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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #53260 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53260)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nietzsche, by Anthony M. Ludovici
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Nietzsche
-       His Life and Works
-
-Author: Anthony M. Ludovici
-
-Release Date: October 11, 2016 [EBook #53260]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NIETZSCHE ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Marc D'Hooghe at Free Literature (online soon
-in an extended version, also linking to free sources for
-education worldwide ... MOOC's, educational materials,...)
-Images generously made available by the Internet Achive.
-
-
-
-
-
-NIETZSCHE
-
-HIS LIFE AND WORKS
-
-[Philosophies Ancient and Modern]
-
-BY
-
-ANTHONY M. LUDOVICI
-
-AUTHOR OF
-
-'Who is to be Master of the World?'
-
-AND 'Notes to Zarathustra'
-
-
-PREFACE BY DR. OSCAR LEVY
-
-
-CONSTABLE & COMPANY LTD
-
-London
-
-1910
-
-
-
-
-
-Introduction
-
-
-The commission for a book on Nietzsche, to form the latest addition
-to a series of famous philosophers, is most certainly a sign that
-the age of adversity, through which the earlier Nietzscheans had to
-struggle, has at last come to an end. For ten consecutive years they
-had had no reply whatever to their propaganda, and their publications,
-loud as some of them were, proved as ineffective as cannon shots fired
-into the eternity of interplanetary space. Finally, however, when the
-echo was at last heard, it gave back nothing like the original sound:
-it was an echo of groans and moans, an echo of roaring disapproval
-and hissing mockery. Yet the years rolled on and on--and so did the
-printing-presses--hissing and roaring as much as ever--but at last,
-their thunders grew tamer and more subdued--the tempest of their fury
-seemed to die away in the distance--occasionally a slight mutter
-was still to be heard, but no more flashes and hisses--and suddenly
-a streak of blue was observed over the horizon, followed by a ray
-and smile of sunlight--and a soft zephyr of subdued and tentative
-compliments--and when our Nietzsche edition had begun to appear in its
-stately volumes we were enabled to receive from our former enemies on
-both sides of the Atlantic "respectful congratulations."
-
-And now all my brave friends are radiant with joy and optimism. Like
-the wanderer in the fairy tale, while the storm of disgust and loud
-reproach was raging, they wrapped themselves all the more closely in
-their cloaks, and no impudent wind could tear a shred of garments from
-them, but now that the sun of approval has set in, they would fain get
-out of their armour and enjoy the fine weather as a reward for past
-perils. Has not the spring come at last? Are not the gay flowers at our
-feet meant to welcome the victorious warriors?... Are not the ladies
---ladies that from time immemorial have loved the warrior (especially
-when he is successful)--smiling at us more gloriously even than the
-sun?... Sun, ladies, flowers, smiles--was there ever a nicer
-combination?...
-
-But, alas! there is an unimaginative creature among the guests, an
-earnest face among the cheerful, a disbeliever among the faithful, a
-dark countenance amid the bright assembly;--a being who, in glaring
-contrast to the sun, the smiles, and the gaily-coloured dresses and
-sunshades, is keeping a tight hold upon a dark umbrella--for he has an
-uncontrollable mistrust of English weather!
-
-And I may claim that I not only know the meteorological conditions of
-England, but also those of the whole of modern Europe. I know them so
-well that I have the greatest doubts whether Nietzsche's influence
-will be strong enough to withstand the terrible hurricane of democracy
-which in our age is sweeping everything before it, and leaving a
-level plain in its rear. Nietzsche may have been ever so right, but
-Truth and Righteousness do not always prevail in this world of ours,
-indeed, they don't: the bible itself, that otherwise optimistic book,
-lets this grand secret out once and only once--in the story of Job.
-The "happy ending" in that book will deceive no realistic observer:
-it was added to the story, as it is added to modern plays and novels,
-for the edification and comfort of the audience: the true story of Job
-was without it, as was the true story of many a brave man, as was the
-true story of that great pope, who on his deathbed came out with the
-confession: "Dilexi justitiam et odi iniquitatem, _propterea_ morior
-in exsilio,"[1] a confession which went in the very teeth of his own
-virtue-rewarding creed with its happy-go-lucky trust in the moral order
-of the universe.
-
-Nietzsche may have been right, _therefore_ he may be unsuccessful. I
-myself regard Nietzsche's views on art, religion, psychology, morality,
-as extremely sound; I think they are proved both by history and by
-common experience; I even suspect that they could be confirmed by
-science, if only science would give up looking at the world through
-the coloured spectacles of democratic prejudice ... but then, it is
-so difficult to give up this democratic prejudice; for it is by no
-means simply a political opinion. Democracy, as a political creed, need
-terrify no one; for political creeds succeed each other like waves
-of the sea, whose thunder is loud and whose end is froth; but the
-driving power behind democracy is not a political one, it is religious
---it is Christianity. A mighty religion still, a religion which has
-governed the world for two thousand years, which has influenced all
-philosophies, all literatures, all laws, all customs up to our own day,
-till it has finally filtered into our hearts, our blood, our system,
-and become part and parcel of ourselves without our being aware of
-it. At the present moment we are all instinctive Christians. Even
-if this Christian religion has been severely wounded by Nietzsche's
-criticism--and I believe this to be the case--I beg to suggest
-that a wounded lion may still have more strength than all the fussy,
-political, rationalistic, agnostic, nonconformist, Nietzschean and
-super-Nietzschean mice put together.
-
-It was all the braver, therefore, on Nietzsche's part to assail
-such a mighty enemy, and to attack him exactly on the spot where
-attack was most needed, if victory were to be won. Nietzsche clearly
-recognised that the canons of criticism had until now only been
-directed against the outer works of that stalwart fortress--at
-dogmatic, at supernatural, at ecclesiastical Christianity, and that
-no one had yet dared to aim right at the very heart of the creed--
-its morality, which, while the shamfighters were at work outside,
-was being enormously strengthened and consolidated from within. This
-morality, however, Nietzsche recognised as intimately connected with
-modern democracy--and behind the rosebush of democracy with its
-flowery speeches and its fraternity- and liberty-blossoms, Nietzsche
-clearly saw the dragon of anarchy and dissolution lurking. It was the
-mortal fear of annihilation and ruin which gave Nietzsche the daring
-to fulminate against our religion with such imperishable Dithyrambics.
-He was the first to mean the phrase, "_écrasez l'infâme!_" which in
-Voltaire's mouth was only an epigrammatic exclamation. For Nietzsche's
-great forerunner on the Continent, Wolfgang Goethe, who was also just
-as well aware how it would all end, was much too prudent a man to lay
-his innermost heart bare to his enemies, he--the grand old hypocrite
-of Weimar--gauged the power of the contrary current correctly, and
-wisely left the open combat against Christianity and democracy to
-his great colleague--to that man of tragic wit, to Heinrich Heine.
-
-And there were others on the Continent--very few to be sure, and no
-politician or man of science or woman among them--others who saw the
-drift of modern ideas: all of them poets. For poets are prophets: their
-sensitive organisation feels the fall of the glass first, while their
-pluck and their pride, their duty and their desire to face the storm
-drive them into the very thick of it. The German poet Hebbel, the
-French novelist Stendhal, were amongst them. A new Matthew Arnold
---the object of my wish for this country--would perhaps like to include
-another poet, the Frenchman Alfred de Vigny, in whose journal are to
-be found those awe-inspiring words against democracy: "Alas! it is
-thou, Democracy, that art the desert! it is thou who hast shrouded
-and bleached everything beneath thy monticles of sand! Thy tedious
-flatness has covered everything and levelled all! For ever and ever
-the valley and the hill supplant each other; and only from time to
-time a man of courage is seen: he rises like a sand-whirl, makes his
-ten paces towards the sun, and then falls like powder to the ground.
-And then nothing more is seen save the eternal plain of endless sand."
-
-Goethe and Hebbel, Stendhal and Heinrich Heine, Alfred de Vigny and
-Friedrich Nietzsche, all made their ten steps towards the sun and are
-now sleeping peacefully beneath the dry sands of Christian democracy.
-Their works are read, to be sure; but alas! how few understand their
-meaning! I see this and I shudder. And I remember another moment in
-my life--a moment of perturbation too--a moment in which an idea
-overcame me, which has been haunting me ever since. I was on a visit
-to Mrs. Förster-Nietzsche, in her villa high up amongst the hills of
-Weimar, waiting in the drawing-room for my hostess to enter. It was
-the first time that I had stood upon the holy ground where Friedrich
-Nietzsche gave up his heroic soul, and I was naturally impressed; my
-eyes wandered reverently around the scene, and I suddenly noticed
-some handwriting on the wall. The handwriting consisted of a powerful
-letter N which the ingenious builder had engraved profusely upon the
-oak panels of the room. The N, of course, reminded me of another big
-N, connected with another big name,--the N which used to be engraved
-together with the imperial crown and eagle upon the plate and regalia
-of Napoleon Bonaparte. There was another victim of democracy: the man
-who, elevated by its revolutionary wave, tried to stifle and subdue
-the anarchical flood, was swallowed up as ignominiously as its other
-implacable opponent, the plucky parson's son of the vicarage of Röcken.
-
-The mighty sword in the beginning and the mighty pen at the end of
-the last century were alike impotent against--Fate. No doubt, I saw
-in that moment, as though lit up by a flashlight, the fate of Europe
-clearly before my eyes. A fate--an iron fate. A fate unavoidable
-for a continent that will have no more guides, no more great men.
-A fate unavoidable for an age that spills its best blood with the
-carelessness of ignorance. A fate unavoidable for a people that is
-driven by its very religion to disobedience and anarchy. And I thought
-of my own race, which has seen so many fates, so many ages, so many
-empires decline--and there was I, the eternal Jew, witnessing another
-catastrophe. And I shuddered, and when my hostess entered I had not
-yet recovered my breath.
-
-Gruesome, isn't it? But what if it should not come true? "There are
-no more prophets to-day," says the Talmud scornfully. Well, unlike
-my ancestor Jonah, who became melancholic when his announcement of
-the downfall of Nineveh was not fulfilled, I beg to say that I on the
-contrary shall be extremely delighted to have proved a false prophet.
-But I shall keep my umbrella all the same.
-
-                                                       OSCAR LEVY.
-54 Russell Square,
-London, W.C.
-
-
-[1] 'I have loved justice and I have hated iniquity, _therefore_ I die
-in exile.'
-
-
-
-
-Contents
-
-Introduction
-
-    Chapter I
-    Life and Works
-    Chapter II
-    Nietzsche the Amoralist
-    Chapter III
-    Nietzsche the Moralist
-    Chapter IV
-    Nietzsche the Evolutionist
-    Chapter V
-    Nietzsche the Sociologist
-    Summary and Conclusion
-    Books Useful to the Student of Nietzsche
-
-
-
-Abbreviations Used in Referring to Nietzsche's Works
-
-    D. D. = Dawn of Day.
-    Z.    = Thus Spake Zarathustra.
-    G. E. = Beyond Good and Evil.
-    G. M. = The Genealogy of Morals.
-    Aph.  = Aphorism.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter I
-
-
-Life and Works
-
-
-"Holy be thy name to all coming generations! In the name of all thy
-friends, I, thy pupil, cry out our warmest thanks to thee for thy great
-life.
-
-"Thou wast one of the noblest and purest men that ever trod this earth.
-
-"And although this is known to both friend and foe, I do not deem it
-superfluous to utter this testimony aloud at thy tomb. For we know the
-world; we know the fate of Spinoza! Around Nietzsche's memory, too,
-posterity may cast shadows! And therefore I close with the words: Peace
-to thy ashes!"[1]
-
-This view, expressed by Peter Gast, Nietzsche's staunchest friend and
-disciple, at his master's graveside, in August 1900, may be regarded
-as typical of the Nietzsche enthusiast's attitude towards his master.
-On the other hand we have the assurance of Nietzsche's opponents and
-enemies that nothing could have been more utterly disastrous to modern
-society, more pernicious, dangerous, and ridiculous than Nietzsche's
-life-work.
-
-At the present day Nietzsche is so potent a force and his influence is
-increasing with such rapidity that, whatever our calling in life may
-be, it behoves us to know precisely what he stands for, and to which of
-the opinions above given we should subscribe. As a matter of fact, the
-inquirer into the life and works of this interesting man will find that
-he has well-nigh as many by-names as he has readers, and not the least
-of our difficulties in speaking about him will be to give him a fitting
-title, descriptive of his mission and the way in which he understood it.
-
-Some deny his right to the title "philosopher"; others declare him to
-be a mere anarchist; and a large number regard all his later works as
-no more than a shallow though brilliant reversal of every accepted
-doctrine on earth.
-
-In order to be able to provoke so much diversity of opinion, a man
-must be not only versatile but forcible. Nietzsche was both. There is
-scarcely a subject in the whole range of philosophical thought which
-he does not attack and blow up; and he hurls forth his hard, polished
-missiles in a manner so destructive, and at the same time with such
-accuracy of aim, that it is no wonder a chorus of ill-used strongholds
-of traditional thought now cry out against him as a disturber and
-annihilator of their peace. Yet, through all the dust, smoke, and noise
-of his implacable warfare, there are both a method and a mission to be
-discerned--a method and a mission in the pursuit of which Nietzsche is
-really as unswerving as he seems capricious.
-
-Throughout his life and all his many recantations and revulsions of
-feeling, he remained faithful to one purpose and to one aim--the
-elevation of the type man. However bewildered we may become beneath the
-hail of his epigrams, treating of every momentous question that has
-ever agitated the human mind, we still can trace this broad principle
-running through all his works: his desire to elevate man and to make
-him more worthy of humanity's great past.
-
-Even in his attack on English psychologists, naturalists, and
-philosophers, in _The Genealogy of Morals_, what are his charges against
-them? He says they debase man, voluntarily or involuntarily, by seeking
-the really operative, really imperative and decisive factor in history
-precisely where the intellectual pride of man would least wish to find
-it, i.e. in _vis inertiæ_, in some blind and accidental mechanism of
-ideas, in automatic and purely passive adaptation and modification, in
-the compulsory action of adjustment to environment.
-
-Again, in his attack on the evolutionists' so-called "struggle for
-existence," of which I shall speak more exhaustively later, it is the
-suggestion that life--mere existence in itself--is worthy of being
-an aim at all, that he deprecates so profoundly. And, once more, it is
-with the view of elevating man and his aspirations that he levels the
-attack.
-
-Whatever we may think of his methods, therefore, at least his aim was
-sufficiently lofty and honourable, and we must bear in mind that he
-never shirked the duties which, rightly or wrongly, he imagined would
-help him to achieve it.
-
-What was Nietzsche? If we accept his own definition of the
-philosopher's task on earth, we must place him in the front rank of
-philosophers. For, according to him, the creation of new values, new
-principles, new standards, is the philosopher's sole _raison d'être_; and
-this he certainly accomplished. If, on the other hand, with all the
-"school" philosophers, we ask him to show us his system, we shall most
-surely be disappointed. In this respect, therefore, we may perhaps need
-to modify our opinion of him.
-
-Be that as it may, it is safe to maintain that he was a poet of no
-mean order; not a mere versifier or rhapsodist, but a poet in the
-old Greek sense of the word, _i.e._ a maker, in our time such men are
-so rare that we are apt to question whether they exist at all, for
-poetasters have destroyed our faith in them. Goethe was perhaps the
-last example of the type in modern Europe, and although we may recall
-the scientific achievements of men like Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci
-and Galileo, we are not sufficiently ready to associate their divining
-and intuitive power in the department of science with their purely
-artistic and poetic achievements, despite the fact that the two are
-really inseparable.
-
-Knowing the high authority with which poets of this order are wont
-to sneak, it might be supposed that we should approach Nietzsche's
-innovations in the realm of science with some respect, not in spite of,
-but precisely owing to, his great poetic genius. Unfortunately to-day
-this no longer follows. Too thoroughly have we divorced science from
-emotion and feeling (very wrongly, as even Herbert Spencer and Buckle
-both declared), and now, wherever we see emotion or a suggestion of
-passion, we are too apt to purse our lips and stand on our guard.
-
-When we consider that Nietzsche was ultimately to prove the bitterest
-enemy of Christianity, and the severest critic of the ecclesiastic, his
-antecedents seem, to say the least, remarkable. His father, Karl Ludwig
-Nietzsche, born in 1813, was a clergyman of the German Protestant
-Church; his grandfather had also taken orders; whilst his grandmother
-on his father's side was descended from a long line of parsons. Nor do
-things change very much when we turn to his mother's family; for his
-maternal grandfather, Oehler, was also a clergyman, and, according to
-Nietzsche's sister, he appears to have been a very sound, though broad,
-theologian.
-
-Yet, perhaps, it is we who are wrong in seeing anything strange
-in the fact that a man with such orthodox antecedents should have
-developed into a prophet and reformer of Nietzsche's stamp; for we
-should remember that only a long tradition of discipline and strict
-conventionality, lasting over a number of generations, is able to rear
-that will-power and determination which, as the lives of most great
-men have shown, are the first conditions of all epoch-making movements
-started by single individuals.
-
-Friedrich Nietzsche was born at Röcken near Lützen, in the Prussian
-province of Saxony, on the 15th of October 1844. From his earliest
-childhood onwards the boy seems to have been robust and active and
-does not appear to have suffered from any of the ordinary ailments of
-infancy. In the biography written by his sister much stress is laid
-upon this fact, while the sometimes exceptional health enjoyed by his
-parents and ancestors is duly emphasised by the anxious biographer.
-Elisabeth Nietzsche (born in July 1846), the biographer in question, is
-perfectly justified in establishing these facts with care; for we know
-that our poet philosopher died insane, and many have sought to show
-that his insanity was hereditary and could be traced throughout his
-works.
-
-Nietzsche's father died in 1849, and in the following year the family
-removed to Naumburg. There the boy received his early schooling,
-first at a preparatory school and subsequently at the Gymnasium--the
-Grammar School--of the town. As a lad, it is said that he was fond
-of military games, and of sitting alone, and it appears that he would
-recline for hours at his grandmother Nietzsche's feet, listening to
-her reminiscences of the great Napoleon. Towards the end of 1858 Mrs.
-Nietzsche was offered a scholarship for her son, for a term of six
-years, in the Landes-Schule, Pforta, so famous for the scholars it
-produced. At Pforta, where the discipline was very severe, the boy
-followed the regular school course and worked with great industry.
-His sister tells us that during this period he distinguished himself
-most in his private studies and artistic efforts, though even in the
-ordinary work of the school he was decidedly above the average. It was
-here, too, that he first became acquainted with Wagner's compositions,
-and a word ought now perhaps to be said in regard to his musical
-studies.
-
-Music, we know, played anything but a minor rôle in his later life,
-as his three important essays, _Richard Wagner in Bayreuth_, _The Case
-of Wagner_, and _Nietzsche contra Wagner_, are with us to prove. I fear,
-however, that it will be impossible to go very deeply into this
-question here, save at the cost of other still more important matters
-which have a prior claim to our attention. Let it then suffice to say
-that, as a boy, Nietzsche's talent had already become so noticeable
-that for some time the question which agitated the elders in his circle
-of relatives and friends, among whom were some competent judges, was
-whether he should not give up all else in order to develop his great
-gift. In the end, however, it was decided that he should become a
-scholar, and although he never entirely gave up composing and playing
-the piano, music never attained to anything beyond the dignity of a
-serious hobby in his life. In saying this I naturally exclude his
-critical writings on the subject, which are at once valuable and
-important.
-
-Nietzsche's six years at Pforta were responsible for a large number of
-his subsequent ideas. When we hear him laying particular stress upon
-the value of rigorous training free from all sentimentality; when we
-read his views concerning austerity and the importance of law, order
-and discipline, we must bear in mind that he is speaking with an actual
-knowledge of these things, and with profound experience of their worth.
-The excellence of his philological work may also be ascribed to the
-very sound training he received at Pforta, and the Latin essay which
-he wrote on an original subject (Theognis, the great aristocratic poet
-of Megara) for the leaving examination, laid the foundation of all his
-subsequent opinions on morality.
-
-Nietzsche left Pforta in September 1864 and entered the University of
-Bonn, where he studied philology and theology. The latter he abandoned
-six months later, however, and in the autumn of 1865 he left Bonn for
-Leipzig, whither his famous teacher Ritschl had preceded him. Between
-1865 and 1867 his work at Leipzig proved of the utmost importance to
-his career. Hellenism, Schopenhauer and Wagner now entered into his
-life and became paramount influences with him, and each in its way
-determined what his ultimate mission was to be. Hellenism drew him ever
-more strongly to philology and to the problem of culture in general;
-Schopenhauer directed him to philosophy, and Wagner taught him his
-first steps in a subject which was to be the actual _Leit-motif_ of his
-teaching--I refer to the question of Art.
-
-His work during these two years, arduous though it was, in no way
-affected his health, and, despite his short-sight, he tells us that
-he was then able to endure the greatest strain without the smallest
-trouble. Being of a robust and energetic nature, however, he was
-anxious to discover some means of employing his bodily strength, and it
-was for this reason that, regardless of the interruption in his work,
-he was enthusiastic at the thought of becoming a soldier.
-
-In the autumn of 1867 he entered the fourth regiment of Field
-Artillery, and it is said that he performed his duties to the complete
-satisfaction of his superiors. But, alas, this lasted but a short time;
-for, as the result of an unfortunate fall from a restive horse, he was
-compelled to leave the colours before he had completed his term of
-service.
-
-In October 1868, after a serious illness, the student returned to his
-work at Leipzig, and now that event took place which was perhaps the
-most triumphant and most decisive in his career. It was Nietzsche's
-ambition to get His doctor's degree as soon as possible and then
-to travel. Meanwhile, however, others were busy determining what
-he should do. Some philological essays which he had written in his
-student days, and which, owing to their excellence, had been published
-by the "Rheinisches Museum," had attracted the attention of the
-educational Board of Bâle. One of the Board communicated with Ritschl
-concerning Nietzsche, and the reply the learned scholar sent was so
-favourable that the University of Bâle immediately offered Ritschl's
-favourite pupil their Professorship of Classical Philology. This was an
-exceptional honour, and, to crown it, the University of Leipzig quickly
-granted Nietzsche his doctor's degree without further examination
---truly a remarkable occurrence in straitlaced and formal Germany!
-
-His first years at Bâle are chiefly associated in our minds with his
-inaugural address: "Homer and Classical Philology," with his action in
-regard to the Franco-German war, and with his lectures on the "Future
-of our Educational Institutions." I can do no more than refer to these
-here, but as regards the war it is necessary to go into further detail.
-
-In July 1870, hostilities opened between France and Prussia. Now,
-although Nietzsche had been forced to become a naturalised Swiss
-subject in order to accept his appointment at Bâle, he was loth
-to remain inactive while his own countrymen fought for the honour
-of Germany. He could not, however, fight for the Germans without
-compromising Switzerland's neutrality. He therefore went as a hospital
-attendant, and in this capacity, after obtaining the necessary leave,
-he followed his former compatriots to the war. According to Elisabeth
-Nietzsche, it was this act of devotion which was the cause of all her
-brother's subsequent ill-health. In Ars-sur-Moselle, while tending
-the sick and wounded, Nietzsche contracted dysentery from those in
-his charge. With his constitution undermined by the exertions of the
-campaign, he fell very seriously ill, and had to be relieved of his
-duties. Long before he was strong enough to do so, however, he resumed
-his work at Bâle; and now began that second phase of his life during
-which he never once recovered the health he had enjoyed before the war.
-
-In January 1872 Nietzsche published his first book, _The Birth of
-Tragedy_. It is really but a portion of a much larger work on Hellenism
-which he had always had in view from his earliest student days, and it
-may be said to have been prepared in two preliminary lectures delivered
-at Bâle, under the title of the "Greek Musical Drama," and "Socrates
-and Tragedy." The work was received with enthusiasm by Wagnerians; but
-among Nietzsche's philological friends it succeeded in rousing little
-more than doubt and suspicion. It was a sign that the young professor
-was beginning to ascribe too much importance to Art in its influence
-upon the world, and this the dry men of science could not tolerate.
-
-Between 1873 and 1876, Nietzsche, while still at Bâle, published four
-more essays which, for matter and form, proved to be among the most
-startling productions that Germany had read since Schopenhauer's prime.
-Their author called these essays _Thoughts out of Season_, and his aim
-in writing them was undoubtedly the regeneration of German culture.
-The first was an attack on German Philistinism, in the person of David
-Strauss, the famous theologian of Tübingen, whom Nietzsche dubbed
-the "Philistine of Culture," and was calculated to check the extreme
-smugness which had suddenly invaded all departments of thought and
-activity in Germany as the result of the recent military triumph.
-
-The second, _The Use and Abuse of History_, was a protest against
-excessive indulgence in the "historical sense," or the love of looking
-backwards, which threatened to paralyse the intelligence of Germany in
-those days. In it Nietzsche tries to show how history is for the few
-and not for the many, and points out how rare are those who have the
-strength to endure the lesson of experience.
-
-In the third, _Schopenhauer as Educator_, Nietzsche pits his great
-teacher against all other dry-as-dust philosophers who make for
-stagnation in philosophy. The fourth, Richard Wagner in Bayreuth,
-contains Nietzsche's last word of praise as a friend of the great
-German musician. In it we already see signs of his revulsion of
-feeling; but on the whole it is a panegyric written with love and
-conviction.
-
-The fourth, Richard Wagner in Bayreuth, contains Nietzsche's last word
-of praise as a friend of the great German musician. In it we already
-see signs of his revulsion of feeling; but on the whole it is a
-panegyric written with love and conviction.
-
-The only one of the four _Thoughts out of Season_ which created much
-comment was the first, concerning David Strauss, and this gave rise to
-a loud outcry against the daring young philologist.
-
-Nietzsche had been very unwell throughout this period. Dyspepsia and
-headaches, brought on partly by overwork, racked him incessantly,
-and, in addition, he was getting ever nearer and nearer to a final
-and irrevocable breach with the greatest friend of his life--Richard
-Wagner. After obtaining leave from the authorities he went to Sorrento,
-where, in the autumn of 1876, he began work on his next important book,
-_Human, All-too-human_, the book which was to part him for ever from
-Wagner. In February 1878 the first volume was ready for the printer,
-and was published almost simultaneously with Wagner's Parsifal, which
-work, as is well known, was the death-blow to Nietzsche's faith in his
-former idol.
-
-In _Human, All-too-human_, Nietzsche as a philosopher is not yet
-standing on his own legs, as it were. He is only just beginning to
-feel his way, and is still deeply immersed in the thought of other
-men--more particularly that of the English positivists. As a work of
-transition, however, _Human, All-too-Human_ is exceedingly interesting,
-as are also its sequels _Miscellaneous Opinions and Apophthegms_ (1879)
-and _The Wanderer and his Shadow_ (1880). But in none of these, as the
-author himself admits, is there to be found that certainty of aim and
-treatment which characterised his later writings.
-
-In 1879, owing to ill-health, Nietzsche was compelled to resign his
-professorship at the University of Bâle, and the spring of that year
-saw him an independent man with an annual pension of 3000 francs,
-generously granted to him by the Board of Management on the acceptance
-of his resignation. With this pension and a small private income
-derived from a capital of about £1400, he was not destitute, though by
-no means affluent, and when we remember that he was obliged to defray
-the expenses of publication in the case of almost every one of his
-books, we may form some idea of his actual resources.
-
-From this time forward Nietzsche's life was spent in travelling and
-writing. Venice, Marienbad, Zürich, St. Moritz in the Ober-Engadine,
-Sils Maria, Tautenberg in Thuringia, Genoa, etc., etc. were among the
-places at which he stayed, according to the season; and during the year
-1880 his health materially improved. In January 1881 he had completed
-the manuscript of the _Dawn of Day_, and is said to have been well
-satisfied with his condition.
-
-In the _Dawn of Day_ Nietzsche for the first time begins to reveal his
-real personality. This book is literally the dawn of his great life
-work, and in it we find him grappling with all the problems which he
-was subsequently to tackle with such a masterly and courageous hand. It
-appeared in July 1881 and met with but a poor reception. Indeed, after
-the publication of the last of the _Thoughts out of Season_ Nietzsche
-appears to have created very little stir among his countrymen--a fact
-which, though it greatly depressed him, only made him redouble his
-energies.
-
-In September 1882 _The Joyful Wisdom_ was published--a book written
-during one of the happiest periods of his life. It is a veritable
-fanfare of trumpets announcing the triumphal entry of its distinguished
-follower _Zarathustra_. With it Nietzsche's final philosophical views are
-already making headway, and it is full of the love of life and energy
-which permeates the grand philosophical poem which was to come after it.
-
-Disappointed by the meagre success of his works, and hurt by the
-attitude of various friends, Nietzsche now retired into loneliness,
-and, settling down on the beautiful bay of Rapallo, began work on that
-wonderful moral, psychological, and critical rhapsody, _Thus Spake
-Zarathustra_, which was to prove the greatest of his creations. During
-the years 1883-84, the three first parts of this work were published,
-and, though each part was issued separately and met with the same cold
-reception which had been given to his other works of recent years,
-Nietzsche never once lost heart or wavered in his resolve. It required,
-however, all the sublime inspirations which we find expressed in that
-wonderful _Book for all and None_, to enable a man to stand firmly and
-absolutely alone amid all the hardships and reverses that beset our
-anchorite poet throughout this period.
-
-It was about this time that Nietzsche began to take chloral in the
-hope of overcoming his insomnia; it was now, too, that his sister
---the only relative for whom, despite some misunderstandings, he had a
-real affection--became engaged to a man with whom he was utterly out
-of sympathy; and all the while negotiations, into which Nietzsche had
-entered with the Leipzig University for the purpose of securing another
-professorial chair, were becoming ever more hopeless.
-
-In the course of this exposition I shall have to treat of the doctrines
-enunciated in _Thus Spake Zarathustra_--indeed, seeing that this work
-contains all Nietzsche's thought in a poetical form, it would be quite
-impossible to discuss any single tenet of his philosophy without in
-some way referring to the book in question. I cannot therefore say
-much about it at present, save that it is generally admitted to be
-Nietzsche's _opus magnum_. Besides the philosophical views expounded in
-the four parts of which it consists, the value of its autobiographical
-passages is enormous. In it we find the history of his most intimate
-experiences, friendships, feuds, disappointments, triumphs, and the
-like; and the whole is written in a style so magnetic and poetical,
-that, as a specimen of _belles-lettres_ alone, entirely apart from the
-questions it treats, the work cannot and ought not to be overlooked.
-
-Although there is now scarcely a European language into which
-_Zarathustra_ has not been translated, although the fame of the work,
-at present, is almost universal, the reception it met with at the
-time of its publication was so unsatisfactory, and misunderstanding
-relative to its teaching became so general, that within a year of
-the issue of its first part, Nietzsche was already beginning to see
-the necessity of bringing his doctrines before the public in a more
-definite and unmistakable form. During the years that followed--that is
-to say, between 1883 and 1886--this plan was matured, and between 1886
-and 1889--the year of our author's final breakdown, three important
-books were published which may be regarded as prose-sequels to the
-poem _Zarathustra_. These books are: _Beyond Good and Evil_ (1886),
-_The Genealogy of Morals_ (1887), and _The Twilight of the Idols_
-(1889); while the posthumous works _The Will to Power_ (1901) and
-the little volume Antichrist, published in 1895, when its author was
-lying hopelessly ill at Naumburg, also belong to the period in which
-Nietzsche wished to make his _Zarathustra_ clear and comprehensible to
-his fellows. In the ensuing chapters it will be my endeavour to state
-briefly all that is vital in the works just referred to.
-
-What remains to be related of Nietzsche's life is sad enough, and is
-almost common knowledge. When his sister Elizabeth married Dr. Förster
-and went to Paraguay with her spouse, Nietzsche was practically without
-a friend, and, had it not been for Peter Gast's devotion and help,
-he would probably have succumbed to his constitutional and mental
-troubles much sooner than he actually did. Before his last breakdown
-in Turin, in January 1889, the only real encouragement he is ever
-known to have received in regard to his philosophical works came to
-him from Copenhagen and Paris. In the latter city it was Taine who
-committed himself by praising Nietzsche, and in the former it was Dr.
-George Brandes, a clever and learned professor, who delivered a series
-of lectures on the new message of the German philosopher. The news of
-Brandes' success in Copenhagen in 1888 greatly brightened Nietzsche's
-last year of authorship, and he corresponded with the Danish professor
-until the end. It has been rightly observed that these lectures were
-the dawn of Nietzscheism in Europe.
-
-As the result of over-work, excessive indulgence in drugs, and a host
-of disappointments and anxieties, Nietzsche's great mind at last
-collapsed on the 2nd or 3rd of January 1889, never again to recover.
-
-The last words he wrote, which were subsequently found on a slip of
-paper in his study, throw more light upon the tragedy of his breakdown
-than all the learned medical treatises that have been written about
-his case. "I am taking narcotic after narcotic," he said, "in order to
-drown my anguish; but still I cannot sleep. To-day I will certainly
-take such a quantity as will drive me out of my mind."
-
-From that time to the day of his death (25th August 1900) he lingered a
-helpless and unconscious invalid, first in the care of his aged mother,
-and ultimately, when Elizabeth returned a widow from Paraguay, as his
-sister's beloved charge.
-
-For an opinion of Nietzsche during his last phase I cannot do better
-than quote Professor Henri Lichtenberger of Nancy, who saw the invalid
-in 1898; and with this sympathetic Frenchman's valuable observations, I
-shall draw this chapter to a close:--
-
-"In the gradual wane of this enthusiastic lover of life, of this
-apologist of energy, of this prophet of Superman there is something
-inexpressibly sad--inexpressibly beautiful and peaceful. His brow is
-still magnificent--his eyes, the light of which seems to be directed
-inwards, have an expression which is indefinably and profoundly moving.
-What is going on within his soul? Nobody can say. It is just possible
-that he may have preserved a dim recollection of his life as a thinker
-and a poet."
-
-
-[1] Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsche's by Frau Förster-Nietzsche.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-
-Chapter II
-
-
-Nietzsche the Amoralist
-
-
-From a casual study of Nietzsche's life it might be gathered that he
-had little time for private meditation or for any lonely brooding over
-problems foreign to his school and university studies. Indeed, from
-the very moment when it was decided that he should become a scholar,
-to the day when the University of Leipzig granted him his doctor's
-degree without examination, his existence seems to have been so wholly
-occupied by strenuous application to the duties which his aspirations
-imposed upon him that, even if he had had the will to do so, it would
-seem that he could not have had the leisure to become engaged in
-any serious thought outside his regular work. Nevertheless, if we
-inquire into the matter more deeply, we find to our astonishment, that
-during the whole of that arduous period--from his thirteenth to this
-twenty-fourth year--his imagination did not once cease from playing
-around problems of the highest import, quite unrelated to his school
-and university subjects.
-
-In the introduction to _The Genealogy of Morals_, he writes as follows:
---"... while but a boy of thirteen the problem of the origin of
-evil haunted me: to it I dedicated, in an age when we have in
-heart half-play, half-God, my first literary child-play, my first
-philosophical composition; and, as regards my solution of the problem
-therein, well, I gave, as is but fair, God the honour, and made
-him _Father_ of evil."[1] And then he continues: "A little historical and
-philological schooling, together with an inborn and delicate sense
-regarding psychological questions, changed my problem in a very short
-time into that other one: under what circumstances and conditions did
-man invent the valuations good and evil? And what is their own specific
-value?"
-
-This problem, as stated here, seems stupendous enough; in fact, it
-would be difficult, in the whole realm of human thought, to discover
-a question of greater moment and intricacy; and yet we shall see that
-Nietzsche was just as much born to attack and solve it as Cardinal
-Newman seems, from the _Apologia pro Vita Sua_, to have been born to
-the Roman Catholic Church.
-
-If we reflect a moment, we find that "good" and "evil" are certainly
-words that exercise a tremendous power in the world. To attach the
-word "good" to any thing or deed is to give it the hall-mark of
-desirability: on the other hand, to attach the word "evil" to it is
-tantamount to proscribing it from existence. Even in the old English
-proverb, "Give a dog a bad name and hang him," we have a suggestion of
-the enormous force which has been compressed into the two monosyllables
-"good" and "bad," and before we seriously take up the problem, it were
-well to ponder a while over the really profound significance of these
-two words.
-
-Nietzsche, as we have already observed, was never in any doubt as to
-their importance: his life passion was the desire to solve the meaning,
-the origin, and the intrinsic value of the two terms; and he did not
-rest until he had achieved his end.
-
-Let us now examine what morality--what "good" and "evil"--means to
-almost everybody to-day. In the minds of nearly all those people who
-are neither students nor actual teachers of philosophy, there is a
-superstition that "good" is a perfectly definite and absolute value,
-and that "evil" is known unto all. Few seem to doubt that the meaning
-of these words has been fixed once and for ever. The ordinary European
-lives, reads, and sleeps, year in, year out, under the delusion that
-all is quite clear in regard to right and wrong. Such a person is, of
-course, somewhat abashed when you tell him that a certain people in the
-East practise infanticide and call it good or that a certain people in
-the West always separate at meals and eat apart and call _this_ good. He
-usually gets over the difficulty, however, by saying that they know no
-better, and when at last he is hard pressed, and is bound to admit that
-views of good and bad, sometimes the reverse of his own, actually do
-preserve and unite people in strange lands, he takes refuge in the hope
-that all differences may one day be broken down and that the problem
-will thus be solved.
-
-No such facile shelving of the question, however, could satisfy
-Nietzsche. From the very outset he freed himself from all national
-and even racial prejudices, and could see no particular reason why
-the kind of morality now prevailing in Europe, or countries like
-Europe, must necessarily and ultimately overcome and supplant all
-others. He therefore attacked the question with a perfectly open
-mind, and asked himself whether he quite understood the part the
-terms "good" and "evil" have played in human history.
-
-Is morality--its justification in our midst and its mode of
-action--comprehended at all?--He replies to this question so daringly
-and so uprightly, that at first his clearness may only bewilder us.
-
-These terms "good" and "evil," he tells us, are merely a means to the
-acquisition of power. And, indeed, in the very resistance we offer
-when he attempts to criticise our notions of morality, we tacitly
-acknowledge that in this morality our strength does actually reside.
-"No greater power on earth was found by Zarathustra than good and
-evil"[2] "No people could live without first valuing; if a people
-will maintain itself, however, it must not value as its neighbour
-valueth."[3]
-
-In the last sentence we have seized Nietzsche's clue to the whole
-question. If you would maintain yourself, you cannot and must not
-value as your neighbour values. Good and evil, then, are not permanent
-absolute values; they are transient, relative values, serving an end
-which can be explained in terms of biology and anthropology.
-
-But now let us halt a moment, for the sake of clearness, and let us
-inquire precisely how Nietzsche himself was led to this conclusion.
-
-In the summer of 1864, when he was in his twentieth year, he was given
-some home work to do which he was expected to have ready by the end of
-the holidays. It was to consist of a Latin thesis upon some optional
-subject, and he chose "Theognis, the Aristocratic Poet of Megara."
-
-While preparing the work he was struck with the author's use of the
-words "good" and "bad" as synonymous with aristocratic and plebeian,
-and it was this valuable hint which first set him on the right track.
-Theognis and his friends, being desirous of making their power prevail,
-were naturally compelled to regard any force which assailed that power
-as bad--"bad," in the sense of "dangerous to their order of power"; and
-thus it came to pass that Theognis, as an aristocrat in the heat of a
-struggle between an oligarchy and a democracy, spoke of the democratic
-values as "bad" and of those of his own party as "good."
-
-The writing of this essay had other consequences which I shall only be
-able to refer to in the next chapter; but at present let it suffice
-to say that, in recognising the arbitrary use made by Theognis of the
-epithets good and bad in designating the oligarchy and the democracy
-respectively, Nietzsche was first induced to look upon morality merely
-as a weapon in the struggle for power, and he thus freed himself from
-all the usual bias which belongs to the absolutist's standpoint. Hence
-his claim to the surname "amoralist," and his use of the phrase "Beyond
-Good and Evil," as the title of one of his greatest works.
-
-Let us, however, remember that although Nietzsche did undoubtedly
-take up a position beyond good and evil, in order to free himself
-temporarily from the gyves of all tradition, still this attitude was no
-more than a momentary one, and he ultimately became as rigid a moralist
-as the most exacting could desire. It was a new morality, however, or
-perhaps a forgotten one, which he ultimately preached, and with the
-view of preparing the ground for it he was in a measure obliged to
-destroy old idols. "He who hath to be a creator in good and evil," says
-Zarathustra, "verily, he hath first to be a destroyer, and to break
-values to pieces."[4]
-
-Assuming the position of the relativist, then, Nietzsche observed
-that, all morality, all use of the words "good" and "evil," is only an
-artifice for acquiring power. Turning to the animal kingdom, he went
-in search of support for his views, and very soon discovered that, in
-biology at least, no fact was at variance with his general hypothesis.
-
-In nature every species of organic being behaves as if its kind alone
-ought ultimately to prevail on earth, and, whether it try to effect
-this end by open aggression or cowardly dissimulation, the motive in
-both cases is the same. The lion's good is the antelope's evil. If
-the antelope believed the lion's good to be its good, it would go
-and present itself without further ado before the lion's jaws. If
-the lion believed the antelope's good to be its good it would adopt
-vegetarianism forthwith and eschew its carnivorous habits for the rest
-of its days. Again, no parasite could share the notions of good and
-evil entertained by its victim, neither could the victims share the
-notions of good and evil entertained by the parasite. Everywhere, then,
-those modes of conduct are adopted and perpetuated by a species, which
-most conduce to the prevalence and extension of their particular kind,
-and that species which fails to discover the class of conduct best
-calculated to preserve and strengthen it gets overcome in the war of
-conduct which constitutes the incessant struggle for power.
-
-Now, applying the knowledge to man, what did Nietzsche find? He found
-there was also a war being waged between the different modes of conduct
-which now prevail among men, and that what one man sets up as good is
-called evil by another and _vice versâ_. But of this he soon became
-convinced, that whenever and wherever good and evil had been set up as
-absolute values, they had been thus elevated to power with the view of
-preserving and multiplying one specific type of man.
-
-All moralities, therefore, were but so many Trades Union banners flying
-above the heads of different classes of men, woven and upheld by them
-for their own needs and aspirations.
-
-So far, so good. But then, if that were so, the character of a morality
-must be determined by the class of men among whom it came into being.
-
-We shall see that Nietzsche did not hesitate to accept this conclusion,
-and that if for a moment he declared: "No one knoweth yet what is good
-and what is evil!" the next minute he was asking himself this searching
-question: "Is _our_ morality--that is to say, the particular table
-of values which is gradually modifying us--compatible with an ideal
-worthy of man's inheritance and past?"
-
-If Nietzsche has been called dangerous, pernicious and immoral, it is
-because people have deliberately overlooked this last question of his.
-No thinker who states and honestly sets out to answer this question,
-as Nietzsche did, deserves to be slandered, as he has been slandered,
-by prejudiced and interested people intent on misunderstanding only
-in order that they may fling mud more freely.
-
-Nietzsche cast his critical eye very seriously around him, and the
-sight of the modern world led him to ask these admittedly pertinent
-questions: "Is that which we have for centuries held for good and evil,
-really good and evil? Does our table of ethical principles seem to be
-favouring the multiplication of a desirable type?"
-
-In answering these two inquiries, Nietzsche unfortunately stormed
-the most formidable strongholds of modern society--Christianity and
-Democracy; and perhaps this accounts for the fact that his fight was so
-uneven and so hopeless. The strength of modern Europe, if indeed there
-be any strength in her, lies precisely on the side of Christianity and
-Democracy, the grandmother and the mother of what is called "progress,"
-"modernity"; and in assailing these, Nietzsche must have known that he
-was engaging in a hand-to-hand struggle with stony-hearted adversaries
-unaccustomed to giving quarter and unscrupulous in their methods.
-
-Nietzsche clearly saw that if all moral codes are but weapons
-protecting and helping to universalise distinct species of men,
-then the Christian religion with its ethical principles could be no
-exception to the rule. It must have been created at some time and in
-some place by one who had the interests of a certain type of man at
-heart, and who desired to make that type paramount. Now if that were
-really so, the next question that occurred to Nietzsche's mercilessly
-logical mind was this: "Is the Christian religion, with its morality,
-tending to preserve and multiply a _desirable_ type of man?"
-
-To this last question Nietzsche replies most emphatically "_No!_"
-
-But, before going into the reasons of this flat negative, let us first
-pause to consider the age and the circumstances in which our author
-wrote and thought.
-
-Long before Nietzsche had reached his prime David Strauss had published
-his _Life of Jesus_; in 1863, when Nietzsche was still in his teens,
-Renan published his _Vie de Jésus_, and in the meantime Charles Darwin
-had given his _Origin of Species_ to the world. These books had
-been read by a Europe that had already studied Hume and Lamarck, Kant
-and Schopenhauer, and in all directions a fine ear could not help
-hearing the falling timbers of Christian dogma.
-
-In the midst of this general work of destruction it was almost
-impossible for Nietzsche to remain unmoved or indifferent, and very
-soon he found that he too was drawn into the general stream of European
-thought; but only to prove how completely he was independent of it, and
-in every way superior to it.
-
-He contemplated the work of the destroyers for some time with amused
-interest; and then it suddenly occurred to him to inquire whether
-these zealous and well-meaning housebreakers were really doing any
-lasting good, or whether all their efforts were not perhaps a little
-misguided. True, they were pulling the embellishments from the walls
-and were casting the most cherished idols of the Christian Faith into
-the dust. But the walls themselves, the actual design of the edifice,
-remained untouched and as strong as ever. A few broken stones, a few
-complaints from the priestly archæologists who wished to preserve
-them, and then all the noise subsided! Europe remained as it was before
---that is to say, still in possession of a stronghold of Christianity,
-merely divested of its superfluous ornament.
-
-Nietzsche soon perceived that, in spite of all the rubbish and refuse
-which such people as Kant, Schopenhauer, Strauss, Renan and others had
-made of Christian dogma, the essential core of Christianity, the vital
-organ of its body--its morality--had so far remained absolutely intact.
-Nay, he saw that it was actually being plastered up and restored
-by scholars and men of science who vowed that they could proffer
-reasonable, rationalistic, and logical grounds in support of it.
-
-Just as Christian dogma and metaphysics had been rationalised and
-philosophically proved by the scholars of the Middle Ages, and even
-as late as Leibnitz; so, now, Christian morality was being presented
-in a purely philosophical garb by the intellects of Europe. Having
-relinquished the dogma as no longer tenable, all scholars and men of
-science were trying with redoubled vigour to bolster up Christian
-ethics with elaborate text-books and learned treatises. There were
-some who accepted it all as if it were innate in human nature, and
-attributed it to a "moral sense"; there were others--good-natured
-biologists--who were likewise desirous of leaving it whole, and who
-declared with conviction that it was the natural outcome of the
-feelings of pleasure and pain; and there were yet others who assumed
-that it must have been evolved quite automatically out of expediency
-and non-expediency.
-
-Not one of these would-be rationalists, however, halted at the
-Christian terms "good" and "bad" themselves, in order to ask himself
-whether, like all the other notions of good and evil prevailing
-elsewhere under the shelter of other religions, these, the Christian
-notions, might not have been invented at some particular time by
-a certain kind of man, simply with the view of preserving and
-universalising his specific type. Breathless from their efforts at
-getting rid of the dogma, they did not dream that perhaps the most
-important part of the work still remained to be done.
-
-Nietzsche went to the very foundation of the Christian edifice.
-He pointed to its morality and said: if we are going to measure the
-value of this religion, let us cease our petty quarrels concerning
-the truth or falsehood of such stories as the loss of the Gadarene
-swine, or the miracle of the loaves and fishes, and let us throw the
-whole of Christian morality into the scales and appraise its precise
-worth as a system of ethics. Nietzsche would have scorned to quarrel
-with the Church, as Huxley did; for much more important issues were at
-stake. The worth of a religion is measured by its morality; because by
-its morality it moulds and rears men and reveals the type of man who
-ultimately wishes to prevail by means of it.
-
-With the metaphysics and the dogma of Christianity in ruins all around
-him, therefore, Nietzsche took a step very far in advance of the
-rationalistic iconoclasts of his age. He attacked Christian morals,
-and declared them to be, like all other morals, merely a weapon in the
-hands of a certain type of man, with which that type struggled for
-power.
-
-But bold as this step was, it constituted but the first of a series,
-the next of which was to discover the type which had laid the
-foundations of the Christian ideal. If it could be proved that these
-Christian values had been created by a noble species with the object of
-perpetuating that species, then Christianity would come forth from the
-inquiry vindicated to the hilt, and fill the damage done to its dogma
-would not have deterred Nietzsche from standing by it and upholding it
-to his very last breath. Alas! Things turned out somewhat differently
-and Nietzsche was not by any means the least pained by the result.
-Pursuing the inquiry with his usual unflinching and uncompromising
-honesty, and avoiding no conclusion however unpleasant or fatal,
-Nietzsche, the scion of a profoundly religions house, the lover of
-order and tradition, with the blood of generations of earnest believers
-in his veins, finally found himself compelled to renounce and even to
-condemn, root and branch, the faith which had been the strength and
-hope of his forebears.
-
-Before turning to the next chapter, where I shall explain how he
-came to regard this step as inevitable, it should be said concerning
-Nietzsche's philosophy in general, that it is essentially and through
-and through religious and almost prophetic in spirit. No careful
-reader of his works can doubt that Nietzsche was a deeply religious
-man. A glance at _Thus Spake Zarathustra_ alone would convince any
-one of this; while in his constant references to religion throughout
-his works, as "a step to higher intellectuality,"[5] as "a means to
-invaluable contentedness,"[6] as "a measure of discipline,"[7] as a
-powerful social factor,[8] a more substantial confirmation of the fact
-is to be found.
-
-It is well to bear in mind, however, throughout our study of Nietzsche,
-that he had a higher type always in view; that he was also well aware
-that this type could only be attained by the strict observance of a
-new morality, and that if he opposed other forms of morality--more
-particularly the Christian form--it was because he earnestly believed
-that they were rearing an undesirable and even despicable kind of man.
-
-"Verily men have made for themselves all their good and evil. Verily
-they did not take it: they did not find it: it did not come down as a
-voice from heaven."[9]
-
-"Behold, the good and just! Whom do they hate most? Him who breaketh up
-their tables of values; the breaker, the law-breaker: he, however, is
-the creator."[10]
-
-"Verily a muddy stream is man. One must be at least a sea to be able to
-absorb a muddy stream without becoming unclean."
-
-"Behold, I teach you Superman: he is that sea; in him your great
-contempt can sink."[11]
-
-
-[1] See also D.D. Aph. 81.
-
-[2] Z., p. 67.
-
-[3] Z., p. 65.
-
-[4] Z., p. 138.
-
-[5] G. E., p. 81.
-
-[6] G. E., p. 81.
-
-[7] G. E., p. 80.
-
-[8] G. M., 3rd Essay, Aph. 15.
-
-[9] Z., p. 67.
-
-[10] Z., p. 20.
-
-[11] Z., p. 8.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-
-Chapter III
-
-
-Nietzsche the Moralist
-
-
-Conceiving all forms of morality to be but weapons in the struggle
-for power, Nietzsche concluded that every species of man must at
-some time or other have taken to moralising, and must have called
-that "good" which its instincts approved, and that "bad" which its
-enemies instincts approved. In Beyond Good and Evil, however, he
-tells us that after making a careful examination "of the finer and
-coarser moralities which have hitherto prevailed or still prevail on
-earth," he found certain traits recurring so regularly together, and so
-closely connected with one another, that, finally, two primary types
-of morality revealed themselves to him. That is to say, after passing
-the known moralities of the world in review, he was able to classify
-them broadly into two types.
-
-He observed that throughout human history there had been a continual
-and implacable war between two kinds of men; it must have begun in the
-remotest ages, and it continues to this day. It is the war between the
-powerful and the impotent, the strong and the weak, the givers and
-the takers, the healthy and the sick, the happy and the wretched. The
-powerful formed their concept of "good," and it was one which justified
-their strongest instincts. The impotent likewise acquired their view of
-the matter, which was often precisely the reverse of the former view.
-
-In this way Nietzsche arrived at the following broad generalisation:
-that all the moralities of the world could be placed under one of two
-heads, _Master Morality or Slave Morality_.
-
-In the first, the master morality, it is the oak which contends: I
-must reach the sun and spread broad brandies in so doing; this I call
-"good," and the herd that I shelter may also call it good. In the
-second, the slave morality, it is the shrub which says: I also want to
-reach the sun, these broad branches of the oak, however, keep the sun
-from me, therefore the oak's instincts are "bad."
-
-It is obvious that these two points of view exist and have existed
-everywhere on earth. Apart from national and racial distinctions,
-mankind does fall into the two broad classes of master and slave, or
-ruler and subject. We also know that each of these classes must have
-developed its moral code, and must have tried to protect its conduct
-and life therewith. But, what we did not know until Nietzsche pointed
-the fact out to us, was: which morality is the more desirable and the
-more full of promise for the future? Admitting that the master and the
-slave moralities are struggling for supremacy still, which of them
-ought we to promote with every means in our power?--which of them
-is going to make life more attractive, more justifiable, and more
-acceptable on earth?
-
-These are now questions of the utmost importance; because it is
-precisely now that pessimism, nihilism, and other desperate faiths are
-beginning to set their note of interrogation to human existence, and to
-shake our belief even in the desirability of our own survival.
-
-It is now time for us to discover whence arises this contempt and
-horror of life, and to lay the blame for it either at the door of the
-master or of the slave morality.
-
-In order that we may understand how to set forth upon this inquiry, let
-us first form a mental image of the two codes as they must have been
-evolved by their originators.
-
-Nietzsche reminds us before we start, however,[1] that in most communities
-the two moralities have become so confused and mingled, in order
-to establish that compromise which is so dear to the hearts of the
-peaceful, that it would be almost a hopeless task to seek any society
-on earth in which they are now to be seen juxtaposed in sharp contrast.
-Be this as it may, in order to recognise the blood of each when we come
-across it, we have only to think of what must have occurred when the
-ruling caste and the ruled class took to moralising.
-
-Taking the ruling caste first, it is clear that in their
-morality, all is _good_ which proceeds from strength, power, health,
-well-constitutedness, happiness, and awfulness; for the motive force
-behind the people who evolved it was simply the will to discharge
-a plenitude, a superabundance, of spiritual and physical wealth. A
-consciousness of high tension, of a treasure that would fain give and
-bestow,--this is the mental attitude of the nobles. The antithesis
-"good" and "bad" to this first class means the same as "noble" and
-"despicable." "Bad" in the master morality must be applied to the
-coward, to all acts that spring from weakness, to the man with "an eye
-to the main chance," who would forsake everything in order to live.
-
-The creator of the master morality was he who, out of the very fulness
-of his soul, transfigured all he saw and heard, and declared it better,
-greater, more beautiful than it appeared to the creator of the slave
-morality. Great artists, great legislators, and great warriors belong
-to the class that created master morality.
-
-Turning now to the second class, we must bear in mind that it is the
-product of a community in which the struggle for existence is the
-prime life-motor. There, inasmuch as oppression, suffering, weariness,
-and servitude are the general rule, all will be regarded as good that
-tends to alleviate pain. Pity, the obliging hand, the warm heart,
-patience, industry, and humility,--these are undoubtedly the virtues
-we shall here find elevated to the highest places; because they are
-_useful_ virtues; they make life endurable; they are helpful in the
-struggle for existence. To this class, all that proceeds from strength,
-superabundance of spiritual or bodily power, or great health, is looked
-upon with loathing and mistrust, while that which is awful is the worst
-and greatest evil. He is good who is amenable, kind, unselfish, meek,
-and submissive; that is why, in all communities where slave morality is
-in the ascendant, a "good fellow" always suggests a man in possession
-of a fair modicum of foolishness and sentimentality.
-
-The creator of slave-morality was one who, out of the poverty of his
-soul, transfigured all he saw and heard, and declared it smaller,
-meaner, and less beautiful than it appeared to the creator of the
-master values. Great misanthropists, pessimists, demagogues, tasteless
-artists, nihilists, spiteful authors and dramatists, and resentful
-saints belong to the class that created slave-morality.
-
-The first order of values are active, creative, Dionysiac. The
-second are passive, defensive, venomous, subterranean; to them
-belong "Adaptation," "adjustment," and "utilitarian relationship to
-environment."
-
-Now, seeing that mankind is undoubtedly moulded by the nature of the
-values which prevail over it, it is manifestly of paramount importance
-to the philosopher to know which order of values conduces to rear the
-most desirable species of man, and then to advocate that order, with
-all the art and science at his disposal.
-
-Nietzsche saw two lines of life: an ascending and a descending line.
-At the end of the one he pictured an ideal type, robust in mind and
-body, rich enough in spirit and vigour to make giving and bestowing
-a necessary condition of its existence; at the end of the other line
-he already perceived degeneracy, poverty of blood and spirit, and a
-sufficiently low degree of vitality to make parasitism a biological
-need.
-
-He believed that the first, or noble morality, when it prevailed, made
-for an ascending line of life and therefore favoured the multiplication
-of a desirable type of man; and he was now equally convinced that
-whenever ignoble or slave morality was supreme, life not only tended
-to follow the descending line, but that the very men whose existence
-it favoured were the least likely to stem the declining tide. Hence it
-seemed to him that the most essential of all tasks was to ascertain
-what kind of morality now prevailed, in order that we might immediately
-transvalue our values, while there was still time, if we believed this
-change to be necessary.
-
-What then are our present values? Nietzsche replies most emphatically
---they are Christian values.
-
-In the last chapter we saw that although Christian dogma was very
-rapidly becoming mere wreckage, its most earnest opposers and
-destroyers nevertheless clung with fanatical faith to Christian
-morality. Thus, in addition to the vast multitude of those professing
-the old religion, there was also a host of atheists, agnostics,
-rationalists, and materialists, who, as far as Nietzsche was concerned,
-could quite logically be classed with those who were avowedly
-Christian. And, as for the remainder--a few indifferent and perhaps
-nameless people,--what could they matter? Even they, perhaps, if hard
-pressed, would have betrayed a sneaking, cowardly trust in Christian
-ethics, if only out of a sense of security; and with these the total
-sum of the civilised world was fully made up.
-
-Perhaps to some this may appear a somewhat sweeping conclusion. To such
-as doubt its justice, the best advice that can be given is to urge them
-to consult the literature, ethical, philosophical, and otherwise, of
-those writers whom they would consider most opposed to Christianity
-before the publication of Nietzsche's works; and they will then realise
-that, with very few exceptions, mostly to be found among uninfluential
-and uncreative iconoclasts, the whole of the Western civilised world in
-Nietzsche's time was firmly Christian in morals, and most firmly so,
-perhaps, in those very quarters where the dogma of the religion of pity
-was most honestly disclaimed.
-
-It had therefore become in the highest degree necessary to put these
-values under the philosophical microscope, and to discover to which
-order they belonged. Was Christianity the purveyor of a noble or of
-a slave morality? The reply to this question would reveal the whole
-tendency of the modern world, and would also answer Nietzsche's
-searching inquiry: "Are we on the right track?"
-
-Pursuing Nietzsche's method as closely as we can, let us now turn to
-Christianity, as we find it to-day, and see whether it is possible to
-bring its values into line with one of the two broad classes spoken of
-in this chapter.
-
-In the first place, Nietzsche discovers that Christianity is not a
-world-approving faith. The very pivot upon which it revolves seems to
-be the slandering and depreciating of this world, together with the
-praise and exaltation of a hypothetical world to come. To his mind it
-seems to draw odious comparisons between the things of this earth and
-the blessings of heaven. Finally, it gushes in a very unsportsmanlike
-manner over an imaginary beyond, to the detriment and disadvantage of
-a "here," of this earth, of this life, and posits another region--a
-nether region--for the accommodation of its enemies.[2]
-
-What, now, is the mental attitude of these "backworldsmen," as
-Nietzsche calls them, who can see only the world's filth? Who is likely
-to need the thought of a beyond, where he will live in bliss while
-those he hates will writhe in hell? Such ideas occur only to certain
-minds. Do they occur to the minds of those who, by the very health,
-strength, and happiness that is in them, transfigure all the world
---even the ugliness in it--and declare it to be beautiful? Do they
-occur to the powerful who can chastise their enemies while their blood
-is still up? Admitting that the world may be surveyed from a hundred
-different standpoints, is this particular standpoint which we now have
-under our notice, that of a contented, optimistic, sanguine type, or
-that of a discontented, pessimistic, anæmic one?
-
-"To the pure all things are pure!--I, however, say unto you: To the
-swine all things are swinish."[3]
-
-Nietzsche's sensitive car caught curious notes in the daily dronings of
-those around him--notes that made him suspicious of the whole melody
-of modern life, and still more suspicions of the chorus executing it.
-
-He heard to his astonishment: ... "the wretched alone are the good;
-the poor, the impotent, the lowly alone are good; only the sufferers,
-the needy, the sick, the ugly are pious only they are godly; them alone
-blessedness awaits--but ye, the proud and potent, ye are for aye
-and evermore the wicked, the cruel, the lustful, the insatiable, the
-godless; ye will also be, to all eternity, the unblessed, the cursed,
-and the damned."[4]
-
-He continued listening intently, and, with his ear attuned anew, these
-sentiments broke strangely upon his senses:--
-
-"Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the Kingdom of Heaven.
-
-"Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted.
-
-"Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.
-
-"Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of
-God."[5]
-
-There was no time for brooding over stray thoughts; there was still
-much to be seen and hoard. When you want to catch some one napping, you
-keep your eye eagerly upon him, and turn neither to the right nor to
-the left. Nietzsche, it must be remembered, was at this stage treading
-softly towards Europe whom he believed to be "napping."
-
-In his lonely hermit cell he was able to catch all the sounds that
-rose from the city beneath him, and he heard perhaps more than the
-inhabitants themselves.
-
-He could see them all fighting and quarrelling, and he was cheered,
-because he knew that where the great fight for power ceases, the
-standard of life falls. But some he saw were wounded, others were
-actually unfit for the battlefield, a large number looked tired and
-listless, and there were yet others--a goodly multitude--who were
-resentful at the sight of their superiors and who, like sulky children,
-dropped their arms in a pet and declared that they would not play any
-more. And what were all these feeble and less viable mortals doing?
-They were crying aloud, and making their deepest wishes known. They
-were elevating their desiderata to the highest places amongst earthly
-virtues--and driving back the others with _words_! Nietzsche thought
-of Reynard the Fox, who, at the very moment that he was about to be
-hanged, and with the rope already round his neck, succeeded by his
-dialectical skill in persuading the crowd to release him. For Nietzsche
-could hear the weary, the wounded, and the incapable of the fight,
-crying quite distinctly through their lips parched for rest: "Peace is
-good! Love is good! Love for one's neighbour is good! Ay, and even love
-for one's enemy is good!"[6]
-
-And some cried: "It is God that avengeth me!" to those who oppressed
-them, and others said: "The Lord avenge me!"[7]
-
-Whereupon Nietzsche thought of the Jehovah of the Old Testament, the
-God of revenge and thunderbolts; he recalled the sentiment: "Ye shall
-chase your enemies and they shall fall fall before you by the sword,"
-and he wondered how this had come to mean "love your enemies," in the
-New Testament. Had another type of men perhaps made themselves God's
-mouthpiece?
-
-Yes, that must be so; for, in their holy book, he came across this
-passage, ascribed to one of their greatest saints:
-
-"Hath not God made foolish the wisdom of this world?
-
-"For after that in the wisdom of God the world by wisdom knew God, it
-pleased God by the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe.
-
-"... Not many wise men after the flesh, not many mighty, not many
-noble _are called_:
-
-"But God hath chosen the foolish things of the world to confound the
-wise: and God hath chosen the weak things of the world to confound the
-things which are mighty:
-
-"And base things of the world, and things which are despised, hath God
-chosen, yea and things which are not, to bring to nought things that
-are."[8]
-
-Here, Nietzsche tells us, he began to hold his nose; but he still
-listened; for there was yet more to be heard. From the smiles that were
-breaking over the lips of those who read the above words, he gathered
-that they must have overcome their unhappiness. Yes, indeed, they had.
-But what did they call it? This was important--even the Christian view
-of unhappiness seemed significant to Nietzsche in this inquiry.
-
-Their unhappiness, their wretchedness, they called a trial, a gift, a
-distinction! Not really? Yes indeed! As Nietzsche points out: "They
-are wretched, no doubt, all these mumblers and underground forgers,
-though warmly seated together. But they tell us their wretchedness is a
-selection and distinction from God, that the dogs which are loved most
-are whipped, that their misery may perhaps also be a preparation, a
-trial, a schooling; perhaps even more--something which at some time to
-come will be refuted and paid back with immense interest in gold. No!
-in happiness. This they call 'blessedness.'"[9]
-
-At this point Nietzsche declares that he could stand it no longer.
-"Enough, enough! Bad air! Bad air!" he cried. "Methinks this workshop
-of virtue positively reeks."
-
-He had now realised in whose company he had been all this time.
-
-These people who halted at nothing in order to elevate their weaknesses
-to the highest place among the virtues, and to monopolise goodness on
-earth--who called that good which was tame and soft and harmless,
-because they themselves could only survive in litters of cotton wool;
-who coloured the earth with the darkness _that_ was in their own bodies;
---who did not scruple to dub all manly and vital virtues odiously
-sinful and wicked, and who preferred to set the life of the whole
-world at stake, rather than acknowledge that it was precisely their
-own second-rate, third-rate, or even fourth-rate, vitality which was
-the greatest sin of all; who in one and the same breath preached their
-utilitarian "universal love" to the powerful, and then sent them to
-eternal damnation in another world: Nietzsche asks, are these people
-the supporters of a noble or of a slave morality?
-
-The answer is obvious, and we need not labour the point. But it was so
-obvious to the lonely hermit, that the thought of it filled him with
-horror and dread, and he was moved to leave his cell and to descend
-into the plain, while there was yet time, with the object of urging us
-to transvalue our values.
-
-In Christian values, Nietzsche read nihilism, decadence, degeneration,
-and death. They were calculated to favour the multiplication of the
-least desirable on earth: and, as such, despite his antecedents,
-and with his one desire, "the elevation of the type man," always
-before him, he condemned Christian morality from top to bottom.
-This magnificent attempt on the part of the low, the base, and the
-worthless, to establish themselves as the most powerful on earth, must
-be checked at all costs, and with terrible earnestness he exhorts us to
-alter our values.
-
-"O my brethren, with whom lieth the greatest danger to the whole human
-future? Is it not with the good and the just?
-
-"_Break up, break up, I pray you, the good and the just!_"
-
-This condemnation of Christian values, as slave values--which
-Nietzsche regarded as his greatest service to mankind--he says he
-would write on all walls. He tells us he came just in the nick of time;
-to-morrow might be too late.
-
-"It is time for man to fix his goal. It is time for man to plant the
-germ of his highest hope.
-
-"His soil is still rich enough for that purpose. But that soil will one
-day be too poor and exhausted, and no lofty tree will any longer be
-able to grow thereon."[10]
-
-
-[1] G. E., p. 227
-
-[2] John xii. 25; 1 John ii. 15, 16; James iv. 4.
-
-[3] Z., p. 249.
-
-[4] G. M., 1st Essay, Aph. 7.
-
-[5] Matthew v.
-
-[6] Matthew xxiii. 39; Mark xiii. 31; Luke x. 27; Matthew v. 44.
-
-[7] 2 Luke xviii. 7, 8; Romans xii. 19; Revelation vi. 10.
-
-[8] I Corinthians i. 20, 21, 26, 27, 28.
-
-[9] G. M., 1st Essay, Aph. 14. See also Epistle to the Hebrews xii. 6,
-and Revelation iii. 19.
-
-[10] Z., p. 12
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-
-Chapter IV
-
-
-Nietzsche the Evolutionist
-
-
-"Transvalue your values or perish!" This was the message of the
-hermit Nietzsche to the people inhabiting the valley into which he
-had descended. "Transvalue your values!"--that is to say, make them
-what they once were, noble, life-approving, virile! For two thousand
-years the roll of the world-wheel had been reversed--Stendhal had
-said that many years before Nietzsche lived--but it was left to
-Nietzsche, Stendhal's admirer and pupil, to teach and prove this fact.
-Stendhal, too, had cried out against the tameness, the lukewarmness,
-the effeminacy of society; but Nietzsche took up this cry with a voice
-more brazen than Stendhal's at a time when mankind was in much greater
-need of it. Stendhal had pointed enthusiastically to the sun and to the
-passion of the south, and had donned a moral respirator whenever he
-turned to face the grey and depressing atmosphere of northern ideas and
-northern tepidness. Nietzsche follows his master's hint with alacrity,
-but in doing so converts Stendhal's clarion notes into thunder, and the
-glint of Stendhal's rapier into strokes of lightning.[1]
-
-When Nietzsche began to write Europe was suffering from the worst kind
-of spiritual illness--weakness of will. Everywhere comfort and freedom
-from danger were becoming the highest ideals; everywhere, too, virtue
-was being confounded with those qualities which led to the highest
-possible amount of security and tame, back-parlour pleasures; and man
-was gradually developing into a harmless domesticated type of animal,
-capable of performing a host of charming little drawing-room tricks
-which rejoiced the hearts of his womenfolk.
-
-Sleep seemed to be the greatest accomplishment. It had become all
-important to have a good night's rest, and everything was done to
-achieve this end. A man no longer asked his heart what it dictated,
-when he stood irresolute before a daring deed, he simply consulted
-Morpheus, who warned him that he could not promise him a soft pillow if
-he did anything that was ever so slightly naughty. In the end, Morpheus
-would prevail, and thus all Europe was beginning to snore peacefully
-the whole night through, with marvellous regularity, while manliness
-rotted and danger dwindled.[2]
-
-Nietzsche protested against this state of affairs:--"What is good? ye
-ask. To be brave is good. Let the little schoolgirls say: To be good is
-sweet and touching at the same time. Ye say, a good cause will hallow
-even war? I say unto you: a good war halloweth every cause. War and
-courage have done greater things than love!"[3]
-
-"I pass through this people and keep mine eyes open: they have
-become _smaller_, and ever become smaller: _the reason thereof is their
-doctrine of happiness and virtue_.
-
-"For they are moderate also in virtue--because they want comfort. With
-comfort, however, moderate virtue only is compatible.
-
-"Of man there is little here: therefore do their women make themselves
-manly. For only he who is man enough, will _save the woman_ in woman.
-
-"In their hearts, they want simply one thing most of all: that no one
-hurt them.
-
-"That, however, is _cowardice_, though it be called virtue."[4]
-
-Some there were, of course, who were conscious of the dreadful
-condition of things, and who deplored it, without, however, being able
-to put their finger on the root of the evil. Such people were most of
-them pessimists, and, at the time that Nietzsche lived, Schopenhauer
-was their leader.
-
-Sensitive, noble-minded, artistic people, deprived by rationalistic
-and atheistic teachers of the belief in God, felt the ignobleness of
-European hopes and aspirations, and knowing of no better creed and
-possessing the intelligence to see the hopelessness of things under the
-rule of the values which then prevailed, they succumbed to a mood of
-utter despair, subscribed to Schopenhauer's horror and loathing of the
-world, and regarded the very optimism of childhood with suspicion and
-scorn.
-
-For a while Nietzsche, too, was an ardent and devoted follower of
-Schopenhauer. Godlessness was bad enough to endure: but Godlessness in
-a world of un-pagan and effeminate manhood, was too much for the loving
-student of classical antiquity, and he turned to Schopenhauer as to one
-who, he thought, would understand how to steel his heart against life's
-misery.
-
-But this opiate did not maintain its sway over Nietzsche long. Our poet
-was of a type too courageous and too vigorous to be able to surrender
-himself so completely to sorrow and to Buddhistic consolations.
-Gradually he began to regard the humble and resigned attitude of the
-pessimist before life's hardships and modernity's greyness as unworthy
-of a spirited and active man. Slowly it dawned upon him that the root
-of the evil lay, not in the constitution of the earth, but in man
-himself, and in man's actual values. If man could be roused to pursue
-higher ideals; if he could be moved to kill the poisonous snake of
-ignoble values that had crawled into his throat and choked him while
-he was in slumber;[5] in fact, if man could surpass himself and regard
-the reversal of the world's engines, for the last two thousand years,
-as Stendhal had done--that is to say, as the grossest error and most
-ridiculous _faux pas_ that had ever been made--then, Nietzsche thought,
-pessimism and Schopenhauer might go to the deuce, and conscious,
-sensitive, intellectual, and artistic Europe would once more be able
-to smile instead of shuddering at the thought of mankind's former
-qualities.
-
-Thus it was the condemnation of modern values, together with the
-thought of man's being able to surpass himself, which gave Nietzsche
-the grounds and the necessary strength for abandoning pessimism and
-embracing that wise optimism which characterises the whole of his works
-after _The Joyful Wisdom_.
-
-True, God was dead; but that ought only to make man feel more
-self-reliant, more creative, prouder. Undoubtedly God was dead: but
-man could now hold himself responsible for himself. He could now seek
-a goal in manhood, on earth, and one that was at least within the
-compass of his powers. Long enough had he squinted heavenwards, with
-the result, that he had neglected his task on earth.[6]
-
-"Dead are all Gods!" Nietzsche cries, "now we will that Superman live!"[7]
-
-We are now before Nietzsche the evolutionist, and we must define him,
-relatively to those other evolutionists with whom we, as English
-people, are already familiar.
-
-To begin with, then, let us dispose of the fundamental question:
-Nietzsche's concept of life. We have had life variously defined for
-us by our own writers, and perhaps one among Nietzsche's greatest
-contemporaries in England--Herbert Spencer--defined it in the
-most characteristically English fashion. Spencer said: "Life is
-activity," or "the continuous adjustment of internal relations to
-external relations." Now there is absolutely nothing in either of
-these definitions, no suggestion or hint, which would lead the most
-suspicious to conjecture what life really is. (Activity) reveals
-nothing of life's passions, its hate, its envy, its covetousness, its
-hard, inexorable principles; the process of the continual adjustments
-of internal relations to external relations might mean the serpent's
-digestion of its prey, or the training of an opera singer's voice, and
-it might also be a scientific formula for a "moral order of things."
-Both definitions are delightfully unheroic and vague; though they do
-not compromise the writer they compromise with everything else, and to
-start out with them is to shelve the question in a way which allows of
-our subsequently weaving all the romance and sweetness possible into
-life, and of making it as pretty as a little nursery story.
-
-Nietzsche, always eager for a practical and tangible idea, naturally
-could not accept these two definitions as expressing anything profound
-about life at all. Looking into the race of nature, and reading her
-history from the amoeba with its predatory pseudo-podia, to the lion
-with its murderous prehensile claws, he defined life practically,
-uprightly, and bravely, as "appropriation, injury, conquest of the
-strange and weak, suppression, severity, obtrusion of its own forms,
-incorporation, and, at least, putting it mildest, exploitation."[8]
-
-Thus, as we see, from the start Nietzsche closes his eyes at nothing,
-he does not want life to be a pretty tale if it is not one. He wants
-to know it as it is: for he is convinced that this is the only way of
-arriving at sound principles as to the manner in which human existence
-should be led.
-
-"Appropriation," then, he takes as a fact: he does not argue it away,
-any more than he tries to argue away "injury," "conquest of the strange
-and weak," "suppression," and "incorporation." These things are only
-too apparent, and he states them bravely in his definition. We know
-life is all this; but how much more comfortable it is, when we are
-sitting in our soft easy-chairs before our cheerful fires, to think
-that life is merely activity!
-
-To believe that there is a moral order in the universe is to believe
-that these unpleasant things in Nietzsche's definition will one day
-be overcome. This was the position Christianity assumed from the
-start. Put, though it was excusable in a religion fighting for power,
-and compelled to use nice and attractive words for its followers, to
-suppose that all the misery on earth will one day be transformed by
-God's wisdom into perfect bliss; such an attitude is quite unpardonable
-in the case of a philosopher or even of a poet. When Browning chanted
-smugly: "God's in His heaven: All's right with the world," he confessed
-himself a mediocre spirit with one stroke of the pen. And when Spencer
-wrote that the blind process of evolution "must inevitably favour all
-changes of nature which increase life and augment happiness," he did
-the same. We may now perhaps understand Nietzsche's impatience of his
-predecessors and contemporaries, who refused to see precisely what he
-saw in the face of nature.
-
-But even in his extended definition of life, the modern biologist
-brings himself no nearer to Nietzsche's honest standpoint, and for the
-following reasons:--
-
-The modern biologist says, this "activity" he speaks of has a precise
-meaning. It connotes "the struggle for existence," or in other words
-"self-defence." (Again he is looking at life through moral or Christian
-glasses; because if every thing on earth is done in self-defence, even
-the devil himself is argued out of existence, and God remains creator
-of the "good" alone.) Nietzsche replies by denying this flatly. He says
-that the definition is again inadequate. He warns us not to confound
-Malthus with nature.[9] He admits that the struggle occurs, but only as
-an exception. "The general aspect of life is not a state of want or
-hunger; it is rather a state of opulence, luxuriance, and even absurd
-prodigality--where there is a struggle, it is a struggle for power."
---Will to power and not will to live is the motive force of life.
-
-"Wherever I found living matter," he says, "I found will to power, and
-even in the servant I found the yearning to be master.
-
-"Only where there is life, there is will: though a not will to live,
-but thus I teach thee--WILL TO POWER."[10]
-
-Is there no aggression without the struggle for existence? Is there
-no voluptuousness in a position of power for us own sake? Of course
-there is! And one wonders how these English biologists could ever have
-been schoolboys without noticing these facts. As Nietzsche points out,
-however, they are every one of them labouring under the Christian
-ideal still--in spite of all their upsetting of the first chapter of
-Genesis, and in spite of all their blasting of the miracles. Put, if
-life is the supreme aim of all, how is it that many things are valued
-higher than life by living beings? If the will to live sometimes
-finds itself overpowered by another will--more particularly in great
-warriors, great prophets, great artists, and great heroes--what is
-this mightier force which thus overpowers it? We have heard what
-Nietzsche calls it--it is the Will to Power.
-
-"Psychologists should bethink themselves before putting down the
-instinct of self-preservation as the cardinal instinct of an organic
-being. A living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength--life
-itself is Will to Power; self-preservation is only one of the indirect
-and most frequent results thereof."[11]
-
-In spite of everything we have already said, Nietzsche's disagreement
-with our own biologists may still seem to many but a play upon words.
-A moment's meditation, however--more particularly over the passage
-just quoted--will show that it is really much deeper than this. It is
-one thing to regard an animal as a mere automaton, prowling around to
-satisfy its hunger, and happy to remain inactive when the sensation of
-hunger is appeased, and quite another to regard an animal as a battery
-of accumulated forces which _must_ be discharged at all costs (and for
-good or evil), with only temporary lapses of purely self-preservative
-desires and self-preservative actions. All the different consequences
-of these two views will occur to the thinker in an instant.
-
-Upon this basis, then, the Will to Power, Nietzsche builds up a
-cosmogony which also assumes that species have been evolved; but again,
-in the processes of that evolution he is at variance with Darwin and
-all the natural-selectionists.
-
-Nietzsche cannot be persuaded that "mechanical adjustment to ambient
-conditions," or "adaptation to environment"--both purely passive,
-meek, and uncreative functions--should be given the importance,
-as determining factors, which the English and German schools give
-them. With Samuel Butler, he protests against this "pitchforking of
-mind and spirit out of the universe," and points imperatively to
-an inner creative will in living organisms, which ultimately makes
-environment and natural conditions subservient and subject. In the
-_Genealogy of Morals_[12] he makes it quite clear that he would ascribe
-the greatest importance to a power in the organism itself, to "the
-highest functionaries in the animal, in which the life-will appears
-as an active and formative principle," and that even in the matter
-of the mysterious occurrence of varieties (sports) he would seek for
-inner causes. Darwin himself threw out only a hint in this direction;
-that is why it is safe to suppose that, if Nietzsche and Darwin are
-ever reconciled, it will probably be precisely on this ground. In
-the _Origin of Species_, speaking of the causes of variability, Darwin
-said: "... There are two factors, namely the nature of the organism,
-and the nature of the conditions. _The former seem to be much the more
-important_,[13] for nearly similar variations sometimes arise under, as
-far as we can judge, dissimilar conditions; and on the other hand,
-dissimilar variations arise under conditions which appear to be
-uniform."
-
-Thus differing widely from the orthodox school of evolutionists,
-Nietzsche nevertheless believed their hypothesis to be sound; but once
-more he has an objection to raise. Why did they halt where they halted?
-
-If the process is a fact, if things have become what they are, and
-have not always been so; then why should we rest on our oars? If it
-was possible for man to struggle up from barbarism, and still more
-remotely from the lower Primates, and reach the zenith of his physical
-development; why, Nietzsche asks, should he not surpass himself and
-attain to Superman by evolving in the same decree volitionally and
-mentally?
-
-"The most careful ask to-day: 'How is man preserved?' But Zarathustra
-asketh as the only and first one: 'How is man surpassed?'[14]
-
-"All beings (in your genealogical ladder) have created something beyond
-themselves, and are ye going to be the ebb of this great tide?
-
-"Behold I teach you Superman!"[15]
-
-And now, again, at the risk of being monotonous, I must point to yet
-another difference between Nietzsche and the prevailing school of
-evolutionists. Whereas the latter, in their unscrupulous optimism,
-believed that out of the chaotic play of blind forces something highly
-desirable and "good" would ultimately be evolved; whereas they tacitly,
-though not avowedly, believed that their "fittest" in the struggle
-for existence would eventually prove to be the best--in fact that
-we should "muddle through" to perfection somehow, and that something
-really noble and important would be sure to result from John Brown's
-contest with Harry Smith for the highest place in an insurance office,
-for instance; Nietzsche disbelieved from the bottom of his heart in
-this chance play of blind and meaningless tendencies. He said: Given
-a degenerate, mean, and base environment and the fittest to survive
-therein will be the man who is best adapted to degeneracy, meanness,
-and baseness--therefore the worst kind of man. Given a community of
-parasites, and it may be that the flattest, the slimiest, and the
-softest, will be the fittest to survive. Such faith in blind forces
-Nietzsche regarded merely as the survival of the old Christian belief
-in the moral order of things, fogged out in scientific apparel to
-suit modern tastes. He saw plainly, that if man were to be elevated
-at all, no blind struggle in his present conditions would ever effect
-that end; for the present conditions themselves make those the fittest
-to survive in them who are persons of absolutely undesirable gifts
-and propensities.
-
-He declared (and here we are in the very heart of Nietzscheism)
-that nothing but a total change in these conditions, a complete
-transvaluation of all values, would ever alter man and make him more
-worthy of his past. For it is values, values, and again values, that
-mould men, and rear men, and create men; and ignoble values make
-ignoble men, and noble values make noble men! Thus it was in the
-beginning, is now, and ever shall be, truth without end--for men.
-
-Nietzsche realised "all that could still be made out of man, through
-a favourable accumulation and augmentation of human powers and
-arrangements"; he knew "how unexhausted man still is for the greatest
-possibilities, and how often in the past the type man has stood in
-mysterious and dangerous crossways, and has launched forth upon the
-right or the wrong road, impelled merely by a whim, or by a hint from
-the giant Chance."[16] And now, he was determined that, whether man wished
-to listen or not, at least he should be told of the ultimate disaster
-that awaited him, if he continued in his present direction. For, there
-was yet time!
-
-It is to higher men that Nietzsche really makes his appeal, the leaders
-and misleaders of the mob. He had no concern with the multitude and
-they did not need him. The world had seen philosophies enough which had
-advocated the cause of the "greatest number"--English libraries were
-stacked with such works. What was required was, to convert those rare
-men who give the direction--the heads of the various throngs--the
-vanguard.
-
-"Awake and listen, ye lonely ones! From the future, winds are coming
-with a gentle beating of wings, and there cometh good tidings for fine
-ears.
-
-"Ye lonely ones of to-day, ye who stand apart, ye shall one day be a
-people: from you, who have chosen yourselves, a chosen people shall
-arise and from it Superman."[17]
-
-
-[1] G. E., Aph. 254, 255, 256.
-
-[2] See Schopenhauer on _The Vanity and Suffering of Life_.
-
-[3] Z., p. 52.
-
-[4] Z., pp. 204, 205, 206.
-
-[5] Z., pp. 192, 193.
-
-[6] See Z., p. 98 _et seq_.
-
-[7] Z., p. 91.
-
-[8] G. E., p. 226.
-
-[9] Twilight of the Idols, Part 9, Aph. 14.
-
-[10] Z., pp. 136, 137.
-
-[11] G. E., p. 20.
-
-[12] Second Essay, Aph. 12.
-
-[13] The italics are mine.--A. M. L.
-
-[14] Z., p. 351.
-
-[15] Z., p. 6.
-
-[16] G. E., p. 130.
-
-[17] Z., p. 89.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-
-Chapter V
-
-
-Nietzsche the Sociologist
-
-
-For Nietzsche, as we are beginning to see, a fitting title is hard to
-find. Unless we coin new names for things that have not yet been given
-names, Nietzsche remains without a title among his fellow thinkers.
-He has been called the "arch-anarchist," which he is not; he has been
-called the "preacher of brutality," which he is not; he has been called
-the "egoist," which he is not. But all these titles were conferred
-upon him by people whose interest it was to reduce him in the public's
-esteem. If he must be named, however, and we suppose he must, the best
-title would obviously be that which would distinguish him most exactly
-from his colleagues. Now, how does Nietzsche stand out from the ranks
-of almost all other philosophers? By the fact that he was throughout
-his life an "Advocate of Higher Man." Whereas other philosophers and
-scholars had always thought they had some divine message to impart in
-the cause of the "greatest number"; Nietzsche--the typical miner and
-underminer--believed that his mission was to stand for a neglected
-minority, for higher men, for the gold in the mass of quartz.
-
-No title therefore could be more fair, and at the same time more
-essentially descriptive, than the "Advocate of Higher Man," and in
-giving this title to Nietzsche, we immediately outline him against that
-assembly of his colleagues who were "Advocates of the Greatest Number."
-
-It is of the first importance to humanity that its higher individuals
-should be allowed to attain their full development, for only by means
-of its heroes can the human race be led forward step by step to higher
-and ever higher levels. In view of the fact that Nietzsche realised
-this, some of his principles, when given general application, may
-very naturally appear to be both iniquitous and subversive, and those
-who read him with the idea that he is preaching a gospel for all are
-perfectly justified if they turn away in horror from his works. The
-mistake they make, however, is to suppose that he, like most other
-philosophers with whom they are familiar, is an advocate of the
-greatest number.
-
-Let us take a single instance. In _The Honey Sacrifice_[1] the phrase
-"Become what thou art," occurs. Now it is obvious that however
-legitimate this command may be when applied to the highest and best, it
-becomes dangerous and seditious when applied to each individual of the
-mass of mankind. And this explains the number of errors that are rife
-concerning Nietzsche's gospel. Whenever Nietzsche spoke esoterically,
-his enemies declared that he was pronouncing maxims for the greatest
-number; whenever he spoke for the greatest number, as he does again
-and again in his allusions to the mediocre, he was accused of speaking
-esoterically. How would any other philosophy have fared under such
-misrepresentation and calumny?
-
-Nietzsche could not believe in equality; for within him justice said
-"men are not equal!" Those to whom it gives pleasure to think that men
-are equal, he conjures not to confound pleasure with truth, and, like
-Professor Huxley, he finds himself obliged to recognise "the natural
-inequality of men."
-
-But, far from deploring this fact, he would fain have accentuated
-and intensified it. This inequality, to Nietzsche, is a condition to
-be exploited and to be made use of by the legislator. The higher men
-of a society in which gradations of rank are recognised as a natural
-and desirable condition constitute the class in which the hopes of a
-real elevation of humanity may be placed. The Divine Manu, Laotse,
-Confucius, Muhammad, Jesus Christ--all these men, who in their sublime
-arrogance actually converted man into a mirror in which they saw
-themselves and their doctrines reflected, and who in thus converting
-man into a mirror really made him feel happy in the function of
-reflecting alone:--these leaders are the types Nietzsche refers to when
-he speaks of higher men.
-
-Ruling, like all other functions which require the great to justify
-them, has fallen into disrepute, thanks to the incompetent amateurs
-that have tried their hand at the game. As in the Fine Arts, so in
-leading and ruling; it is the dilettantes that have broken our faith
-in human performances. The really great ruler reaches his zenith in
-dominating an epoch, a party, a nation or the world, to the best
-advantage of each of these; but it does not follow that the motive
-power propelling him should necessarily be the conscious pursuit of
-the best advantage of those he rules,--this is merely a fortuitous
-circumstance curiously associated with greatness in ruling,--generally
-speaking, however, his only conscious motive is the gratification of
-his inordinate will to power.
-
-The innocent fallacy of democracy lies in supposing that by a mere
-search, by a mere rummaging and fumbling among a motley populace, one
-man or several men can be found, who are able to take the place of the
-rare and ideal ruler. As if the mere fact of searching and rummaging
-were not in itself a confession of failure,--a confession that this
-man does not exist! For if he existed he would have asserted himself!
-he would have needed no democratic exploration party to unearth him.
-
-"There is no sorer misfortune in all human destiny, than when the
-powerful of the earth are not at the same time the first men. Then
-everything becometh false and warped and monstrous."[2]
-
-"For, my brethren, the best shall rule: the best will rule! And where
-the teaching is different, there--the best _is lacking_."[3]
-
-Here we observe that Nietzsche advocated an aristocratic arrangement
-of society. A firm believer in tradition, law, and order, and, in
-spite of his opponents' accusations, an undaunted enemy of Anarchy and
-_laisser-aller_, he saw in Socialism and Democracy nothing more than
-two slave organisations for the raising of every individual to his
-highest power, individuality made as general as possible; or, in other
-words, Socialism and Democracy meant to Nietzsche the annihilation of
-all higher aims and hopes. It meant valuing all the weeds and noble
-plants alike, and with such a valuation, the noble plants, being in
-the minority, must necessarily suffer and ultimately die out. Where
-everybody is somebody, nobody is anybody. Socialism, _i.e._ organised
-Individualism, seemed to Nietzsche merely the reflection in politics
-of the Christian principle that all men are alike before God. Grant
-immortality to every Tom, Dick, and Harry, and, in the end, every Tom,
-Dick, or Harry will believe in equal rights before he can even hope
-to reach Heaven, but to deny the privileges of rare men implies the
-proscription from life of all high trees with broad brandies,--those
-broad brandies that protect the herd from the rain, but which also keep
-the sun from the envious and ambitious shrub,--and thus it would mean
-that the world would gradually assume the appearance of those vast
-Scotch moors of gorse and heather, where liberalism and mediocrity are
-rampant, but where all loftiness is dead.
-
-Nietzsche was a profound believer in the value of tradition, in the
-value of general discipline lasting over long periods. He knew that all
-that is great and lasting and intensely moving has been the result of
-the law of castes or of the laws governing the individual members of a
-caste throughout many generations.[4] This building up of the rare man, of
-the great man (of the cultivated type in a Darwinian sense) as every
-scientist is aware, is utterly frustrated by any thing in the way of
-injudicious and careless cross-breeding (see Darwin on the degeneration
-of the cultivated types of animals through the action of promiscuous
-breeding), by democratic _mésalliances_ of all kinds, and by the laisser
-aller which is one of the worst evils of that kind of freedom which
-tends to prevail when the slaves of a community have succeeded in
-asserting and expressing their insignificant and miserable little
-individualities.
-
-Believing all this, Nietzsche could not help but advocate the rearing
-of a select and aristocratic caste, and in none of his exhortations is
-he more sincere than when he appeals to higher men to sow the seeds of
-a nobility for the future.
-
-"O my brethren, I consecrate you to be, and show unto you the way unto
-a now nobility. Ye shall become procreators and breeders and sowers of
-the future.
-
-"Verily, ye shall not become a nobility one might buy, like shopkeepers
-with shopkeepers' gold. For all that hath its fixed price is of little
-worth.
-
-"Not whence ye come be your honour in future, but whither ye go!" Your
-will, and your foot that longeth to get beyond yourselves,--be that
-your new honour!"
-
-"Your children's land ye shall love (be this your new nobility), the
-land undiscovered in the remotest sea! For it I bid you set sail and
-seek!"[5]
-
-"Every elevation of the type man," says Nietzsche, "has hitherto been
-the work of an aristocratic society--and so will it always be--a
-society believing in a long scale of gradations of rank and differences
-of worth among human beings, and requiring slavery in some form or
-other. Without the _pathos of distance_, such as grows out of the
-incarnated differences of classes, out of the constant outlooking and
-downlooking of the ruling caste on subordinates and instruments, and
-out of their equally constant practice of obeying and commanding, of
-keeping down and keeping at a distance that other more mysterious
-pathos could never have arisen, the longing for an ever new widening
-distance within the soul itself, the formation of ever higher, rarer,
-further, more extended, more comprehensive states, in short, just the
-elevation of the type 'man,' the continued 'self-surmounting of man,'
-to use a moral formula in a super-moral sense."[6]
-
-I cannot attempt to give a full account of the society Nietzsche would
-fain have seen established on earth. It will be found exhaustively
-described in Aph. 57 of the _Antichrist_: while in the book of _Manu_ (Max
-Müller's "Sacred Books of the East," No. 25), similar sociological
-prescriptions are to be found, correlated with all the imposing
-machinery of divine revelation, supernatural authority, and religious
-earnestness.
-
-Briefly, Nietzsche says this:--
-
-It is ridiculous to pretend to treat every one without regard to those
-natural distinctions which are manifested by superior intellectuality,
-or exceptional muscular strength, or mediocrity of spiritual and
-bodily powers, or inferiority of both. He tells us that it is not the
-legislator, but nature herself, who establishes these broad classes,
-and to ignore them when forming a society would be just as foolish as
-to ignore the order of rank among materials and structural principles
-when building a monument. Though the base of a pyramid does not require
-to be of the very finest marble, we know it must be both broad and
-massive. Nietzsche declares that no society has any solidarity which
-is not founded upon a broad basis of mediocrity. Though the stones
-get fewer in the layers as we ascend to the top of the pyramid, we
-know that their gradation is necessary if the highest point is to be
-readied. Nietzsche believes in the long scale of gradations of rank
-with the ascending line leading always to the highest--even if he be
-only a single individual. Though the very uppermost point consists of a
-single stone, it is around that single stone that the weather will rage
-most furiously and the sun shine most gorgeously. That single stone
-will be the first to cleave the heavy shower, and the first, for, to
-meet the lightning. Nietzsche says: "Life always becomes harder towards
-the _summit_,--the cold increases, responsibility increases."[7]
-
-    "Saepius ventis agitatur ingens
-    pinus, et celsae graviore casu
-    decidunt turres, feriuntque summos
-        fulgura montes."[8]--HORACE, _Carm_. II. X.
-
-Thus he would have the intellectually superior, those who can bear
-responsibility and endure hardships, at the head. Beneath them are
-the warriors, the physically strong, who are "the guardians of right,
-the keepers of order and security, the king above all as the highest
-formula of warrior, judge, and keeper of the law. The second in rank
-are the executive of the most intellectual." And below this caste are
-the mediocre. "Handicraft, trade, agriculture, _science_, the greater
-part of art, in a word, the whole _compass_ of business activity,
-is exclusively compatible with an average amount of ability and
-pretension." At the very base of the social edifice, Nietzsche sees
-the class of man who thrives best when he is well looked after and
-closely observed,--the man who is happy to serve, not because he must,
-but because he is what he is,--the man uncorrupted by political and
-religious lies concerning equality, liberty, and fraternity,--who is
-half conscious of the abyss which separates him from his superiors, and
-who is happiest when performing those acts which are not beyond his
-limitations.
-
-He forestalls this sketch of his ideal society by enunciating the moral
-code wherewith he would transvalue our present values, and I shall now
-give this code without a single remark or comment, feeling quite sure
-that the reader who has understood Nietzsche so far will not require
-any assistance in seeing that it is the necessary and logical outcome
-of the rest of his teaching.
-
-       *        *        *        *        *
-
-"What is good? All that increases the feeling of power, will to power,
-power itself in man.
-
-"What is bad?--All that proceeds from weakness.
-
-"What is happiness?--The feeling that power _increases_, that resistance
-is overcome.
-
-"Not contentedness, but more power; not peace at any price, but
-warfare; not virtue, but capacity (virtue in the Renaissance style,
-virtù free from any moralic acid)."[9]
-
-       *        *        *        *        *
-
-I cannot well close this chapter on Nietzsche's sociological views
-without touching upon two of the most important elements in modern
-society, and his treatment of them. I refer to "altruism" and to
-"pity." I am more particularly anxious to express myself clearly on
-these two points, inasmuch as I know how many erroneous opinions
-are current in regard to Nietzsche's attitude towards them. In all
-gregarious communities, as is well known, altruism and pity have become
-very potent life-preserving factors, and it would be hard to find
-in Europe to-day, a city, a town, or a village, in which these two
-qualities are not considered the most creditable of virtues. Now apart
-from the fact that this excessive praise of compassion and selflessness
-is a sign of slave values being in the ascendant, we must bear in
-mind two things: (1) that under our present system of society, in
-which cruelties are perpetrated far more brutal than any that could be
-found in antiquity, a sort of maudlin sentimentality has arisen among
-the oppressing classes, whereby they attempt to counterbalance their
-deeds of oppression with lavish acts of charity. This sentimentality
-is a sign that their conscience is no longer clean for the act of
-oppressing; because in their heart of hearts they feel themselves
-unworthy of being at the top: (2) that wherever two or three human
-beings collect together, a certain modicum of altruism and compassion
-is a prerequisite of their social unity.
-
-Dismissing observation one as the mere expression of a regrettable
-fact which scarcely requires substantiation, and which is responsible
-for more than three-quarters of the anomalies that characterise
-modern Western civilisation; and passing over the suggestion that the
-excessive praise of compassion and selflessness denotes an ascendency
-of slave values (for we have dealt with this question in Chapter III.),
-let us turn to the more abstract proposition enunciated in observation
-two and try to grasp Nietzsche's treatment of it.
-
-In the first place, let us understand that there are two kinds of pity
-and selflessness, just as there are two kinds of generosity. There
-is the pity, the selflessness and the generosity which is preached
-and praised as a virtue by him who urgently requires them because he
-is ill-constituted, needy, and hungry; and there is the pity, the
-selflessness and the generosity which suggests itself to the man
-overflowing with health, trust in the future, and confidence in his
-own powers. To such a man, pity, selflessness, and generosity are a
-means of discharging a certain plenitude of power, and in his case
-giving and bestowing are natural functions. In the first instance, the
-three virtues are preached from a utilitarian standpoint which tends to
-increase an undesirable type; in the second, they are the sign of the
-existence of a desirable type.
-
-Let us hear Nietzsche--
-
-"A man who says: 'I like that, I take it for my own, and mean to guard
-it and protect it from everyone'; and the man who can conduct a case,
-carry out a resolution, remain true to an opinion, keep hold of a
-woman, punish and overthrow insolence; a man who has his indignation
-and his sword, and to whom the weak, the suffering, the oppressed, and
-even the animals willingly submit and naturally belong; in short, a man
-who is a master by nature--when such a man has sympathy, well! that
-sympathy has value! But of what account is the sympathy of those who
-suffer! or of those even who preach sympathy!"
-
-Wherever we find anything akin to "pity," even in nature: the suckling
-of the young, the maintenance of dependants (the lion's attitude
-towards the jackal), the protection of the helpless young (as in many
-fish and mammals), it is always the superabundance of the giver and his
-Will to Power which creates the pitiful act.
-
-But the pity which most of us understand as a virtue in Europe to-day,
-is merely a sort of sickly sensitiveness and irritability towards pain,
-an effeminate absence of control in the presence of suffering, which
-has nothing whatever to do with our powers of alleviating the misery
-we contemplate, and which is only compatible either with excessive
-sentimentality or with weak and overstrained nerves. In that case all
-it does is to add to the misery of this world, and to elevate to a
-virtue that which is perhaps one of the saddest signs of the times. It
-is then indiscriminate, rash, and short-sighted, and gives rise to more
-evil than it tries to dispel.
-
-"Ah, where in the world have there been greater follies than with the
-pitiful? And what in the world hath caused more suffering than the
-follies of the pitiful?
-
-"Woe unto all loving ones who have not an elevation which is above
-their pity!"[10]
-
-The legislator or the leader (and it is to him, remember, that
-Nietzsche appeals), is often obliged to leave dozens to die by the
-wayside, and has to do so with a clean conscience. If the march he
-is organising requires certain sacrifices, he must be ready to make
-them; the slavish pity, then, which would sacrifice the greater to
-the less, must have been overcome by him in his own heart., and he
-must have learnt that hardness which is wider in its sympathies, more
-presbyopic in its love, and less immediate in its effect. But he alone
-can feel like this who has something to give to those he leads, _i.e._
-his protection and guidance, his promise of a better land.
-
-"Myself I would sacrifice to my design, and my neighbour as well--such
-is the language of creators.
-
-"All creators, however, are hard."[11]
-
-Now turning to the question of egoism _cru et vert_, which, according to
-some, is the very basis and core of Nietzscheism, what are the points
-which strike us most in Nietzsche's standpoint? To begin with, in this
-question, as in all others, his honesty is paramount, and we become
-conscious of it the moment we read his first line on the subject.
-Where Nietzsche discusses matters of which others are wont to speak
-with heaving breasts, florid language, and tearful voices, he takes
-particular pains to be clear, concise, calculating and cold--hence
-perhaps the hatred he has provoked in those who depend for their effect
-upon the impression of benevolence which their watery eyes, their
-cracked, good-natured voices, and their high-falutin' words make upon a
-multitude.
-
-Nietzsche puts his linger on the very centre of the question of egoism,
-he simply says: "Not every one has the right to be an egoist. Whereas
-in some egoism would be a virtue, in others it may be an insufferable
-vice which should be stamped out at all costs."
-
-In whom then is egoism a vice?
-
-Obviously in him who is physiologically botched, below mediocrity in
-spirit and body, mean, despicable, and even ugly.
-
-Egoism in such a man means concentrating certain interests, and not
-always the least valuable, upon the promotion and enhancement of
-an undesirable element in society. The egoism of him who is below
-mediocrity is a form of tyranny which leads to nothing, save, perhaps,
-a Heaven where the _haute volée_ will consist of the whole scum and dross
-of humanity. Such egoism leads humanity downwards: it practically says:
-"I, the bungled and the botched, I the poor in spirit and body, I the
-mean, despicable and ugly, want my kind to be all-important, paramount
-and on the top--I the least desirable wish to prevail." But this
-egoism would mean humanity's ruin, it would mean humanity's suicide and
-annihilation: it would certainly mean humanity's degradation. When such
-egoism says: "I will have all," the only decent retort is deafness.
-When such egoism says: "I have as much right to live and flourish as
-the well-constituted, the superior in spirit and body, the beautiful
-and the happy," wisdom replies with a shrill of its shoulders. And when
-such egoism preaches altruism--then! Then woe to all those who are
-tempted to practise one virtue more! Woe to humanity! Woe to the whole
-world!
-
-There is, on the other hand, a form of egoism, which is both virtuous
-and noble. It is the egoism of him whose multiplication would make the
-world better, more desirable, happier, healthier, superior in spirit
-and body. Egoism in such a case is a moral duty; wherever, _in such a
-case_, giving, bestowing--altruism in fact--is not compatible with
-survival, then egoism becomes the highest principle of all, and it is
-in such circumstances that altruism may become a vice.
-
-Now let us hear Nietzsche's own words:--
-
-"Selfishness," he says, "has as much value as the physiological value
-of him who possesses it: it may be very valuable or it may be vile
-and contemptible. Each individual may be looked at with respect to
-whether he represents an ascending or a descending line of life. When
-that is determined, we have a canon for determining the value of his
-selfishness. If he represent the ascent in the line of life, his value
-is in fact very great--and on account of the collective life which
-in him makes a further step, the concern about his maintenance, about
-providing his optimum of conditions, may even be extreme... If
-he represent descending development, decay, chronic degeneration, or
-sickening, he has little worth, and the greatest fairness would have
-him _take away_ as little as possible from the well-constituted. He is
-then no more than their parasite."[12]
-
-This is all clear enough; but it is quite conceivable that a
-misunderstanding of it might lead to the most perverted notions of what
-Nietzsche actually stood for, and when I hear people inveighing against
-the so-called egoism of his teaching, and declaring it poisonous on
-that account, I often wonder whether they have really made any attempt
-at all to comprehend the above passage, and whether there is not
-perhaps something wrong with language itself, that a thought which to
-some seems expressed so clearly and unmistakably, should still prove
-confusing and incomprehensible to others.
-
-Speaking once more to higher men, then, Nietzsche tells them, with
-some reason on his side, that altruism may be their greatest danger,
-that altruism may be even their greatest temptation, that there are
-times when they must avoid it as they would avoid a plague. In periods
-of gestation, when plans and dreams of plans for the elevation of
-themselves and their fellows are taking shape in their minds, altruism
-may lure them sideways, it may make them diverge from their path, and
-it may make mankind one great thought the poorer. In this sense, and
-in this sense alone, does our author deprecate the altruistic virtues;
-but, again, I venture to remind readers that it is the simplest thing
-on earth to awaken suspicion against him by declaring, as some have
-declared, that his deprecation of altruism applies to all.
-
-No greater nonsense could be talked about Nietzsche than to say that he
-preached universal egoism. Universal egoism as opposed to select egoism
-is behind all the noisiest movements to-day--it is behind Socialism,
-Democracy, Anarchy, and Nihilism--but it is not behind Nietzscheism,
-and nobody who reads him with care could ever think so.
-
-With these observations in mind, we can read the following passages
-from _Thus Spake Zarathustra_ without either surprise or indignation;
-indeed we may even learn a new valuation from them which will alter our
-whole outlook on life, though no such sudden revulsion of feeling need
-necessarily follow a study of Nietzsche's doctrine. Only when we have
-given his thoughts time to become linked up and co-ordinated in our
-minds are we likely to find that our view of the world has become in
-the least decree transformed.
-
-        *        *        *        *        *        *
-
-"Do I advise you to love your neighbour? leather do I advise you to
-flee from your neighbour and to love the most remote.
-
-"Higher than love to your neighbour is love unto the most remote future
-man.
-
-"It is the more remote (your children and your children's children) who
-pay for your love unto your neighbour.[13]
-
-"Your children's land ye shall love (be this love your new nobility!),
-the land undiscovered in the remotest sea! For it I bid your sails seek
-and seek!
-
-"In your children ye shall make amends for being the children of your
-fathers: all the past shall ye thus redeem! This new table do I place
-over you!"[14]
-
-
-[1] Z., chap. lxi.
-
-[2] Z., p. 299.
-
-[3] Z., pp. 256, 257.
-
-[4] G. E., Aph. 188.
-
-[5] Z., pp. 247, 248.
-
-[6] G. E., p. 223.
-
-[7] Antichrist, Aph. 57.
-
-[8] "The big pine is more often shaken by the winds: the higher a
-tower, the heavier is the fall thereof, and it is the tops of the
-mountains that the lightning strikes."
-
-[9] _Antichrist_, Aph. 2.
-
-[10] Z., pp. 104, 105.
-
-[11] Z., p. 105.
-
-[12] _The Twilight of the Idols_, Par. 10, Aph. 33.
-
-
-[13] Z., pp. 69, 70.
-
-[14] Z., p. 248.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-
-SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
-
-
-When we have done rubbing our eyes and ears at the dazzling and
-startling novelty of all we have seen and heard, let us ask ourselves
-calmly and dispassionately what sort of man this is who has led us thus
-far into regions which, from their very unfamiliarity and exoticness,
-may have seemed to us both unpleasant and forbidding.
-
-This is no time for apologetics, or for pleading extenuating
-circumstances. Even if Nietzsche's doctrines have been presented in a
-form too undiluted to be inviting, it would scarcely mend matters, now,
-to beg pardon fur them; and I have no intention of doing anything of
-the sort. But these questions may be put without any fear of assuming
-a penitential attitude, and I do not hesitate to put them: Was the
-promise of Nietzsche's life fulfilled? Did the task he started out
-with, "the elevation of the type man," receive his best strength, his
-best endeavours, his sincerest application? However fundamentally
-we may disagree with his conclusions, were they reached by means of
-an upright attempt at grappling with the problems? To all of those
-questions there is but one answer, and that answer clears Nietzsche of
-all the slander and calumny to which he has been submitted for the last
-thirty years.
-
-However often we may think he has erred, it is nonsense any longer to
-speak of him as an anarchist, an advocate of brutality, a supporter of
-immorality in its worst modern sense, and a guardian saint of savage
-passions. If I have led any readers to suspect that he was all this, I
-can only entreat them to turn as soon as possible to the original works
-themselves, and there they will find that it was I who was wrong.
-
-Personally I believe, as Hippolyte Taine, Dr. George Brandes and Wagner
-believed, that Nietzsche's work is greater than his own or the next
-generation could ever suspect. Questions such as Art, the future of
-Science, and the future of Religion, which Nietzsche treats with his
-customary skill, I have been unable to find room for, in this work.
-But in each of these departments, I believe (and in this belief I am
-by no means alone) that Nietzsche's speculations may prove of the very
-highest value.
-
-Already in Biology there are signs that Nietzsche's conclusions are
-gaining ground. In Art, as I hope to able to show elsewhere, his
-doctrines are likely to effect a salutary revolution: while, in the
-departments of history, psychology, jurisprudence and metaphysics,
-specialists will doubtless arise who will attempt to make innovations
-under his leadership.
-
-For the present, though the outlook is brighter than it was,
-Nietzscheism--that is to say: free-spiritedness, intellectual bravery;
-the ability to stand alone when every one else has his arm linked in
-something; the courage to face unpleasant, fatal, and disconcerting
-truths,--has not much hope of very general acceptance, among those to
-whom it really ought to appeal. Calumny, which had a long start, has
-deafened many to the cause and will continue deafening a larger number
-still, until the truth is ultimately known. Yet it is to be hoped that
-readers may learn to be less satisfied than they have been heretofore
-with second-hand accounts of what Nietzsche stood for, and that very
-shortly everybody who is interested in the matter will be able to reply
-to the slanderer with facts culled from Nietzsche's life and works.
-
-       *        *        *        *        *        *
-
-"Mine enemies have grown strong," says Zarathustra, "and I have
-disfigured the face of my teaching, so that my dearest friends have to
-blush for the gifts I gave them."[1]
-
-"But like a wind I shall one day blow amidst them, and take away their
-breath with my spirit; thus my future willeth it.
-
-"Verily a strong wind is Zarathustra to all low lands; and his enemies
-and everything that spitteth and speweth he counselleth with such
-advice: Beware of spitting against the wind."[2]
-
-[1] Z., pp. 95, 96.
-
-[2] Z., p. 116.
-
-
-
-
-Books Useful to the Student of Nietzsche
-
-BIOGRAPHIES:--
-
-    _Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsche's_, by Mrs. Förster-Nietzsche.
-    _Erinnerungen an Friedrich Nietzsche_, by Deussen.
-    _Nietzsche, sein Leben und sein Werk_, by Raoul Richter.
-
-EDITIONS OF WORKS.
-
-    The complete works of Friedrich Nietzsche. Edited by Dr.
-    Oscar Levy. (The first complete and authorised English
-    Translation.) T. N. Foulis, 21 Paternoster Square.
-
-    _Friedrich Nietzsche's Werke_. Library Edition 15
-    vols.----Pocket Edition (very good) 10 vols.
-
-MONOGRAPHS.
-
-    Bélart, _Nietzsche's Ethik._
-    ------  _Nietzsche's Metaphysik._
-    ------  _Nietzsche und Richard Wagner._
-    Brandes, G., _Menschen und Werke._
-    Common, Thos., _Nietzsche as Critic._
-    Fouillée, A., _Nietzsche et l'Immoralisme._
-    Gaultier, J., De Kant à Nietzsche.
-    ------  _Nietzsche et la Réforme philosophique._
-    Kennedy, J. M., _The Quintessence of Nietzsche._
-    Lichtenberger, H., _La Philosophie de Nietzsche._
-    Mügge, _Nietzsche His Life and Works._
-    Sera, Leo, _On the Tracks of Life._
-    Tienes, _Nietzsche's Stellung zu den Grundfragen der
-        Ethik genetisch dargestellt_.
-    Tille, A., _Von Darwin bis Nietzsche._
-    Zeitler, J., _Nietzsche's Æsthetik._
-
-NIETZSCHE'S WORKS: Authorised Version: edited by Dr. Oscar Levy.
-
-    _Thoughts out of Season_. 2 vols.
-    _The Birth of Tragedy_.
-    _Thus Spake Zarathustra_.
-    _Beyond Good and Evil_.
-    _The Future of our Educational Institutions_.
-    _Human, All too Human_. Vol. i.
-    _The Will to Power_. 2 vols.
-    _The Genealogy of Morals_.
-    _The Case against Wagner_.
-    _The Joyful Wisdom_.
-    _The Dawn of Day_.
-
-
-
-
-
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-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nietzsche, by Anthony M. Ludovici
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Nietzsche
-       His Life and Works
-
-Author: Anthony M. Ludovici
-
-Release Date: October 11, 2016 [EBook #53260]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NIETZSCHE ***
-
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-
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-Produced by Marc D'Hooghe at Free Literature (online soon
-in an extended version, also linking to free sources for
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-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
-</div>
-<h1>NIETZSCHE</h1>
-
-<h2>HIS LIFE AND WORKS</h2>
-
-<h3>[Philosophies Ancient and Modern]</h3>
-
-<h3>BY</h3>
-
-<h2>ANTHONY M. LUDOVICI</h2>
-
-<h5>AUTHOR OF</h5>
-
-
-<h5 class="smcap">'Who is to be Master of the World?'</h5>
-
-<h5>And <span class="smcap">'Notes to Zarathustra'</span></h5>
-
-
-<h5>PREFACE BY DR. OSCAR LEVY</h5>
-
-
-<h5>CONSTABLE &amp; COMPANY LTD</h5>
-
-<h5>London</h5>
-
-<h5>1910</h5>
-
-
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<h4 class="smcap"><a name="Introduction" id="Introduction">Introduction</a></h4>
-
-
-<p>The commission for a book on Nietzsche, to form the latest addition
-to a series of famous philosophers, is most certainly a sign that
-the age of adversity, through which the earlier Nietzscheans had to
-struggle, has at last come to an end. For ten consecutive years they
-had had no reply whatever to their propaganda, and their publications,
-loud as some of them were, proved as ineffective as cannon shots fired
-into the eternity of interplanetary space. Finally, however, when the
-echo was at last heard, it gave back nothing like the original sound:
-it was an echo of groans and moans, an echo of roaring disapproval
-and hissing mockery. Yet the years rolled on and on&mdash;and so did the
-printing-presses&mdash;hissing and roaring as much as ever&mdash;but at last,
-their thunders grew tamer and more subdued&mdash;the tempest of their fury
-seemed to die away in the distance&mdash;occasionally a slight mutter
-was still to be heard, but no more flashes and hisses&mdash;and suddenly
-a streak of blue was observed over the horizon, followed by a ray
-and smile of sunlight&mdash;and a soft zephyr of subdued and tentative
-compliments&mdash;and when our Nietzsche edition had begun to appear in its
-stately volumes we were enabled to receive from our former enemies on
-both sides of the Atlantic "respectful congratulations."</p>
-
-<p>And now all my brave friends are radiant with joy and optimism. Like
-the wanderer in the fairy tale, while the storm of disgust and loud
-reproach was raging, they wrapped themselves all the more closely in
-their cloaks, and no impudent wind could tear a shred of garments from
-them, but now that the sun of approval has set in, they would fain get
-out of their armour and enjoy the fine weather as a reward for past
-perils. Has not the spring come at last? Are not the gay flowers at our
-feet meant to welcome the victorious warriors?... Are not the ladies
-&mdash;ladies that from time immemorial have loved the warrior (especially
-when he is successful)&mdash;smiling at us more gloriously even than the
-sun?... Sun, ladies, flowers, smiles&mdash;was there ever a nicer
-combination?...</p>
-
-<p>But, alas! there is an unimaginative creature among the guests, an
-earnest face among the cheerful, a disbeliever among the faithful, a
-dark countenance amid the bright assembly;&mdash;a being who, in glaring
-contrast to the sun, the smiles, and the gaily-coloured dresses and
-sunshades, is keeping a tight hold upon a dark umbrella&mdash;for he has an
-uncontrollable mistrust of English weather!</p>
-
-<p>And I may claim that I not only know the meteorological conditions of
-England, but also those of the whole of modern Europe. I know them so
-well that I have the greatest doubts whether Nietzsche's influence
-will be strong enough to withstand the terrible hurricane of democracy
-which in our age is sweeping everything before it, and leaving a
-level plain in its rear. Nietzsche may have been ever so right, but
-Truth and Righteousness do not always prevail in this world of ours,
-indeed, they don't: the bible itself, that otherwise optimistic book,
-lets this grand secret out once and only once&mdash;in the story of Job.
-The "happy ending" in that book will deceive no realistic observer:
-it was added to the story, as it is added to modern plays and novels,
-for the edification and comfort of the audience: the true story of Job
-was without it, as was the true story of many a brave man, as was the
-true story of that great pope, who on his deathbed came out with the
-confession: "Dilexi justitiam et odi iniquitatem, <i>propterea</i> morior
-in exsilio,"<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> a confession which went in the very teeth of his own
-virtue-rewarding creed with its happy-go-lucky trust in the moral order
-of the universe.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche may have been right, <i>therefore</i> he may be unsuccessful. I
-myself regard Nietzsche's views on art, religion, psychology, morality,
-as extremely sound; I think they are proved both by history and by
-common experience; I even suspect that they could be confirmed by
-science, if only science would give up looking at the world through
-the coloured spectacles of democratic prejudice ... but then, it is
-so difficult to give up this democratic prejudice; for it is by no
-means simply a political opinion. Democracy, as a political creed, need
-terrify no one; for political creeds succeed each other like waves
-of the sea, whose thunder is loud and whose end is froth; but the
-driving power behind democracy is not a political one, it is religious
-&mdash;it is Christianity. A mighty religion still, a religion which has
-governed the world for two thousand years, which has influenced all
-philosophies, all literatures, all laws, all customs up to our own day,
-till it has finally filtered into our hearts, our blood, our system,
-and become part and parcel of ourselves without our being aware of
-it. At the present moment we are all instinctive Christians. Even
-if this Christian religion has been severely wounded by Nietzsche's
-criticism&mdash;and I believe this to be the case&mdash;I beg to suggest
-that a wounded lion may still have more strength than all the fussy,
-political, rationalistic, agnostic, nonconformist, Nietzschean and
-super-Nietzschean mice put together.</p>
-
-<p>It was all the braver, therefore, on Nietzsche's part to assail
-such a mighty enemy, and to attack him exactly on the spot where
-attack was most needed, if victory were to be won. Nietzsche clearly
-recognised that the canons of criticism had until now only been
-directed against the outer works of that stalwart fortress&mdash;at
-dogmatic, at supernatural, at ecclesiastical Christianity, and that
-no one had yet dared to aim right at the very heart of the creed&mdash;
-its morality, which, while the shamfighters were at work outside,
-was being enormously strengthened and consolidated from within. This
-morality, however, Nietzsche recognised as intimately connected with
-modern democracy&mdash;and behind the rosebush of democracy with its
-flowery speeches and its fraternity- and liberty-blossoms, Nietzsche
-clearly saw the dragon of anarchy and dissolution lurking. It was the
-mortal fear of annihilation and ruin which gave Nietzsche the daring
-to fulminate against our religion with such imperishable Dithyrambics.
-He was the first to mean the phrase, "<i>écrasez l'infâme!</i>" which in
-Voltaire's mouth was only an epigrammatic exclamation. For Nietzsche's
-great forerunner on the Continent, Wolfgang Goethe, who was also just
-as well aware how it would all end, was much too prudent a man to lay
-his innermost heart bare to his enemies, he&mdash;the grand old hypocrite
-of Weimar&mdash;gauged the power of the contrary current correctly, and
-wisely left the open combat against Christianity and democracy to
-his great colleague&mdash;to that man of tragic wit, to Heinrich Heine.</p>
-
-<p>And there were others on the Continent&mdash;very few to be sure, and no
-politician or man of science or woman among them&mdash;others who saw the
-drift of modern ideas: all of them poets. For poets are prophets: their
-sensitive organisation feels the fall of the glass first, while their
-pluck and their pride, their duty and their desire to face the storm
-drive them into the very thick of it. The German poet Hebbel, the
-French novelist Stendhal, were amongst them. A new Matthew Arnold
-&mdash;the object of my wish for this country&mdash;would perhaps like to include
-another poet, the Frenchman Alfred de Vigny, in whose journal are to
-be found those awe-inspiring words against democracy: "Alas! it is
-thou, Democracy, that art the desert! it is thou who hast shrouded
-and bleached everything beneath thy monticles of sand! Thy tedious
-flatness has covered everything and levelled all! For ever and ever
-the valley and the hill supplant each other; and only from time to
-time a man of courage is seen: he rises like a sand-whirl, makes his
-ten paces towards the sun, and then falls like powder to the ground.
-And then nothing more is seen save the eternal plain of endless sand."</p>
-
-<p>Goethe and Hebbel, Stendhal and Heinrich Heine, Alfred de Vigny and
-Friedrich Nietzsche, all made their ten steps towards the sun and are
-now sleeping peacefully beneath the dry sands of Christian democracy.
-Their works are read, to be sure; but alas! how few understand their
-meaning! I see this and I shudder. And I remember another moment in
-my life&mdash;a moment of perturbation too&mdash;a moment in which an idea
-overcame me, which has been haunting me ever since. I was on a visit
-to Mrs. Förster-Nietzsche, in her villa high up amongst the hills of
-Weimar, waiting in the drawing-room for my hostess to enter. It was
-the first time that I had stood upon the holy ground where Friedrich
-Nietzsche gave up his heroic soul, and I was naturally impressed; my
-eyes wandered reverently around the scene, and I suddenly noticed
-some handwriting on the wall. The handwriting consisted of a powerful
-letter N which the ingenious builder had engraved profusely upon the
-oak panels of the room. The N, of course, reminded me of another big
-N, connected with another big name,&mdash;the N which used to be engraved
-together with the imperial crown and eagle upon the plate and regalia
-of Napoleon Bonaparte. There was another victim of democracy: the man
-who, elevated by its revolutionary wave, tried to stifle and subdue
-the anarchical flood, was swallowed up as ignominiously as its other
-implacable opponent, the plucky parson's son of the vicarage of Röcken.</p>
-
-<p>The mighty sword in the beginning and the mighty pen at the end of
-the last century were alike impotent against&mdash;Fate. No doubt, I saw
-in that moment, as though lit up by a flashlight, the fate of Europe
-clearly before my eyes. A fate&mdash;an iron fate. A fate unavoidable
-for a continent that will have no more guides, no more great men.
-A fate unavoidable for an age that spills its best blood with the
-carelessness of ignorance. A fate unavoidable for a people that is
-driven by its very religion to disobedience and anarchy. And I thought
-of my own race, which has seen so many fates, so many ages, so many
-empires decline&mdash;and there was I, the eternal Jew, witnessing another
-catastrophe. And I shuddered, and when my hostess entered I had not
-yet recovered my breath.</p>
-
-<p>Gruesome, isn't it? But what if it should not come true? "There are
-no more prophets to-day," says the Talmud scornfully. Well, unlike
-my ancestor Jonah, who became melancholic when his announcement of
-the downfall of Nineveh was not fulfilled, I beg to say that I on the
-contrary shall be extremely delighted to have proved a false prophet.
-But I shall keep my umbrella all the same.</p>
-
-<p>
-<span style="margin-left: 70%; font-size: 0.8em;">OSCAR LEVY. </span><br />
-54 Russell Square,<br />
-London, W.C.<br />
-</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> 'I have loved justice and I have hated iniquity,
-<i>therefore</i> I die in exile.'</p></div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p class="smcap">
-Contents<br />
-<br />
-Introduction<br />
-<br />
-<a href="#Chapter_I">Chapter I</a><br />
-Nietzsche's Life<br />
-<a href="#Chapter_II">Chapter II</a><br />
-Nietzsche the Amoralist<br />
-<a href="#Chapter_III">Chapter III</a><br />
-Nietzsche the Moralist<br />
-<a href="#Chapter_IV">Chapter IV</a><br />
-Nietzsche the Evolutionist<br />
-<a href="#Chapter_V">Chapter V</a><br />
-Nietzsche the Sociologist<br />
-<a href="#SUMMARY_AND_CONCLUSION">Summary and Conclusion</a><br />
-<a href="#Books_Useful_to_the_Student_of_Nietzsche">Books Useful to the Student of Nietzsche</a><br />
-</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p style="font-size: 0.8em;">Abbreviations Used in Referring to Nietzsche's Works</p>
-
-
-
-<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" style="font-size: 0.8em;">
-<tr><td align="left">D. D.</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left">Dawn of Day.</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left">Z.</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left">Thus Spake Zarathustra.</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left">G. E.</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left">Beyond Good and Evil.</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left">G. M.</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left">The Genealogy of Morals.</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left">Aph.</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left">Aphorism.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-
-<h5><a name="Chapter_I" id="Chapter_I">Chapter I</a></h5>
-
-
-<h4 class="smcap">Life and Works</h4>
-
-
-<p>"Holy be thy name to all coming generations! In the name of all thy
-friends, I, thy pupil, cry out our warmest thanks to thee for thy great
-life.</p>
-
-<p>"Thou wast one of the noblest and purest men that ever trod this earth.</p>
-
-<p>"And although this is known to both friend and foe, I do not deem it
-superfluous to utter this testimony aloud at thy tomb. For we know the
-world; we know the fate of Spinoza! Around Nietzsche's memory, too,
-posterity may cast shadows! And therefore I close with the words: Peace
-to thy ashes!"<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
-
-<p>This view, expressed by Peter Gast, Nietzsche's staunchest friend and
-disciple, at his master's graveside, in August 1900, may be regarded
-as typical of the Nietzsche enthusiast's attitude towards his master.
-On the other hand we have the assurance of Nietzsche's opponents and
-enemies that nothing could have been more utterly disastrous to modern
-society, more pernicious, dangerous, and ridiculous than Nietzsche's
-life-work.</p>
-
-<p>At the present day Nietzsche is so potent a force and his influence is
-increasing with such rapidity that, whatever our calling in life may
-be, it behoves us to know precisely what he stands for, and to which of
-the opinions above given we should subscribe. As a matter of fact, the
-inquirer into the life and works of this interesting man will find that
-he has well-nigh as many by-names as he has readers, and not the least
-of our difficulties in speaking about him will be to give him a fitting
-title, descriptive of his mission and the way in which he understood it.</p>
-
-<p>Some deny his right to the title "philosopher"; others declare him to
-be a mere anarchist; and a large number regard all his later works as
-no more than a shallow though brilliant reversal of every accepted
-doctrine on earth.</p>
-
-<p>In order to be able to provoke so much diversity of opinion, a man
-must be not only versatile but forcible. Nietzsche was both. There is
-scarcely a subject in the whole range of philosophical thought which
-he does not attack and blow up; and he hurls forth his hard, polished
-missiles in a manner so destructive, and at the same time with such
-accuracy of aim, that it is no wonder a chorus of ill-used strongholds
-of traditional thought now cry out against him as a disturber and
-annihilator of their peace. Yet, through all the dust, smoke, and noise
-of his implacable warfare, there are both a method and a mission to be
-discerned&mdash;a method and a mission in the pursuit of which Nietzsche is
-really as unswerving as he seems capricious.</p>
-
-<p>Throughout his life and all his many recantations and revulsions of
-feeling, he remained faithful to one purpose and to one aim&mdash;the
-elevation of the type man. However bewildered we may become beneath the
-hail of his epigrams, treating of every momentous question that has
-ever agitated the human mind, we still can trace this broad principle
-running through all his works: his desire to elevate man and to make
-him more worthy of humanity's great past.</p>
-
-<p>Even in his attack on English psychologists, naturalists, and
-philosophers, in <i>The Genealogy of Morals</i>, what are his charges against
-them? He says they debase man, voluntarily or involuntarily, by seeking
-the really operative, really imperative and decisive factor in history
-precisely where the intellectual pride of man would least wish to find
-it, i.e. in <i>vis inertiæ</i>, in some blind and accidental mechanism of
-ideas, in automatic and purely passive adaptation and modification, in
-the compulsory action of adjustment to environment.</p>
-
-<p>Again, in his attack on the evolutionists' so-called "struggle for
-existence," of which I shall speak more exhaustively later, it is the
-suggestion that life&mdash;mere existence in itself&mdash;is worthy of being
-an aim at all, that he deprecates so profoundly. And, once more, it is
-with the view of elevating man and his aspirations that he levels the
-attack.</p>
-
-<p>Whatever we may think of his methods, therefore, at least his aim was
-sufficiently lofty and honourable, and we must bear in mind that he
-never shirked the duties which, rightly or wrongly, he imagined would
-help him to achieve it.</p>
-
-<p>What was Nietzsche? If we accept his own definition of the
-philosopher's task on earth, we must place him in the front rank of
-philosophers. For, according to him, the creation of new values, new
-principles, new standards, is the philosopher's sole <i>raison d'être</i>; and
-this he certainly accomplished. If, on the other hand, with all the
-"school" philosophers, we ask him to show us his system, we shall most
-surely be disappointed. In this respect, therefore, we may perhaps need
-to modify our opinion of him.</p>
-
-<p>Be that as it may, it is safe to maintain that he was a poet of no
-mean order; not a mere versifier or rhapsodist, but a poet in the
-old Greek sense of the word, <i>i.e.</i> a maker, in our time such men are
-so rare that we are apt to question whether they exist at all, for
-poetasters have destroyed our faith in them. Goethe was perhaps the
-last example of the type in modern Europe, and although we may recall
-the scientific achievements of men like Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci
-and Galileo, we are not sufficiently ready to associate their divining
-and intuitive power in the department of science with their purely
-artistic and poetic achievements, despite the fact that the two are
-really inseparable.</p>
-
-<p>Knowing the high authority with which poets of this order are wont
-to sneak, it might be supposed that we should approach Nietzsche's
-innovations in the realm of science with some respect, not in spite of,
-but precisely owing to, his great poetic genius. Unfortunately to-day
-this no longer follows. Too thoroughly have we divorced science from
-emotion and feeling (very wrongly, as even Herbert Spencer and Buckle
-both declared), and now, wherever we see emotion or a suggestion of
-passion, we are too apt to purse our lips and stand on our guard.</p>
-
-<p>When we consider that Nietzsche was ultimately to prove the bitterest
-enemy of Christianity, and the severest critic of the ecclesiastic, his
-antecedents seem, to say the least, remarkable. His father, Karl Ludwig
-Nietzsche, born in 1813, was a clergyman of the German Protestant
-Church; his grandfather had also taken orders; whilst his grandmother
-on his father's side was descended from a long line of parsons. Nor do
-things change very much when we turn to his mother's family; for his
-maternal grandfather, Oehler, was also a clergyman, and, according to
-Nietzsche's sister, he appears to have been a very sound, though broad,
-theologian.</p>
-
-<p>Yet, perhaps, it is we who are wrong in seeing anything strange
-in the fact that a man with such orthodox antecedents should have
-developed into a prophet and reformer of Nietzsche's stamp; for we
-should remember that only a long tradition of discipline and strict
-conventionality, lasting over a number of generations, is able to rear
-that will-power and determination which, as the lives of most great
-men have shown, are the first conditions of all epoch-making movements
-started by single individuals.</p>
-
-<p>Friedrich Nietzsche was born at Röcken near Lützen, in the Prussian
-province of Saxony, on the 15th of October 1844. From his earliest
-childhood onwards the boy seems to have been robust and active and
-does not appear to have suffered from any of the ordinary ailments of
-infancy. In the biography written by his sister much stress is laid
-upon this fact, while the sometimes exceptional health enjoyed by his
-parents and ancestors is duly emphasised by the anxious biographer.
-Elisabeth Nietzsche (born in July 1846), the biographer in question, is
-perfectly justified in establishing these facts with care; for we know
-that our poet philosopher died insane, and many have sought to show
-that his insanity was hereditary and could be traced throughout his
-works.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche's father died in 1849, and in the following year the family
-removed to Naumburg. There the boy received his early schooling,
-first at a preparatory school and subsequently at the Gymnasium&mdash;the
-Grammar School&mdash;of the town. As a lad, it is said that he was fond
-of military games, and of sitting alone, and it appears that he would
-recline for hours at his grandmother Nietzsche's feet, listening to
-her reminiscences of the great Napoleon. Towards the end of 1858 Mrs.
-Nietzsche was offered a scholarship for her son, for a term of six
-years, in the Landes-Schule, Pforta, so famous for the scholars it
-produced. At Pforta, where the discipline was very severe, the boy
-followed the regular school course and worked with great industry.
-His sister tells us that during this period he distinguished himself
-most in his private studies and artistic efforts, though even in the
-ordinary work of the school he was decidedly above the average. It was
-here, too, that he first became acquainted with Wagner's compositions,
-and a word ought now perhaps to be said in regard to his musical
-studies.</p>
-
-<p>Music, we know, played anything but a minor rôle in his later life,
-as his three important essays, <i>Richard Wagner in Bayreuth</i>, <i>The Case
-of Wagner</i>, and <i>Nietzsche contra Wagner</i>, are with us to prove. I fear,
-however, that it will be impossible to go very deeply into this
-question here, save at the cost of other still more important matters
-which have a prior claim to our attention. Let it then suffice to say
-that, as a boy, Nietzsche's talent had already become so noticeable
-that for some time the question which agitated the elders in his circle
-of relatives and friends, among whom were some competent judges, was
-whether he should not give up all else in order to develop his great
-gift. In the end, however, it was decided that he should become a
-scholar, and although he never entirely gave up composing and playing
-the piano, music never attained to anything beyond the dignity of a
-serious hobby in his life. In saying this I naturally exclude his
-critical writings on the subject, which are at once valuable and
-important.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche's six years at Pforta were responsible for a large number of
-his subsequent ideas. When we hear him laying particular stress upon
-the value of rigorous training free from all sentimentality; when we
-read his views concerning austerity and the importance of law, order
-and discipline, we must bear in mind that he is speaking with an actual
-knowledge of these things, and with profound experience of their worth.
-The excellence of his philological work may also be ascribed to the
-very sound training he received at Pforta, and the Latin essay which
-he wrote on an original subject (Theognis, the great aristocratic poet
-of Megara) for the leaving examination, laid the foundation of all his
-subsequent opinions on morality.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche left Pforta in September 1864 and entered the University of
-Bonn, where he studied philology and theology. The latter he abandoned
-six months later, however, and in the autumn of 1865 he left Bonn for
-Leipzig, whither his famous teacher Ritschl had preceded him. Between
-1865 and 1867 his work at Leipzig proved of the utmost importance to
-his career. Hellenism, Schopenhauer and Wagner now entered into his
-life and became paramount influences with him, and each in its way
-determined what his ultimate mission was to be. Hellenism drew him ever
-more strongly to philology and to the problem of culture in general;
-Schopenhauer directed him to philosophy, and Wagner taught him his
-first steps in a subject which was to be the actual <i>Leit-motif</i> of his
-teaching&mdash;I refer to the question of Art.</p>
-
-<p>His work during these two years, arduous though it was, in no way
-affected his health, and, despite his short-sight, he tells us that
-he was then able to endure the greatest strain without the smallest
-trouble. Being of a robust and energetic nature, however, he was
-anxious to discover some means of employing his bodily strength, and it
-was for this reason that, regardless of the interruption in his work,
-he was enthusiastic at the thought of becoming a soldier.</p>
-
-<p>In the autumn of 1867 he entered the fourth regiment of Field
-Artillery, and it is said that he performed his duties to the complete
-satisfaction of his superiors. But, alas, this lasted but a short time;
-for, as the result of an unfortunate fall from a restive horse, he was
-compelled to leave the colours before he had completed his term of
-service.</p>
-
-<p>In October 1868, after a serious illness, the student returned to his
-work at Leipzig, and now that event took place which was perhaps the
-most triumphant and most decisive in his career. It was Nietzsche's
-ambition to get His doctor's degree as soon as possible and then
-to travel. Meanwhile, however, others were busy determining what
-he should do. Some philological essays which he had written in his
-student days, and which, owing to their excellence, had been published
-by the "Rheinisches Museum," had attracted the attention of the
-educational Board of Bâle. One of the Board communicated with Ritschl
-concerning Nietzsche, and the reply the learned scholar sent was so
-favourable that the University of Bâle immediately offered Ritschl's
-favourite pupil their Professorship of Classical Philology. This was an
-exceptional honour, and, to crown it, the University of Leipzig quickly
-granted Nietzsche his doctor's degree without further examination
-&mdash;truly a remarkable occurrence in straitlaced and formal Germany!</p>
-
-<p>His first years at Bâle are chiefly associated in our minds with his
-inaugural address: "Homer and Classical Philology," with his action in
-regard to the Franco-German war, and with his lectures on the "Future
-of our Educational Institutions." I can do no more than refer to these
-here, but as regards the war it is necessary to go into further detail.</p>
-
-<p>In July 1870, hostilities opened between France and Prussia. Now,
-although Nietzsche had been forced to become a naturalised Swiss
-subject in order to accept his appointment at Bâle, he was loth
-to remain inactive while his own countrymen fought for the honour
-of Germany. He could not, however, fight for the Germans without
-compromising Switzerland's neutrality. He therefore went as a hospital
-attendant, and in this capacity, after obtaining the necessary leave,
-he followed his former compatriots to the war. According to Elisabeth
-Nietzsche, it was this act of devotion which was the cause of all her
-brother's subsequent ill-health. In Ars-sur-Moselle, while tending
-the sick and wounded, Nietzsche contracted dysentery from those in
-his charge. With his constitution undermined by the exertions of the
-campaign, he fell very seriously ill, and had to be relieved of his
-duties. Long before he was strong enough to do so, however, he resumed
-his work at Bâle; and now began that second phase of his life during
-which he never once recovered the health he had enjoyed before the war.</p>
-
-<p>In January 1872 Nietzsche published his first book, <i>The Birth of
-Tragedy</i>. It is really but a portion of a much larger work on Hellenism
-which he had always had in view from his earliest student days, and it
-may be said to have been prepared in two preliminary lectures delivered
-at Bâle, under the title of the "Greek Musical Drama," and "Socrates
-and Tragedy." The work was received with enthusiasm by Wagnerians; but
-among Nietzsche's philological friends it succeeded in rousing little
-more than doubt and suspicion. It was a sign that the young professor
-was beginning to ascribe too much importance to Art in its influence
-upon the world, and this the dry men of science could not tolerate.</p>
-
-<p>Between 1873 and 1876, Nietzsche, while still at Bâle, published four
-more essays which, for matter and form, proved to be among the most
-startling productions that Germany had read since Schopenhauer's prime.
-Their author called these essays <i>Thoughts out of Season</i>, and his aim
-in writing them was undoubtedly the regeneration of German culture.
-The first was an attack on German Philistinism, in the person of David
-Strauss, the famous theologian of Tübingen, whom Nietzsche dubbed
-the "Philistine of Culture," and was calculated to check the extreme
-smugness which had suddenly invaded all departments of thought and
-activity in Germany as the result of the recent military triumph.</p>
-
-<p>The second, <i>The Use and Abuse of History</i>, was a protest against
-excessive indulgence in the "historical sense," or the love of looking
-backwards, which threatened to paralyse the intelligence of Germany in
-those days. In it Nietzsche tries to show how history is for the few
-and not for the many, and points out how rare are those who have the
-strength to endure the lesson of experience.</p>
-
-<p>In the third, <i>Schopenhauer as Educator</i>, Nietzsche pits his great
-teacher against all other dry-as-dust philosophers who make for
-stagnation in philosophy. The fourth, Richard Wagner in Bayreuth,
-contains Nietzsche's last word of praise as a friend of the great
-German musician. In it we already see signs of his revulsion of
-feeling; but on the whole it is a panegyric written with love and
-conviction.</p>
-
-<p>The fourth, Richard Wagner in Bayreuth, contains Nietzsche's last word
-of praise as a friend of the great German musician. In it we already
-see signs of his revulsion of feeling; but on the whole it is a
-panegyric written with love and conviction.</p>
-
-<p>The only one of the four <i>Thoughts out of Season</i> which created much
-comment was the first, concerning David Strauss, and this gave rise to
-a loud outcry against the daring young philologist.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche had been very unwell throughout this period. Dyspepsia and
-headaches, brought on partly by overwork, racked him incessantly,
-and, in addition, he was getting ever nearer and nearer to a final
-and irrevocable breach with the greatest friend of his life&mdash;Richard
-Wagner. After obtaining leave from the authorities he went to Sorrento,
-where, in the autumn of 1876, he began work on his next important book,
-<i>Human, All-too-human</i>, the book which was to part him for ever from
-Wagner. In February 1878 the first volume was ready for the printer,
-and was published almost simultaneously with Wagner's Parsifal, which
-work, as is well known, was the death-blow to Nietzsche's faith in his
-former idol.</p>
-
-<p>In <i>Human, All-too-human</i>, Nietzsche as a philosopher is not yet
-standing on his own legs, as it were. He is only just beginning to
-feel his way, and is still deeply immersed in the thought of other
-men&mdash;more particularly that of the English positivists. As a work of
-transition, however, <i>Human, All-too-Human</i> is exceedingly interesting,
-as are also its sequels <i>Miscellaneous Opinions and Apophthegms</i> (1879)
-and <i>The Wanderer and his Shadow</i> (1880). But in none of these, as the
-author himself admits, is there to be found that certainty of aim and
-treatment which characterised his later writings.</p>
-
-<p>In 1879, owing to ill-health, Nietzsche was compelled to resign his
-professorship at the University of Bâle, and the spring of that year
-saw him an independent man with an annual pension of 3000 francs,
-generously granted to him by the Board of Management on the acceptance
-of his resignation. With this pension and a small private income
-derived from a capital of about £1400, he was not destitute, though by
-no means affluent, and when we remember that he was obliged to defray
-the expenses of publication in the case of almost every one of his
-books, we may form some idea of his actual resources.</p>
-
-<p>From this time forward Nietzsche's life was spent in travelling and
-writing. Venice, Marienbad, Zürich, St. Moritz in the Ober-Engadine,
-Sils Maria, Tautenberg in Thuringia, Genoa, etc., etc. were among the
-places at which he stayed, according to the season; and during the year
-1880 his health materially improved. In January 1881 he had completed
-the manuscript of the <i>Dawn of Day</i>, and is said to have been well
-satisfied with his condition.</p>
-
-<p>In the <i>Dawn of Day</i> Nietzsche for the first time begins to reveal his
-real personality. This book is literally the dawn of his great life
-work, and in it we find him grappling with all the problems which he
-was subsequently to tackle with such a masterly and courageous hand. It
-appeared in July 1881 and met with but a poor reception. Indeed, after
-the publication of the last of the <i>Thoughts out of Season</i> Nietzsche
-appears to have created very little stir among his countrymen&mdash;a fact
-which, though it greatly depressed him, only made him redouble his
-energies.</p>
-
-<p>In September 1882 <i>The Joyful Wisdom</i> was published&mdash;a book written
-during one of the happiest periods of his life. It is a veritable
-fanfare of trumpets announcing the triumphal entry of its distinguished
-follower <i>Zarathustra</i>. With it Nietzsche's final philosophical views are
-already making headway, and it is full of the love of life and energy
-which permeates the grand philosophical poem which was to come after it.</p>
-
-<p>Disappointed by the meagre success of his works, and hurt by the
-attitude of various friends, Nietzsche now retired into loneliness,
-and, settling down on the beautiful bay of Rapallo, began work on that
-wonderful moral, psychological, and critical rhapsody, <i>Thus Spake
-Zarathustra</i>, which was to prove the greatest of his creations. During
-the years 1883&#8211;84, the three first parts of this work were published,
-and, though each part was issued separately and met with the same cold
-reception which had been given to his other works of recent years,
-Nietzsche never once lost heart or wavered in his resolve. It required,
-however, all the sublime inspirations which we find expressed in that
-wonderful <i>Book for all and None</i>, to enable a man to stand firmly and
-absolutely alone amid all the hardships and reverses that beset our
-anchorite poet throughout this period.</p>
-
-<p>It was about this time that Nietzsche began to take chloral in the
-hope of overcoming his insomnia; it was now, too, that his sister
-&mdash;the only relative for whom, despite some misunderstandings, he had a
-real affection&mdash;became engaged to a man with whom he was utterly out
-of sympathy; and all the while negotiations, into which Nietzsche had
-entered with the Leipzig University for the purpose of securing another
-professorial chair, were becoming ever more hopeless.</p>
-
-<p>In the course of this exposition I shall have to treat of the doctrines
-enunciated in <i>Thus Spake Zarathustra</i>&mdash;indeed, seeing that this work
-contains all Nietzsche's thought in a poetical form, it would be quite
-impossible to discuss any single tenet of his philosophy without in
-some way referring to the book in question. I cannot therefore say
-much about it at present, save that it is generally admitted to be
-Nietzsche's <i>opus magnum</i>. Besides the philosophical views expounded in
-the four parts of which it consists, the value of its autobiographical
-passages is enormous. In it we find the history of his most intimate
-experiences, friendships, feuds, disappointments, triumphs, and the
-like; and the whole is written in a style so magnetic and poetical,
-that, as a specimen of <i>belles-lettres</i> alone, entirely apart from the
-questions it treats, the work cannot and ought not to be overlooked.</p>
-
-<p>Although there is now scarcely a European language into which
-<i>Zarathustra</i> has not been translated, although the fame of the work,
-at present, is almost universal, the reception it met with at the
-time of its publication was so unsatisfactory, and misunderstanding
-relative to its teaching became so general, that within a year of
-the issue of its first part, Nietzsche was already beginning to see
-the necessity of bringing his doctrines before the public in a more
-definite and unmistakable form. During the years that followed&mdash;that is
-to say, between 1883 and 1886&mdash;this plan was matured, and between 1886
-and 1889&mdash;the year of our author's final breakdown, three important
-books were published which may be regarded as prose-sequels to the
-poem <i>Zarathustra</i>. These books are: <i>Beyond Good and Evil</i> (1886),
-<i>The Genealogy of Morals</i> (1887), and <i>The Twilight of the Idols</i>
-(1889); while the posthumous works <i>The Will to Power</i> (1901) and
-the little volume Antichrist, published in 1895, when its author was
-lying hopelessly ill at Naumburg, also belong to the period in which
-Nietzsche wished to make his <i>Zarathustra</i> clear and comprehensible to
-his fellows. In the ensuing chapters it will be my endeavour to state
-briefly all that is vital in the works just referred to.</p>
-
-<p>What remains to be related of Nietzsche's life is sad enough, and is
-almost common knowledge. When his sister Elizabeth married Dr. Förster
-and went to Paraguay with her spouse, Nietzsche was practically without
-a friend, and, had it not been for Peter Gast's devotion and help,
-he would probably have succumbed to his constitutional and mental
-troubles much sooner than he actually did. Before his last breakdown
-in Turin, in January 1889, the only real encouragement he is ever
-known to have received in regard to his philosophical works came to
-him from Copenhagen and Paris. In the latter city it was Taine who
-committed himself by praising Nietzsche, and in the former it was Dr.
-George Brandes, a clever and learned professor, who delivered a series
-of lectures on the new message of the German philosopher. The news of
-Brandes' success in Copenhagen in 1888 greatly brightened Nietzsche's
-last year of authorship, and he corresponded with the Danish professor
-until the end. It has been rightly observed that these lectures were
-the dawn of Nietzscheism in Europe.</p>
-
-<p>As the result of over-work, excessive indulgence in drugs, and a host
-of disappointments and anxieties, Nietzsche's great mind at last
-collapsed on the 2nd or 3rd of January 1889, never again to recover.</p>
-
-<p>The last words he wrote, which were subsequently found on a slip of
-paper in his study, throw more light upon the tragedy of his breakdown
-than all the learned medical treatises that have been written about
-his case. "I am taking narcotic after narcotic," he said, "in order to
-drown my anguish; but still I cannot sleep. To-day I will certainly
-take such a quantity as will drive me out of my mind."</p>
-
-<p>From that time to the day of his death (25th August 1900) he lingered a
-helpless and unconscious invalid, first in the care of his aged mother,
-and ultimately, when Elizabeth returned a widow from Paraguay, as his
-sister's beloved charge.</p>
-
-<p>For an opinion of Nietzsche during his last phase I cannot do better
-than quote Professor Henri Lichtenberger of Nancy, who saw the invalid
-in 1898; and with this sympathetic Frenchman's valuable observations, I
-shall draw this chapter to a close:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>"In the gradual wane of this enthusiastic lover of life, of this
-apologist of energy, of this prophet of Superman there is something
-inexpressibly sad&mdash;inexpressibly beautiful and peaceful. His brow is
-still magnificent&mdash;his eyes, the light of which seems to be directed
-inwards, have an expression which is indefinably and profoundly moving.
-What is going on within his soul? Nobody can say. It is just possible
-that he may have preserved a dim recollection of his life as a thinker
-and a poet."</p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsche's by Frau Förster-Nietzsche.</p></div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h5><a name="Chapter_II" id="Chapter_II">Chapter II</a></h5>
-
-
-<h4 class="smcap">Nietzsche the Amoralist</h4>
-
-
-<p>From a casual study of Nietzsche's life it might be gathered that he
-had little time for private meditation or for any lonely brooding over
-problems foreign to his school and university studies. Indeed, from
-the very moment when it was decided that he should become a scholar,
-to the day when the University of Leipzig granted him his doctor's
-degree without examination, his existence seems to have been so wholly
-occupied by strenuous application to the duties which his aspirations
-imposed upon him that, even if he had had the will to do so, it would
-seem that he could not have had the leisure to become engaged in
-any serious thought outside his regular work. Nevertheless, if we
-inquire into the matter more deeply, we find to our astonishment, that
-during the whole of that arduous period&mdash;from his thirteenth to this
-twenty-fourth year&mdash;his imagination did not once cease from playing
-around problems of the highest import, quite unrelated to his school
-and university subjects.</p>
-
-<p>In the introduction to <i>The Genealogy of Morals</i>, he writes as follows:
-&mdash;"... while but a boy of thirteen the problem of the origin of
-evil haunted me: to it I dedicated, in an age when we have in
-heart half-play, half-God, my first literary child-play, my first
-philosophical composition; and, as regards my solution of the problem
-therein, well, I gave, as is but fair, God the honour, and made
-him <i>Father</i> of evil."<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> And then he continues: "A little historical and
-philological schooling, together with an inborn and delicate sense
-regarding psychological questions, changed my problem in a very short
-time into that other one: under what circumstances and conditions did
-man invent the valuations good and evil? And what is their own specific
-value?"</p>
-
-<p>This problem, as stated here, seems stupendous enough; in fact, it
-would be difficult, in the whole realm of human thought, to discover
-a question of greater moment and intricacy; and yet we shall see that
-Nietzsche was just as much born to attack and solve it as Cardinal
-Newman seems, from the <i>Apologia pro Vita Sua</i>, to have been born to
-the Roman Catholic Church.</p>
-
-<p>If we reflect a moment, we find that "good" and "evil" are certainly
-words that exercise a tremendous power in the world. To attach the
-word "good" to any thing or deed is to give it the hall-mark of
-desirability: on the other hand, to attach the word "evil" to it is
-tantamount to proscribing it from existence. Even in the old English
-proverb, "Give a dog a bad name and hang him," we have a suggestion of
-the enormous force which has been compressed into the two monosyllables
-"good" and "bad," and before we seriously take up the problem, it were
-well to ponder a while over the really profound significance of these
-two words.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche, as we have already observed, was never in any doubt as to
-their importance: his life passion was the desire to solve the meaning,
-the origin, and the intrinsic value of the two terms; and he did not
-rest until he had achieved his end.</p>
-
-<p>Let us now examine what morality&mdash;what "good" and "evil"&mdash;means to
-almost everybody to-day. In the minds of nearly all those people who
-are neither students nor actual teachers of philosophy, there is a
-superstition that "good" is a perfectly definite and absolute value,
-and that "evil" is known unto all. Few seem to doubt that the meaning
-of these words has been fixed once and for ever. The ordinary European
-lives, reads, and sleeps, year in, year out, under the delusion that
-all is quite clear in regard to right and wrong. Such a person is, of
-course, somewhat abashed when you tell him that a certain people in the
-East practise infanticide and call it good or that a certain people in
-the West always separate at meals and eat apart and call <i>this</i> good. He
-usually gets over the difficulty, however, by saying that they know no
-better, and when at last he is hard pressed, and is bound to admit that
-views of good and bad, sometimes the reverse of his own, actually do
-preserve and unite people in strange lands, he takes refuge in the hope
-that all differences may one day be broken down and that the problem
-will thus be solved.</p>
-
-<p>No such facile shelving of the question, however, could satisfy
-Nietzsche. From the very outset he freed himself from all national
-and even racial prejudices, and could see no particular reason why
-the kind of morality now prevailing in Europe, or countries like
-Europe, must necessarily and ultimately overcome and supplant all
-others. He therefore attacked the question with a perfectly open
-mind, and asked himself whether he quite understood the part the
-terms "good" and "evil" have played in human history.</p>
-
-<p>Is morality&mdash;its justification in our midst and its mode of
-action&mdash;comprehended at all?&mdash;He replies to this question so daringly
-and so uprightly, that at first his clearness may only bewilder us.</p>
-
-<p>These terms "good" and "evil," he tells us, are merely a means to the
-acquisition of power. And, indeed, in the very resistance we offer
-when he attempts to criticise our notions of morality, we tacitly
-acknowledge that in this morality our strength does actually reside.
-"No greater power on earth was found by Zarathustra than good and
-evil"<a name="FNanchor_2_4" id="FNanchor_2_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_4" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> "No people could live without first valuing; if a people
-will maintain itself, however, it must not value as its neighbour
-valueth."<a name="FNanchor_3_5" id="FNanchor_3_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_5" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
-
-<p>In the last sentence we have seized Nietzsche's clue to the whole
-question. If you would maintain yourself, you cannot and must not
-value as your neighbour values. Good and evil, then, are not permanent
-absolute values; they are transient, relative values, serving an end
-which can be explained in terms of biology and anthropology.</p>
-
-<p>But now let us halt a moment, for the sake of clearness, and let us
-inquire precisely how Nietzsche himself was led to this conclusion.</p>
-
-<p>In the summer of 1864, when he was in his twentieth year, he was given
-some home work to do which he was expected to have ready by the end of
-the holidays. It was to consist of a Latin thesis upon some optional
-subject, and he chose "Theognis, the Aristocratic Poet of Megara."</p>
-
-<p>While preparing the work he was struck with the author's use of the
-words "good" and "bad" as synonymous with aristocratic and plebeian,
-and it was this valuable hint which first set him on the right track.
-Theognis and his friends, being desirous of making their power prevail,
-were naturally compelled to regard any force which assailed that power
-as bad&mdash;"bad," in the sense of "dangerous to their order of power"; and
-thus it came to pass that Theognis, as an aristocrat in the heat of a
-struggle between an oligarchy and a democracy, spoke of the democratic
-values as "bad" and of those of his own party as "good."</p>
-
-<p>The writing of this essay had other consequences which I shall only be
-able to refer to in the next chapter; but at present let it suffice
-to say that, in recognising the arbitrary use made by Theognis of the
-epithets good and bad in designating the oligarchy and the democracy
-respectively, Nietzsche was first induced to look upon morality merely
-as a weapon in the struggle for power, and he thus freed himself from
-all the usual bias which belongs to the absolutist's standpoint. Hence
-his claim to the surname "amoralist," and his use of the phrase "Beyond
-Good and Evil," as the title of one of his greatest works.</p>
-
-<p>Let us, however, remember that although Nietzsche did undoubtedly
-take up a position beyond good and evil, in order to free himself
-temporarily from the gyves of all tradition, still this attitude was no
-more than a momentary one, and he ultimately became as rigid a moralist
-as the most exacting could desire. It was a new morality, however, or
-perhaps a forgotten one, which he ultimately preached, and with the
-view of preparing the ground for it he was in a measure obliged to
-destroy old idols. "He who hath to be a creator in good and evil," says
-Zarathustra, "verily, he hath first to be a destroyer, and to break
-values to pieces."<a name="FNanchor_4_6" id="FNanchor_4_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_6" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
-
-<p>Assuming the position of the relativist, then, Nietzsche observed
-that, all morality, all use of the words "good" and "evil," is only an
-artifice for acquiring power. Turning to the animal kingdom, he went
-in search of support for his views, and very soon discovered that, in
-biology at least, no fact was at variance with his general hypothesis.</p>
-
-<p>In nature every species of organic being behaves as if its kind alone
-ought ultimately to prevail on earth, and, whether it try to effect
-this end by open aggression or cowardly dissimulation, the motive in
-both cases is the same. The lion's good is the antelope's evil. If
-the antelope believed the lion's good to be its good, it would go
-and present itself without further ado before the lion's jaws. If
-the lion believed the antelope's good to be its good it would adopt
-vegetarianism forthwith and eschew its carnivorous habits for the rest
-of its days. Again, no parasite could share the notions of good and
-evil entertained by its victim, neither could the victims share the
-notions of good and evil entertained by the parasite. Everywhere, then,
-those modes of conduct are adopted and perpetuated by a species, which
-most conduce to the prevalence and extension of their particular kind,
-and that species which fails to discover the class of conduct best
-calculated to preserve and strengthen it gets overcome in the war of
-conduct which constitutes the incessant struggle for power.</p>
-
-<p>Now, applying the knowledge to man, what did Nietzsche find? He found
-there was also a war being waged between the different modes of conduct
-which now prevail among men, and that what one man sets up as good is
-called evil by another and <i>vice versâ</i>. But of this he soon became
-convinced, that whenever and wherever good and evil had been set up as
-absolute values, they had been thus elevated to power with the view of
-preserving and multiplying one specific type of man.</p>
-
-<p>All moralities, therefore, were but so many Trades Union banners flying
-above the heads of different classes of men, woven and upheld by them
-for their own needs and aspirations.</p>
-
-<p>So far, so good. But then, if that were so, the character of a morality
-must be determined by the class of men among" whom it came into being.</p>
-
-<p>We shall see that Nietzsche did not hesitate to accept this conclusion,
-and that if for a moment he declared: "No one knoweth yet what is good
-and what is evil!" the next minute he was asking himself this searching
-question: "Is <i>our</i> morality&mdash;that is to say, the particular table
-of values which is gradually modifying us&mdash;compatible with an ideal
-worthy of man's inheritance and past?"</p>
-
-<p>If Nietzsche has been called dangerous, pernicious and immoral, it is
-because people have deliberately overlooked this last question of his.
-No thinker who states and honestly sets out to answer this question,
-as Nietzsche did, deserves to be slandered, as he has been slandered,
-by prejudiced and interested people intent on misunderstanding only
-in order that they may fling mud more freely.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche cast his critical eye very seriously around him, and the
-sight of the modern world led him to ask these admittedly pertinent
-questions: "Is that which we have for centuries held for good and evil,
-really good and evil? Does our table of ethical principles seem to be
-favouring the multiplication of a desirable type?"</p>
-
-<p>In answering these two inquiries, Nietzsche unfortunately stormed
-the most formidable strongholds of modern society&mdash;Christianity and
-Democracy; and perhaps this accounts for the fact that his fight was so
-uneven and so hopeless. The strength of modern Europe, if indeed there
-be any strength in her, lies precisely on the side of Christianity and
-Democracy, the grandmother and the mother of what is called "progress,"
-"modernity"; and in assailing these, Nietzsche must have known that he
-was engaging in a hand-to-hand struggle with stony-hearted adversaries
-unaccustomed to giving quarter and unscrupulous in their methods.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche clearly saw that if all moral codes are but weapons
-protecting and helping to universalise distinct species of men,
-then the Christian religion with its ethical principles could be no
-exception to the rule. It must have been created at some time and in
-some place by one who had the interests of a certain type of man at
-heart, and who desired to make that type paramount. Now if that were
-really so, the next question that occurred to Nietzsche's mercilessly
-logical mind was this: "Is the Christian religion, with its morality,
-tending to preserve and multiply a <i>desirable</i> type of man?"</p>
-
-<p>To this last question Nietzsche replies most emphatically "<i>No!</i>"</p>
-
-<p>But, before going into the reasons of this flat negative, let us first
-pause to consider the age and the circumstances in which our author
-wrote and thought.</p>
-
-<p>Long before Nietzsche had reached his prime David Strauss had published
-his <i>Life of Jesus</i>; in 1863, when Nietzsche was still in his teens,
-Renan published his <i>Vie de Jésus</i>, and in the meantime Charles Darwin
-had given his <i>Origin of Species</i> to the world. These books had
-been read by a Europe that had already studied Hume and Lamarck, Kant
-and Schopenhauer, and in all directions a fine ear could not help
-hearing the falling timbers of Christian dogma.</p>
-
-<p>In the midst of this general work of destruction it was almost
-impossible for Nietzsche to remain unmoved or indifferent, and very
-soon he found that he too was drawn into the general stream of European
-thought; but only to prove how completely he was independent of it, and
-in every way superior to it.</p>
-
-<p>He contemplated the work of the destroyers for some time with amused
-interest; and then it suddenly occurred to him to inquire whether
-these zealous and well-meaning housebreakers were really doing any
-lasting good, or whether all their efforts were not perhaps a little
-misguided. True, they were pulling the embellishments from the walls
-and were casting the most cherished idols of the Christian Faith into
-the dust. But the walls themselves, the actual design of the edifice,
-remained untouched and as strong as ever. A few broken stones, a few
-complaints from the priestly archæologists who wished to preserve
-them, and then all the noise subsided! Europe remained as it was before
-&mdash;that is to say, still in possession of a stronghold of Christianity,
-merely divested of its superfluous ornament.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche soon perceived that, in spite of all the rubbish and refuse
-which such people as Kant, Schopenhauer, Strauss, Renan and others had
-made of Christian dogma, the essential core of Christianity, the vital
-organ of its body&mdash;its morality&mdash;had so far remained absolutely intact.
-Nay, he saw that it was actually being plastered up and restored
-by scholars and men of science who vowed that they could proffer
-reasonable, rationalistic, and logical grounds in support of it.</p>
-
-<p>Just as Christian dogma and metaphysics had been rationalised and
-philosophically proved by the scholars of the Middle Ages, and even
-as late as Leibnitz; so, now, Christian morality was being presented
-in a purely philosophical garb by the intellects of Europe. Having
-relinquished the dogma as no longer tenable, all scholars and men of
-science were trying with redoubled vigour to bolster up Christian
-ethics with elaborate text-books and learned treatises. There were
-some who accepted it all as if it were innate in human nature, and
-attributed it to a "moral sense"; there were others&mdash;good-natured
-biologists&mdash;who were likewise desirous of leaving it whole, and who
-declared with conviction that it was the natural outcome of the
-feelings of pleasure and pain; and there were yet others who assumed
-that it must have been evolved quite automatically out of expediency
-and non-expediency.</p>
-
-<p>Not one of these would-be rationalists, however, halted at the
-Christian terms "good" and "bad" themselves, in order to ask himself
-whether, like all the other notions of good and evil prevailing
-elsewhere under the shelter of other religions, these, the Christian
-notions, might not have been invented at some particular time by
-a certain kind of man, simply with the view of preserving and
-universalising his specific type. Breathless from their efforts at
-getting rid of the dogma, they did not dream that perhaps the most
-important part of the work still remained to be done.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche went to the very foundation of the Christian edifice.
-He pointed to its morality and said: if we are going to measure the
-value of this religion, let us cease our petty quarrels concerning
-the truth or falsehood of such stories as the loss of the Gadarene
-swine, or the miracle of the loaves and fishes, and let us throw the
-whole of Christian morality into the scales and appraise its precise
-worth as a system of ethics. Nietzsche would have scorned to quarrel
-with the Church, as Huxley did; for much more important issues were at
-stake. The worth of a religion is measured by its morality; because by
-its morality it moulds and rears men and reveals the type of man who
-ultimately wishes to prevail by means of it.</p>
-
-<p>With the metaphysics and the dogma of Christianity in ruins all around
-him, therefore, Nietzsche took a step very far in advance of the
-rationalistic iconoclasts of his age. He attacked Christian morals,
-and declared them to be, like all other morals, merely a weapon in the
-hands of a certain type of man, with which that type struggled for
-power.</p>
-
-<p>But bold as this step was, it constituted but the first of a series,
-the next of which was to discover the type which had laid the
-foundations of the Christian ideal. If it could be proved that these
-Christian values had been created by a noble species with the object of
-perpetuating that species, then Christianity would come forth from the
-inquiry vindicated to the hilt, and fill the damage done to its dogma
-would not have deterred Nietzsche from standing by it and upholding it
-to his very last breath. Alas! Things turned out somewhat differently
-and Nietzsche was not by any means the least pained by the result.
-Pursuing the inquiry with his usual unflinching and uncompromising
-honesty, and avoiding no conclusion however unpleasant or fatal,
-Nietzsche, the scion of a profoundly religions house, the lover of
-order and tradition, with the blood of generations of earnest believers
-in his veins, finally found himself compelled to renounce and even to
-condemn, root and branch, the faith which had been the strength and
-hope of his forebears.</p>
-
-<p>Before turning to the next chapter, where I shall explain how he
-came to regard this step as inevitable, it should be said concerning
-Nietzsche's philosophy in general, that it is essentially and through
-and through religious and almost prophetic in spirit. No careful
-reader of his works can doubt that Nietzsche was a deeply religious
-man. A glance at <i>Thus Spake Zarathustra</i> alone would convince any
-one of this; while in his constant references to religion throughout
-his works, as "a step to higher intellectuality,"<a name="FNanchor_5_7" id="FNanchor_5_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_7" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> as "a means to
-invaluable contentedness,"<a name="FNanchor_6_8" id="FNanchor_6_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_8" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> as "a measure of discipline,"<a name="FNanchor_7_9" id="FNanchor_7_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_9" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> as a
-powerful social factor,<a name="FNanchor_8_10" id="FNanchor_8_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_10" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> a more substantial confirmation of the fact
-is to be found.</p>
-
-<p>It is well to bear in mind, however, throughout our study of Nietzsche,
-that he had a higher type always in view; that he was also well aware
-that this type could only be attained by the strict observance of a
-new morality, and that if he opposed other forms of morality&mdash;more
-particularly the Christian form&mdash;it was because he earnestly believed
-that they were rearing an undesirable and even despicable kind of man.</p>
-
-<p>"Verily men have made for themselves all their good and evil. Verily
-they did not take it: they did not find it: it did not come down as a
-voice from heaven."<a name="FNanchor_9_11" id="FNanchor_9_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_11" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
-
-<p>"Behold, the good and just! Whom do they hate most? Him who breaketh up
-their tables of values; the breaker, the law-breaker: he, however, is
-the creator."<a name="FNanchor_10_12" id="FNanchor_10_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_12" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
-
-<p>"Verily a muddy stream is man. One must be at least a sea to be able to
-absorb a muddy stream without becoming unclean."</p>
-
-<p>"Behold, I teach you Superman: he is that sea; in him your great
-contempt can sink."<a name="FNanchor_11_13" id="FNanchor_11_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_13" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
-
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See also D.D. Aph. 81.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_2_4" id="Footnote_2_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_4"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Z., p. 67.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_3_5" id="Footnote_3_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_5"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Z., p. 65.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_4_6" id="Footnote_4_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_6"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Z., p. 138.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_5_7" id="Footnote_5_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_7"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> G. E., p. 81.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_6_8" id="Footnote_6_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_8"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> G. E., p. 81.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_7_9" id="Footnote_7_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_9"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>  G. E., p. 80.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_8_10" id="Footnote_8_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_10"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>  G. M., 3rd Essay, Aph. l5.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_9_11" id="Footnote_9_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_11"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Z., p. 67.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_10_12" id="Footnote_10_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_12"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Z., p. 20.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_11_13" id="Footnote_11_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_13"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Z., p. 8.</p></div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h5><a name="Chapter_III" id="Chapter_III">Chapter III</a></h5>
-
-
-<h4 class="smcap">Nietzsche the Moralist</h4>
-
-
-<p>Conceiving all forms of morality to be but weapons in the struggle
-for power, Nietzsche concluded that every species of man must at
-some time or other have taken to moralising, and must have called
-that "good" which its instincts approved, and that "bad" which its
-enemies instincts approved. In Beyond Good and Evil, however, he
-tells us that after making a careful examination "of the finer and
-coarser moralities which have hitherto prevailed or still prevail on
-earth," he found certain traits recurring so regularly together, and so
-closely connected with one another, that, finally, two primary types
-of morality revealed themselves to him. That is to say, after passing
-the known moralities of the world in review, he was able to classify
-them broadly into two types.</p>
-
-<p>He observed that throughout human history there had been a continual
-and implacable war between two kinds of men; it must have begun in the
-remotest ages, and it continues to this day. It is the war between the
-powerful and the impotent, the strong and the weak, the givers and
-the takers, the healthy and the sick, the happy and the wretched. The
-powerful formed their concept of "good," and it was one which justified
-their strongest instincts. The impotent likewise acquired their view of
-the matter, which was often precisely the reverse of the former view.</p>
-
-<p>In this way Nietzsche arrived at the following broad generalisation:
-that all the moralities of the world could be placed under one of two
-heads, <i>Master Morality or Slave Morality</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In the first, the master morality, it is the oak which contends: I
-must reach the sun and spread broad brandies in so doing; this I call
-"good," and the herd that I shelter may also call it good. In the
-second, the slave morality, it is the shrub which says: I also want to
-reach the sun, these broad branches of the oak, however, keep the sun
-from me, therefore the oak's instincts are "bad."</p>
-
-<p>It is obvious that these two points of view exist and have existed
-everywhere on earth. Apart from national and racial distinctions,
-mankind does fall into the two broad classes of master and slave, or
-ruler and subject. We also know that each of these classes must have
-developed its moral code, and must have tried to protect its conduct
-and life therewith. But, what we did not know until Nietzsche pointed
-the fact out to us, was: which morality is the more desirable and the
-more full of promise for the future? Admitting that the master and the
-slave moralities are struggling for supremacy still, which of them
-ought we to promote with every means in our power?&mdash;which of them
-is going to make life more attractive, more justifiable, and more
-acceptable on earth?</p>
-
-<p>These are now questions of the utmost importance; because it is
-precisely now that pessimism, nihilism, and other desperate faiths are
-beginning to set their note of interrogation to human existence, and to
-shake our belief even in the desirability of our own survival.</p>
-
-<p>It is now time for us to discover whence arises this contempt and
-horror of life, and to lay the blame for it either at the door of the
-master or of the slave morality.</p>
-
-<p>In order that we may understand how to set forth upon this inquiry, let
-us first form a mental image of the two codes as they must have been
-evolved by their originators.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche reminds us before we start, however,<a name="FNanchor_1_14" id="FNanchor_1_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_14" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> that in most communities
-the two moralities have become so confused and mingled, in order
-to establish that compromise which is so dear to the hearts of the
-peaceful, that it would be almost a hopeless task to seek any society
-on earth in which they are now to be seen juxtaposed in sharp contrast.
-Be this as it may, in order to recognise the blood of each when we come
-across it, we have only to think of what must have occurred when the
-ruling caste and the ruled class took to moralising.</p>
-
-<p>Taking the ruling caste first, it is clear that in their
-morality, all is <i>good</i> which proceeds from strength, power, health,
-well-constitutedness, happiness, and awfulness; for the motive force
-behind the people who evolved it was simply the will to discharge
-a plenitude, a superabundance, of spiritual and physical wealth. A
-consciousness of high tension, of a treasure that would fain give and
-bestow,&mdash;this is the mental attitude of the nobles. The antithesis
-"good" and "bad" to this first class means the same as "noble" and
-"despicable." "Bad" in the master morality must be applied to the
-coward, to all acts that spring from weakness, to the man with "an eye
-to the main chance," who would forsake everything in order to live.</p>
-
-<p>The creator of the master morality was he who, out of the very fulness
-of his soul, transfigured all he saw and heard, and declared it better,
-greater, more beautiful than it appeared to the creator of the slave
-morality. Great artists, great legislators, and great warriors belong
-to the class that created master morality.</p>
-
-<p>Turning now to the second class, we must bear in mind that it is the
-product of a community in which the struggle for existence is the
-prime life-motor. There, inasmuch as oppression, suffering, weariness,
-and servitude are the general rule, all will be regarded as good that
-tends to alleviate pain. Pity, the obliging hand, the warm heart,
-patience, industry, and humility,&mdash;these are undoubtedly the virtues
-we shall here find elevated to the highest places; because they are
-<i>useful</i> virtues; they make life endurable; they are helpful in the
-struggle for existence. To this class, all that proceeds from strength,
-superabundance of spiritual or bodily power, or great health, is looked
-upon with loathing and mistrust, while that which is awful is the worst
-and greatest evil. He is good who is amenable, kind, unselfish, meek,
-and submissive; that is why, in all communities where slave morality is
-in the ascendant, a "good fellow" always suggests a man in possession
-of a fair modicum of foolishness and sentimentality.</p>
-
-<p>The creator of slave-morality was one who, out of the poverty of his
-soul, transfigured all he saw and heard, and declared it smaller,
-meaner, and less beautiful than it appeared to the creator of the
-master values. Great misanthropists, pessimists, demagogues, tasteless
-artists, nihilists, spiteful authors and dramatists, and resentful
-saints belong to the class that created slave-morality.</p>
-
-<p>The first order of values are active, creative, Dionysiac. The
-second are passive, defensive, venomous, subterranean; to them
-belong "Adaptation," "adjustment," and "utilitarian relationship to
-environment."</p>
-
-<p>Now, seeing that mankind is undoubtedly moulded by the nature of the
-values which prevail over it, it is manifestly of paramount importance
-to the philosopher to know which order of values conduces to rear the
-most desirable species of man, and then to advocate that order, with
-all the art and science at his disposal.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche saw two lines of life: an ascending and a descending line.
-At the end of the one he pictured an ideal type, robust in mind and
-body, rich enough in spirit and vigour to make giving and bestowing
-a necessary condition of its existence; at the end of the other line
-he already perceived degeneracy, poverty of blood and spirit, and a
-sufficiently low degree of vitality to make parasitism a biological
-need.</p>
-
-<p>He believed that the first, or noble morality, when it prevailed, made
-for an ascending line of life and therefore favoured the multiplication
-of a desirable type of man; and he was now equally convinced that
-whenever ignoble or slave morality was supreme, life not only tended
-to follow the descending line, but that the very men whose existence
-it favoured were the least likely to stem the declining tide. Hence it
-seemed to him that the most essential of all tasks was to ascertain
-what kind of morality now prevailed, in order that we might immediately
-transvalue our values, while there was still time, if we believed this
-change to be necessary.</p>
-
-<p>What then are our present values? Nietzsche replies most emphatically
-&mdash;they are Christian values.</p>
-
-<p>In the last chapter we saw that although Christian dogma was very
-rapidly becoming mere wreckage, its most earnest opposers and
-destroyers nevertheless clung with fanatical faith to Christian
-morality. Thus, in addition to the vast multitude of those professing
-the old religion, there was also a host of atheists, agnostics,
-rationalists, and materialists, who, as far as Nietzsche was concerned,
-could quite logically be classed with those who were avowedly
-Christian. And, as for the remainder&mdash;a few indifferent and perhaps
-nameless people,&mdash;what could they matter? Even they, perhaps, if hard
-pressed, would have betrayed a sneaking, cowardly trust in Christian
-ethics, if only out of a sense of security; and with these the total
-sum of the civilised world was fully made up.</p>
-
-<p>Perhaps to some this may appear a somewhat sweeping conclusion. To such
-as doubt its justice, the best advice that can be given is to urge them
-to consult the literature, ethical, philosophical, and otherwise, of
-those writers whom they would consider most opposed to Christianity
-before the publication of Nietzsche's works; and they will then realise
-that, with very few exceptions, mostly to be found among uninfluential
-and uncreative iconoclasts, the whole of the Western civilised world in
-Nietzsche's time was firmly Christian in morals, and most firmly so,
-perhaps, in those very quarters where the dogma of the religion of pity
-was most honestly disclaimed.</p>
-
-<p>It had therefore become in the highest degree necessary to put these
-values under the philosophical microscope, and to discover to which
-order they belonged. Was Christianity the purveyor of a noble or of
-a slave morality? The reply to this question would reveal the whole
-tendency of the modern world, and would also answer Nietzsche's
-searching inquiry: "Are we on the right track?"</p>
-
-<p>Pursuing Nietzsche's method as closely as we can, let us now turn to
-Christianity, as we find it to-day, and see whether it is possible to
-bring its values into line with one of the two broad classes spoken of
-in this chapter.</p>
-
-<p>In the first place, Nietzsche discovers that Christianity is not a
-world-approving faith. The very pivot upon which it revolves seems to
-be the slandering and depreciating of this world, together with the
-praise and exaltation of a hypothetical world to come. To his mind it
-seems to draw odious comparisons between the things of this earth and
-the blessings of heaven. Finally, it gushes in a very unsportsmanlike
-manner over an imaginary beyond, to the detriment and disadvantage of
-a "here," of this earth, of this life, and posits another region&mdash;a
-nether region&mdash;for the accommodation of its enemies.<a name="FNanchor_2_15" id="FNanchor_2_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_15" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
-
-<p>What, now, is the mental attitude of these "backworldsmen," as
-Nietzsche calls them, who can see only the world's filth? Who is likely
-to need the thought of a beyond, where he will live in bliss while
-those he hates will writhe in hell? Such ideas occur only to certain
-minds. Do they occur to the minds of those who, by the very health,
-strength, and happiness that is in them, transfigure all the world
-&mdash;even the ugliness in it&mdash;and declare it to be beautiful? Do they
-occur to the powerful who can chastise their enemies while their blood
-is still up? Admitting that the world may be surveyed from a hundred
-different standpoints, is this particular standpoint which we now have
-under our notice, that of a contented, optimistic, sanguine type, or
-that of a discontented, pessimistic, anæmic one?</p>
-
-<p>"To the pure all things are pure!&mdash;I, however, say unto you: To the
-swine all things are swinish."<a name="FNanchor_3_16" id="FNanchor_3_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_16" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche's sensitive car caught curious notes in the daily dronings of
-those around him&mdash;notes that made him suspicious of the whole melody
-of modern life, and still more suspicions of the chorus executing it.</p>
-
-<p>He heard to his astonishment: ... "the wretched alone are the good;
-the poor, the impotent, the lowly alone are good; only the sufferers,
-the needy, the sick, the ugly are pious only they are godly; them alone
-blessedness awaits&mdash;but ye, the proud and potent, ye are for aye
-and evermore the wicked, the cruel, the lustful, the insatiable, the
-godless; ye will also be, to all eternity, the unblessed, the cursed,
-and the damned."<a name="FNanchor_4_17" id="FNanchor_4_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_17" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
-
-<p>He continued listening intently, and, with his ear attuned anew, these
-sentiments broke strangely upon his senses:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>"Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the Kingdom of Heaven.</p>
-
-<p>"Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted.</p>
-
-<p>"Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.</p>
-
-<p>"Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of
-God."<a name="FNanchor_5_18" id="FNanchor_5_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_18" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
-
-<p>There was no time for brooding over stray thoughts; there was still
-much to be seen and hoard. When you want to catch some one napping, you
-keep your eye eagerly upon him, and turn neither to the right nor to
-the left. Nietzsche, it must be remembered, was at this stage treading
-softly towards Europe whom he believed to be "napping."</p>
-
-<p>In his lonely hermit cell he was able to catch all the sounds that
-rose from the city beneath him, and he heard perhaps more than the
-inhabitants themselves.</p>
-
-<p>He could see them all fighting and quarrelling, and he was cheered,
-because he knew that where the great fight for power ceases, the
-standard of life falls. But some he saw were wounded, others were
-actually unfit for the battlefield, a large number looked tired and
-listless, and there were yet others&mdash;a goodly multitude&mdash;who were
-resentful at the sight of their superiors and who, like sulky children,
-dropped their arms in a pet and declared that they would not play any
-more. And what were all these feeble and less viable mortals doing?
-They were crying aloud, and making their deepest wishes known. They
-were elevating their desiderata to the highest places amongst earthly
-virtues&mdash;and driving back the others with <i>words</i>! Nietzsche thought
-of Reynard the Fox, who, at the very moment that he was about to be
-hanged, and with the rope already round his neck, succeeded by his
-dialectical skill in persuading the crowd to release him. For Nietzsche
-could hear the weary, the wounded, and the incapable of the fight,
-crying quite distinctly through their lips parched for rest: "Peace is
-good! Love is good! Love for one's neighbour is good! Ay, and even love
-for one's enemy is good!"<a name="FNanchor_6_19" id="FNanchor_6_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_19" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
-
-<p>And some cried: "It is God that avengeth me!" to those who oppressed
-them, and others said: "The Lord avenge me!"<a name="FNanchor_7_20" id="FNanchor_7_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_20" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
-
-<p>Whereupon Nietzsche thought of the Jehovah of the Old Testament, the
-God of revenge and thunderbolts; he recalled the sentiment: "Ye shall
-chase your enemies and they shall fall fall before you by the sword,"
-and he wondered how this had come to mean "love your enemies," in the
-New Testament. Had another type of men perhaps made themselves God's
-mouthpiece?</p>
-
-<p>Yes, that must be so; for, in their holy book, he came across this
-passage, ascribed to one of their greatest saints:</p>
-
-<p>"Hath not God made foolish the wisdom of this world?</p>
-
-<p>"For after that in the wisdom of God the world by wisdom knew God, it
-pleased God by the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe.</p>
-
-<p>"... Not many wise men after the flesh, not many mighty, not many
-noble <i>are called</i>:</p>
-
-<p>"But God hath chosen the foolish things of the world to confound the
-wise: and God hath chosen the weak things of the world to confound the
-things which are mighty:</p>
-
-<p>"And base things of the world, and things which are despised, hath God
-chosen, yea and things which are not, to bring to nought things that
-are."<a name="FNanchor_8_21" id="FNanchor_8_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_21" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
-
-<p>Here, Nietzsche tells us, he began to hold his nose; but he still
-listened; for there was yet more to be heard. From the smiles that were
-breaking over the lips of those who read the above words, he gathered
-that they must have overcome their unhappiness. Yes, indeed, they had.
-But what did they call it? This was important&mdash;even the Christian view
-of unhappiness seemed significant to Nietzsche in this inquiry.</p>
-
-<p>Their unhappiness, their wretchedness, they called a trial, a gift, a
-distinction! Not really? Yes indeed! As Nietzsche points out: "They
-are wretched, no doubt, all these mumblers and underground forgers,
-though warmly seated together. But they tell us their wretchedness is a
-selection and distinction from God, that the dogs which are loved most
-are whipped, that their misery may perhaps also be a preparation, a
-trial, a schooling; perhaps even more&mdash;something which at some time to
-come will be refuted and paid back with immense interest in gold. No!
-in happiness. This they call 'blessedness.'"<a name="FNanchor_9_22" id="FNanchor_9_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_22" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
-
-<p>At this point Nietzsche declares that he could stand it no longer.
-"Enough, enough! Bad air! Bad air!" he cried. "Methinks this workshop
-of virtue positively reeks."</p>
-
-<p>He had now realised in whose company he had been all this time.</p>
-
-<p>These people who halted at nothing in order to elevate their weaknesses
-to the highest place among the virtues, and to monopolise goodness on
-earth&mdash;who called that good which was tame and soft and harmless,
-because they themselves could only survive in litters of cotton wool;
-who coloured the earth with the darkness <i>that</i> was in their own bodies;
-&mdash;who did not scruple to dub all manly and vital virtues odiously
-sinful and wicked, and who preferred to set the life of the whole
-world at stake, rather than acknowledge that it was precisely their
-own second-rate, third-rate, or even fourth-rate, vitality which was
-the greatest sin of all; who in one and the same breath preached their
-utilitarian "universal love" to the powerful, and then sent them to
-eternal damnation in another world: Nietzsche asks, are these people
-the supporters of a noble or of a slave morality?</p>
-
-<p>The answer is obvious, and we need not labour the point. But it was so
-obvious to the lonely hermit, that the thought of it filled him with
-horror and dread, and he was moved to leave his cell and to descend
-into the plain, while there was yet time, with the object of urging us
-to transvalue our values.</p>
-
-<p>In Christian values, Nietzsche read nihilism, decadence, degeneration,
-and death. They were calculated to favour the multiplication of the
-least desirable on earth: and, as such, despite his antecedents,
-and with his one desire, "the elevation of the type man," always
-before him, he condemned Christian morality from top to bottom.
-This magnificent attempt on the part of the low, the base, and the
-worthless, to establish themselves as the most powerful on earth, must
-be checked at all costs, and with terrible earnestness he exhorts us to
-alter our values.</p>
-
-<p>"O my brethren, with whom lieth the greatest danger to the whole human
-future? Is it not with the good and the just?</p>
-
-<p>"<i>Break up, break up, I pray you, the good and the just!</i>"</p>
-
-<p>This condemnation of Christian values, as slave values&mdash;which
-Nietzsche regarded as his greatest service to mankind&mdash;he says he
-would write on all walls. He tells us he came just in the nick of time;
-to-morrow might be too late.</p>
-
-<p>"It is time for man to fix his goal. It is time for man to plant the
-germ of his highest hope.</p>
-
-<p>"His soil is still rich enough for that purpose. But that soil will one
-day be too poor and exhausted, and no lofty tree will any longer be
-able to grow thereon."<a name="FNanchor_10_23" id="FNanchor_10_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_23" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_14" id="Footnote_1_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_14"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> G. E., p. 227</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_2_15" id="Footnote_2_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_15"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> John xii. 25; 1 John ii. 15, 16; James iv. 4.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_3_16" id="Footnote_3_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_16"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Z., p. 249.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_4_17" id="Footnote_4_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_17"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> G. M., 1st Essay, Aph. 7.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_5_18" id="Footnote_5_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_18"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Matthew v.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_6_19" id="Footnote_6_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_19"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Matthew xxiii. 39; Mark xiii. 31; Luke x. 27; Matthew
-v. 44.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_7_20" id="Footnote_7_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_20"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> 2 Luke xviii. 7, 8; Romans xii. l9; Revelation vi. 10.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_8_21" id="Footnote_8_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_21"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> I Corinthians i. 20, 21, 26, 27, 28.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_9_22" id="Footnote_9_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_22"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> G. M., 1st Essay, Aph. 14. See also Epistle to the
-Hebrews xii. 6, and Revelation iii. 19.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_10_23" id="Footnote_10_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_23"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Z., p. 12</p></div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h5><a name="Chapter_IV" id="Chapter_IV">Chapter IV</a></h5>
-
-
-<h4 class="smcap">Nietzsche the Evolutionist</h4>
-
-
-<p>"Transvalue your values or perish!" This was the message of the
-hermit Nietzsche to the people inhabiting the valley into which he
-had descended. "Transvalue your values!"&mdash;that is to say, make them
-what they once were, noble, life-approving, virile! For two thousand
-years the roll of the world-wheel had been reversed&mdash;Stendhal had
-said that many years before Nietzsche lived&mdash;but it was left to
-Nietzsche, Stendhal's admirer and pupil, to teach and prove this fact.
-Stendhal, too, had cried out against the tameness, the lukewarmness,
-the effeminacy of society; but Nietzsche took up this cry with a voice
-more brazen than Stendhal's at a time when mankind was in much greater
-need of it. Stendhal had pointed enthusiastically to the sun and to the
-passion of the south, and had donned a moral respirator whenever he
-turned to face the grey and depressing atmosphere of northern ideas and
-northern tepidness. Nietzsche follows his master's hint with alacrity,
-but in doing so converts Stendhal's clarion notes into thunder, and the
-glint of Stendhal's rapier into strokes of lightning.<a name="FNanchor_1_24" id="FNanchor_1_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_24" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
-
-<p>When Nietzsche began to write Europe was suffering from the worst kind
-of spiritual illness&mdash;weakness of will. Everywhere comfort and freedom
-from danger were becoming the highest ideals; everywhere, too, virtue
-was being confounded with those qualities which led to the highest
-possible amount of security and tame, back-parlour pleasures; and man
-was gradually developing into a harmless domesticated type of animal,
-capable of performing a host of charming little drawing-room tricks
-which rejoiced the hearts of his womenfolk.</p>
-
-<p>Sleep seemed to be the greatest accomplishment. It had become all
-important to have a good night's rest, and everything was done to
-achieve this end. A man no longer asked his heart what it dictated,
-when he stood irresolute before a daring deed, he simply consulted
-Morpheus, who warned him that he could not promise him a soft pillow if
-he did anything that was ever so slightly naughty. In the end, Morpheus
-would prevail, and thus all Europe was beginning to snore peacefully
-the whole night through, with marvellous regularity, while manliness
-rotted and danger dwindled.<a name="FNanchor_2_25" id="FNanchor_2_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_25" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche protested against this state of affairs:&mdash;"What is good? ye
-ask. To be brave is good. Let the little schoolgirls say: To be good is
-sweet and touching at the same time. Ye say, a good cause will hallow
-even war? I say unto you: a good war halloweth every cause. War and
-courage have done greater things than love!"<a name="FNanchor_3_26" id="FNanchor_3_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_26" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
-
-<p>"I pass through this people and keep mine eyes open: they have
-become <i>smaller</i>, and ever become smaller: <i>the reason thereof is their
-doctrine of happiness and virtue</i>.</p>
-
-<p>"For they are moderate also in virtue&mdash;because they want comfort. With
-comfort, however, moderate virtue only is compatible.</p>
-
-<p>"Of man there is little here: therefore do their women make themselves
-manly. For only he who is man enough, will <i>save the woman</i> in woman.</p>
-
-<p>"In their hearts, they want simply one thing most of all: that no one
-hurt them.</p>
-
-<p>"That, however, is <i>cowardice</i>, though it be called virtue."<a name="FNanchor_4_27" id="FNanchor_4_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_27" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
-
-<p>Some there were, of course, who were conscious of the dreadful
-condition of things, and who deplored it, without, however, being able
-to put their finger on the root of the evil. Such people were most of
-them pessimists, and, at the time that Nietzsche lived, Schopenhauer
-was their leader.</p>
-
-<p>Sensitive, noble-minded, artistic people, deprived by rationalistic
-and atheistic teachers of the belief in God, felt the ignobleness of
-European hopes and aspirations, and knowing of no better creed and
-possessing the intelligence to see the hopelessness of things under the
-rule of the values which then prevailed, they succumbed to a mood of
-utter despair, subscribed to Schopenhauer's horror and loathing of the
-world, and regarded the very optimism of childhood with suspicion and
-scorn.</p>
-
-<p>For a while Nietzsche, too, was an ardent and devoted follower of
-Schopenhauer. Godlessness was bad enough to endure: but Godlessness in
-a world of un-pagan and effeminate manhood, was too much for the loving
-student of classical antiquity, and he turned to Schopenhauer as to one
-who, he thought, would understand how to steel his heart against life's
-misery.</p>
-
-<p>But this opiate did not maintain its sway over Nietzsche long. Our poet
-was of a type too courageous and too vigorous to be able to surrender
-himself so completely to sorrow and to Buddhistic consolations.
-Gradually he began to regard the humble and resigned attitude of the
-pessimist before life's hardships and modernity's greyness as unworthy
-of a spirited and active man. Slowly it dawned upon him that the root
-of the evil lay, not in the constitution of the earth, but in man
-himself, and in man's actual values. If man could be roused to pursue
-higher ideals; if he could be moved to kill the poisonous snake of
-ignoble values that had crawled into his throat and choked him while
-he was in slumber;<a name="FNanchor_5_28" id="FNanchor_5_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_28" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> in fact, if man could surpass himself and regard
-the reversal of the world's engines, for the last two thousand years,
-as Stendhal had done&mdash;that is to say, as the grossest error and most
-ridiculous <i>faux pas</i> that had ever been made&mdash;then, Nietzsche thought,
-pessimism and Schopenhauer might go to the deuce, and conscious,
-sensitive, intellectual, and artistic Europe would once more be able
-to smile instead of shuddering at the thought of mankind's former
-qualities.</p>
-
-<p>Thus it was the condemnation of modern values, together with the
-thought of man's being able to surpass himself, which gave Nietzsche
-the grounds and the necessary strength for abandoning pessimism and
-embracing that wise optimism which characterises the whole of his works
-after <i>The Joyful Wisdom</i>.</p>
-
-<p>True, God was dead; but that ought only to make man feel more
-self-reliant, more creative, prouder. Undoubtedly God was dead: but
-man could now hold himself responsible for himself. He could now seek
-a goal in manhood, on earth, and one that was at least within the
-compass of his powers. Long enough had he squinted heavenwards, with
-the result, that he had neglected his task on earth.<a name="FNanchor_6_29" id="FNanchor_6_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_29" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
-
-<p>"Dead are all Gods!" Nietzsche cries, "now we will that Superman live!"<a name="FNanchor_7_30" id="FNanchor_7_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_30" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
-
-<p>We are now before Nietzsche the evolutionist, and we must define him,
-relatively to those other evolutionists with whom we, as English
-people, are already familiar.</p>
-
-<p>To begin with, then, let us dispose of the fundamental question:
-Nietzsche's concept of life. We have had life variously defined for
-us by our own writers, and perhaps one among Nietzsche's greatest
-contemporaries in England&mdash;Herbert Spencer&mdash;defined it in the
-most characteristically English fashion. Spencer said: "Life is
-activity," or "the continuous adjustment of internal relations to
-external relations." Now there is absolutely nothing in either of
-these definitions, no suggestion or hint, which would lead the most
-suspicious to conjecture what life really is. (Activity) reveals
-nothing of life's passions, its hate, its envy, its covetousness, its
-hard, inexorable principles; the process of the continual adjustments
-of internal relations to external relations might mean the serpent's
-digestion of its prey, or the training of an opera singer's voice, and
-it might also be a scientific formula for a "moral order of things."
-Both definitions are delightfully unheroic and vague; though they do
-not compromise the writer they compromise with everything else, and to
-start out with them is to shelve the question in a way which allows of
-our subsequently weaving all the romance and sweetness possible into
-life, and of making it as pretty as a little nursery story.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche, always eager for a practical and tangible idea, naturally
-could not accept these two definitions as expressing anything profound
-about life at all. Looking into the race of nature, and reading her
-history from the amoeba with its predatory pseudo-podia, to the lion
-with its murderous prehensile claws, he defined life practically,
-uprightly, and bravely, as "appropriation, injury, conquest of the
-strange and weak, suppression, severity, obtrusion of its own forms,
-incorporation, and, at least, putting it mildest, exploitation."<a name="FNanchor_8_31" id="FNanchor_8_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_31" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
-
-<p>Thus, as we see, from the start Nietzsche closes his eyes at nothing,
-he does not want life to be a pretty tale if it is not one. He wants
-to know it as it is: for he is convinced that this is the only way of
-arriving at sound principles as to the manner in which human existence
-should be led.</p>
-
-<p>"Appropriation," then, he takes as a fact: he does not argue it away,
-any more than he tries to argue away "injury," "conquest of the strange
-and weak," "suppression," and "incorporation." These things are only
-too apparent, and he states them bravely in his definition. We know
-life is all this; but how much more comfortable it is, when we are
-sitting in our soft easy-chairs before our cheerful fires, to think
-that life is merely activity!</p>
-
-<p>To believe that there is a moral order in the universe is to believe
-that these unpleasant things in Nietzsche's definition will one day
-be overcome. This was the position Christianity assumed from the
-start. Put, though it was excusable in a religion fighting for power,
-and compelled to use nice and attractive words for its followers, to
-suppose that all the misery on earth will one day be transformed by
-God's wisdom into perfect bliss; such an attitude is quite unpardonable
-in the case of a philosopher or even of a poet. When Browning chanted
-smugly: "God's in His heaven: All's right with the world," he confessed
-himself a mediocre spirit with one stroke of the pen. And when Spencer
-wrote that the blind process of evolution "must inevitably favour all
-changes of nature which increase life and augment happiness," he did
-the same. We may now perhaps understand Nietzsche's impatience of his
-predecessors and contemporaries, who refused to see precisely what he
-saw in the face of nature.</p>
-
-<p>But even in his extended definition of life, the modern biologist
-brings himself no nearer to Nietzsche's honest standpoint, and for the
-following reasons:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>The modern biologist says, this "activity" he speaks of has a precise
-meaning. It connotes "the struggle for existence," or in other words
-"self-defence." (Again he is looking at life through moral or Christian
-glasses; because if every thing on earth is done in self-defence, even
-the devil himself is argued out of existence, and God remains creator
-of the "good" alone.) Nietzsche replies by denying this flatly. He says
-that the definition is again inadequate. He warns us not to confound
-Malthus with nature.<a name="FNanchor_9_32" id="FNanchor_9_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_32" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> He admits that the struggle occurs, but only as
-an exception. "The general aspect of life is not a state of want or
-hunger; it is rather a state of opulence, luxuriance, and even absurd
-prodigality&mdash;where there is a struggle, it is a struggle for power."
-&mdash;Will to power and not will to live is the motive force of life.</p>
-
-<p>"Wherever I found living matter," he says, "I found will to power, and
-even in the servant I found the yearning to be master.</p>
-
-<p>"Only where there is life, there is will: though a not will to live,
-but thus I teach thee&mdash;WILL TO POWER."<a name="FNanchor_10_33" id="FNanchor_10_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_33" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
-
-<p>Is there no aggression without the struggle for existence? Is there
-no voluptuousness in a position of power for us own sake? Of course
-there is! And one wonders how these English biologists could ever have
-been schoolboys without noticing these facts. As Nietzsche points out,
-however, they are every one of them labouring under the Christian
-ideal still&mdash;in spite of all their upsetting of the first chapter of
-Genesis, and in spite of all their blasting of the miracles. Put, if
-life is the supreme aim of all, how is it that many things are valued
-higher than life by living beings? If the will to live sometimes
-finds itself overpowered by another will&mdash;more particularly in great
-warriors, great prophets, great artists, and great heroes&mdash;what is
-this mightier force which thus overpowers it? We have heard what
-Nietzsche calls it&mdash;it is the Will to Power.</p>
-
-<p>"Psychologists should bethink themselves before putting down the
-instinct of self-preservation as the cardinal instinct of an organic
-being. A living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength&mdash;life
-itself is Will to Power; self-preservation is only one of the indirect
-and most frequent results thereof."<a name="FNanchor_11_34" id="FNanchor_11_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_34" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
-
-<p>In spite of everything we have already said, Nietzsche's disagreement
-with our own biologists may still seem to many but a play upon words.
-A moment's meditation, however&mdash;more particularly over the passage
-just quoted&mdash;will show that it is really much deeper than this. It is
-one thing to regard an animal as a mere automaton, prowling around to
-satisfy its hunger, and happy to remain inactive when the sensation of
-hunger is appeased, and quite another to regard an animal as a battery
-of accumulated forces which <i>must</i> be discharged at all costs (and for
-good or evil), with only temporary lapses of purely self-preservative
-desires and self-preservative actions. All the different consequences
-of these two views will occur to the thinker in an instant.</p>
-
-<p>Upon this basis, then, the Will to Power, Nietzsche builds up a
-cosmogony which also assumes that species have been evolved; but again,
-in the processes of that evolution he is at variance with Darwin and
-all the natural-selectionists.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche cannot be persuaded that "mechanical adjustment to ambient
-conditions," or "adaptation to environment"&mdash;both purely passive,
-meek, and uncreative functions&mdash;should be given the importance,
-as determining factors, which the English and German schools give
-them. With Samuel Butler, he protests against this "pitchforking of
-mind and spirit out of the universe," and points imperatively to
-an inner creative will in living organisms, which ultimately makes
-environment and natural conditions subservient and subject. In the
-<i>Genealogy of Morals</i><a name="FNanchor_12_35" id="FNanchor_12_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_35" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> he makes it quite clear that he would ascribe
-the greatest importance to a power in the organism itself, to "the
-highest functionaries in the animal, in which the life-will appears
-as an active and formative principle," and that even in the matter
-of the mysterious occurrence of varieties (sports) he would seek for
-inner causes. Darwin himself threw out only a hint in this direction;
-that is why it is safe to suppose that, if Nietzsche and Darwin are
-ever reconciled, it will probably be precisely on this ground. In
-the <i>Origin of Species</i>, speaking of the causes of variability, Darwin
-said: "... There are two factors, namely the nature of the organism,
-and the nature of the conditions. <i>The former seem to be much the more
-important</i>,<a name="FNanchor_13_36" id="FNanchor_13_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_36" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> for nearly similar variations sometimes arise under, as
-far as we can judge, dissimilar conditions; and on the other hand,
-dissimilar variations arise under conditions which appear to be
-uniform."</p>
-
-<p>Thus differing widely from the orthodox school of evolutionists,
-Nietzsche nevertheless believed their hypothesis to be sound; but once
-more he has an objection to raise. Why did they halt where they halted?</p>
-
-<p>If the process is a fact, if things have become what they are, and
-have not always been so; then why should we rest on our oars? If it
-was possible for man to struggle up from barbarism, and still more
-remotely from the lower Primates, and reach the zenith of his physical
-development; why, Nietzsche asks, should he not surpass himself and
-attain to Superman by evolving in the same decree volitionally and
-mentally?</p>
-
-<p>"The most careful ask to-day: 'How is man preserved?' But Zarathustra
-asketh as the only and first one: 'How is man surpassed?'<a name="FNanchor_14_37" id="FNanchor_14_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_37" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
-
-<p>"All beings (in your genealogical ladder) have created something beyond
-themselves, and are ye going to be the ebb of this great tide?</p>
-
-<p>"Behold I teach you Superman!"<a name="FNanchor_15_38" id="FNanchor_15_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_38" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
-
-<p>And now, again, at the risk of being monotonous, I must point to yet
-another difference between Nietzsche and the prevailing school of
-evolutionists. Whereas the latter, in their unscrupulous optimism,
-believed that out of the chaotic play of blind forces something highly
-desirable and "good" would ultimately be evolved; whereas they tacitly,
-though not avowedly, believed that their "fittest" in the struggle
-for existence would eventually prove to be the best&mdash;in fact that
-we should "muddle through" to perfection somehow, and that something
-really noble and important would be sure to result from John Brown's
-contest with Harry Smith for the highest place in an insurance office,
-for instance; Nietzsche disbelieved from the bottom of his heart in
-this chance play of blind and meaningless tendencies. He said: Given
-a degenerate, mean, and base environment and the fittest to survive
-therein will be the man who is best adapted to degeneracy, meanness,
-and baseness&mdash;therefore the worst kind of man. Given a community of
-parasites, and it may be that the flattest, the slimiest, and the
-softest, will be the fittest to survive. Such faith in blind forces
-Nietzsche regarded merely as the survival of the old Christian belief
-in the moral order of things, fogged out in scientific apparel to
-suit modern tastes. He saw plainly, that if man were to be elevated
-at all, no blind struggle in his present conditions would ever effect
-that end; for the present conditions themselves make those the fittest
-to survive in them who are persons of absolutely undesirable gifts
-and propensities.</p>
-
-<p>He declared (and here we are in the very heart of Nietzscheism)
-that nothing but a total change in these conditions, a complete
-transvaluation of all values, would ever alter man and make him more
-worthy of his past. For it is values, values, and again values, that
-mould men, and rear men, and create men; and ignoble values make
-ignoble men, and noble values make noble men! Thus it was in the
-beginning, is now, and ever shall be, truth without end&mdash;for men.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche realised "all that could still be made out of man, through
-a favourable accumulation and augmentation of human powers and
-arrangements"; he knew "how unexhausted man still is for the greatest
-possibilities, and how often in the past the type man has stood in
-mysterious and dangerous crossways, and has launched forth upon the
-right or the wrong road, impelled merely by a whim, or by a hint from
-the giant Chance."<a name="FNanchor_16_39" id="FNanchor_16_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_39" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> And now, he was determined that, whether man wished
-to listen or not, at least he should be told of the ultimate disaster
-that awaited him, if he continued in his present direction. For, there
-was yet time!</p>
-
-<p>It is to higher men that Nietzsche really makes his appeal, the leaders
-and misleaders of the mob. He had no concern with the multitude and
-they did not need him. The world had seen philosophies enough which had
-advocated the cause of the "greatest number"&mdash;English libraries were
-stacked with such works. What was required was, to convert those rare
-men who give the direction&mdash;the heads of the various throngs&mdash;the
-vanguard.</p>
-
-<p>"Awake and listen, ye lonely ones! From the future, winds are coming
-with a gentle beating of wings, and there cometh good tidings for fine
-ears.</p>
-
-<p>"Ye lonely ones of to-day, ye who stand apart, ye shall one day be a
-people: from you, who have chosen yourselves, a chosen people shall
-arise and from it Superman."<a name="FNanchor_17_40" id="FNanchor_17_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_40" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_24" id="Footnote_1_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_24"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> G. E., Aph. 254, 255, 256.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_2_25" id="Footnote_2_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_25"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See Schopenhauer on <i>The Vanity and Suffering of Life</i>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_3_26" id="Footnote_3_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_26"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Z., p. 52.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_4_27" id="Footnote_4_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_27"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Z., pp. 204, 205, 206.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_5_28" id="Footnote_5_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_28"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Z., pp. 192, 193.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_6_29" id="Footnote_6_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_29"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> See Z., p. 98 <i>et seq</i>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_7_30" id="Footnote_7_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_30"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Z., p. 91.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_8_31" id="Footnote_8_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_31"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> G. E., p. 226.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_9_32" id="Footnote_9_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_32"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Twilight of the Idols, Part 9, Aph. 14.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_10_33" id="Footnote_10_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_33"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Z., pp. 136, 137.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_11_34" id="Footnote_11_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_34"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> G. E., p. 20.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_12_35" id="Footnote_12_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_35"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Second Essay, Aph. l2.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_13_36" id="Footnote_13_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_36"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The italics are mine.&mdash;A. M. L.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_14_37" id="Footnote_14_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_37"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Z., p. 351.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_15_38" id="Footnote_15_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_38"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Z., p. 6.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_16_39" id="Footnote_16_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_39"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> G. E., p. 130.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_17_40" id="Footnote_17_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_40"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Z., p. 89.</p></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-
-<h5><a name="Chapter_V" id="Chapter_V">Chapter V</a></h5>
-
-
-<h4 class="smcap">Nietzsche the Sociologist</h4>
-
-
-<p>For Nietzsche, as we are beginning to see, a fitting title is hard to
-find. Unless we coin new names for things that have not yet been given
-names, Nietzsche remains without a title among his fellow thinkers.
-He has been called the "arch-anarchist," which he is not; he has been
-called the "preacher of brutality," which he is not; he has been called
-the "egoist," which he is not. But all these titles were conferred
-upon him by people whose interest it was to reduce him in the public's
-esteem. If he must be named, however, and we suppose he must, the best
-title would obviously be that which would distinguish him most exactly
-from his colleagues. Now, how does Nietzsche stand out from the ranks
-of almost all other philosophers? By the fact that he was throughout
-his life an "Advocate of Higher Man." Whereas other philosophers and
-scholars had always thought they had some divine message to impart in
-the cause of the "greatest number"; Nietzsche&mdash;the typical miner and
-underminer&mdash;believed that his mission was to stand for a neglected
-minority, for higher men, for the gold in the mass of quartz.</p>
-
-<p>No title therefore could be more fair, and at the same time more
-essentially descriptive, than the "Advocate of Higher Man," and in
-giving this title to Nietzsche, we immediately outline him against that
-assembly of his colleagues who were "Advocates of the Greatest Number."</p>
-
-<p>It is of the first importance to humanity that its higher individuals
-should be allowed to attain their full development, for only by means
-of its heroes can the human race be led forward step by step to higher
-and ever higher levels. In view of the fact that Nietzsche realised
-this, some of his principles, when given general application, may
-very naturally appear to be both iniquitous and subversive, and those
-who read him with the idea that he is preaching a gospel for all are
-perfectly justified if they turn away in horror from his works. The
-mistake they make, however, is to suppose that he, like most other
-philosophers with whom they are familiar, is an advocate of the
-greatest number.</p>
-
-<p>Let us take a single instance. In <i>The Honey Sacrifice</i><a name="FNanchor_1_41" id="FNanchor_1_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_41" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> the phrase
-"Become what thou art," occurs. Now it is obvious that however
-legitimate this command may be when applied to the highest and best, it
-becomes dangerous and seditious when applied to each individual of the
-mass of mankind. And this explains the number of errors that are rife
-concerning Nietzsche's gospel. Whenever Nietzsche spoke esoterically,
-his enemies declared that he was pronouncing maxims for the greatest
-number; whenever he spoke for the greatest number, as he does again
-and again in his allusions to the mediocre, he was accused of speaking
-esoterically. How would any other philosophy have fared under such
-misrepresentation and calumny?</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche could not believe in equality; for within him justice said
-"men are not equal!" Those to whom it gives pleasure to think that men
-are equal, he conjures not to confound pleasure with truth, and, like
-Professor Huxley, he finds himself obliged to recognise "the natural
-inequality of men."</p>
-
-<p>But, far from deploring this fact, he would fain have accentuated
-and intensified it. This inequality, to Nietzsche, is a condition to
-be exploited and to be made use of by the legislator. The higher men
-of a society in which gradations of rank are recognised as a natural
-and desirable condition constitute the class in which the hopes of a
-real elevation of humanity may be placed. The Divine Manu, Laotse,
-Confucius, Muhammad, Jesus Christ&mdash;all these men, who in their sublime
-arrogance actually converted man into a mirror in which they saw
-themselves and their doctrines reflected, and who in thus converting
-man into a mirror really made him feel happy in the function of
-reflecting alone:&mdash;these leaders are the types Nietzsche refers to when
-he speaks of higher men.</p>
-
-<p>Ruling, like all other functions which require the great to justify
-them, has fallen into disrepute, thanks to the incompetent amateurs
-that have tried their hand at the game. As in the Fine Arts, so in
-leading and ruling; it is the dilettantes that have broken our faith
-in human performances. The really great ruler reaches his zenith in
-dominating an epoch, a party, a nation or the world, to the best
-advantage of each of these; but it does not follow that the motive
-power propelling him should necessarily be the conscious pursuit of
-the best advantage of those he rules,&mdash;this is merely a fortuitous
-circumstance curiously associated with greatness in ruling,&mdash;generally
-speaking, however, his only conscious motive is the gratification of
-his inordinate will to power.</p>
-
-<p>The innocent fallacy of democracy lies in supposing that by a mere
-search, by a mere rummaging and fumbling among a motley populace, one
-man or several men can be found, who are able to take the place of the
-rare and ideal ruler. As if the mere fact of searching and rummaging
-were not in itself a confession of failure,&mdash;a confession that this
-man does not exist! For if he existed he would have asserted himself!
-he would have needed no democratic exploration party to unearth him.</p>
-
-<p>"There is no sorer misfortune in all human destiny, than when the
-powerful of the earth are not at the same time the first men. Then
-everything becometh false and warped and monstrous."<a name="FNanchor_2_42" id="FNanchor_2_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_42" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
-
-<p>"For, my brethren, the best shall rule: the best will rule! And where
-the teaching is different, there&mdash;the best <i>is lacking</i>."<a name="FNanchor_3_43" id="FNanchor_3_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_43" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
-
-<p>Here we observe that Nietzsche advocated an aristocratic arrangement
-of society. A firm believer in tradition, law, and order, and, in
-spite of his opponents' accusations, an undaunted enemy of Anarchy and
-<i>laisser-aller</i>, he saw in Socialism and Democracy nothing more than
-two slave organisations for the raising of every individual to his
-highest power, individuality made as general as possible; or, in other
-words, Socialism and Democracy meant to Nietzsche the annihilation of
-all higher aims and hopes. It meant valuing all the weeds and noble
-plants alike, and with such a valuation, the noble plants, being in
-the minority, must necessarily suffer and ultimately die out. Where
-everybody is somebody, nobody is anybody. Socialism, <i>i.e.</i> organised
-Individualism, seemed to Nietzsche merely the reflection in politics
-of the Christian principle that all men are alike before God. Grant
-immortality to every Tom, Dick, and Harry, and, in the end, every Tom,
-Dick, or Harry will believe in equal rights before he can even hope
-to reach Heaven, but to deny the privileges of rare men implies the
-proscription from life of all high trees with broad brandies,&mdash;those
-broad brandies that protect the herd from the rain, but which also keep
-the sun from the envious and ambitious shrub,&mdash;and thus it would mean
-that the world would gradually assume the appearance of those vast
-Scotch moors of gorse and heather, where liberalism and mediocrity are
-rampant, but where all loftiness is dead.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche was a profound believer in the value of tradition, in the
-value of general discipline lasting over long periods. He knew that all
-that is great and lasting and intensely moving has been the result of
-the law of castes or of the laws governing the individual members of a
-caste throughout many generations.<a name="FNanchor_4_44" id="FNanchor_4_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_44" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> This building up of the rare man, of
-the great man (of the cultivated type in a Darwinian sense) as every
-scientist is aware, is utterly frustrated by any thing in the way of
-injudicious and careless cross-breeding (see Darwin on the degeneration
-of the cultivated types of animals through the action of promiscuous
-breeding), by democratic <i>mésalliances</i> of all kinds, and by the laisser
-aller which is one of the worst evils of that kind of freedom which
-tends to prevail when the slaves of a community have succeeded in
-asserting and expressing their insignificant and miserable little
-individualities.</p>
-
-<p>Believing all this, Nietzsche could not help but advocate the rearing
-of a select and aristocratic caste, and in none of his exhortations is
-he more sincere than when he appeals to higher men to sow the seeds of
-a nobility for the future.</p>
-
-<p>"O my brethren, I consecrate you to be, and show unto you the way unto
-a now nobility. Ye shall become procreators and breeders and sowers of
-the future.</p>
-
-<p>"Verily, ye shall not become a nobility one might buy, like shopkeepers
-with shopkeepers' gold. For all that hath its fixed price is of little
-worth.</p>
-
-<p>"Not whence ye come be your honour in future, but whither ye go!" Your
-will, and your foot that longeth to get beyond yourselves,&mdash;be that
-your new honour!"</p>
-
-<p>"Your children's land ye shall love (be this your new nobility), the
-land undiscovered in the remotest sea! For it I bid you set sail and
-seek!"<a name="FNanchor_5_45" id="FNanchor_5_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_45" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
-
-<p>"Every elevation of the type man," says Nietzsche, "has hitherto been
-the work of an aristocratic society&mdash;and so will it always be&mdash;a
-society believing in a long scale of gradations of rank and differences
-of worth among human beings, and requiring slavery in some form or
-other. Without the <i>pathos of distance</i>, such as grows out of the
-incarnated differences of classes, out of the constant outlooking and
-downlooking of the ruling caste on subordinates and instruments, and
-out of their equally constant practice of obeying and commanding, of
-keeping down and keeping at a distance that other more mysterious
-pathos could never have arisen, the longing for an ever new widening
-distance within the soul itself, the formation of ever higher, rarer,
-further, more extended, more comprehensive states, in short, just the
-elevation of the type 'man,' the continued 'self-surmounting of man,'
-to use a moral formula in a super-moral sense."<a name="FNanchor_6_46" id="FNanchor_6_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_46" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
-
-<p>I cannot attempt to give a full account of the society Nietzsche would
-fain have seen established on earth. It will be found exhaustively
-described in Aph. 57 of the <i>Antichrist</i>: while in the book of <i>Manu</i> (Max
-Müller's "Sacred Books of the East," No. 25), similar sociological
-prescriptions are to be found, correlated with all the imposing
-machinery of divine revelation, supernatural authority, and religious
-earnestness.</p>
-
-<p>Briefly, Nietzsche says this:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>It is ridiculous to pretend to treat every one without regard to those
-natural distinctions which are manifested by superior intellectuality,
-or exceptional muscular strength, or mediocrity of spiritual and
-bodily powers, or inferiority of both. He tells us that it is not the
-legislator, but nature herself, who establishes these broad classes,
-and to ignore them when forming a society would be just as foolish as
-to ignore the order of rank among materials and structural principles
-when building a monument. Though the base of a pyramid does not require
-to be of the very finest marble, we know it must be both broad and
-massive. Nietzsche declares that no society has any solidarity which
-is not founded upon a broad basis of mediocrity. Though the stones
-get fewer in the layers as we ascend to the top of the pyramid, we
-know that their gradation is necessary if the highest point is to be
-readied. Nietzsche believes in the long scale of gradations of rank
-with the ascending line leading always to the highest&mdash;even if he be
-only a single individual. Though the very uppermost point consists of a
-single stone, it is around that single stone that the weather will rage
-most furiously and the sun shine most gorgeously. That single stone
-will be the first to cleave the heavy shower, and the first, for, to
-meet the lightning. Nietzsche says: "Life always becomes harder towards
-the <i>summit</i>,&mdash;the cold increases, responsibility increases."<a name="FNanchor_7_47" id="FNanchor_7_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_47" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
-
-<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
-"Saepius ventis agitatur ingens<br />
-pinus, et celsae graviore casu<br />
-decidunt turres, feriuntque summos<br />
-<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fulgura montes."<a name="FNanchor_8_48" id="FNanchor_8_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_48" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>&mdash;HORACE, <i>Carm</i>. II. X.</span><br />
-</p>
-
-<p>Thus he would have the intellectually superior, those who can bear
-responsibility and endure hardships, at the head. Beneath them are
-the warriors, the physically strong, who are "the guardians of right,
-the keepers of order and security, the king above all as the highest
-formula of warrior, judge, and keeper of the law. The second in rank
-are the executive of the most intellectual." And below this caste are
-the mediocre. "Handicraft, trade, agriculture, <i>science</i>, the greater
-part of art, in a word, the whole <i>compass</i> of business activity,
-is exclusively compatible with an average amount of ability and
-pretension." At the very base of the social edifice, Nietzsche sees
-the class of man who thrives best when he is well looked after and
-closely observed,&mdash;the man who is happy to serve, not because he must,
-but because he is what he is,&mdash;the man uncorrupted by political and
-religious lies concerning equality, liberty, and fraternity,&mdash;who is
-half conscious of the abyss which separates him from his superiors, and
-who is happiest when performing those acts which are not beyond his
-limitations.</p>
-
-<p>He forestalls this sketch of his ideal society by enunciating the moral
-code wherewith he would transvalue our present values, and I shall now
-give this code without a single remark or comment, feeling quite sure
-that the reader who has understood Nietzsche so far will not require
-any assistance in seeing that it is the necessary and logical outcome
-of the rest of his teaching.</p>
-
-<p class="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*</p>
-
-<p>"What is good? All that increases the feeling of power, will to power,
-power itself in man.</p>
-
-<p>"What is bad?&mdash;All that proceeds from weakness.</p>
-
-<p>"What is happiness?&mdash;The feeling that power <i>increases</i>, that resistance
-is overcome.</p>
-
-<p>"Not contentedness, but more power; not peace at any price, but
-warfare; not virtue, but capacity (virtue in the Renaissance style,
-virtù free from any moralic acid)."<a name="FNanchor_9_49" id="FNanchor_9_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_49" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
-
-<p class="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*</p>
-
-<p>I cannot well close this chapter on Nietzsche's sociological views
-without touching upon two of the most important elements in modern
-society, and his treatment of them. I refer to "altruism" and to
-"pity." I am more particularly anxious to express myself clearly on
-these two points, inasmuch as I know how many erroneous opinions
-are current in regard to Nietzsche's attitude towards them. In all
-gregarious communities, as is well known, altruism and pity have become
-very potent life-preserving factors, and it would be hard to find
-in Europe to-day, a city, a town, or a village, in which these two
-qualities are not considered the most creditable of virtues. Now apart
-from the fact that this excessive praise of compassion and selflessness
-is a sign of slave values being in the ascendant, we must bear in
-mind two things: (1) that under our present system of society, in
-which cruelties are perpetrated far more brutal than any that could be
-found in antiquity, a sort of maudlin sentimentality has arisen among
-the oppressing classes, whereby they attempt to counterbalance their
-deeds of oppression with lavish acts of charity. This sentimentality
-is a sign that their conscience is no longer clean for the act of
-oppressing; because in their heart of hearts they feel themselves
-unworthy of being at the top: (2) that wherever two or three human
-beings collect together, a certain modicum of altruism and compassion
-is a prerequisite of their social unity.</p>
-
-<p>Dismissing observation one as the mere expression of a regrettable
-fact which scarcely requires substantiation, and which is responsible
-for more than three-quarters of the anomalies that characterise
-modern Western civilisation; and passing over the suggestion that the
-excessive praise of compassion and selflessness denotes an ascendency
-of slave values (for we have dealt with this question in Chapter III.),
-let us turn to the more abstract proposition enunciated in observation
-two and try to grasp Nietzsche's treatment of it.</p>
-
-<p>In the first place, let us understand that there are two kinds of pity
-and selflessness, just as there are two kinds of generosity. There
-is the pity, the selflessness and the generosity which is preached
-and praised as a virtue by him who urgently requires them because he
-is ill-constituted, needy, and hungry; and there is the pity, the
-selflessness and the generosity which suggests itself to the man
-overflowing with health, trust in the future, and confidence in his
-own powers. To such a man, pity, selflessness, and generosity are a
-means of discharging a certain plenitude of power, and in his case
-giving and bestowing are natural functions. In the first instance, the
-three virtues are preached from a utilitarian standpoint which tends to
-increase an undesirable type; in the second, they are the sign of the
-existence of a desirable type.</p>
-
-<p>Let us hear Nietzsche&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>"A man who says: 'I like that, I take it for my own, and mean to guard
-it and protect it from everyone'; and the man who can conduct a case,
-carry out a resolution, remain true to an opinion, keep hold of a
-woman, punish and overthrow insolence; a man who has his indignation
-and his sword, and to whom the weak, the suffering, the oppressed, and
-even the animals willingly submit and naturally belong; in short, a man
-who is a master by nature&mdash;when such a man has sympathy, well! that
-sympathy has value! But of what account is the sympathy of those who
-suffer! or of those even who preach sympathy!"</p>
-
-<p>Wherever we find anything akin to "pity," even in nature: the suckling
-of the young, the maintenance of dependants (the lion's attitude
-towards the jackal), the protection of the helpless young (as in many
-fish and mammals), it is always the superabundance of the giver and his
-Will to Power which creates the pitiful act.</p>
-
-<p>But the pity which most of us understand as a virtue in Europe to-day,
-is merely a sort of sickly sensitiveness and irritability towards pain,
-an effeminate absence of control in the presence of suffering, which
-has nothing whatever to do with our powers of alleviating the misery
-we contemplate, and which is only compatible either with excessive
-sentimentality or with weak and overstrained nerves. In that case all
-it does is to add to the misery of this world, and to elevate to a
-virtue that which is perhaps one of the saddest signs of the times. It
-is then indiscriminate, rash, and short-sighted, and gives rise to more
-evil than it tries to dispel.</p>
-
-<p>"Ah, where in the world have there been greater follies than with the
-pitiful? And what in the world hath caused more suffering than the
-follies of the pitiful?</p>
-
-<p>"Woe unto all loving ones who have not an elevation which is above
-their pity!"<a name="FNanchor_10_50" id="FNanchor_10_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_50" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
-
-<p>The legislator or the leader (and it is to him, remember, that
-Nietzsche appeals), is often obliged to leave dozens to die by the
-wayside, and has to do so with a clean conscience. If the march he
-is organising requires certain sacrifices, he must be ready to make
-them; the slavish pity, then, which would sacrifice the greater to
-the less, must have been overcome by him in his own heart., and he
-must have learnt that hardness which is wider in its sympathies, more
-presbyopic in its love, and less immediate in its effect. But he alone
-can feel like this who has something to give to those he leads, <i>i.e.</i>
-his protection and guidance, his promise of a better land.</p>
-
-<p>"Myself I would sacrifice to my design, and my neighbour as well&mdash;such
-is the language of creators.</p>
-
-<p>"All creators, however, are hard."<a name="FNanchor_11_51" id="FNanchor_11_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_51" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
-
-<p>Now turning to the question of egoism <i>cru et vert</i>, which, according to
-some, is the very basis and core of Nietzscheism, what are the points
-which strike us most in Nietzsche's standpoint? To begin with, in this
-question, as in all others, his honesty is paramount, and we become
-conscious of it the moment we read his first line on the subject.
-Where Nietzsche discusses matters of which others are wont to speak
-with heaving breasts, florid language, and tearful voices, he takes
-particular pains to be clear, concise, calculating and cold&mdash;hence
-perhaps the hatred he has provoked in those who depend for their effect
-upon the impression of benevolence which their watery eyes, their
-cracked, good-natured voices, and their high-falutin' words make upon a
-multitude.</p>
-
-<p>Nietzsche puts his linger on the very centre of the question of egoism,
-he simply says: "Not every one has the right to be an egoist. Whereas
-in some egoism would be a virtue, in others it may be an insufferable
-vice which should be stamped out at all costs."</p>
-
-<p>In whom then is egoism a vice?</p>
-
-<p>Obviously in him who is physiologically botched, below mediocrity in
-spirit and body, mean, despicable, and even ugly.</p>
-
-<p>Egoism in such a man means concentrating certain interests, and not
-always the least valuable, upon the promotion and enhancement of
-an undesirable element in society. The egoism of him who is below
-mediocrity is a form of tyranny which leads to nothing, save, perhaps,
-a Heaven where the <i>haute volée</i> will consist of the whole scum and dross
-of humanity. Such egoism leads humanity downwards: it practically says:
-"I, the bungled and the botched, I the poor in spirit and body, I the
-mean, despicable and ugly, want my kind to be all-important, paramount
-and on the top&mdash;I the least desirable wish to prevail." But this
-egoism would mean humanity's ruin, it would mean humanity's suicide and
-annihilation: it would certainly mean humanity's degradation. When such
-egoism says: "I will have all," the only decent retort is deafness.
-When such egoism says: "I have as much right to live and flourish as
-the well-constituted, the superior in spirit and body, the beautiful
-and the happy," wisdom replies with a shrill of its shoulders. And when
-such egoism preaches altruism&mdash;then! Then woe to all those who are
-tempted to practise one virtue more! Woe to humanity! Woe to the whole
-world!</p>
-
-<p>There is, on the other hand, a form of egoism, which is both virtuous
-and noble. It is the egoism of him whose multiplication would make the
-world better, more desirable, happier, healthier, superior in spirit
-and body. Egoism in such a case is a moral duty; wherever, <i>in such a
-case</i>, giving, bestowing&mdash;altruism in fact&mdash;is not compatible with
-survival, then egoism becomes the highest principle of all, and it is
-in such circumstances that altruism may become a vice.</p>
-
-<p>Now let us hear Nietzsche's own words:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>"Selfishness," he says, "has as much value as the physiological value
-of him who possesses it: it may be very valuable or it may be vile
-and contemptible. Each individual may be looked at with respect to
-whether he represents an ascending or a descending line of life. When
-that is determined, we have a canon for determining the value of his
-selfishness. If he represent the ascent in the line of life, his value
-is in fact very great&mdash;and on account of the collective life which
-in him makes a further step, the concern about his maintenance, about
-providing his optimum of conditions, may even be extreme... If
-he represent descending development, decay, chronic degeneration, or
-sickening, he has little worth, and the greatest fairness would have
-him <i>take away</i> as little as possible from the well-constituted. He is
-then no more than their parasite."<a name="FNanchor_12_52" id="FNanchor_12_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_52" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
-
-<p>This is all clear enough; but it is quite conceivable that a
-misunderstanding of it might lead to the most perverted notions of what
-Nietzsche actually stood for, and when I hear people inveighing against
-the so-called egoism of his teaching, and declaring it poisonous on
-that account, I often wonder whether they have really made any attempt
-at all to comprehend the above passage, and whether there is not
-perhaps something wrong with language itself, that a thought which to
-some seems expressed so clearly and unmistakably, should still prove
-confusing and incomprehensible to others.</p>
-
-<p>Speaking once more to higher men, then, Nietzsche tells them, with
-some reason on his side, that altruism may be their greatest danger,
-that altruism may be even their greatest temptation, that there are
-times when they must avoid it as they would avoid a plague. In periods
-of gestation, when plans and dreams of plans for the elevation of
-themselves and their fellows are taking shape in their minds, altruism
-may lure them sideways, it may make them diverge from their path, and
-it may make mankind one great thought the poorer. In this sense, and
-in this sense alone, does our author deprecate the altruistic virtues;
-but, again, I venture to remind readers that it is the simplest thing
-on earth to awaken suspicion against him by declaring, as some have
-declared, that his deprecation of altruism applies to all.</p>
-
-<p>No greater nonsense could be talked about Nietzsche than to say that he
-preached universal egoism. Universal egoism as opposed to select egoism
-is behind all the noisiest movements to-day&mdash;it is behind Socialism,
-Democracy, Anarchy, and Nihilism&mdash;but it is not behind Nietzscheism,
-and nobody who reads him with care could ever think so.</p>
-
-<p>With these observations in mind, we can read the following passages
-from <i>Thus Spake Zarathustra</i> without either surprise or indignation;
-indeed we may even learn a new valuation from them which will alter our
-whole outlook on life, though no such sudden revulsion of feeling need
-necessarily follow a study of Nietzsche's doctrine. Only when we have
-given his thoughts time to become linked up and co-ordinated in our
-minds are we likely to find that our view of the world has become in
-the least decree transformed.</p>
-
-<p class="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*</p>
-
-<p>"Do I advise you to love your neighbour? leather do I advise you to
-flee from your neighbour and to love the most remote.</p>
-
-<p>"Higher than love to your neighbour is love unto the most remote future
-man.</p>
-
-<p>"It is the more remote (your children and your children's children) who
-pay for your love unto your neighbour.<a name="FNanchor_13_53" id="FNanchor_13_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_53" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
-
-<p>"Your children's land ye shall love (be this love your new nobility!),
-the land undiscovered in the remotest sea! For it I bid your sails seek
-and seek!</p>
-
-<p>"In your children ye shall make amends for being the children of your
-fathers: all the past shall ye thus redeem! This new table do I place
-over you!"<a name="FNanchor_14_54" id="FNanchor_14_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_54" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_41" id="Footnote_1_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_41"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Z., chap. lxi.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_2_42" id="Footnote_2_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_42"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Z., p. 299.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_3_43" id="Footnote_3_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_43"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Z., pp. 256, 257.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_4_44" id="Footnote_4_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_44"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> G. E., Aph. 188.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_5_45" id="Footnote_5_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_45"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Z., pp. 247, 248.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_6_46" id="Footnote_6_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_46"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> G. E., p. 223.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_7_47" id="Footnote_7_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_47"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Antichrist, Aph. 57.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_8_48" id="Footnote_8_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_48"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> "The big pine is more often shaken by the winds: the
-higher a tower, the heavier is the fall thereof, and it is the
-tops of the mountains that the lightning strikes."</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_9_49" id="Footnote_9_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_49"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>Antichrist</i>, Aph. 2.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_10_50" id="Footnote_10_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_50"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Z., pp. 104, 105.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_11_51" id="Footnote_11_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_51"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Z., p. 105.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_12_52" id="Footnote_12_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_52"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>The Twilight of the Idols</i>, Par. 10, Aph. 33.</p></div>
-
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_13_53" id="Footnote_13_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_53"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Z., pp. 69, 70.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_14_54" id="Footnote_14_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_54"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Z., p. 248.</p></div>
-
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<h4 class="smcap"><a name="SUMMARY_AND_CONCLUSION" id="SUMMARY_AND_CONCLUSION">SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION</a></h4>
-
-
-<p>When we have done rubbing our eyes and ears at the dazzling and
-startling novelty of all we have seen and heard, let us ask ourselves
-calmly and dispassionately what sort of man this is who has led us thus
-far into regions which, from their very unfamiliarity and exoticness,
-may have seemed to us both unpleasant and forbidding.</p>
-
-<p>This is no time for apologetics, or for pleading extenuating
-circumstances. Even if Nietzsche's doctrines have been presented in a
-form too undiluted to be inviting, it would scarcely mend matters, now,
-to beg pardon fur them; and I have no intention of doing anything of
-the sort. But these questions may be put without any fear of assuming
-a penitential attitude, and I do not hesitate to put them: Was the
-promise of Nietzsche's life fulfilled? Did the task he started out
-with, "the elevation of the type man," receive his best strength, his
-best endeavours, his sincerest application? However fundamentally
-we may disagree with his conclusions, were they reached by means of
-an upright attempt at grappling with the problems? To all of those
-questions there is but one answer, and that answer clears Nietzsche of
-all the slander and calumny to which he has been submitted for the last
-thirty years.</p>
-
-<p>However often we may think he has erred, it is nonsense any longer to
-speak of him as an anarchist, an advocate of brutality, a supporter of
-immorality in its worst modern sense, and a guardian saint of savage
-passions. If I have led any readers to suspect that he was all this, I
-can only entreat them to turn as soon as possible to the original works
-themselves, and there they will find that it was I who was wrong.</p>
-
-<p>Personally I believe, as Hippolyte Taine, Dr. George Brandes and Wagner
-believed, that Nietzsche's work is greater than his own or the next
-generation could ever suspect. Questions such as Art, the future of
-Science, and the future of Religion, which Nietzsche treats with his
-customary skill, I have been unable to find room for, in this work.
-But in each of these departments, I believe (and in this belief I am
-by no means alone) that Nietzsche's speculations may prove of the very
-highest value.</p>
-
-<p>Already in Biology there are signs that Nietzsche's conclusions are
-gaining ground. In Art, as I hope to able to show elsewhere, his
-doctrines are likely to effect a salutary revolution: while, in the
-departments of history, psychology, jurisprudence and metaphysics,
-specialists will doubtless arise who will attempt to make innovations
-under his leadership.</p>
-
-<p>For the present, though the outlook is brighter than it was,
-Nietzscheism&mdash;that is to say: free-spiritedness, intellectual bravery;
-the ability to stand alone when every one else has his arm linked in
-something; the courage to face unpleasant, fatal, and disconcerting
-truths,&mdash;has not much hope of very general acceptance, among those to
-whom it really ought to appeal. Calumny, which had a long start, has
-deafened many to the cause and will continue deafening a larger number
-still, until the truth is ultimately known. Yet it is to be hoped that
-readers may learn to be less satisfied than they have been heretofore
-with second-hand accounts of what Nietzsche stood for, and that very
-shortly everybody who is interested in the matter will be able to reply
-to the slanderer with facts culled from Nietzsche's life and works.</p>
-
-<p class="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*</p>
-
-<p>"Mine enemies have grown strong," says Zarathustra, "and I have
-disfigured the face of my teaching, so that my dearest friends have to
-blush for the gifts I gave them."<a name="FNanchor_1_55" id="FNanchor_1_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_55" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
-
-<p>"But like a wind I shall one day blow amidst them, and take away their
-breath with my spirit; thus my future willeth it.</p>
-
-<p>"Verily a strong wind is Zarathustra to all low lands; and his enemies
-and everything that spitteth and speweth he counselleth with such
-advice: Beware of spitting against the wind."<a name="FNanchor_2_56" id="FNanchor_2_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_56" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_55" id="Footnote_1_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_55"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Z., pp. 95, 96.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_2_56" id="Footnote_2_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_56"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Z., p. 116.</p></div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h4 class="smcap"><a name="Books_Useful_to_the_Student_of_Nietzsche" id="Books_Useful_to_the_Student_of_Nietzsche">Books Useful to the Student of Nietzsche</a></h4>
-
-<p class="smcap">Biographies:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p style="margin-left: 2em; ">
-<i>Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsche's</i>, by Mrs. Förster-Nietzsche.<br />
-<i>Erinnerungen an Friedrich Nietzsche</i>, by Deussen.<br />
-<i>Nietzsche, sein Leben und sein Werk</i>, by Raoul Richter.<br />
-</p>
-
-<p class="smcap" style="margin-top: 2em">Editions of works.</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The complete works of Friedrich Nietzsche. Edited by Dr.
-Oscar Levy. (The first complete and authorised English
-Translation.) T. N. Foulis, 21 Paternoster Square.</p>
-
-<p><i>Friedrich Nietzsche's Werke</i>. Library Edition 15
-vols.&mdash;&mdash;Pocket Edition (very good) 10 vols.
-</p></blockquote>
-
-
-
-<p class="smcap" style="margin-top: 2em">Monographs.</p>
-
-<p style="margin-left: 2em;">
-Bélart, <i>Nietzsche's Ethik.</i><br />
-------  <i>Nietzsche's Metaphysik.</i><br />
-------  <i>Nietzsche und Richard Wagner.</i><br />
-Brandes, G., <i>Menschen und Werke.</i><br />
-Common, Thos., <i>Nietzsche as Critic.</i><br />
-Fouillée, A., <i>Nietzsche et l'Immoralisme.</i><br />
-Gaultier, J., <i>De Kant à Nietzsche.</i><br />
-------  <i>Nietzsche et la Réforme philosophique.</i><br />
-Kennedy, J. M., <i>The Quintessence of Nietzsche.</i><br />
-Lichtenberger, H., <i>La Philosophie de Nietzsche.</i><br />
-Mügge, <i>Nietzsche His Life and Works.</i><br />
-Sera, Leo, <i>On the Tracks of Life.</i><br />
-Tienes, <i>Nietzsche's Stellung zu den Grundfragen der</i><br />
-<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Ethik genetisch dargestellt</i>.</span><br />
-Tille, A., <i>Von Darwin bis Nietzsche.</i><br />
-Zeitler, J., <i>Nietzsche's Æsthetik.</i><br />
-</p>
-
-
-
-<p class="p2"><span class="smcap">NIETZSCHE'S WORKS</span>: Authorised Version: edited by Dr. Oscar Levy.</p>
-
-<p style="margin-left: 2em;">
-<i>Thoughts out of Season</i>. 2 vols.<br />
-<i>The Birth of Tragedy</i>.<br />
-<i>Thus Spake Zarathustra</i>.<br />
-<i>Beyond Good and Evil</i>.<br />
-<i>The Future of our Educational Institutions</i>.<br />
-<i>Human, All too Human</i>. Vol. i.<br />
-<i>The Will to Power</i>. 2 vols.<br />
-<i>The Genealogy of Morals</i>.<br />
-<i>The Case against Wagner</i>.<br />
-<i>The Joyful Wisdom</i>.<br />
-<i>The Dawn of Day</i>.<br />
-</p>
-
-
-<h4>END OF THE LIFE AND WORKS OF NIETZSCHE</h4>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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