of refuge is within a few hundred yards of Ray's -old house and near the village, and its keeper, Captain Borden (an old -New Bedford whaler) was busy in putting his house in order before the -autumn should come on. During our stay at this place we were enabled to -make a hydrographic survey of the anchorage, which demonstrated that -the contour of the bottom is constantly changed by the ploughing and -planing done by the heavy ice grounded and driven up by the pressure of -the mighty ice-pack, under the influence of northerly winds and gales.</p> - -<p>And here let me say a word about the ice of this part of the Arctic -ocean. The ice in summer consists of floes and fields of various sizes, -which are cemented together in winter by the young or newly frozen ice. -No icebergs exist in this part of the Arctic, as there are no glaciers -near the sea coast to form them. The shore along the entire Arctic -coast of Alaska shows evidence of former glacial action, but the only -glaciers to be found are in the southeastern part of the territory.</p> - -<p>The Arctic pack, which never melts, consists of hard blue ice, made up -of fields and floes of comparatively level ice, which are surrounded -and interspersed with hummocks varying from ten to forty feet in -height. These hummocks are formed by the broken and telescoped ice -resulting from the collision and grinding together of heavy ice-floes, -the hummocks being often rounded and smoothed in outline by heavy falls -of snow.</p> - -<p>In the spring, under the influence of the prevailing southerly winds -and northerly currents, the packs break off from the shore and move to -the north, the position of the southern edge varying in latitude with -the season and the winds.</p> - -<p>The shore-ice, which remains fast to the coast line after the pack -moves off, gradually breaks up as the season advances, and, becoming -scattered, is taken to the northeastward from the vicinity of Point -Barrow and northwestward from the vicinity of Herald island and Wrangel land.</p> - -<p>Sometimes a long line of heavy floe-ice from the pack grounds in the -shallow water near the shore during northerly winds, pressed from -behind by the force and weight of the entire northern pack. It is -gradually forced up, ploughing its way through the bottom, at the same -time rising gradually along the ascent of the bottom toward the land. -The effect of this solid wall of cold and relentless blue ice slowly -rising and advancing upon those imprisoned between the ice and the -shore is one of the most sublime and terrible things that can be experienced.</p> - -<p>The normal current running north through Bering strait forks a short -distance to the north, one branch going through Kotzebue Sound and -thence along the mainland by Cape Seppings, Point Hope, and Icy cape, -to Point Barrow, at which point it goes off to the unknown northeast; -the other branch, to the northwestward along the Siberian coast, and -thence to the northward toward Herald island. The whalers burned by the -Confederate vessel Shenandoah near Bering strait were found in the -vicinity of Herald island.</p> - -<p>The only portion of the whalers at the time actively cruising had gone -to the eastward of Point Barrow. On that day a seaman named Tuckfield -returned from the Mackenzie in a whaleboat, and reported the ice -conditions unusually favorable as far east as Mackenzie Bay, in the -vicinity of which he had wintered. He was a seaman belonging to the -whaling station and had been reported to me by a missionary I met at -St. Michaels as having visited his station at Rampart house, upon the -Porcupine river, a branch of the Yukon.</p> - -<p>Upon the 8th of August the house of refuge was virtually finished, and -as my orders were to devote my time to the whaling fleet, after the -completion of this structure, I concluded to cruise after and with the -vessel to the eastward of Point Barrow, leaving the Bear to remain with -the vessels lying at anchor off Cape Smyth and Point Barrow. As -Tuckfield wanted to go east with his Eskimo guide, I took him and his -whaleboat and whaling outfit on board, leaving Cape Smyth on the -evening of the 8th. The ice in sight at the time was somewhat -scattered, but plentiful, and entering it about nine o'clock we slowly -stood on a course parallel to the land. We were occupied in working -through this ice all night and all of the next day; it was not the pack -ice but shore ice broken off from the vicinity of Point Tangent, Smyth -bay, and Harrison bay. At times we found it so closely packed together -by current and wind that we had to turn back and work our way closer -inshore. Three vessels under sail were sighted during this time off -Tangent point, and by this time we had also demonstrated the -uselessness of Little Joe Tuckfield as an ice pilot or prophet. The -winds were very light and we had now gotten out of the strong northeast -current running off Point Barrow. On the night of the 9th we passed off -the north of the Colville river, the water offshore becoming very muddy.</p> - -<p>The first important error found in the charts and maps of this region -was found here by the observation of the non-existence of the Pelly -mountains. This observation was confirmed upon our return by the -concurrent testimony of the whaling masters who had cruised here, and -the natives who hunt in the neighborhood. The mountains certainly do -not exist where placed by the charts, and I judge that some small -hummocks near the beach were mistaken for a far off range of mountains, -when Dease and Simpson first explored this coast in 1837.</p> - -<p>Early on the morning of the 10th of August we sighted the first steam -whaler, and as we steamed toward her we skirted along some long low -islands parallel to the coast line and stretching from the Return reef -of Sir John Franklin to the mouth of the Colville river. The islands, -one being about three miles long, are not shown upon the charts, and -not having any known names were designated as the Thetis islands.</p> - -<p>The steam-whaler was found to be the Balæna, commanded by Captain -Everett Smith, one of the most intelligent of the whalemen of the -Arctic. He was anchored off Return reef, which he was enabled -definitely to locate by the traditions of the natives. It was at this -point that Sir John Franklin, in one of his earliest boat journeys, was -obliged to turn back while endeavoring to explore the coast from -Mackenzie bay to Point Barrow. After a long interview with Captain -Smith, from which I gathered much information as to the ice-conditions -and the probable positions of the steam-whalers to the eastward, he -returned on board of his ship, and the good ship Thetis once more -turned her head to the eastward.</p> - -<p>Soon afterwards another steam-whaler was sighted, made fast by -ice-anchors to an ice-floe; we did not stop, but, exchanging colors, -proceeded on our way. The ice seemed to be getting thicker, and shortly -afterwards a third whaler was sighted, at anchor off a small low -island, with apparently heavy ice ahead. As the weather seemed -uncertain I determined to anchor for the night in the vicinity of the -island.</p> - -<p>The steamer was found to be the whaler Beluga, commanded by Captain -Brooks, and the island, though nameless, was marked by a wooden cross, -from which fact it was called Cross island. Captain Brooks stated that -he had been struggling with the ice to the eastward of Cross island, -the day before, in company with some other steam-whalers who had left -him and gone to the eastward, so he had turned back and anchored off -Cross island. I sounded out the vicinity of the island, finding shoal -water to the southward, too shoal for the Thetis to anchor in, and so I -remained upon the west side. The wind shifting, our position became -insecure on account of the masses of ice drifting toward us; the whaler -left the anchorage, stood out into the heavy ice, and made fast to a -high hummocky floe. Seeing no good place near by, I held on with the -chain on the steam windlass, ready to leave in a moment. Heavy ice -coming down and grounding close by on both sides, we left and got out -the ice-anchors to a heavy floe, where we rode out the gale until early -in the morning, when we were obliged to move on, as the ice packed -about our rudder. After moving again and again the wind fell away, the -day cleared up, and the ice began to scatter and disappear about the -island, the leads to the eastward looking more promising.</p> - -<p>The next day at 5 in the morning, in company with our whaling friend, -we left the vicinity of Cross island and, entering the ice, stood -toward the northeast. The ice-floes grew heavier and larger as we -progressed and the canal-like leads more confused, until at 10 o'clock -the lead stopped and we both made fast to a very large, long, hummocky -floe, at least ten miles in length, several miles in breadth, and -aground in 80 feet of water. The day was mild and clear, and, after -both of the ice-anchors had been secured and the rope-ladders lowered -over the bows, a number of the officers and men went on the ice, the -men playing foot-ball and snow balling, while the officers posed for -their photographs. This is the time that we were reported (by a -steam-whaler that we had passed) as being in a position of extreme -danger, and the news was taken to the outside world.</p> - -<p>About 4 o'clock in the afternoon we started ahead with the Beluga; the -Thetis, now taking the lead, rammed her way through some pack-ice and -reached another lead going inshore, the Beluga following very slowly -after us. We continued forcing our way until we got into clear water by -Lion reef. At midnight we made fast to a small floe and after an -anxious night (caused by ice-floes setting against our stern and -rudder) we proceeded, followed at along distance by the Beluga, which -joined us in the afternoon at Camden Bay, and we anchored there for the -night. We found that the Beluga in attempting to follow us had gotten -on an ice-foot, or protruding spur, and bent her propeller-blades, and -had finally to seek another lead out, to the westward of where we had -rammed through. As we ran from off Lion reef to Camden bay we sighted -the beautiful ranges of mountains close to the coast known as the -Franklin and Romanzoff mountains, making an agreeable change in the -topography of the shore, which had been low and monotonously flat since -leaving Point Hope and the vicinity of Cape Lisburne. We found here -that the shore-line was put upon the charts too far north, as our -position near Flaxman island, on the west side of Camden bay, was well -inland of the coast-line and reefs. Camden bay was the last wintering -place of Collinson, in the Enterprise, upon his return from his search -for Sir John Franklin, and here we fell in with the track of this -distinguished navigator, whose cruise is so little known and whose -efforts have been so much eclipsed by his fellow voyager, McClure, who -has the distinction given him of being the actual discoverer of the -Northwest passage, and who was, indeed, with his little body of men in -1850-1854, the first as well as the last to pass from the Pacific to -the Atlantic, north of the American continent.</p> - -<p>Upon a long point named Collinson point, and upon the neighboring -island known as Barter island, are to be found, during the summer, -encampments and rendezvous of Eskimos, who meet there for purposes of -trade, similar to the same rendezvous in Kotzebue sound. Here the -Alaskan and the Mackenzie river Eskimos meet, also the Lucia or Prat -river Indians, who are nomads and come from the vicinity of the -Porcupine and Prat rivers, and whose winter rendezvous and habitation -is at the Rampart house, a Hudson Bay Company's station and Church of -England mission, upon the Porcupine. They are mostly professing -Christians and are related to the Athabascans, or Rock mountain -Indians, in family. There are no permanent settlements here or -elsewhere between the vicinity of Herschel island and Point Barrow. The -country is sterile, affording but little upon which to live, the sea -also having little or no animal life in its waters. The Eskimos give to -this part of the Arctic ocean a native name which signifies <i>the sea -where there is always ice</i>.</p> - -<p>Early the next morning, August 14th, at 5 o'clock, we pushed on in -company with the Beluga, standing out of Camden bay and delaying a -short time off Barter island, to communicate with the natives. At noon, -while off Manning point, the smoke of several steamers was seen to the -eastward, and when they had come up we found all but two of the -steam-whalers that had gone east. They were led by the steamer William -Lewis, commanded by Captain Albert Sherman, probably the boldest and -most active of the Arctic whalers. They were all in the cabin of the -Thetis in a short time, and I found that they had reached Mackenzie bay -and the vicinity of the Mackenzie river. The two missing ones, the Orca -and Thrasher, had last been seen in the vicinity of Herschel island. -The ice-conditions were reported to be better than those we had passed -through. After reflection I considered it my duty, as it was my desire, -to go on to the eastward to ascertain the cause of the detention of the -two missing whalers, and as time was precious I determined to run on, -day and night. By this time night had assumed the conditions of -twilight, and the stars had begun to appear in the skies. The -threatening appearance of the weather detained us at first, but at 9 -o'clock in the evening we got under way, and with her colors hoisted -the good ship started again on her easterly course, followed in about -half an hour by our old friend and companion, the Beluga. Before -leaving we had hoisted out the whale-boat with Joe and native friends, -who had been joined at this point by the women of the family. Joe was -uncertain about his movements here, and as he expected to secure stores -from some of the whalers I left him in their company.</p> - -<p>We found the shore bolder as we progressed, and the mountains nearer -the coast; as a result, the ice generally sets directly and in heavy -masses on the shore without grounding, and this point has never been -passed before by the whalers, but fortunately a wide lane was open. The -sight of the mountains, standing in their silent and gloomy grandeur, -was peculiarly impressive, and our inability to make a closer -examination and exploration is to be regretted. So far as I can -ascertain, no white man has ever penetrated these mountainous regions, -which are known upon the maps in turn under the varying names of the -Romanzoff, British, Buckland and Richardson mountains, being so named -by Sir John Franklin during his boat journey along the coast. The -British mountains are at the extreme northeastern corner of our -territory of Alaska, reaching also across the boundary-line into -British America. We passed Demarcation point, where our boundary-line -reaches the Arctic ocean, early upon the morning of the 15th of August, -and commenced again our cruising in British waters. The character of -the shore remained the same, the mountains, however, showing little -traces of snow, testifying in this way both to the extreme mildness of -the winter and our approach to the valley of the Mackenzie. A few -Eskimo huts were seen as we came up to the shoal ground developed by -our lead in the vicinity of the mouth of the Malcolm river. The lead -was constantly going while we were in these waters, and the ship was -steered by it as much as by our compass. In fact the three L's -(latitude, lead, lookout) are the great necessities for navigation in -these unknown regions, as the three R's are supposed to be in -elementary schooling. At 11 o'clock in the morning Herschel island was -sighted, this large island forming the western boundary of Mackenzie -bay, or, as the ancient explorers often termed it, Mackenzie sea. At -1.30 in the afternoon we anchored off the southwest end of the island -inside some grounded ice and off a long gravelly spit, thickly covered -with heavy drift-wood from the Mackenzie river.</p> - -<p>The island is about 500 feet in height and has a rounded outline, -sloping gradually down from the center upon all sides. It shows the -appearance of former glacial action, and appears to be an ancient -moraine covered with a black vegetable mould. The vegetation was -confined to grasses and small Arctic flowers, diminutive in size, -delicate in color, and evidently shortlived.</p> - -<p>Soon after we anchored a party was sent on shore to erect a sign to -mark our visit; it consisted of a board with the name of the ship and -the date of the visit in brass letters; under the staff supporting it -there are placed in a glass bottle the names of the officers and men of -the ship. The Beluga joined us soon after our arrival, and when the -party from shore had returned we got under way to continue our look for -the two whalers. Captain Brooks came on board the Thetis and shared my -perch and lookout in the foretop, while his ship followed, in charge of -his mate. As we reached the bluffs at the north end of the island we -saw a noble expanse of open water stretching to the northward as far as -the eye could reach. The ice was still heavy to the westward and -northwestward, but to the north, beyond the light, scattering ice -through which we were going, was clear sea, the waves leaping in the -beautiful Arctic sunshine.</p> - -<p>We looked with eagerness to the sea which stretched, apparently, to the -north pole, and then headed to the southward into Mackenzie bay.</p> - -<p>After three hours' steaming from our first anchorage we reached the -southeast side of the island and found the two missing whalers lying -quietly at anchor, Captain Brooks giving a hearty and relieved cry of -<i>Sail ho!</i>, when the vessels were seen, and we were all pleased to see -them safe and secure. We came to anchor close by them and the two -captains were soon on board. They reported that they had remained -behind to watch for the return of whales from the northeastward, but so -far without any success. They had determined to remain until September, -and contemplated the possibility of wintering at this place. Soon after -we anchored, Eskimos who lived at the mouth of the Mackenzie came on -board, and they looked at the ship with the greatest surprise and -interest. They had not seen vessels before this summer, though the -traditions concerning the "Enterprise" and "Investigator," under -Collinson and McClure, still survived.</p> - -<p>Sleeping soundly that night, for the first time in many days, the -following morning boat parties were dispatched to complete the -circumnavigation of the island and to make running surveys in the -vicinity.</p> - -<p>A small, snug harbor was found and surveyed near-by our anchorage, -capable of receiving vessels of less than 16 feet draught; this was -named Pauline cove. It would prove a fairly good place for one of the -light-draught steamers going up this year to use as winter-quarters.</p> - -<p>The waters between Herschel island and the mainland were found after -examination too full of shoals and sand- and gravel-bars to form a -ship-channel. A rise and fall of tide of three feet was found, and the -ship swung regularly to an ebb and flood.</p> - -<p>While the boats were out sounding I went ashore and, climbing nearly to -the top of the island, had a beautiful view of the clear and open water -of Mackenzie bay, to the east and northeast; while to the southeastward -were the islands clustering about the shallow mouth of the Mackenzie, -and directly to the south were the British and Buckland mountains, -merging gradually into the Rocky mountains and the great chains which -form the backbone of the American continent.</p> - -<p>The temperature of the water and air was found higher upon this side of -the island, and I have no doubt but that the climate of the vicinity of -Mackenzie bay is materially modified by the comparatively warm water -coming out in great volume from the Mackenzie river. The strong current -running to the northward from the river would naturally sweep the ice -out of the bay and to the northward, as far as the vicinity of -Banksland and the extreme northern Arctic.</p> - -<p>Where it goes to and where it ceases is now a matter of conjecture. It -is to be hoped that the drift-floats which were launched by us from -this point, and from various points between here and Herald island, may -contribute something to the solution of this question.</p> - -<p>As the chances of being shut in by the ice were easily among the -possibilities to the whalers who were in our company, and with whose -fate our companion the Beluga had joined for the time, the whole -question of supplies and retreat was gone over with the whaling -masters. A retreat up the valley of the Mackenzie, the Porcupine, and -Yukon, seemed feasible, as reindeer were to be found in this vicinity -in the winter months.</p> - -<p>As the masters of the whalers would not return with me to the eastward, -I determined to start back, in order to make my westerly cruise with -the sailing fleet. Recalling the boats, we got underway, standing first -to the northeast to put over our first drift-float clear of the tidal -influence of the waters immediately about Herschel island, and in the -open water and northerly current of the Mackenzie. These floats were -made of wood about two feet long and nine inches thick, with the name -of the ship, the date, and the words, <i>for drift</i>, cut upon the face. -In a cavity at one end of the float, plugged with soft wood, there was -placed a copper cylinder containing a letter requesting the finder to -inform the U. S. Hydrographic office at Washington, the nearest U. S. -Consul, or the commanding officer of the Thetis, the time and place -where the float was found.</p> - -<p>After launching the float upon its unknown journey, a lookout was sent -to the highest masthead: from there it was reported that to the -northward and northeastward there was nothing in sight but open water, -neither ice nor ice-blink was visible, and the western entrance to the -Northwest passage stretched before us invitingly, as clear and as free -as the waters of our own Chesapeake bay. But I had reached my limit, -and turning back, to the regret of many on board, faced once more the -icy sea that lay before us toward Point Barrow and the westward.</p> - -<p>The weather, however, was superb, clear, cold, and sunny, during the -day, while in the now darkening shades of the evening for the first -time the moon appeared, silvering most beautifully the chain of -mountains along the coast and the fantastic shapes of the grounded ice.</p> - -<p>On the 17th we began to meet and overtake the whalers, who still -delayed in the vicinity of Camden bay, waiting for whales. Five were -passed, some cruising and some fast to the ice-floes. After -communicating with them and informing them of our probable movements, -we kept on to the westward. The ice-conditions were favorable and we -made very good headway, making fast to an ice-floe, off our old -island-friends of the midway group, on the evening of the 17th of -August.</p> - -<p>The wind is always a subject of constant watchfulness and anxiety in -this part of the Arctic; it virtually makes the currents and brings -down the ice, or sends it off and clears a narrow lane along the -shore-line. A northerly shift of wind caused a desire to push on, and -passing on we sighted Return reef again and skirted along the long and -narrow island which now bears the name of the Thetis. Passing the mouth -of the Colville we steamed at a good rate of speed through Harrison bay -and found there the wind blowing strong from the west, bringing much -ice with it and accompanied by a cold fog. The outlook being -discouraging I determined to press on for Point Barrow, not very far -distant. The early morning of the 19th of August opened cloudy, -overcast, and cold, with a gale and snow from the westward, the ice -increasing in quantity and size.</p> - -<p>There being no protection from the wind this side of Point Barrow, I -ordered full speed so as to get to the point and beyond it before the -almost inevitable shift to the northward which would bring the ice down -and shut us out. The leads between the ice-floes became narrower and -fewer in number, and but little better outlook was found as we edged -inshore as far as the shoal water would allow us to go. At this time we -sighted as many as eight polar bears on the ice, but this was no time -to hunt "bear." Coming to the end of our lead we rammed through some -pack-ice into another one, which, however, again led into water too -shoal for us. Finding from my perch aloft that the ice seemed even -heavier to the west, I determined to stand back to the eastward into -the more open water we had left by the lead we had come through; but it -was too late: this lead had closed and we were prisoners in the pack. -There being no other place to go, I reluctantly selected the largest -pool, or pocket, got out our ice-anchors, and made fast to a heavy -floe, to await further developments. It was found to be in slow motion, -and four times during the night we had to move to avoid the heavy floes -closing in around us. From this time, the 19th, until the morning of -the 24th, we were close prisoners in the heavy pack which had set down -with the wind, now northerly, between Point Barrow and Point Tangent.</p> - -<p>In the words of the Ancient Mariner of Coleridge:</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="poem"> - <tr><td><small>"The ice was here, the ice was there,<br> - The ice was all around;<br> - It cracked and growled, and roared and howled,<br> - Like noises in a swound."</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>By incessant watchfulness, almost constant movement, vigorous ramming, -faithful working of the engines, and (most important of all) a -favorable shift of wind, the good ship, under Divine Providence, -escaped without damage or accident. Fortunately within easy reach of -land and but twenty-five miles from Point Barrow refuge-station, I had -no undue anxiety for life; but I have no hesitation in stating that the -readiness, endurance, and subordination of the officers and men of the -ship shown in the bringing out of the ship intact from the ice pack, -after nearly five days' imprisonment, entitle them to great credit from -the proper authorities and justify their commanding officer in the -present expression of his high appreciation of their conduct and his -warm feelings toward themselves.</p> - -<p>About noon of the 25th of August, after a night of hard ramming, we -anchored off the west side of Point Barrow, greeted by salutes from the -whalers anchored there and by the hearty congratulations of the -masters, who soon came on board and learned for the first time that -Mackenzie Bay had been reached.</p> - -<p>We found that the sailing fleet had gone to the westward, after having -been shut in by the ice coming down on Point Barrow and Cape Smyth for -several days, during our absence. The few whalers that remained had -been watching us from their crows' nests during our imprisonment, but -were unable, of course, to afford us any assistance, each ship having -to work out her own salvation: companion-vessels are of great service -only in case of damage or abandonment. Fortunately, the steam-whalers -remaining behind us did not have the pack set down upon them in the -shallow bights in which they were cruising, and the long continued -north-easter which aided us in our escape enabled them to find leads to -get through, not very long after we had escaped. We remained at Point -Barrow for a week until they had all returned, except the two most -easterly ones, left at Herschel island. As their return was so -uncertain, at the end of a week I dropped down to the house of refuge -at Cape Smyth, landing provisions to fill the deficiency in their -stores, and went to the westward, first going to Icy cape to erect a -needed beacon as a warning of the vicinity of Blossom shoals.</p> - -<p>Leaving this vicinity on the 5th of September for the northward and -westward, and rounding Blossom shoals, we stood to the north, reaching -the supposed vicinity of the edge of the ice pack that night. As the -nights were now dark we lay-to until morning, when the rapid fall of -the temperature of the water and the lessening wind gave indications of -its proximity, and a half hour's steaming brought us to the rugged -white outline of the pack. Along this we skirted, having reached our -highest north (less than 72° N. latitude).</p> - -<p>All of that day and the next we continued our course, sighting a -portion of the sailing fleet of whalers on the 7th. Communicating with -them of our proposed movements and whereabouts during the rest of -September and the beginning of October, we then stood to the westward. -I must not forget to mention an interesting incident that occurred. A -schooner stood down to us from the fleet, and was recognized as the -schooner Jane Grey, picked up by the Thetis when under the command of -my predecessor the previous summer in the ice—abandoned. She had been -righted, pumped out, repaired, and restored to her owner, who had -literally sold his farm and put his all into the vessel. As he came -within hail our notification was given him, but I noticed that he -fairly danced with impatience during its delivery, which was accounted -for at the end of the message by his bringing out his men, who were -gathered behind the foresail, and giving hearty and prolonged cheers -for the Thetis which fairly rang in the silent Arctic air. To this we -responded and then went on our way.</p> - -<p>We now left the pack and steered through open water for Herald island, -which we sighted at half past twelve the next day, the 8th of -September; as we approached it closely the bareness and forbidding -appearance, which had been concealed at first sight by the bluish -dimness of the outline, became very marked. Its sides were almost -inaccessible, except from the western end, and it was free from ice, an -almost exceptional state of affairs. In close seasons it is impossible -to reach it, and, even more than Point Barrow, it may be shut out of -the world by ice that refuses to move during the short summer.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Herald Island"> - <tr> - <td width="735"> - <img src="images/02.jpg" alt="Herald Island"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="735" align="center"> - Herald Island, bearing about W. by S. (magnetic).<br> - <small>From a photograph by Assistant Paymaster J. Q. Lovell, U. S. N.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>We passed the island late in the afternoon within a comparatively short -distance, standing on to the west with the hope of seeing Wrangel land -before dark. At half past five land was reported ahead from aloft, and -soon the high snowy peaks and mountainous outline of Wrangel land was -sighted from deck. It stood out beautifully in the late Arctic -afternoon, and as we approached it more closely its outline became more -and more fantastic and brilliant. At sunset we were a little over ten -miles distant, and at dark, as we turned to the southeast for Point -Hope, we exchanged hearty congratulations upon our successful passage -from Mackenzie Bay to Wrangel land. Arriving at Point Hope upon the -evening of the 10th of September, we found that many of the hunting -parties had returned from the interior, and preparations were going on -for the winter season.</p> - -<p>The natives of Point Hope, like the Eskimos generally of northwestern -Alaska, have no tribal or other form of government except what exists -by control of the head man, oomalik, or chief, whose superiority arises -from his wealth and influence. The previous chief had lived a life that -made him a terror to the community. His rule was by force alone and by -the influence of the rifle, which was his inseparable companion. After -a career distinguished for license, murder and robbery, he had come to -a timely end by being assassinated by the brother of a wife he was -tormenting to death. Since his death, up to the time of our stay in -September, anarchy had prevailed. On account of the very indifferent -treatment received by the survivors of the wrecked whaler "Little Ohio" -from the Eskimos at Point Hope the previous winter, I determined to -appoint a head man or chief who would be charged with the -responsibility and duty of caring for any shipwrecked persons or -destitute whites. Anokolut, who was appointed by me and whose -appointment was afterwards confirmed by the Governor of Alaska, had -married the niece of the previous chief, and was the best whaleman and -hunter of the district. He had been in the employ of the whaling -station established the previous year at Point Hope, and had been -satisfactory in all his dealings with the whites. His wife was a very -superior woman, and their desire for civilized usages was so great that -a bread-pan of tin, some granite-ware bowls, and candles, were given -and eagerly accepted as contributing to make their domestic lives more -comfortable and civilized. An urgent request was made for a -cooking-stove, which I promised to give them if I should return the -following summer.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo lamp which serves as a light, and to some extent as a stove, -is a crescent-shaped stone utensil with a shallow trough scooped out; -this is a receptacle for the whale-oil, the wick being some native moss -laid along the edge of the lamp and trimmed from time to time, the -supply of oil being kept up by a lump of blubber suspended over the -lamp. The light being indifferent, candles are welcomed as a great -improvement and a marked relief to the over-taxed eyes of the men and -women during the long nights of the Arctic winter.</p> - -<p>During our stay at Point Hope we found much of interest in connection -with the Eskimos living there. Their long winters give them an -opportunity to keep alive their traditions in their daily meetings in -the council-house, and they give an account of their early days in this -wise: In the beginning the people had heads like ravens, with eyes in -the upper part of their breasts. All the world at this time was wrapt -in gloom, with no change of day and night. At that time there lived a -powerful chieftain on top of the highest peak. In his hut were -suspended two balls that were considered very precious and were -therefore carefully guarded. One day, the chief being absent and the -guards asleep, some children who had long admired the beautiful balls -knocked them down with a stick and they rolled across the floor of the -hut and down the side of the mountain. The noise awakened the guards, -who hurried after them, while their extraordinary beauty attracted the -attention of the people, who also rushed after them, a wild struggle -ensuing for their possession; this ended in the breaking of the balls. -Light sprang from one and darkness from the other; these spirits of -light and darkness claimed sole dominion, but, neither yielding, a -compromise was made by which they agreed to an alternate rule. The -violent struggle for the mastery so disturbed the world that the -anatomy of the people and the surface of the earth were both changed. -Light being upon the earth, men began to catch whales in the sea and to -carry the flesh and bones to their mountain-homes. One family wandering -over the country recently risen from the sea came down upon Point Hope: -finding vegetation springing up and whales abundant, they built a hut -and made it their home. From this originated the settlement at Point -Hope. Their modern history goes on in this wise: Point Hope being -favorably situated for whaling and hunting the seal and walrus and for -obtaining the reindeer, it naturally became a center of power and -population. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, as well as -can be determined, the village upon Point Hope, known by the natives as -Tigara, had a population of 2,000 souls, with six council-houses. At -that time the Eskimos residing upon the Noatok, or Inland river, began -to encroach upon the territory of the Tigaramutes until matters came to -the pass that about the beginning of this century a great land- and -boat-fight took place between the Tigaramutes and the Noatokmutes near -Cape Seppings, in which the Tigaramutes were defeated and forced to -yield a large portion of the territory formerly controlled by them. So -crushed were the Tigaramutes that they lost one-half of their -population, which led to the gradual abandonment of all the -out-standing villages. Since this time the population has gradually -decreased, the diminution being materially aided by the contact of -whites, who are principally represented here by the crews of the -whaling ships, rendezvousing during the early summer.</p> - -<p>As a rule the Arctic coast Eskimos are short in stature, the average -height of ten men measured at Point Hope being 5 feet 5.8 inches, and -of ten women, 5 feet 2.4 inches. The legs are short in comparison to -the length of the body and are always much bowed, this being due to the -manner in which they are carried in infancy upon their mother's back, -the legs being brought tightly around under the mother's arms. The feet -and hands of the women are generally well shapen and small.</p> - -<p>All of the Eskimos have good teeth, but as they are subjected to severe -usage they deteriorate in every way. They are used as substitutes for -pincers, carpenter's vices, and fluting machines. They are used in -drawing bolts, untying knots, holding the mouth-piece of a drill, -shaping boot-soles, and stretching skins. When they become uneven from -constant use in this way, the unevenness is corrected by a levelling -down by means of a file or a whetstone, until they finally reach a -level too low for mechanical purposes.</p> - -<p>Between sixteen and twenty-two years of age the male natives have their -lips pierced under each corner of the mouth for -labrets.<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> The -incision is made and at first sharp-pointed pieces of ivory are put in; -when the wound heals the hole is gradually stretched by inserting -larger labrets until half an inch in diameter is reached. The poorer -natives wear labrets made of coal, walrus ivory, common gravel, and -glass stoppers which they obtain from ships and adapt to this use. The -stopper of a Worcestershire sauce bottle is very useful for the -purpose. The richer ones have agate labrets, the most valued one, -however, consisting of a white porcelain-like disk 1½ inches wide, in -the center of which is mounted a turquoise nut, hemispherical in shape, -nearly an inch wide, fastened with a spruce gum obtained from the -interior. We could not ascertain where the turquoise or porcelain-like -disk was obtained. The Eskimos say they have always been in the -country, and sell them only with the greatest reluctance.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> <i>Labrets</i> is the name used along the coast for the -lip-ornaments worn by the natives.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Tattooing is general among the women, and is apparently a custom of -great antiquity. At the age of six one narrow line is drawn down the -center of the chin from the lower lip downward, powdered charcoal being -used as coloring matter. At twelve years the line is broadened to half -an inch, and a narrow line made parallel to it on each side. But I will -not detain you by giving other particulars.</p> - -<p>On the 20th of September the Thetis left Point Hope for the south, the -rugged season of the Arctic ocean having fully set in. Strong winds and -gales from the northeast had compelled us to move from the northern to -the southern side of Point Hope, where better protection and anchorage -had been found. On the 21st of September we passed out of the Arctic -ocean and through Bering Strait, reaching Ounalaska again on the 26th -of September. After remaining there until the beginning of October the -ship returned to Sitka, and after a prolonged stay in the waters of -southeastern Alaska we finally reached the Golden gate of San -Francisco, shortly after midnight on the 7th of December.</p> - -<p>The cruise of the Thetis was remarkable in several respects, among -others in that, thanks to the open season, her stanch build, and -successful battling with the ice-pack, she was enabled to reach -Mackenzie bay, in British North America, the first government vessel to -carry the American flag in those waters. She also made the long stretch -from Mackenzie bay to Herald island and Wrangel land in one season, -never before done, and she had the honor of being the first vessel of -any kind to follow the entire main coast line of Alaska from Port -Tongass, in extreme southeastern Alaska, to Demarcation point, in the -Arctic ocean.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap2"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>THE LAW OF STORMS,</h3> -<h4>CONSIDERED WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE NORTH -ATLANTIC.</h4> - -<center>B<small>Y</small> E<small>VERETT</small> H<small>AYDEN</small>.<br> -<br> -<small>(Abstract of a paper read before the National Geographic Society, Nov. -15, 1889.)</small></center> -<br> - -<p>In preparing an abstract of this paper it is of course difficult to -adhere very closely to the original, inasmuch as that was illustrated -by forty-five lantern slides, while it is only practicable to present a -few plates with this abstract. I may therefore be permitted to give -only a general outline of the subject, with perhaps a more detailed -discussion of one or two of the most notable recent hurricanes off our -Atlantic coast.</p> - -<p>The term "Law of Storms" is applied to the code of rules that should -govern the action of the master of a vessel when he has reason to -suspect the approach of a dangerous storm. It will be seen that this -definition, like the code itself, is somewhat vague. So many -considerations enter as factors in the question that it is wholly -impossible to lay down any rules that shall be applicable alike to a -high-powered, well-manned steamship, and to a heavily-laden, -poorly-equipped and short-handed sailing vessel. Disregarding such -differences of conditions (which are, of course, of vital importance in -each individual case, but which cannot be discussed in a brief general -essay), the two grand divisions of the subject may be compared to -<i>grand strategy</i> and <i>field tactics</i>. By this I mean that a broad, -comprehensive view of the whole subject of ocean storms—their regions, -seasons, size, severity, and tracks—is one very important part of the -navigator's duty in planning a long campaign, or voyage; and, secondly, -the handling of his vessel when actually in the fight—the coolness, -clear-headedness, and trained experience that utilizes every resource -of the best seamanship and navigation in a fearful struggle with the -fury of a hurricane—all of these are also an essential part of the -education of the ideal sea-captain.</p> - -<p>Thanks to the progress of meteorologic research it is comparatively -easy nowadays for anyone to get a very good general idea of the great -hurricane regions of the globe, and the seasons when these dreaded -tropic cyclones prevail in each of these regions. The evidence on this -subject is cumulative and practically conclusive, so that it is -universally known and recognized that the hurricane months are the -summer months in each hemisphere; hurricanes originate in the tropics, -move westward, then poleward into the temperate zones, and finally -eastward in higher latitudes, receding gradually from the equator; -moreover, the essential difference between hurricanes north and south -of the line is as follows: In the Northern Hemisphere the rotation of -the cyclonic whirl is <i>against</i> the hands of a watch, and in the -Southern, <i>with</i>. The noted hurricane regions are the West Indies, -coast of China and Japan, Bay of Bengal (especially in May and October, -at the time of the change of the monsoons), and the South Indian Ocean -(about Mauritius). Less noted regions are the South Pacific (East of -Australia), the North Pacific (west of the Mexican coast), and the -Arabian Sea. In planning a distant voyage a navigator should therefore -consider the hurricane regions through which he must pass, just as he -considers the prevailing winds—the trades, monsoons, and ocean -currents.</p> - -<p>The handling of a ship in a hurricane is a very different sort of a -thing from this general survey of the entire field, and, without the -eminently practical qualities that we all associate with a good officer -of the navy or mercantile marine, no mere theoretic knowledge can avail -much. And yet this is one of those cases where practice and theory -should go hand in hand,—not theory as something vague and unreal, but -theory as based upon a firm foundation of observed facts. If a vessel -encounter a hurricane, certain conclusions can be drawn from -observations of the shifts of wind, the fluctuations of the barometer, -the appearance of the clouds, and the direction of the ocean swell; the -master of that vessel will undoubtedly draw such conclusions, and store -them away in his mind as part of his fund of experience upon which to -base action at some future time. But if he can consider his own -observations, while fresh in mind, in connection with the observations -made on board many other vessels that encountered the same storm, and -modify or verify his conclusions by such comparison, there cannot be a -doubt but that the lesson will be of far greater value. Sailors lead a -rough life, and their training is often acquired by experience alone. -Moreover, there are certain things that tend to discourage effort on -the part of junior officers, even on board naval vessels: they realize -that their duty is not to originate orders but to execute them, and -sooner or later they get out of the habit of reflecting upon the action -taken to avoid a storm or manoeuver in one, not knowing at the time -what considerations lead to the action that was taken, and not always -having anything brought forcibly to their attention to indicate with -certainty whether the action was well-considered or ill-advised. Upon -finally attaining command themselves they are not, therefore, as well -posted as they might otherwise have been. I mention these things to -explain the undoubted fact that comparatively few masters of vessels -are well posted in certain very important additions to the old law of -storms, as it was discovered by Redfield and enforced by Reid, -Piddington, Thom, and other early writers. In fact, of all the -navigators of various nationalities who have charge to-day of the -commerce of the world, probably four-fifths are wholly ignorant of the -progress that has been made in this direction in the past fifty years. -That such is the case is not, in my opinion, wholly their fault: it is -owing to the fact that far too little attention has been paid to clear, -forcible, and convincing explanation; it is the fault of the teachers, -no less than the scholars,—of meteorologists who talk over the heads -of their audiences, instead of stating facts and conclusions in a way -to command attention and respect from the practical men who furnish the -data, and who deserve some tangible results in return for their long -years of voluntary observation.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="ship in the heart of a cyclone"> - <tr> - <td width="705"> - <img src="images/03.jpg" alt="Ship in the heart of a cyclone"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="705" align="center"> - <small>A ship in the heart of a cyclone. From Reid's "Law of Storms."</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>It is difficult to put this matter very clearly to those who are not -familiar with the conditions that govern the management of a vessel at -sea, and I shall only attempt to do so in a very general way. It should -be understood, first of all, that a hurricane is an enormous whirlwind, -so large, in fact, that its circular nature was generally recognized -only about fifty years ago. At the immediate center of the whirl there -is a calm space, from five or ten to thirty or forty miles in diameter, -generally with blue sky and bright sunlight. Within a short distance of -this central calm the wind blows with frightful violence, and here a -vessel is driven along in absolute helplessness, enveloped in midnight -darkness, buried in a flying mass of foam and spray, with every sound -annihilated by the roar and shrieks of the elements. The core of the -hurricane, as this region has been called, is small, relative to the -entire area, and it thus happens that a few miles may make all the -difference between shipwreck and safety. The question is, then, to -avoid getting into the core, or heart, of the hurricane. It is evident -enough that if the wind blow in a strictly circular direction around -the center, the bearing or direction of the center must be at exactly -right angles (eight points) to the right (or left) of the direction of -the wind. In other words, in the Northern Hemisphere (where the -direction of rotation is against the hands of a watch) the center bears -eight points to the right of the wind (that is, to the right of the -direction from which the wind blows); in the case of a hurricane off -our coast, for instance, if the wind be NE. at Hatteras the center -would bear (according to the 8-point rule) SE. Considering, further, -that the entire whirl has a progressive motion along a path, or track, -if an observer at Hatteras find that the NE. wind freshens rapidly, -without any shift or change of direction, it is equally evident that -the center of the storm is approaching directly toward that point. In a -similar situation at sea, a shipmaster would naturally see that his -vessel was in a position of great danger: evidently the best thing to -do would be to run before the wind, thus getting out of the way of the -approaching hurricane. This simple case will explain pretty clearly, I -think, how rules were at once formulated and adopted, as soon as -Redfield had proved the approximately circular character of these storms.</p> - -<p>Without going further into this subject, inasmuch as this 8-point rule -is perhaps the most important of all the rules—indeed, all of them -follow directly from it,—suppose that subsequent research, based upon -careful observation and the accurate charting of hundreds of reports -from vessels in similar storms in various oceans, proved conclusively -that the wind in a hurricane does not blow in strictly circular whirls, -but rather spirally inward, so that with a NE. wind off Hatteras the -center bears probably S SE., or even South: evidently this is a matter -of vital importance to the navigator, and all the old rules should be -remodeled to suit the discovery. Such is, indeed, actually the fact, -and in most cases nothing could be worse than to run directly before -the wind; in any event it would be dangerous, and in the case of a -slow-moving cyclone it might readily lead the vessel directly into the -core of the hurricane. This is known to have been the case in many -instances, and vessels have thus been drawn into the inner whirls of -hurricanes and kept there for several days, making one or more complete -revolutions around the center before they could extricate themselves. -In fact, they might never have gotten out, if the storm itself had not -moved off and left them.</p> - -<p>The first of the accompanying plates, entitled,</p> - -<center>W<small>EST</small> I<small>NDIAN</small> H<small>URRICANES, -AND OTHER</small> N<small>ORTH</small> A<small>TLANTIC</small> -S<small>TORMS</small>,</center> - -<p>gives a brief and yet complete résumé of what is perhaps the best -modern practice. In these brief statements the attempt has been made to -put concisely, intelligibly, and <i>completely</i> (if one will but read -each and every sentence as carefully as they were written), the very -latest, most important, and best-established facts, with which every -navigator should be familiar. The paragraph entitled "Intensified -trade-wind belt," for instance, is very important. A close -consideration of the caution expressed in these few lines may prevent a -serious mistake that might be made by a too rigid adherence to the old -rules. The idea is as follows: It has been proved by Meldrum, from his -studies of Mauritius hurricanes, that the SE. trade-winds blow toward a -part of the <i>track</i> of a hurricane, rather than at right angles to the -direction of its center, and it is therefore unsafe to assume that the -center bears at right angles to the wind, or that, because the trade -wind increases in strength without any decided change of direction, the -center is approaching directly toward the vessel. This principle might -naturally be expected to hold for similar storms in other regions, and -Abercromby, in a thorough study of the whole subject, has shown that -such is the case, although he states that "the position of this belt -[of intensified trades] differs in every hurricane region, so that a -special set of rules are necessary for each country." It seems to me, I -must say, that in the absence of such special rules the law may safely -be assumed to be general; its importance to navigators is certainly -very great, and its principal effect must be to urge the greatest -caution in making any attempt to cross the track of a hurricane, from -the dangerous to the navigable semicircle.</p> -<br> -<center><img src="images/13.jpg" alt="logo"></center> - -<h4>WEST INDIAN HURRICANES, AND OTHER NORTH ATLANTIC STORMS.</h4> - -<center><b>From the Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, August, 1889, with -Additional Paragraphs.</b></center> - -<blockquote><small><b>Explanation</b>.—These diagrams are for practical use in West Indian -hurricanes. The upper one will also answer for ordinary storms along -the transatlantic route. The small arrows fly with the wind, the -direction being stated at the end of each dotted line; the long arrow -on each diagram is the <small>STORM TRACK</small>, that is, the probable path of the -cyclone through the belt of latitude to which the diagram applies.</small></blockquote> - -<table align="left" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="west indian hurricanes"> - <tr> - <td width="392" align="center"> - <img src="images/05.jpg" alt="High latitutdes"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="392"> - <small>J<small>UNE</small> and O<small>CTOBER</small>, - lat. 23° to 55°. J<small>ULY</small> and S<small>EPT</small>., lat. - 29° to 55°. A<small>UGUST</small>, lat. 33° to 55°. S<small>TORM TRACK</small>, N NE. to E NE. Motion - of storm center along track, 20 to 30 miles per hour.</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="392" align="center"> - <img src="images/06.jpg" alt="Mid latitudes"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="392"> - <small>J<small>UNE</small> and O<small>CTOBER</small>, - lat. 20° to 23°. J<small>ULY</small> and S<small>EPT</small>., lat. - 27° to 29°. A<small>UGUST</small>, lat. 30° to 33°. S<small>TORM TRACK</small>, N NW. to N NE. Motion - of storm center along track, 5 to 10 miles per hour.</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="392" align="center"> - <img src="images/07.jpg" alt="Low latitudes"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="392"> - <small>J<small>UNE</small> and O<small>CTOBER</small>, - lat. 10° to 20°. J<small>ULY</small> and S<small>EPT</small>., lat. - 10° to 27°. A<small>UGUST</small>, lat. 10° to 30°. S<small>TORM TRACK</small>, W. by N. to N NW. Motion - of storm center along track, about 17 miles per hour.</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="392" align="center"> - <small>[<i>Edition of July, 1890.</i>]</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small><b>Use of the Diagrams</b>.—When a falling barometer, freshening rain -squalls, &c., indicate a hurricane, select the proper diagram -(according to the <small>MONTH</small> and <small>LATITUDE</small>), plot your position upon it by -means of the direction of the wind, and thus ascertain the approximate -bearing of the storm center. The probable storm track is indicated by -the long arrow. If the wind shift, plot your position by means of the -new wind-direction (nearer the center if the wind has freshened and the -barometer has fallen). In this way you can readily observe every change -of position relative to the storm center, and decide what action to -take, according to the character of your vessel, the lay of the land, -&c. These storms vary greatly in size, but are smallest and most -violent in the tropics, where the cloud ring averages about 500 miles -in diameter and the region of stormy winds 300 miles, or even less. You -can therefore only roughly estimate the <small>DISTANCE</small> of the center, -although its <small>BEARING</small> can be obtained from the diagrams with a high -degree of probability. There is also considerable variation in the -direction of motion and the velocity of the storm along its track, but -the general tendency is as stated herewith.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><b>Cyclonic Circulation</b>.—One of the most important indications that an -approaching storm is of hurricane violence is the marked cyclonic -circulation of the wind, lower and upper clouds, etc. This may be -easily appreciated by remembering that a cyclone of any great intensity -is an ascending spiral whirl, with a rotary motion (in the Northern -Hemisphere) against the hands of a watch, as shown on the diagrams. The -surface wind, therefore, blows spirally inward (<i>not</i> circularly, -except very near the center); the next upper current (carrying the low -scud and rain clouds), in almost an exact circle about the center; the -next higher current (the high cumulus), in an outward spiral—and so -on, up to the highest cirrus clouds, which radiate directly outward. -The angle of divergence between the successive currents is almost -exactly two points of the compass. Ordinarily, with a surface wind from -N., for instance, the low clouds come from N., also; on the edge of a -hurricane, however, they come from N NE., <i>invariably</i>. In rear of a -hurricane, the wind blows more nearly inward; with a SE. wind, for -instance, the center will bear about W., the low clouds coming from S -SE. (two points to the right of the wind), etc. Great activity of -movement of the upper clouds, while the storm is still distant, -indicates that the hurricane is of great violence. If the cirrus plumes -that radiate from the distant storm are faint and opalescent in tint, -fading gradually behind a slowly thickening haze or veil, the -approaching storm is an old one of large area; if of snowy whiteness, -projected against a clear blue sky, it is a young cyclone of small area -but great intensity.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><b>Intensified Trade-wind Belt</b>.—Another very important fact (established -by Meldrum, at Mauritius) may be stated thus: When a hurricane is -moving along the equatorial limits of a trade-wind region, there is a -belt of intensified trades to windward of its track: not until the -barometer has fallen about six-tenths of an inch it is safe to assume -that, because the trade-wind increases in force and remains steady in -direction, you are on the track of the storm. By attempting too early -to cross its track, running free as soon as the wind begins to freshen, -you are liable to plunge directly into the vortex of the hurricane.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><b>General Information</b>.—Hurricanes are especially liable to be -encountered from July to October, inclusive, in the tropics (north of -the 10th parallel), the Gulf of Mexico, and Gulf Stream region. -Earliest indications: Barometer above the normal, with cool, very -clear, pleasant weather; a long, low, ocean swell from the direction of -the distant storm; light, feathery cirrus clouds, radiating from a -point on the horizon where a whitish arc indicates the bearing of the -center. Unmistakable signs: Falling barometer; halos about the sun and -moon; increasing ocean swell; hot, moist weather, with light variable -winds; deep red and violet tints at dawn and sunset; a heavy, -mountainous cloud bank on the distant horizon; barometer falling more -rapidly, with passing rain squalls.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><b>Brief Rules for Action</b>.—If the squalls freshen without any shift of -wind, you are on the storm track: run off with the wind on the -starboard quarter and keep your compass course (see caution in -paragraph entitled "Intensified Trade-wind Belt"). If the wind shift to -the right, you are to the right of the storm track: put the ship on the -starboard tack and make as much headway as possible, until obliged to -lie-to. If the wind shift to the left, you are to the left of the storm -track: bring the wind on the starboard quarter and keep your compass -course; if obliged to lie-to, do so on the port tack. In scudding, -always keep the wind well on the starboard quarter, in order to run out -of the storm. Always lie-to on the coming-up tack. Use oil to prevent -heavy seas from breaking on board.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The next plate,</p> - -<center>T<small>HE</small> H<small>URRICANE OF</small> N<small>OVEMBER 25, 1888</small>,</center> - -<p>is a very instructive illustration of an actual hurricane, and one of -the most severe on record off our Atlantic coast. The spiral lines have -been added to bring out conspicuously the wind-circulation, and several -features will at once attract attention: the elongated shape of the -storm, along a north and south line (the direction of motion); the wide -region where there is a southeasterly gale (exactly analogous to the -belt of intensified trades); the long sweep of northeasterly winds -along the coast; and the marked variation from a strictly circular -whirl. The right-hand side is the dangerous semicircle, and it is here -that the navigator is called upon to decide whether he shall dare make -the attempt to run before the wind and cross the track of the storm; -the left-hand side is the navigable semicircle,—not very <i>navigable</i> -in this particular case, we may well believe, with no sea-room to the -westward, a fearful N NE. gale, and a terrific sea. This is a case -where every resource of seamanship and navigation may fail to save a -ship, as the loss of the steamship "Samana" and a dozen other strong -vessels, with all on board, bears sad testimony. Let me quote a few -lines from a thrilling report by Captain Drew, of the American ship -"Sea Witch" (this vessel's position is plotted on the chart about lat. -32° N., long. 75° W.): "Nov. 24: Hurricane from NE.; our position a -perilous one, the ship rolling heavily and filling the decks with -water; an awful gale, the worst we have ever had,—how will it end? At -3 <small>P.M.</small>, the sun out a moment through the thick sky. Nov. 25: Still -blowing a hurricane, with awful squalls of rain; the seventh day of the -gale. No side-lights can burn; the binnacle-light goes out as fast as -we can light it. One blast from the north blew our brand-new -lower-maintopsail away like brown paper. We performed the critical -manoeuver of wearing ship, which saved the vessel: we were foundering." -Verily, this was "out of the jaws of death," and probably there were -few more sincere thanksgiving services than those held on board this -vessel on Nov. 29th, 1888, as recorded in her log. One other report may -be referred to here, as it is of especial interest. It is from the -British steamship "Effective," whose position is plotted about half way -between Bermuda and New York. At this time the wind was S SE., force 8, -and the storm center was moving directly toward her. We learn from -Captain Crosby's report that by noon, local time, the wind was strong -from south; at 4:30 <small>P.M.</small>, a hard gale from east, moderating until -midnight, barometer falling very rapidly. Nov. 26th, very heavy gale -from NE., ship heading bow to sea; noon, wind east, barometer 28.60; 5 -<small>P.M.</small>, wind N NE., 28.20; 10 <small>P.M.</small>, SW.; midnight, W., 28.20. This report -illustrates the experience of a vessel close to the line of sudden -shift of wind from SE. to N NE., and sustains very well the spiral -lines drawn on the chart, just where there is an absence of data on the -chart itself.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="hurricane of November 1888"> - <tr> - <td width="796"> - <img src="images/08.jpg" alt="hurricane of November 1888"> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small>T<small>HE</small> H<small>URRICANE</small> S<small>EASON</small>.—June may be fairly said to be the first of the -five hurricane months in the North Atlantic, and the above diagram is -presented in order to call special attention to the Law of Storms, -especially to certain important modifications of the old laws. The -spiral lines indicate the general wind-circulation in this particular -hurricane, and the complete data presented on the Chart must convince -any one that conclusions based upon such evidence must be worthy of the -most careful consideration. This hurricane was one of the most severe -on record off our Atlantic coast, and, though much larger than a -hurricane in the tropics, similar evidence can be presented to show -that the 8-point rule is seldom a safe guide for obtaining the bearing -of the center; a 10-point or even a 12-point rule is generally better, -although the 8-point rule is fairly correct if applied to the direction -of the low clouds, rather than the wind. The long sweep of NE'ly winds -along the coast, when there is a hurricane below Hatteras, is a very -characteristic and important feature. With a NE'ly wind off Block -Island, for instance, it should not be assumed that the center bears -SE.: the Chart shows that it may be almost due south. There is likewise -a wide region where the wind is from the SE., and a vessel running -before this steady SE. wind would plunge deeper and deeper into the -hurricane. Similarly in the trades, to windward of the track of a -hurricane: not until the barometer has fallen about 6-tenths of an inch -is it safe to assume that, because the trade-wind increases in force -and remains steady in direction, you are on the track of the storm; by -attempting too early to cross its track, running free as soon as the -wind begins to freshen, you are liable to plunge directly into the -vortex.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Lack of space does not allow of further details, and I must go on to -the next plate,</p> - -<center>T<small>HE</small> S<small>T</small>. T<small>HOMAS</small>-H<small>ATTERAS</small> -H<small>URRICANE OF</small> S<small>EPT. 3–12, 1889</small>.</center> - -<p>This plate is copied exactly from a Supplement issued with the Pilot -Chart for October, 1889 (published Sept. 27th), with only the addition -of the tracks of the two storms (as indicated by later data) and the -tracks of a few vessels (see small charts dated Sept. 3, 4–7, 10). -Considering the early date of publication, the wide expanse of ocean -covered by the charts, and their essential accuracy (as indicated by -later data), it must be acknowledged, I think, by anyone who is at all -acquainted with the difficulties incident to this sort of work, that -this supplement to the Pilot Chart hit more closely to the truth in -this matter than would probably be possible under similar circumstances -in one case out of ten. Had later data materially modified conclusions -drawn at such an early date, it could not have been a matter of -surprise, although this prompt publication would still have served a -most valuable purpose in interesting navigators to contribute data -likely to help us in establishing the facts. Indeed, the following -quotations from the Pilot Chart and Supplement illustrate exactly what -was desired, and what was actually accomplished by this publication: -"This preliminary publication, issued two weeks after the storm reached -our coast, well illustrates the cordial support this office receives -from masters of vessels in its efforts to collect and utilize data -regarding marine meteorology. It is desired to collect as complete data -as possible regarding this storm, in order to publish a final report, -and the present publication will be useful as a good working basis for -a more complete detailed study of the hurricane." Also, "Special -attention is called to the fact that this preliminary publication is -only intended to give a brief outline of the facts as indicated by data -received up to date of publication." Moreover, the name, nationality, -and rig of every vessel whose report had been received in time to be -used was published, and every statement made in the accompanying text -was based on an exhaustive study of all the data.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to note how slightly the very complete data now at -hand have modified this hastily-prepared history, and all the -circumstances urge similar quick work and prompt publication in every -case, before other storms and other conditions have dulled public -interest and directed attention elsewhere. The track of the easternmost -of the two storms, as plotted on the first little chart, shows that it -moved more rapidly than was anticipated, and recurved farther north: -the fact is, its very existence was not even suspected till <i>two hours</i> -before the final draft of the maps was made, and then only because the -German steamship "Savona," from Baltimore for Brazil, suffered such -damage from the hurricane on Sept. 5th (see chart dated Sept. 3rd for -position) that she was obliged to run in to St. Thomas for repairs, and -our consul, Mr. M. A. Turner, forwarded her report by the first steamer -to New York. The following is a brief extract from this report, -beginning at 10 <small>P.M.</small>, Sept. 4th: "Full hurricane, ship lying in trough -of sea, laboring heavily and shipping much water. Cargo shifted; -jettisoned 600 barrels of flour and 60 tons of coal. Broke steam -steering gear and wheel, found rudder adrift, 3 feet of water in the -hold, foundations of engines seriously loose and getting worse. Bore up -for St. Thomas."</p> - -<p>It is impossible, in the space at my disposal, to refer even briefly to -the reports of the few vessels whose tracks are plotted on the charts: -the stanch steamship "Earnmoor," foundering in the heart of the -hurricane on Sept. 5th, eleven of her crew of thirty escaping in an -open boat, and of these only seven surviving that fearful drift of -twenty-three days; the "Sépet," between the two storms and escaping -both; the "Lassell," from the tropics to Block Island, all the way in -the grasp of the hurricane, without a sight of sun, moon, or stars, to -fix her position; the "Ada Bailey," rolling in the long swell off -Hatteras and watching the early indications of the approaching storm -for nearly a week before it struck her; the "Hernan Cortes," forced to -stand off into fearful danger by the still greater danger of a -lee-shore at Hatteras; and the "City of New York," "Teutonic," and -"City of Rome," starting on their Titanic race from Liverpool for New -York the day after this great hurricane swept past St. Thomas, and -reaching their goal with it, and in spite of all its fury. I must -dismiss this whole interesting history with the following abstract of -the report of Capt. Simmons, of the British brigantine "Victoria," -whose original report is brief and to the point, like all the rest (see -track of the "Victoria," northwest from St. Thomas, on the first small -chart):</p> - -<blockquote><small>I passed through the cyclone, resulting in the total loss of the spars, -sails, etc., of my vessel. The SE. sea became so heavy that I was -obliged to heave-to. The sky was one sheet of dark gray, at times -approaching black. The lightning was excessive only during the latter -part of the storm; it appeared as a continuous quivering sheet around a -great part of the horizon, extending about 10° above it and lasting -many seconds, unaccompanied by thunder; the compass could not be read, -the card spinning so that the points were indistinguishable. The lowest -barometer reading was 27.86 (aneroid, corrected by comparison at Boston -shortly before and at Halifax the following month).</small></blockquote> - -<h4>THE ST. THOMAS-HATTERAS HURRICANE OF SEPTEMBER 3–12, 1889.</h4> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="1889 part a"> - <tr> - <td width="515"> - <img src="images/09a.jpg" alt="Sept. 3"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="515"> - <small><i>Sept. 3</i>.—A hurricane of great intensity is passing -close to the northward of St. Thomas, moving about W. NW. Lowest -barometer at St. Thomas during the day, 28.97. Steepest observed -barometric gradient (between St. Thomas and Puerto Rico), .75 inch in -65 miles. The cyclone is a large one, and of terrific energy,—an -enormous whirlwind more than 500 miles in diameter, with a central calm -area about 16 miles in diameter. It was experienced with destructive -violence amongst the Windward Islands, from Martinique to Barbuda, on -the 2d, and the vortex passed over St. Christopher's about midnight, -the central calm lasting from 10.15 p.m. of the 2d till 12.45 a.m. of -the 3d. There are evidences of another hurricane about 1,000 miles -eastward of the first, moving about W. NW.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="1889 part b"> - <tr> - <td width="528"> - <img src="images/09b.jpg" alt="Sept. 4"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="528"> - <small><i>Sept. 4</i>.—The hurricane is central north of Puerto -Rico, where strong northerly, westerly, and southerly gales are -experienced, but not of full hurricane force. During the forenoon its -massive, towering cloud-bank is clearly visible from Turk's island, 300 -miles away, causing great alarm till it is seen to be moving well to -the northward of the island. A violent storm in Santo Domingo this -afternoon seems to be either an offshoot from the cyclone or the effect -of another storm crossing the island to join the great -hurricane—possibly a storm that was felt at Curaçao the previous day. -The second hurricane has continued its motion toward W. NW. and its -present position is clearly indicated about the eastern limits of the -Chart.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="1889 part c"> - <tr> - <td width="524"> - <img src="images/09c.jpg" alt="Sept. 5"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="524"> - <small><i>Sept. 5</i>.—The hurricane is moving rather slowly along -a northwesterly course, toward Hatteras. The enormous seas started by -the great whirlwind during its progress thus far have overspread almost -the entire western half of the Atlantic: heavy northeasterly swell at -Jamaica and through the Windward Channel; northeasterly and easterly, -all along the Bahama Islands and northern Florida; very heavy surf at -Bermuda; long rolling swell from S. SE. off Hatteras, perceptible as -early as the 2d and increasing daily; long, low southerly swell off -Nantucket as early as the 4th, when the storm-center was 1,300 miles -away. The second hurricane is moving northwestward, and is beginning to -recurve about 600 miles S. E. from Bermuda.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="1889 part d"> - <tr> - <td width="517"> - <img src="images/09d.jpg" alt="Sept. 6"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="517"> - <small><i>Sept. 6</i>.—The concentric isobars on the Chart show -that the hurricane is now central about midway between Bermuda and -Eastern Cuba, with barometric pressure at the center probably below -28.40. All the characteristics of a tropical cyclone are still -exhibited, and to a marked degree: storm area noticeably circular in -outline; very steep gradients and enormous wind velocities near the -center; sudden shifts of the wind in terrific squalls; heavy driving -rain mingled with foam caught up from the crests of the waves; sky of -inky blackness, with masses of flying scud so low as to touch the -masts. Close by, in front, and on either side, calm, sultry, hazy -weather, with a tremendous swell rolling in from the direction of the -distant but massive cloud-bank of the hurricane. A long ridge of high -pressure is building up to the northward of the hurricanes.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="1889 part e"> - <tr> - <td width="498"> - <img src="images/09e.jpg" alt="Sept. 7"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="498"> - <small><i>Sept. 7</i>.—The hurricane continues its slow but steady -march toward Hatteras. Yesterday morning the observer at Santiago de -Cuba reported the cyclone recurving. This morning the meteorologist at -Havana, 900 miles away, reports the cyclone's movements, guided by the -motions of the upper clouds,—the cirrus veil that overspreads the -entire sky with a thick haze, and the long feathery plumes of cirrus -cloud that are faintly visible above it, radiating from the distant -storm. The influence of the great hurricane begins to be felt along the -outer edge of the Gulf Stream, below Hatteras. A heavy surf is rolling -in on the coast all the way from Cape Florida to Block Island, and the -long southerly swell has reached beyond Sable Island to Cape Breton. -The second hurricane is moving NEd., and a ridge of high pressure is -extending Sd. between the two.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="1889 part f"> - <tr> - <td width="518"> - <img src="images/09f.jpg" alt="Sept. 8"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="518"> - <small><i>Sept. 8</i>.—The hurricane is central about the axis of -the Gulf Stream, off Hatteras. The area of high barometer in advance is -retarding its northward progress, and preventing it from recurving to -the northeastward. The heavy surf and the increased height of the -tides, due to the storm-wave of the hurricane, begin to attract general -attention and to cause damage along the low-lying portions of the coast -between Norfolk and Newport; warm, moist ocean air is being driven in -over the cold inshore current, and dense fogs are encountered off the -coast north of the 35th parallel. The storm is losing a little of its -tropical intensity, but its area is increasing and winds of hurricane -force are raging over a vast area between Hatteras and Bermuda.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="1889 part g"> - <tr> - <td width="530"> - <img src="images/09g.jpg" alt="Sept. 9"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="530"> - <small><i>Sept. 9</i>.—The storm is still raging with great -violence between Nantucket, Hatteras, and Bermuda. Tremendous seas and -tides are driving in on the coast. It is blowing with hurricane force -close in shore near Hatteras. The storm-center is still moving -northward, but more slowly, and the great area of high barometer into -which the hurricane has forced its way stands fast, the pressure rising -to 30.30 over the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the isobar of 30.00 reaching -south on either side well down toward the tropics. To the -northwestward, northward, and northeastward, close to the outer limits -of the great whirlwind, warm, sultry weather prevails, with calms or light, -variable winds, hazy weather, and barometer above the normal.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="1889 part h"> - <tr> - <td width="522"> - <img src="images/09h.jpg" alt="Sept. 10"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="522"> - <small><i>Sept. 10</i>.—The hurricane seems to be gathering all its -strength for a last desperate struggle to force its way along its -normal track to the northeast. The wind-arrows plotted on the Chart -illustrate very graphically the marked circular character of the great -whirlwind. The storm-wave, or general elevation of the oceanic surface -caused by the in-rushing and whirling winds, and the reduced barometric -pressure (acting as a partial vacuum), bank up the water in the bight -of the coast about Sandy Hook, and cause the greatest floods on record -at many places along the eastern coast of New Jersey and the southern -shore of Long Island.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="1889 part i"> - <tr> - <td width="509"> - <img src="images/09i.jpg" alt="Sept. 11"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="509"> - <small><i>Sept. 11</i>.—The barometric pressure at the storm-center -has increased noticeably. The low area is filled up, and the barometric -gradients are very much less steep. Very few winds of full hurricane -force are reported. The storm-center has moved in toward shore, -however, and stormy winds are still felt along the coast. The clouds -are breaking away in places, and the cyclonic circulation is no longer -so well marked. The warm waters of the Gulf Stream have been driven in -toward the coast off Block Island by the long-continued and furious -southeasterly gales on the right of the storm track, and, mingling with -the cold in-shore current, cause dense fogs and squally, unsettled -weather.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="1889 part j"> - <tr> - <td width="510"> - <img src="images/09j.jpg" alt="Sept. 11"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="510"> - <small><i>Sept. 12</i>.—The great hurricane has blown itself out, -and although a few reports still give a force of wind as high as 10 of -Beaufort's scale, the storm has practically ended. The remnants drift -inland during the 13th and 14th, with cloudy, rainy weather in eastern -Virginia and Maryland. It leaves a mountainous cross-sea that lasts for -several days, a coast line strewn with wreckage and already some twenty -additions have been made to the list of derelicts and drifting wrecks -whose positions are plotted on the Pilot Chart as a caution to -navigators. How many vessels it wrecked at sea can never be fully -known, but its entire track is marked by wrecks and wreckage.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The importance to navigators of a true appreciation of the law of -storms—not the mere memorization of a set of rules, but an intelligent -comprehension of the subject—is now perhaps clearly evident to the -reader: at any rate, that is the object I have aimed at, rather than a -mere formal statement of generally accepted principles and an abstruse -discussion of isobars and gradients.</p> - -<p>It will be seen that <i>the probable bearing of the center, as indicated -by the direction of the wind at a single station</i>, is the great -question, so far as the navigator is concerned. There are men who want -and must have a hard-and-fast rule,—an 8-point, a 10-point, or a -12-point rule—something to act on without thought, while every nerve -is strained to save the ship's spars, sails, boats, engines, and cargo, -from damage or destruction. Under such circumstances, I think that -perhaps the safest general plan is to use the old 8-point rule, but -<i>applied to the low clouds, instead of to the wind</i>. This is -equivalent, generally speaking, to a 10-point rule, applied to the -wind. That any such rule, if intended for general application, is only -roughly approximate, goes without saying, or ought to do so, at least. -The angle of bearing changes in different parts of the storm, it varies -with the quadrant, with the latitude, with different storms, and with -various other conditions, too numerous to be mentioned or even wholly -known. One good general rule is that in rear of a hurricane the wind -blows somewhat decidedly toward it; and yet that there are marked -exceptions is well illustrated by the chart of the hurricane of -November 25, 1888, already referred to. As a good example of the wind -circulation in a hurricane in the tropics the accompanying diagram is -of interest. This represents two days (the 3d and 5th) of the great -Cuban hurricane of September, 1888, the intervening day (September 4th) -being omitted, for the sake of clearness. Its severity is sufficiently -indicated by the fact that it caused the loss of fully a thousand lives -in Cuba, and destroyed property of the estimated value of $5,000,000 in -the single province of Sagua. Now take any point on any one of these -spiral lines, and observe the bearing of the center: in rear of the -storm, especially, the 8-point rule is hardly applicable, and action -based upon it might result disastrously.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Cuban Hurricane"> - <tr> - <td width="697"> - <img src="images/04.jpg" alt="Cuban Hurricane"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="697"> - <small>The Cuban Hurricane of September, 1888, illustrating the - surface wind-circulation on September 3d and 5th, at noon, Greenwich mean time.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The next and last plate, entitled,</p> - -<center>H<small>URRICANES IN THE</small> N<small>ORTH</small> -A<small>TLANTIC</small>.—T<small>YPICAL</small> -C<small>IRCULATION OF THE</small> W<small>IND</small>, -<small>FROM</small> A<small>CTUAL</small> O<small>BSERVATION</small>,</center> - -<p>gives a still more complete illustration of the wind-circulation in -hurricanes, with a brief discussion of the application of the 8-point -rule. Especial attention is called to the statement made thereon -(referring, of course, to hurricanes in the North Atlantic, but no -doubt true for the entire Northern Hemisphere) that</p> - -<blockquote><small>"although the 8-point rule is nearly true when the wind is anywhere -from north to south by way of west (that is, generally speaking, in the -navigable semicircle), it is liable to be a very poor guide when the -wind is from any point in the first or second quadrant."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Also to the following, which is applicable to the Southern Hemisphere -by the substitution of "to the left" for "to the right:"</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Perhaps the best general rule is that the center bears about eight -points to the right of the direction from which the low clouds come, -or, what is practically the same thing, eight points to the right of -the wind at the moment of a sudden shift in a heavy squall; after such -a shift the wind will remain steady in direction for a time, but the -center is meanwhile moving along and the angle of bearing changes until -the next shift, when it goes again to eight points, and so on."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Such diagrams, carefully prepared from complete and reliable data, are -of far greater practical value to navigators than volumes of -explanation: they appeal to the eye and will live in memory long after -ideas conveyed by printed words have been forgotten.</p> - -<h4>HURRICANES IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC.—TYPICAL CIRCULATION OF THE -WIND, FROM ACTUAL OBSERVATION.</h4> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="typical circulation"> - <tr> - <td width="799" align="center"> - <small>[From the Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, July, 1890.]</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="799"> - <img src="images/10.jpg" alt="Sept. 11"> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small>The above diagrams have been prepared from a large number of -observations in order to illustrate the actual circulation of the wind -in hurricanes, as a practical guide for navigators during the present -hurricane season. The small chart that was presented on the Pilot Chart -last month gave all the observations upon which the spiral lines were -based for that particular hurricane (Nov. 25, 1888), and the same -method has been followed here, only the observations themselves are -omitted, for the sake of clearness. Perhaps the most important point to -notice is that the surface wind blows in an inward spiral curve, and -not circularly, except very near the center. The center therefore -generally bears more than eight points to the right of the wind. -Another very important point is the fact that although the 8-point rule -is nearly true when the wind is anywhere from <i>North to South by way of -West</i> (that is, generally speaking, in the navigable semicircle), it is -liable to be a very poor guide when the wind is from any point in the -first or second quadrant. With the wind from NE., for instance, the -center may bear anywhere from South to SE.; with the wind East it may -bear from SW. to South; and with the wind SE. it may bear SW., West, or -even (in the tropics) W NW. Perhaps the best general rule is that the -center bears about eight points to the right of the direction from -which the low clouds come, or, what is practically the same thing, -eight points to the right of the wind at the moment of a sudden shift -in a heavy squall; after such a shift the wind will remain steady in -direction for a time, but the center is meanwhile moving along and the -angle of bearing changes until the next shift, when it goes again to -eight points, and so on.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>It will be noticed that the northernmost of these two hurricanes was -moving very slowly during the two days selected for illustration: had -it been moving faster, the in-draught (or departure from the circular -direction) would no doubt have been somewhat less in advance and -considerably greater in rear than what is indicated. It is exceptional -also to find a storm in this region growing smaller, as this seems to -have done on Sept. 10th; it died out altogether in a few days, instead -of continuing its motion toward E NE., as is usually the case. In the -tropics the usual progressive motion is about W. by N., and this, -together with the steady increase in size, is well illustrated in the -case of the Cuban hurricane; it should be noted, however, that the -interval is here two days, and not one, as in the upper diagram.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>Masters of vessels are earnestly requested to keep regular observations -for this Office during the hurricane season, even if only position, -wind, weather, and barometer, at noon, G. M. T., are noted. A single -additional report often adds greatly to the completeness of the data -used in preparing these diagrams.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Finally, let us look for a moment at two sketches that I have made to -give a graphic and I hope not incorrect idea of the cloud formation and -the internal structure of a hurricane. In both sketches the vertical -scale is of course greatly exaggerated. The first illustrates -particularly the great cloud bank (with the "bull's eye," or clear -central space, shown in cross-section); the storm-wave or general -elevation of the surface of the ocean caused by the spirally in-blowing -winds and low barometric pressure (the cause, oftentimes, of fearful -floods along low-lying coasts); and the probable, or possible, -circulation of the upper atmosphere over the whirl, together with the -direct and reflected rays of a vertical sun as they pour into the -central calm. The second sketch is to aid a clear mental conception of -the actual motions of the particles of air as they flow inward below, -whirl about the central core and flow outward above; this may help to -free the mind from an erroneous idea that may be suggested by thinking -of or seeing the enormous, piled-up, apparently stationary mass that -constitutes the <i>barra</i>, or cloud-bank of the hurricane, but which is -really only the stationary and visible <i>locus</i> where the conditions are -such that the whirling, rushing masses of humid atmosphere condense -their tons of aqueous vapor and leave it, as they pass upward and -outward. It is analogous to the cloud-cap, or banner, that hangs -stationary over a lofty mountain peak, although if you visit the peak -you may there find a living gale of wind.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="a hurricane"> - <tr> - <td width="698"> - <img src="images/11.jpg" alt="A hurricane"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="698"> - <small>Sketch, in cross-section, to illustrate the - cloud-formation, storm-wave, etc., in a hurricane. The dotted lines - represent the probable circulation of the upper atmosphere.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="perspective"> - <tr> - <td width="699"> - <img src="images/12.jpg" alt="Perspective"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="699"> - <small>Sketch, in perspective, to illustrate graphically the - lower-atmosphere-wind-circulation in a hurricane. The inward spiral at - the base is the surface wind.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In both of these sketches my object has been to try to convey an idea -of the marked individuality, symmetry, and intensity of a tropic -cyclone, and its grasp upon and intimate connection with the ocean, -which it joins to the upper atmosphere by a huge, hollow trunk, with -widely extended roots and spreading branches,—no doubt an enormous and -effective conductor of atmospheric electricity, too, whose power is -quickly shattered and destroyed by contact with the land; the notable -absence of thunder (illustrated by the report of the "Victoria," quoted -above) is of interest in this connection. If I have succeeded in this, -and thereby given a clearer idea to the casual reader or suggested a -fertile train of thought to any physicist, I shall feel more than -repaid for the effort.</p> - -<p>I have thus attempted little more than to touch upon the practical side -of this great question, and this in a popular way, to induce my readers -to follow me to the end. The many other interesting questions that -might be raised and discussed must here be left untouched. Our efforts -in the Hydrographic Office must be primarily to help the navigator, and -only secondarily to try to collect and publish facts for the scientist -to study at his leisure. The causes of these terrific storms are of -interest to us as they may help us to predict their coming, rather than -for the proof of any theory, or the gratification of any pet idea. And -if Science will but improve the Law of Storms, as practical men use it -for the guidance of their vessels and the safety of the lives and -cargoes intrusted to their care, it will be one more welcome proof that -theory and practice go hand in hand.</p> -<br> -<br><a name="chap3"></a> -<br> -<br> -<h3>THE IRRIGATION PROBLEM IN MONTANA.</h3> - -<center>B<small>Y</small> H. M. W<small>ILSON</small>.</center> -<br> - -<p>The development of the irrigation resources of a region under the -supervision of the Government, requires study of the social and -political conditions and of the industrial occupations of its -inhabitants.</p> - -<p>The determination of the best plan for the utilization of its waters -and agricultural lands is a problem in irrigation engineering. The -solution of this problem calls for an intimate knowledge not only of -the best methods of construction, but also of the values of its various -agricultural products and soils; for a knowledge of its rainfall, -evaporation, and steam volumes and of the duty of water. It further -requires such an understanding of the topography of the region as will -enable the engineer to determine the area of the catchment basin of -each stream, and to intelligently select sites for the construction of -canals and storage reservoirs and to determine from what source of -water supply each district may be best irrigated.</p> - -<p>Experience and practice in various parts of the world have already -proven that irrigation enterprises, undertaken on a large scale by -private capital have seldom been remunerative investments, in fact, -have frequently been financial failures. This is due to many causes -among which may be mentioned the fact that, though all the irrigable -land may be finally settled and the works made to do their highest -duty, taxes must be paid for many years and considerable sums expended -annually for maintenance before the entire amount of available water is -utilized, and interest is realized on the whole expenditure.</p> - -<p>Most of the successful irrigation enterprises undertaken in the United -States owe their prosperity to the ownership and sale of lands under -their canals. In order to secure a proper remuneration to the capital -which provides the water, and an efficient water service to the farmer -who uses it with justice to both interests, State legislation must -fully define the rights and responsibilities of appropriators, the -units and methods of measuring the flow of streams, granting the right -of way and appointing proper officers to see that the various laws are -enforced.</p> - -<p>That irrigation enterprises will have great and rapid development in -Montana in the near future will be readily perceived from the facts -shown later on in this article, while I am fully convinced that it is -now entering on that period. The histories of both California and -Colorado have shown that great mining activity have brought to them a -large population who were enabled to gain a livelihood by mining -pursuits, while the demand for farm products created by the miners, -caused these people to turn their attention to agriculture, which is -now rapidly surpassing in money value the output of the mines.</p> - -<p>In California in the "fifties" mining was the supreme and only -occupation, to-day agriculture is her mainstay; in the early -"seventies" the same was true of Colorado, and now agriculture is -rapidly becoming her most important industry. While Montana is to-day -in the van in mining resources and output, the time for the supremacy -of agriculture within her borders has received an increased impetus by -her recent accession to Statehood.</p> - -<p>In Montana the irrigation problem presents some features which are -scarcely encountered in any other country.</p> - -<p>Usually irrigation is practiced in semi-tropic and desert regions where -though water is scarce, the climate is such that a great variety of -agricultural products usually of the better paying varieties can be -raised, in consequence of which enormous sums may be spent in -irrigation works, thus imposing a heavy tax per acre on the land for -their construction, and still, such is the productiveness of these -regions, that the lands will yield fair profits.</p> - -<p>In Montana the reverse is the case, water is generally abundant though -sufficiently inaccessible in the larger streams to require extensive -works in order to render it available, while the land though equally -abundant also, will owing to the climate admit of the cultivation only -of the less profitable crops, mainly hay, grain and potatoes, in -consequence of which the cost of construction of the irrigation works -becomes a question of vital moment, since a tax of a few cents per acre -one way or the other will render the pursuit of agriculture a success -or a failure, and decide the fate of the irrigation enterprises.</p> - -<p>It is probable that $10.00 per acre for a water right in perpetuity, or -$2.00 per acre per annum for the use of water is the maximum charge -which the crops will bear.</p> -<br> - -<center>A<small>GRICULTURAL AND</small> M<small>INERAL</small> R<small>ESOURCES</small>.</center> - -<p>It will be advisable now to take a hasty glance at the State of -Montana, and see what are her agricultural capabilities and what need -exists for irrigation as a factor in their development.</p> - -<p>According to the report of the State Auditor for 1888 there were in -that year 143,700 horses and mules valued at $4,900,000; 488,500 cattle -valued at $9,060,000; 1,153,000 sheep valued at $2,165,000; 3,741,000 -acres of improved lands, valued inclusive of improvements at -$12,300,000; 55,000 town lots valued with improvements at $14,940,000; -and including all kinds of personal and real property a total -assessment for the State of $67,500,000.</p> - -<p>There were raised in the State during the same year 770,000 bushels of -wheat on 26,000 acres, an average yield of about 30 bushels per acre; -3,000,000 bushels of oats on 85,000 acres, an average yield of over 35 -bushels per acre; 843,000 bushels of potatoes on 3700 acres, or 230 -bushels per acre; and 6,000,000 lbs. of all other vegetables on 450 -acres; 235,000 tons of hay were cut, and 7,500 bushels of apples and -other fruits were raised, while 4,500,000 lbs. of wool were sheared.</p> - -<p>The gross receipt of the quartz mills were $20,300,000, the value of -the product of the reduction furnaces was $15,900,000 in bullion, and -the coal mines produced 500,000 bushels of coal.</p> - -<p>The wool product for the present year, 1889, exceeded in amount that of -any other State west of the Missouri River, and its quality was such -that it brought a higher price per pound than that of any other western -State, the price paid in California ranging from 15 to 17 cents per -pound against 20 to 23 cents paid in Montana.</p> - -<p>The accompanying table will show the relative value of the production -of precious metals in the three leading States during 1887, from which -it will be seen that Montana led Colorado by $4,200,000, and California -by $15,580,000.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="2" summary="metal production"> - <tr> - <td align="center"><small>1887</small>.</td> - <td align="center"><small>Montana</small>.</td> - <td align="center"><small>Colorado</small>.</td> - <td align="center"><small>California</small>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Silver</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>$15,500,000</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>$15,000,000</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>$1,500,000</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Gold</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5,230,000</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>4,000,000</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13,000,000</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Copper</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>8,970,000</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>400,000</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>180,000</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Lead</small></td> - <td align="right"><u><small> 630,000</small></u></td> - <td align="right"><u><small> 6,730,000</small></u></td> - <td align="right"><u><small> 70,000</small></u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Totals</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>$30,330,000</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>$26,130,000</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>$14,750,000</small></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Since 1887 Montana has been rapidly gaining in its lead, especially in -the production of copper, and it now leads not only in the total value -of the precious metals produced, but also in the values of the silver -and copper products separately, and is only surpassed by California in -the production of gold.</p> - -<p>While as shown above Montana produces large quantities of vegetables -and grain, its heavy mining population and vast herds of live stock -furnish a home market for all of its present product, in fact, during -this year many hundreds of tons of hay and carloads of grain are being -imported from the eastern States to feed the range stock during the -coming winter.</p> -<br> - -<center>T<small>OPOGRAPHY</small>.</center> - -<p>The topography of Montana is very different from what is generally -supposed by those who are not familiar with it, and this erroneous -impression is largely due to the fact that the country is very -mountainous in the older inhabited and better known portion of the -State, which lies in its southern corner near the Idaho and Wyoming -lines; this region was first inhabited by those pioneers of western -civilization, the prospector and miner, and in consequence of this and -of the wild grandeur of the Yellowstone National Park, the generally -preconceived notions of the topography and resources of the State are -of forests and streams teeming with game and fish, and rugged mountains -occupied by a few isolated mining camps and cattle ranches.</p> - -<p>On the contrary there are scattered over various parts of the State -many large towns, two of which, Butte and Helena, have each about -20,000 inhabitants, while only one-fourth of the area of the State is -over 5,000 feet in altitude, and at least two-thirds of it is below -4,000 feet.</p> - -<p>The mountainous district of the State, which occupies but two-fifths of -the total area, is in the southwestern portion; these mountains are in -fact but the last remnants of the great rockies breaking down from -Wyoming and Idaho and terminating in the broad flat plains of the -Saskatchewan River on the north, and of the Missouri River on the north -and east.</p> - -<p>It is in these great mountain ranges that the Clarke's Fork and Snake -Rivers, two of the principal branches of the Columbia, after rising in -the western and southern portions of the State join the Columbia on its -way to the Pacific Ocean; among these mountains in the northern portion -of the State the Saskatchewan River rises and flows thence to the -Arctic Ocean; while the great Missouri and one of its principal -branches, the Yellowstone River, rise in these mountains and after -flowing northward nearly to the British line turn and flow eastward and -join the Mississippi on its way to the Atlantic.</p> - -<p>The highest mountains in Montana are in Park, Gallatin, Madison and -Beaver Head Counties, in which latter the furthermost branches of the -Missouri, the Beaver Head and Big Hole Rivers, which form the Jefferson -river, have their sources at the summit of the Rocky mountains, and it -was here that those intrepid explorers, Lewis and Clarke, first crossed -the Continental Divide in 1805 to the headwaters of one of the branches -of the Snake river.</p> - -<p>In these counties a few of the highest peaks reach an elevation of -11,000 feet, and from here the main range of the Rockies bears off to -the north in a long, continuous and rugged ridge of sandstone and -porphyry, with extensive beds of limestone north of the headwaters of -the Dearborn River, and gradually falling off in elevation, until near -the British line the highest peaks are less than 7,000 feet above the sea.</p> - -<p>From this same axial point in the southwest corner a main spur or -branch of the Rockies, called the Bitter Root Mountains, bears -northwesterly and falling away in height, gives out with an elevation -of 2,200 feet in northern Missoula County where the Clarke's Fork river -leaves the State, cutting across the foot of this range.</p> - -<p>East of Madison and Jefferson Counties, and along the southern border -of the State, are numerous short mountain ranges, often 10,000 feet and -sometimes 11,000 feet in elevation, which have generally a north and -south trend and fall off near the middle of the State to a continuous, -broad, and nearly level high prairie, or as it is locally called "bench -land," which continues to fall slowly in the same direction.</p> - -<p>Do not imagine that these great ranges of mountains are wild and -uninhabited for such is not the case; they are merely great mountain -masses, and between, among and on top of them are other minor ranges of -mountains, usually having symmetrical and regularly sloping sides, -which are separated by broad, level and very fertile valleys, -everywhere inhabited and cultivated by the aid of irrigation, while -herds of cattle, horses and sheep graze on the hillsides.</p> - -<p>Even among the roughest mountains a man may travel alone on horseback -sure of finding shelter and food somewhere in the course of a day's -journey, as was done by the author during the past summer, when he rode -over 2,000 miles in various parts of the State. In the more rugged -places mining camps may be met with when everything else fails.</p> - -<p>At present these mountain valleys are the more thickly inhabited -portions of the country, both because of the mines and because farming -pursuits are more cheaply and conveniently followed owing to the -greater abundance of small and easily controlled streams of water, -which render irrigation possible even by the poorest settler. Only in -the southern portions of Gallatin and Park Counties are the mountains -so forbidding as to be uninhabited, and then in limited areas only.</p> - -<p>One of the remarkable characteristics of the Montana mountains is their -great regularity and smoothness of contour. It is probable that ice -action during the glacial period may have planed off the -irregularities, so characteristic of the elsewhere rugged outline of -the Rocky Mountains. Between these symmetrical ranges of mountains lie -the broad and fertile valleys before referred to. These are generally -valleys of construction, and in some former geologic period were -occupied by lakes whose beds have since been drained by the streams, as -they cut their way out of the mountains.</p> - -<p>It is the extensive deposits from the ancient lakes which give to these -valleys their fertile soils, while the unusual mildness of their -climate is largely due to the fact that they are seldom over 5,000 feet -in altitude, and the high mountains surrounding them shelter them from -the severe winds which, sweeping over the plains of Dakota, become the -much dreaded "blizzards."</p> - -<p>East of the Tongue River and north of the Yellowstone and Missouri -Rivers, the level bench lands are everywhere below 3,500 feet in -elevation, and often below 2,500 feet, and are very dry and devoid of -water, though covered by an abundant growth of fine bunch grass. These -bench lands are traversed by a few narrow, deep "couleés" or "washes" -having bluff banks 50 to 300 feet high, dry during most of the year, -though roaring torrents in the early spring months.</p> - -<p>It is on these bench lands that irrigation will find its greatest -field, for here is a comparatively mild climate owing to the low -altitude, and here the soil is fertile, warm and deep.</p> -<br> - -<center>A<small>REA AND</small> K<small>INDS OF</small> L<small>ANDS</small>.</center> - -<p>The total area of Montana is 146,080 square miles, or 93,491,200 acres. -Of this vast empire 31,373,000 acres or about one-third of the whole is -agricultural land, while of this 18,157,000 acres or a little less than -one-fifth of the entire area is irrigable land, so classified not only -because it will, if provided with water, raise profitable crops, but -also because, in my opinion, water can with proper management be -provided for it.</p> - -<p>Of the total area of the State only about 1,200,000 acres or less than -one-sixteenth of the irrigable area may be easily cultivated, by this I -do not mean that this whole amount is now reclaimed, but that it may -with the means liable to be employed by private parties with limited -capital, be readily brought under cultivation by the same methods by -which most of the lands in Montana are now irrigated.</p> - -<p>The amount of land actually under cultivation, according to the -assessment of 1888, was 348,070 acres, and this should probably be -increased by about one-half, since the farmers doubtless greatly -underestimated the amounts of their cultivated lands to the assessor: -perhaps then, 500,000 acres under cultivation would be nearer the -truth.</p> - -<p>It is estimated that three-fourths of the remaining 75,000,000 acres -not classed above as irrigable, or say 55,000,000 acres, which is -nearly two-thirds of the total area of the State, will, with the -increased facilities for watering live stock and for domestic use -offered by the highest state of irrigation development, become valuable -as grazing land, since it is naturally covered with an abundant growth -of bunch grass, and only needs better facilities for watering and for -the establishment of home farms, to cause it to be entirely occupied -for grazing purposes.</p> - -<p>Nearly, or quite all, of the lands above classified as agricultural and -pasture lands, are now covered with an abundant growth of bunch grass, -occasional patches of sage brush or prickly pear, and devoid of any -timber other than patches of willows and cottonwoods along the streams, -or a few isolated clumps of scrub pines and junipers on the highest lands.</p> - -<p>About 10,000,000 of the remaining 20,000,000 acres are excellent timber -lands and are situated on the slopes and sides of the higher mountains, -though west of the Continental Divide the valleys and flat bench lands -are sometimes covered with timber.</p> - -<p>The remaining 10,000,000 acres may be classed as barren and rugged -mountain peaks and some little barren "bad lands" near the southeastern -corner of the State, and the broken and rough cut banks of rivers, -"couleés," etc.</p> - -<p>It is in these more rugged mountain regions that the great gold, silver -and copper deposits are found.</p> -<br> - -<center>C<small>LIMATE</small>.</center> - -<p>The climate of Montana is far more moderate and agreeable than is -generally supposed, the spring and fall months in the valleys, which -are the principal inhabited and cultivated portions, being delightfully -mild and pleasant, with frost generally only at night, though these -last till May and begin in early October.</p> - -<p>The accompanying table shows the dates of the first and last killing -frosts at Helena, also the mean monthly temperature at Helena, which -place is chosen as a typical station, its altitude being 4,262 feet. -From this table, which extends over a period of ten years, from 1880 to -1889, inclusive, with few interruptions, it appears that the earliest -killing frost occurred on September 6th, 1881, and the latest killing -frost on May 3d, 1888, but these were very exceptional frosts, the -average dates for the same periods being September 26th and April 26th. -The maximum temperature during the same period occurred in July, 1886, -and was 103 degrees in the shade, while no other year showed a higher -temperature than 97 degrees; and the average maximum temperature for -the ten years was 94 degrees. The minimum temperature for the same -period was –40 degrees, occurring in February, 1887, while the average -minimum for ten years was –29 degrees. Great ranges of temperature are -sometimes experienced, however, especially in local areas in the higher -mountain valleys, where unusual frosts and snow flurries have occurred, -though rarely, killing potatoes and other tender crops even in July and -August.</p> - -<center><i>Monthly Mean Temperatures at Helena, Mont.</i></center> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Helena mean temperatures"> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center"><small> </small></td> - <td colspan="2" align="center"><small>1880.</small></td> - <td colspan="2" align="center"><small>1881.</small></td> - <td colspan="2" align="center"><small>1882.</small></td> - <td colspan="2" align="center"><small>1883.</small></td> - <td colspan="2" align="center"><small>1884.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Mean Temp.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Killing Frost.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Mean Temp.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Killing Frost.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Mean Temp.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Killing Frost.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Mean Temp.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Killing Frost.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Mean Temp.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Killing Frost.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>January</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>9.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>20.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>18.5</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>11.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>February</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>25.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>24.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>14.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>14.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>March</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>39.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>31.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>34.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>29.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>April</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>47.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>40.5</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>40.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>41.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>May</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>55.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>50.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>49.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>53.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>June</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>61.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>60.7</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>61.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>62.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>July</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66.3</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>68.3</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>67.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>62.5</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>August</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>63.7</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>71.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>67.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>September</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56.7</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>54.6</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>6th</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>60.1</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>29th</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>59.2</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>20th</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>49.7</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>6th</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>October</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>46.3</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>22d</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>37.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>41.7</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>38.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>47.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>November</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>19.3</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>28.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>30.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>33.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>36.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>December</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>9.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>30.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>27.3</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>27.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Mean, Annual</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>43.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>43.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>42.7</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>40.3</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"><hr></td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<center><i>Monthly Mean Temperatures at Helena, Mont. (Continued)</i></center> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Helena mean temperatures continued"> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center"><small> </small></td> - <td colspan="2" align="center"><small>1885.</small></td> - <td colspan="2" align="center"><small>1886.</small></td> - <td colspan="2" align="center"><small>1887.</small></td> - <td colspan="2" align="center"><small>1888.</small></td> - <td colspan="2" align="center"><small>1889.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Mean Temp.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Killing Frost.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Mean Temp.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Killing Frost.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Mean Temp.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Killing Frost.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Mean Temp.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Killing Frost.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Mean Temp.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Killing Frost.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>January</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>21.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>20.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.3</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>16.7</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>February</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>28.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>34.5</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>35.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>25.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>March</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>40.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>29.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>40.3</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>23.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>39.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>April</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>45.7</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>42.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>42.4</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>20th</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>48.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>49.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>May</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>51.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>54.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>51.5</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>50.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>53.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>June</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>61.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>57.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>58.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>63.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>July</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64.7</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>69.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>67.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>66.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>August</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>64.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>68.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>63.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>65.3</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>67.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>September</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>55.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>52.9</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>29th</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>56.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>61.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>55.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>October</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>47.5</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>43.3</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>42.9</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>8th</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>46.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>50.7</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>November</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>39.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>29.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>33.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>24.2</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>31.4</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>December</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>31.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>27.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>23.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>23.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>22.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Mean, Annual</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>43.6</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>43.8</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>41.9</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>42.1</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>45.0</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="11"><hr></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>On September 5th of this year in the upper Madison Valley above 6500 -feet of elevation, a temperature was experienced in the forenoon of 70 -degrees, while at about 8 o'clock on the same evening, a snow squall -occurred during which the thermometer must have fallen several degrees -below the freezing point; by 9 o'clock on the following morning all of -the snow had disappeared and the temperature had greatly moderated.</p> - -<p>The summer months in these mountain valleys are always agreeably warm -during the day time, while the nights are cool and pleasant. In the -winter the climate is very cold, though not so uncomfortable as the -temperature would indicate, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere and -the absence of very high winds in the mountain valleys. The more -exposed plains to the north are subject to the frequent and agreeable -visits of the famous "Chinook" winds, which blow from the west, and -under whose influence heavy falls of snow disappear in a single day.</p> - -<p>The following table shows the mean annual rain-fall at various Signal -Service stations in Montana, and from these it will be seen that during -a period of ten years the maximum rain-fall for the entire State has -only been 20.33 inches in 1880, while the minimum has occurred during -1886 and was but 12.52 inches; the average precipitation for this -period was 15.25 inches.</p> - -<center><i>Mean Precipitation in Montana during Growing Season.</i></center> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Montana growing season rainfall"> - <tr> - <td colspan="12"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center"><small>Growing season of</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Ft. Assina-<br>boine.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Ft. Benton.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Ft. Buford, N.D.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Ft. Custer.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Ft. Keogh.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Helena.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Ft. Maginnis.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Ft. Missoula.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Poplar River.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Ft. Shaw.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small>Average.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="12"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>1880</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.33</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12.82</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>9.77</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>8.87</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.63</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>8.28</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>1881</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.05</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.81</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.90</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.67</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.15</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.70</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.78</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.58</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>1882</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>4.47</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>1.29</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.01</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.64</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>1.96</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.78</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>4.23</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.00</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>1883</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.63</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>4.25</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.94</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.27</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>1.65</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>4.17</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.16</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>1884</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>17.22</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.69</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.46</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>6.31</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>8.09</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.90</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.80</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>4.30</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>6.72</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>1885</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>9.57</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.33</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>6.07</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>6.29</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.98</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.14</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>6.49</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.41</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>1886</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.52</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.94</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.65</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.13</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>1.91</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.56</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.67</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.87</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.03</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>1887</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12.13</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>8.00</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.96</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.88</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>9.47</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>8.67</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.85</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>1888</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.10</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.16</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>8.22</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.28</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>4.37</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.54</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>8.16</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.98</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>1889</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.03</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.48</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.90</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.27</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.00</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.47</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>1.74</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.23</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>1.91</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>3.23</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="12"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.21</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.45</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>6.57</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.66</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.55</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>4.48</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>6.03</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>2.74</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.19</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>4.25</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>5.23</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="12"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="12" align="center"><small>Growing season, May 15 to August 15.</small></td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<center><i>Annual Rain-fall in Montana, 1880–1888.</i></center> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Montana Annual rainfall"> - <tr> - <td colspan="10"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="center"><small> </small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1880.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1881.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1882.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1883.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1884.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1885.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1886.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1887.</small></td> - <td align="center"><small> 1888.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="10"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Ft. Assinaboine</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12.76</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.10</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>25.67</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>11.48</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>18.94</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13.99</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Ft. Benton</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>16.00</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>16.81</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.18</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13.01</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13.13</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>14.94</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>14.00</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Ft. Buford, N. D. </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>23.25</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13.90</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12.73</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.82</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.37</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.56</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.24</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.43</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>14.70</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Ft. Custer</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>19.65</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>11.88</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>16.60</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>9.34</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13.25</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12.18</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>14.00</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Ft. Keogh</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.64</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>11.44</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.13</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Helena</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>19.94</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.32</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>19.18</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.99</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12.63</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>14.05</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.14</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Ft. Maginnis</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13.29</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>9.00</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13.96</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.44</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>26.00</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>25.70</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Ft. Missoula</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>20.56</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13.24</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Poplar River</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>10.25</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>11.93</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>7.41</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.51</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Ft. Shaw</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>14.77</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>14.21</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12.64</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13.64</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12.56</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Ft. Ellis</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>30.16</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>17.55</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>19.28</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.72</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>22.02</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>32.63</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small>Virginia City</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>17.29</small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td><small> </small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="10"><hr></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small> </small></td> - <td align="right"><small>20.30</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>16.01</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12.93</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>13.69</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.73</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.41</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>12.79</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.67</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>15.45</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="10"><hr></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Moreover, from the first table, showing the average monthly -precipitation at the Helena station, it will be seen that but 4.48 -inches fall during May 15th to August 15th, inclusive, which is the -growing season when the crops require moisture.</p> - -<p>The information regarding evaporation is as yet very meagre, but from -four stations observed in different parts of the State during August, -September and October, it appears that the total average evaporation -for the three months was 18 inches, and from the best information -obtainable it appears that the total annual evaporation is 36 inches, -that is to say, the surface of the water in a lake or reservoir will be -lowered by evaporation 3 feet in a year.</p> -<br> - -<center>W<small>HY</small> M<small>ONTANA IS AN</small> -A<small>RID</small> C<small>OUNTRY</small>.</center> - -<p>It has been stated by Major J. W. Powell, that in a general way the -line between the humid and arid regions, or the amount of precipitation -below which irrigation becomes necessary for the cultivation of crops, -is from 24 to 28 inches per annum. This of course depends largely on -the distribution of the rainfall, the proportion falling during the -growing season, the humidity of the atmosphere, the character of the -soil, etc.</p> - -<p>The average annual precipitation in Montana is 14.92 inches, while the -total average precipitation during the growing season is but 5.23 -inches; from these considerations alone it is evident that the State -lies wholly in the arid region.</p> - -<p>This statement is further born out by the fact that no native farmer -will settle a ranch or undertake to raise any kind of crops without -facilities for irrigating, since experience has taught them all, that, -though there may occasionally be an exceptionally wet season in which -they can raise good crops without artificial aid, still, the years when -crops depending wholly upon rain-fall for their moisture would be -entirely lost, are so frequent as to render farming without irrigation -very hazardous and unprofitable.</p> -<br> - -<center>S<small>OIL</small>.</center> - -<p>The soil along the stream bottoms at a slight elevation above their -beds is usually a heavy, black, clayey loam, and though rich and -fertile is soon clogged by water, and then in drying, cakes on the -surface, killing the young plants. On this account the irrigators -seldom water these bottom lands until after the crop has acquired a -healthy growth, preferring to trust to the early rains to force the -young sprouts above the surface, rather than run the risk of its -crusting and thus preventing them from breaking through.</p> - -<p>These bottom lands though really the poorest for irrigating, are nearly -the only lands now cultivated, because of the greater ease and -cheapness of supplying them with water. From two to three tons of hay -and from 35 to 50 bushels of grain per acre are raised even on these -inferior soils.</p> - -<p>The best, and by far the more abundant agricultural lands, are the -"bench lands," these are situated high above the stream beds and the -soil is usually a warm open, rich, sandy-loam, several feet in depth -and usually underlain by a deep bed of gravel. Though in irrigating, -this soil at first requires more water, it will, owing to its excellent -natural drainage, last for all time and will neither clog with water -nor cake on the surface.</p> - -<p>It is these bench lands which will be rendered irrigable by government -aid and surveys, though to develop them will require large amounts of -capital; still, they are so extensive in area that the work can -generally be conducted on a grand and economical scale.</p> -<br> - -<center>D<small>UTY OF</small> W<small>ATER</small>.</center> - -<p>From the meagre information now obtainable it is probable that in -average soils and for the staple hay, grain and vegetable crops in -Montana, about one cubic foot of water per second, flowing during the -irrigating season, will be sufficient for 100 acres; this quantity is -known as the "duty of water."</p> - -<p>The irrigating season lasts about three months. While the crops are -maturing during part of May, June and July, they will receive two or -three waterings, and in early September the hay lands are again watered -in order to start the growth of grass before the frosts.</p> - -<p>In case all the surplus water of a given stream is stored, the duty of -that stream will be increased by the amount of water now flowing to -waste during the remaining nine months, and as a portion of this time -is the flood period, owing to the melting of the snows in the mountains -and to the spring rains, this storage water will increase the duty of -the stream at least five-fold; that is, five times as many acres may be -irrigated by the stream as at present, provided that storage capacity -can be found for all of its waste waters.</p> - -<p>In considering the duty of a stream it must be remembered that there is -a great loss of water by seepage through the sides of a canal and -evaporation from its surface, between the headworks and the irrigated -lands, this loss may amount to from 25 to 35 per cent., according to -climate, soil, and the length and cross-section of the canal.</p> -<br> - -<center>P<small>RESENT</small> S<small>TATE OF</small> -I<small>RRIGATION</small>—P<small>ROGRESS AND</small> L<small>AWS</small>.</center> - -<p>The earlier stages of irrigation development are better illustrated in -Montana than in any other State in the Union.</p> - -<p>There irrigation practice and laws are exceedingly crude and remain so -chiefly because of the abundance of water, and the ease and facility -with which it can be diverted to the land; as a consequence of this -latter fact the laws were framed in the most liberal spirit, declaring -right of eminent domain, acknowledging the right of priority in -appropriating the waters, and further stating, that any person having a -ditch leading to irrigable lands may use the waters of the territory -for irrigation.</p> - -<p>The latest law, framed in 1885, is a very slight improvement; it -requires persons appropriating water, to post the usual notice in a -conspicuous place; to file with the county recorder a notice of -appropriation, with names and proper description of place, stream, -etc., and that work must be commenced within forty days of the posting -of the notice and be prosecuted with due diligence until completed.</p> - -<p>Persons who have heretofore acquired title to the use of water, may -within six months from the passage of this law file a statement of the -above facts in the office of the recorder, but failure to do this shall -not forfeit his rights.</p> - -<p>Provision is made for the measurement of water, using that very -uncertain and elastic unit, the miner's inch, and defining the same.</p> - -<p>The difficulties arising under these laws will be appreciated, when I -state that it is impossible to construct a rating flume that will -measure the number of inches of water flowing in a large stream, by the -method provided in the law.</p> - -<p>Then, because previous appropriators are not compelled to record the -amount of water appropriated, and those acquiring titles under the -first law now invariably claim much more water than they need, in fact -often appropriate and even record more water than there is flowing in -the stream. This is owing to the fact that they were not at first -compelled to construct their works, "with due diligence until -completed," nor to make ditches of capacities capable of carrying the -volumes claimed, and above all because there is no officer having the -power to measure the quantities of water diverted or to see that the -works are prosecuted with due diligence. Endless and unsatisfactory -litigation results, hastened by the occupation of lands lower down on -some stream which in a very dry season may not flow sufficient water -for all the appropriators who have acquired titles, whereupon the later -settlers who have recorded their appropriations claim the water, while -those who diverted water before the passage of the last law claim the -right to it, though unrecorded, and as a consequence the case is -carried to the courts, often with unjust and always with expensive -results.</p> - -<p>During the past exceptionally dry season these conditions led to much -bitter litigation, often to bloodshed, and equally often to financial -ruin owing to the supply of water being insufficient to mature the -crops planted.</p> - -<p>Water being very abundant in the smaller mountain valleys has led to -great wastefulness in its use, the irrigator after applying what water -his crops needed, instead of turning it back into the stream for the -use of settlers lower down, generally turns his ditch loose on the open -prairie and allows the water to run to waste. Then wasteful methods of -applying the water to the crops are employed, and owing to the cheap -and hasty construction of a vast number of small ditches the loss by -seepage is very great; it has been estimated that there is on an -average a ditch for every 200 acres of land cultivated, making a total -of about 2500 irrigating ditches in the State.</p> - -<p>In the last two years there has been a marked increase in the interest -taken in irrigation enterprises, and though this has resulted in the -formation of several large companies, which intend to take water by -long and expensive canals to sections now uncultivated, yet in these -cases are universally seen the same crude methods employed in first -beginnings, without the aid and advice of experienced engineers. Large -canals are being constructed at great cost, capable of carrying many -times the amount of water flowing in the stream appropriated, whereas a -much smaller and less expensive one would have carried the entire water -supply. Again small canals have been constructed to carry small volumes -of water very long distances, often 50 to 80 miles, while in reality -owing to the great percentage of loss by seepage and evaporation, -little or none of the water entering at the headgates will ever reach -the irrigable lands.</p> - -<p>Such illy advised projects are to be even more deplored than the -smaller operations before spoken of, since the certain ultimate failure -of this class of enterprise will result in discouraging capitalists -from investing in even well-planned irrigation projects, and will -retard the construction of valuable and necessary works.</p> -<br> - -<center>P<small>OSSIBLE</small> I<small>RRIGATION</small> E<small>NTERPRISES</small>.</center> - -<p>During the past season the author made an extensive though hurried -reconnoisance of Montana, in the progress of which he rode on horseback -2,200 miles and traveled 3,700 miles by rail, examining with some -degree of detail all of the central counties and making a few hasty -trips into Choteau, Dawson and Custer Counties. In the course of this -reconnoisance the sites for sixty storage reservoirs, having a combined -storage capacity of about 3,250,000 acre feet were carefully examined, -and lines of ten great irrigating canals approximately decided on. It -may be well to state here that an acre-foot of water is a very -convenient unit of measure adopted by the U. S. Geological Survey in -speaking of the contents of large reservoirs, and refers to a body of -water one acre in superficial area and one foot in depth.</p> - -<p>In every case these proposed reservoirs are so situated, that their -storage water will be convenient to large bodies of irrigable land, -which, without some such provision for water supply must forever remain -uncultivated, but which with irrigation from these reservoirs will -ultimately become thickly inhabited and very productive regions. The -same statements apply to the canals projected, though of course -detailed surveys may prove the impracticability of some of these works -as financial investments.</p> - -<p>Mention will be made of a few of the more important of these projects; -those which appear most likely to prove financial successes.</p> - -<p>North of the Yellowstone and between it and the Musselshell and -Missouri Rivers is an immense high bench land, traversed by a few long -couleés, dry excepting in the times of melting snow or heavy spring -storms, and then raging torrents for a period of a few days or hours. -This bench land between the couleés is flat topped and has a regular -and gentle slope to the eastward, falling about six feet per mile, a -little more rapidly north of Big Timber, and decreasing in grade to the -eastward. The general elevation of this bench above the Yellowstone -River varies from 600 feet north of Stillwater, to 300 feet north of -Miles City, and includes about 11,000,000 acres, of which at least -5,225,000 acres are of the best quality for agricultural purposes and -readily accessible by the great canal. In all this vast area there is -not even sufficient water for the few horses and cattle which range on -it, and they are compelled to congregate near the occasional pools and -springs scattered at long intervals over it.</p> - -<p>From numerous examinations made hastily with aneroid and hand-level, it -seems likely that a great canal can be taken from the Yellowstone, -somewhere in the neighborhood of Livingston, or lower down the river, -and led upon the summit of the bench with a diversion line not over 100 -miles in length. Taken out at Livingston the canal would encounter no -difficult construction, and would chiefly consist in earth excavation -with very little rock work. It would require a few fills and flumes in -crossing the larger side streams, such as the Little and Big Timber, -Otter and Sweet Grass Creeks. It would reach the summit somewhere north -of Merrill at an altitude of about 4,400 feet and thence could be -conducted with an easy alignment eastward, with occasional falls to -loose grade.</p> - -<p>The water flowing in the Yellowstone River at Livingstone during the -irrigating season this year averaged 2,300 cubic feet per second, -which, with an allowance of thirty per cent. for loss by seepage and -evaporation in the canal, would leave about 1,600 second feet at the -point of utilization or sufficient to irrigate 160,000 acres.</p> - -<p>The average normal discharge from Yellowstone Lake is 700 second feet, -and a dam about 300 feet long and less than ten feet high, constructed -below the outlet of the lake, would store the outflow from October to -May, inclusive, eight months, a total including flood discharges of at -least 600,000 acre feet, an amount which, allowing for loss by -evaporation in the lake, and by seepage and evaporation in the canal, -would irrigate 425,000 acres, in addition to the 160,000 acres -previously mentioned. Besides this volume probably half as much more -can be readily stored on the Lamar and Gardner Rivers, and the other -branches of the Yellowstone which join it above Livingston, bringing -the total area of reclaimed land to nearly 1,000,000 acres.</p> - -<p>There are many similar and even better opportunities for irrigation -development, such as the construction of a canal from the West Gallatin -River near Bozeman. This canal would require no expensive diversion -line, as its waters would become immediately available at the -headworks, and by appropriating the 500 second feet of water flowing in -the river, would reclaim at a minimum cost 50,000 acres, or twice the -amount of land now cultivated there. Storage on the Upper Gallatin -River would greatly increase the amount of reclaimed land.</p> - -<p>Storage reservoirs can be easily constructed on the headwaters of the -Beaver Head River, whereby at least 150,000 acres could be added to the -25,000 acres now under cultivation in the Beaver Head Valley near -Dillon.</p> - -<p>A canal requiring no diversion line can be taken out on the east side -of the Missouri River near Toston, which will irrigate all of the good -land in the Missouri Valley, at least 100,000 acres. This canal would -require some fills and aqueducts in crossing the various side steams -such as Deep and Duck Creeks, and Confederate Gulch.</p> - -<p>Detailed surveys have been made during the past summer on the Sun River -which indicate that storage will add some 250,000 acre feet to the -amount of water in that stream now available for irrigation. There are -at least 600,000 acres of good agricultural land between the Dearborn, -Sun, and Teton Rivers, which must forever remain barren of cultivated -products unless provided with water by means of storage on these -streams, and the surveys above alluded to indicate that by this means -160,000 acres of this land can be reclaimed by the Sun River alone.</p> - -<p>Mention might be made to many more similar projects, such as the -construction of a simple canal from the Missouri River to irrigate -Chestnut Valley, south of Great Falls, whereby 120,000 acres would be -reclaimed; or one from the Upper Madison River whereby 230,000 acres of -the Madison Valley might receive water, but the foregoing will suffice -to show the possibilities of irrigation development in Montana.</p> - -<p>It would be doing the resources of a great and vast area of Montana -injustice if reference were not made to the Milk River country, the -great Indian reservation of 17,680,000 acres in the northern part of -the State which has recently been open to settlement. This region has -not been examined by the author, but from conversations with a number -of its well-informed inhabitants it appear that the soil is very -fertile, and that during average moist years excellent crops can be -raised there without irrigation. This last statement, however, should -not be too readily accepted. It is probable that some storage water may -be retained in the hills along the British line, though its development -will doubtless involve international questions.</p> -<br> - -<center>A G<small>LANCE AT THE</small> F<small>UTURE</small>.</center> - -<p>This interesting subject cannot be passed by without a little castle -building, and accordingly an attempt will be made to show what the -future of Montana may owe to irrigation.</p> - -<p>It has just been shown how and where 1,750,000 acres may be added to -the area at present under cultivation; many times this amount, however, -can be reclaimed. Settled as closely as a large irrigated district -would naturally be, these 1,750,000 acres will be increased by about 15 -per cent. or 262,500 acres, the area which will be occupied by roads, -buildings, and towns; that is to say over 2,000,000 acres will be -rendered capable of sustaining the highest degree of settlement, though -in reality this amount will be much greater since a large portion of -the land will not be directly irrigated, since it will indirectly -receive sufficient moisture from the neighboring fields to render it -serviceable for pasturage.</p> - -<p>It has been claimed by various authorities that a homestead of forty -acres is abundant for the support of a family, assuming this estimate -to be correct, then 2,000,000 acres will support 50,000 families; at -five persons each this would give a farm population of 250,000. This -number of farm workers would require a town and village population of -one and one-half more, or our 2,000,000 acres would add in all 375,000 -people to the State.</p> - -<p>On the same basis the 18,000,000 acres which have been classified as -irrigable land, (and this estimate is below that of the Montana Society -of civil engineers and other authorities), would support 3,120,000 -inhabitants.</p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. -II., No. 3, July, 1890, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, JULY 1890 *** - -***** This file should be named 53352-h.htm or 53352-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/3/5/53352/ - -Produced by Ron Swanson -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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