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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6bc1f07 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #53094 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53094) diff --git a/old/53094-0.txt b/old/53094-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 55ac0f0..0000000 --- a/old/53094-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6042 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Outline of the history of the English -language and literature, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Outline of the history of the English language and literature - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: September 19, 2016 [EBook #53094] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTLINE HISTORY ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif and The Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet -Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY - - OF - - THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE - - AND - - LITERATURE - - [Illustration] - - W. & R. CHAMBERS - LONDON AND EDINBURGH - 1882 - - Edinburgh: - Printed by W. & R. Chambers. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The object of this book, as indicated in the title, is to give an -outline of the History of the English Language and Literature. - -It aims, however, at being something more than a mere statement of -facts. It is intended to excite an interest in English philology, and in -the leading authors that from the time of Cædmon have used the English -tongue. - -It is therefore to be regarded as an introduction to English philology -and literature; and is adapted for use in the advanced classes of -elementary schools, in secondary schools, and for pupil teachers, as -well as for private students. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -_LANGUAGE._ - -CHAPTER I. - -=HISTORY OF THE VOCABULARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.= - - PAGE - -1. What a Language is 7 - -2. The English Language 7 - -3. Family 8 - -4. Teutons 8 - -5. High-German 9 - -6. Low-German 9 - -7. Scandinavian 10 - -8. The chief Teutonic Languages 10 - -9. Where the English came from 11 - -10. The Periods of English 12 - -11. Anglo-Saxon 12 - -12. Early English 13 - -13. Middle English 13 - -14. Modern English 13 - -15. English Words in English Language 14 - -16. Changes in English 15 - -17. Loss and Gain 16 - -18. Foreign Elements in English 16 - -19. Welsh 17 - -20. Keltic Element 18 - -21. Latin Element of First Period (i) 18 - -22. “ “ (ii) 19 - -23. Latin Element of Second Period (i) 20 - -24. “ “ (ii) 20 - -25. Scandinavian Element (i) 21 - -26. “ “ (ii) 22 - -27. “ “ (iii) 22 - -28. Latin Element of Third Period (i) 23 - -29. “ “ (ii) 24 - -30. “ “ (iii) 24 - -31. “ “ (iv) 25 - -32. “ “ (v) 25 - -33. “ “ (vi) 26 - -34. Synonyms from Norman-French 26 - -35. Bilingualism 27 - -36. Doublets 28 - -37. Doublets 28 - -38. Pronunciation 28 - -39. Latin of Fourth Period 29 - -40. Mouth Latin and Book Latin 30 - -41. Greek Doublets 32 - -42. English and French Words in Sentences 33 - -43. English Words Lost 33 - - -CHAPTER II. - -=HISTORY OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH.= - -1. An Inflected Language 34 - -2. Grammar of Nouns 35 - -3. Grammar of Adjectives 35 - -4. Grammar of Definite Article 35 - -5. Grammar of Personal Pronoun 36 - -6. Grammar of Verbs 36 - -7. Fragments of Noun Inflections 36 - -8. “ Adjective Inflections 37 - -9. “ Pronoun Inflections 37 - -10. “ Verb Inflections 37 - -11. “ Inflections in Adverbs 38 - -12. “ Inflections in Prepositions 39 - - -CHAPTER III. - -=CHANGES IN MODERN ENGLISH.= - -1. Formation of Modern English 39 - -2. Continued History 39 - -3. Spanish and Italian 40 - -4. Dutch Words 41 - -5. Latin and Teutonic Element 41 - -6. Influences affecting our Language at the present time 42 - -CHAPTER IV. - -1. Words adopted from Foreign Languages 43 - -2. Chief Dates in the History of the English Language 45 - - -CHAPTER V. - -=NOTES ON THE GROWTH OF ENGLISH WORDS.= - -1. Roots; Influence of Imitation on Language 46 - -2. Hybrids 46 - -3. Words disguised in Form or in -Meaning 48 - -4. Words that have changed their Meaning 53 - -5. Words from the Names of Persons 54 - -6. Words from Names of Places 55 - -7. English (or Teutonic) Roots 56 - -8. Latin Roots 57 - -9. Greek Roots 63 - -10. Branching of Words from Latin Stems 65 - -11. Branching of Words from English Stems 69 - - -CHAPTER VI. - -=PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.= - -PREFIXES. - -1. English (or Teutonic) 70 - -2. Latin 71 - -3. Greek 72 - -SUFFIXES. - -4. English (or Teutonic) 72 - -5. Latin 74 - -6. Greek 75 - - -_LITERATURE._ - -=I. OUTLINE OF OUR EARLY LITERATURE.= - - PAGE - -1. The _Beowulf_ 76 - -2. Cædmon 76 - -3. Bæda 77 - -4. King Alfred 77 - -5. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 78 - -6. Archbishop Ælfric 78 - -7. Anglo-Saxon Gospels 78 - -8. Old English Dialects 79 - -9. First English Book after Norman Conquest 80 - -10. Orm’s _Ormulum_ 80 - -11. Langland and Chaucer 81 - -12. Alliteration or Head-Rhyme 82 - -13. John Gower 83 - -14. John Barbour 83 - -15. Sir John Mandeville 83 - -16. John Wicliffe 84 - -17. Our English Bible and its History 85 - - -=II. TABULAR OUTLINE OF MODERN ENGLISH LITERATURE= 87 - - - - -[Illustration] - -THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -=History of its Vocabulary.= - - -1. =WHAT A LANGUAGE IS.=--A language is a number of different sounds which -are made by the =tongue= and the other organs of speech. But a spoken -language is, or may be, written or printed upon paper by the aid of a -number of =signs= or =symbols=--which are generally printed in black ink -upon white paper.--The parts of a spoken language are called =sounds=; the -smallest parts of a written or printed language are called =letters=.--A -language is also called a _tongue_ or a _speech_.--A language, like a -living being, does not remain always the same. It _grows_. As it grows, -it alters in appearance; small and great changes take place in it; and -the story of these changes is called the _History of the Language_. - -2. =THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE= is the name given to the language which is -spoken in Great Britain and Ireland, in the United States, in Canada, in -Australia and New Zealand, in South Africa, and in many other parts of -the world where Englishmen, Scotchmen, and Irishmen are found. In the -middle of the =fifth century= it was spoken by a few thousand men who -came over to Britain from the north-west of Europe, and by many -thousands of men and women who dwelt on the banks of the lower parts of -the great German rivers--the Rhine, the Elbe, and the Weser. It is now -spoken by more than 100 millions of people. But the English spoken in -the fifth century was a very different language from the English that is -spoken now. It was different, yet still the same. It was different in -appearance, as a child of one year old is different in looks from a man -of forty; but both the English of to-day and the English of the fifth -century are the same--because the one has grown out of the other, just -as the tall strong man of forty has grown out of the child of one year -old. - -3. =FAMILY.=--To what family of languages does our English speech belong? -It belongs to the =Indo-European family= of languages. This family is so -called, because the languages which belong to it are spoken both in -India and in Europe. Many thousand years ago, the people from whom we -are descended lived on the high table-lands in the heart of Asia. Bands -of them kept travelling always farther and farther west; and it is from -their language that most of the tongues spoken in Europe are derived. -These bands left their friends and relations and country, just as young -men and women nowadays leave the homes of their parents to go and settle -in distant countries. The Indo-European is also called the Aryan family -of languages. Altogether, it embraces seven great languages--(1) The -Indian or Sanskrit; (2) Persic; (3) Greek; (4) Latin; (5) Keltic; (6) -Teutonic; and (7) Slavonic, which includes Russian, Polish, &c. - -4. =TEUTONS.=--The English language was introduced into this country by -bands of warlike colonists from Northwestern Germany, who drove the old -inhabitants to the mountainous regions in the west of the island. Those -colonists were variously called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes; but they all -belonged to the Teutonic race, and their speech was a branch of the -Teutonic group of languages. The Teutonic group of languages contains -three main sections, from which all the others spring. These three main -sections are: =High-German=, =Low-German=, and =Scandinavian=. High-German is -the name given to the kind of German which is spoken on the higher lands -or table-lands of South Germany--those table-lands which slope from the -Central Plain of Europe up to the Alps; and its northern boundary is the -pretty river _Main_, which falls into the Rhine. Low-German is the name -given to the kind of German spoken in the lowlands of Germany; and the -southern boundary of this kind of speech is the river Main--its northern -boundary being the Baltic and the North Sea. Scandinavian is the wide -general name given to those kinds of Teutonic speech which are found in -Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland. These divisions may be placed in a -table in the following manner: - - TEUTONIC. - | - +---------------------+---------------------------+ - | | | - =High-German.= =Low-German.= =Scandinavian.= - | | | - +------+-----+ +-----+--+--+------+ +--------+--+---+-------+ - | | | | | | | | | | | -Old. Middle. New. Dutch. | Frisian. | Icelandic. | Norwegian. | - Flemish. English. Danish. Swedish. - -5. =HIGH-GERMAN.=--High-German is spoken in the southern parts of -Germany--such as Bavaria, Swabia, and other hilly regions; and also in -the north and east of Switzerland.--It is this form of the language that -has become the book-speech or literary language of the Germans; and its -technical name is =New High-German=. - -6. =LOW-GERMAN.=--The languages which belong to this division are spoken -in the plains of Germany, especially along the lower courses of the -rivers, in Holland, in part of Belgium, in England, Scotland, and -Ireland, and the British Colonies, and in the United States of North -America. The Low-German spoken in Holland is called _Dutch_; the -Low-German spoken in Belgium is called _Flemish_; the Low-German spoken -in Friesland--a wealthy province of Holland--is called _Frisian_; and -the Low-German spoken in England is called _English_. (But, as we shall -soon see, English contains many thousands of words in addition to those -which are purely Low-German.) The language on the continent which is -most like English is the Frisian language. There is indeed a well-known -couplet, every word in which is said to be both Frisian and English. It -runs thus: - - Good butter and good cheese - Is good English and good Fries. - -The following are the chief subdivisions of - - LOW-GERMAN. - | - +------------------+--------+-------+------------------+ - | | | | - =Dutch= =Flemish= =Frisian= =English= -(Spoken in Holland). (in Flanders). (in Friesland). (in England, etc.). - -7. =SCANDINAVIAN.=--Scandinavian is the general name given to the -different kinds of Teutonic speech which are employed in Denmark, -Norway, Sweden, and Iceland. The oldest and purest kind of Scandinavian -speech is that spoken in the far-off country in the middle of the North -Atlantic, called Iceland; and it is the purest, because for many -centuries there has been very little communication with that country. -Indeed, the Icelandic of the 12th century differs very little from the -Icelandic of to-day. But the English of the twelfth century differs so -much from the English of the nineteenth century, that we should at first -sight hardly know them for the same speech.--One peculiar mark of a -Scandinavian speech is the preference for hard consonants--the -preference, for example, of a _k_ over a _ch_ or _sh_. Thus the Danes -say _Dansk_ for _Danish_; and it is Danish influence that has given to -Scotchmen and to the north of England the form _kirk_ instead of -_church_. - -8. =THE THREE CHIEF TEUTONIC LANGUAGES.=--The three most important -languages belonging to the great Teutonic stock are =English=, =Dutch=, and -=German=. If we look at the words used in these languages, we shall at -once see that they are sister-languages. If we look at the way in which -their words are changed--or at their inflections--we shall also see -that they are very closely related. Thus the commonest words appear in -these three languages in the following shape: - - =English= Three. Mother. Brother. Have (inf.). - =Dutch= Drie. Moeder. Broeder. Hebben. - =German= Drei. Mutter.[1] Bruder.[2] Haben. - -Again, the inflections of these three languages are very similar--are in -fact, different shapes of the same changes. Thus the possessive case of -nouns in all three languages ends in =s= or =es=[3] or =’s=. The second person -singular of verbs in all three ends in _st_; and the ending of the past -participle in all three is generally _en_. We know, then, both from -history and from a comparison of the actual facts in the present state -of the languages, that all three are sister-tongues. - -9. =WHERE THE ENGLISH CAME FROM.=--Those Teutons who brought over the -English tongue to this island, came from the north-west of Europe--most -of them from that part of the German coast which lies between the river -Elbe and the river Weser. The kind of Low-German spoken by them is much -the same as that still spoken in the lowlands of Hanover, Holstein, and -Schleswig. There is in Holstein--upon the west coast--a small district -which is called =Angeln=--that is, _England_--to this day. The Teutons who -came over to Britain belonged to three tribes. They were =Jutes= and -=Angles= and =Saxons=. The Jutes came from Jutland.[4] The Angles came from -Schleswig and Holstein. The Saxons came from Hanover and the land to the -west of it. The Jutes settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight. The Saxons -settled in Essex (or East Sex), Wessex[5] (or West Sex), Sussex (or -South Sex), and Middlesex; and the ending _sex_ is an indication of the -fact. The Angles settled chiefly in the north and east. One of the -kingdoms founded by them was called East Anglia; and the northern and -southern settlers in it gave their names to the two counties of Norfolk -and Suffolk, which are only later forms of the words _North folk_ and -_South folk_. These three tribes all spoke different dialects of the -same speech. The early predominance of the Angles, especially as the -Angles in Northumbria were the first to have a literature, gave to the -language the name of _English_, though the Keltic people still call it -_Saxon_ or _Sassenach_. The country also in time acquired, from the same -cause, the name of _Engla-land_, or the _land of the English_. The first -landing of Teutons took place in the year 449; and for about a hundred -years afterwards, bands of strong young warriors and colonists continued -to arrive at short intervals. - -10. =THE PERIODS OF ENGLISH.=--The language brought over to Britain by -these three tribes has grown very much since the fifth century. It has -been growing for fourteen hundred years. It has therefore altered very -much in every way; its appearance has changed; and we have to learn the -English of the fifth, or the eighth, or the eleventh century, almost as -if it were a foreign language. There are four chief periods in the -history of the English language. These are: - - I. Old English, commonly called Anglo-Saxon 450-1100 - II. Early English 1100-1250 - III. Middle English 1250-1485 - IV. Modern English 1485-1882 - -But it must not be forgotten that there is no hard and fast line between -one period and another. A living language, like a living body, is always -changing. It takes on new additions of new matter; it loses the old. -With these new additions, its form also changes. We are rarely sensible -of these changes; but they are going on all the time for all that. - -11. =THE OLDEST ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON, 450-1100.=--This form of the -English language contained a very large number of inflections. The -definite article was inflected for gender, number, and case; nouns and -adjectives were highly inflected; and the verb had a very much larger -number of inflections than it has now. The words of the English -vocabulary during this period were almost entirely English; a few Latin -and Greek words--brought in chiefly by the church--and a few Keltic -words, had found their way into the English vocabulary. The rhyme used -in poetry was not end-rhyme, as at the present date, but head-rhyme or -alliteration--as we find it in the well-known line from Pope: - - Apt alliteration’s artful aid. - -To this period belong the writings of the poet Cædmon and of King -Alfred. - -12. =EARLY ENGLISH, 1100-1250.=--The Normans had seized all power in the -state and in the church, and had held it since the year 1066. During the -early part of this period, English was not written, had ceased to be -employed in books; and French words began to creep in even among the -spoken words of the English people. The inflections of words began to -drop off, or to be carelessly used, and then to be mixed up and confused -with each other. One of the chief writers of this period is a priest -called =Layamon=, who wrote a poem called the _Brut_ (_Brutus_), which -gave some account of the beginnings of the English people, who were -believed to be descended from Brutus, the fabled son of Æneas of Troy. - -13. =MIDDLE ENGLISH, 1250-1485.=--Nouns and adjectives during this period -lost almost all their inflections. The inflections of verbs were very -much altered and greatly simplified.--In the year 1349, boys in school -were allowed to cease translating their Latin into French, and began to -translate it into English. In the year 1362 Edward III. passed an act of -parliament ordering the use of English in the pleadings of cases in all -courts of law, instead of Norman-French, which had hitherto been -employed. To the first half of this period belong such works as the -_Metrical Chronicle_ and the _Lives of the Saints_, supposed to have -been written and translated by Robert of Gloucester; to the second half -belong the works of the great poet Chaucer, of William Langland, and of -the reformer Wicliffe. - -14. =MODERN ENGLISH, 1485-1882.=--The year 1485 marks the accession of -the House of Tudor to the throne, in the person of Henry VII. By this -time almost all inflections had disappeared from our language. Many -hundreds of French words had come into the language. From the time of -the Revival of Letters[6]--which may be said to have begun in the -sixteenth century--several thousands of Latin words were poured into the -English vocabulary. The period which lies between 1485 and 1603--the -year in which James I. came to the throne--is sometimes called the -period of =Tudor English=. Its greatest verse-writer is Shakspeare; its -greatest prose-writer is Hooker, who wrote _The Laws of Ecclesiastical -Polity_. - -15. =ENGLISH WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.=--The English language has for -centuries been importing words from many foreign tongues into its own -vocabulary; and it has given a hearty welcome to all kinds of strangers. -So much is this the case, and so far has this habit of taking in -strangers gone, that we can now quite accurately say: _Most of the words -in our English language are not English._ There are more Latin words in -our tongue than there are English. But this statement is true only of -our words as we find them _in the dictionary_. The words which we use -every day--the language _of the mouth_--is almost entirely English. The -_fixed vocabulary_--the vocabulary printed in the dictionary--is more -Latin than English; the _moving vocabulary_--the words which are daily -spoken--is English. Thus, if we take a passage in our translation of the -Four Gospels, we shall find from 90 to 96 per cent. of the words used -are English--and pure English. In the _Prologue_ which Chaucer wrote to -his famous set of poems called _The Canterbury Tales_, 88 per cent. of -the words are English; while, in Mrs Browning’s _Cry of the Children_, -the English words rise to the large proportion of 92 per cent. - -The following is a list of a few more percentages of purely English -words in the writings of well-known authors: - - Spenser (_Faerie Queene_, ii. 7) 86 per cent. - Shakspeare (_Henry IV., Part I._, Act ii) 91 “ - Milton (_Paradise Lost_, Book VI.) 80 “ - Swift (_John Bull_) 85 “ - Johnson (Preface to _Dictionary_) 72 “ - Gibbon (_Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, - I., cap. vii.) 70 “ - Macaulay (_Essay on Lord Bacon_) 75 “ - Tennyson (_In Memoriam_, first twenty poems) 89 “ - -16. =CHANGES IN ENGLISH.=--Let us take a passage from the Saxon -translation of the Old Testament--and it is the oldest English version -we have--and notice what differences there are between this English and -the English of the present day. This translation was made by Abbot -Ælfric, who lived and wrote late in the tenth century. He translated -into English the five books of Moses--commonly called the -Pentateuch--Joshua, Judges, and part of the book of Job. Let us see how -he writes (Genesis, ix. 1): - - God blet[~t]sode God blessed - Noe and his suna Noah and his sons - and cväd hem tô: and quoth to them: - Veahxađ Wax (ye) - and beođ gemenigfilde and be manifolded - and âfyllađ and fill - þâ eorđan! the earth! - -Now every word in the above verse is modern English; but every word has -been changed--with the exception of _God_, _his_, and _and_. All the -other words have changed enormously in the course of the eight centuries -since the verse was written. The words have changed; and the grammar has -changed. The word _bletsian_ has become _bless_. The grammar of the -verbs has changed enormously. For example, the imperative ending _ath_ -in _Veahxath_ and _âfyllath_ has quite fallen away. It existed, in the -form of _eth_, down to the time of Chaucer, who writes _Standeth up!_ in -addressing several persons.--Next, we ought to notice that _all_ the -words are pure English. The modern version which we still use, and -which was published in 1611, has been obliged to use Latin and French -words. It says--and the words in italics are all foreign words: ‘Be -_fruitful_, and _multiply_ and _replenish_ the earth’! That is, it -employs three Latin words in the most important parts of the sentence. - -17. =LOSS AND GAIN.=--But, while the English language has, in the course -of centuries, lost almost all its inflections, it has been all that time -gaining new words, and at the same time gaining new powers of -expression. In fact, the history of our language is a history of both -loss and gain. It has lost _inflections_ and gained new _words_. An -inflected language is generally called a =Synthetic Language=, because it -expresses changes of relations by the _adding-on_ (_synthesis_) of -something to the end of the word. A language which expresses relations -by little words like prepositions is called an =analytic language=. We may -therefore say that: - - =English was in its earlier forms a synthetic language; but it is - now an analytic language.= - -So much for the form or grammar of it. But, on the other hand, if we -look at the matter or words or vocabulary of it, we shall find that: - - =English was originally a pure or unmixed language; but is now an - extremely composite one.= - -18. =THE FOREIGN ELEMENTS IN ENGLISH.=--These have come into our language -chiefly because the English people have come so much into contact with -other peoples and tribes and nations. They came over to this island in -the fifth century, and found Kelts here; and from them they took some -Keltic words. About the end of the eighth century, the Danes came to -them; and a number of Danish words entered the language. Then another -set of Danes or Scandinavians--called Normans--came to them, conquered -them, and gave them many hundred Norman-French words. Then, with the -Revival of Letters, many scholars came over here, taught the English -people to read Greek and Latin books; and these books gave the language -several thousand words. Then the English people have always been the -greatest travellers in the world. They have gone to China and brought -home Chinese words (as well as things); they have long held India, which -has given us Hindu words; they have imported names and terms from North -and from South and Central America; they have borrowed from Spaniards -and Italians; they have taken words, nearer home, from the Dutch and -from the Germans; they have gone to the farthest east and to the -farthest west, and there is hardly a language on the face of the globe -from which they have not imported some words that live and make -themselves useful in our language. - -19. =WELSH.=--When the English settled in this island, they found a people -who were called Britons, and who spoke a language called =British= or -=Kymric=. It is a language very different from English; and at first the -English warriors and the British people did not understand one single -word of what each other said. The Old English word for _foreigners_ was -_Wealhas_--or, as we call it now, _Welsh_; and the English fighting men -who came over called the British people, not by the name which they -themselves used, but simply the _foreigners_--the _Welsh_. In the same -way, a German to this day calls an Italian or a Frenchman a _Welshman_; -and he calls France or Italy _Welshland_. The language spoken by the -Welsh belongs to the =Keltic group= of languages. This group contains also -=Erse=, which is spoken in the west of Ireland; =Manx=, which is spoken in -the Isle of Man; =Gaelic=, which is spoken in the Highlands of Scotland; -and =Breton=, which is spoken in Brittany--a mountainous and rugged -peninsula in the north-west of France. It at one time embraced also -=Cornish=--the language spoken in Cornwall, which was also called _West -Wales_. But that language died out in 1778; and it is not now spoken by -any one. The following is a table of the Keltic group: - - KELTIC. - | - +-----------------+----------------+ - | | - GADHELIC. KYMRIC. - | | - +--------+----------+ +-----------+----------+ - | | | | | | -=Erse.= =Gaelic.= =Manx.= =‘Welsh.’= =Breton.= =Cornish.= - (dead) - -20. =THE KELTIC ELEMENT.=--The words given to the English language by the -Kelts are of two kinds: - - (i) Names of mountains, rivers, lakes, and other natural features; - - (ii) Names of common things, which the English picked up in their - daily intercourse with the British or Welsh. - -(i) The Keltic name for a mountain is _Pen_--a word which we find in -_Pennine_ and _Apennine_. The Gaelic or Scotch Keltic form of the word -is _Ben_. Thus we have _Ben More_--which means the _Big Mountain_--_Ben -Nevis_, and many others. The commonest Keltic word for a river is -_Avon_. There are fourteen Avons in Great Britain. _Esk_ is another -common Keltic name for a river; and there are eight _Esks_ in Scotland -alone. In England the name takes the form of _Ex_ or _Exe_ (the -consonants having changed places, _Ex_ = _Eks_). The name appears as -_Ex_ in _Exeter_ (the old form was _Exanceaster_)--that is, _the camp on -the Ex_; as _Ax_ in _Axminster_; as _Ox_ in _Oxford_; as _Ux_ in -_Uxbridge_; as _Usk_, in Wales; and even as _Ouse_, in Yorkshire and -other counties.--_Aber_ is a Keltic word which means _the mouth of a -river_; and we find it in _Aberdeen_ (the town at the mouth of the Dee); -_Arbroath_, which is = _Aberbrothock_; _Aberystwith_; _Berwick_--the old -form of which was _Aberwick_. _Berwick_ accordingly means the _wick_ or -town at the mouth of the Tweed. _Car_ or _Caer_ is the Keltic word for -_castle_ or _stronghold_; and we find this name in _Carlisle_, -_Cardiff_, _Caernarvon_, and others. - -(ii) The names of common things which we have received from the Kelts -are--_basket_, _bran_, _cradle_, _crockery_, _clout_, _cuts_ (= _lots_), -_darn_. Such words as _button_, _ribbon_, _barrel_, _car_, and _cart_, -are also Keltic, but have come into the English language through the -Norman-French, who received them from the descendants of the ancient -Gauls. Some Keltic words have come to us from Scotland--such as _pony_, -_clan_, _whisky_, _claymore_ (a kind of sword), _pibroch_, and _plaid_; -and it is chiefly to Sir Walter Scott’s writings that we owe the common -use of these words. Ireland has also sent us a few Keltic words, such as -_Tory_, _brogue_, and _shamrock_. - -21. =THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE FIRST PERIOD= (i).--The Roman power, as is -generally known, was settled in Britain from the year 43 till the year -410. In the beginning of the year 410, the very existence of the Roman -Empire was threatened by the Goths and other warlike peoples; and the -Roman forces were withdrawn to defend the very heart of the empire. The -Romans, though conquerors, were true benefactors. They gave the Britons -good laws; cut roads for them through the island; established camps; -built forts and strongholds; dug harbours or ports; and planted military -settlements--which they called _colonies_--here and there among the -conquered people. When the Romans went away, they left these important -benefits behind them; and, with the things themselves, the words also -remained. But they left only six words behind them, and all of these -have combined themselves, or gone into composition, with words that are -purely English. The following are the six words: =Castra=, a _camp_; -=Strata= (_via_), a _paved road_; =Vallum=, a _rampart_; =Fossa=, a _ditch_; -=Colonia=, a _settlement_; and =Portus=, a _harbour_. - -22. =THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE FIRST PERIOD= (ii).--(_a_) The Latin word -=Castra= has become _chester_, _caster_, _cester_, and even _ter_ (in -_Exeter_). We generally find it in the form of _chester_ in the south -and west; _cester_ in the middle; and _caster_ in the north and east of -England. Thus we have Chester, Manchester, and Winchester in the west -and south; Leicester and Towcester in mid-England; and Tadcaster, -Doncaster, and Lancaster in the north. - -(_b_) =Strata.=--The Romans drove a strongly-built military road from the -south-east to the north-west of the island--from =Richborough=, near -Dover, up to the standing camp on the river Dee, which is now called -=Chester=. This was _the_ =Strata= or =Street=. It was afterwards carried -farther north, and even into Scotland. It went right over the crest of a -hill in Westmoreland, which is called =High Street= to this day. We can -trace the path of this great military road by the names of the towns and -villages that are strung upon it. Thus there are =Streat=ham (near -London), =Stret=ton, =Strat=ford-on-Avon, Stony =Strat=ford, =Stret=ford (near -Manchester), =Strad=broke, and many others. - -(_c_) =Vallum= is found in _wall_. - -(_d_) =Fossa= is found in the names _Fossway_, _Fosbrooke_, _Fosbridge_, -and others. - -(_e_) =Colonia= is found in _Colne_, _Colchester_, _Lincoln_, and others. - -(_f_) =Portus= appears in _Portsmouth_, _Portsea_, _Bridport_, and some -other names. - -23. =THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE SECOND PERIOD= (i).--This element was not -introduced by the Romans themselves, but by Christian missionaries who -came from Rome, sent by Pope Gregory the Great to convert, not the -Britons, but the English, to Christianity. A band of forty monks, with -St Augustine at their head, landed in Kent in the year 597. For four -centuries from this date a large number of Latin words came into the -English language, chiefly words relating to the church and church -observances. - -=Church Terms.=--_Calic_, from _calix_, a cup; _cluster_, from -_claustrum_, a closed place; _priest_, from _presbyter_, an elder; -_sanct_, from _sanctus_, a holy man; _sacrament_, from _sacramentum_, a -sacred oath; _predician_, from _prædicare_, to declare; _regul_, from -_regula_, a straight piece of wood. But the old form of most of these -words has disappeared, to make room for Norman-French forms from the -same Latin source. Along with these were adopted a few Greek words--such -as _bishop_, from _episkopos_, an overseer; _angel_, from _anggelos_, a -messenger; _apostle_, from _apostolos_, a person sent; _monk_, from -_monăchos_,[7] a person who lives alone; and a few others. - -24. =THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE SECOND PERIOD= (ii).--The introduction of -Christianity proved to be the beginning of an intercourse with Rome, -Italys, and the Continent; and this intercourse brought with it -commerce. Commerce imported many new things; and the names of these -things came into the island along with the things themselves. Thus we -have _butter_ from _butŷrum_; _cheese_ from _caseus_; and _tunic_ from -_tunica_. We have also _fig_ from _ficus_; _pear_ from _pirum_; -_lettuce_ from _lactuca_, which itself comes from _lac_--milk (and hence -means _the milky plant_); and _pease_ from _pisum_. (_Pease_ is really -the singular; and _pea_ is a false singular--not a plural.) We have also -from the same source some names of animals. Such are _camel_ from -_camēlus_; _lion_ from _leo_; _oyster_ from _ostrea_; _trout_ from -_trutta_. A few miscellaneous words have also come to us from this -quarter--such as _pound_ from the Latin _pondus_, a weight; _candle_ -from _candēla_; and _table_ from _tabŭla_. The Latin word _uncia_, which -means the twelfth part of anything, is, as it were, split up into -two--and gives the two words _inch_ and _ounce_, which are fundamentally -but two forms of one word. (But with regard to this class of words also -it should be observed that the words directly introduced from the Latin -have either been greatly changed in form; or they have been subsequently -borrowed again from the French.) - -25. =THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENT= (i).--In the year 787, the Northmen, -Norsemen, or Normans of Scandinavia, began to make descents on the east -coast of England. These attacks were so dreaded by the English that -prayers were regularly used in the churches against them; and a part of -the Litany of the time contained the utterance: ‘From the incursions of -the Normans, good Lord, deliver us!’ These attacks went on for three -centuries. In the ninth century, these Danes obtained a permanent -footing in the northern and eastern parts of England; and by the -eleventh century they had become so strong that Danish kings sat upon -the throne of England from 1016 to 1042. These Norsemen were Teutons. -They were Teutons who had migrated to the north. As northern people -generally do, they preferred hard sounds to aspirates. They preferred a -_k_ to a _ch_; a _p_ to an _f_. The probable reason is that, in the cold -mists of the north, they had learned not to open too much their mouths -and throats; and thus they formed the habit of using a shut sound like -_k_ to a sound like _ch_ (in _loch_), which requires a stream of air to -be passed through the throat. We must not forget that it was the -_spoken_ language of England that was affected by the Danes; not the -_written_ language; for the simple reason that, in these times, not more -than one man in a thousand--either among Danes or Englishmen--could read -and write. - -26. =THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENT= (ii).--The Danish contribution is, like the -Keltic, of two kinds: (_a_) Names of places; and (_b_) Common words. - -(_a_) The most remarkable example of the place-name is the noun _by_, -which means _town_. There are in England more than six hundred names -ending in _by_. Almost all of these lie to the north and east of Watling -Street; to the south of it, there is scarcely one. Thus we have -_Whitby_, the _White Town_; _Tenby_, in Wales, _Dane’s town_; and -_Grimsby_, _the town of Grim_. We find the word _by_ also in the -compound _by-law_. The following words are also derived from the Danes: - - =Thorpe=, a village Althorpe (old); Bishopsthorpe; - (_Drup_ in Jutland, where Burnham-Thorpe (where Nelson - there are scores of was born). - towns with this ending.) - =Fell=, a hill or table-land Scawfell, Crossfell, Goat Fell. - =Dale=, a valley Ribblesdale, Grimsdale. - =Thwaite=, a forest clearing Applethwaite. - =Toft=, a homestead Lowestoft (the form in Normandy is _tôt_). - =Wick=, a creek or bay Ipswich, Greenwich, Berwick. (Viking = - a creeker.) - =Oe= or =ea=, an island Faroe, Chelsea (= _chesel ea_, the shingle - island). - =Ness=, a nose or cape Sheerness, Caithness, Fife Ness; the - Naze (in Essex, etc.). - -(_b_) To the Norsemen we also owe the words _are_, which pushed out the -pure English _syndon_; _talk_; _tarn_; _busk_ (dress); _sky_; -_hustings_; _fellow_; _odd_; _blunt_; _kid_; and many more. - -27. =THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENT= (iii).--One result of this mixture of Danes -with Englishmen was that both, in trying to speak the language or to use -the words of each other, would naturally take firm hold of the _root_ of -the word, and allow the inflections to take care of themselves. Hence -English words would lose their inflections; and this process, after it -had once begun, would go on at an increased speed, the greater became -the communication at church and at market between the English and the -Danes. The same process is now going on in the United States. Thousands -upon thousands of Germans have settled there among an English-speaking -people. These Germans are rapidly falling into the habit of using their -German words without inflections at all. - -28. =LATIN ELEMENT OF THE THIRD PERIOD= (i).--This element is really -Norman-French. French is Latin, with many of the inflections lost or -changed, and with the pronunciation of the vowel-sounds enormously -altered. But it did not come from the written Latin of books; but from -the spoken Latin of soldiers and country-people (the _lingua Romana -rustica_). Norman-French is the French spoken by the Normans, who lost -their own Norsk or Danish speech, and learned French from their French -wives and children. In the year 912, the Normans, under Duke Rolf or -Rollo, wrested from King Charles the Simple the beautiful valley of the -Seine, which was afterwards called by the name of Normandy. -Norman-French was a dialect of French, and it differed in many respects -from the French spoken in the other parts of France. This Norman-French -was introduced into England as a court language by Edward the Confessor, -in the year 1042; but it was brought into this country as a folk-speech -by bands of Norman-French under the leadership of Duke William, the -seventh Duke of Normandy, in the famous year 1066. This Norman-French, -which they brought with them, became in England the language of the -ruling classes, of the court, of the lawyers, and of all priests high in -the ranks of the church. Books ceased to be written in English; boys -translated their Latin into French; an English churl had to employ a -lawyer who used only French in his law-papers and his pleadings; and -even ‘uplandish’ or country people tried ‘to speak Frensch, for to be -more ytold of.’ The saturation of English with French words probably -reached its highest point at the end of the fourteenth century; and -about that time a reaction set in. As has been before pointed out, in -1349, boys were allowed to translate their Latin into English; in 1362, -Edward III. passed an act of parliament to authorise the use of English -in courts of law; and even the Normans who lived in London had begun to -use English in their families. But, by the time French had ceased to be -the language of the upper classes, several thousand French words had -found their way into our vocabulary, which had become to a large extent -_bilingual_.[8] - -29. =NORMAN-FRENCH= (ii).--The words which have been introduced into our -pure English speech from the Normans fall easily into classes. - - (_a_) =Feudalism[9] and War.=--Armour, chivalry, captain, battle, - duke, fealty, realm. - -The English word for _armour_ was _harness_; and Macaulay uses _harness_ -in this sense in one of his _Lays_: - - Now while the three were tightening - Their harness on their backs. - ---_Chivalry_ comes from the Fr. _cheval_, which is a broken-down form of -the Low Latin word _caballus_, a horse.--_Captain_ comes from the Lat. -_caput_, a head.--_Battle_ comes from the Fr. _battre_, to beat.--_Duke_ -comes from the Fr. _duc_--which comes from the Lat. _dux_ (accusative -_ducem_, most French nouns being borrowed from the accusative, not the -nominative form of the Latin noun), a leader.--_Fealty_ is the -Norman-French form of the word _fidelity_, from the Lat. _fidelitas_, -faithfulness.--_Real-m_ is the noun from the adjective _real_, which -comes from Lat. _regal-is_; it is the land ruled over by a _rex_ or _ré_ -(a king). - - 30. (_b_) =Hunting.=--Forest, leveret, quarry, couple, venison. - -_Forest_ comes from the Low Lat.[10] _foresta_; from Lat. _foris_, -out-of-doors. A forest does not necessarily contain trees; it is merely -the name for the _open_ hunting-ground as contrasted with the inclosed -space called a park.--_Leveret_, a young hare, from the Fr. _lièvre_; -from the Lat. _lepus_ (_-oris_).--_Quarry_ comes from the Lat. _cor_, -the heart, and at first meant the heart and intestines, which were -thrown to the dogs who hunted down the wild beast. Milton has the -phrase, ‘scents his quarry from afar.’--_Couple_ comes from the Lat. -_copula_, a band.--_Venison_ means _hunted flesh_, and comes from the -Fr. _venaison_, which comes from the Lat. verb _venari_, to hunt. - - 31. (_c_) =Cookery.=--Beef, veal, pork, mutton, pullet. - -The Saxon hind had the charge of the cattle and animals on the farm -while they were alive; but he never saw anything of them after they were -killed. He never met them at dinner. The flesh of these animals received -French names from the Norman-Frenchmen who ate them; and their Saxon or -English names were forgotten. A German says _calf’s flesh_, but we use -the Norman-French word _veal_. Thus the corresponding English words to -those printed above are _ox_, _calf_, _swine_, _sheep_, and _fowl_. The -word _beef_ comes from the Fr. _bœuf_, which comes from the Lat. _bos_ -(acc. _bovem_), an ox.--_Veal_ comes from the old French word _veel_, -which comes from the Lat. _vitellus_, a little calf.--_Pork_ comes from -Fr. _porc_, which is derived from the Lat. _porcus_, a pig.--_Mutton_ -comes from the Fr. _mouton_, from the Low Latin word _multo_, a -sheep.--_Pullet_ comes from Fr. _poulet_, which comes from the Low Latin -word _pulla_, a hen. - - 32. (_d_) =Law.=--Chancellor, judge, parliament, court, assize, sue, - damages, and many others. - -The word _chancellor_ comes from the Fr. _chancelier_; from the Lat. -_cancellarius_, the keeper of written papers. ‘The officer who had the -care of the records stood behind the screen of lattice-work or of -cross-bars which fenced off the judgment-seat.’ _Cancer_ is the Latin -name for a crab; _cancellus_ is a little crab; _cancelli_ are cross-bars -or lattice-work, like the claws of crabs crossed. Hence also to -_cancel_, which means to draw cross strokes through writing.--_Judge_ -comes from the French word _juge_, which comes from the Lat. _judex_ (= -_jus-dic-s_, a sayer of right). The old English term was _dempster_, -from the verb _deem_; noun, _doom_.--_Parliament_ comes from the Fr. -_parler_, to speak; from Low Lat. _parabolāre_, to talk; whence also -_parlour_, a room for speaking in.--_Court_ comes from the old Fr. -_cort_; from Lat. _cohors_ or _cors_, an inclosed space. A _cohors_ was -a sheep-pen; but it was afterwards applied to a number of -soldiers.--_Assize_ comes from the old Fr. _assise_, an assembly of -judges; from the Lat. _assidēre_, to sit beside.--_Sue_ comes from the -old Fr. _suir_ (modern Fr. _suivre_); from the Lat. _sequi_, to follow. -We have from the same root the words _suit_, _suite_, _pursue_, _ensue_, -_issue_.--_Damages_, from the old Fr. _damáge_, which comes from the Low -Lat. _damnaticum_, harm; which comes from the Lat. _damnum_, loss. - - 33. (_e_) =Church.=--Friar, relic, tonsure, ceremony, etc. - -_Friar_ is a word which comes from the old Fr. _freire_, which is -derived from the Lat. _frater_, a brother.--_Relic_, chiefly used -in the plural, from Fr. _reliques_; from Lat. _reliquiæ_, -remains.--_Tonsure_ comes from the Fr. _tonsure_; from Lat. _tonsura_, -a cutting.--_Ceremony_, from the Fr. _cérémonie_, a rite; from Lat. -_cærimonia_. - -34. =SYNONYMS GIVEN US BY NORMAN-FRENCH.=--Among other benefits which we -have received from the coming in of Norman-French into our language, is -a number of synonyms.[11] These have enabled us to give a different -shade or colouring to certain words, or to put them to a special use. -Thus we speak of the _blessing_ of God, and the _benediction_ of a -clergy-man; of the _bloom_ on a peach, and the _flower_ of a lily; of a -person as a _member_ of a learned society, but not a _limb_. Now -_blessing_, _bloom_, and _limb_ are all English; _benediction_, -_flower_, and _member_ are all Latin words--Latin words which have come -to us through the doorway of the French language. The following are some -more of these synonyms; and, after examining them, it will generally be -found that the English words are stronger, simpler, and more homely -than the French words. - - ENGLISH. FRENCH. - - Bough Branch. - Buy Purchase. - Feeling Sentiment. - Friendly Amiable. - Hearty Cordial. - Luck Fortune. - Meal Flour. - Mild Gentle. - Wish Desire. - Work Labour. - Wretched Miserable. - Wright Carpenter. - -35. =BILINGUALISM.=--During the three centuries which lay between 1066 and -1362, the English and the Normans had to meet each other constantly in -the field, in the church, at markets, and in towns and villages. They -had to buy and sell from each other; to give and take orders from and to -each other; and to speak with each other on many kinds of business. They -also intermarried. Thus the Norman got slowly into the habit of joining -an English word with his French word--so as to make it clear to the -Englishman; while the Englishman, on his side, joined the corresponding -French word--when he happened to know it--to the English word he had to -employ. These words, ever after, ran in couples; and this habit of going -in couples became a habit of the language. Hence it is that, in the -opening words of our Prayer-Book, we use such couples as _assemble_ and -_meet together_; _acknowledge_ and _confess_; _dissemble_ and _cloak_; -and _humble_ and _lowly_. The words _meet together_, _acknowledge_, -_cloak_, and _lowly_, represent the purely English part of the -congregation; while the Norman-French supplies such words as _assemble_, -_confess_, _dissemble_, and _humble_. The great poet of the fourteenth -century--Chaucer--has hundreds of examples of such phrases. He gives us, -for example, _hunting_ and _venerye_; _mirth_ and _jollity_; _care_ and -_heed_; _swinke_ and _labour_; _pray_ and _beseech_; a _wright_ and -_carpenter_. The practice of using these pairs of words has very greatly -diminished in our day; but a few examples still keep their place in the -language. Such are _will and testament_, _use and wont_, _aid and abet_, -and several others. - -36. =DOUBLETS.=--It is chiefly to the same Norman-French influence that we -owe a minor phenomenon of the language--the appearance of two forms of -the same word. These two forms are called =doublets=. The Norman-French -could not pronounce our semi-vowel _w_. They had either to make a _v_ of -it, or a hard _g_. They preferred the hard _g_; and, to keep it hard, -they added a _u_. Thus, for _wile_, they said _guile_; for _wise_ (= -_manner_), they said _guise_; for _ward_, _guard_; for _warden_, -_guardian_; for _wardrobe_, _garderobe_; for _warrant_, _guarantee_; and -so on. - -37. =DOUBLETS FROM DIALECTS AND OTHER SOURCES.=--Besides the doublets due -to Norman-French influences, there are many interesting cases which may -be referred to. Some are evidently due to differences of dialect. The -English language grew up from different centres, which had little or no -connection with each other, on account of the difficulties of -travelling. Hence a word would take different forms in different -dialects--like _church_ in the south of the English-speaking country, -and _kirk_ in the north; so also with _cole_, of which the northern form -is _kail_. Sometimes one word is merely a later and modified form of -another, as _draw_ of _drag_. In all cases doublets are forms of the -same word, which have come through different experiences of place, or -time, or other influence. In short, they should be recognised as really -one word, with a difference in spelling and meaning, resulting from its -history. Other specimens of doublets are _down_ and _dune_; _shriek_ and -_screech_; _shell_ and _scale_; _wagon_ and _wain_. - -38. =PRONUNCIATION.=--The Norman-French refined our mode of speaking; made -the existing vowel-sounds less coarse; gave us some new vowel-sounds; -and, above all, taught us to give up most of our rough throat-sounds or -gutturals. They gradually turned out the gutturals from the beginning of -words; and _genoh_ became _enough_, and _gif_, _if_. They turned them -out of the middle of words; and _nagel_ became _nail_, and _hagel_, -_hail_. They got rid of them at the ends of words; and we no longer -pronounce the guttural in _flight_, _might_, _right_, and _sight_. This -is all the more absurd and remarkable that we write _the sound that -once was there_ with two strong gutturals, _g_ and _h_. Sometimes the -influence of the Norman-French was to turn the guttural into a kind of -hissing sound or sibilant; and it is in this way that we came to say -_teach_, _beseech_, and _catch_. But the _ch_ in these words comes back -to its older use, and becomes a _gh_ again, in the past tense--in -_taught_, _besought_, and _caught_. - -39. =LATIN OF THE FOURTH PERIOD.=--The Latin introduced into our language -by the Norman-French was a _spoken_ Latin. It was the Latin of the _ear -and mouth_. It was the everyday speech of the people; and underwent very -great change. The Latin introduced into our language by learned men was -a _written_ or _printed_ Latin. It was the Latin of _the eye and pen_. -This Latin is called the _Latin of the Fourth Period_; and it was -brought into our language by a powerful movement known as the =Revival of -Learning=.--When the Turks took Constantinople in 1453, the learned -Greeks of that capital fled from the city, carrying with them their -precious manuscript copies of Greek and Latin writers. They fled into -Italy, into Germany, and into France and England. They taught Greek and -Latin in the universities of these countries; and very soon the study of -Greek and Latin became the fashion among all persons of leisure; and the -stores of thought and beauty in Homer and Sophocles, in Virgil and -Horace, were diligently studied and appropriated. Queen Elizabeth was a -good Greek scholar, and could both speak and write good Latin. Now began -to come into our language thousands of Latin words; until, in the -beginning of the seventeenth century, an eminent writer complains that -Englishmen will have ‘to learn Latin to understand English, and a work -will prove of equal facility in either.’ Unlike the Latin words of the -Third Period, the Latin words introduced in the sixteenth and -seventeenth centuries suffered little or no change. They were -transferred from Latin books just as they were--by the accurate aid of -the hand and eye, and underwent no process of change or corruption. The -Latin _opinio_ became _opinion_; _notio_, _notion_; _suggestio_, -_suggestion_; _separatum_, _separate_; _iteratum_, _iterate_; and so on. -It would be a great mistake, however, to suppose that all the Latin of -this _Fourth Period_ came _directly_ from the Latin. Most of it came -through the medium of French, as did the Latin of the _Third Period_; -but unlike it, it was not the language of the people. In French, as in -English, it was the language merely of books, of the literary and of -learned men.--It is worthy of notice that many words which we use every -day, and which we think must _always_ have been in the language, only -came in about this period, and are therefore comparatively new. Thus Mr -Gill, the high-master of St Paul’s School in 1619, and the teacher of -John Milton in his boyhood, complains of the introduction of words which -are now quite common to all of us. He says: ‘O harsh lips! I now hear -all around me such words as _common_, _vices_, _envy_, _malice_; even -_virtue_, _study_, _justice_, _pity_, _mercy_, _compassion_, _profit_, -_commodity_, _colour_, _grace_, _favour_, _acceptance_.’ The wonder -nowadays would be how we could possibly get on without these words, and -how we could ever have done without them. - -40. =MOUTH LATIN AND BOOK LATIN.=--The introduction of Latin words into -our English speech by two doors--by the living conversation of living -people, and by the silent door of books, has given rise to a phenomenon -of the same kind as that described in section 36. But the phenomenon of -duplicates or =doublets= presents itself to our notice on a much larger -scale now; and, in every case, the duplicate word becomes in reality two -separate words--employed for separate purposes, and with perfectly -distinct meanings. Thus, though _legal_, _leal_, and _loyal_ are, in -their origin, fundamentally the same word, their meanings are perfectly -distinct and even widely different; _hospital_ and _hotel_ are the same -words, but they are no longer used in the same sense; while _fact_ and -_feat_ have also widely diverged from each other in use and in -signification. The Latin words that have come from the Latin language by -the path of books, have kept their Latin shape, and may be called _Book -Latin_. The Latin words that have come to us by the path of -Norman-French have undergone great alterations; and they may be called -_spoken Latin_. The chief process of alteration undergone by them is -that of _squeezing_; three syllables have generally been squeezed into -two. The following is a list: - -=DUPLICATE WORDS OR DOUBLETS.= - - LATIN. BOOK LATIN. SPOKEN LATIN. - - Benedictio, benediction, benison. - Cadentia (things falling cadence, chance. - or befalling), - Captivus, captive, caitiff. - Conceptio, conception, conceit. - Cophinus, coffin, coffer. - Debitum, debit, debt. - Defectum, defect, defeat. - Dilatare, dilate, delay. - Exemplum, example, sample. - Fabrica, fabric, forge. - Factio, faction, fashion. - Factum, fact, feat. - Fidelitas, fidelity, fealty. - Fragilis, fragile, frail. - Gentilis, gentile, gentle, genteel. - Granum (a grain), granary, garner. - Historia, history, story. - Hospitale, hospital, hotel. - Lectio, lection, lesson. - Legalis, legal, loyal. - Major (greater), major, mayor. - Maledictio, malediction, malison. - Nutrimentum, nutriment, nourishment. - Oratio, oration, orison. - Pagus (a country district pagan, paynim (the heathen). - or canton), - Particula, particle, parcel. - Pauper, pauper, poor. - Penitentia, penitence, penance. - Persecutum, persecute, pursue. - Potio (a draught), potion, poison. - Providentia, providence, prudence. - Pungens, pungent, poignant. - Quietus, quiet, coy. - Radius, radius, ray. - Regalis, regal, royal. - Respectus, respect, respite. - Securus, secure, sure. - Senior, senior, sir. - Separatum, separate, sever. - Species, species, spices. - Status, state, estate. - Superficies, superficies, surface. - Tractus, tract, trait, treat. - Traditio (a giving up), tradition, treason. - - NOTES.--_Benison_ is the opposite of _malison_. A _caitiff_ was a - person who _allowed_ himself to be taken captive. A _feat of arms_ - was a _fact_ or _deed of arms_; hence a _feat_ par excellence. The - hard guttural _c_ in _fabric_ has become a sibilant _g_ in _forge_, - by Nor. Fr. influence. The _g_ in _fragile_ was originally hard. - _Major_ is a _greater captain_; a _mayor_ is a _greater alderman_. - _Orison_ may be compared with _benison_, _poison_, _reason_, and - _treason_. The _p_ in _separate_ has become a _v_ in _sever_; both - letters being _labials_. The cutting down of the five syllables in - _superficies_ into two in _surface_, is the most remarkable - instance of compression in the whole list. - -Many of the _Book Latin_ words in the above list, such as _captive_, -_debit_, _defect_, _fact_, &c., were borrowed _directly_ from the Latin, -and not through the medium of French books. - -41. =GREEK DOUBLETS.=--The same phenomenon has also taken place with -reference to Greek words. It is of course the newer form of these words -that was given us by the revival of learning; the older forms may have -existed in the language since the coming of Augustine in the end of the -sixth century. - - GREEK. OLDER FORM. NEWER FORM. - - Adamas, adamant, diamond. - Asphodĕlos, asphodel, daffodil. - Balsamon, balsam, balm. - Blasphemein, blaspheme, blame. - Cheirourgos, chirurgeon, surgeon. - Dactŭlos (a finger), date (the fruit), dactyl. - Phantasia, fancy, phantasy. - Phantasma, phantasm, phantasy. - Presbutĕros, priest, presbyter. - Paralysis, palsy, paralysis. - Scandalon, slander, scandal. - - NOTES.--_Adamant_ means _the unsubduable_; a _chirurgeon_ is - literally a _worker with the hand_; _phantasia_ is the power of - _presenting to the mind’s eye_ a bodily image that is not present; - _presbuteros_ means simply _elder_. In the time of Shakspeare, - _fancy_ meant _love_. ‘Tell me where is fancy bred!’ is the first - line of a song in the _Merchant of Venice_. - -42. =ENGLISH WORDS AND FRENCH WORDS IN SENTENCES.=--The difference between -English steeped in French and Latin, and English written almost wholly -in pure English words, can be at once seen in the two following -passages, which are taken from the work of Mr C. Schele De Vere, an -American writer. - -(_a_) ‘The Norman _altered_ and _increased_ our _language_; but he could -not _extirpate_ it. To _defend_ his _conquest_, he took _possession_ of -the _country_; and, _master_ of the _soil_, he _erected_ _fortresses_ -and _castles_, and _attempted_ to _introduce_ new _terms_. The -_universe_ and the _firmament_--the _planets_, _comets_, and -_meteors_--the _atmosphere_ and the _seasons_, all were _impressed_ with -the _seal_ of the _conqueror_. Hills became _mountains_, and dales -_valleys_; streams were called _rivers_, and brooks _rivulets_; -waterfalls, _cascades_; and woods, _forests_.’ - -All the words in italics in the above passage are either of Latin or of -French origin; if of French, then they are Latin at second-hand. - -(_b_) ‘But the _dominion_ of the Norman did not _extend_ to the home of -the Englishman, it stopped at the threshold of his house; there, around -the fireside in his kitchen,[A] and the hearth in his room,[12] he met -his beloved kindred; the bride, the wife, and the husband, sons and -daughters, brothers and sisters, tied to each other by love, friendship, -and kind feelings, knew nothing dearer than their own sweet home.’ - -Only one word in the above is French (_dominion_), and two are Latin -(_extend_ and _kitchen_). All the others are purely English. - -43. =ENGLISH WORDS LOST.=--The copious introduction of Norman-French, -Latin, and Greek terms into our language, had the effect of pushing a -great number of purely English words _out_ of our speech, or at least of -making them less frequent in use. Thus we used to say _fore-elders_, but -this word has had its place taken by _ancestors_; _fairhood_ has been -pushed out by _beauty_; and _wonstead_ by _residence_. In the same way, -_forewit_ has given place to _caution_; _licherest_[13] to _cemetery_; -_inwit_ to _conscience_; _bookhoard_ to _library_; and _hindersome_ to -_obstructive_. In fact, it is often easier for us to understand foreign -words than those of our own native home-grown speech. The title of an -old book written in the thirteenth century is the _Ayenbite[14] of -Inwyt_--a title which is to us much more intelligible in its -Franco-Latin translation of _Remorse of Conscience_. Mr Barnes, the -Dorsetshire poet, has tried to re-introduce the genuine homely English -way of speaking and writing; and to banish Latin terms. Thus, in his -_Grammar_ or ‘Book of Speech-Craft,’ he calls _singular_, _onely_; -_plural_, _somely_; and he calls _degrees of comparison_, _pitches of -suchness_. The difficulty he has to contend with is, that this home -English is less intelligible to our modern ears than the foreign Latin. -Thus the following sentence looks like a word-puzzle: ‘These pitch-marks -off mark sundry things by their sundry suchnesses, as, “The _taller_ or -_less tall_ man of the two is my friend.”’ And he also says--what is a -useful warning for us: ‘Speech was shapen of the breath-sounds of -speakers, for the ears of hearers; and not from speech-tokens (letters) -in books, for men’s eyes.’ - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -=The History of the Grammar of English.= - - -1. =AN INFLECTED LANGUAGE.=--When, in the fifth century, our English -speech was brought over from the Continent, it was a highly inflected or -=Synthetic= language; and it remained in this condition for several -centuries. The coming of the Danes had the effect of beginning the -dropping off of inflections. The coming of the Normans extended very -much and hastened this process, which has gone on with considerable -rapidity down to the present day. We may put the general fact in this -way: - - The English Language was a =Synthetic Language= down to about the - year 1100; since that time, it has been becoming more and more of - an =Analytic Language=. - -2. =THE GRAMMAR OF NOUNS.=--In the very oldest English--or, as it is -commonly called, _Anglo-Saxon_--nouns were declined in different ways, -and had several declensions, just as German and Latin have. Each of -these declensions had four cases. Nowadays we have only one declension -and only one inflection for the cases of nouns. That one inflection is -=’s= for the possessive case. The following is an example of an old -declension: - -Declension of =EAGE=, the eye. - - _Sing._ _Plur._ - _Nom._ Eage (eye). Eagan. - _Pos._ Eag-an (of). Eag-ena. - _Dat._ Eag-an (to). Eag-am. - _Obj._ Eage. Eagan. - -Again, in this English, gender did not follow sex, but was poetic and -fantastic. _Tongue_ and _week_ were feminine nouns, as they still are in -modern German; _star_ and _sea_, masculine; _wife_ and _child_, -neuter.--In old English there were a great many plural endings, as =-as=, -=-an=, =-u=, =-a=, =-o=. After the Norman Conquest they were greatly reduced, -=-es= or =-s= being now the ordinary ending, =-en= being exceptional. - -3. =THE GRAMMAR OF ADJECTIVES.=--Adjectives had also cases. Adjectives had -four cases, three genders, and two numbers. Now we say _good_ for all -cases, genders, and numbers. In the fourteenth century the only ending -which adjectives possessed was =e= for the plural. Thus Chaucer -(1340-1400) writes of the little birds: - - And _smalë_ fowlës maken melodie. - -4. =GRAMMAR OF DEFINITE ARTICLE.=--This article was declined like an -adjective, in three different genders. Now it has no inflections at all. -It has still, however, a clear and distinct memory of one case, which -survives in such phrases as, ‘The more, the merrier.’ This sentence -might be written, ‘þŷ more, þŷ merrier.’ That is to say, ‘By that more, -by that merrier.’ The measure of the increase of the company is the -measure of the increase of the merriment. - -5. =GRAMMAR OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN.=--The personal pronoun was also -highly inflected in the oldest English; and the two personal pronouns of -the first and second persons possessed this remarkable peculiarity, that -it had three numbers, singular, dual, and plural. The dual form stood -for _We two_ and for _You two_; and, if we cared to trouble ourselves -nowadays with a host of inflections, these would certainly be very -convenient. - -All this is now very much changed. The dual number is completely gone; -the use of _thou_, except in religious compositions, has been given up, -and the true possessive of _it_, which is =his=, has given place to the -incorrect form _its_. The possessive _its_ is very seldom found in -Shakspeare, and there is only one instance of it in our present -translation of the Bible: ‘That which groweth of its own accord of thy -harvest thou shalt not reap’ (Lev. xxv. 5). But another reading is, ‘of -it own accord.’ - -6. =GRAMMAR OF VERBS.=--The verb possessed also, in the oldest times, -before the language was at all influenced by Norman-French, a large -number of inflections. At the present time a verb has only five -inflections; but, if it belongs to the strong conjugation, it may have -six. Let us look at the old verb _niman_, to take, which still survives -in our adjective _nimble_, which means _quick at taking_. - -The chief tenses of =niman= were inflected as follows: - - PRESENT TENSE. - - _Sing._ _Plural._ - 1. nime. nimath. - 2. nimest. nimath. - 3. nimeth. nimath. - - PAST TENSE. - - _Sing._ _Plural._ - 1. nám. námon. - 2. náme. námon. - 3. nám. námon. - -Of all the inflections in the above, only two still remain, _st_ in the -second person singular, and _th_ in the third person; and even these two -inflections are nowadays hardly used at all. - -7. =FRAGMENTS OF NOUN INFLECTIONS.=--Although our language, in the course -of its history, has lost almost all of its inflections, there still -remain, here and there, in our grammar, fragments of inflections which -are often curiously disguised, and therefore difficult to recognise. -Thus, at first sight, it is not easy to see that _vixen_ is the feminine -of _fox_. But _vixen_ is simply the same as _fixen_, or _fyxen_, and it -was one of the laws of Anglo-Saxon vowel-change that _o_ became _y_. It -was very usual to make the plural of nouns in _en_. Thus we said -_shoon_, _hosen_, _tren_, _been_ (for _bees_), _toon_ (for _toes_), -_flon_ (for _arrows_), and _fleen_ (for _fleas_). But, of all these and -other similar plurals, we now possess only one--_oxen_. The plurals -_children_ and _brethren_ are really double plurals. The oldest plurals -were _cildru_, afterwards _childer_; and _brether_. It was then -forgotten that these were real plurals, and an _en_ was added. - -8. =FRAGMENTS OF ADJECTIVE INFLECTIONS.=--We have the comparative _rather_ -(rightly pronounced in Ireland rayther); but we have no _rathe_ or -_rathest_. An old writer, speaking of a star, says: ‘It rose rather and -rather (earlier).’ =Nighest= becomes _next_; because the =g + s= is equal to -an =x=. So there was in our country an old proverb, ‘When bale is hext, -bone is next’--that is, ‘When evil is highest, boon is nighest.’ _Over_ -is now only used as a preposition. But it is really the comparative -degree of the old adjective _ov_, which is a form of _up_ or _off_. - -9. =FRAGMENTS OF PRONOUN INFLECTIONS.=--The _t_ in _it_ (which was -formerly _hit_, as the neuter of _he_) is simply the sign of the neuter -gender, and is the same _t_ that is found in _tha-t_, _wha-t_ (the -neuter of _who_), etc. Hence the true possessive of _it_ is _his_; and -this is the form in use in Shakspeare and Bacon, and even down to the -middle of the seventeenth century. _Its_, as we have already seen, is a -blunder. _They_ is not the true plural of _he_; but really of the old -definite article _thaet_. - -10. =FRAGMENTS OF VERB INFLECTIONS.=--The inflections of the verb are very -strangely disguised; and, if learned men had not worked hard, and made -diligent inquiry in many directions, we should never have known what -they really are. Thus the _m_ in _am_ is the same _m_ that is found in -_me_; and the oldest form known of the verb _am_, in the oldest -language, is _asmi_.--The _t_ which we find in the second person of -some verbs, such as _art_, _wast_, _shalt_, and _wilt_, is the same as -the _th_ in _thou_. This _t_ is therefore the pronoun _thou_ added to -the verb.--The _th_ in the old-fashioned third person singular -_writeth_, _hopeth_, etc., is the same _th_ that we find in _the_ and -_that_. Accordingly, we may say that _burneth_ is = _that_ (_thing_) -_burns_.--The last _d_ in _did_ is not the same as the _ed_ in _walked_. -_Did_ is not = _doed_. An older form of _did_ is _dude_; and from this -we see that the past tense was formed by doubling the present--by -reduplication. Thus we see that it is the last _d_ that represents the -_do_.--The word _worth_ in the well-known lines from the _Lady of the -Lake_-- - - Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day, - That cost thy life, thou gallant gray!-- - -is not an adjective, but the remnant of an old verb. This verb is -_weorthan_, to become; and _worth_ is the imperative of it. When a verb -has lost one of its parts, it goes to another verb, and borrows the use -of one of its parts. Thus _went_, the past tense of _go_, is borrowed -from _wend_. - -11. =FRAGMENTS OF INFLECTIONS IN ADVERBS.=--Adverbs contain a great number -of disguised inflections. In the present day, we make adverbs from -adjectives by adding _ly_ to them--as _neat_, _neatly_; _warm_, -_warmly_. But, in old English, the adverb was made by employing the -dative of the adjective. Thus, _brightë_ was = _in a bright manner_; -_swiftë_ was = _swiftly_. Then _ë_ very soon dropped off; and the word -was left in its bare root--stripped of inflections. And so it has -happened that we have many adverbs which are used in their simplest -form, and are just the same as adjectives. We do not say, ‘He runs -fastly,’ but ‘He runs fast;’ ‘He works hardly,’ but ‘He works -hard.’--But the remnants of other cases are also found in adverbs. Thus -_needs_, _always_, _sideways_, _once_ (for _onës_), _twice_ (for -_twiës_), _unawares_, _whence_ (for _whennës_) and others, are all old -possessives.--_Seldom_ is an old dative plural. _Seld_ meant _rare_; and -_seldom_ means _at rare times_.--_The_ in the phrase, ‘The older the -better,’ is an ablative or _instrumental_ case; and therefore means _by -that_. Accordingly this sentence means: ‘By that older, by that -better.’ The measure of the increase of age is the measure of the -increase of the quality. - -12. =FRAGMENTS OF INFLECTIONS IN PREPOSITIONS.=--_Since_ is the possessive -case of the old English word _sithen_. The following are the steps: -_Sithennës_; _sithens_; _sithence_; _since_.--_After_ is the comparative -degree of the old preposition _af_ (= of), which meant _from_. _Over_ is -another comparative form, from a root which appears in _up_. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -=Changes in Modern English.= - - -1. =FORMATION OF MODERN ENGLISH.=--We have seen that the substance of the -living English tongue was brought from Germany to this island by our -Teutonic ancestors. We have seen also that it has undergone a great -variety of influences, the greatest and strongest of which was the -Norman Conquest. For a long time after the Conquest, the English -language was the tongue of a subject and humiliated race; it ceased to -be fashionable, and almost ceased to be literary. In the thirteenth -century it began to revive, but with very important changes; the -inflections, and many of the old English words, being lost, and a -multitude of new words being introduced. In Chaucer’s time it regained -its old position as the language of the court, of fashion, and of -literature. In 1485 we find the language in all important respects fixed -as we have it now. Every intelligent Englishman is able to understand -all that has since been written. - -Modern English, then, dates from 1485, the year when the Wars of the -Roses ended with the battle of Bosworth, and the Tudor line ascended the -throne. It was the time also when the art of printing was introduced by -Caxton; and about the time when the two great events, the Revival of -Learning and the Reformation, took place. - -2. =CONTINUED HISTORY OF OUR LANGUAGE.=--It would be a mistake, however, -to suppose that the language has no history after 1485. Language is the -expression and embodiment of thought; and as thought varies with the -varying experience of man, language must change accordingly. Since 1485 -the English people have gone through marvellous changes--changes in -political and social life, in science, in art, and industry. They have -planted extensive colonies, they carry on trade in every part of the -world, and have dealings with every nation. In all this widening and -progressive life, we have got to know far more than we did in 1485, and -thus require to use a multitude of words unknown to the people of that -period. The result has been a large addition to our vocabulary. - -3. =BORROWING FROM SPANISH AND ITALIAN.=--Under the heading ‘Latin of the -Fourth Period,’ we have noted the number of words borrowed from the -Latin during the sixteenth century. We are now to observe that about the -same time there was a considerable borrowing of words from the Spanish -and Italian. Of course, as Italian and Spanish are offshoots from Latin, -these words also are mostly of Latin origin. - -(i) =Italian.=--During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Italian -literature was very extensively studied by English writers. For some -centuries the Italians were the most cultivated people in Europe. Italy -was the home of music, painting, and sculpture. Her poets served as -models to those of other nations. The earliest poets of modern England, -such as Wyatt and Surrey, were inspired by them; Spenser and Milton were -ardent students of their works. During this period, consequently, we -introduced from the Italian language many important words, among which -may be mentioned _sonnet_, _opera_, _cupola_, _balcony_, _palette_. - -(ii) =Spanish.=--At the same time we had even more intimate relations with -Spain, though of a different kind. In the sixteenth century Spain was -the leading nation of Europe. She had the best soldiers, the first -generals and statesmen; her ships discovered America; and her kings -aimed at universal dominion. As both friend and enemy, England was -brought into close connection with the Spaniards. Under these -circumstances we naturally adopted many words from them. While most of -these were of Latin origin, not a few related to the new countries -discovered and conquered by Spain in America. Among the Spanish words -may be mentioned _buffalo_, _alligator_, _don_, _armada_, _indigo_, -_potato_, _tobacco_. The last two are of American origin. The rest are -Latin. _Alligator_ is of Latin origin, but is the name of an American -animal. - -4. =DUTCH WORDS.=--We have borrowed very few words from the Germans; but -from the people of the Netherlands, who have always been near neighbours -to us, we have derived not a few. Long ago, Flemings (or people of -Flanders) were settled in Wales and Norfolk. In the reign of Queen -Elizabeth, thousands of Protestant refugees from Antwerp and other -places in the Netherlands found an asylum in England. Since the rise of -Holland we have had many dealings, both warlike and commercial, with the -Dutch. All this accounts for the goodly number of Dutch words which we -now find in the English language, such as _burgomaster_, _ballast_, -_holster_, _trigger_, _yacht_, _yawl_. - -5. It will have been clearly seen that there are two main elements in -the English language--the Teutonic element, which is by far the most -important; and the Latin element. It is interesting to trace the -relative proportion of these two elements as used by the great English -writers. In the seventeenth century, especially in such writers as -Milton and Sir Thomas Browne, we find a large use of the Latin element, -accompanied by a Latin or complex and involved structure of sentence. -Towards the end of the century, and especially in the beginning of the -eighteenth, during the period of Queen Anne, a simpler style prevailed, -the classical element being more sparingly used. But as we proceed into -the eighteenth century, the Latin part of the language is again more -largely employed by such writers as Johnson, Gibbon, and Hume; and it is -again accompanied by a more formal and elaborate structure of sentence. -But before the century closes, there is a return to simplicity and -naturalness. - -6. In the present century there are many influences specially worth -noting as affecting the language: - -(i) =Social and Political Causes.=--Society is a complex thing, -continually growing. New facts and ideas are perpetually making -themselves felt, necessitating new words, or a more extending meaning in -old words. In this province, then, changes in language are incessantly -required. Hence the need for such new words as _extradition_, -_neutralisation_, _secularisation_; even for such unhappy coinages as -_burke_. On occasion of the great volunteer reviews of 1881, words like -_entrain_ and _detrain_, applied to troops, could be noticed creeping -in. _Closure_ and _clôture_ were rivals for currency during the debates -of 1882; and _Boycott_ began to present serious claims to permanent -citizenship in the English tongue. - -(ii) =Popularising of Technical and Scientific Terms.=--One of the most -marked features of the nineteenth century is the great diffusion of -scientific knowledge, and the application of it to the uses of practical -life. The highest scientific results are becoming common property; and -the discoveries of science have been made to satisfy the common needs of -men. The result is that terms once unknown or exclusively technical have -gained the widest currency in the popular speech. There is no need to -mention such familiar words as _telegraph_, _photograph_, or even -_telephone_ or _photophone_. The old noun _wire_ has now established its -right to be used as a verb. In other spheres such terms as _objective_, -_subjective_, _æsthetics_, now fulfil important functions; _æsthete_ -also seems too useful a word to be dispensed with. - -(iii) =Revival of Archaisms.=--In many of our recent poets there has been -a tendency to revive some of the old Spenserian or Shaksperian words. -But as these are purely literary terms, with no currency in the common -speech, they need not be dwelt on. - -(iv) =Introduction of Scotticisms and Americanisms.=--The right of the -Scottish tongue to be considered one of the worthiest varieties of the -genuine old English or Saxon tongue is now generally recognised. But -apart from that, the intrinsic merit of such words as _eerie_, -_glamour_, _sough_, _bonnie_, _douce_ (both of which last, however, are -of French origin), will probably secure them a permanent place in our -language. The influence of America will also be more and more felt on -the common English language, whether through its stock of old Saxon -phrases which have been preserved in America, through the innovations -made by its humorists, or the new experiences in its social and -political life. - -(v) =Further borrowing from Foreign Languages.=--Even the most remote and -unlikely make important and familiar contributions to our tongue. From -the Malays we have (along with the thing) borrowed the words _bamboo_, -_gong_, _sago_; from the Australians we have _boomerang_ and _kangaroo_; -and from South African tongues, _gnu_, _quagga_, _kraal_. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -=Words adopted from Foreign Languages.= - - - 1. =FROM AFRICAN DIALECTS.=--Chimpanzee, gnu, gorilla, karoo, kraal, - zebra. - - 2. =FROM AMERICAN TONGUES.=--Buccaneer, cacique, cannibal, canoe, - caoutchouc, cayman, chocolate, condor, guano, hammock, jaguar, - jalap, jerked (beef), llama, mahogany, maize, manioc, moccasin, - mustang, opossum, pampas, pemmican, potato, skunk, squaw, tapioca, - tobacco, tomahawk, tomato, wigwam, yam. - - 3. =FROM THE ARABIC LANGUAGE.= (The word _al_ means _the_. Thus - al_cohol_ = _the spirit_. A few of the following words, however, - though they have come to us through Arabic, belong originally to - other tongues. Thus alchemy and talisman are from the Greek; - apricot is Latin.)--Admiral, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, alembic, - algebra, alkali, amber, apricot, arrack, arsenal, artichoke, - assassin, assegai, attar, azimuth, azure, caliph, carat, chemistry, - cipher, civet, coffee, cotton, crimson, dragoman, elixir, emir, - fakir, felucca, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hookah, koran (or - alcoran), lute, magazine, mattress, minaret, mohair, monsoon, - mosque, mufti, nabob, nadir, naphtha, salaam, senna, sherbet, shrub - (the drink), simoom, sirocco, sofa, sultan, syrup, talisman, - tamarind, tariff, vizier, zenith, zero. - - 4. =FROM CHINESE.=--Bohea, congou, hyson, joss, junk, nankeen, pekoe, - souchong, tea. - - 5. =FROM DUTCH= (words relating chiefly to naval affairs).--Boom, - boor, hoy, luff, reef, schiedam (gin), skates, skipper, sloop, - smack, smuggle, stiver, taffrail, wear (of a ship), yacht. - - 6. =FROM FRENCH.=--Aide-de-camp, belle, bivouac, blonde, bouquet, - brunette, brusque, carte-de-visite, coup-d’état, débris, début, - déjeûner (breakfast), depot, éclat, ennui, etiquette, naive, - naïveté, nonchalance, personnel, précis, programme, protégé, - recherché, soirée. - - 7. =FROM GERMAN= (mostly mining terms).--Cobalt, felspar, horn-blend, - landgrave, loafer, margrave, meerschaum, nickel, plunder, poodle, - quartz, zinc. - - 8. =FROM HEBREW= (words relating chiefly to religion).--Abbey, abbot, - amen, behemoth, cabal, cherub, gehenna, hallelujah, hosannah, - Jehovah, jubilee, leviathan, manna, paschal, pharisee, pharisaical, - rabbi, sabbath, Sadducees, Satan, seraph, shibboleth, Talmud. - - 9. =FROM HINDU.=--Avatar, banyan, bungalow, calico, chintz, coolie, - cowrie, durbar, jungle, lac (of rupees), loot, mulligatawny, - pagoda, palanquin, pariah, punch, pundit, rajah, rupee, ryot, - sepoy, shampoo, sugar, suttee, thug, toddy. - - 10. =FROM HUNGARIAN.=--Hussar. - - 11. =FROM ITALIAN.=--Alarm, alert, alto, bagatelle, balcony, - balustrade, bandit, bankrupt, bravo, brigade, brigand, broccoli, - burlesque, bust, cameo, canteen, canto, caprice, caricature, - carnival, cartoon, cascade, cavalcade, charlatan, citadel, - colonnade, concert, contralto, conversazione, cornice, corridor, - cupola, curvet, dilettante, ditto, doge, domino, extravaganza, - fiasco, folio, fresco, gazette, gondola, granite, grotto, guitar, - incognito, influenza, lagoon, lava, lazaretto, macaroni, madonna, - madrigal, malaria, manifesto, motto, moustache, niche, opera, - oratorio, palette, pantaloon, parapet, pedant, pianoforte, piazza, - pistol, portico, proviso, quarto, regatta, ruffian, serenade, - sonnet, soprano, stanza, stiletto, stucco, studio, tenor, - terra-cotta, tirade, torso, trombone, umbrella, vermilion, vertu, - virtuoso, vista, volcano, zany. - - 12. =FROM MALAY.=--Amuck, bamboo, bantam, caddy, cockatoo, dugong, - gamboge, gong, guttapercha, mandarin (through the Portuguese), - mango, ourangoutang, rattan, sago, upas. - - 13. =FROM PERSIAN.=--Bazaar, bashaw, caravan, check, checkmate, - chess, dervish, divan, firman, hazard, horde, houri, jar, jackal, - jasmine, lac (a gum), lemon, lilac, lime (the fruit), musk, orange, - paradise, pasha, rook, saraband, sash, scimitar, shawl, taffeta, - turban. - - 14. =FROM POLYNESIAN DIALECTS.=--Boomerang, kangaroo, taboo, tattoo - (to paint the skin). - - 15. =FROM PORTUGUESE.=--Albatross, caste, cobra, cocoa-nut, - commodore, fetish, lasso, marmalade, moidore, palaver, port - (Oporto). - - 16. =FROM RUSSIAN.=--Czar, drosky, knout, morse (walrus), steppe, - ukase. - - 17. =FROM SPANISH.=--Alligator, armada, barricade, battledore, - bravado, buffalo, caracole, cargo, cigar, cochineal, cork, creole, - desperado, don, duenna, El dorado, embargo, filibuster (from - English flyboat), filigree, flotilla, galleon (a ship), grandee, - grenade, guerilla, indigo, jennet, matadore, merino, mosquito, - mulatto, negro, octoroon, quadroon, renegade, savannah, sherry - (Xeres), tornado, vanilla. - - 18. =FROM TARTAR.=--Caviare (the roe of the sturgeon). - - 19. =FROM TURKISH.=--Bey, caftan, chibouk, chouse, janissary, kiosk, - odalisque, ottoman, tulip, yashmak, yataghan. - - -CHIEF DATES IN THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. - -.....A.D. - -1. =Cædmon= wrote a _Paraphrase of the Scriptures_ in -First English prose.....=670= - -2. =Bede=, or =Bæda=, wrote a translation into English of part -of the _Gospel of St John_.....=735= - -3. =King Alfred= translated many Latin works into English, -among others, the _Ecclesiastical History of the English -Nation_. King Alfred died.....=901= - -4. =Ælfric= translates parts of the Bible.....=1000= - -5. =Anglo-Saxon Chronicle= brought to a stop about.....=1154= - -6. =Normandy= taken from England under King John. -Normans now obliged to regard themselves as Englishmen, -and more ready to use the English tongue.....=1204= - -7. =Layamon’s= _Brut_--a poem--the first English book -written after the stoppage of the _Chronicle_ (written -in the _Southern English_ dialect).....=1205= - -8. =First Proclamation= ever written in English, issued by -Henry III......=1258= - -9. =Sir John Mandeville=, the first writer of _formed_ -English prose, ‘publishes’ his _Travels_.....=1356= -(_Publishes_ in this century means: _Allows copies in -manuscript to be made of his book._) - -10. =Edward III.= authorises the use of English instead of -French in courts of law and in schools.....=1362= - -11. =John Wicliffe= translates most of the Bible.....=1380= - -12. =Geoffrey Chaucer=, the ‘Father of English Poetry,’ wrote -his _Canterbury Tales_ about.....=1388= - -13. =William Caxton= prints the first English book ever printed, -_The History of Troyes_, in Flanders.....=1471= - -14. =Caxton= erects the first printing-press in the Broad -Sanctuary, in Westminster, and publishes the first book ever -printed in England, the _Game and Playe of the Chesse_.....=1474= - -15. =The Book of Common Prayer= compiled by Cranmer.....=1549= - -16. =The English Bible=, based upon William Tyndall’s and -other translations, published.....=1611= - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -=Notes on the Growth of English Words.= - - -1. =ROOTS; INFLUENCE OF IMITATION ON LANGUAGE.=--The question of the -origin of language is an extremely interesting one, which has been long -and keenly discussed. But it is one on which the opinions of the learned -are not agreed, and we cannot dwell upon it here. There is an -established fact, however, which is of the highest interest and -importance: most of the words of the great family of Indo-European -languages can be traced to a few hundred roots; and these roots are -common to the whole family. It is the greatest achievement of -philological science to have clearly established this fact. How these -roots have originated, is a more uncertain inquiry: in fact, is just the -question of the origin of language presented in another form. It is the -theory of some that words have arisen from the imitation of natural -sounds; the names of animals, for instance, being imitations of the -sounds they utter. Though this has been ridiculed under the nickname of -the _bow-wow_ theory, there seems to be some truth in it: at anyrate no -one will deny that in the English, as in all other languages, a great -many words exist which are imitative of natural sounds. Among such words -the following may be mentioned: _Babble_, _boom_, _chatter_, _chirp_, -_clang_, _clatter_, _clink_, _crash_, _croak_, _cuckoo_, _fizz_, -_giggle_, _gurgle_, _hiss_, _howl_, _hum_, _hush_, _murmur_, _quack_, -_scream_, _shriek_, _squeal_, _thud_, _thump_, _thwack_, _twang_, -_whack_, _wheeze_, _whirr_, _whizz_. - -Of course these words were not all originally English. _Clang_ and -_murmur_, for instance, are Latin words; but they also are of imitative -origin. - -2. =HYBRIDS.=--A _hybrid_ is a word composed of a _mixture_ of foreign and -native elements. Sometimes an English word has a Latin ending; sometimes -a Latin word has an English ending. All such words are called -_hybrids_. One of the most interesting of the earliest hybrids in -English was the word _bondage_, which is said to have been introduced in -the year 1303. The word _bond_ comes to us from the Icelandic or -Norwegian word _bondi_, which means _farmer_ or _tiller of the soil_. -Farmers in Norway are to this day called _bonders_. The suffix _age_ is -Latin; but it has come to us through Norman-French. The full Latin -ending is _atĭcum_, which, in France, in the course of generations, was -compressed into _age_. There are other hybrids with this ending, such as -_tillage_ (which has pushed out the pure English _tilth_), _cartage_, -_stowage_, and others.--The ending _able_, which comes to us from Latin, -combines very easily with words which are purely English. Thus we have -_lovable_, _biddable_, _laughable_, _breakable_, and others.--The Latin -ending _osus_ means _full of_. Thus, _vinum_ is _wine_, and _vinosus_ is -_full of wine_. This _ōsus_ becomes in English _ous_; and we find this -Latin suffix added to words which are purely English. Thus we have -_wondrous_ from _wonder_, and _ravenous_ from _raven_. We have also -_righteous_, which was originally _rightwîs_, and the change into -_righteous_ was a corruption of the spelling.--_Dis_ is a Latin prefix, -and it is added to English words. Thus we have _dislike_ and _disown_. -We have also _dishearten_, an old word, in which the prefix _dis_ -contradicts the suffix _en_ (which means to _put_ or _make_).--_Re_, -another Latin prefix, unites with purely English words, and we find -_renew_, _reopen_, _rebuild_, _reclothe_, and others.--French words with -English prefixes are also found. Thus we have _besiege_; the word -_siege_, a _seat_, being French. _To besiege_ means to take a seat in -front of a town, with your mind made up not to go till you have taken -it.--Latin words with English endings are found in _useful_, _useless_, -_usefulness_, _uselessness_, and others. English words with Latin or -French endings are not uncommon. Thus we have _goddess_, _forbearance_, -_hindrance_, _oddity_, and others. In old-fashioned English, and even in -Wordsworth, who died in 1850, we find such curious formations as -_oddments_, _needments_, _eggments_ (_eggings on_ or _incitements_), and -a few others. - - -3. =WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM OR IN MEANING.= - - =Abase=, to bring or make low. From a Low Latin word _bassus_, low. - - =Abate=, to _beat_ down. Low Lat. _abbattĕre_. - - =Adder=, O. E. _nadder_. The _n_ has dropped from the noun, owing to - the mistaken notion that it belonged to the article. Compare umpire - for numpire (_non par_--that is, _not equal_), orange for norange - (Pers. _náranj_), apron for napron. The dropping of the _n_ is - probably owing to the prefixing of _an_ and _mine_. - - =Adrift=, on or in the _drift_. From the verb _drive_. Compare - _give_, _gift_; _shrive_, _shrift_. - - =Alligator= is Spanish _el_ lagarto, _the_ lizard (_par excellence_), - from Lat. _lacerta_, a lizard. - - =Aloft, on-loft=, in the lift (air). Northern Eng. or ‘Scotch’ - _lift_, the air. - - =Anon=, _on_ or _in-one_ (instant). The phrase _then ones_ has become - _the nonce_. - - =Atonement=, _at-one-ment_, bringing into one, reconciliation. In - _alone_ and _atone_ the numeral _one_ has its true sound. - - =Babble=, to keep saying _ba, ba_. - - =Balloon=, a large _ball_ (Fr.). The _oon_ is augmentative. - - =Ballot=, a little _ball_ (Fr.). The _ot_ is diminutive. - - =Bank=, a _bench_ on which money is laid out. - - =Batch=, the quantity of bread _baked_ at one time. Compare _wake_, - _watch_. - - =Bird=, one of a _brood_ (formerly _brid_). Compare _three_, _third_; - _burn_, _brand_; _work_, _wright_. In all these the _r_ changes its - place. - - =Bran-new=, that is, _brand-new_, burnt-new, as if newly from the - fire. - - =Breakfast=, a _breaking_ of a _fast_. Compare Fr. _déjeûner_, from - _jeûne_. - - =Brick=, a piece _broken_ off. - - =Brimstone=, that is, _burn-stone_, from _brennan_, to burn. Compare - _brindled_. The _r_ is a letter which is easily moved. Compare - _three_ and _third_; _burn_ and _brown_; etc. - - =Brood=, something _bred_. - - =Butcher=, O. Fr. _bocher_, a slaughterer of he-goats. From O. Fr. - _boc_, a goat, not from _bouche_, mouth. _Boc_ is allied to the - Eng. _buck_. - - =Butler= = bottler--that is, keeper of the _bottles_. From Nor. Fr. - _butuille_, a bottle. - - =Buxom=, pliable; from _bugan_, to bend, which gives _bight_ and - _bout_. - - =Carouse=, Ger. _gar aus_, right out. Used of drinking a bumper. - - =Caterpillar= = hairy cat. From O. Fr. _chate_, she-cat; _pelouse_, - from Lat. _pilosus_, hairy. Compare _Woolly-bear_. - - =Causeway=, corrupted from Fr. _chaussée_, a raised way. - - =Club=, a society _clumped_ together. Connected with _clump_. - - =Constable=, from _comes stabuli_, count of the stable. - - =Coop=, anything hollow, like a _cup_. - - =Cope=, a covering, a _cap_. - - =Costermonger= = costard-monger--that is, apple-seller, costard being - a kind of apple. - - =Country-dance=, a corruption of French _contre-danse_, a dance in - which each dancer stands _opposite_ his partner. - - =Coward=, a bob-_tailed_ hare. Through O. Fr., from Lat. _cauda_, a - tail. - - =Coxcomb=, a corruption of _cock’s comb_. - - =Daisy=--that is, _day’s-eye_, so called from its sun-like - appearance, or because it closes its flower at night, and opens it - again in the morning. - - =Dandelion=, a corruption of French _dent-de-lion_, tooth of the - lion. - - =Dirge=, from _dirige_ (= _direct_), the first word in the passage - beginning Ps. v. 8, sung in the office for the dead. - - =Disease=, want of _ease_; pain. - - =Drawing-room=; originally _with-drawing_ room--that is, a room for - retiring to after dinner. - - =Easel=, from Dutch _ezel_, a little ass. - - =Etiquette=, originally a _ticket_ on which the forms to be observed - on particular occasions at court were inscribed. - - =Fare=, originally a _going_ or _travelling_, hence the price paid - for such. - - =Farthing=, the _fourth_ part, hence the fourth of a penny. - - =Ferry=, places for _faring_, or travelling across a stream. - - =Ford=, places for _faring_, or travelling across a stream. - - =Frontispiece=, that which is seen in the front. Low Lat. - _frontispicium_, from _specio_, I see. Not connected with _piece_. - - =Gad-fly=, the _goading_ or stinging fly. - - =Gaffer= = _gramfer_, West of England for _grandfather_. - - =Gammer= = _grammer_, West of England for _grandmother_. Compare O. - E. _gomman_ and _gommer_, for _good man_ and _good mother_. - - =Gospel=, _God-spell_ (news of God, that is, life of Christ); - commonly explained, however, as _good-spell_ (good story), as if a - translation of Gr. _eu-anggelion_, from _eu_, well, and _anggelia_, - a message. - - =Grocer=, should be _grosser_, from O. Fr. _grossier_, a wholesale - dealer, a dealer _en gros_--that is, in the large. In older Eng., - _grocers_ were called _spicers_. Compare the Fr. _épiciers_. - - =Groove=, something _graven_, or hollowed out. - - =Haft=, the handle or part of anything which we _have_ or hold in the - hand. - - =Hamper=, Low Lat. _hanaperium_, a large vessel for keeping cups, - from Low Lat. _hanapus_, a drinking-cup. - - =Handicraft=, _craft_ or trade performed by the _hand_. Compare - _priestcraft_, _witchcraft_. - - =Handle=, (_v._) to touch with the _hand_; (_n._) the part held in - the _hand_. - - =Handsel=, money _given_ in _hand_ (_hand_, and _sellan_, to give). - - =Hanker=, to allow the mind to _hang_ on or long for a thing. Compare - _hank_ of wool. - - =Harbinger=, one who goes forward to provide a harbour or place of - _safety_ for an _army_ (O. E. _here_, an army; _beorgan_, to - protect). - - =Hatch=, to produce in a _heck_, a northern English word, meaning a - hay-rack; a frame made of cross bars of wood; a hen-coop. Compare - _bake_ and _batch_; _wake_ and _watch_. - - =Hatchment=, the coat of arms put up over a house, the master of - which has lately died; a corruption of _achievement_. - - =Hawthorn=, the hedge _thorn_. A.S. _haga_, a hedge or inclosure. - - =Heaven=, that which is _heaved_, or lifted up above our heads. - - =Heavy=, that which requires much _heaving_ to lift. - - =Hinder=, to put or keep _behind_. - - =Homestead=, the _stead_ or place of a home; a farm inclosure. - _Stead_, A.S. _stede_, occurs in in_stead_, _stead_fast, and - _stead_y. Cf. also _roadstead_, a place where ships ride at anchor. - - =Husband=, the master of a _house_. Short for _house-band_. The - _band_ is present participle of a word meaning ‘to dwell.’ - - =Hussy=, short for _housewife_. Compare _bos’n_ for _boatswain_. - - =Icicle= = _ice-gicel_. The termination is not to be confounded with - the diminutive ending _-icle_, which is of Latin origin. _Gicel_ = - a small piece of ice, and is therefore redundant. - - =Intoxicate=, to _drug_ or poison. From a Low Latin verb to poison, - from Greek _toxon_, an arrow, because arrows were frequently dipped - in poison. - - =Island=, _water-land_ (O. E. _ea_, water, and _land_). The _s_ is - intrusive, and due to a confusion with _isle_, which is from Lat. - _insula_, an island. Milton always spells it _iland_. - - =Jaw= (old spelling, _chaw_), from _chew_, therefore = that which - _chews_. - - =Jerusalem artichoke=, It. _girasole_; Lat. _gyrus_ (Gr. _gyros_), a - circle, and _sol_, the sun. The artichoke is a kind of sunflower. - _Jerusalem_ is a corruption; like _sparrow-grass_ for _asparagus_. - - =Kickshaws=, a corruption of French _quelques choses_. - - =Kindness=, the feeling that is natural to those of the same _kin_ or - family. - - =Lanthorn=, Lat. _lanterna_. No connection with _horn_. - - =Ledge=, a place on which things may be _laid_. From the verb _lay_. - - =Likewise=, in _like wise_ or manner. - - =Line=, to cover with _linen_ on the inside. - - =Linen=, cloth made from _lint_ or flax. - - =Liquorice=, Gr. _glukurrhiza_ = sweet root; from _glukus_, sweet, - and _rhiza_, a root. - - =Meadow=, place where grass is _mown_ or cut down. Compare _math_ and - _aftermath_. - - =Morris-dance= = Moorish dance. - - =Naught=, _no-whit_, nothing. - - =Ness=, a promontory or headland. A doublet of _naze_, and probably - connected with _nose_. It occurs frequently in place-names along - the shores of the North Sea, as in Sheer_ness_, Caith_ness_, the - _Naze_. - - =Nonce=, in ‘for the nonce’ = for the once, for the one occasion; M. - E. _for then ones_. The _n_ belongs to the article, and represents - the _m_ of the dative of the article, namely _tham_. Compare a - newt, for an ewt; nuncle for mine uncle; a nickname for an - eke-name; a nugget or ningot for an ingot. - - =Nostrils=, corrupted form of _nose-thirles_, nose-holes. (Thirl is - connected with _thrill_, _drill_, etc.) - - =Notwithstanding=, _not withstanding_--that is, not standing against. - The _with_ has in this word the old sense of _against_. - - =Nurse=, one who _nourishes_ (Fr. _nourrice_). - - =Nutmeg= = musk-nut. M. E. _note-muge_, O. Fr. _muge_, musk. Lat. - _muscus_. - - =Offal=, waste, part of anything, refuse. Literally ‘what _falls - off_.’ - - =Offing=, the sea far _off_ from the land. Compare _off-scouring_; - _offset_; _offshoot_; and _offspring_. - - =Onset=, a _setting_ or rushing _on_ or upon. - - =Orchard= = _wort-yard_, _wort_ or herb-_yard_, or garden. - - =Ostrich=, through O. Fr. _ostruche_, from Lat. _avis struthio_, - ostrich bird; Gr. _struthion_, an ostrich. - - =Outlaw=, one _out_ of the protection of the _law_. - - =Pastime=, that which serves to _pass_ away the _time_. - - =Pea-jacket=, Dutch _pije_, a rough woollen coat. ‘Jacket’ is - redundant. Not connected with _pea_. - - =Peal= of bells, Fr. _appel_, a call with drum or trumpet. - - =Penthouse=, O. E. _pentice_, Fr. _appentis_, Lat. _appendicium_. Not - connected with _house_. A corruption like _Bird-cage Walk_ for - _Bocage_, (shrubbery) walk. - - =Pickaxe=, O. Fr. _pikois_. No connection with _axe_. - - =Poach=, originally to put into the _pouch_ or _pocket_. Cf. to - _bag_, to _Pocket_, _sack_ and _satchel_. - - =Pocket=, a little _poke_ or _pouch_. - - =Porpoise=, the _hog fish_, from Lat. _porcus_, a pig, and _piscis_, - a fish. - - =Proxy=, contracted from an obsolete _procuracy_, a taking care of - for another. - - =Quicklime=, _lime_ in a _quick_ or active state. Compare the phrase, - ‘the quick and the dead.’ Cf. also _quick_sand = sand easily moved, - _quick_silver, a fluid metal which is very mobile. - - =Rhyme=, properly _rime_ = number, confused with rhythm = flow. - - =Rubbish=, that which is _rubbed_ off; waste matter. - - =Scent= (for sent), from Lat. _sentio_, I feel. - - =Sexton=, Fr. _sacristain_, sacristan. - - =Shamefaced=, is shame_fast_--that is, shame_fixed_. - - =Sheaf=, a quantity of things, especially the stalks of grain, - _shoved_ together and bound. - - =Sheriff=, a _shire-reeve_, the _governor_ of a _shire_ or county. - - =Ship=, something _scooped_ or dug out, and therefore hollow. Compare - _skipper_, where the hard _k_ reappears. - - =Somerset=, a corruption of O. Fr. _soubresault_, from Lat. _supra_ - and _saltus_, a leaping over. - - =Sorry=, _sore_ in mind. - - =Soup=, that which is _supped_. - - =Splice=, to _split_ in order to join. - - =Squirrel=, Fr. _écureuil_, Gr. _skiouros_ = bushy or shadow tail. - From Gr. _skia_, shade, and _oura_, a tail. - - =Starboard=, the _steering_ side of a ship--that is, the right hand - side to one looking toward the bow. - - =Stew=, to put into a _stove_ to be cooked. - - =Stirrup=, put for _sty-rope_; A.S. _stig-rap_, a mounting rope. From - the same root are _stair_, _sty_, _stile_, and _stag_. - - =Straight=, _stretched_ out, tight. - - =Strong=, with the muscles _strung up_. Compare _wrong_ from _wring_. - - =Sweetheart=, from _sweet_ and _heart_, an expression as old as - Chaucer. - - =Tackle=, things to be _taken_ hold of. - - =Tale=, that which is told, what is counted. So also _teller_ (in a - bank). - - =Thorough=, passing _through_, or to the end. - - =Thread=, that which is _thrown_ or twisted. - - =Treacle=, Lat. _theriaca_, Gr. _thēriakē_, viper’s flesh; _therion_ - (a wild beast), a name often given to the viper. Originally an - antidote to the viper’s bite. Milton speaks of ‘the treacle of - sound doctrine.’ - - =Twist=, to twine or wind _two_ threads together. (Compare _twine_, - _twirl_, _twiddle_, etc.) - - =Verdigris=, Fr. _verd-de-grise_, Lat. _viride æris_, _green_ of - brass. Not connected with _grease_. - - =Walrus= = _whale horse_, O. E. _hwæl_, whale; _hors_, horse. The _r_ - has shifted its place, as in _three_, _third_; _turn_, _trundle_, - etc. - - =Whole=, hole, O. E. _hael_. The _w_ is redundant; just as it is in - the _pronunciation_ of _one_. It does not appear in _heal_, - _health_, etc. - - =Wiseacre=, a corruption of the Ger. _weiss sager_, a wise-sayer or - soothsayer, or prophet. - - -4. =WORDS THAT HAVE CHANGED THEIR MEANING.= - - =Artillery=, great weapons of war; was once used to include - crossbows, bows, etc., before gunpowder was invented, 1 Sam. xx. - 40: ‘And Jonathan gave his artillery unto his lad, and said unto - him, Go, carry _them_ to the city.’ - - =Blackguard=, a name originally applied to the lowest kitchen - servants from the dirty work they had to do. - - =Bombast=, originally cotton-wadding, affected language. - - =Boor=, originally a peasant or tiller of the soil. In South Africa a - farmer is called a _boer_. - - =Brat= meant originally a rag or clout, especially a child’s bib or - apron; hence, in contempt, a child. Mandeville speaks of ‘Abraham’s - brats.’ - - =Carriage= once meant baggage. Acts, xxi. 15: ‘And after those days - we took up our carriages, and went up to Jerusalem.’ - - =Censure= once meant opinion or judgment. Shakspeare, _As You Like - It_, IV. i. 7: ‘Betray themselves to every modern censure.’ - - =Charity=, once love, now almsgiving. 1 Cor. xiii. 3: ‘And though I - bestow all my goods to feed _the poor_, and though I give my body - to be burned, and have not _charity_, it profiteth me nothing.’ - - =Cheat= originally meant to seize upon anything which was _escheated_ - or forfeited. - - =Churl=, a countryman or farmer. - - =Conceit=, originally a thought or notion. ‘Dan Chaucer was a - conceited clerk’--that is, a learned man full of new inventions or - thoughts (conceits). - - =Cunning=, originally knowing, clever, skilled in a craft or trade. - The Bible speaks of ‘cunning workmen.’ - - =Demure=, originally of good manners, now staid, grave. - - =Disaster=, an unkindly _star_ (Gr. _astēr_, a star); a term from the - old astrology. - - =Fond= once meant foolish. - - =Gazette=, a small newspaper, originally a small coin. The newspaper - was so named because a _gazetta_ was paid for it. - - =Gossip= (_sib_, or related, in _God_), originally a sponsor in - baptism. _Gossip_ is the kind of talk that goes on between people - who are connected with a family. Compare Fr. _commère_ and - _commèrage_. - - =Heathen=, an unbeliever, originally a dweller on a heath. Compare - _pagan_, a dweller in a _pagus_, or country canton. - - =Idiot=, from Gr. _idiōtēs_, a private person. It afterwards meant a - person who kept himself aloof from public business and politics; a - person despised by the Athenians. - - =Imp=, formerly used in a good sense, meaning scion or offspring. Now - a demon of mischief. - - =Impertinent=, not relating or belonging to the matter in hand. - - =Influence=, a _flowing down_ from the stars; originally a term in - astrology. - - =Kind=, originally _born_; hence _natural_, and so loving. - - =Knave=, originally a boy or servant. Sir John Mandeville speaks of - Mohammed as a ‘poure knave.’ - - =Miser= sometimes means merely a wretched creature. Spenser, _Faerie - Queene_, II. i. 8: - - ‘Vouchsafe to stay your steed for humble miser’s sake.’ - - =Officious=, sometimes used in a good sense, obliging, serviceable. - Shakspeare, _Tit. And._ V. ii. 202: - - ‘Come, come, be every one officious - To make this banquet.’ - - =Ostler= = hosteller, properly the keeper of a hostelry or hotel; - now applied to the horse-groom. - - =Pagan=, from _paganus_, a dweller in a canton, a countryman or - villager; hence a heathen or unbeliever. Christianity was first - preached in the large cities. - - =Painful=, originally painstaking. ‘Rev. J. Flavel was a painful - preacher.’ - - =Polite=, from Lat. _polītus_, polished. - - =Prevent= (to), originally to go before (_præ_ and _venio_). ‘Prevent - us, O Lord, in all our goings.’ - - =Silly=, the adj. originally happy, blessed; whence it came to mean - innocent, simple, foolish. - - =Sycophant= (Gr.), originally a _fig-shower_; a person who informed - the police regarding the smuggling of figs into Athens. - - =Tawdry= was applied originally to goods bought at St Audrey’s fair - (St Audrey = St Ethelreda). - - =Varlet= once meant a serving-man. Valet is a doublet of _varlet_. - (From _vassaletus_, an inferior vassal.) - - =Villain=, a farm-servant, a peasant; from Lat. _villanus_, a servant - on a _villa_ or farm. - - -5. =WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS.= - - =Amazon=, the name of a nation of warlike women, who were said to cut - off their right breasts that they might use the bow. (From Gr. _a_, - without, and _mazos_, the breast.) - - =Argosy=, from _Argo_, the name of a famous ship in which the Greek - warrior Jason sailed to seek the golden fleece, which was at - Colchis, on the eastern shore of the Black Sea. - - =August= was named so in honour of the Roman Emperor Augustus - (Cæsar). - - =Brougham=, after Lord Brougham, a famous English lawyer and - politician. - - =Cravat=, named from the Croats (Crabats), the people of Croatia, in - Austria, from whom we derived the custom of wearing cravats. - - =Dahlia=, from Dahl, a Swede, who introduced the flower into Europe. - - =Dunce=, from Duns Scotus (d. 1308), the great schoolman whose name - was used as a term of reproach by his opponents, the followers of - the learned Thomas Aquinas. - - =Filbert=, from St. Philibert, whose anniversary falls in the nutting - season. - - =Friday=, from Freya, the wife of Odin; one of the Saxon goddesses. - - =Galvanism=, from Galvani of Bologna, who discovered it. He died in - 1798. - - =Herculean=, very powerful; from Hercules, one of the Greek demigods, - who was very strong. - - =Jacobite=, one of those who were favourable to the Stuarts; from - Jacobus II., the Latin name for James II. - - =January=, from Janus, the god with two heads, who opened the year. - - =Jeremiad=, a sorrowful story; from Jeremiah, who wrote the - _Lamentations_. - - =Jovial=, cheerful; from Jove, the king of the ancient gods. - - =July=, from Julius Cæsar, the great Roman statesman and general. - - =Macadamise=, to pave a road with small cubical stones; from Macadam, - who invented this method of making roads. He died 1836. - - =March=, from Mars, the Roman god of war. - - =Martial=, from Mars, the Roman god of war. - - =Mausoleum=, a magnificent tomb; from Mausolus, a king of Caria, in - Asia Minor, whose widow erected a splendid tomb to his memory. - - =Mercury=, quicksilver; from Mercury, the light-footed messenger of - the gods who dwelt on Olympus. - - =Panic=, from Pan, the god of shepherds, who often appeared to them - suddenly and terrified them. - - =Petrel=, a sea-bird; from Peter, who is said to have walked upon the - waters. - - =Philippic=, a speech full of strongly passionate language; from - Philip, king of Macedon, against whom Demosthenes delivered some - fiery speeches of this kind. - - =Saturday=, from Sæter, one of the old Saxon gods. - - =Saturnine=, grave, severe; from Saturn, the father of the Roman - gods. - - =Stentorian=, very loud; from Stentor, the name of a Greek herald, - who is mentioned by Homer, and who had a very loud voice. - - =Tantalise=, from Tantalus, who is said to have been always thirsty - and up to his chin in water, which went out of his reach whenever - he tried to drink. - - =Thursday=, from Thor, the Saxon god of thunder. - - =Tuesday=, from Tiew, the Saxon god of war. - - =Wednesday=, the day of Woden or Odin, the Saxon god of war. The _es_ - is the old possessive form. - - -6. =WORDS DERIVED FROM NAMES OF PLACES.= - - =Academy=, a school; from Academia, the name of the gymnasium where - Plato, the Greek philosopher, taught his pupils. - - =Attic=, an upper room; from Gr. _Attikos_, Athenian. In Athens the - houses are said to have been built with a low upper story. - - =Bayonet=, a kind of dagger, from Bayonne, in France. - - =Bedlam=, a lunatic asylum; from Bethlehem, a monastery in London, - which was afterwards used as a madhouse. - - =Calico=, a kind of cotton cloth; from Calicut, in India. - - =Cambric=, fine linen; from Cambray, in French Flanders. - - =Canary=, a bird, and a kind of wine; from Canary Islands, whence - these things were brought. - - =Canter=, from Canterbury. The pilgrims to this shrine are said to - have ridden at an easy pace. - - =Cashmere=, =Cassimere=, or =Kerseymere=, a rich kind of woollen cloth; - from Cashmere, a province among the Himalayas, in the north of - India, noted for the manufacture of fine woollen fabrics. - - =Cherry=, from Cerăsus, on the Black Sea, whence the fruit was - introduced into Europe. - - =Copper=, a metal; from Cyprus, an island in the eastern part of the - Mediterranean. - - =Currant=, from Corinth, in Greece, where these small dried grapes - were first produced. - - =Damson=, =Damask=, from Damascus, in Syria. - - =Dollar=, from St Joachim’s Thal or valley, in Bohemia. These coins - were first made there about 1518, and were called _thalers_ or - _talers_: whence _dollars_. - - =Florin=, a coin; from Florence, in Italy. - - =Gin=, an alcoholic liquor; from Geneva, in Switzerland. (=Gin=, a - trap, is an abbreviation of _engine_.) - - =Guinea=, a coin worth twenty-one shillings; from Guinea (or Gold - Coast) in Africa, whence the gold of which these coins were first - made was brought. - - =Gypsy=, from Egypt, whence these people were supposed to have come. - They really came from India. - - =Holland=, a kind of linen cloth; =Hollands=, a kind of gin; from - Holland. - - =Indigo=, from India. - - =Jersey=, a woollen jacket; from Jersey, one of the Channel Islands. - - =Magnesia=, =Magnet=, from Magnesia, a town in Asia Minor. - - =Mantua=, a lady’s gown; from Mantua, in Italy. - - =Meander=, to wind about; from Mæander, a river in Asia Minor, which - had a very winding course. - - =Milliner=, from Milan, in Italy. - - =Morocco=, leather prepared in a certain way; from Morocco, in North - Africa. - - =Nankeen=, a kind of cotton cloth; from Nankin, in China. - - =Port=, a dark red wine; from Oporto, in Portugal, whence great - quantities of it are shipped. - - =Sherry=, a light-coloured wine; from Xeres, in Spain. - - =Spaniel=, a kind of dog; from Spain. - - =Turkey=, a large domestic fowl; from Turkey, whence the bird was - supposed to have come. - - =Worsted=, woollen yarn; from Worsted, the name of a village near - Norwich. - - -7. =ENGLISH (OR TEUTONIC) ROOTS.= - - =Ac=, an oak; acorn, Acton [oak-town], Uckfield. - - =Æcer=, a field; acre, God’s acre [the churchyard]. - - =Æsc=, an ash; ash, Ascot, Ashby. - - =Æthele=, noble; Atheling, Ethelbert, Ethelrede [noble in _rede_ or - counsel]. - - =Bacan=, to bake; bake, baker, baxter [a woman baker], batch. - - =Bana=, a slayer; bane, henbane, baneful. - - =Beám=, a tree, or anything in a straight line; beam, sunbeam. - - =Beorgan=, to save or shelter; bury, burgh, harbour, harbinger. - - =Bigan= or =beogan=, to bend; bow, elbow, buxom. - - =Bindan=, to bind; bind, band, bundle, bond, bandage. - - =Blówan=, to blossom; blow, bloom. - - =Brecan=, to break; break, breakers, breakfast. - - =Cáld= or =ceald=, cold; cold, chill. - - =Ceápian=, to buy; chapman, Cheapside, cheap, Chippenham, Copenhagen - [= Merchants’ Haven]. - - =Cunnan=, to know, to be able; can, con, cunning. - - =Cwellan=, to slay; quell. - - =Cwic=, alive; quick, quicksand. - - =Cyning=, a king; king, Kingston. - - =Dragan=, to drag; drag, draw, dray, draught, dredge, draggle. - - =Drypan=, to drop; drop, drip, dribble. - - =Eáge=, an eye; eye, eyebright, daisy [= day’s eye]. - - =Erian=, to plough; ear. - - =Faran=, to go; fare, ferry, wayfarer, fieldfare, ford. - - =Fleógan=, to flee; flee, fly, flight, fledge. - - =Fleótan=, to float; float, fleet. - - =Fod=, food; feed, fodder, foster [= foodster]. - - =Gangan=, to go; go, gang, gait, gangway. - - =Geard=, an inclosure; yard, orchard, vineyard. - - =Gód=, good; good, goodwife. - - =Grafan=, to dig; grave, engraver, groove, grove. - - =Hál=, sound; hale, heal, healthy, whole, wholesome. - - =Healdan=, to hold; hold, holding, behold. - - =Here=, an army; harbour, herring, harbinger [a person sent on before - to provide quarters for a _here_ or army]. - - =Hláf=, a loaf; lady, lord, Lammas (loaf-mass). - - =Hús=, a house; house, housewife. - - =Lædan=, to lead; loadstone, loadstar. - - =Læt=, late; late, latter, last, later, belate. - - =Lang=, long; long, length, along, linger. - - =Lif=, life; life, alive. - - =Mere=, a lake; mere, Windermere, marsh. - - =Móna=, the moon; moon, month. - - =Nosu=, or =nasu=, a nose; nose, the Naze, Ness, nostril, Sheerness. - - =Rædan=, to read; read, rede, riddle. - - =Reáfian=, to rob; rob, bereave, rover. - - =Scíran=, to cut; shear, share, shire, shore, short, skirt, - ploughshare. - - =Settan=, to place; =sittan=, to sit; sit, set, seat, settle. - - =Spell=, a message; gospel [= good spell]. - - =Stede=, a place; homestead, bedstead. - - =Stelan=, to steal; steal, stealth. - - =Stow=, a place; Chepstow, bestow. - - =Tellan=, to reckon; tell, tale, tell-tale. - - =Thyrel=, a hole; thrill, nostril, drill. - - =Tredan=, to tread; tread, treadle. - - =Wácian=, to watch; wake, watch. - - =Ward=, a looker at or guard; ward, warden, weir. - - =Witan=, to know; wit, witness, wisdom, wistful. - - =Wyrcan=, to work; work, wright. - - =Wyrt=, an herb; wort, wart, orchard [wort-yard]. - - -8. =LATIN ROOTS.= - - =Acer=, sharp; acrid, acrimony, vinegar [= sharp wine]. - - =Acidus=, sour; acid, acidity. - - =Ædes=, a house; edifice, edify. - - =Æquus=, equal; equality, equator, adequate, iniquity, equanimity. - - =Æstimo=, I value; estimation, estimate, esteem. - - =Ager=, a field; agriculture, peregrinate. - - =Agger=, a heap; exaggerate. - - =Ago=, I do; act, agile, agency, cogent. - - =Alacer=, cheerful; alacrity. - - =Alo=, I nourish; aliment, alimony. - - =Alter=, the other of two; alternation, subaltern. - - =Altus=, high; altitude, exalt. - - =Ambulo=, I walk; amble, perambulator. - - =Amo=, I love; amity, amorous, inimical. - - =Anima=, the soul; animation, inanimate. - - =Animus=, the mind; magnanimity. - - =Annus=, a circle or year; annual, perennial. - - =Aperio=, I open; aperient, April [the opening month, the month of - spring when the buds open out]. - - =Appello=, I call; appeal, appellation. - - =Aptus=, fit; apt, aptitude. - - =Aqua=, water; aqueduct, aquatic, aqueous. - - =Arbiter=, a judge; arbitration, arbitrary. - - =Arbor=, a tree; arboraceous, arbour. - - =Ardeo=, I burn; ardent, arson. - - =Arduus=, steep [with the idea of difficulty of attainment]; arduous. - - =Arma=, weapons; arms, armistice, disarm, army. - - =Aro=, I plough; arable. - - =Ars= (=art=-is), art; artificial, inertia, artisan. - - =Artus=, a joint; articulate, article. - - =Audio=, I hear; audience, audible. - - =Augeo=, I increase: augment, auctioneer. - - =Avis=, a bird; aviary. - - =Barba=, a beard; barber, barbel, barb. - - =Bellum=, war; bellicose, belligerent, rebellious. - - =Bibo=, I drink; imbibe, winebibber. - - =Bis=, twice; biscuit, bissextile. - - =Bonus=, good; benevolent, bounty. - - =Brevis=, short; brevity, abbreviate, brief. - - =Cado= (=cas=-um), I fall; casual, accident. - - =Cædo= (=cæs=-um), I cut or kill; precise, excision, decide. - - =Campus=, a plain; camp, encamp. - - =Candeo=, I shine; =candidus=, white, incandescent, candidate. - - =Cano=, I sing; canticle, chant, incantation. - - =Capio= (=capt=-um), I take; captive, accept, reception. - - =Caput=, the head; capital, captain. - - =Caro= (=carn=-is), flesh; carnal, carnival, carnivorous. - - =Castus=, pure; chastity, castigate, chastise. - - =Causa=, a cause; accuse, causation. - - =Caveo= (=caut=-um), I take care; caution, cautious. - - =Cavus=, hollow; cavity, cave, excavate. - - =Cedo= (=cess=-um), I yield; cede, accede, proceed. I go; procession, - ancestor. - - =Centum=, a hundred; century, centurion. - - =Cerno= (=cret=-um), I notice or discern; discern, decretal, - discretion. - - =Cingo= (=cinct=-um), I gird; cincture, succinct. - - =Cito=, I rouse; excite, citation. - - =Civis=, a citizen; civic, civil, city. - - =Clamo=, I shout; clamour, proclamation, reclaim. - - =Clarus=, clear; clarify, declare, clarion. - - =Claudo= (=claus=-um), I shut; close, exclude, seclusion. - - =Clivus=, a slope; declivity. - - =Colo= (=cult=-um), I till; cultivate, arboriculture. - - =Copia=, plenty; copious, cornucopia. - - =Coquo= (=coct=-um), I boil; decoction, biscuit. - - =Cor= (=cord=-is), the heart; courage, cordial, discord. - - =Corpus= (=corpor=-is), the body; corpse, corps, incorporate. - - =Credo=, I believe; credibility, credence, miscreant. - - =Creo=, I create; create, creation, creature, recreation. - - =Cresco= (=cret=-um), I grow; crescent, increment. - - =Crimen=, a charge; crime, criminate. - - =Crux= (=cruc=-is), a cross; crucial, crucifix. - - =Cubo=, I lie down; incubate, recumbent. - - =Culpa=, a fault; culpable, exculpate, culprit. - - =Cura=, care; sinecure, curate, secure, accurate. - - =Curro= (=curs=-um), I run; cursory, course, recur, occur. - - =Decem=, ten; decimal, December. - - =Dens= (=dent=-is), a tooth; dentist, dental, indent. - - =Deus=, a god; deity, deify, divine. - - =Dexter=, right hand; dexterous. - - =Dico= (=dict=-um), I say; verdict, dictation, dictionary, indictment. - - =Dies=, a day; diary, meridian. - - =Dignus=, worthy; dignity, indignant. - - =Do= (=dat=-um), I give; donor, add [= _ad-do_, I give to], data. - - =Doceo= (=doct=-um), I teach; docile, doctor. - - =Dominus=, a lord; dominant, dominion, dame. - - =Domus=, a house; domicile, domestic. - - =Dormio=, I sleep; dormitory, dormant. - - =Duco= (=duct=-um), I lead; induct, education, duke, produce. - - =Duo=, two; dual, duel, (double), duplex. - - =Durus=, hard; durable, obdurate, duration. - - =Emo= (=empt=-um), I buy; redeem, exemption. - - =Eo= (=it=-um), I go; exit, transit, circuit, ambition. - - =Equus=, a horse; equine, equestrian. - - =Erro=, I wander; error, aberration. - - =Esse=, to be; essential, essence. - - =Facies=, the face; facial, facet, superficial. - - =Facilis=, easy; facile, facility, difficult. - - =Facio= (=fact=-um), I make; manufacture, factor, faction. - - =Fallo= (=fals=-um), I deceive; false, infallible, fallacious. - - =Fama=, a report; fame, defame, infamy. - - =Fans= (=fant=-is), speaking; infant [= a non-speaker]. - - =Felix= (=felīc=-is), happy; felicity, infelicity. - - =Fero=, I bear or carry; infer, reference, difference. - - =Ferrum=, iron; ferruginous. - - =Ferveo=, I boil; fervent, effervesce, ferment. - - =Fido=, I trust; confide, infidel, perfidy, diffident. - - =Filius=, a son; filial, affiliation. - - =Filum=, a thread; file, defile, profile. - - =Finis=, an end; final, infinite, confine. - - =Firmus=, firm; infirm, affirm. - - =Flecto=, I bend; flexible, inflection. - - =Flos= (=flōr=-is), a flower; floral, Flora, floriculture. - - =Fluo= (=fluct=-um), I flow; fluent, flux, refluent, fluid. - - =Forma=, a form; form, formal, reform, conformity. - - =Fortis=, strong; fortify, fortitude, fortress. - - =Frango= (=fract=-um), I break; fragile, fragmentary, infraction. - - =Frater=, a brother; fraternal, fratricide. - - =Frons= (=front=-is), the forehead; frontispiece, frontal, frontier. - - =Fruor= (=fruct=-us), I enjoy; fruit, fructify, fruition. - - =Fugio=, I flee; fugitive, refugee, subterfuge. - - =Fundo= (=fus=-um), I pour; fusible, diffusion, foundry. - - =Fundus=, the bottom; foundation, profound. - - =Furor=, madness; furious, fury. - - =Gelu=, frost; gelid, jelly, congeal. - - =Gens= (=gent=-is), a nation; gentile, genteel, gentle, congenial. - - =Genus= (=genĕr=-is), a kind; general, genus. - - =Gero= (=gest=-um), I bear or carry; gesture, suggestion. - - =Gradior= (=gress=-us), I go; =gradus=, a step; degrade, progress, - degree. - - =Grandis=, great; grand, aggrandise. - - =Gratia=, favour; =gratiæ=, thanks; gratitude, ingratiate, gratis. - - =Gravis=, heavy; gravitate, gravity, (grief). - - =Grex= (=greg=-is), a flock; gregarious, egregious. - - =Habeo=, I have; habit, able, exhibit, prohibition. - - =Hæreo= (=hæs=-um), I stick; adhere, cohesion. - - =Homo=, a man; homicide, human. - - =Hospes= (=hospit=-is), a guest; hospital, hostel, hotel. - - =Hostis=, an enemy; host, hostile. - - =Humus=, the ground; posthumous, exhume. - - =Ignis=, fire; ignite, igneous. - - =Impero=, I command; imperial, emperor, empire. - - =Insula=, an island; isle, insular, peninsula, insulate. [_Island_ is - not connected with this root. It was in older English spelled - _iland_.] - - =Iter= (=itiner=-is), a journey; itinerant. - - =Jacio= (=jact=-um), I throw; adjective, project, injection. - - =Judex= (=judĭc=-is); (adjudge), judicial. - - =Jungo= (=junct=-um), I join; junction, conjoin, juncture. - - =Jus= (=jur=-is), law, right; justice, jurisdiction, jury. - - =Labor= (=laps=-us), I glide; lapse, collapse. - - =Lædo= (=læs=-um), I injure; collision, lesion. - - =Lapis= (=lapĭd=-is), a stone; lapidary. - - =Latus=, broad; latitude. - - =Laus= (=laud=-is), praise; laud, laudable. - - =Lego= (=lect=-um), I gather or read; college, collect, prelection, - lecture. - - =Lĕvis=, light; levity, alleviate, relief. - - =Lex= (=lēg=-is), law; legal, legislate. - - =Liber=, free; liberal, liberty. - - =Libra=, a balance; deliberate. - - =Ligo=, I bind; ligament, religion. - - =Limes= (=limit=-is), a boundary; limit. - - =Linquo= (=lict=-um), I leave; relinquish, relict, relics. - - =Litera=, a letter; literature, literary, letters, obliterate. - - =Locus=, a place; location, dislocate. - - =Longus=, long; elongate, longitude. - - =Loquor= (=locūt=-us), I speak; loquacious, eloquent, elocution. - - =Ludo= (=lus=-um), I play; ludicrous, allusion. - - =Lumen= (=lumin=-is), light; illuminate, luminous. - - =Luna=, the moon; Luna, sublunary, lunacy. - - =Luo=, I wash; ablution, dilute. - - =Lux= (=luc=-is), light; lucid, pellucid. - - =Magister=, a master; magistrate, master. - - =Magnus=, great; magnificent, magniloquent, magnify. - - =Malus=, bad; malady, malice, maltreat. - - =Maneo= (=mans=-um), I remain; mansion, permanent. - - =Manus=, the hand; manufacture, manual, manuscript. - - =Mare=, the sea; marine, mariner. - - =Mater=, a mother; maternal, matricide. - - =Maturus=, ripe; mature, maturity. - - =Medeor=, I heal; medicine, remedy. - - =Medius=, the middle; medial, immediate, Mediterranean. - - =Memini=, I remember; =memor=, mindful; memorable, commemorate, - memento, immemorial. - - =Mens= (=ment=-is), the mind; mental, comment. - - =Mereo= (=merit=-um), I deserve; merit, meretricious. - - =Mergo= (=mers=-um), I dip; submerge, immersion. - - =Merx= (=merc=-is), goods; merchant, commerce, mercantile. - - =Miles= (=milĭt=-is), a soldier; military, militant, militia. - - =Mille=, a thousand; mile, million. - - =Miror=, I admire; admire, miracle, mirage. - - =Misceo=, I mix; miscellaneous, promiscuous. - - =Mitto= (=miss=-um), I send; mission, missile, remittance. - - =Mŏdus=, a measure; modify, mood, accommodate. - - =Mollis=, soft; mollify, emollient. - - =Moneo= (=monĭt=-um), I advise; admonition, monitor. - - =Mons= (=mont=-is), a mountain; mountain, promontory. - - =Monstro=, I point out; demonstrate. - - =Mors= (=mort=-is), death; mortify, mortal. - - =Moveo= (=mot=-um), I move; motion, movable, move. - - =Multus=, many; multiplex, multitude. - - =Munus= (=munĕr=-is), a gift; remunerate, munificent. - - =Muto=, I change; mutable, immutable, transmute. - - =Nascor= (=nat=-us), to be born; nascent, natal, nativity. - - =Navis=, a ship; navigate, naval, navy. - - =Necto= (=nex=-us), I tie; connect, nexus, annex. - - =Nego=, I deny; negative, negation. - - =Noceo=, I hurt; noxious, innocuous, innocent. - - =Nomen= (=nomĭn=-is), a name; nominal, nomination, cognomen. - - =Nosco= (=not=-um), I know or mark; note, notation. - - =Novus=, new; novel, novitiate, innovation. - - =Nox= (=noct=-is), night; nocturnal, equinoctial. - - =Nudus=, naked; nude, denudation. - - =Numero=, I number; enumerate, numeration. - - =Nuntio=, I announce; nuncio, annunciation, pronounce. - - =Nutrio=, I nourish; nutriment, nurse. - - =Octo=, eight; octave, octagon, October. - - =Oculus=, the eye; oculist. - - =Odor=, smell; odour, redolent. - - =Omnis=, all; omnipotent, omniscient. - - =Onus= (=onĕr=-is), a burden; onerous. - - =Opus= (=opĕr=-is), a work; operate, operation. - - =Ordo= (=ordĭn=-is), order; ordinal, ordinary. - - =Oro=, I pray; oration, inexorable, peroration. - - =Os= (=ōr=-is), the mouth; oral, adore. - - =Os= (=Oss=-is), bone; ossify, ossification. - - =Pando= (=pans=-um or =pass=-um), I spread; expand, expanse, compass. - - =Pango= (=pact=-um), I fix; compact, impinge. - - =Panis=, bread; pantry, pannier, company. - - =Par=, equal; (pair), par, parity. - - =Pareo=, I appear; apparent, apparition. - - =Paro= (=parat=-um), I prepare; prepare, repair, apparatus. - - =Pars= (=part=-is), a part; partition, particle. - - =Pasco= (=past=-um), I feed; repast, pastor. - - =Pater=, a father; paternal, patricide. - - =Patior= (=pass=-us), I suffer; impatient, passion. - - =Pauper=, poor; pauper, poverty. - - =Pax= (=pāc=-is), peace; pacify, pacific. - - =Pello= (=puls=-um), I drive; repel, expel, expulsion. - - =Pendeo= (=pens=-um), I hang; dependent, suspend. - - =Pendo=, I weigh out, hence, I pay; expend, recompense. - - =Pes= (=pĕd=-is), the foot; impede, pedestrian, biped. - - =Peto= (=petīt=-um), I seek; petition, petulant. - - =Pingo= (=pict=-um), I paint; picture, pigment. - - =Placeo=, I please; placid, complacent. - - =Planus=, level; plane, plain, plan. - - =Plaudo= (=plaus=-um), I clap the hands; applause, (explode). - - =Plecto= (=plex=-um), I weave; complex, perplex. - - =Pleo= (=plēt=-um), I fill; complete, completion, repletion. - - =Plĭco=, I fold; complicate, reply. - - =Plus= (=plūr=-is), more; plurality, surplus. - - =Pœna=, punishment; penalty, repent. - - =Pondus= (=pondĕr=-is), weight; ponderous, pound. - - =Pono= (=posĭt=-um), I place; disposition, exposition, imposition. - - =Pons= (=pont=-is), a bridge; pontiff, transpontine. - - =Popŭlus=, the people; populace, popular. - - =Porto=, I carry; export, deportation, report. - - =Possum=, I am able; =potens=, able; possible, potency, potentate, - impotent. - - =Poto=, I drink; potion, poison, potable. - - =Prĕcor=, I pray; precarious, imprecation. - - =Prehendo=, I take; apprehend, comprehension, apprentice. - - =Premo= (=press=-um), I press; compress, print. - - =Pretium=, a price; precious, appreciate, prize. - - =Primus=, first; prime, primitive, primrose. - - =Prīvo=, I separate; deprive, privateer, private. - - =Probo=, I try or prove; probable, prove, reproof. - - =Proprius=, one’s own; property, appropriation. - - =Pugna=, a fight; pugnacious, repugnant. - - =Pungo= (=punct=-um), I prick; pungent, poignant, punctual. - - =Puto=, I cut or think; amputate, compute, reputation. - - =Quæro= (=quæsīt=-um), I seek; quest, inquiry, inquisition. - - =Quatuor=, four; quadrilateral, square, quarry, quart, quadrant. - - =Quies= (=quiēt=-is), rest; acquiesce, quiet, requite. - - =Radius=, a ray; radiant, irradiate, (ray). - - =Radix= (=radic=-is), a root; radical, eradicate. - - =Rapio= (=rapt=-um), I seize; rapture, rapine, surreptitious. - - =Ratio=, reason; rational, ration, reason. - - =Rego= (=rect=-um), I rule; regiment, regal, regulate, rector, rectify. - - =Res= (=re=-i), a thing; real, reality, republican. - - =Rex= (=reg=-is), a king; regal, interregnum, royal. - - =Rideo= (=rīs=-um), I laugh; deride, derision. - - =Rivus=, a brook; river, rival. - - =Rodo= (=ros=-um), I gnaw; erosion, corrode. - - =Rogo=, I ask; derogatory, interrogation, arrogate. - - =Rota=, a wheel; rote, rotation, rotund, round. - - =Rumpo= (=rupt=-um), I break; rupture, disruption, irruption, eruption. - - =Rus= (=rūr=-is), the country; rural, rustic. - - =Sacer=, sacred; desecrate, sacrilege. - - =Sal=, salt; saline, salary [= salt-money]. - - =Salio= (=salt=-um), I leap; sally, assail, assault, insult, salmon [= - the _leaping_ fish], salient. - - =Salus= (=salūt=-is), health; =salvus=, safe; salutary, salubrious, - salvation. - - =Sanctus=, holy; sanctify, saint - - =Sanguis= (=sanguin=-is), blood; sanguinary. - - =Sano= (=sanāt=-um), I cure; sanitary, sane, insane. - - =Sapio=, I taste or am wise; sapient, insipid, savour. - - =Scando= (=scans=-um), I climb; =scala=, a ladder; scan, scale, - ascension, descend. - - =Scio=, I know; science, scientific, conscience, omniscient. - - =Scribo= (=script=-um), I write; scribe, scripture, manuscript, - describe. - - =Seco= (=sect=-um), I cut; dissect, insect, segment, section. - - =Sedeo= (=sess=-um), I set; sediment, subside, residence. - - =Senex=, an old man; senile, senior, senate, senator. - - =Sentio= (=sens=-us), I feel or perceive; sense, sentimental. - - =Septem=, seven; septennial, September. - - =Sequor= (=secūt=-us), I follow; sequel, consecutive, consequent. - - =Servio=, I serve; servant, service, servitor. - - =Servo=, I preserve; reserve, conservative, conservatory. - - =Signum=, a mark; sign, signify, designation. - - =Simĭlis=, like; dissimilar, similitude, resemble, dissemble. - - =Sisto=, I stop; insist, consistency. - - =Solus=, alone; solitary, sole. - - =Solvo= (=solūt=-um), I loose; absolute, resolve, solution, resolution. - - =Somnus=, sleep; somnolent, somnambulist. - - =Specio= (=spect=-um) I see; aspect, retrospect, specious. - - =Spero=, I hope; despair, desperate. - - =Spiro=, I breathe; spiral, aspire, inspiration, conspiracy. - - =Spondeo= (=spons=-um), I promise; respond, sponsor, (spouse). - - =Statuo=, I set up; =sto= (=stat=-um), to stand; statute, statue, - institute, restitution, extant, substance. - - =Stella=, a star; stellar, constellation. - - =Stringo= (=strict=-um), I bind; stringent, stricture, constrain. - - =Struo= (=struct=-um), I build; structure, (construe, destroy), - destruction. - - =Suadeo= (=suas=-um), I persuade; persuasion, dissuade. - - =Sumo= (=sumpt=-um), I take; resume, consumption. - - =Surgo= (=surrect=-um), I arise; insurgent, resurrection. - - =Taceo=, I am silent; tacit, taciturn. - - =Tango= (=tact=-um), I touch; intangible, contact, contagious. - - =Tego= (=tect=-um), I cover; integument, detect. - - =Tempus= (=tempŏr=-is), time; temporal, tense. - - =Tendo= (=tens=-um), I stretch; extend, intension, tent, tense. - - =Teneo= (=tent=-um), I hold; contain, tenacious, retentive. - - =Terminus=, an end or boundary; term, terminus, determine. - - =Tero= (=trīt=-um), I rub; contrition, trite, detritus. - - =Terra=, the earth; subterranean, Mediterranean. - - =Terreo=, I frighten; terror, terrify. - - =Testis=, a witness; testator, testify, contest. - - =Texo= (=text=-um), I weave; texture, context, textile. - - =Timeo=, I fear; timid, intimidation. - - =Tono=, I thunder; astonish, detonate. - - =Torqueo= (=tort=-um), I twist; torture, torsion. - - =Traho= (=tract=-um), I draw; contractile. - - =Tribuo=, I give; tribute, contribution. - - =Tribus=, a tribe; tribe, tribune, tribunal. - - =Trudo= (=trus=-um), I thrust; extrusion, intrude. - - =Turba=, a crowd; turbid, turbulent. - - =Umbra=, a shadow; umbrage, adumbration. - - =Unda=, a wave; undulate, inundation. - - =Unguo= (=unct=-um), I anoint; unguent, unctuous, ointment. - - =Unus=, one; unity, union. - - =Urbs=, a city; urban, suburb. - - =Utor= (=us=-us), I use; use, utensil, usury. - - =Vacca=, a cow; vaccinate. - - =Valeo=, I am strong; valour, valiant, prevail. - - =Vanus=, empty; vain, vanish, vanity. - - =Vas= (=vās=-is), a vessel; vase, vascular, vessel. - - =Veho= (=vect=-um), I carry; vehicle, convey. - - =Vello= (=vuls=-um), I pluck; convulsion. - - =Venio= (=vent=-um), I come; venture, advent. - - =Ver=, the spring; verdant, vernal, verdure. - - =Verbum=, a word; verb, verbal, verbose, proverb. - - =Verto= (=vers=-um), I turn; controvert, aversion. - - =Verus=, true; verdict, veracious, verity. - - =Vestis=, a garment; invest, vesture. - - =Vetus= (=vetĕr=-is), old; veteran. - - =Via=, a way; deviate, previous. - - =Video= (=vĭs=-um), I see; vision, provident. - - =Vinco= (=vict=-um), I overcome; victor, victory, convince. - - =Vir=, a man; virtue, virile. - - =Vita=, life; vital, vitality. - - =Vitium=, a fault; vitiate, vicious, vice. - - =Vivo= (=vict=-um), I live; survive, victuals. - - =Voco=, I call; =vox= (=vōc=-is), the voice; voice, convocation, revoke, - vociferate. - - =Volo=, I fly; volatile, volley. - - =Volo=, I wish; involuntary, volition, benevolence, malevolence. - - =Volvo= (=volūt=-um), I roll; involution, evolve, volume. - - =Voveo= (=vot=-um), I vow; vow, devote. - - =Vulgus=, the common people; vulgar, divulge. - - =Vulnus= (=vulnĕr=-is), a wound; vulnerable. - - -9. =GREEK ROOTS.= - - =Ago=, I lead; pedagogue, synagogue. - - =Agōn=, a contest; agony, antagonist. - - =Allos=, another; allopathy, allegory. - - =Anggelos=, a messenger; angel, evangelist. - - =Anthrōpos=, a man; misanthrope, philanthropy. - - =Archo=, I begin or rule; monarch, archaic [= early]; archbishop, - archdeacon. - - =Arctos=, a bear; Arctic, Antarctic, Arcturus. - - =Arithmos=, number; arithmetic. - - =Aster= or =astron=, a star; astronomy, astrology, asteroid, disaster. - - =Atmos=, vapour; atmosphere. - - =Autos=, self; autocrat, autograph. - - =Ballo=, I throw; symbol. - - =Bapto=, I dip; baptise, baptist. - - =Baros=, weight; barometer. - - =Biblos=, a book; Bible, bibliomania. - - =Bios=, life; biography, biology. - - =Cheir=, the hand; surgeon [older form, chirurgeon]. - - =Chrio=, I anoint; Christ, chrism. - - =Cholē=, bile; melancholy. - - =Chronos=, time; chronology, chronic, chronicle. - - =Daktŭlos=, a finger; dactyl, pterodactyl, date--_the fruit_. - - =Deka=, ten; decagon, decalogue. - - =Dēmos=, the people; democrat, endemic, epidemic. - - =Dokeo=, to think; =doxa= and =dogma=, an opinion; doxology, orthodox, - heterodox, dogma, dogmatic. - - =Drao=, I do; drama, dramatic. - - =Dunămis=, power; dynamics. - - =Eidos=, form; kaleidoscope. - - =Eikon=, an image: iconoclast. - - =Electron=, amber; electricity. - - =Ergon=, a work; surgeon [= chirurgeon], energy. - - =Eu=, well; eucharist, euphony, evangelist. - - =Gamos=, marriage; bigamy, monogamist, misogamy. - - =Gē=, the earth; geography, geometry, geology. - - =Gennao=, I produce; genesis, genealogy, hydrogen, oxygen. - - =Grapho=, I write; =gramma=, a letter; graphic, grammar, telegraph, - biography, diagram. - - =Haima=, blood; hæmorrhage, hæmorrhoid. - - =Haireo=, I take away; heresy, heretic. - - =Helios=, the sun; helioscope, heliotype. - - =Hemi=, half; hemisphere. - - =Hieros=, sacred; hierarchy, hieroglyphic. - - =Hippos=, a horse; hippopotamus, hippodrome. - - =Hŏdos=, a way; method, period, exodus. - - =Hŏmos=, the same; homœopathy, homogeneous. - - =Hudor=, water; hydraulic, hydrophobia. - - =Ichthus=, a fish; ichthyology. - - =Idios=, one’s own; idiom, idiot, idiosyncrasy. - - =Isos=, equal; isochronous, isobaric (of equal weight). - - =Kalos=, beautiful; caligraphy, calotype. - - =Kephalē=, the head; hydrocephalus. - - =Klino=, I bend; climax, climate. - - =Kosmos=, order; cosmogony, cosmography, cosmetic. - - =Krino=, I judge; critic, criterion, hypocrite. - - =Kuklos=, a circle; cycle, cycloid, cyclone. - - =Kuon=, a dog; cynic, cynicism. - - =Lĕgo=, I say or choose; eclectic, lexicon. - - =Lithos=, a stone; lithograph, aerolite. - - =Lŏgos=, a word, speech; logic, dialogue, geology. - - =Luo=, I loosen; dialysis, analysis. - - =Metron=, a measure; metronome, diameter, thermometer, barometer. - - =Mŏnos=, alone; monastery, monogram, monosyllable. - - =Morphē=, shape; amorphous, dimorphous, metamorphic. - - =Naus=, a ship; nautical. - - =Nekros=, a dead body; necropolis, necromancy. - - =Nŏmos=, a law; autonomous, astronomy, Deuteronomy. - - =Oikos=, a house; economy, economical. - - =Onŏma=, a name; anonymous, synonymous, patronymic. - - =Optŏmai=, I see; optics, synoptical. - - =Orthos=, right; orthodoxy, orthography. - - =Pais= (=paid=-os), a boy; pedagogue [lit. _a boy-leader_]. - - =Pan=, all; pantheist, panoply, pantomime. - - =Pathos=, feeling; pathetic, sympathy. - - =Pente=, five; pentagon, pentateuch, Pentecost. - - =Phainŏmai=, I appear; phantasy, phantom, fantastic, fancy. - - =Phero=, I bear; periphery, phosphorus [= the light-bearer]. - - =Phileo=, I love; philosophy, Philadelphia. - - =Phōs= (=phōt=-os), light; photometer, photograph. - - =Phusis=, nature; physics, physiology, physician. - - =Planao=, I cause to wander; planet. - - =Poieo=, I make; poet, poetic, pharmacopœia. - - =Polis=, a city; Constantinople, metropolis. - - =Polus=, many; polytheist, Polynesia, polyanthus. - - =Pous= (=pŏd=-os), a foot; antipodes. - - =Pur=, fire; pyrotechnic, pyre. - - =Rheo=, I flow; rhetoric, catarrh, rheumatic. - - =Skŏpeo=, I see; microscope, telescope, spectroscope, bishop [from - _episkopos_, an overseer]. - - =Sophia=, wisdom; sophist, philosophy. - - =Stello=, I send; apostle, epistle. - - =Stratos=, an army; strategy, strategic. - - =Strĕpho=, I turn; catastrophe. - - =Technē=, an art; technical. - - =Tĕlē=, distant; telegraph, telescope, telephone, telegram. - - =Temno=, I cut; anatomy, lithotomy. - - =Tetra=, four; tetrachord, tetrarch. - - =Theāomai=, I see, behold; theatre, theory. - - =Theos=, a god; theist, enthusiast, theology. - - =Thermē=, heat; thermal, thermometer, isotherm. - - =Tithēmi=, I place; =thēsis=, a placing; synthesis, hypothesis. - - =Treis=, three; triangle, trigonometry, trilobite. - - =Trĕpo=, I turn; trophy, tropic. - - =Tupos=, the impress of a seal; type, stereotype. - - =Zōon=, an animal; zoology, zodiac. - - -10. =THE BRANCHING OF WORDS FROM LATIN STEMS.= - - =Ag=-o (=act=-um), I do.--=Act=, that which is done; =active=, engaged in - doing; =action=, a doing; =enact=, to make an _act_, to establish as - law; =enactment=; =transaction=, the doing of a thing thoroughly; - =react=, to do again. - - =Apt=-us, fitted.--=Apt=, fit: =aptitude=, fitness; =adapt=, to fit to; - =adaptability=, capability of being fitted to; =adaptation=, a fitting - to; =adept=, one who is fitted for doing things. - - =Ced=-o, I go.--=Accede=, to go to, hence to agree to; =access=, a going - to, hence an approach or entrance; =accessory=, going to or aiding; - =concede=, to go away from, to give up; =concession=, the act of giving - up; =exceed=, to go out of; =excess=, that which goes out or beyond; - =excessive=, going beyond; =intercede=, to go in between, hence to act - as a peacemaker; =intercessory=, going in between; =precede=, to go - before; =procession=, a going forth, or that which goes forth; - =recede=, to go back; =recess=, a space which goes back; =succeed=, to - come from under, hence to follow in order; =success=, the act of - succeeding; =successor=, one who follows; =successively=, following in - order. - - =Cor= (=cord=-is), the heart.--=Cordial=, hearty; =cordiality=, heartiness; - =concord=, state of being of the same heart, harmony; =discord=, want - of heart or agreement; =discordant=; =record=, to call back to the - heart or mind; =recorder=, one who keeps records or registers; - =courage= (through Fr.), heart--that is, bravery; =encourage=, to put - heart in; =discourage=, to take heart from; =discouragement=. - - =Cur=-a, care.--=Cure= (verb and noun); =curable=, that may be cured; - =cureless=, without cure; =curate=, one who has the cure (or care) of - souls; =curator=, one who has care of anything; =curative=, tending to - cure; =curious=, full of care, anxious; =curiosity=; =accurate=, done - with care, hence without error; =procure=, to take care of; - =procurator=, one who takes care of; =secure=, free from care; - =security=, state of being free from care; =sinecure=, an office - without care. - - =Curr=-o, I run.--=Current=, that which runs; =currency=, a running, the - money which runs in a country; =concur=, to run together, hence to - agree; =incur=, to run into; =occur=, to run in the way of; =recur=, to - run back; =course= (through Fr.), the track on which anything runs; - =courser=, a runner; =recourse=, a running back, a going to for aid; - =intercourse=, a running between; =precursor=, one who runs before; - =courier= (Fr.), one who runs; =corridor= (Spanish), a passage or - gallery running along. - - =Do= (=dat=-um, what is given), I give.--=Add=, to give to; =addition=, - act of giving to; =condition=, state in which things are put - together, or exist; =conditionally=; =edit=, to give forth or out; - =edition=, what is given out; =editor=, one who gives out; =date=, the - time given in a letter. - - =Duc=-o, I lead.--=Duke=, a leader; =ducal=, pertaining to a leader; - =ductile=, that which may be led or drawn out; =ductility=, the quality - of being ductile; =educate=, to lead out; =education=; =conduct= (verb - and noun), to lead together; =induce=, to lead into; =produce=, to lead - forth; =reduce=, to lead back; =seduce=, to lead out of the right path. - - =Dur=-us, hard.--=During=, lasting (but now used as a _preposition_); - =dure=, to last; =duration=; =durable=; =durability=; =durableness=; =endure=, - to be hard, firm, or lasting; =obdurate=, hardened against. - - =Fac=-io, I do, or I make.--=Fact=, a deed; =factor=, a maker; =affect=, to - act upon; =affection=; =affected=; =affectation=, acting upon one’s self; - =defect=, a want; =effect=, something thoroughly done; =effective=; - =perfect=, to make thoroughly; =perfection=, state of being thoroughly - made; =imperfect=, not thoroughly made. - - =Fer=-o, I carry.--=Confer=, to come together for council; =conference=; - =defer=, to bear one’s self down or yield to the wishes of another; - =deference=; =differ=, to carry asunder, hence to disagree; =different=; - =differently=; =difference=; =offer=, to carry in the way of; =prefer=, to - carry before, hence to esteem more than another; =preference=; =refer=, - to carry back; =suffer=, to bear up, hence to undergo; =transfer=, to - carry across. - - =Firm=-us, strong.--=Firm=, strong; =firmness=; =firmly=; =confirm=, to make - more strong; =confirmation=; =affirm=, to declare strongly; =infirm=, not - strong; =infirmity=, state of being infirm, hence disease; =infirmary=, - a place for the infirm; =firmament=, that which is firm, the place - supposed to be fixed above the earth. - - =Form=-a, shape.--=Form=, shape; =formal=, according to form; =informal=, - not according to form; =formality=; =formally=; =formative=, giving form; - =formula=, a little form; =conform=, to make of the same form with; - =deform=, to alter or injure the form of; =inform=, to put into form or - shape, educate, instruct; =information=; =misinform=, to give wrong - knowledge to; =perform=, to form thoroughly; =reform=, to form again; - =reformation=; =transform=, to change the form of. - - =Grati=-a, favour.--=Grace= (through Fr.); =graceful=, full of the power - to win favour; =gracefulness=; =gracefully=; =gracious=, full of grace; - =disgrace=, state of being out of grace or favour; =grateful=, thankful - for favour; =ingratitude=; =ingrate=, an ungrateful person; =gratify=, to - please; =gratuitous=, by favour and without price; =gratitude=; =agree= - (Fr.). - - =Habe=-o, I have.--=Habit=, the having one’s self in a certain - condition; =habitual=; =habitable=, that may be inhabited; =habitat=, the - place which a plant or an animal inhabits; =habitation=, place where - one dwells or inhabits; =exhibit=, to hold out to view; =inhibit=, to - hold in or keep back; =inhibition=; =inhabit=, to be in the habit of - living in; =prohibit=, to hold before one, hence to check. - - =Jac=-io (=jact=-um), I throw.--=Eject=, to throw out; =ejectment=, a - throwing out; =ejection=, the act of throwing out; =ejaculate=, to - throw out (a sound); =ejaculation=; =abject=, thrown down; =adjective=, - that which is thrown to or added to; =conjecture=, a throwing - together of chances, or a guess; =deject=, to throw down; =inject=, to - throw into; =interjection=, a throwing into the middle of; =project= - (verb and noun), to throw forward; =subject= (verb and noun), to - throw under; =reject=, to throw back. - - =Jung=-o (=junct=-us, joined), I join.--=Join= (through Fr.); =joint=, a - place where things are joined; =joiner=, one who joins; =juncture=, a - joining; =conjoin= (Fr.), to join together; =conjuncture=, a joining - together; =disjoin= (Fr.), to separate; =adjunct=, something joined to; - =conjunction=, that which joins together. - - =Leg=-o (=lect=-um), I gather or read.--=Collect’=, to gather together; - =col’-lect=, what is gathered together; =collection=; =collector=; =elect=, - to gather out from; =election=; =elector=; =select=, to choose apart, to - pick out; =legend=, that which should be read; =legible=, that which - may be read. - - =Mitt=-o (=miss=-um), I send.--=Admit=; =commit=, to send together with, to - intrust to; =commitment=, a sending together; =commission=, a sending - with authority; =emit=, to send out; =emission=, a sending out; =omit=, - to send away, to leave out; =omission=, the act of leaving out; - =permit=; =permission=; =remit=, to send back; =transmit=, to send through. - - =Norm=-a, a rule.--=Normal=, according to rule; =normally=; =enormous=, - great, beyond rule; =enormity=; =abnormal=, away from rule. - - =Nosc=-o (=not=-um), I know or mark.--=Note=, something by which a thing - may be known, hence a mark; =noted=, known; =notable=, deserving to be - known; =noble= (Fr.); =notify=, to make known; =notorious=, too well - known; =notice=, a warning to know; =noticeable=, likely to be observed - or known. - - =Ord=-o (=ordin=-is), arrangement.--=Order=; =ordain=, to arrange or put in - order; =ordinal=, that which shows arrangement; =ordination=, the act - of arranging; =ordinary=, according to the common arrangement; - =extraordinary=, out of the common arrangement; =disorder=, want of - arrangement; =orderly=, properly arranged. - - =Pars= (=part=-is), a part.--=Part=; =particle=, a small part; =tripartite=, - divided into three parts; =partition=, that which divides into parts; - =partial=, relating to a part only; =apart=, parted from; =depart=, to - part from; =impart=, to give part to. - - =Pell=-o (=puls=-um), I drive.--=Compel=, to drive together; =compulsion=, - the act of driving together; =dispel=, to drive asunder; =expel=, to - drive out; =expulsion=; =impel=, to drive forward (or into); =impulse=; - =propel=, to drive forward; =repel=, to drive back; =repulse=. - - =Pend=-o (=pens=-um), I hang.--=Append=, to hang to; =appendage=, something - hung on to; =depend=, to hang down from; =dependant=, one who hangs - from another; =independent=, not hanging from another; =independence=, - the state of not hanging from another; =pendant=, that which hangs; - =suspend=, to hang under; =suspense=, state of hanging [under]. - - =Pon=-o (=posit=-um), I place.--=Post=, something placed, and hence the - place in which it stands; =position=, state of being placed, hence - place; =composition=, a placing together; =opposition=, a placing in - the way of; =proposition=, a placing before. - - =Port=-o, I carry.--=Porter=, one who carries; =export=, to carry out of - a country; =import=, to carry into a country; =report=, to carry back, - to repeat; =report=, what is carried back or repeated; =reporter=; - =support=, to bear up from under; =transport=, to carry across; - =transportation=. - - =Prem=-o (=press=-um), I press.--=Press=; =compress=, to press together; - =compression=, the act of pressing together; =depress=, to press down; - =express=, to press out, hence to utter or say; =impress’=, to press - into (as of a seal); =im’press=, the mark left by anything impressed; - =repress=, to press back; =suppress=, to press under. - - =Rect=-us, right.--=Rectify=, to make right; =rectitude=, state of being - right; =correct=, to put right; =corrector=; =correction=, a putting - right. - - =Reg=-o (=rect=-um), I rule.--=Regal=, pertaining to a king or ruler; - =rector=, one who rules (in the church); =rectory=, the house in which - the rector lives. - - =Rump=-o (=rupt=-um), I break.--=Abrupt=, broken off; =rupture=, a - breaking; =corrupt=, to break thoroughly, to break in pieces; =corrupt= - (_adj._) broken in pieces; =corruptible=, that which may be - corrupted; =irruption=, a breaking into; =eruption=, a breaking out; - =disruption=, a breaking asunder. - - =Scrib=-o (=script=-um), I write.--=Scribe=, one who writes; =describe=, to - write down; =inscribe=, to write upon; =inscription=; =subscribe=, to - write under; =subscription=; =scripture=, that which is written. - - =Sed=-eo (=sess=-um), I sit.--=Sedentary=, in the habit of sitting; - =preside=, to sit before others, hence to be in authority; =assiduous=, - sitting close to (work); =subside=, to sit under, hence to settle; - =session=, a sitting. - - =Serv=-o (=servat=-um), I keep.--=Conserve=, to keep together; - =conservatory=, a place for keeping things together; =observe=, to keep - in the way of (the eyes), hence to keep in view; =observatory=, a - place for observing (the stars); =reserve=, to keep back; =reserve=, - what is kept back. - - =Spec=-io (=spect=-um), I look.--=Aspect=, look; =spectator=, one who looks - at; =speculum=, a looking-glass; =suspicion=, a looking under. - - =Statu=-o (=statut=-um), I set up.--=Statue=, something set up; =statute=, - a law set up. - - =Tang=-o (=tact=-um), I touch.--=Tangent=, a line which touches; - =tangible=, which may be touched; =tactile=, that which can touch; - =contact=, touching; =tact=, the art of knowing as it were by mere - touch. - - =Tend=-o (=tent=-um or =tens=-um), I stretch.--=Distend=, to stretch - asunder; =extend=, to stretch out; =extent=, the amount a thing - stretches; =tense=, stretched; =tent=, something which is stretched. - - =Ten=-eo (=tent=-um), I hold.--=Tenant=, one who holds (a house or land); - =tenacious=, holding much or firmly; =contain=, to hold together; - =detain=, to hold down, hence to hinder; =retain=, to hold back; - =retentive=, holding back or keeping. - - =Trah=-o (=tract=-um), I draw.--=Attract=, to draw to; =contract=, to draw - together; =traction=, the act of drawing; =subtract=, to draw from - under, hence to take away; =subtrahend=, that which has to be taken - away; =contraction=, a drawing together. - - =Ut=-or (=us=-us), I use.--=Use=; =abuse=, to use away from its proper - purpose; =peruse=, to use thoroughly, hence to read through; =usury=, - money paid for the use of money; =utensil=, something to be used; - =utility=, usefulness. - - =Veh=-o (=vect=-um), I carry.--=Vehicle=, that in which goods are - carried; =convey=, to carry together; =conveyance=, that in which goods - are carried together. - - =Ven=-io (=vent=-um), I come.--=Convene=, _originally_ to come together, - _afterwards_ to summon; =convention=; =advent=, a coming to; =intervene=, - to come in between; =contravene=, to come against, hence to oppose; - =circumvent=, to come round; =intervention=, the act of coming in - between. - - =Vert=-o (=vers=-um), I turn.--=Convert=, to turn together; =conversion=, - the act of turning together; =advert=, to turn towards; =divorce=, to - turn asunder; =invert=, to turn into; =inversion=, the act of turning - into; =reverse=, to turn back; =verse=, a kind of composition in which - the writer _turns back_ from the end of the line. - - =Vid=-eo (=vis=-um), I see.--=Visitor=, one who sees; =vision=, what is - seen; =visual=, pertaining to seeing; =visible=, what may be seen; - =provide=, to see before; =providence=, a seeing beforehand; =prudence= - (Fr.), another form of _providence_. - - =Voc=-o (=vocat=-um), I call.--=Convoke=, to call together; =convocation=, - a meeting which has been called together; =revoke=, to call back; - =vocal=, calling--that is, having a voice; =voice=, that by which one - calls; =vociferate=. - - =Volv=-o (=volut=-um), I roll.--=Convolution=, a rolling together; - =revolve=, to roll round; =involve=, to roll into. - - -11. =THE BRANCHING OF WORDS FROM ENGLISH STEMS.= - - =Bac=-an, to bake.--=Bake=; =baker=; =baxter= (bakester), a woman who - bakes; =batch=, what is baked. - - =Beat=-an, to strike.--=Bat=, an instrument to strike a ball with; - =beetle=, an instrument to beat clothes with. - - =Ber=-an, to carry.--=Bearer=; =burden=; =barrow=, that on which something - is borne; =bier=, that on which a corpse is borne; =forbear=, to bear - forth or off, hence to abstain; =overbear=, to bear over, to - overpower. - - =Brec=-an, to break.--=Break=, an instrument for breaking the speed of - a train; =breach=, a break in a wall; =brook=, a stream which breaks - from the ground. - - =Brinn=-an, to burn.--=Burn=; =brown= is the burnt colour; =brand=, a mark - made by burning; =brandy=, a drink made by burning wine; =brunt=, the - burning or hottest part of a fight; =brimstone=, burning stone (a - name for sulphur); =brindled=, striped with brown; =bran new= [=brand - new]. - - =Drag=-an, to pull.--=Drag=; =draw=, another form of drag; =dray=, a kind - of cart which is drawn along; =draught=, what is drawn; =draft=, a - cheque drawn on a banker; =drain=, a ditch for drawing off water; - =drawl=, to keep drawing out one’s words. - - =Far=-an, to go.--=Far=, that which requires much going to reach; - =farewell=, go well! =fieldfare=, a bird which goes in the fields; - =thoroughfare=, a place where people go through; =ford=, a place in a - river where one can go across on foot; =ferry=, a place in a river - where one can go over in a boat; =fare=, the money paid for going. - - =Hæl=, sound.--=Hale=; =heal=, to make hale; =health=, state of being sound - or hale; =healthy=; =healthful=; =holy=, spiritually hale; =hail=, be hale! - or be healthy! =whole=, in a state of being hale (the _w_ is - intrusive); =wholesome=, what tends to make hale. - - =Lig=, lie.--=Lie=, to lie down; =lay=, to make to lie; =lair=, the place - where a wild beast lies; =law=, what lies or is in due order; =low=, - what is (lying) down. - - =Maw=-an, to mow.--=Mower=; =math=, the grass that is mowed; =aftermath=, - the grass that is mowed after the first crop; =mead=, a place where - grass is mowed; =meadow=, a small mead. - - =Met=-an, to meet.--=Mote=, a meeting (an old word now found only in - wardmote and folkmote); =meet=. - - =Reaf=-ian, to take away.--=Reave=; =bereave=; =reef=, what is taken in in - a sail; =rifle=, to plunder or take away; =robber=, a person who takes - away what does not belong to him. - - =Sceot=-an, to throw.--=Shoot=, to throw out (by means of a gun or - otherwise); =shut=, to throw to (the door); =shoot=, a branch thrown - out by a tree; =shot=, what is thrown out (by a gun or otherwise); - =shout=, to throw out of the mouth; =shuttle=, an instrument thrown by - a weaver; =sheet=, what is thrown over (a bed); =shutter=, what is - thrown to, to guard a window. - - =Sit=-an, to sit.--=Sit=; =set=, to make to sit; =beset=, to set about; - =onset=, a setting on; =overset=, to turn over; =upset=; =setter=, a kind - of dog; =settle=, a kind of seat; =settle=, to set or fix; =settler=; - =settlement=; =seat=, the place where one sits. - - =Treow=-an, believe.--=Trow=, to believe; =true=, what should be - believed; =truth=; =truthful=; =truthfully=; =truism=; =trust=; =intrust=; - =trustee=; =trusty=; =trustworthy=; =troth=. - - =Wac=-an, to wake.--=Wake=; =awake=; =awaken=; =wakeful=; =wakefulness=; =watch=; - =watchful=; =watchfulness=. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -=Prefixes and Suffixes.= - - -_PREFIXES._ - - -1. =ENGLISH (OR TEUTONIC).= - - =A= (a broken-down form of the A.S. preposition _on_), at, to, on, - in, etc.; astern, abed, aboard, afield, afoot, ashore, alive, - aweary. - - =After=; afternoon, afterthought, aftermath, aftercrop. - - =At=; atone (to bring together into one); ado (= at-do); twit (= - at-wit). - - =Be=, used both with nouns and with verbs--behalf, behoof, behest, - bequest; betake, begin, become, bespatter, bedim, besprinkle, - behead. - - =Down=; downfall, downstroke, downcast. - - =For=, not; forbid, forsake (not to seek), forget, forgo (wrongly - spelled forego); or utterly; as, forlorn, fordone. - - =Fore=, before; foretell, forefather, foresee, forebode, forecast, - forenoon. - - =Gain=, against; gainsay, gainstay (gainstand). - - =In=, =im=, =en=, =em=; income, inlet, insight, inlay, inborn, inbred, - into, ingraft, inlay, infold, imbed, endear, enthral, engrave, - embower. - - =Mis=, wrong; mislead, mistrust, misdeed, mishap, mistake. - - =Mid=, in the middle of; midmost, midnight, midsummer, midday. - - =Off=, from; offshoot, offset, offspring, offal (= off-fall), - offhand. - - =Out=; outset, outstrip, outvie, outrun, outdo. - - =Over=; overwise, overfed, overmuch, overcoat, overhand, overseer, - oversight. - - =Through=, =thorough=; thoroughfare, throughout, thoroughbred, - thoroughgoing. - - =To=, this; to-day, to-night, to-morrow. - - =Un=, (1) not; unclean, unwise, untrue, unbelief, unrest: or (2) - back; undo, untie, unlock, unfold, unbind, unloose. - - =Under=; undergrowth, underbred, underhand, undersell, underwood. - - =Up=; uproar, upland, upstart, upset, upbear, upbraid, upright. - - =Wel=, =well=; welfare, welcome, well-born, well-bred, well-trained. - - =With=, against; withstand, withdraw (drawing-room = - withdrawing-room), withhold. - - -2. =LATIN.= - - =Ab= (=a=, =abs=), from or away; averse, avert, aversion, abdicate, - abstract, abstain, abjure, abate, abound, abuse, abduction. - - =Ad= (=ac=, =af=, =ag=, =al=, =am=, =an=, =ap=, =ar=, =as=, =at=, =a=), to: adore, advise, - accord, annex, accuse, accede, allude, allusion, announce, appear, - assent, attend, aspire, affirm, affix, aggrieve, annul, ammunition, - apparent, arrive, assume, assault, assumption, attend, attentive, - attention, assimilate, attain, ascribe, avow. - - =Am= (=amb=), round; ambient, amputate, ambition, ambiguous. - - =Ante= (=anti=), before; antedate, antenuptial, antenatal, antechamber, - antediluvian, anticipate. - - =Circum= (=circu=), round; circumlocution, circumnavigate, circuit, - circumvent, circuitous, circulate, circumference. - - =Con= (=col=, =com=, =cor=, =co=), together with; consonant, connect, - contend, conduct, compact, compound, commend, collision, collect, - correct, corrupt, co-heir, coerce. - - =Contra= (=contro=, =counter=), against; contradict, contravene, - controversy, controvert, contraband, counterfeit. - - =De=, down or from; denote, describe, depart, descent, devise, - demure. - - =Dis= (=dif=, =di=); disjoin, difficult, diffuse, divide, differ, dilute, - dissent. - - =Ex= (=ef=, =e=), out of; extort, exhume, efface, educe, extrude, extol, - effect, education. - - =Extra=, beyond; extraordinary, extravagant, extraneous. - - =In= (=il=, =im=, =ir=, =em=, =en=), into; invade, incite, induce, illusion, - illude, improve, impulse, impel, irruption, embrace, endure, - encourage, embroil, irradiate, innate. - - =In= (=ig=, =il=, =im=, =ir=), not; insecure, ignoble, illiterate, - inconvenient, incurable, incapable, incapacitate, immortal, - irregular, improper, illegitimate, irrational, innocent, infant. - - =Inter= (=intel=, =enter=), between; intercourse, intelligent, interfere, - interdict, enterprise, entertain, interrupt. - - =Intro=, within; introduce. - - =Ob= (=oc=, =of=, =op=, =os=), against; oblige, obtain, object, occur, - offend, oppose, occult, offer, ostentation. - - =Pene=, almost; as, peninsula. - - =Per= (=pel=), through; perform, permit, pellucid, pertain. - - =Post=, after; postpone, posthumous. - - =Præ= or =pre=, before; prelection, preface, prevent, precede, - premature, predict. - - =Præter= or =preter=, beyond; preternatural, preterite. - - =Pro= (=por=, =pur=, =pol=), forth, on or before; proceed, pollution, - portend, purvey, portrait, purloin, purchase, pronoun, purpose. - - =Re= (=red=), back; refute, result, redolent, redound, reduce, redeem. - - =Retro=, backwards; retrograde, retrospect. - - =Se= (=sed=), aside or apart; select, seclude, secede, seduce, - sedition. - - =Sub= (=suc=, =suf=, =sug=, =sup=, =sur=, =sus=, =su=), under, up from below; - subject, suspect, succeed, suffer, suggest, suppose, suspend, - suspect, succinct, suppress, surrogate, susceptible, subdue, - suffuse, subtract, succour, supplant. - - =Subter=, beneath; subterfuge. - - =Super= (=sur=), over; superstructure, surplus, survive, superscribe, - surfeit, surcharge, supernatural, surname, supercilious. - - =Trans= (=tra=, =tres=); across; transmarine, translate, tradition, - trespass, traduce. - - =Ultra=, beyond; ultramontane, ultramarine. - - =Vice=, instead of; viceroy, viceregal, viscount. - - -3. =GREEK.= - - =A= or =an=, not; anarchy, anomaly, anonymous, apteryx (wingless), - atheist. - - =Amphi=, on both sides, round; amphibious, amphitheatre. - - =Ana=, up; anatomy, analysis, anabasis, analyse. - - =Anti= (=ant=), against; antithesis, antipathy, antarctic, antitype, - antidote. - - =Apo= (=ap=, =aph=), from; apogee, apology, apostrophe, aphelion, - aphorism. - - =Cata=, down; catarrh, catalepsy, catastrophe, catechism, cathartic, - cathedral, catalogue. - - =Di= (=dis=), two; diphthong, dissyllable, dilemma, diploma. - - =Dia=, through; diameter, diagonal, diaphonous, diabolic, diagnosis, - diastole, diaphragm. - - =En= (=el=, =em=), in; ellipse, emblem, energy, enthrone, empyrean, - emphasis, emporium. - - =Endo=, within; endogenous. - - =Epi= (=ep=), upon; epilogue, epitaph, epiphany, epistle. - - =Exo=, without; exogenous, exotic. - - =Hyper=, over or above; hyperbola, hyperbole, hyperbolical, - hypercritical, hyperborean. - - =Hypo= (=hyph=), under; hypotenuse, hypothesis, hypocrite, hyphen. - - =Meta= (=met=, =meth=) signifies after, change; metathesis, metonomy, - method, metaphor. - - =Para= (=par=), beside; parabola, paraphrase, parhelion, parody, - parable. - - =Peri=, round; perimeter, peristyle, perigee, periphery, period. - - =Pro=, before; prologue, problem, prophet, program. - - =Pros=, towards; prosody, proselyte. - - =Syn= (=sy=, =syl=, =sym=), together with; syndic, syntax, symbol, - syllogism, syllable, system, systole, synchronous, symptom, - sympathy. - - -_SUFFIXES._ - - -4. =ENGLISH (OR TEUTONIC).= - - =Noun Suffixes.= - - 1. _Denoting a person or the doer of an action_: - - =-er= or =-ar=; singer, baker, beggar, liar, lawyer, bowyer (a - bow-maker), sawyer, sailor, speaker, miller, (fletcher = flechier, - an arrow-maker). - - =-nd= (old present participial ending); friend (= a loving person), - fiend (= a hating person), errand, wind. - - =-ster= (originally a _female_ agent); Spinster, songster, maltster, - huckster, baxter [= bakester], (now a term of contempt); youngster, - gamester, punster. - - =-ter=, =-ther=, =-der=; daughter, father, spider (that is, spinder), - mother, brother, foster (= foodster). - - 2. _Denoting an instrument_: - - =-der= or =-er=; ladder, rudder, bladder (from _blow_), feather, - weather, rudder, murder, stair, finger (from _fangen_, to seize). - - =-el= or =-le=; shovel, girdle, shuttle, settle (a small seat), - thimble. - - 3. _Forming abstract nouns_: - - =-dom=; kingdom, earldom, freedom, thraldom, wisdom, martyrdom, - Christendom. - - =-hood=, or =-head=; manhood, boyhood, childhood, priesthood, Godhead, - hardihood, neighbourhood, wifehood. - - =-ing=; hunting, blessing, standing, reading, clothing. - - =-ness=; witness (= a person who _wits_ or knows), wilderness, - darkness, goodness, redness, weakness, hardness. - - =-red=; hatred, kindred. - - =-ship=, =-scape=; friendship, lordship, worship (= worthship), - hardship, fellowship, landscape (in Milton, _landskip_: compare - _skipper_ for _shipper_). - - =-t=, =-th=, =-st=, =-d=; weight, height, sleight (from _sly_), gift, rift - (from _rive_), theft, drought (from _dry_), frost, flight, warmth, - health, width, death, birth, sloth (from _slow_), trust (from - _trow_, to believe), flood (from _flow_), seed (from _sow_). - - 4. _Diminutives_: - - =-el= or =-le=; thimble (from _thumb_), riddle (from _read_). - - =-en=; maiden, kitten, chicken. - - =-ing=; farthing, tithing (from _tithe_ = tenth), riding (from - _thrid_ = third). - - =-kin=; lambkin, mannikin, pipkin. - - =-ling= (= _l_ + _ing_); darling (from _dear_), duckling, suckling, - hireling, gosling, fatling, firstling, nestling, underling, - starveling, suckling. - - =-ock=; bullock, hillock, paddock. - - =-y=, =-ie=; lassie, Annie, Charlie, baby, Tommy, doggie. - - =Adjective Suffixes.= - - =-d= or =-ed= (originally a perfect participle-ending); hard, cold, - loud: also added to nouns, as gifted, wretched, ragged, long-eared, - feathered, landed. - - =-el= or =-le=; fickle, brittle, little, idle, mickle (from _much_). - - =-er=; lower, higher, brighter, sooner. - - =-er=; bitter, clever. - - =-ern=, denoting the region of the globe; northern, eastern, - southern, western. - - =-est=; lowest, highest, brightest, soonest. - - =-fold=; manifold, twofold, threefold, hundredfold, etc. - - =-ful=; scornful, sinful, wilful, truthful, tearful, needful, awful, - dreadful, sorrowful. - - =-ish=, =-sh=, or =-ch=, denotes partaking of the nature of; childish, - foolish, slavish, swinish, churlish, waspish, whitish, goodish, - brutish, girlish, boyish. - - =-less= denotes destitute of; worthless, fearless, heedless, - hopeless, tearless, sinless, godless, lawless, toothless. - - =-like=, =-ly=, denotes like; warlike, childlike, womanly, manly, - heavenly, godly, ghastly, likely. - - =-n= or =-en= (also a perfect participle-ending); drunken, shaken, - broken, molten, shorn, torn. It also denotes the material of which - a thing is made, as golden, linen, wooden, silvern, flaxen, hempen, - leathern. - - =-some= denotes the possession of a quality; wholesome, blithesome, - gladsome, winsome, lissom (from _lithe_), buxom (that is, _buhsum_, - from _bugan_, to bend), quarrelsome, tiresome. - - =-t= (like =d=), probably perfect participial ending; short (from - _sceran_, to shear), blunt, tight, slight. - - =-ward= denotes direction; homeward, heavenward, seaward, northward, - awkward (from _awk_, contrary), toward, froward (from _from_). - - =-y= or =-ey= denotes the possession of a quality; bloody, thirsty, - guilty, woody, mighty, healthy, greedy, moody, sundry (from - _sunder_), sticky, sorry (from _sore_), hairy, bushy, stony, - clayey. - - =Verb Suffixes.= - - =-el= or =-le= gives a frequentative meaning to the verb; waddle (from - _wade_), startle, sparkle, dazzle (from _daze_), dribble (from - _drip_), swaddle (from _swathe_), dapple (from _dip_), crawl, kneel - (from _knee_), struggle, mingle, hurtle. - - =-en= denotes making or doing; fatten, broaden, soften, open (from - _up_), lighten, sadden, gladden, sweeten, frighten, lengthen. - - =-er=, also frequentative; glimmer, stagger, patter, flitter, - flutter, wander, batter, sputter, stutter. - - =-k=, also frequentative; stalk (from _steal_), hark (from _hear_), - walk. - - =Adverb Suffixes.= - - =-ere= denotes place in which; here, there, where. - - =-es=, =-se=, =-ce=, =-s=, which are old (possessive) genitive - terminations; sometimes, besides, unawares, else, twice (= twiës), - thrice, hence, thence, whence, needs, outwards. - - =-ly= denotes manner; sweetly, sadly, cleanly. - - =-ther= denotes direction towards; hither, thither, whither. - - =-ward=, =-wards=, denote direction; homeward, homewards, heavenward, - heavenwards, hitherward, inwards. - - =-wise=, =-ways=, denote manner or fashion; otherwise, anywise, nowise, - straightway, alway, always, sideways, lengthways. - - -5. =LATIN.= - - =Noun Suffixes.= - - 1. _Those denoting persons or the doer of an action_: - - =-an=, =-ain=; artisan, grammarian, villain. - - =-ant= or =-ent=; agent, student, assistant, attendant, recreant, - tenant, miscreant. - - =-ate=, =-ee=, =-ey=, =-y=; legate, magistrate, advocate, curate, nominee, - trustee, legatee, committee, attorney, covey, ally, deputy, jury. - - =-ess= denotes a fem. agent; governess, traitress, empress, duchess. - - =-ive=, =-iff=; captive, fugitive, caitiff, plaintiff. - - =-tor=, =-sor=, =-or=, =-our=, =-er=, =-eer=, =-ier=, =-ar=, =-ary=; doctor, - successor, chancellor, emperor, actor, Saviour, founder, enchanter, - governor, preacher, juror, author, monitor, victor, auditor, - sponsor, engineer, auctioneer, grenadier, brigadier, registrar, - usher, archer, farrier, vicar, premier, lapidary. - - =-trix=, female agent; executrix. - - 2. _Those forming Abstract Nouns_: - - =-age=; age, homage, savage, marriage, voyage, tillage, courage, - personage, breakage, salvage. (Tonnage, bondage, shrinkage are - hybrids.) - - =-ance=, =-ancy=, =-ence=, =-ency=; distance, constancy, infancy, - consistence, resistance, decency, consistency, persistence, - conveyance, cadence, chance (a form of cadence). - - =-ice=, =-ise=; avarice, service, merchandise, justice, exercise. - - =-ion=, =-tion=, =-sion=, =-som=, =-son=, originally denoted the action of a - verb; action, potion, opinion, poison, venison, malison, fusion, - reason, tension, lection, ransom, season, position, nation, - occasion. - - =-or=, =-our=; labour, honour, ardour, savour, clamour, amour. - - =-tude=; servitude, latitude, fortitude, altitude, longitude, - magnitude, custom (from _consuetudo_). - - =-ty=, =-ity=; cruelty, charity, bounty, poverty, fealty, city, vanity. - - =-ure=; juncture, censure, culture, measure, cincture, picture, - inclosure. - - =-y=, =-cy=, =-ce=; family, copy, memory, story, victory, misery, - aristocracy, fancy, grace. - - 3. _Diminutives_: - - =-el=, =-le=; damsel, mongrel. - - =-et=, =-let=; pocket, rivulet. - - =-ette=; coquette, rosette. - - =-icle=, =-cule=; article, animalcule. - - =-ule=; globule, granule. - - =Adjective Suffixes.= - - =-able=, =-ible=, =-ble=; culpable, probable, flexible, edible, capable, - soluble, feeble, amiable. - - =-acious= denotes tendency, generally excessive; loquacious, - veracious, vivacious, tenacious, voracious. - - =-al=, =-ar=; comical, regal, legal, general, regular, singular, loyal, - royal, equal, secular. - - =-an=, =-ane=, =-ain=, =-en=, =-on=; human, urban, pagan, humane, mundane, - certain, mizzen (from _medius_). Surgeon and sexton have become - nouns. - - =-aneous=, =-ain=, =-aign=, =-eign=, =-ange=; cutaneous, mountain, champaign, - foreign, strange. - - =-ant=, =-ent=; volant, fluent, patent, innocent. - - =-ary=, =-arian=, =-arious=; stationary, contrary, necessary, gregarious, - agrarian. - - =-ate=, =-ete=, =-eet=, =-ite=, =-ute=, =-te=; fortunate, deliberate, - concrete, effete, discreet, erudite, minute, chaste. - - =-estrial=, =-estrian=; terrestrial, equestrian. - - =-ic=; civic, classic, barbaric, unique. - - =-id=; fervid, morbid, acid, tepid. - - =-ile=, =-il=, =-eel=, =-le=; servile, senile, fragile, civil, frail, - genteel, gentle, able. - - =-ine= denotes belonging to; feminine, divine, feline, lacustrine, - canine, equine, saline. - - =-ive=, inclined to; pensive, massive, captive, plaintive, restive, - native, fugitive, active. - - =-ous=, =-ose=, denote full of; famous, ingenuous, glorious, copious, - assiduous, querulous, anxious, verbose, grandiose, jocose, - dangerous. - - =-ory=; illusory, amatory, admonitory. - - =-und=; jocund, moribund, floribund, rotund. - - =Verb Suffixes.= - - =-ate=; advocate, complicate, anticipate, supplicate, eradicate. - - =-eer=; domineer, career, volunteer. - - =-esce= denotes the beginning of an action; effervesce, coalesce. - - =-fy= denotes to make (from _facio_), magnify, terrify, qualify, - signify. - - =-ish=; nourish, perish, cherish, finish, flourish, banish, punish. - - =-ite=, =-ete=, =-t=; expedite, delete, perfect, conduct, reflect, - connect. - - -6. =GREEK.= - - =Noun Suffixes.= - - =-et=, =-t=, =-ete=, =-ate=, denote the agent; poet, prophet, athlete, - comet, planet, apostate, æsthete(?), patriot. - - =-isk= has diminutive signification; asterisk, obelisk. - - =-ism= denotes the result of an action; deism, fatalism, egotism, - criticism, aneurism. - - =-ist= denotes the agent; baptist, sophist, evangelist. - - =-ma=, =-em=, =-me=, =-m=, denote the result of an action; diorama, drama, - dogma, system, scheme, theme, diadem, phlegm, enema. - - =-sis=, =-sy=, =-se=, denote action; crisis, poesy, phase, genesis, - emphasis, paralysis, hypocrisy, ellipse, phrensy. - - =-ter=, =-tre=, denote the instrument; metre, centre. - - =Verb Suffixes.= - - =-ise= signifies to do; criticise, baptise, eulogise. - - - - -_LITERATURE._ - - - - -I. - -=Outline of Our Early Literature= - -(WITH ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE EARLY LANGUAGE). - - -1. =THE BEOWULF.=--The _Beowulf_ is a poem which recounts the life and -death of a hero of that name, who slays a monster called _Grendel_. It -was a poetic legend brought from the Continent by our Teutonic -ancestors. It does not seem to have been written down, or committed to -paper, till the seventh century; and it was probably preserved in the -memory of different generations, by its being taught by fathers to their -sons, and by the habit of chanting portions of it at the banquets of -kings and warriors. It is a poem which in substance belongs to the -Continental Teutons as much as to the English; and it marks the point at -which their literatures and languages begin to branch off. The scene is -laid in the north of Denmark; so that the poem is Northern, and not -Southern, Teutonic. Its present form is due to a Christian writer of -Northumbria. In literary form, therefore, it is English; and is one of -the earliest monuments of our literature. The poem consists of 6350 -short lines, and is written throughout in head-rhymes,[15] or -alliterative rhymes. - -2. =CÆDMON.=--But the first true English poem was the work of a -Northumbrian called CÆDMON, who was a servant to the monks of the abbey -of Hilda, in Whitby. It was written about the year 670. It is a -paraphrase of the history given in the Old and the New Testament. It -sings of the creation of the world, of the history of Israel, of the -life of Christ, of death, judgment, purgatory, heaven, and hell. - -3. =BÆDA.=--The oldest literature of a nation--the early writings of its -childhood--are always poetic; and prose-writings do not appear until the -nation has, as it were, grown up. The first English prose-writer was -BÆDA--or, as he is generally called, The Venerable Bede. He was born in -the year 673. Like Cædmon, our first poet, he was a Northumbrian, and -belonged to the monastery of Jarrow-upon-Tyne. His most important -writings were in Latin; and the best known of them is an _Ecclesiastical -History of the English People_. But the work which makes Bæda our first -writer of English prose, is a translation into English of the _Gospel of -St John_. It was his last work; and, in fact, he died just after he had -dictated the last sentence. This was in the year 735. - -4. =KING ALFRED.=--Up to the year 866, Northumbria was the home of -learning and literature; and the Northumbrian monks were its loving and -diligent cultivators. But the incursions of the Danes, the destruction -of the monasteries, and the perpetual danger to life and property -arising from the troubled condition of the country, put a stop for some -time to study and to letters. The cultivation of English as a -book-language reappears, towards the end of the ninth century, in the -south of the island. Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, is its great -friend and promoter. Winchester was the capital of his kingdom; and it -was at Winchester that Alfred and his colleagues laboured at the writing -of English books. He invited great scholars from different parts of the -world; he set up schools; he himself taught a school in his own court; -he translated the Latin manuals of the time into English, and added -largely to them from his own materials; he translated also the _History_ -of the Venerable Bede; and, most probably, he worked at the _Anglo-Saxon -Chronicle_, and made it much fuller and more detailed than it had ever -been before. He founded schools in the different parts of his kingdom, -with the purpose and in the hope that ‘every free-born youth, who has -the means, may attend to his book till he can read English writing -perfectly.’ Alfred was born in the year 849, and died in 901. His own -personal diligence--his unceasing head-work, are well known. He gave -eight hours a day to the work of public affairs--of managing the -business of his kingdom; eight hours to books and study; and he reserved -only eight hours for sleep, meals, exercise, and amusement. The -following is a passage from one of King Alfred’s writings: - - Swa claenë heo waes othfeallen on Angel-cynne, thaet swithe feawa - waeran be-heonan Humbre the hira thenunge cuthon understandan on - Englisc, ohthe farthon an aerend-gewrit of Ledene on Englisc - areccan; and ic wene thaet naht monige be-geondan Humbre naeron. - - So clean (completely) it was ruined (had ruin fallen) on the - English folk (kin), that very few were on this side Humber who - their service could understand in English, or out (forth) an - epistle (errand-writing) from Latin into English declare (= - translate); and I wene that not many beyond Humber were (who could - do this). - -5. =THE ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE.=--This chronicle was written chiefly by -monks, and was, in its earliest forms, a dry register or record of -events--of the births and deaths of kings, bishops, earls, and other -distinguished persons. In Alfred’s time, it became more of a history; -and even war-songs and battle odes are quoted in it. It was continued -down to the death of King Stephen in 1154; and the last portions of it -were composed and transcribed by the monks of Peterborough. - -6. =ARCHBISHOP ÆLFRIC.=--Ælfric was Archbishop of Canterbury in the early -part of the eleventh century; and he translated the first seven books of -the Bible, and part of Job, into the oldest form of English, which is -generally called _Anglo-Saxon_. The following is a specimen: - - 1. On anginnë gesceôp God heofenan and eordan. - - In beginning shaped God heaven and earth. - - 4. God geseah thâ, thaet hit gôd vaes, and he gedaeldë thaet leóht - fram thâm theóstrum. - - God saw then, that it good was, and he dealed (divided) the light - from the darkness. - -7. =ANGLO-SAXON GOSPELS.=--This translation of the four gospels forms -another land-mark in the history of our English tongue. This translation -was made before the Norman Conquest--before French words had come into -our language, and therefore before the inflections of English had -dropped off from the words. - -8. =OLD ENGLISH DIALECTS.=--For more than a century after the Conquest, -English ceased to be used as a literary language--as a book-speech, -except in the _Saxon Chronicle_, which was continued down to 1154. It -still continued, of course, to be the language of the English nation. -The Normans, when they used books at all, imported French books from -France; and they never dreamed that English was a language worthy to be -written down. Different English counties spoke different kinds of -English; and this continued for many centuries--and still continues to a -considerable extent. Thus the English spoken by a Yorkshire-man is very -different from the English spoken by a Dorsetshire-man; and the English -of both differs very much from that spoken in Kent. But, in the eleventh -and twelfth centuries--and even much later--travelling was very -difficult and expensive; working-men could not travel at all; there was -little motive to travel for any one; and generations were born and died -within the same village, or on one farm, or at least in one part of the -‘country-side.’ Thus different parts of this island pronounced their -English in their own way; had their own grammar--that is, their own -inflections; and each division of England looked upon itself as the -right and correct speakers of the English tongue. But, among the large -number of different dialects, there gradually emerged into distinct and -even remarkable prominence three chief dialects. These are now known as -the =Northern=, =Midland=, and =Southern=. The grammar of the three differs in -several respects; but the chief grammatical mark is found in the plural -ending of the present tense of verbs. This is =ës= in the North; =en= in the -Midland dialect; and =eth= in the South. Thus we have: - - _N._ _M._ _S._ - We hopës, we hopen, we hopeth. - You hopës, you hopen, you hopeth. - They hopës, they hopen, they hopeth. - -This variety of the plural forms the test which enables readers of -books written in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, to determine -in what part of England and in what dialect they were written. The -following are the chief books written in these dialects: - - =NORTHERN= (spoken between the Forth and the Humber)--the =Cursor - Mundi=, a version of Scripture in rhyme, written about.....=1320= - - =MIDLAND= (spoken in the East-Anglian counties, and the whole of the - Midland district)--=Orm’s Ormulum=, a paraphrase in verse of the - parts of the gospels given in the church service, written in.....=1215= - - =SOUTHERN= (spoken in all the counties south of the Thames, and also - in several western counties)--=Layamon’s Brut= (a translation of a - French poem by John de Wace), written in.....=1205= - -9. =THE FIRST ENGLISH BOOK AFTER THE NORMAN CONQUEST.=--Normandy was lost -to England in the reign of King John, in the year 1204. From that date, -as we have seen, there was a compulsion on the Norman-French to forget -their foreign origin, and to look upon themselves as genuine Englishmen. -A year after, in the year 1205, ten years before the winning of the -Magna Charta, appeared the first work--it was a poem--that was written -in English after the Conquest. It is a translation by a Somersetshire -priest called =Layamon= or =Laweman=, from a French poem. _Brut_ is the -French form of the name _Brutus_, who was said to be a son of Æneas, and -to be the founder of the British nation. In those rude times, when -history was quite unknown, the origin of every nation was traced up to -Troy, and the persons of the _Iliad_ of Homer. The _Brut_ is a poem -written chiefly in head-rhymes, and consists of about thirty thousand -lines. But though it is translated from a French poem, there are not -fifty French words in the whole--that is, there is not one French word -in every six hundred lines. - -10. =ORM’S ORMULUM, 1215.=--The _Ormulum_ was a poem written by an -Augustine monk, called =Orm= or =Ormin=, and called after his own name. It -is a poem of nearly twenty thousand short lines, without rhyme of any -kind--but with a regular number of accents. There are not five French -words in the whole poem. Orm was extremely particular about his -spelling; and, when an accent struck a consonant after a _short_ vowel, -he insisted on doubling the consonant. - -11. =LANGLAND AND CHAUCER.=--William Langland represents the part of the -nation that spoke pure English; Geoffrey Chaucer, that part which spoke -English with a large admixture of Norman-French. In fact, Chaucer’s -poems show the high-water mark of the French saturation of our English -vocabulary. Langland--a west-countryman, a monk, a man of the people, -and of intensely radical sympathies--was born in 1332; Chaucer, a -Londoner, in the very centre of English society, page to the Duchess of -Clarence at sixteen years of age, and afterwards for great part of his -life in court employment, was born in 1340. Both died in the year 1400. -Langland’s most important poem is the _Vision of (concerning) Piers -Plowman_. It is written in pure English, and in head-rhyme. It is the -last English poem that was written in this kind of alliterative verse. -The following lines are taken from the introduction: - - In a somer seasun In a summer season - when softe was the sonnë, when soft was the sun, - I shop me into a schroud I shape me into (dressed) shrouds (clothes) - a scheep as I werë, shepherd as I was, - in habite of an hermite in habit as a hermit, - unholy of werkes, unholy in works, - wende I wydene in this world went (far and) wide in this world, - wondrës to here. wonders to hear. - -Chaucer’s great work is his _Canterbury Tales_, a series of tales -supposed to be told by a company of pilgrims to beguile their journey to -the shrine of St Thomas of Canterbury. The company represented men and -women of almost every class in England; and their manners and character -are painted with wonderful truth and beauty. The following is a passage -from the _Prologue_ to the _Canterbury Tales_; and the French words are -in italics. It is from the character of the _Knight_: - - And evermore he had a _sovereyn prys_,[16] - And, though that he was worthy, he was wys, - And of his _port_[17] as meke as is a mayde. - He nevere yit no _vileinye_[18] ne sayde - In al his lyf, unto no _maner_[19] wight. - He was a _verray perfight gentil_[20] knight. - But, for to tellen you of his _array_,[21] - His hors was good, but he ne was nought _gay_.[22] - -12. =ALLITERATION OR HEAD-RHYME.=--Alliteration is the correspondence of -the first letter of several words in the same line. It is like the -well-known: ‘Peter Piper picked a peck of pepper off a pewter plate.’ - - Round the rugged rocks the ragged rascals ran. - -In Old English or Anglo-Saxon poetry it was the only kind of rhyme used. -The rhyme which is called end-rhyme was not known to the Saxons, and was -imported into England by the Normans. In the ordinary Old English verse, -the lines are written in pairs, and in each pair there are usually three -alliterations, two in the first line and one in the second. Even as late -as the fourteenth century we find such verses as the following, written -by Langland: - - I shop me into a schroud, - A scheep as I werë. - -Shakspeare is fond of making fun of it. But it has unconsciously -survived in the language; and there is not a single great English poet, -from Shakspeare to Tennyson, who does not make a large use of it. Thus -Shakspeare himself has - - In maiden meditation, fancy-free. - - Full fathom five thy father lies. - -and many other similar lines. - -Milton gives us such lines as: - - Him the Almighty power - Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky. - -Shelley has the line: - - Our sweetest songs are those which tell of saddest thought. - -Tennyson is very fond of alliteration. Thus, in the _Day-Dream_: - - And o’er them many a sliding star - And many a merry wind was borne; - And, streamed through many a golden bar, - The twilight melted into morn. - -13. =JOHN GOWER.=--A contemporary of Chaucer was John Gower, a gentleman -of Kent. The date of his birth is not known; but he survived Chaucer -eight years, dying in 1408. He wrote the _Lover’s Confession_ in English -verse; the _Mirror of the Meditative Man_ in French verse (lost); the -_Voice of one crying_, in Latin. His style was heavy and prosaic. -Chaucer called him the ‘moral Gower.’ - -14. =JOHN BARBOUR.=--Another eminent contemporary of Chaucer was John -Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, who wrote in the Scottish, or Northern -English, form of our tongue. He was a learned man, and a man of the -world, who filled important office in the employment of the Scottish -king. His great work was a narrative poem, _The Bruce_, giving an -account of the life and adventures of the great Bruce. It is valuable -both as a monument of our language and a storehouse of historical -incident. Barbour died about 1395. The literature of Scotland was -worthily continued by the royal poet, James I. (1394-1437), brought up -as a prisoner in England, and well educated. His great work was the -_King’s Quhair_ (or book), a poem in the style and in one of the metres -of Chaucer. - -15. =SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE.=--Sir John Mandeville is the first writer of the -_new_ English prose--the prose with a large addition of French words. He -is sometimes called the Father of English Prose. He was born at St -Albans, in Hertfordshire, in 1300, and died at Liège, in 1372. He was a -great traveller, soldier, and physician; travelled through the Holy -Land, served under the Sultan of Egypt and the Great Khan of Cathay (the -old name for _China_); and wandered through almost all the then known -parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. He wrote his travels in three -languages--first in Latin for the learned; then in French for the -Norman-French; and lastly in English, ‘that every man of the nation -might understand them.’ The following is a specimen of his prose: - - And 2 myle from Ebron (Hebron) is the grave of Lothe (Lot) that was - Abrahames brother. And a lytille fro Ebron is the mount of Mambre, - of the whiche the valeye takethe his name. And there is a tree of - oke, that the Sarazinis clepen (call) _Dirpë_, that is of Abrahames - tyme, the whiche men clepen the drye tree. And thei saye, that it - hathe ben there sithe the beginnynge of the world, and was sumtyme - grene, and bare leves, unto the tyme that oure Lord dyede on the - cros; and thanne it dryede, and so dyden alle the trees, that weren - thanne in the world. - -This is almost quite like modern English--with the exception of the -spelling; - -16. =JOHN WICLIFFE.=--John Wicliffe,* or John de Wycliffe, was born at the -village of Hipswell, near Richmond, in Yorkshire, in the year 1324. He -died at the vicarage of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire, in the year -1384, at the age of sixty. He was the first Englishman who attempted to -make a complete translation of the Scriptures. Of this work, however, -the Gospels alone can be certainly identified as the work of Wicliffe -himself. The Old Testament and apocryphal books were translated -principally by Nicolas de Hereford, and it is supposed that his work was -interrupted in 1382, and that the Bible was completed about that time by -extracting the text of the gospels from Wicliffe’s commentary on the -gospels (written in 1360), and adding to it a new translation of the -rest of the New Testament. A later version was finished by Wicliffe’s -friend, John Purvey, about 1388, and appears to be mainly a revision of -the work of Hereford and Wicliffe. The later is a less close and literal -version than the former, and is expressed in more idiomatic and less -laboured English. - -17. =OUR ENGLISH BIBLE AND ITS HISTORY.=--The first fresh translation from -the original sources was that of =William Tyndale=. His New Testament, -printed at Cologne and at Worms, reached the English shores in 1526, and -was followed three years later by the Pentateuch. To this translation -our authorised version owes much of its peculiar force and beauty. The -first complete English Bible was that of =Miles Coverdale=, which appeared -in 1535. In April 1539 appeared the =Great Bible= (so called from its -large size), prepared by Coverdale at Paris, but completed in London -under the patronage of Thomas Cromwell. The translation of the psalms in -the Great Bible has remained, without alteration, the Psalter in the -Book of Common Prayer. During the last year of Mary’s reign and the -beginning of Elizabeth’s, the English refugees at Geneva completed a -fresh revision of the Great Bible, which was published in 1560, in a -handy size, with a marginal commentary, and the chapters divided into -verses. The =Genevan version= (sometimes called the Breeches Bible), -became popular with the Puritans, and more than two hundred editions of -it were published, and it gave way slowly before the present authorised -version. Soon after Elizabeth’s accession, Archbishop Parker organised a -revision of the Great Bible of 1539, which was published in 1568, and -became known as the =Bishops’ Bible=. During Elizabeth’s reign, the Popish -exiles at Rheims produced a new version from the Vulgate, which was -printed at Douay in 1609, and is known as the =Douay Bible=. The English -Bible which is now recognised as the ‘=authorised version=’ wherever the -English language is spoken, is a revision of the Bishops’ Bible, begun -in 1604 and finished in 1611. Of this noble version many millions have -been printed, and its general acceptance by all English-speaking people -is the best testimony to its excellence. No book has had so great an -influence on our language and literature; its words and phrases have -been preserved in our vocabulary, and are the most familiar to our ears, -consecrated as they are with the associations of two hundred and seventy -years. A revision of our version by the most eminent scholars is now in -progress, and the revised New Testament was published, May 17, 1881. -Appended is a passage from Romans (xii. 6-8), as it appears in -Wicliffe’s, Tyndale’s, the Great Bible, the Genevan Bible, the Bishop’s -Bible, and our Authorised Version: - - 1. WICLIFFE. - - 6 Therfor we that han yiftis dyuer-synge, aftir the grace that is - youun to vs, ethir prophecie, aftir the resoun of feith; - - 7 ethir seruise, in mynystryng; ethir he that techith, in techyng; - - 8 he that stirith softli, in monestyng; he that yyueth, in - symplenesse; he that is souereyn, in bisynesse; he that hath merci, - in gladnesse. - - 2. TYNDALE. - - 6 Seyinge that we have divers gyftes accordynge to the grace that - is geven vnto vs, yf eny man have the gyft off prophesy lett hym - have it that itt be agreynge vnto the fayth. - - 7 Let hym that hath an office, wayte on his office. Let hym that - teacheth take hede to his doctryne. - - 8 Let hym that exhorteth geve attendaunce to his exhortacion. Yf - eny man geve, lett hym do it with singlenes. Let hym that rueleth - do it with diligence. Yf eny man shewe mercy lett hym do itt with - cherfulnes. - - 3. GREAT BIBLE. - - 6 Seynge that we haue dyuers gyftes accordynge to the grace that is - geuen vnto vs: yf any man haue the gyfte of prophecy let him haue - it that it be agreing vnto ye fayth. - - 7 Let hym that hath an office wayte on hys office. Let hym that - teacheth take hede to hys doctrine. - - 8 Let hym that exhorteth geue attendaunce to his exhortacion. If - any man geue, let hym do it wyth synglenes. Let hym that ruleth do - it with diligence. If any man shewe mercy, let him do it with - cherfulnes. - - 4. GENEVAN BIBLE. - - 6 Seeing then that we haue giftes that are diuers, according to the - grace that is giuen vnto vs whether we haue prophesie, let us - prophesie according to the proportion of faith: - - 7 Or an office let vs waite on the office: or hee that teacheth on - teaching. - - 8 Or he that exhorteth on exhortation: hee that distributeth let - him do it with simplicitie: he that ruleth with diligence: hee that - sheweth mercie with chearefulnes. - - 5. BISHOPS’ BIBLE. - - 6 Seeing that wee haue diuers giftes according to the grace that is - giuen vnto vs eyther prophecie, after the measure of fayth. - - 7 Eyther office, in administration: or he that teacheth, in - teaching. - - 8 Or he that exhorteth, in exhorting: he that giueth in - singlenesse, he that ruleth in diligence: hee that is mercyfull in - chearefulnesse. - - 6. AUTHORISED VERSION. - - 6 Hauing then gifts differing according to the grace that is giuen - to vs, whether prophecie, let vs prophecie according to the - proportion of faith. - - 7 Or ministery, let vs wait, on our ministring: or hee that - teacheth on teaching. - - 8 Or he that exhorteth, on exhortation: he that giueth let him doe - it with simplicite: hee that ruleth, with diligence: hee that - sheweth mercy with cheerefulnesse. - - - - -II. - -Tabular Outline of modern English Literature. - -(Poems are mentioned in _Italics_.) - - -WILLIAM DUNBAR, 1450-1530. - - Poet. - - _The Thistle and the Rose_ (1503); _The Golden Terge_ (1508); _The - Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins_. The greatest of the Scottish poets - except Burns. He has been called ‘the Chaucer of Scotland.’ - - -SIR THOMAS MORE, 1480-1535. - - Barrister; Lord Chancellor of England; writer on social philosophy; - historian. - - History of King Edward V., and of his brother, and of Richard III. - (1513); Utopia (1516)--a description of a model state of society, - written to influence the bettering of the laws of England. - - -WILLIAM TYNDALE, 1477-1536. - - Priest; translator; author. - - Translation of New Testament (1525, 1534), also of the Pentateuch - and Jonah (1530-31). He has done more by his version to fix and - shape our language in its present form, than any writer between - Chaucer and Shakspeare. - - -SIR DAVID LYNDSAY, 1490-1556. - - Keeper of Prince James (afterwards James V. of Scotland); Lyon - king-at-arms; poet. - - _Satire of the Three Estates_, that is, King, Lords, and Commons; - _Monarchie_. - - -ROGER ASCHAM, 1515-1568. - - Lecturer on Greek at Cambridge; tutor to Edward VI. and Queen - Elizabeth. - - Toxophĭlus, a treatise on shooting with the bow; The Schoolmaster, - a book about teaching, especially the teaching of Latin. - - -JOHN FOX, 1517-1587. - - Prebendary of Salisbury Cathedral. - - Book of Martyrs (1563), an account of the chief Protestant martyrs, - chiefly those in the reign of Mary. - - -EDMUND SPENSER, 1552-1599. - - Secretary to Viceroy of Ireland; poet. - - _Shepherd’s Calendar_ (1579); _Faerie Queene_ (1590-96), in six - books. - - -RICHARD HOOKER, 1553-1600. - - Scholar and theologian; Master of the Temple; and rector of a - country church. - - Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity. This is a defence of the Church of - England, and contains passages of great majesty and splendour of - diction. - - -SIR PHILIP SIDNEY, 1554-1586. - - Courtier; romancist; poet. - - Arcadia, a romance (1580); Defence of Poesie. Some _Sonnets_. - - -FRANCIS BACON, 1561-1626. - - Lord High Chancellor of England; essayist; philosopher. - - Essays (1597); Advancement of Learning (1605); Novum Organum - (1620); and other works on philosophy, and the art of gaining new - knowledge. - - -SIR WALTER RALEIGH, 1552-1618. - - Courtier; navigator; historian. - - History of the World (1614), written in the Tower of London, where - he lay for about thirteen years. His work is ‘one of the finest - models of our quaint and stately old English style.’ - - -WILLIAM SHAKSPEARE, 1564-1616. - - Dramatist and poet; born at Stratford-on-Avon; went to London at - the age of twenty-two; left London in 1609, and from that time - lived in his native town. - - _Tragedies_ and _Comedies_, and _Historical Plays_; thirty-seven in - all. Among his greatest tragedies are, _Hamlet_, _Lear_, _Macbeth_, - _Othello_, _Romeo and Juliet_. Of his comedies the best are the - _Tempest_, _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, _As you like it_, _Merchant - of Venice_, &c. Of his historical plays, _Richard III._ and _Julius - Cæsar_ are specially worth mention. _Minor Poems._ Wrote no prose. - - -BEN JONSON, 1574-1637. - - Dramatist; poet; prose-writer. - - _Tragedies and Comedies_, of the latter, the greatest are _Volpone - or the Fox_; _Every Man in His Humour_; and _The Alchemist_. - - -WILLIAM DRUMMOND, 1585-1649. - - Poet. - - _Sonnets_ and _Religious Poems_. - - -SIR THOMAS BROWNE, 1605-1682. - - Medical practitioner at Norwich. - - Religio Medici (the religion of a physician), contains the author’s - opinions on a great variety of subjects; Urn Burial, a learned and - eloquent work. - - -JOHN MILTON, 1608-1674. - - Poet; Latin secretary to Cromwell (1649). Became blind in 1654. - - _Minor Poems_; _Paradise Lost_; _Paradise Regained_; _Samson - Agonistes_. Many prose works, chiefly on politics, and in defence - of the Commonwealth. - - -THOMAS HOBBES, 1588-1679. - - Philosopher. - - Leviathan (1651), a great philosophical and political work. - - -JEREMY TAYLOR, 1613-1667. - - Bishop of Down in Ireland. - - Holy Living and Holy Dying (1649); and many other books and - sermons. - - -SAMUEL BUTLER, 1612-1680. - - Secretary to the Earl of Carberry. - - _Hudibras_ (1663), a mock-heroic poem, written to caricature the - Puritans. - - -JOHN DRYDEN, 1631-1700. - - Poet-laureate and Historiographer Royal. Also a playwright; poet; - prose-writer; critic. - - _Annus Mirabilis_ (1667)--a poem on the _Plague_ and the _Fire of - London_; _Absalom and Achitophel_ (1681)--a poem on political - matters; _Hind and Panther_ (1687). He wrote many _Tragedies_ and - _Comedies_ and _Odes_; a translation of the _Æneid_ of Virgil. He - wrote a great deal of the best prose--chiefly Essays and - Introductions to his poems. - - -JOHN BUNYAN, 1628-1688. - - Tinker and preacher. - - The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678); the Holy War, and other works. - - -JOHN LOCKE, 1632-1704. - - Member of the Board of Trade; one of the leading men in English - philosophy. - - Letters on Toleration (1689); Essay concerning the Human - Understanding (1690); Thoughts concerning Education, and other - prose works. - - -DANIEL DEFOE, 1661-1731. - - Pamphleteer; journalist; had a very troubled and changeful career. - - Robinson Crusoe (1719); _The True-born Englishman_; Journal of the - Plague; The Shortest Way with the Dissenters; and more than a - hundred books and pamphlets in all. He is one of the most taking - writers that ever lived. - - -JONATHAN SWIFT, 1667-1745. - - Dean of St Patrick’s in Dublin; satirist; poet; prose-writer. - - Battle of the Books; Tale of a Tub (1704); Gulliver’s Travels - (1726). Many of the ablest political pamphlets of the day. A number - of _Poems_. His prose was the strongest and most nervous prose - written in the eighteenth century. - - -SIR RICHARD STEELE, 1671-1729. - - Gentleman usher to Prince George; a fashionable man about town. - - Essays in the Tatler, in the Spectator, in the Guardian--all of - them a kind of magazine. A few plays. - - -JOSEPH ADDISON, 1672-1719. - - Secretary of State. - - Essays in the Tatler, in the Spectator, and in the Guardian. - _Cato_: a tragedy (1713). Several short _Poems_. His prose is the - finest, most genial, and most delicate of all the prose-writings of - the eighteenth century. - - -ALEXANDER POPE, 1688-1744. - - Poet; a Roman Catholic. - - _Essay on Criticism_ (1711); _Rape of the Lock_--the story of the - stealing of a lock of hair; _Translations of the Iliad and - Odyssey_, half of the latter done by assistants (1715-20); the - _Dunciad_; _Essay on Man_. A few essays in prose; and a volume of - Letters. - - -JAMES THOMSON, 1700-1748. - - Poet; held sinecure cure offices under government. - - _The Seasons_--a poem in blank verse; _The Castle of Indolence_, a - poem in the nine-lined stanza of Edmund Spenser. - - -HENRY FIELDING, 1707-1754. - - Novelist and journalist. - - Many comedies--now forgotten. Joseph Andrews (1742); Tom Jones - (1749); Amelia (1751). He was the ‘first great English novelist, - and he remains to this day one of the greatest.’ - - -DAVID HUME, 1711-1776. - - Librarian; secretary to the British Embassy in France. - - Treatise of Human Nature (1737); Essays (1742); Inquiry concerning - the Principles of Morals; History of England (1754-62). Writes very - clear and pleasant prose. - - -DR SAMUEL JOHNSON, 1709-1784. - - Schoolmaster; literary man; dictionary-maker. - - _London_ (1738); the _Vanity of Human Wishes_; The Rambler - (1750-52); The Idler; English Dictionary (1755); Rasselas, a kind - of novel; Lives of the Poets; and other prose works. - - -THOMAS GRAY, 1716-1771. - - Poet; letter-writer; professor of Modern History, Cambridge. - - Odes; _Elegy written in a Country Churchyard_, one of the most - pleasing, perfect, and oft-quoted poems in the language. He was - also a good letter-writer. - - -WILLIAM ROBERTSON, 1721-1793. - - Clergyman; historian; Principal of the University of Edinburgh. - - History of Scotland (1759); History of Charles V. (1769); History - of America (1777). Most readable and fluent prose. - - -TOBIAS GEORGE SMOLLETT, 1721-1771. - - Medical practitioner; poet; pamphleteer; critic and novelist. - - Roderick Random; Peregrine Pickle; and Humphrey Clinker. His novels - are notable for their broad humour, and an easy picturesque style - of narration. - - -ADAM SMITH, 1723-1790. - - Professor of Logic in the University of Glasgow; then of Moral - Philosophy. - - Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759); Enquiry into the Nature and - Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). The founder of the science - of economics (or wealth of nations). - - -OLIVER GOLDSMITH, 1728-1774. - - Poet; literary man; play-writer. - - The Vicar of Wakefield (1766); the _Deserted Village_; She Stoops - to Conquer, a comedy. The _Traveller_; Citizen of the World; - Histories and minor _Poems_. The writer of the most pleasant prose - of the eighteenth century. - - -EDMUND BURKE 1730-1797. - - Statesman; ‘the first man in the Commons;’ writer on political - philosophy. - - Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful (1756); Reflections on the - French Revolution (1790). Many speeches, pamphlets, and articles on - political matters. One of the deepest political thinkers, most - eloquent speakers, and ornate writers of prose that ever lived. - - -WILLIAM COWPER, 1731-1800. - - Poet. - - _Truth_, the _Progress of Error_ (1781), and other poems; the - _Task_ (1785); _John Gilpin_; _Translations of the Iliad and - Odyssey_ (1791) in blank verse; _Hymns_. His prose--which consists - of letters--is clear, humorous, and pleasant. - - -EDWARD GIBBON, 1737-1794. - - Historian; sat eight years in the House of Commons, but never - spoke. - - Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-87); Essays on the Study - of Literature (in French). His style is a splendid example ‘of - smiting phrases and weighty antithesis.’ - - -ROBERT BURNS, 1759-1796. - - Ploughman; farmer; Excise officer; poet. - - _Poems_ and _Songs_ (1786-96) (_Cottar’s Saturday Night_, _Jolly - Beggars_, _Tam o’ Shanter_, _Mountain Daisy_, etc.) His prose - consists chiefly of letters. - - -WILLIAM WORDSWORTH, 1770-1850. - - Distributor of stamps for the county of Westmoreland; poet; - poet-laureate. - - _Descriptive Sketches_ (1793); _Lyrical Ballads_ (1798); _Sonnets_; - _The Excursion_ (1814); _The Prelude_. He marks the dawn of a new - school of poetry in the nineteenth century. - - -SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE, 1772-1834. - - Journalist; secretary; literary man; poet. - - _The Ancient Mariner_ and _Christabel_ (1797-1806); several plays, - including a translation of Schiller’s _Wallenstein_; many minor - poems; The Friend--a set of essays; Confessions of an Inquiring - Spirit; Biographia Literaria; Aids to Reflection. His prose is very - elaborate and also very musical. - - -ROBERT SOUTHEY, 1774-1843. - - Literary man; historian; reviewer; poet; poet-laureate. - - _Joan of Arc_ (1793); _Thalaba the Destroyer_; the _Curse of - Kehama_; Life of Nelson. Firm, clear, and sensible prose. Wrote - more than a hundred volumes. - - -CHARLES LAMB, 1775-1835. - - Clerk in the East India House; essayist and humorist. - - Essays of Elia (1820-25), which are quaint and familiar, and full - of kindly wit and grotesque humour. - - -SIR WALTER SCOTT, 1771-1832. - - Advocate; poet: novelist. - - _Border Minstrelsy_--a collection of old Border ballads (1802); - _Lay of the Last Minstrel_ (1805); _Marmion_ (1808); the _Lady of - the Lake_ (1810); Waverley (1814)--the first of that remarkable - series, the Waverley Novels. In verse, he is the ‘Homer of - Scotland;’ and he was a master of most fluent, bright, flowing - narrative prose. - - -THOMAS CAMPBELL, 1777-1844. - - Poet; literary man. - - _Pleasures of Hope_ (1799); _Minor Poems_--such as _Hohenlinden_, - _Battle of the Baltic_, _Ye Mariners of England_, _Gertrude of - Wyoming_ (1809). His prose consists chiefly of the Introductions to - his _Specimens of the British Poets_. - - -THOMAS MOORE, 1779-1852. - - Poet; biographer; historian. - - _Odes and Epistles_ (1806); _Lalla Rookh_ (1817); Life of Byron - (1830); _Irish Melodies_ (1834); History of Ireland (1836). - - -LORD BYRON, 1788-1824. - - (George Gordon). Peer; poet. - - _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_ (1808); _Childe Harold_ - (1812); the _Bride of Abydos_ (1814); and many _Plays_. His - prose--which is full of vigour, fire, and eloquence--consists - chiefly of letters. - - -PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY, 1792-1822. - - Poet. - - _Queen Mab_ (1813); _Revolt of Islam_; _Prometheus Unbound_ - (1819)--a tragedy; _Odes_ (_The Cloud_, _To the Skylark_, etc.), - and many minor poems. His prose consists chiefly of letters. - - -HENRY HALLAM, 1778-1859. - - Historian; literary man; Trustee of the British Museum. - - View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages (1818); - Constitutional History of England (1827); Literature of Europe - (1837); History of the Middle Ages (1848). A clear and impartial - writer. - - -THOMAS DE QUINCEY, 1785-1859. - - Literary man. - - Confessions of an English Opium-eater (1821); Essays on subjects in - almost every department of History, Philosophy, and Literature. His - style is eloquent, musical, and elaborate. In his own way, he was - the finest prose-writer of the nineteenth century. - - -JOHN KEATS, 1795-1821. - - Poet. - - _Endymion_ (1818); _Hyperion_; _Eve of St Agnes_; _Odes_. His poems - are full of beauty and rich and picturesque imagery. - - -THOMAS CARLYLE, 1795-1881. - - Mathematician; literary man; reviewer; historian. - - Sartor Resartus (1833); The French Revolution, a History (1837); - Oliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches (1845); Life of John - Sterling (1851); History of Friedrich II. of Prussia (1858-65). His - style is full of force, fire, and grotesqueness; he paints in vivid - colours, and presents a true and exact picture of the living man. - - -LORD MACAULAY, 1800-1859. - - Barrister; reviewer; Secretary of the Board of Control for India; - member of the Supreme Council of India; historian; peer. - - Essay on Milton (1825); _Lays of Ancient Rome_ (1842); Essays - (1843); History of England (1848-1859). Wrote a style of the - greatest force and picturesqueness--full of allusion, illustration, - grace, clearness, and point. - - -LORD LYTTON, 1805-1873. - - Novelist; poet; statesman. - - Eugene Aram (1831); The Last Days of Pompeii; The Caxtons; some - plays, minor _Poems_, and essays. Writes a most clear, fluent, - bright, ornate, and readable English style. - - -JOHN STUART MILL, 1806-1873. - - Clerk in the East India House; Utilitarian philosopher. - - System of Logic (1843); Political Economy (1844); Essay on Liberty. - One of the foremost thinkers of his time. - - -HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW, 1807-1882. - - Professor of Modern Languages and Literature; poet. - - _Evangeline_ (1847); _Hiawatha_ (1855); _Minor Poems_ (_Excelsior_; - _A Psalm of Life_, etc.) One of the sweetest and best known of - American poets. - - -ALFRED TENNYSON, =1809-= - - Poet; poet laureate. - - _Poems, chiefly Lyrical_ (1830); _In Memoriam_ (1850); _Idylls of - the King_ (1859-73); _Enoch Arden_ (1864); and several dramas. His - poetical style is full of beauty, sweetness, and variety. - - -ELIZABETH BARRETT BROWNING, 1809-1861. - - Poetess; the wife of Robert Browning. - - _Poems_ (1838); _Aurora Leigh_ (1856); _The Cry of the Children_; - _Cowper’s Grave_; _Sonnets from the Portuguese_, etc. A poetess of - infinite sweetness and power. - - -ROBERT BROWNING, =1812-= - - Poet. - - _Pauline_ (1833); _Paracelsus_ (1836); _The Ring and the Book_, and - about two dozen more volumes. His poems are very difficult to - understand, but are very well worth understanding. - - -WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY, 1811-1863. - - Novelist. - - Vanity Fair (1846); Pendennis (1849); Esmond; English Humorists, - etc. The finest novelist and one of the best prose-writers of the - century. - - -CHARLES DICKENS, 1812-1870. - - Novelist. - - Pickwick Papers (1837); Oliver Twist; Nicholas Nickleby; David - Copperfield; Dombey and Son; Christmas Books, etc. He has been read - over and over again by hundreds of thousands of delighted readers. - - -JOHN RUSKIN, =1819-= - - Art-critic; moralist; literary-man. - - Modern Painters (1843); The Seven Lamps of Architecture; The Stones - of Venice (1851-53); Sesame and Lilies; Lectures on Art; Fors - Clavigera. One of the most wonderful and imaginative writers of - English prose that ever lived. - - -GEORGE ELIOT 1820-1880. - - (Marian Evans), Novelist. - - Adam Bede (1858); Middlemarch (1871); Daniel Deronda (1876); - _Poems_. The novels of this accomplished lady rank among the - greatest of modern times. - - THE END. - - - Edinburgh: - Printed by W. & R. Chambers. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Pronounced _Mootter_. - - [2] Pronounced _Brooder_. - - [3] Thus we have _Wedn=es=day_ = the day of Woden or Odin. - - [4] _Jutland_ means the _land of the Jutes_; _not_ the _land that juts - out_. - - [5] The division called =Wessex= included _Hampshire_, _Wiltshire_, - _Berkshire_, _Somersetshire_, _Dorsetshire_, _Gloucestershire_, and - _Devonshire_. - - [6] The Revival of Letters, or the Renascence (or _Renaissance_), is - the name given to the new enthusiasm which seized Italians, Germans, - Frenchmen, and Englishmen, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, - to read the great treasures of literature that may be found in Greek - and Latin books. - - [7] The same root exists in _monarch_, a person who rules alone. - - [8] Two-languaged. - - [9] What is called _the feudal system_ was based upon war. A knight - held land of his baron; a baron of his king--on condition of bringing - so many men into the field on the summons of his overlord. - - [10] _Low Latin_ is the name for that kind of corruption of Latin - which was written and spoken after the breaking up of the Roman Empire - in the fifth century. - - [11] A _synonym_ is a word that has the _same meaning_ as another - word; like _begin_ and _commence_; _will_ and _testament_. There are - very few real synonyms in English; because when the language acquired - a word of similar meaning, it at once set to work to use it in a - different _way_, or to give it a different _function_, or to bestow on - it a different tone, colouring, or shade. - - [12] He might have said _hall_ and _bower_. In the old English times, - the _hall_ was the outer room of the cottage, into which the front - door opened, and _bower_ was the inner room. - - [13] A _liche_ or _lyke_ originally meant _body_. - - [14] _Ayenbite_ = _againbite_. The _again_ corresponds to the _re_ in - _remorse_. - - [15] In head-rhymes, two or three words in each line begin with the - same letter. - - [16] The highest value. - - [17] Carriage. - - [18] Unbecoming or unkind thing. - - [19] Kind of person. - - [20] Very perfect gentle. - - [21] Dress. - - [22] Gaily dressed. - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Outline of the history of the English -language and literature, by Anonymous - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTLINE HISTORY ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE *** - -***** This file should be named 53094-0.txt or 53094-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/0/9/53094/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif and The Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet -Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Outline of the history of the English language and literature - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: September 19, 2016 [EBook #53094] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTLINE HISTORY ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif and The Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet -Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="[Image of the -book's cover unavailable.]" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_1" id="page_1"></a>{1}</span></p> - -<h1> -<small>OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY</small><br /> -<br /> -<small><small>OF</small></small><br /> -<br /> -THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE<br /> -<br /> -<small><small>AND</small></small><br /> -<br /> -<small>LITERATURE</small></h1> - -<p class="c"> -<img src="images/colophon.jpg" width="60" height="58" alt="[Image -of colophon unavailable.]" /> -<br /> -<br /> -W. & R. CHAMBERS<br /> -LONDON AND EDINBURGH<br /> -1882<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_2" id="page_2"></a>{2}</span><br /> -<br /> -Edinburgh:<br /> -Printed by W. & R. Chambers.<br /> -</p> - -<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> object of this book, as indicated in the title, is to give an -outline of the History of the English Language and Literature.</p> - -<p>It aims, however, at being something more than a mere statement of -facts. It is intended to excite an interest in English philology, and in -the leading authors that from the time of Cædmon have used the English -tongue.</p> - -<p>It is therefore to be regarded as an introduction to English philology -and literature; and is adapted for use in the advanced classes of -elementary schools, in secondary schools, and for pupil teachers, as -well as for private students.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_5" id="page_5"></a>{5}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><th colspan="3" class="c"><i>LANGUAGE.</i></th></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"><b>HISTORY OF THE VOCABULARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</b></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-1-I">1.</a></td><td valign="top">What a Language is</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_7">7</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-2-I">2.</a></td><td valign="top">The English Language</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_7">7</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-3-I">3.</a></td><td valign="top">Family</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_8">8</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-4-I">4.</a></td><td valign="top">Teutons</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_8">8</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-5-I">5.</a></td><td valign="top">High-German</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_9">9</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-6-I">6.</a></td><td valign="top">Low-German</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_9">9</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-7-I">7.</a></td><td valign="top">Scandinavian</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_10">10</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-8-I">8.</a></td><td valign="top">The chief Teutonic Languages</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_10">10</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-9-I">9.</a></td><td valign="top">Where the English came from</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_11">11</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-10-I">10.</a></td><td valign="top">The Periods of English</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_12">12</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-11-I">11.</a></td><td valign="top">Anglo-Saxon</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_12">12</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-12-I">12.</a></td><td valign="top">Early English</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_13">13</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-13-I">13.</a></td><td valign="top">Middle English</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_13">13</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-14-I">14.</a></td><td valign="top">Modern English</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_13">13</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-15-I">15.</a></td><td valign="top">English Words in English Language</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_14">14</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-16-I">16.</a></td><td valign="top">Changes in English</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_15">15</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-17-I">17.</a></td><td valign="top">Loss and Gain</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_16">16</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-18-I">18.</a></td><td valign="top">Foreign Elements in English</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_16">16</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-19-I">19.</a></td><td valign="top">Welsh</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_17">17</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-20-I">20.</a></td><td valign="top">Keltic Element</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_18">18</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-21-I">21.</a></td><td valign="top">Latin Element of First Period (i)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_18">18</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-22-I">22.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span>(ii)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_19">19</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-23-I">23.</a></td><td valign="top">Latin Element of Second Period (i)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_20">20</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-24-I">24.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span><span class="ditto">“</span> (ii)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_20">20</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-25-I">25.</a></td><td valign="top">Scandinavian Element (i)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_21">21</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-26-I">26.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span><span class="ditto">“</span> (ii)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_22">22</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-27-I">27.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span><span class="ditto">“</span> (iii)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_22">22</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-28-I">28.</a></td><td valign="top">Latin Element of Third Period (i)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_23">23</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-29-I">29.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span><span class="ditto">“</span> (ii)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_24">24</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-30-I">30.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span><span class="ditto">“</span> (iii)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_24">24</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-31-I">31.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span><span class="ditto">“</span> (iv)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_25">25</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-32-I">32.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span><span class="ditto">“</span> (v)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_25">25</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-33-I">33.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span><span class="ditto">“</span> (vi)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_26">26</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-34-I">34.</a></td><td valign="top">Synonyms from Norman-French</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_26">26</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-35-I">35.</a></td><td valign="top">Bilingualism</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_27">27</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-36-I">36.</a></td><td valign="top">Doublets</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_28">28</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-37-I">37.</a></td><td valign="top">Doublets</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_28">28</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-38-I">38.</a></td><td valign="top">Pronunciation</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_28">28</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-39-I">39.</a></td><td valign="top">Latin of Fourth Period</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_29">29</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-40-I">40.</a></td><td valign="top">Mouth Latin and Book Latin</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_30">30</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-41-I">41.</a></td><td valign="top">Greek Doublets</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_32">32</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-42-I">42.</a></td><td valign="top">English and French Words in Sentences</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_33">33</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-43-I">43.</a></td><td valign="top">English Words Lost</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_33">33</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"><b>HISTORY OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH.</b></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-1-II">1.</a></td><td valign="top">An Inflected Language</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_34">34</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-2-II">2.</a></td><td valign="top">Grammar of Nouns</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_35">35</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-3-II">3.</a></td><td valign="top">Grammar of Adjectives</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_35">35</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-4-II">4.</a></td><td valign="top">Grammar of Definite Article</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_35">35</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-5-II">5.</a></td><td valign="top">Grammar of Personal Pronoun</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_36">36</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-6-II">6.</a></td><td valign="top">Grammar of Verbs</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_36">36</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-7-II">7.</a></td><td valign="top">Fragments of Noun Inflections</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_36">36</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-8-II">8.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span>Adjective Inflections</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_37">37</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-9-II">9.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span>Pronoun Inflections</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_37">37</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-10-II">10.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span>Verb Inflections</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_37">37</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-11-II">11.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span>Inflections in Adverbs</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_38">38</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-12-II">12.</a></td><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span>Inflections in Prepositions</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_39">39</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"><b>CHANGES IN MODERN ENGLISH.</b></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-1-III">1.</a></td><td valign="top">Formation of Modern English</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_39">39</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-2-III">2.</a></td><td valign="top">Continued History</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_39">39</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-3-III">3.</a></td><td valign="top">Spanish and Italian</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_40">40</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-4-III">4.</a></td><td valign="top">Dutch Words</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_41">41</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-5-III">5.</a></td><td valign="top">Latin and Teutonic Element</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_41">41</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-6-III">6.</a></td><td valign="top">Influences affecting our Language at the present time<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_6" id="page_6"></a>{6}</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_42">42</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-1-IV">1.</a></td><td valign="top">Words adopted from Foreign Languages</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_43">43</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-2-IV">2.</a></td><td valign="top">Chief Dates in the History of the English Language</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_45">45</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"><b>NOTES ON THE GROWTH OF ENGLISH WORDS.</b></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-1-V">1.</a></td><td valign="top">Roots; Influence of Imitation -on Language</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_46">46</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-2-V">2.</a></td><td valign="top">Hybrids</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_46">46</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-3-V">3.</a></td><td valign="top">Words disguised in Form or in Meaning</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_48">48</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-4-V">4.</a></td><td valign="top">Words that have changed -their Meaning</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_53">53</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-5-V">5.</a></td><td valign="top">Words from the Names of -Persons</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_54">54</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-6-V">6.</a></td><td valign="top">Words from Names of Places</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_55">55</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-7-V">7.</a></td><td valign="top">English (or Teutonic) Roots</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_56">56</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-8-V">8.</a></td><td valign="top">Latin Roots</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_57">57</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-9-V">9.</a></td><td valign="top">Greek Roots</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_63">63</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-10-V">10.</a></td><td valign="top">Branching of Words from Latin -Stems</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_65">65</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-11-V">11.</a></td><td valign="top">Branching of Words from English -Stems</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_69">69</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th class="c" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"><b>PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.</b></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"><a href="#PREFIXES"><span class="smcap">Prefixes.</span></a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-1-VI">1.</a></td><td valign="top"> English (or Teutonic)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_70">70</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-2-VI">2.</a></td><td valign="top">Latin</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_71">71</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-3-VI">3.</a></td><td valign="top">Greek</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_72">72</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"><a href="#SUFFIXES"><span class="smcap">Suffixes.</span></a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-4-VI">4.</a></td><td valign="top">English (or Teutonic)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_72">72</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-5-VI">5.</a></td><td valign="top">Latin</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_74">74</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-6-VI">6.</a></td><td valign="top">Greek</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_75">75</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3" class="c"><a href="#LITERATURE"><i>LITERATURE.</i></a></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#LITERATURE"><b>I. OUTLINE OF OUR EARLY LITERATURE.</b></a></td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-1-LIT">1.</a></td><td valign="top">The <i>Beowulf</i></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_76">76</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-2-LIT">2.</a></td><td valign="top">Cædmon</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_76">76</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-3-LIT">3.</a></td><td valign="top">Bæda</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_77">77</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-4-LIT">4.</a></td><td valign="top">King Alfred</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_77">77</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-5-LIT">5.</a></td><td valign="top">The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_78">78</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-6-LIT">6.</a></td><td valign="top">Archbishop Ælfric</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_78">78</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-7-LIT">7.</a></td><td valign="top">Anglo-Saxon Gospels</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_78">78</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-8-LIT">8.</a></td><td valign="top">Old English Dialects</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_79">79</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-9-LIT">9.</a></td><td valign="top">First English Book after Norman Conquest</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_80">80</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-10-LIT">10.</a></td><td valign="top">Orm’s <i>Ormulum</i></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_80">80</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-11-LIT">11.</a></td><td valign="top">Langland and Chaucer</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_81">81</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-12-LIT">12.</a></td><td valign="top">Alliteration or Head-Rhyme</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_82">82</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-13-LIT">13.</a></td><td valign="top">John Gower</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_83">83</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-14-LIT">14.</a></td><td valign="top">John Barbour</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_83">83</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-15-LIT">15.</a></td><td valign="top">Sir John Mandeville</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_83">83</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-16-LIT">16.</a></td><td valign="top">John Wicliffe</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_84">84</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#sect-17-LIT">17.</a></td><td valign="top">Our English Bible and its History</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_85">85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="2"><a href="#Tabular_Outline_of_modern_English_Literature"><b>II. TABULAR OUTLINE OF MODERN ENGLISH LITERATURE</b></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_87">87</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<img src="images/barra.jpg" width="302" height="67" alt="[Image of decorative -bar unavailable.]" /><br /> -<br />THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_7" id="page_7"></a>{7}</span></h2> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> -<b>History of its Vocabulary.</b></h2> - -<p><a name="sect-1-I" id="sect-1-I">1.</a> <b>WHAT A LANGUAGE IS.</b>—A language is a number of different sounds which -are made by the <b>tongue</b> and the other organs of speech. But a spoken -language is, or may be, written or printed upon paper by the aid of a -number of <b>signs</b> or <b>symbols</b>—which are generally printed in black ink -upon white paper.—The parts of a spoken language are called <b>sounds</b>; the -smallest parts of a written or printed language are called <b>letters</b>.—A -language is also called a <i>tongue</i> or a <i>speech</i>.—A language, like a -living being, does not remain always the same. It <i>grows</i>. As it grows, -it alters in appearance; small and great changes take place in it; and -the story of these changes is called the <i>History of the Language</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-2-I" id="sect-2-I">2.</a> <b>THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE</b> is the name given to the language which is -spoken in Great Britain and Ireland, in the United States, in Canada, in -Australia and New Zealand, in South Africa, and in many other parts of -the world where Englishmen, Scotchmen, and Irishmen are found. In the -middle of the <b>fifth century</b> it was spoken by a few thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_8" id="page_8"></a>{8}</span> men who -came over to Britain from the north-west of Europe, and by many -thousands of men and women who dwelt on the banks of the lower parts of -the great German rivers—the Rhine, the Elbe, and the Weser. It is now -spoken by more than 100 millions of people. But the English spoken in -the fifth century was a very different language from the English that is -spoken now. It was different, yet still the same. It was different in -appearance, as a child of one year old is different in looks from a man -of forty; but both the English of to-day and the English of the fifth -century are the same—because the one has grown out of the other, just -as the tall strong man of forty has grown out of the child of one year -old.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-3-I" id="sect-3-I">3.</a> <b>FAMILY.</b>—To what family of languages does our English speech belong? -It belongs to the <b>Indo-European family</b> of languages. This family is so -called, because the languages which belong to it are spoken both in -India and in Europe. Many thousand years ago, the people from whom we -are descended lived on the high table-lands in the heart of Asia. Bands -of them kept travelling always farther and farther west; and it is from -their language that most of the tongues spoken in Europe are derived. -These bands left their friends and relations and country, just as young -men and women nowadays leave the homes of their parents to go and settle -in distant countries. The Indo-European is also called the Aryan family -of languages. Altogether, it embraces seven great languages—(1) The -Indian or Sanskrit; (2) Persic; (3) Greek; (4) Latin; (5) Keltic; (6) -Teutonic; and (7) Slavonic, which includes Russian, Polish, &c.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-4-I" id="sect-4-I">4.</a> <b>TEUTONS.</b>—The English language was introduced into this country by -bands of warlike colonists from Northwestern Germany, who drove the old -inhabitants to the mountainous regions in the west of the island. Those -colonists were variously called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes; but they all -belonged to the Teutonic race, and their speech was a branch of the -Teutonic group of languages. The Teutonic group of languages contains -three main sections, from which all the others spring. These three main -sections<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_9" id="page_9"></a>{9}</span> are: <b>High-German</b>, <b>Low-German</b>, and <b>Scandinavian</b>. High-German is -the name given to the kind of German which is spoken on the higher lands -or table-lands of South Germany—those table-lands which slope from the -Central Plain of Europe up to the Alps; and its northern boundary is the -pretty river <i>Main</i>, which falls into the Rhine. Low-German is the name -given to the kind of German spoken in the lowlands of Germany; and the -southern boundary of this kind of speech is the river Main—its northern -boundary being the Baltic and the North Sea. Scandinavian is the wide -general name given to those kinds of Teutonic speech which are found in -Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland. These divisions may be placed in a -table in the following manner:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="text-align:center;"> - -<tr><td colspan="13">TEUTONIC.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="bb" colspan="13">|</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c" colspan="4">|</td> -<td class="c" colspan="6">|</td> -<td class="c" colspan="6">|</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="4"><b>High-German.</b></td> - -<td colspan="6"><b>Low-German.</b> </td> - -<td colspan="6"><b>Scandinavian.</b></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="4">|</td> -<td class="c" colspan="6">|</td> -<td class="c" colspan="6">|</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td><td> </td> -<td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td><td> </td> -<td class="bt">|</td> - -<td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td> - -</tr> - -<tr><td>Old.</td> <td>Middle.</td> <td>New.</td> -<td> </td> -<td>Dutch.</td> - -<td>Flemish.</td> -<td>Frisian.</td> -<td>English.</td><td> </td> -<td>Icelandic.</td> -<td>Danish. </td> -<td>Norwegian.</td> -<td>Swedish.</td></tr> - -</table> -<p><a name="sect-5-I" id="sect-5-I">5.</a> <b>HIGH-GERMAN.</b>—High-German is spoken in the southern parts of -Germany—such as Bavaria, Swabia, and other hilly regions; and also in -the north and east of Switzerland.—It is this form of the language that -has become the book-speech or literary language of the Germans; and its -technical name is <b>New High-German</b>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-6-I" id="sect-6-I">6.</a> <b>LOW-GERMAN.</b>—The languages which belong to this division are spoken -in the plains of Germany, especially along the lower courses of the -rivers, in Holland, in part of Belgium, in England, Scotland, and -Ireland, and the British Colonies, and in the United States of North -America. The Low-German spoken in Holland is called <i>Dutch</i>; the -Low-German spoken in Belgium is called <i>Flemish</i>; the Low-German spoken -in Friesland—a wealthy province of Holland—is called <i>Frisian</i>; and -the Low-German spoken in England is called <i>English</i>. (But, as we shall -soon see, English contains many thousands of words in addition<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_10" id="page_10"></a>{10}</span> to those -which are purely Low-German.) The language on the continent which is -most like English is the Frisian language. There is indeed a well-known -couplet, every word in which is said to be both Frisian and English. It -runs thus:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Good butter and good cheese<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Is good English and good Fries.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The following are the chief subdivisions of</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="text-align:center;"> -<tr><td colspan="4">LOW-GERMAN.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="4">|</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td></tr> - -<tr><td><b>Dutch</b></td> -<td><b>Flemish</b></td> -<td><b>Frisian</b></td> -<td><b>English</b></td></tr> -<tr><td>(Spoken in Holland).</td> -<td>(in Flanders).</td> -<td>(in Friesland).</td> -<td>(in England, etc.).</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><a name="sect-7-I" id="sect-7-I">7.</a> <b>SCANDINAVIAN.</b>—Scandinavian is the general name given to the -different kinds of Teutonic speech which are employed in Denmark, -Norway, Sweden, and Iceland. The oldest and purest kind of Scandinavian -speech is that spoken in the far-off country in the middle of the North -Atlantic, called Iceland; and it is the purest, because for many -centuries there has been very little communication with that country. -Indeed, the Icelandic of the 12th century differs very little from the -Icelandic of to-day. But the English of the twelfth century differs so -much from the English of the nineteenth century, that we should at first -sight hardly know them for the same speech.—One peculiar mark of a -Scandinavian speech is the preference for hard consonants—the -preference, for example, of a <i>k</i> over a <i>ch</i> or <i>sh</i>. Thus the Danes -say <i>Dansk</i> for <i>Danish</i>; and it is Danish influence that has given to -Scotchmen and to the north of England the form <i>kirk</i> instead of -<i>church</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-8-I" id="sect-8-I">8.</a> <b>THE THREE CHIEF TEUTONIC LANGUAGES.</b>—The three most important -languages belonging to the great Teutonic stock are <b>English</b>, <b>Dutch</b>, and -<b>German</b>. If we look at the words used in these languages, we shall at -once see that they are sister-languages. If we look at the way in which -their words are changed—or at their inflections—we shall also see<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_11" id="page_11"></a>{11}</span> -that they are very closely related. Thus the commonest words appear in -these three languages in the following shape:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left"><b>English</b></td><td align="left">Three.</td><td align="left">Mother.</td><td align="left">Brother.</td><td align="left">Have (inf.).</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><b>Dutch</b></td><td align="left">Drie.</td><td align="left">Moeder.</td><td align="left">Broeder.</td><td align="left">Hebben.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><b>German</b></td><td align="left">Drei.</td><td align="left">Mutter.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td><td align="left">Bruder.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td><td align="left">Haben.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="nind">Again, the inflections of these three languages are very similar—are in -fact, different shapes of the same changes. Thus the possessive case of -nouns in all three languages ends in <b>s</b> or <b>es</b><a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> or <b>’s</b>. The second person -singular of verbs in all three ends in <i>st</i>; and the ending of the past -participle in all three is generally <i>en</i>. We know, then, both from -history and from a comparison of the actual facts in the present state -of the languages, that all three are sister-tongues.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-9-I" id="sect-9-I">9.</a> <b>WHERE THE ENGLISH CAME FROM.</b>—Those Teutons who brought over the -English tongue to this island, came from the north-west of Europe—most -of them from that part of the German coast which lies between the river -Elbe and the river Weser. The kind of Low-German spoken by them is much -the same as that still spoken in the lowlands of Hanover, Holstein, and -Schleswig. There is in Holstein—upon the west coast—a small district -which is called <b>Angeln</b>—that is, <i>England</i>—to this day. The Teutons who -came over to Britain belonged to three tribes. They were <b>Jutes</b> and -<b>Angles</b> and <b>Saxons</b>. The Jutes came from Jutland.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The Angles came from -Schleswig and Holstein. The Saxons came from Hanover and the land to the -west of it. The Jutes settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight. The Saxons -settled in Essex (or East Sex), Wessex<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> (or West Sex), Sussex (or -South Sex), and Middlesex; and the ending <i>sex</i> is an indication of the -fact. The Angles settled chiefly in the north and east. One of the -kingdoms founded by them was called East Anglia; and the northern and -southern settlers<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_12" id="page_12"></a>{12}</span> in it gave their names to the two counties of Norfolk -and Suffolk, which are only later forms of the words <i>North folk</i> and -<i>South folk</i>. These three tribes all spoke different dialects of the -same speech. The early predominance of the Angles, especially as the -Angles in Northumbria were the first to have a literature, gave to the -language the name of <i>English</i>, though the Keltic people still call it -<i>Saxon</i> or <i>Sassenach</i>. The country also in time acquired, from the same -cause, the name of <i>Engla-land</i>, or the <i>land of the English</i>. The first -landing of Teutons took place in the year 449; and for about a hundred -years afterwards, bands of strong young warriors and colonists continued -to arrive at short intervals.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-10-I" id="sect-10-I">10.</a> <b>THE PERIODS OF ENGLISH.</b>—The language brought over to Britain by -these three tribes has grown very much since the fifth century. It has -been growing for fourteen hundred years. It has therefore altered very -much in every way; its appearance has changed; and we have to learn the -English of the fifth, or the eighth, or the eleventh century, almost as -if it were a foreign language. There are four chief periods in the -history of the English language. These are:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="rt">I.</td><td align="left">Old English, commonly called Anglo-Saxon </td><td class="rt">450-1100</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">II.</td><td align="left">Early English</td><td class="rt">1100-1250</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">III.</td><td align="left">Middle English</td><td class="rt">1250-1485</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">IV.</td><td align="left">Modern English</td><td class="rt">1485-1882</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="nind">But it must not be forgotten that there is no hard and fast line between -one period and another. A living language, like a living body, is always -changing. It takes on new additions of new matter; it loses the old. -With these new additions, its form also changes. We are rarely sensible -of these changes; but they are going on all the time for all that.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-11-I" id="sect-11-I">11.</a> <b>THE OLDEST ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON, 450-1100.</b>—This form of the -English language contained a very large number of inflections. The -definite article was inflected for gender, number, and case; nouns and -adjectives were highly inflected; and the verb had a very much larger -number of inflections than it has now. The words of the English<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_13" id="page_13"></a>{13}</span> -vocabulary during this period were almost entirely English; a few Latin -and Greek words—brought in chiefly by the church—and a few Keltic -words, had found their way into the English vocabulary. The rhyme used -in poetry was not end-rhyme, as at the present date, but head-rhyme or -alliteration—as we find it in the well-known line from Pope:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Apt alliteration’s artful aid.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">To this period belong the writings of the poet Cædmon and of King -Alfred.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-12-I" id="sect-12-I">12.</a> <b>EARLY ENGLISH, 1100-1250.</b>—The Normans had seized all power in the -state and in the church, and had held it since the year 1066. During the -early part of this period, English was not written, had ceased to be -employed in books; and French words began to creep in even among the -spoken words of the English people. The inflections of words began to -drop off, or to be carelessly used, and then to be mixed up and confused -with each other. One of the chief writers of this period is a priest -called <b>Layamon</b>, who wrote a poem called the <i>Brut</i> (<i>Brutus</i>), which -gave some account of the beginnings of the English people, who were -believed to be descended from Brutus, the fabled son of Æneas of Troy.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-13-I" id="sect-13-I">13.</a> <b>MIDDLE ENGLISH, 1250-1485.</b>—Nouns and adjectives during this period -lost almost all their inflections. The inflections of verbs were very -much altered and greatly simplified.—In the year 1349, boys in school -were allowed to cease translating their Latin into French, and began to -translate it into English. In the year 1362 Edward III. passed an act of -parliament ordering the use of English in the pleadings of cases in all -courts of law, instead of Norman-French, which had hitherto been -employed. To the first half of this period belong such works as the -<i>Metrical Chronicle</i> and the <i>Lives of the Saints</i>, supposed to have -been written and translated by Robert of Gloucester; to the second half -belong the works of the great poet Chaucer, of William Langland, and of -the reformer Wicliffe.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-14-I" id="sect-14-I">14.</a> <b>MODERN ENGLISH, 1485-1882.</b>—The year 1485 marks<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_14" id="page_14"></a>{14}</span> the accession of -the House of Tudor to the throne, in the person of Henry VII. By this -time almost all inflections had disappeared from our language. Many -hundreds of French words had come into the language. From the time of -the Revival of Letters<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>—which may be said to have begun in the -sixteenth century—several thousands of Latin words were poured into the -English vocabulary. The period which lies between 1485 and 1603—the -year in which James I. came to the throne—is sometimes called the -period of <b>Tudor English</b>. Its greatest verse-writer is Shakspeare; its -greatest prose-writer is Hooker, who wrote <i>The Laws of Ecclesiastical -Polity</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-15-I" id="sect-15-I">15.</a> <b>ENGLISH WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</b>—The English language has for -centuries been importing words from many foreign tongues into its own -vocabulary; and it has given a hearty welcome to all kinds of strangers. -So much is this the case, and so far has this habit of taking in -strangers gone, that we can now quite accurately say: <i>Most of the words -in our English language are not English.</i> There are more Latin words in -our tongue than there are English. But this statement is true only of -our words as we find them <i>in the dictionary</i>. The words which we use -every day—the language <i>of the mouth</i>—is almost entirely English. The -<i>fixed vocabulary</i>—the vocabulary printed in the dictionary—is more -Latin than English; the <i>moving vocabulary</i>—the words which are daily -spoken—is English. Thus, if we take a passage in our translation of the -Four Gospels, we shall find from 90 to 96 per cent. of the words used -are English—and pure English. In the <i>Prologue</i> which Chaucer wrote to -his famous set of poems called <i>The Canterbury Tales</i>, 88 per cent. of -the words are English; while, in Mrs Browning’s <i>Cry of the Children</i>, -the English words rise to the large proportion of 92 per cent.</p> - -<p>The following is a list of a few more percentages of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_15" id="page_15"></a>{15}</span> purely English -words in the writings of well-known authors:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td>Spenser (<i>Faerie Queene</i>, ii. 7)</td><td align="left">86</td><td class="c">per cent.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Shakspeare (<i>Henry IV., Part I.</i>, Act ii)</td><td align="left">91</td><td class="c"><span class="ditto">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>Milton (<i>Paradise Lost</i>, Book VI.)</td><td align="left">80</td><td class="c"><span class="ditto">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>Swift (<i>John Bull</i>)</td><td align="left">85</td><td class="c"><span class="ditto">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>Johnson (Preface to <i>Dictionary</i>)</td><td align="left">72</td><td class="c"><span class="ditto">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>Gibbon (<i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, I., cap. vii.)</td><td align="left">70</td><td class="c"><span class="ditto">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>Macaulay (<i>Essay on Lord Bacon</i>)</td><td align="left">75</td><td class="c"><span class="ditto">“</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>Tennyson (<i>In Memoriam</i>, first twenty poems)</td><td align="left">89</td><td class="c"><span class="ditto">“</span></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><a name="sect-16-I" id="sect-16-I">16.</a> <b>CHANGES IN ENGLISH.</b>—Let us take a passage from the Saxon -translation of the Old Testament—and it is the oldest English version -we have—and notice what differences there are between this English and -the English of the present day. This translation was made by Abbot -Ælfric, who lived and wrote late in the tenth century. He translated -into English the five books of Moses—commonly called the -Pentateuch—Joshua, Judges, and part of the book of Job. Let us see how -he writes (Genesis, ix. 1):</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left">God blett̃sode</td><td align="left">God blessed</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Noe and his suna</td><td align="left">Noah and his sons</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">and cväd hem tô:</td><td align="left">and quoth to them:</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Veahxađ</td><td align="left">Wax (ye)</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">and beođ gemenigfilde </td><td align="left">and be manifolded</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">and âfyllađ</td><td align="left">and fill</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">þâ eorđan!</td><td align="left">the earth!</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Now every word in the above verse is modern English; but every word has -been changed—with the exception of <i>God</i>, <i>his</i>, and <i>and</i>. All the -other words have changed enormously in the course of the eight centuries -since the verse was written. The words have changed; and the grammar has -changed. The word <i>bletsian</i> has become <i>bless</i>. The grammar of the -verbs has changed enormously. For example, the imperative ending <i>ath</i> -in <i>Veahxath</i> and <i>âfyllath</i> has quite fallen away. It existed, in the -form of <i>eth</i>, down to the time of Chaucer, who writes <i>Standeth up!</i> in -addressing several persons.—Next, we ought to notice that <i>all</i> the -words are pure English. The modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_16" id="page_16"></a>{16}</span> version which we still use, and -which was published in 1611, has been obliged to use Latin and French -words. It says—and the words in italics are all foreign words: ‘Be -<i>fruitful</i>, and <i>multiply</i> and <i>replenish</i> the earth’! That is, it -employs three Latin words in the most important parts of the sentence.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-17-I" id="sect-17-I">17.</a> <b>LOSS AND GAIN.</b>—But, while the English language has, in the course -of centuries, lost almost all its inflections, it has been all that time -gaining new words, and at the same time gaining new powers of -expression. In fact, the history of our language is a history of both -loss and gain. It has lost <i>inflections</i> and gained new <i>words</i>. An -inflected language is generally called a <b>Synthetic Language</b>, because it -expresses changes of relations by the <i>adding-on</i> (<i>synthesis</i>) of -something to the end of the word. A language which expresses relations -by little words like prepositions is called an <b>analytic language</b>. We may -therefore say that:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><b>English was in its earlier forms a synthetic language; but it is -now an analytic language.</b></p></div> - -<p>So much for the form or grammar of it. But, on the other hand, if we -look at the matter or words or vocabulary of it, we shall find that:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><b>English was originally a pure or unmixed language; but is now an -extremely composite one.</b></p></div> - -<p><a name="sect-18-I" id="sect-18-I">18.</a> <b>THE FOREIGN ELEMENTS IN ENGLISH.</b>—These have come into our language -chiefly because the English people have come so much into contact with -other peoples and tribes and nations. They came over to this island in -the fifth century, and found Kelts here; and from them they took some -Keltic words. About the end of the eighth century, the Danes came to -them; and a number of Danish words entered the language. Then another -set of Danes or Scandinavians—called Normans—came to them, conquered -them, and gave them many hundred Norman-French words. Then, with the -Revival of Letters, many scholars came over here, taught the English -people to read Greek and Latin books; and these books gave the language -several thousand words. Then the English people have always been the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_17" id="page_17"></a>{17}</span> -greatest travellers in the world. They have gone to China and brought -home Chinese words (as well as things); they have long held India, which -has given us Hindu words; they have imported names and terms from North -and from South and Central America; they have borrowed from Spaniards -and Italians; they have taken words, nearer home, from the Dutch and -from the Germans; they have gone to the farthest east and to the -farthest west, and there is hardly a language on the face of the globe -from which they have not imported some words that live and make -themselves useful in our language.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-19-I" id="sect-19-I">19.</a> <b>WELSH.</b>—When the English settled in this island, they found a people -who were called Britons, and who spoke a language called <b>British</b> or -<b>Kymric</b>. It is a language very different from English; and at first the -English warriors and the British people did not understand one single -word of what each other said. The Old English word for <i>foreigners</i> was -<i>Wealhas</i>—or, as we call it now, <i>Welsh</i>; and the English fighting men -who came over called the British people, not by the name which they -themselves used, but simply the <i>foreigners</i>—the <i>Welsh</i>. In the same -way, a German to this day calls an Italian or a Frenchman a <i>Welshman</i>; -and he calls France or Italy <i>Welshland</i>. The language spoken by the -Welsh belongs to the <b>Keltic group</b> of languages. This group contains also -<b>Erse</b>, which is spoken in the west of Ireland; <b>Manx</b>, which is spoken in -the Isle of Man; <b>Gaelic</b>, which is spoken in the Highlands of Scotland; -and <b>Breton</b>, which is spoken in Brittany—a mountainous and rugged -peninsula in the north-west of France. It at one time embraced also -<b>Cornish</b>—the language spoken in Cornwall, which was also called <i>West -Wales</i>. But that language died out in 1778; and it is not now spoken by -any one. The following is a table of the Keltic group:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="text-align:center;"> - -<tr><td colspan="7">KELTIC.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_18" id="page_18"></a>{18}</span></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="7">|</td></tr> -<tr><td class="bt" colspan="4">|</td> -<td class="bt" colspan="3">|</td> -</tr> - -<tr><td colspan="4">Gadhelic.</td> - <td colspan="3">Kymric.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="4">|</td> - -<td colspan="3">|</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="bt">|</td><td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td><td> </td> -<td class="bt">|</td> -<td class="bt">|</td><td class="bt">|</td></tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><b>Erse.</b></td> -<td><b>Gaelic.</b></td> -<td><b>Manx.</b></td><td> </td> -<td><b>‘Welsh.’</b></td> -<td><b>Breton.</b></td> -<td><b>Cornish.</b><br /> -(dead)</td></tr> - -</table> - -<p><a name="sect-20-I" id="sect-20-I">20.</a> <b>THE KELTIC ELEMENT.</b>—The words given to the English language by the -Kelts are of two kinds:</p> - -<p class="indd">(i) Names of mountains, rivers, lakes, and other natural features;</p> - -<p class="indd">(ii) Names of common things, which the English picked up in their -daily intercourse with the British or Welsh.</p> - -<p>(i) The Keltic name for a mountain is <i>Pen</i>—a word which we find in -<i>Pennine</i> and <i>Apennine</i>. The Gaelic or Scotch Keltic form of the word -is <i>Ben</i>. Thus we have <i>Ben More</i>—which means the <i>Big Mountain</i>—<i>Ben -Nevis</i>, and many others. The commonest Keltic word for a river is -<i>Avon</i>. There are fourteen Avons in Great Britain. <i>Esk</i> is another -common Keltic name for a river; and there are eight <i>Esks</i> in Scotland -alone. In England the name takes the form of <i>Ex</i> or <i>Exe</i> (the -consonants having changed places, <i>Ex</i> = <i>Eks</i>). The name appears as -<i>Ex</i> in <i>Exeter</i> (the old form was <i>Exanceaster</i>)—that is, <i>the camp on -the Ex</i>; as <i>Ax</i> in <i>Axminster</i>; as <i>Ox</i> in <i>Oxford</i>; as <i>Ux</i> in -<i>Uxbridge</i>; as <i>Usk</i>, in Wales; and even as <i>Ouse</i>, in Yorkshire and -other counties.—<i>Aber</i> is a Keltic word which means <i>the mouth of a -river</i>; and we find it in <i>Aberdeen</i> (the town at the mouth of the Dee); -<i>Arbroath</i>, which is = <i>Aberbrothock</i>; <i>Aberystwith</i>; <i>Berwick</i>—the old -form of which was <i>Aberwick</i>. <i>Berwick</i> accordingly means the <i>wick</i> or -town at the mouth of the Tweed. <i>Car</i> or <i>Caer</i> is the Keltic word for -<i>castle</i> or <i>stronghold</i>; and we find this name in <i>Carlisle</i>, -<i>Cardiff</i>, <i>Caernarvon</i>, and others.</p> - -<p>(ii) The names of common things which we have received from the Kelts -are—<i>basket</i>, <i>bran</i>, <i>cradle</i>, <i>crockery</i>, <i>clout</i>, <i>cuts</i> (= <i>lots</i>), -<i>darn</i>. Such words as <i>button</i>, <i>ribbon</i>, <i>barrel</i>, <i>car</i>, and <i>cart</i>, -are also Keltic, but have come into the English language through the -Norman-French, who received them from the descendants of the ancient -Gauls. Some Keltic words have come to us from Scotland—such as <i>pony</i>, -<i>clan</i>, <i>whisky</i>, <i>claymore</i> (a kind of sword), <i>pibroch</i>, and <i>plaid</i>; -and it is chiefly to Sir Walter Scott’s writings that we owe the common -use of these words. Ireland has also sent us a few Keltic words, such as -<i>Tory</i>, <i>brogue</i>, and <i>shamrock</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-21-I" id="sect-21-I">21.</a> <b>THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE FIRST PERIOD</b> (i).—The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_19" id="page_19"></a>{19}</span> Roman power, as is -generally known, was settled in Britain from the year 43 till the year -410. In the beginning of the year 410, the very existence of the Roman -Empire was threatened by the Goths and other warlike peoples; and the -Roman forces were withdrawn to defend the very heart of the empire. The -Romans, though conquerors, were true benefactors. They gave the Britons -good laws; cut roads for them through the island; established camps; -built forts and strongholds; dug harbours or ports; and planted military -settlements—which they called <i>colonies</i>—here and there among the -conquered people. When the Romans went away, they left these important -benefits behind them; and, with the things themselves, the words also -remained. But they left only six words behind them, and all of these -have combined themselves, or gone into composition, with words that are -purely English. The following are the six words: <b>Castra</b>, a <i>camp</i>; -<b>Strata</b> (<i>via</i>), a <i>paved road</i>; <b>Vallum</b>, a <i>rampart</i>; <b>Fossa</b>, a <i>ditch</i>; -<b>Colonia</b>, a <i>settlement</i>; and <b>Portus</b>, a <i>harbour</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-22-I" id="sect-22-I">22.</a> <b>THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE FIRST PERIOD</b> (ii).—(<i>a</i>) The Latin word -<b>Castra</b> has become <i>chester</i>, <i>caster</i>, <i>cester</i>, and even <i>ter</i> (in -<i>Exeter</i>). We generally find it in the form of <i>chester</i> in the south -and west; <i>cester</i> in the middle; and <i>caster</i> in the north and east of -England. Thus we have Chester, Manchester, and Winchester in the west -and south; Leicester and Towcester in mid-England; and Tadcaster, -Doncaster, and Lancaster in the north.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) <b>Strata.</b>—The Romans drove a strongly-built military road from the -south-east to the north-west of the island—from <b>Richborough</b>, near -Dover, up to the standing camp on the river Dee, which is now called -<b>Chester</b>. This was <i>the</i> <b>Strata</b> or <b>Street</b>. It was afterwards carried -farther north, and even into Scotland. It went right over the crest of a -hill in Westmoreland, which is called <b>High Street</b> to this day. We can -trace the path of this great military road by the names of the towns and -villages that are strung upon it. Thus there are <b>Streat</b>ham (near -London), <b>Stret</b>ton, <b>Strat</b>ford-on-Avon, Stony <b>Strat</b>ford, <b>Stret</b>ford (near -Manchester), <b>Strad</b>broke, and many others.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_20" id="page_20"></a>{20}</span></p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) <b>Vallum</b> is found in <i>wall</i>.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) <b>Fossa</b> is found in the names <i>Fossway</i>, <i>Fosbrooke</i>, <i>Fosbridge</i>, -and others.</p> - -<p>(<i>e</i>) <b>Colonia</b> is found in <i>Colne</i>, <i>Colchester</i>, <i>Lincoln</i>, and others.</p> - -<p>(<i>f</i>) <b>Portus</b> appears in <i>Portsmouth</i>, <i>Portsea</i>, <i>Bridport</i>, and some -other names.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-23-I" id="sect-23-I">23.</a> <b>THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE SECOND PERIOD</b> (i).—This element was not -introduced by the Romans themselves, but by Christian missionaries who -came from Rome, sent by Pope Gregory the Great to convert, not the -Britons, but the English, to Christianity. A band of forty monks, with -St Augustine at their head, landed in Kent in the year 597. For four -centuries from this date a large number of Latin words came into the -English language, chiefly words relating to the church and church -observances.</p> - -<p><b>Church Terms.</b>—<i>Calic</i>, from <i>calix</i>, a cup; <i>cluster</i>, from -<i>claustrum</i>, a closed place; <i>priest</i>, from <i>presbyter</i>, an elder; -<i>sanct</i>, from <i>sanctus</i>, a holy man; <i>sacrament</i>, from <i>sacramentum</i>, a -sacred oath; <i>predician</i>, from <i>prædicare</i>, to declare; <i>regul</i>, from -<i>regula</i>, a straight piece of wood. But the old form of most of these -words has disappeared, to make room for Norman-French forms from the -same Latin source. Along with these were adopted a few Greek words—such -as <i>bishop</i>, from <i>episkopos</i>, an overseer; <i>angel</i>, from <i>anggelos</i>, a -messenger; <i>apostle</i>, from <i>apostolos</i>, a person sent; <i>monk</i>, from -<i>monăchos</i>,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> a person who lives alone; and a few others.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-24-I" id="sect-24-I">24.</a> <b>THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE SECOND PERIOD</b> (ii).—The introduction of -Christianity proved to be the beginning of an intercourse with Rome, -Italys, and the Continent; and this intercourse brought with it -commerce. Commerce imported many new things; and the names of these -things came into the island along with the things themselves. Thus we -have <i>butter</i> from <i>butŷrum</i>; <i>cheese</i> from <i>caseus</i>; and <i>tunic</i> from -<i>tunica</i>. We have also <i>fig</i> from <i>ficus</i>; <i>pear</i> from <i>pirum</i>; -<i>lettuce</i> from <i>lactuca</i>, which itself comes from <i>lac</i>—milk (and hence -means <i>the milky plant</i>); and <i>pease</i> from <i>pisum</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_21" id="page_21"></a>{21}</span> (<i>Pease</i> is really -the singular; and <i>pea</i> is a false singular—not a plural.) We have also -from the same source some names of animals. Such are <i>camel</i> from -<i>camēlus</i>; <i>lion</i> from <i>leo</i>; <i>oyster</i> from <i>ostrea</i>; <i>trout</i> from -<i>trutta</i>. A few miscellaneous words have also come to us from this -quarter—such as <i>pound</i> from the Latin <i>pondus</i>, a weight; <i>candle</i> -from <i>candēla</i>; and <i>table</i> from <i>tabŭla</i>. The Latin word <i>uncia</i>, which -means the twelfth part of anything, is, as it were, split up into -two—and gives the two words <i>inch</i> and <i>ounce</i>, which are fundamentally -but two forms of one word. (But with regard to this class of words also -it should be observed that the words directly introduced from the Latin -have either been greatly changed in form; or they have been subsequently -borrowed again from the French.)</p> - -<p><a name="sect-25-I" id="sect-25-I">25.</a> <b>THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENT</b> (i).—In the year 787, the Northmen, -Norsemen, or Normans of Scandinavia, began to make descents on the east -coast of England. These attacks were so dreaded by the English that -prayers were regularly used in the churches against them; and a part of -the Litany of the time contained the utterance: ‘From the incursions of -the Normans, good Lord, deliver us!’ These attacks went on for three -centuries. In the ninth century, these Danes obtained a permanent -footing in the northern and eastern parts of England; and by the -eleventh century they had become so strong that Danish kings sat upon -the throne of England from 1016 to 1042. These Norsemen were Teutons. -They were Teutons who had migrated to the north. As northern people -generally do, they preferred hard sounds to aspirates. They preferred a -<i>k</i> to a <i>ch</i>; a <i>p</i> to an <i>f</i>. The probable reason is that, in the cold -mists of the north, they had learned not to open too much their mouths -and throats; and thus they formed the habit of using a shut sound like -<i>k</i> to a sound like <i>ch</i> (in <i>loch</i>), which requires a stream of air to -be passed through the throat. We must not forget that it was the -<i>spoken</i> language of England that was affected by the Danes; not the -<i>written</i> language; for the simple reason that, in these times, not more -than one man in a thousand—either among Danes or Englishmen—could read -and write.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_22" id="page_22"></a>{22}</span></p> - -<p><a name="sect-26-I" id="sect-26-I">26.</a> <b>THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENT</b> (ii).—The Danish contribution is, like the -Keltic, of two kinds: (<i>a</i>) Names of places; and (<i>b</i>) Common words.</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The most remarkable example of the place-name is the noun <i>by</i>, -which means <i>town</i>. There are in England more than six hundred names -ending in <i>by</i>. Almost all of these lie to the north and east of Watling -Street; to the south of it, there is scarcely one. Thus we have -<i>Whitby</i>, the <i>White Town</i>; <i>Tenby</i>, in Wales, <i>Dane’s town</i>; and -<i>Grimsby</i>, <i>the town of Grim</i>. We find the word <i>by</i> also in the -compound <i>by-law</i>. The following words are also derived from the Danes:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="hang"><b>Thorpe</b>, a village (<i>Drup</i> in Jutland, where<br /> there are scores of<br /> towns with this ending.) </td><td class="hang" valign="bottom">Althorpe (old); Bishopsthorpe; Burnham-Thorpe<br /> (where Nelson was born).</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td class="hang"><b>Fell</b>, a hill or table-land</td><td class="hang">Scawfell, Crossfell, Goat Fell.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td class="hang"><b>Dale</b>, a valley</td><td class="hang">Ribblesdale, Grimsdale.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td class="hang"><b>Thwaite</b>, a forest clearing</td><td class="hang">Applethwaite.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td class="hang"><b>Toft</b>, a homestead</td><td class="hang">Lowestoft (the form in Normandy is <i>tôt</i>).</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td class="hang"><b>Wick</b>, a creek or bay</td><td class="hang">Ipswich, Greenwich, Berwick. (Viking = a creeker.)</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td class="hang"><b>Oe</b> or <b>ea</b>, an island</td><td class="hang">Faroe, Chelsea (= <i>chesel ea</i>, the shingle island).</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td class="hang"><b>Ness</b>, a nose or cape</td><td class="hang">Sheerness, Caithness, Fife Ness; the Naze (in Essex, etc.).</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) To the Norsemen we also owe the words <i>are</i>, which pushed out the -pure English <i>syndon</i>; <i>talk</i>; <i>tarn</i>; <i>busk</i> (dress); <i>sky</i>; -<i>hustings</i>; <i>fellow</i>; <i>odd</i>; <i>blunt</i>; <i>kid</i>; and many more.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-27-I" id="sect-27-I">27.</a> <b>THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENT</b> (iii).—One result of this mixture of Danes -with Englishmen was that both, in trying to speak the language or to use -the words of each other, would naturally take firm hold of the <i>root</i> of -the word, and allow the inflections to take care of themselves. Hence -English words would lose their inflections; and this process, after it -had once begun, would go on at an increased speed, the greater became -the communication at church and at market between the English and the -Danes. The same<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_23" id="page_23"></a>{23}</span> process is now going on in the United States. Thousands -upon thousands of Germans have settled there among an English-speaking -people. These Germans are rapidly falling into the habit of using their -German words without inflections at all.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-28-I" id="sect-28-I">28.</a> <b>LATIN ELEMENT OF THE THIRD PERIOD</b> (i).—This element is really -Norman-French. French is Latin, with many of the inflections lost or -changed, and with the pronunciation of the vowel-sounds enormously -altered. But it did not come from the written Latin of books; but from -the spoken Latin of soldiers and country-people (the <i>lingua Romana -rustica</i>). Norman-French is the French spoken by the Normans, who lost -their own Norsk or Danish speech, and learned French from their French -wives and children. In the year 912, the Normans, under Duke Rolf or -Rollo, wrested from King Charles the Simple the beautiful valley of the -Seine, which was afterwards called by the name of Normandy. -Norman-French was a dialect of French, and it differed in many respects -from the French spoken in the other parts of France. This Norman-French -was introduced into England as a court language by Edward the Confessor, -in the year 1042; but it was brought into this country as a folk-speech -by bands of Norman-French under the leadership of Duke William, the -seventh Duke of Normandy, in the famous year 1066. This Norman-French, -which they brought with them, became in England the language of the -ruling classes, of the court, of the lawyers, and of all priests high in -the ranks of the church. Books ceased to be written in English; boys -translated their Latin into French; an English churl had to employ a -lawyer who used only French in his law-papers and his pleadings; and -even ‘uplandish’ or country people tried ‘to speak Frensch, for to be -more ytold of.’ The saturation of English with French words probably -reached its highest point at the end of the fourteenth century; and -about that time a reaction set in. As has been before pointed out, in -1349, boys were allowed to translate their Latin into English; in 1362, -Edward III. passed an act of parliament to authorise the use<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_24" id="page_24"></a>{24}</span> of English -in courts of law; and even the Normans who lived in London had begun to -use English in their families. But, by the time French had ceased to be -the language of the upper classes, several thousand French words had -found their way into our vocabulary, which had become to a large extent -<i>bilingual</i>.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> - -<p><a name="sect-29-I" id="sect-29-I">29.</a> <b>NORMAN-FRENCH</b> (ii).—The words which have been introduced into our -pure English speech from the Normans fall easily into classes.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) <b>Feudalism<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> and War.</b>—Armour, chivalry, captain, battle, -duke, fealty, realm.</p></div> - -<p>The English word for <i>armour</i> was <i>harness</i>; and Macaulay uses <i>harness</i> -in this sense in one of his <i>Lays</i>:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Now while the three were tightening<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Their harness on their backs.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">—<i>Chivalry</i> comes from the Fr. <i>cheval</i>, which is a broken-down form of -the Low Latin word <i>caballus</i>, a horse.—<i>Captain</i> comes from the Lat. -<i>caput</i>, a head.—<i>Battle</i> comes from the Fr. <i>battre</i>, to beat.—<i>Duke</i> -comes from the Fr. <i>duc</i>—which comes from the Lat. <i>dux</i> (accusative -<i>ducem</i>, most French nouns being borrowed from the accusative, not the -nominative form of the Latin noun), a leader.—<i>Fealty</i> is the -Norman-French form of the word <i>fidelity</i>, from the Lat. <i>fidelitas</i>, -faithfulness.—<i>Real-m</i> is the noun from the adjective <i>real</i>, which -comes from Lat. <i>regal-is</i>; it is the land ruled over by a <i>rex</i> or <i>ré</i> -(a king).</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><a name="sect-30-I" id="sect-30-I"></a>30. (<i>b</i>) <b>Hunting.</b>—Forest, leveret, quarry, couple, venison.</p></div> - -<p><i>Forest</i> comes from the Low Lat.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> <i>foresta</i>; from Lat. <i>foris</i>, -out-of-doors. A forest does not necessarily contain trees; it is merely -the name for the <i>open</i> hunting-ground as contrasted with the inclosed -space called a park.—<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_25" id="page_25"></a>{25}</span><i>Leveret</i>, a young hare, from the Fr. <i>lièvre</i>; -from the Lat. <i>lepus</i> (<i>-oris</i>).—<i>Quarry</i> comes from the Lat. <i>cor</i>, -the heart, and at first meant the heart and intestines, which were -thrown to the dogs who hunted down the wild beast. Milton has the -phrase, ‘scents his quarry from afar.’—<i>Couple</i> comes from the Lat. -<i>copula</i>, a band.—<i>Venison</i> means <i>hunted flesh</i>, and comes from the -Fr. <i>venaison</i>, which comes from the Lat. verb <i>venari</i>, to hunt.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><a name="sect-31-I" id="sect-31-I"></a>31. (<i>c</i>) <b>Cookery.</b>—Beef, veal, pork, mutton, pullet.</p></div> - -<p>The Saxon hind had the charge of the cattle and animals on the farm -while they were alive; but he never saw anything of them after they were -killed. He never met them at dinner. The flesh of these animals received -French names from the Norman-Frenchmen who ate them; and their Saxon or -English names were forgotten. A German says <i>calf’s flesh</i>, but we use -the Norman-French word <i>veal</i>. Thus the corresponding English words to -those printed above are <i>ox</i>, <i>calf</i>, <i>swine</i>, <i>sheep</i>, and <i>fowl</i>. The -word <i>beef</i> comes from the Fr. <i>bœuf</i>, which comes from the Lat. <i>bos</i> -(acc. <i>bovem</i>), an ox.—<i>Veal</i> comes from the old French word <i>veel</i>, -which comes from the Lat. <i>vitellus</i>, a little calf.—<i>Pork</i> comes from -Fr. <i>porc</i>, which is derived from the Lat. <i>porcus</i>, a pig.—<i>Mutton</i> -comes from the Fr. <i>mouton</i>, from the Low Latin word <i>multo</i>, a -sheep.—<i>Pullet</i> comes from Fr. <i>poulet</i>, which comes from the Low Latin -word <i>pulla</i>, a hen.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><a name="sect-32-I" id="sect-32-I"></a>32. (<i>d</i>) <b>Law.</b>—Chancellor, judge, parliament, court, assize, sue, -damages, and many others.</p></div> - -<p>The word <i>chancellor</i> comes from the Fr. <i>chancelier</i>; from the Lat. -<i>cancellarius</i>, the keeper of written papers. ‘The officer who had the -care of the records stood behind the screen of lattice-work or of -cross-bars which fenced off the judgment-seat.’ <i>Cancer</i> is the Latin -name for a crab; <i>cancellus</i> is a little crab; <i>cancelli</i> are cross-bars -or lattice-work, like the claws of crabs crossed. Hence also to -<i>cancel</i>, which means to draw cross strokes through writing.—<i>Judge</i> -comes from the French word <i>juge</i>, which comes from the Lat. <i>judex</i> (= -<i>jus-dic-s</i>, a sayer of right). The old English term was <i>dempster</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_26" id="page_26"></a>{26}</span> -from the verb <i>deem</i>; noun, <i>doom</i>.—<i>Parliament</i> comes from the Fr. -<i>parler</i>, to speak; from Low Lat. <i>parabolāre</i>, to talk; whence also -<i>parlour</i>, a room for speaking in.—<i>Court</i> comes from the old Fr. -<i>cort</i>; from Lat. <i>cohors</i> or <i>cors</i>, an inclosed space. A <i>cohors</i> was -a sheep-pen; but it was afterwards applied to a number of -soldiers.—<i>Assize</i> comes from the old Fr. <i>assise</i>, an assembly of -judges; from the Lat. <i>assidēre</i>, to sit beside.—<i>Sue</i> comes from the -old Fr. <i>suir</i> (modern Fr. <i>suivre</i>); from the Lat. <i>sequi</i>, to follow. -We have from the same root the words <i>suit</i>, <i>suite</i>, <i>pursue</i>, <i>ensue</i>, -<i>issue</i>.—<i>Damages</i>, from the old Fr. <i>damáge</i>, which comes from the Low -Lat. <i>damnaticum</i>, harm; which comes from the Lat. <i>damnum</i>, loss.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><a name="sect-33-I" id="sect-33-I"></a>33. (<i>e</i>) <b>Church.</b>—Friar, relic, tonsure, ceremony, etc.</p></div> - -<p><i>Friar</i> is a word which comes from the old Fr. <i>freire</i>, which is -derived from the Lat. <i>frater</i>, a brother.—<i>Relic</i>, chiefly used in the -plural, from Fr. <i>reliques</i>; from Lat. <i>reliquiæ</i>, remains.—<i>Tonsure</i> -comes from the Fr. <i>tonsure</i>; from Lat. <i>tonsura</i>, a -cutting.—<i>Ceremony</i>, from the Fr. <i>cérémonie</i>, a rite; from Lat. -<i>cærimonia</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-34-I" id="sect-34-I">34.</a> <b>SYNONYMS GIVEN US BY NORMAN-FRENCH.</b>—Among other benefits which we -have received from the coming in of Norman-French into our language, is -a number of synonyms.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> These have enabled us to give a different -shade or colouring to certain words, or to put them to a special use. -Thus we speak of the <i>blessing</i> of God, and the <i>benediction</i> of a -clergy-man; of the <i>bloom</i> on a peach, and the <i>flower</i> of a lily; of a -person as a <i>member</i> of a learned society, but not a <i>limb</i>. Now -<i>blessing</i>, <i>bloom</i>, and <i>limb</i> are all English; <i>benediction</i>, -<i>flower</i>, and <i>member</i> are all Latin words—Latin words which have come -to us through the doorway of the French language. The following are some -more of these synonyms; and, after examining them, it will generally be -found that the English<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_27" id="page_27"></a>{27}</span> words are stronger, simpler, and more homely -than the French words.</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">English.</span></td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Bough</td><td align="left">Branch.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Buy</td><td align="left">Purchase.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Feeling</td><td align="left">Sentiment.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Friendly</td><td align="left">Amiable.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Hearty</td><td align="left">Cordial.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Luck</td><td align="left">Fortune.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Meal</td><td align="left">Flour.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Mild</td><td align="left">Gentle.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Wish</td><td align="left">Desire.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Work</td><td align="left">Labour.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-right: 2em;">Wretched</span></td><td align="left">Miserable.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Wright</td><td align="left">Carpenter.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><a name="sect-35-I" id="sect-35-I">35.</a> <b>BILINGUALISM.</b>—During the three centuries which lay between 1066 and -1362, the English and the Normans had to meet each other constantly in -the field, in the church, at markets, and in towns and villages. They -had to buy and sell from each other; to give and take orders from and to -each other; and to speak with each other on many kinds of business. They -also intermarried. Thus the Norman got slowly into the habit of joining -an English word with his French word—so as to make it clear to the -Englishman; while the Englishman, on his side, joined the corresponding -French word—when he happened to know it—to the English word he had to -employ. These words, ever after, ran in couples; and this habit of going -in couples became a habit of the language. Hence it is that, in the -opening words of our Prayer-Book, we use such couples as <i>assemble</i> and -<i>meet together</i>; <i>acknowledge</i> and <i>confess</i>; <i>dissemble</i> and <i>cloak</i>; -and <i>humble</i> and <i>lowly</i>. The words <i>meet together</i>, <i>acknowledge</i>, -<i>cloak</i>, and <i>lowly</i>, represent the purely English part of the -congregation; while the Norman-French supplies such words as <i>assemble</i>, -<i>confess</i>, <i>dissemble</i>, and <i>humble</i>. The great poet of the fourteenth -century—Chaucer—has hundreds of examples of such phrases. He gives us, -for example, <i>hunting</i> and <i>venerye</i>; <i>mirth</i> and <i>jollity</i>; <i>care</i> and -<i>heed</i>; <i>swinke</i> and <i>labour</i>; <i>pray</i> and <i>beseech</i>; a <i>wright</i> and -<i>carpenter</i>. The practice of using these pairs of words has very greatly -diminished in our day; but a few examples still keep their place in the -language. Such are <i>will and testament</i>, <i>use and wont</i>, <i>aid and abet</i>, -and several others.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_28" id="page_28"></a>{28}</span></p> - -<p><a name="sect-36-I" id="sect-36-I">36.</a> <b>DOUBLETS.</b>—It is chiefly to the same Norman-French influence that we -owe a minor phenomenon of the language—the appearance of two forms of -the same word. These two forms are called <b>doublets</b>. The Norman-French -could not pronounce our semi-vowel <i>w</i>. They had either to make a <i>v</i> of -it, or a hard <i>g</i>. They preferred the hard <i>g</i>; and, to keep it hard, -they added a <i>u</i>. Thus, for <i>wile</i>, they said <i>guile</i>; for <i>wise</i> (= -<i>manner</i>), they said <i>guise</i>; for <i>ward</i>, <i>guard</i>; for <i>warden</i>, -<i>guardian</i>; for <i>wardrobe</i>, <i>garderobe</i>; for <i>warrant</i>, <i>guarantee</i>; and -so on.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-37-I" id="sect-37-I">37.</a> <b>DOUBLETS FROM DIALECTS AND OTHER SOURCES.</b>—Besides the doublets due -to Norman-French influences, there are many interesting cases which may -be referred to. Some are evidently due to differences of dialect. The -English language grew up from different centres, which had little or no -connection with each other, on account of the difficulties of -travelling. Hence a word would take different forms in different -dialects—like <i>church</i> in the south of the English-speaking country, -and <i>kirk</i> in the north; so also with <i>cole</i>, of which the northern form -is <i>kail</i>. Sometimes one word is merely a later and modified form of -another, as <i>draw</i> of <i>drag</i>. In all cases doublets are forms of the -same word, which have come through different experiences of place, or -time, or other influence. In short, they should be recognised as really -one word, with a difference in spelling and meaning, resulting from its -history. Other specimens of doublets are <i>down</i> and <i>dune</i>; <i>shriek</i> and -<i>screech</i>; <i>shell</i> and <i>scale</i>; <i>wagon</i> and <i>wain</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-38-I" id="sect-38-I">38.</a> <b>PRONUNCIATION.</b>—The Norman-French refined our mode of speaking; made -the existing vowel-sounds less coarse; gave us some new vowel-sounds; -and, above all, taught us to give up most of our rough throat-sounds or -gutturals. They gradually turned out the gutturals from the beginning of -words; and <i>genoh</i> became <i>enough</i>, and <i>gif</i>, <i>if</i>. They turned them -out of the middle of words; and <i>nagel</i> became <i>nail</i>, and <i>hagel</i>, -<i>hail</i>. They got rid of them at the ends of words; and we no longer -pronounce the guttural in <i>flight</i>, <i>might</i>, <i>right</i>, and <i>sight</i>. This -is all the more absurd<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_29" id="page_29"></a>{29}</span> and remarkable that we write <i>the sound that -once was there</i> with two strong gutturals, <i>g</i> and <i>h</i>. Sometimes the -influence of the Norman-French was to turn the guttural into a kind of -hissing sound or sibilant; and it is in this way that we came to say -<i>teach</i>, <i>beseech</i>, and <i>catch</i>. But the <i>ch</i> in these words comes back -to its older use, and becomes a <i>gh</i> again, in the past tense—in -<i>taught</i>, <i>besought</i>, and <i>caught</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-39-I" id="sect-39-I">39.</a> <b>LATIN OF THE FOURTH PERIOD.</b>—The Latin introduced into our language -by the Norman-French was a <i>spoken</i> Latin. It was the Latin of the <i>ear -and mouth</i>. It was the everyday speech of the people; and underwent very -great change. The Latin introduced into our language by learned men was -a <i>written</i> or <i>printed</i> Latin. It was the Latin of <i>the eye and pen</i>. -This Latin is called the <i>Latin of the Fourth Period</i>; and it was -brought into our language by a powerful movement known as the <b>Revival of -Learning</b>.—When the Turks took Constantinople in 1453, the learned -Greeks of that capital fled from the city, carrying with them their -precious manuscript copies of Greek and Latin writers. They fled into -Italy, into Germany, and into France and England. They taught Greek and -Latin in the universities of these countries; and very soon the study of -Greek and Latin became the fashion among all persons of leisure; and the -stores of thought and beauty in Homer and Sophocles, in Virgil and -Horace, were diligently studied and appropriated. Queen Elizabeth was a -good Greek scholar, and could both speak and write good Latin. Now began -to come into our language thousands of Latin words; until, in the -beginning of the seventeenth century, an eminent writer complains that -Englishmen will have ‘to learn Latin to understand English, and a work -will prove of equal facility in either.’ Unlike the Latin words of the -Third Period, the Latin words introduced in the sixteenth and -seventeenth centuries suffered little or no change. They were -transferred from Latin books just as they were—by the accurate aid of -the hand and eye, and underwent no process of change or corruption. The -Latin <i>opinio</i> became <i>opinion</i>; <i>notio</i>, <i>notion</i>; <i>suggestio</i>, -<i>suggestion</i>; <i>separatum</i>, <i>separate</i>; <i>iteratum</i>, <i>iterate</i>; and so on. -It would be a great mistake,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_30" id="page_30"></a>{30}</span> however, to suppose that all the Latin of -this <i>Fourth Period</i> came <i>directly</i> from the Latin. Most of it came -through the medium of French, as did the Latin of the <i>Third Period</i>; -but unlike it, it was not the language of the people. In French, as in -English, it was the language merely of books, of the literary and of -learned men.—It is worthy of notice that many words which we use every -day, and which we think must <i>always</i> have been in the language, only -came in about this period, and are therefore comparatively new. Thus Mr -Gill, the high-master of St Paul’s School in 1619, and the teacher of -John Milton in his boyhood, complains of the introduction of words which -are now quite common to all of us. He says: ‘O harsh lips! I now hear -all around me such words as <i>common</i>, <i>vices</i>, <i>envy</i>, <i>malice</i>; even -<i>virtue</i>, <i>study</i>, <i>justice</i>, <i>pity</i>, <i>mercy</i>, <i>compassion</i>, <i>profit</i>, -<i>commodity</i>, <i>colour</i>, <i>grace</i>, <i>favour</i>, <i>acceptance</i>.’ The wonder -nowadays would be how we could possibly get on without these words, and -how we could ever have done without them.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-40-I" id="sect-40-I">40.</a> <b>MOUTH LATIN AND BOOK LATIN.</b>—The introduction of Latin words into -our English speech by two doors—by the living conversation of living -people, and by the silent door of books, has given rise to a phenomenon -of the same kind as that described in section 36. But the phenomenon of -duplicates or <b>doublets</b> presents itself to our notice on a much larger -scale now; and, in every case, the duplicate word becomes in reality two -separate words—employed for separate purposes, and with perfectly -distinct meanings. Thus, though <i>legal</i>, <i>leal</i>, and <i>loyal</i> are, in -their origin, fundamentally the same word, their meanings are perfectly -distinct and even widely different; <i>hospital</i> and <i>hotel</i> are the same -words, but they are no longer used in the same sense; while <i>fact</i> and -<i>feat</i> have also widely diverged from each other in use and in -signification. The Latin words that have come from the Latin language by -the path of books, have kept their Latin shape, and may be called <i>Book -Latin</i>. The Latin words that have come to us by the path of -Norman-French have undergone great alterations; and they may be called -<i>spoken Latin</i>. The chief process of alteration<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_31" id="page_31"></a>{31}</span> undergone by them is -that of <i>squeezing</i>; three syllables have generally been squeezed into -two. The following is a list:</p> - -<h3><b>DUPLICATE WORDS OR DOUBLETS.</b></h3> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Latin.</span></td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Book Latin.</span></td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Spoken Latin.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Benedictio,</td><td align="left">benediction,</td><td align="left">benison.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Cadentia (things falling or befalling), </td><td align="left">cadence,</td><td align="left">chance.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Captivus,</td><td align="left">captive,</td><td align="left">caitiff.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Conceptio,</td><td align="left">conception,</td><td align="left">conceit.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Cophinus,</td><td align="left">coffin,</td><td align="left">coffer.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Debitum,</td><td align="left">debit,</td><td align="left">debt.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Defectum,</td><td align="left">defect,</td><td align="left">defeat.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Dilatare,</td><td align="left">dilate,</td><td align="left">delay.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Exemplum,</td><td align="left">example,</td><td align="left">sample.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fabrica,</td><td align="left">fabric,</td><td align="left">forge.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Factio,</td><td align="left">faction,</td><td align="left">fashion.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Factum,</td><td align="left">fact,</td><td align="left">feat.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fidelitas,</td><td align="left">fidelity,</td><td align="left">fealty.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Fragilis,</td><td align="left">fragile,</td><td align="left">frail.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Gentilis,</td><td align="left">gentile,</td><td align="left">gentle, genteel.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Granum (a grain),</td><td align="left">granary,</td><td align="left">garner.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Historia,</td><td align="left">history,</td><td align="left">story.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Hospitale,</td><td align="left">hospital,</td><td align="left">hotel.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Lectio,</td><td align="left">lection,</td><td align="left">lesson.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Legalis,</td><td align="left">legal,</td><td align="left">loyal.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Major (greater),</td><td align="left">major,</td><td align="left">mayor.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Maledictio,</td><td align="left">malediction,</td><td align="left">malison.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Nutrimentum,</td><td align="left">nutriment,</td><td align="left">nourishment.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Oratio,</td><td align="left">oration,</td><td align="left">orison.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Pagus (a country district canton)</td><td align="left">pagan,</td><td align="left">paynim (the heathen).</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Particula,</td><td align="left">particle,</td><td align="left">parcel.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Pauper,</td><td align="left">pauper,</td><td align="left">poor.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Penitentia,</td><td align="left">penitence,</td><td align="left">penance.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Persecutum,</td><td align="left">persecute,</td><td align="left">pursue.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Potio (a draught),</td><td align="left">potion,</td><td align="left">poison.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Providentia,</td><td align="left">providence,</td><td align="left">prudence.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Pungens,</td><td align="left">pungent,</td><td align="left">poignant.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Quietus,</td><td align="left">quiet,</td><td align="left">coy.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Radius,</td><td align="left">radius,</td><td align="left">ray.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Regalis,</td><td align="left">regal,</td><td align="left">royal.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Respectus,</td><td align="left">respect,</td><td align="left">respite.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Securus,</td><td align="left">secure,</td><td align="left">sure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_32" id="page_32"></a>{32}</span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Senior,</td><td align="left">senior,</td><td align="left">sir.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Separatum,</td><td align="left">separate,</td><td align="left">sever.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Species,</td><td align="left">species,</td><td align="left">spices.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Status,</td><td align="left">state,</td><td align="left">estate.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Superficies,</td><td align="left">superficies,</td><td align="left">surface.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Tractus,</td><td align="left">tract,</td><td align="left">trait, treat.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Traditio (a giving up),</td><td align="left">tradition,</td><td align="left">treason.</td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Notes.</span>—<i>Benison</i> is the opposite of <i>malison</i>. A <i>caitiff</i> was a -person who <i>allowed</i> himself to be taken captive. A <i>feat of arms</i> -was a <i>fact</i> or <i>deed of arms</i>; hence a <i>feat</i> par excellence. The -hard guttural <i>c</i> in <i>fabric</i> has become a sibilant <i>g</i> in <i>forge</i>, -by Nor. Fr. influence. The <i>g</i> in <i>fragile</i> was originally hard. -<i>Major</i> is a <i>greater captain</i>; a <i>mayor</i> is a <i>greater alderman</i>. -<i>Orison</i> may be compared with <i>benison</i>, <i>poison</i>, <i>reason</i>, and -<i>treason</i>. The <i>p</i> in <i>separate</i> has become a <i>v</i> in <i>sever</i>; both -letters being <i>labials</i>. The cutting down of the five syllables in -<i>superficies</i> into two in <i>surface</i>, is the most remarkable -instance of compression in the whole list.</p></div> - -<p>Many of the <i>Book Latin</i> words in the above list, such as <i>captive</i>, -<i>debit</i>, <i>defect</i>, <i>fact</i>, &c., were borrowed <i>directly</i> from the Latin, -and not through the medium of French books.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-41-I" id="sect-41-I">41.</a> <b>GREEK DOUBLETS.</b>—The same phenomenon has also taken place with -reference to Greek words. It is of course the newer form of these words -that was given us by the revival of learning; the older forms may have -existed in the language since the coming of Augustine in the end of the -sixth century.</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Greek.</span></td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Older form.</span></td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Newer form.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Adamas,</td><td align="left">adamant,</td><td align="left">diamond.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Asphodĕlos,</td><td align="left">asphodel,</td><td align="left">daffodil.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Balsamon,</td><td align="left">balsam,</td><td align="left">balm.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Blasphemein,</td><td align="left">blaspheme,</td><td align="left">blame.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Cheirourgos,</td><td align="left">chirurgeon,</td><td align="left">surgeon.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Dactŭlos (a finger), </td><td align="left">date (the fruit),</td><td align="left">dactyl.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Phantasia,</td><td align="left">fancy,</td><td align="left">phantasy.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Phantasma,</td><td align="left">phantasm,</td><td align="left">phantasy.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Presbutĕros,</td><td align="left">priest,</td><td align="left">presbyter.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Paralysis,</td><td align="left">palsy,</td><td align="left">paralysis.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Scandalon,</td><td align="left">slander,</td><td align="left">scandal.</td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Notes.</span>—<i>Adamant</i> means <i>the unsubduable</i>; a <i>chirurgeon</i> is -literally a <i>worker with the hand</i>; <i>phantasia</i> is the power of -<i>presenting to the mind’s eye</i> a bodily image that is not present; -<i>presbuteros</i> means simply <i>elder</i>. In the time of Shakspeare, -<i>fancy</i> meant <i>love</i>. ‘Tell me where is fancy bred!’ is the first -line of a song in the <i>Merchant of Venice</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_33" id="page_33"></a>{33}</span></p></div> - -<p><a name="sect-42-I" id="sect-42-I">42.</a> <b>ENGLISH WORDS AND FRENCH WORDS IN SENTENCES.</b>—The difference between -English steeped in French and Latin, and English written almost wholly -in pure English words, can be at once seen in the two following -passages, which are taken from the work of Mr C. Schele De Vere, an -American writer.</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) ‘The Norman <i>altered</i> and <i>increased</i> our <i>language</i>; but he could -not <i>extirpate</i> it. To <i>defend</i> his <i>conquest</i>, he took <i>possession</i> of -the <i>country</i>; and, <i>master</i> of the <i>soil</i>, he <i>erected</i> <i>fortresses</i> -and <i>castles</i>, and <i>attempted</i> to <i>introduce</i> new <i>terms</i>. The -<i>universe</i> and the <i>firmament</i>—the <i>planets</i>, <i>comets</i>, and -<i>meteors</i>—the <i>atmosphere</i> and the <i>seasons</i>, all were <i>impressed</i> with -the <i>seal</i> of the <i>conqueror</i>. Hills became <i>mountains</i>, and dales -<i>valleys</i>; streams were called <i>rivers</i>, and brooks <i>rivulets</i>; -waterfalls, <i>cascades</i>; and woods, <i>forests</i>.’</p> - -<p>All the words in italics in the above passage are either of Latin or of -French origin; if of French, then they are Latin at second-hand.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) ‘But the <i>dominion</i> of the Norman did not <i>extend</i> to the home of -the Englishman, it stopped at the threshold of his house; there, around -the fireside in his kitchen,[A] and the hearth in his room,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> he met -his beloved kindred; the bride, the wife, and the husband, sons and -daughters, brothers and sisters, tied to each other by love, friendship, -and kind feelings, knew nothing dearer than their own sweet home.’</p> - -<p>Only one word in the above is French (<i>dominion</i>), and two are Latin -(<i>extend</i> and <i>kitchen</i>). All the others are purely English.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-43-I" id="sect-43-I">43.</a> <b>ENGLISH WORDS LOST.</b>—The copious introduction of Norman-French, -Latin, and Greek terms into our language, had the effect of pushing a -great number of purely English words <i>out</i> of our speech, or at least of -making them less frequent in use. Thus we used to say <i>fore-elders</i>, but -this word has had its place taken by <i>ancestors</i>; <i>fairhood</i> has been -pushed out by <i>beauty</i>; and <i>wonstead</i> by <i>residence</i>. In the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_34" id="page_34"></a>{34}</span> way, -<i>forewit</i> has given place to <i>caution</i>; <i>licherest</i><a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> to <i>cemetery</i>; -<i>inwit</i> to <i>conscience</i>; <i>bookhoard</i> to <i>library</i>; and <i>hindersome</i> to -<i>obstructive</i>. In fact, it is often easier for us to understand foreign -words than those of our own native home-grown speech. The title of an -old book written in the thirteenth century is the <i>Ayenbite<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> of -Inwyt</i>—a title which is to us much more intelligible in its -Franco-Latin translation of <i>Remorse of Conscience</i>. Mr Barnes, the -Dorsetshire poet, has tried to re-introduce the genuine homely English -way of speaking and writing; and to banish Latin terms. Thus, in his -<i>Grammar</i> or ‘Book of Speech-Craft,’ he calls <i>singular</i>, <i>onely</i>; -<i>plural</i>, <i>somely</i>; and he calls <i>degrees of comparison</i>, <i>pitches of -suchness</i>. The difficulty he has to contend with is, that this home -English is less intelligible to our modern ears than the foreign Latin. -Thus the following sentence looks like a word-puzzle: ‘These pitch-marks -off mark sundry things by their sundry suchnesses, as, “The <i>taller</i> or -<i>less tall</i> man of the two is my friend.”<span class="lftspc">’</span> And he also says—what is a -useful warning for us: ‘Speech was shapen of the breath-sounds of -speakers, for the ears of hearers; and not from speech-tokens (letters) -in books, for men’s eyes.’</p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> -<b>The History of the Grammar of English.</b></h2> - -<p><a name="sect-1-II" id="sect-1-II">1.</a> <b>AN INFLECTED LANGUAGE.</b>—When, in the fifth century, our English -speech was brought over from the Continent, it was a highly inflected or -<b>Synthetic</b> language; and it remained in this condition for several -centuries. The coming of the Danes had the effect of beginning the -dropping off of inflections. The coming of the Normans extended very -much and hastened this process, which has gone on with considerable -rapidity down to the present day. We may put the general fact in this -way:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_35" id="page_35"></a>{35}</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">The English Language was a <b>Synthetic Language</b> down to about the -year 1100; since that time, it has been becoming more and more of -an <b>Analytic Language</b>.</p></div> - -<p><a name="sect-2-II" id="sect-2-II">2.</a> <b>THE GRAMMAR OF NOUNS.</b>—In the very oldest English—or, as it is -commonly called, <i>Anglo-Saxon</i>—nouns were declined in different ways, -and had several declensions, just as German and Latin have. Each of -these declensions had four cases. Nowadays we have only one declension -and only one inflection for the cases of nouns. That one inflection is -<b>’s</b> for the possessive case. The following is an example of an old -declension:</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Declension of <b>EAGE</b>, the eye.</span></p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><i>Sing.</i></td><td align="left"><i>Plur.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><i>Nom.</i></td><td align="left">Eage (eye).</td><td align="left">Eagan.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><i>Pos.</i></td><td align="left">Eag-an (of).</td><td align="left">Eag-ena.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><i>Dat.</i></td><td align="left">Eag-an (to).</td><td align="left">Eag-am.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><i>Obj.</i></td><td align="left">Eage.</td><td align="left">Eagan.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Again, in this English, gender did not follow sex, but was poetic and -fantastic. <i>Tongue</i> and <i>week</i> were feminine nouns, as they still are in -modern German; <i>star</i> and <i>sea</i>, masculine; <i>wife</i> and <i>child</i>, -neuter.—In old English there were a great many plural endings, as <b>-as</b>, -<b>-an</b>, <b>-u</b>, <b>-a</b>, <b>-o</b>. After the Norman Conquest they were greatly reduced, -<b>-es</b> or <b>-s</b> being now the ordinary ending, <b>-en</b> being exceptional.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-3-II" id="sect-3-II">3.</a> <b>THE GRAMMAR OF ADJECTIVES.</b>—Adjectives had also cases. Adjectives had -four cases, three genders, and two numbers. Now we say <i>good</i> for all -cases, genders, and numbers. In the fourteenth century the only ending -which adjectives possessed was <b>e</b> for the plural. Thus Chaucer -(1340-1400) writes of the little birds:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">And <i>smalë</i> fowlës maken melodie.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><a name="sect-4-II" id="sect-4-II">4.</a> <b>GRAMMAR OF DEFINITE ARTICLE.</b>—This article was declined like an -adjective, in three different genders. Now it has no inflections at all. -It has still, however, a clear and distinct memory of one case, which -survives in such phrases as, ‘The more, the merrier.’ This sentence -might be written, ‘þŷ more, þŷ merrier.’ That is to say, ‘By that more, -by that merrier.’ The measure of the increase of the company is the -measure of the increase of the merriment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_36" id="page_36"></a>{36}</span></p> - -<p><a name="sect-5-II" id="sect-5-II">5.</a> <b>GRAMMAR OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN.</b>—The personal pronoun was also -highly inflected in the oldest English; and the two personal pronouns of -the first and second persons possessed this remarkable peculiarity, that -it had three numbers, singular, dual, and plural. The dual form stood -for <i>We two</i> and for <i>You two</i>; and, if we cared to trouble ourselves -nowadays with a host of inflections, these would certainly be very -convenient.</p> - -<p>All this is now very much changed. The dual number is completely gone; -the use of <i>thou</i>, except in religious compositions, has been given up, -and the true possessive of <i>it</i>, which is <b>his</b>, has given place to the -incorrect form <i>its</i>. The possessive <i>its</i> is very seldom found in -Shakspeare, and there is only one instance of it in our present -translation of the Bible: ‘That which groweth of its own accord of thy -harvest thou shalt not reap’ (Lev. xxv. 5). But another reading is, ‘of -it own accord.’</p> - -<p><a name="sect-6-II" id="sect-6-II">6.</a> <b>GRAMMAR OF VERBS.</b>—The verb possessed also, in the oldest times, -before the language was at all influenced by Norman-French, a large -number of inflections. At the present time a verb has only five -inflections; but, if it belongs to the strong conjugation, it may have -six. Let us look at the old verb <i>niman</i>, to take, which still survives -in our adjective <i>nimble</i>, which means <i>quick at taking</i>.</p> - -<p>The chief tenses of <b>niman</b> were inflected as follows:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="c" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Tense.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="c"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="c"><i>Plural.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1. nime.</td><td align="left">nimath.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">2. nimest.</td><td align="left">nimath.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">3. nimeth.</td><td align="left">nimath.</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="c" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Past Tense.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="c"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="c"><i>Plural.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">1. nám.</td><td align="left">námon.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">2. náme.</td><td align="left">námon.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">3. nám.</td><td align="left">námon.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="nind">Of all the inflections in the above, only two still remain, <i>st</i> in the -second person singular, and <i>th</i> in the third person; and even these two -inflections are nowadays hardly used at all.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-7-II" id="sect-7-II">7.</a> <b>FRAGMENTS OF NOUN INFLECTIONS.</b>—Although our language, in the course -of its history, has lost almost all of its inflections, there still -remain, here and there, in our grammar, fragments of inflections which -are often curiously<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_37" id="page_37"></a>{37}</span> disguised, and therefore difficult to recognise. -Thus, at first sight, it is not easy to see that <i>vixen</i> is the feminine -of <i>fox</i>. But <i>vixen</i> is simply the same as <i>fixen</i>, or <i>fyxen</i>, and it -was one of the laws of Anglo-Saxon vowel-change that <i>o</i> became <i>y</i>. It -was very usual to make the plural of nouns in <i>en</i>. Thus we said -<i>shoon</i>, <i>hosen</i>, <i>tren</i>, <i>been</i> (for <i>bees</i>), <i>toon</i> (for <i>toes</i>), -<i>flon</i> (for <i>arrows</i>), and <i>fleen</i> (for <i>fleas</i>). But, of all these and -other similar plurals, we now possess only one—<i>oxen</i>. The plurals -<i>children</i> and <i>brethren</i> are really double plurals. The oldest plurals -were <i>cildru</i>, afterwards <i>childer</i>; and <i>brether</i>. It was then -forgotten that these were real plurals, and an <i>en</i> was added.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-8-II" id="sect-8-II">8.</a> <b>FRAGMENTS OF ADJECTIVE INFLECTIONS.</b>—We have the comparative <i>rather</i> -(rightly pronounced in Ireland rayther); but we have no <i>rathe</i> or -<i>rathest</i>. An old writer, speaking of a star, says: ‘It rose rather and -rather (earlier).’ <b>Nighest</b> becomes <i>next</i>; because the <b>g + s</b> is equal to -an <b>x</b>. So there was in our country an old proverb, ‘When bale is hext, -bone is next’—that is, ‘When evil is highest, boon is nighest.’ <i>Over</i> -is now only used as a preposition. But it is really the comparative -degree of the old adjective <i>ov</i>, which is a form of <i>up</i> or <i>off</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-9-II" id="sect-9-II">9.</a> <b>FRAGMENTS OF PRONOUN INFLECTIONS.</b>—The <i>t</i> in <i>it</i> (which was -formerly <i>hit</i>, as the neuter of <i>he</i>) is simply the sign of the neuter -gender, and is the same <i>t</i> that is found in <i>tha-t</i>, <i>wha-t</i> (the -neuter of <i>who</i>), etc. Hence the true possessive of <i>it</i> is <i>his</i>; and -this is the form in use in Shakspeare and Bacon, and even down to the -middle of the seventeenth century. <i>Its</i>, as we have already seen, is a -blunder. <i>They</i> is not the true plural of <i>he</i>; but really of the old -definite article <i>thaet</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-10-II" id="sect-10-II">10.</a> <b>FRAGMENTS OF VERB INFLECTIONS.</b>—The inflections of the verb are very -strangely disguised; and, if learned men had not worked hard, and made -diligent inquiry in many directions, we should never have known what -they really are. Thus the <i>m</i> in <i>am</i> is the same <i>m</i> that is found in -<i>me</i>; and the oldest form known of the verb <i>am</i>, in the oldest -language, is <i>asmi</i>.—The <i>t</i> which we find in the second person of -some<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_38" id="page_38"></a>{38}</span> verbs, such as <i>art</i>, <i>wast</i>, <i>shalt</i>, and <i>wilt</i>, is the same as -the <i>th</i> in <i>thou</i>. This <i>t</i> is therefore the pronoun <i>thou</i> added to -the verb.—The <i>th</i> in the old-fashioned third person singular -<i>writeth</i>, <i>hopeth</i>, etc., is the same <i>th</i> that we find in <i>the</i> and -<i>that</i>. Accordingly, we may say that <i>burneth</i> is = <i>that</i> (<i>thing</i>) -<i>burns</i>.—The last <i>d</i> in <i>did</i> is not the same as the <i>ed</i> in <i>walked</i>. -<i>Did</i> is not = <i>doed</i>. An older form of <i>did</i> is <i>dude</i>; and from this -we see that the past tense was formed by doubling the present—by -reduplication. Thus we see that it is the last <i>d</i> that represents the -<i>do</i>.—The word <i>worth</i> in the well-known lines from the <i>Lady of the -Lake</i>—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">That cost thy life, thou gallant gray!—<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">is not an adjective, but the remnant of an old verb. This verb is -<i>weorthan</i>, to become; and <i>worth</i> is the imperative of it. When a verb -has lost one of its parts, it goes to another verb, and borrows the use -of one of its parts. Thus <i>went</i>, the past tense of <i>go</i>, is borrowed -from <i>wend</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-11-II" id="sect-11-II">11.</a> <b>FRAGMENTS OF INFLECTIONS IN ADVERBS.</b>—Adverbs contain a great number -of disguised inflections. In the present day, we make adverbs from -adjectives by adding <i>ly</i> to them—as <i>neat</i>, <i>neatly</i>; <i>warm</i>, -<i>warmly</i>. But, in old English, the adverb was made by employing the -dative of the adjective. Thus, <i>brightë</i> was = <i>in a bright manner</i>; -<i>swiftë</i> was = <i>swiftly</i>. Then <i>ë</i> very soon dropped off; and the word -was left in its bare root—stripped of inflections. And so it has -happened that we have many adverbs which are used in their simplest -form, and are just the same as adjectives. We do not say, ‘He runs -fastly,’ but ‘He runs fast;’ ‘He works hardly,’ but ‘He works -hard.’—But the remnants of other cases are also found in adverbs. Thus -<i>needs</i>, <i>always</i>, <i>sideways</i>, <i>once</i> (for <i>onës</i>), <i>twice</i> (for -<i>twiës</i>), <i>unawares</i>, <i>whence</i> (for <i>whennës</i>) and others, are all old -possessives.—<i>Seldom</i> is an old dative plural. <i>Seld</i> meant <i>rare</i>; and -<i>seldom</i> means <i>at rare times</i>.—<i>The</i> in the phrase, ‘The older the -better,’ is an ablative or <i>instrumental</i> case; and therefore means <i>by -that</i>. Accordingly this sentence means: ‘By that older, by that -better.’<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_39" id="page_39"></a>{39}</span> The measure of the increase of age is the measure of the -increase of the quality.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-12-II" id="sect-12-II">12.</a> <b>FRAGMENTS OF INFLECTIONS IN PREPOSITIONS.</b>—<i>Since</i> is the possessive -case of the old English word <i>sithen</i>. The following are the steps: -<i>Sithennës</i>; <i>sithens</i>; <i>sithence</i>; <i>since</i>.—<i>After</i> is the comparative -degree of the old preposition <i>af</i> (= of), which meant <i>from</i>. <i>Over</i> is -another comparative form, from a root which appears in <i>up</i>.</p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /><br /> -<b>Changes in Modern English.</b></h2> - -<p><a name="sect-1-III" id="sect-1-III">1.</a> <b>FORMATION OF MODERN ENGLISH.</b>—We have seen that the substance of the -living English tongue was brought from Germany to this island by our -Teutonic ancestors. We have seen also that it has undergone a great -variety of influences, the greatest and strongest of which was the -Norman Conquest. For a long time after the Conquest, the English -language was the tongue of a subject and humiliated race; it ceased to -be fashionable, and almost ceased to be literary. In the thirteenth -century it began to revive, but with very important changes; the -inflections, and many of the old English words, being lost, and a -multitude of new words being introduced. In Chaucer’s time it regained -its old position as the language of the court, of fashion, and of -literature. In 1485 we find the language in all important respects fixed -as we have it now. Every intelligent Englishman is able to understand -all that has since been written.</p> - -<p>Modern English, then, dates from 1485, the year when the Wars of the -Roses ended with the battle of Bosworth, and the Tudor line ascended the -throne. It was the time also when the art of printing was introduced by -Caxton; and about the time when the two great events, the Revival of -Learning and the Reformation, took place.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-2-III" id="sect-2-III">2.</a> <b>CONTINUED HISTORY OF OUR LANGUAGE.</b>—It would be a mistake, however, -to suppose that the language has<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_40" id="page_40"></a>{40}</span> no history after 1485. Language is the -expression and embodiment of thought; and as thought varies with the -varying experience of man, language must change accordingly. Since 1485 -the English people have gone through marvellous changes—changes in -political and social life, in science, in art, and industry. They have -planted extensive colonies, they carry on trade in every part of the -world, and have dealings with every nation. In all this widening and -progressive life, we have got to know far more than we did in 1485, and -thus require to use a multitude of words unknown to the people of that -period. The result has been a large addition to our vocabulary.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-3-III" id="sect-3-III">3.</a> <b>BORROWING FROM SPANISH AND ITALIAN.</b>—Under the heading ‘Latin of the -Fourth Period,’ we have noted the number of words borrowed from the -Latin during the sixteenth century. We are now to observe that about the -same time there was a considerable borrowing of words from the Spanish -and Italian. Of course, as Italian and Spanish are offshoots from Latin, -these words also are mostly of Latin origin.</p> - -<p>(i) <b>Italian.</b>—During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Italian -literature was very extensively studied by English writers. For some -centuries the Italians were the most cultivated people in Europe. Italy -was the home of music, painting, and sculpture. Her poets served as -models to those of other nations. The earliest poets of modern England, -such as Wyatt and Surrey, were inspired by them; Spenser and Milton were -ardent students of their works. During this period, consequently, we -introduced from the Italian language many important words, among which -may be mentioned <i>sonnet</i>, <i>opera</i>, <i>cupola</i>, <i>balcony</i>, <i>palette</i>.</p> - -<p>(ii) <b>Spanish.</b>—At the same time we had even more intimate relations with -Spain, though of a different kind. In the sixteenth century Spain was -the leading nation of Europe. She had the best soldiers, the first -generals and statesmen; her ships discovered America; and her kings -aimed at universal dominion. As both friend and enemy, England was -brought into close connection with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_41" id="page_41"></a>{41}</span> the Spaniards. Under these -circumstances we naturally adopted many words from them. While most of -these were of Latin origin, not a few related to the new countries -discovered and conquered by Spain in America. Among the Spanish words -may be mentioned <i>buffalo</i>, <i>alligator</i>, <i>don</i>, <i>armada</i>, <i>indigo</i>, -<i>potato</i>, <i>tobacco</i>. The last two are of American origin. The rest are -Latin. <i>Alligator</i> is of Latin origin, but is the name of an American -animal.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-4-III" id="sect-4-III">4.</a> <b>DUTCH WORDS.</b>—We have borrowed very few words from the Germans; but -from the people of the Netherlands, who have always been near neighbours -to us, we have derived not a few. Long ago, Flemings (or people of -Flanders) were settled in Wales and Norfolk. In the reign of Queen -Elizabeth, thousands of Protestant refugees from Antwerp and other -places in the Netherlands found an asylum in England. Since the rise of -Holland we have had many dealings, both warlike and commercial, with the -Dutch. All this accounts for the goodly number of Dutch words which we -now find in the English language, such as <i>burgomaster</i>, <i>ballast</i>, -<i>holster</i>, <i>trigger</i>, <i>yacht</i>, <i>yawl</i>.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-5-III" id="sect-5-III">5.</a> It will have been clearly seen that there are two main elements in -the English language—the Teutonic element, which is by far the most -important; and the Latin element. It is interesting to trace the -relative proportion of these two elements as used by the great English -writers. In the seventeenth century, especially in such writers as -Milton and Sir Thomas Browne, we find a large use of the Latin element, -accompanied by a Latin or complex and involved structure of sentence. -Towards the end of the century, and especially in the beginning of the -eighteenth, during the period of Queen Anne, a simpler style prevailed, -the classical element being more sparingly used. But as we proceed into -the eighteenth century, the Latin part of the language is again more -largely employed by such writers as Johnson, Gibbon, and Hume; and it is -again accompanied by a more formal and elaborate structure of sentence. -But before the century closes, there is a return to simplicity and -naturalness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_42" id="page_42"></a>{42}</span></p> - -<p><a name="sect-6-III" id="sect-6-III">6.</a> In the present century there are many influences specially worth -noting as affecting the language:</p> - -<p>(i) <b>Social and Political Causes.</b>—Society is a complex thing, -continually growing. New facts and ideas are perpetually making -themselves felt, necessitating new words, or a more extending meaning in -old words. In this province, then, changes in language are incessantly -required. Hence the need for such new words as <i>extradition</i>, -<i>neutralisation</i>, <i>secularisation</i>; even for such unhappy coinages as -<i>burke</i>. On occasion of the great volunteer reviews of 1881, words like -<i>entrain</i> and <i>detrain</i>, applied to troops, could be noticed creeping -in. <i>Closure</i> and <i>clôture</i> were rivals for currency during the debates -of 1882; and <i>Boycott</i> began to present serious claims to permanent -citizenship in the English tongue.</p> - -<p>(ii) <b>Popularising of Technical and Scientific Terms.</b>—One of the most -marked features of the nineteenth century is the great diffusion of -scientific knowledge, and the application of it to the uses of practical -life. The highest scientific results are becoming common property; and -the discoveries of science have been made to satisfy the common needs of -men. The result is that terms once unknown or exclusively technical have -gained the widest currency in the popular speech. There is no need to -mention such familiar words as <i>telegraph</i>, <i>photograph</i>, or even -<i>telephone</i> or <i>photophone</i>. The old noun <i>wire</i> has now established its -right to be used as a verb. In other spheres such terms as <i>objective</i>, -<i>subjective</i>, <i>æsthetics</i>, now fulfil important functions; <i>æsthete</i> -also seems too useful a word to be dispensed with.</p> - -<p>(iii) <b>Revival of Archaisms.</b>—In many of our recent poets there has been -a tendency to revive some of the old Spenserian or Shaksperian words. -But as these are purely literary terms, with no currency in the common -speech, they need not be dwelt on.</p> - -<p>(iv) <b>Introduction of Scotticisms and Americanisms.</b>—The right of the -Scottish tongue to be considered one of the worthiest varieties of the -genuine old English or Saxon tongue is now generally recognised. But -apart from that,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_43" id="page_43"></a>{43}</span> the intrinsic merit of such words as <i>eerie</i>, -<i>glamour</i>, <i>sough</i>, <i>bonnie</i>, <i>douce</i> (both of which last, however, are -of French origin), will probably secure them a permanent place in our -language. The influence of America will also be more and more felt on -the common English language, whether through its stock of old Saxon -phrases which have been preserved in America, through the innovations -made by its humorists, or the new experiences in its social and -political life.</p> - -<p>(v) <b>Further borrowing from Foreign Languages.</b>—Even the most remote and -unlikely make important and familiar contributions to our tongue. From -the Malays we have (along with the thing) borrowed the words <i>bamboo</i>, -<i>gong</i>, <i>sago</i>; from the Australians we have <i>boomerang</i> and <i>kangaroo</i>; -and from South African tongues, <i>gnu</i>, <i>quagga</i>, <i>kraal</i>.</p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<h3><a name="sect-1-IV" id="sect-1-IV"></a><b>Words adopted from Foreign Languages.</b></h3> - -<p>1. <b>FROM AFRICAN DIALECTS.</b>—Chimpanzee, gnu, gorilla, karoo, kraal, -zebra.</p> - -<p>2. <b>FROM AMERICAN TONGUES.</b>—Buccaneer, cacique, cannibal, canoe, -caoutchouc, cayman, chocolate, condor, guano, hammock, jaguar, -jalap, jerked (beef), llama, mahogany, maize, manioc, moccasin, -mustang, opossum, pampas, pemmican, potato, skunk, squaw, tapioca, -tobacco, tomahawk, tomato, wigwam, yam.</p> - -<p>3. <b>FROM THE ARABIC LANGUAGE.</b> (The word <i>al</i> means <i>the</i>. Thus -al<i>cohol</i> = <i>the spirit</i>. A few of the following words, however, -though they have come to us through Arabic, belong originally to -other tongues. Thus alchemy and talisman are from the Greek; -apricot is Latin.)—Admiral, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, alembic, -algebra, alkali, amber, apricot, arrack, arsenal, artichoke, -assassin, assegai, attar, azimuth, azure, caliph, carat, chemistry, -cipher, civet, coffee, cotton, crimson, dragoman, elixir, emir, -fakir, felucca, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hookah, koran (or -alcoran), lute, magazine, mattress, minaret, mohair, monsoon, -mosque, mufti, nabob, nadir, naphtha, salaam, senna, sherbet, shrub -(the drink), simoom, sirocco, sofa, sultan, syrup, talisman, -tamarind, tariff, vizier, zenith, zero.</p> - -<p>4. <b>FROM CHINESE.</b>—Bohea, congou, hyson, joss, junk, nankeen, pekoe, -souchong, tea.</p> - -<p>5. <b>FROM DUTCH</b> (words relating chiefly to naval affairs).—Boom, -boor, hoy, luff, reef, schiedam (gin), skates, skipper, sloop, -smack, smuggle, stiver, taffrail, wear (of a ship), yacht.</p> - -<p>6. <b>FROM FRENCH.</b>—Aide-de-camp,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_44" id="page_44"></a>{44}</span> belle, bivouac, blonde, bouquet, -brunette, brusque, carte-de-visite, coup-d’état, débris, début, -déjeûner (breakfast), depot, éclat, ennui, etiquette, naive, -naïveté, nonchalance, personnel, précis, programme, protégé, -recherché, soirée.</p> - -<p>7. <b>FROM GERMAN</b> (mostly mining terms).—Cobalt, felspar, horn-blend, -landgrave, loafer, margrave, meerschaum, nickel, plunder, poodle, -quartz, zinc.</p> - -<p>8. <b>FROM HEBREW</b> (words relating chiefly to religion).—Abbey, abbot, -amen, behemoth, cabal, cherub, gehenna, hallelujah, hosannah, -Jehovah, jubilee, leviathan, manna, paschal, pharisee, pharisaical, -rabbi, sabbath, Sadducees, Satan, seraph, shibboleth, Talmud.</p> - -<p>9. <b>FROM HINDU.</b>—Avatar, banyan, bungalow, calico, chintz, coolie, -cowrie, durbar, jungle, lac (of rupees), loot, mulligatawny, -pagoda, palanquin, pariah, punch, pundit, rajah, rupee, ryot, -sepoy, shampoo, sugar, suttee, thug, toddy.</p> - -<p>10. <b>FROM HUNGARIAN.</b>—Hussar.</p> - -<p>11. <b>FROM ITALIAN.</b>—Alarm, alert, alto, bagatelle, balcony, -balustrade, bandit, bankrupt, bravo, brigade, brigand, broccoli, -burlesque, bust, cameo, canteen, canto, caprice, caricature, -carnival, cartoon, cascade, cavalcade, charlatan, citadel, -colonnade, concert, contralto, conversazione, cornice, corridor, -cupola, curvet, dilettante, ditto, doge, domino, extravaganza, -fiasco, folio, fresco, gazette, gondola, granite, grotto, guitar, -incognito, influenza, lagoon, lava, lazaretto, macaroni, madonna, -madrigal, malaria, manifesto, motto, moustache, niche, opera, -oratorio, palette, pantaloon, parapet, pedant, pianoforte, piazza, -pistol, portico, proviso, quarto, regatta, ruffian, serenade, -sonnet, soprano, stanza, stiletto, stucco, studio, tenor, -terra-cotta, tirade, torso, trombone, umbrella, vermilion, vertu, -virtuoso, vista, volcano, zany.</p> - -<p>12. <b>FROM MALAY.</b>—Amuck, bamboo, bantam, caddy, cockatoo, dugong, -gamboge, gong, guttapercha, mandarin (through the Portuguese), -mango, ourangoutang, rattan, sago, upas.</p> - -<p>13. <b>FROM PERSIAN.</b>—Bazaar, bashaw, caravan, check, checkmate, -chess, dervish, divan, firman, hazard, horde, houri, jar, jackal, -jasmine, lac (a gum), lemon, lilac, lime (the fruit), musk, orange, -paradise, pasha, rook, saraband, sash, scimitar, shawl, taffeta, -turban.</p> - -<p>14. <b>FROM POLYNESIAN DIALECTS.</b>—Boomerang, kangaroo, taboo, tattoo -(to paint the skin).</p> - -<p>15. <b>FROM PORTUGUESE.</b>—Albatross, caste, cobra, cocoa-nut, -commodore, fetish, lasso, marmalade, moidore, palaver, port -(Oporto).</p> - -<p>16. <b>FROM RUSSIAN.</b>—Czar, drosky, knout, morse (walrus), steppe, -ukase.</p> - -<p>17. <b>FROM SPANISH.</b>—Alligator, armada, barricade, battledore, -bravado, buffalo, caracole, cargo, cigar, cochineal, cork, creole, -desperado, don, duenna, El dorado, embargo, filibuster (from -English flyboat), filigree, flotilla, galleon (a ship), grandee, -grenade, guerilla, indigo, jennet, matadore, merino, mosquito, -mulatto, negro, octoroon, quadroon, renegade, savannah, sherry -(Xeres), tornado, vanilla.</p> - -<p>18. <b>FROM TARTAR.</b>—Caviare (the roe of the sturgeon).</p> - -<p>19. <b>FROM TURKISH.</b>—Bey, caftan, chibouk, chouse, janissary, kiosk, -odalisque, ottoman, tulip, yashmak, yataghan.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_45" id="page_45"></a>{45}</span></p> - -<h3><a name="sect-2-IV" id="sect-2-IV">CHIEF DATES IN THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</a></h3> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="rt">A.D.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">1.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>Cædmon</b> wrote a <i>Paraphrase of the Scriptures</i> in First English prose</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>670</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">2.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>Bede</b>, or <b>Bæda</b>, wrote a translation into English of part of the <i>Gospel of St John</i></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>735</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">3.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>King Alfred</b> translated many Latin works into English, among others, the <i>Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation</i>. King Alfred died</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>901</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">4.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>Ælfric</b> translates parts of the Bible</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1000</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">5.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</b> brought to a stop about</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1154</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">6.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>Normandy</b> taken from England under King John. Normans now obliged to regard themselves as Englishmen, and more ready to use the English tongue</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1204</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">7.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>Layamon’s</b> <i>Brut</i>—a poem—the first English book written after the stoppage of the <i>Chronicle</i> (written in the <i>Southern English</i> dialect)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1205</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">8.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>First Proclamation</b> ever written in English, issued by Henry III.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1258</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">9.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>Sir John Mandeville</b>, the first writer of <i>formed</i> English prose, ‘publishes’ his <i>Travels</i> (<i>Publishes</i> in this century means: <i>Allows copies in manuscript to be made of his book.</i>)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1356</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">10.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>Edward III.</b> authorises the use of English instead of French in courts of law and in schools</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1362</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">11.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>John Wicliffe</b> translates most of the Bible</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1380</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">12.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>Geoffrey Chaucer</b>, the ‘Father of English Poetry,’ wrote his <i>Canterbury Tales</i> about</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1388</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">13.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>William Caxton</b> prints the first English book ever printed, <i>The History of Troyes</i>, in Flanders</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1471</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">14.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>Caxton</b> erects the first printing-press in the Broad Sanctuary, in Westminster, and publishes the first book ever printed in England, the <i>Game and Playe of the Chesse</i></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1474</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">15.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>The Book of Common Prayer</b> compiled by Cranmer</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1549</b></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top">16.</td><td valign="top" class="hang2"><b>The English Bible</b>, based upon William Tyndall’s and other translations, published</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1611</b></td></tr> -</table> - -<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_46" id="page_46"></a>{46}</span><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.<br /><br /> -<b>Notes on the Growth of English Words.</b></h2> - -<p><a name="sect-1-V" id="sect-1-V">1.</a> <b>ROOTS; INFLUENCE OF IMITATION ON LANGUAGE.</b>—The question of the -origin of language is an extremely interesting one, which has been long -and keenly discussed. But it is one on which the opinions of the learned -are not agreed, and we cannot dwell upon it here. There is an -established fact, however, which is of the highest interest and -importance: most of the words of the great family of Indo-European -languages can be traced to a few hundred roots; and these roots are -common to the whole family. It is the greatest achievement of -philological science to have clearly established this fact. How these -roots have originated, is a more uncertain inquiry: in fact, is just the -question of the origin of language presented in another form. It is the -theory of some that words have arisen from the imitation of natural -sounds; the names of animals, for instance, being imitations of the -sounds they utter. Though this has been ridiculed under the nickname of -the <i>bow-wow</i> theory, there seems to be some truth in it: at anyrate no -one will deny that in the English, as in all other languages, a great -many words exist which are imitative of natural sounds. Among such words -the following may be mentioned: <i>Babble</i>, <i>boom</i>, <i>chatter</i>, <i>chirp</i>, -<i>clang</i>, <i>clatter</i>, <i>clink</i>, <i>crash</i>, <i>croak</i>, <i>cuckoo</i>, <i>fizz</i>, -<i>giggle</i>, <i>gurgle</i>, <i>hiss</i>, <i>howl</i>, <i>hum</i>, <i>hush</i>, <i>murmur</i>, <i>quack</i>, -<i>scream</i>, <i>shriek</i>, <i>squeal</i>, <i>thud</i>, <i>thump</i>, <i>thwack</i>, <i>twang</i>, -<i>whack</i>, <i>wheeze</i>, <i>whirr</i>, <i>whizz</i>.</p> - -<p>Of course these words were not all originally English. <i>Clang</i> and -<i>murmur</i>, for instance, are Latin words; but they also are of imitative -origin.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-2-V" id="sect-2-V">2.</a> <b>HYBRIDS.</b>—A <i>hybrid</i> is a word composed of a <i>mixture</i> of foreign and -native elements. Sometimes an English word has a Latin ending; sometimes -a Latin word has an English<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_47" id="page_47"></a>{47}</span> ending. All such words are called -<i>hybrids</i>. One of the most interesting of the earliest hybrids in -English was the word <i>bondage</i>, which is said to have been introduced in -the year 1303. The word <i>bond</i> comes to us from the Icelandic or -Norwegian word <i>bondi</i>, which means <i>farmer</i> or <i>tiller of the soil</i>. -Farmers in Norway are to this day called <i>bonders</i>. The suffix <i>age</i> is -Latin; but it has come to us through Norman-French. The full Latin -ending is <i>atĭcum</i>, which, in France, in the course of generations, was -compressed into <i>age</i>. There are other hybrids with this ending, such as -<i>tillage</i> (which has pushed out the pure English <i>tilth</i>), <i>cartage</i>, -<i>stowage</i>, and others.—The ending <i>able</i>, which comes to us from Latin, -combines very easily with words which are purely English. Thus we have -<i>lovable</i>, <i>biddable</i>, <i>laughable</i>, <i>breakable</i>, and others.—The Latin -ending <i>osus</i> means <i>full of</i>. Thus, <i>vinum</i> is <i>wine</i>, and <i>vinosus</i> is -<i>full of wine</i>. This <i>ōsus</i> becomes in English <i>ous</i>; and we find this -Latin suffix added to words which are purely English. Thus we have -<i>wondrous</i> from <i>wonder</i>, and <i>ravenous</i> from <i>raven</i>. We have also -<i>righteous</i>, which was originally <i>rightwîs</i>, and the change into -<i>righteous</i> was a corruption of the spelling.—<i>Dis</i> is a Latin prefix, -and it is added to English words. Thus we have <i>dislike</i> and <i>disown</i>. -We have also <i>dishearten</i>, an old word, in which the prefix <i>dis</i> -contradicts the suffix <i>en</i> (which means to <i>put</i> or <i>make</i>).—<i>Re</i>, -another Latin prefix, unites with purely English words, and we find -<i>renew</i>, <i>reopen</i>, <i>rebuild</i>, <i>reclothe</i>, and others.—French words with -English prefixes are also found. Thus we have <i>besiege</i>; the word -<i>siege</i>, a <i>seat</i>, being French. <i>To besiege</i> means to take a seat in -front of a town, with your mind made up not to go till you have taken -it.—Latin words with English endings are found in <i>useful</i>, <i>useless</i>, -<i>usefulness</i>, <i>uselessness</i>, and others. English words with Latin or -French endings are not uncommon. Thus we have <i>goddess</i>, <i>forbearance</i>, -<i>hindrance</i>, <i>oddity</i>, and others. In old-fashioned English, and even in -Wordsworth, who died in 1850, we find such curious formations as -<i>oddments</i>, <i>needments</i>, <i>eggments</i> (<i>eggings on</i> or <i>incitements</i>), and -a few others.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_48" id="page_48"></a>{48}</span></p> - -<h3><a name="sect-3-V" id="sect-3-V">3.</a> <b>WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM OR IN MEANING.</b></h3> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>Abase</b>, to bring or make low. From a Low Latin word <i>bassus</i>, low.</p> - -<p><b>Abate</b>, to <i>beat</i> down. Low Lat. <i>abbattĕre</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Adder</b>, O. E. <i>nadder</i>. The <i>n</i> has dropped from the noun, owing to -the mistaken notion that it belonged to the article. Compare umpire -for numpire (<i>non par</i>—that is, <i>not equal</i>), orange for norange -(Pers. <i>náranj</i>), apron for napron. The dropping of the <i>n</i> is -probably owing to the prefixing of <i>an</i> and <i>mine</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Adrift</b>, on or in the <i>drift</i>. From the verb <i>drive</i>. Compare -<i>give</i>, <i>gift</i>; <i>shrive</i>, <i>shrift</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Alligator</b> is Spanish <i>el</i> lagarto, <i>the</i> lizard (<i>par excellence</i>), -from Lat. <i>lacerta</i>, a lizard.</p> - -<p><b>Aloft, on-loft</b>, in the lift (air). Northern Eng. or ‘Scotch’ -<i>lift</i>, the air.</p> - -<p><b>Anon</b>, <i>on</i> or <i>in-one</i> (instant). The phrase <i>then ones</i> has become -<i>the nonce</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Atonement</b>, <i>at-one-ment</i>, bringing into one, reconciliation. In -<i>alone</i> and <i>atone</i> the numeral <i>one</i> has its true sound.</p> - -<p><b>Babble</b>, to keep saying <i>ba, ba</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Balloon</b>, a large <i>ball</i> (Fr.). The <i>oon</i> is augmentative.</p> - -<p><b>Ballot</b>, a little <i>ball</i> (Fr.). The <i>ot</i> is diminutive.</p> - -<p><b>Bank</b>, a <i>bench</i> on which money is laid out.</p> - -<p><b>Batch</b>, the quantity of bread <i>baked</i> at one time. Compare <i>wake</i>, -<i>watch</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Bird</b>, one of a <i>brood</i> (formerly <i>brid</i>). Compare <i>three</i>, <i>third</i>; -<i>burn</i>, <i>brand</i>; <i>work</i>, <i>wright</i>. In all these the <i>r</i> changes its -place.</p> - -<p><b>Bran-new</b>, that is, <i>brand-new</i>, burnt-new, as if newly from the -fire.</p> - -<p><b>Breakfast</b>, a <i>breaking</i> of a <i>fast</i>. Compare Fr. <i>déjeûner</i>, from -<i>jeûne</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Brick</b>, a piece <i>broken</i> off.</p> - -<p><b>Brimstone</b>, that is, <i>burn-stone</i>, from <i>brennan</i>, to burn. Compare -<i>brindled</i>. The <i>r</i> is a letter which is easily moved. Compare -<i>three</i> and <i>third</i>; <i>burn</i> and <i>brown</i>; etc.</p> - -<p><b>Brood</b>, something <i>bred</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Butcher</b>, O. Fr. <i>bocher</i>, a slaughterer of he-goats. From O. Fr. -<i>boc</i>, a goat, not from <i>bouche</i>, mouth. <i>Boc</i> is allied to the -Eng. <i>buck</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Butler</b> = bottler—that is, keeper of the <i>bottles</i>. From Nor. Fr. -<i>butuille</i>, a bottle.</p> - -<p><b>Buxom</b>, pliable; from <i>bugan</i>, to bend, which gives <i>bight</i> and -<i>bout</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Carouse</b>, Ger. <i>gar aus</i>, right out. Used of drinking a bumper.</p> - -<p><b>Caterpillar</b> = hairy cat. From O. Fr. <i>chate</i>, she-cat; <i>pelouse</i>, -from Lat. <i>pilosus</i>, hairy. Compare <i>Woolly-bear</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Causeway</b>, corrupted from Fr. <i>chaussée</i>, a raised way.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_49" id="page_49"></a>{49}</span></p> - -<p><b>Club</b>, a society <i>clumped</i> together. Connected with <i>clump</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Constable</b>, from <i>comes stabuli</i>, count of the stable.</p> - -<p><b>Coop</b>, anything hollow, like a <i>cup</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Cope</b>, a covering, a <i>cap</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Costermonger</b> = costard-monger—that is, apple-seller, costard being -a kind of apple.</p> - -<p><b>Country-dance</b>, a corruption of French <i>contre-danse</i>, a dance in -which each dancer stands <i>opposite</i> his partner.</p> - -<p><b>Coward</b>, a bob-<i>tailed</i> hare. Through O. Fr., from Lat. <i>cauda</i>, a -tail.</p> - -<p><b>Coxcomb</b>, a corruption of <i>cock’s comb</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Daisy</b>—that is, <i>day’s-eye</i>, so called from its sun-like -appearance, or because it closes its flower at night, and opens it -again in the morning.</p> - -<p><b>Dandelion</b>, a corruption of French <i>dent-de-lion</i>, tooth of the -lion.</p> - -<p><b>Dirge</b>, from <i>dirige</i> (= <i>direct</i>), the first word in the passage -beginning Ps. v. 8, sung in the office for the dead.</p> - -<p><b>Disease</b>, want of <i>ease</i>; pain.</p> - -<p><b>Drawing-room</b>; originally <i>with-drawing</i> room—that is, a room for -retiring to after dinner.</p> - -<p><b>Easel</b>, from Dutch <i>ezel</i>, a little ass.</p> - -<p><b>Etiquette</b>, originally a <i>ticket</i> on which the forms to be observed -on particular occasions at court were inscribed.</p> - -<p><b>Fare</b>, originally a <i>going</i> or <i>travelling</i>, hence the price paid -for such.</p> - -<p><b>Farthing</b>, the <i>fourth</i> part, hence the fourth of a penny.</p> - -<p><b>Ferry</b>, places for <i>faring</i>, or travelling across a stream.</p> - -<p><b>Ford</b>, places for <i>faring</i>, or travelling across a stream.</p> - -<p><b>Frontispiece</b>, that which is seen in the front. Low Lat. -<i>frontispicium</i>, from <i>specio</i>, I see. Not connected with <i>piece</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Gad-fly</b>, the <i>goading</i> or stinging fly.</p> - -<p><b>Gaffer</b> = <i>gramfer</i>, West of England for <i>grandfather</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Gammer</b> = <i>grammer</i>, West of England for <i>grandmother</i>. Compare O. -E. <i>gomman</i> and <i>gommer</i>, for <i>good man</i> and <i>good mother</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Gospel</b>, <i>God-spell</i> (news of God, that is, life of Christ); -commonly explained, however, as <i>good-spell</i> (good story), as if a -translation of Gr. <i>eu-anggelion</i>, from <i>eu</i>, well, and <i>anggelia</i>, -a message.</p> - -<p><b>Grocer</b>, should be <i>grosser</i>, from O. Fr. <i>grossier</i>, a wholesale -dealer, a dealer <i>en gros</i>—that is, in the large. In older Eng., -<i>grocers</i> were called <i>spicers</i>. Compare the Fr. <i>épiciers</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Groove</b>, something <i>graven</i>, or hollowed out.</p> - -<p><b>Haft</b>, the handle or part of anything which we <i>have</i> or hold in the -hand.</p> - -<p><b>Hamper</b>, Low Lat. <i>hanaperium</i>, a large vessel for keeping cups, -from Low Lat. <i>hanapus</i>, a drinking-cup.</p> - -<p><b>Handicraft</b>, <i>craft</i> or trade performed by the <i>hand</i>. Compare -<i>priestcraft</i>, <i>witchcraft</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_50" id="page_50"></a>{50}</span></p> - -<p><b>Handle</b>, (<i>v.</i>) to touch with the <i>hand</i>; (<i>n.</i>) the part held in -the <i>hand</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Handsel</b>, money <i>given</i> in <i>hand</i> (<i>hand</i>, and <i>sellan</i>, to give).</p> - -<p><b>Hanker</b>, to allow the mind to <i>hang</i> on or long for a thing. Compare -<i>hank</i> of wool.</p> - -<p><b>Harbinger</b>, one who goes forward to provide a harbour or place of -<i>safety</i> for an <i>army</i> (O. E. <i>here</i>, an army; <i>beorgan</i>, to -protect).</p> - -<p><b>Hatch</b>, to produce in a <i>heck</i>, a northern English word, meaning a -hay-rack; a frame made of cross bars of wood; a hen-coop. Compare -<i>bake</i> and <i>batch</i>; <i>wake</i> and <i>watch</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Hatchment</b>, the coat of arms put up over a house, the master of -which has lately died; a corruption of <i>achievement</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Hawthorn</b>, the hedge <i>thorn</i>. A.S. <i>haga</i>, a hedge or inclosure.</p> - -<p><b>Heaven</b>, that which is <i>heaved</i>, or lifted up above our heads.</p> - -<p><b>Heavy</b>, that which requires much <i>heaving</i> to lift.</p> - -<p><b>Hinder</b>, to put or keep <i>behind</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Homestead</b>, the <i>stead</i> or place of a home; a farm inclosure. -<i>Stead</i>, A.S. <i>stede</i>, occurs in in<i>stead</i>, <i>stead</i>fast, and -<i>stead</i>y. Cf. also <i>roadstead</i>, a place where ships ride at anchor.</p> - -<p><b>Husband</b>, the master of a <i>house</i>. Short for <i>house-band</i>. The -<i>band</i> is present participle of a word meaning ‘to dwell.’</p> - -<p><b>Hussy</b>, short for <i>housewife</i>. Compare <i>bos’n</i> for <i>boatswain</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Icicle</b> = <i>ice-gicel</i>. The termination is not to be confounded with -the diminutive ending <i>-icle</i>, which is of Latin origin. <i>Gicel</i> = -a small piece of ice, and is therefore redundant.</p> - -<p><b>Intoxicate</b>, to <i>drug</i> or poison. From a Low Latin verb to poison, -from Greek <i>toxon</i>, an arrow, because arrows were frequently dipped -in poison.</p> - -<p><b>Island</b>, <i>water-land</i> (O. E. <i>ea</i>, water, and <i>land</i>). The <i>s</i> is -intrusive, and due to a confusion with <i>isle</i>, which is from Lat. -<i>insula</i>, an island. Milton always spells it <i>iland</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Jaw</b> (old spelling, <i>chaw</i>), from <i>chew</i>, therefore = that which -<i>chews</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Jerusalem artichoke</b>, It. <i>girasole</i>; Lat. <i>gyrus</i> (Gr. <i>gyros</i>), a -circle, and <i>sol</i>, the sun. The artichoke is a kind of sunflower. -<i>Jerusalem</i> is a corruption; like <i>sparrow-grass</i> for <i>asparagus</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Kickshaws</b>, a corruption of French <i>quelques choses</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Kindness</b>, the feeling that is natural to those of the same <i>kin</i> or -family.</p> - -<p><b>Lanthorn</b>, Lat. <i>lanterna</i>. No connection with <i>horn</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Ledge</b>, a place on which things may be <i>laid</i>. From the verb <i>lay</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Likewise</b>, in <i>like wise</i> or manner.</p> - -<p><b>Line</b>, to cover with <i>linen</i> on the inside.</p> - -<p><b>Linen</b>, cloth made from <i>lint</i> or flax.</p> - -<p><b>Liquorice</b>, Gr. <i>glukurrhiza</i> = sweet root; from <i>glukus</i>, sweet, -and <i>rhiza</i>, a root.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_51" id="page_51"></a>{51}</span></p> - -<p><b>Meadow</b>, place where grass is <i>mown</i> or cut down. Compare <i>math</i> and -<i>aftermath</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Morris-dance</b> = Moorish dance.</p> - -<p><b>Naught</b>, <i>no-whit</i>, nothing.</p> - -<p><b>Ness</b>, a promontory or headland. A doublet of <i>naze</i>, and probably -connected with <i>nose</i>. It occurs frequently in place-names along -the shores of the North Sea, as in Sheer<i>ness</i>, Caith<i>ness</i>, the -<i>Naze</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Nonce</b>, in ‘for the nonce’ = for the once, for the one occasion; M. -E. <i>for then ones</i>. The <i>n</i> belongs to the article, and represents -the <i>m</i> of the dative of the article, namely <i>tham</i>. Compare a -newt, for an ewt; nuncle for mine uncle; a nickname for an -eke-name; a nugget or ningot for an ingot.</p> - -<p><b>Nostrils</b>, corrupted form of <i>nose-thirles</i>, nose-holes. (Thirl is -connected with <i>thrill</i>, <i>drill</i>, etc.)</p> - -<p><b>Notwithstanding</b>, <i>not withstanding</i>—that is, not standing against. -The <i>with</i> has in this word the old sense of <i>against</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Nurse</b>, one who <i>nourishes</i> (Fr. <i>nourrice</i>).</p> - -<p><b>Nutmeg</b> = musk-nut. M. E. <i>note-muge</i>, O. Fr. <i>muge</i>, musk. Lat. -<i>muscus</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Offal</b>, waste, part of anything, refuse. Literally ‘what <i>falls -off</i>.’</p> - -<p><b>Offing</b>, the sea far <i>off</i> from the land. Compare <i>off-scouring</i>; -<i>offset</i>; <i>offshoot</i>; and <i>offspring</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Onset</b>, a <i>setting</i> or rushing <i>on</i> or upon.</p> - -<p><b>Orchard</b> = <i>wort-yard</i>, <i>wort</i> or herb-<i>yard</i>, or garden.</p> - -<p><b>Ostrich</b>, through O. Fr. <i>ostruche</i>, from Lat. <i>avis struthio</i>, -ostrich bird; Gr. <i>struthion</i>, an ostrich.</p> - -<p><b>Outlaw</b>, one <i>out</i> of the protection of the <i>law</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Pastime</b>, that which serves to <i>pass</i> away the <i>time</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Pea-jacket</b>, Dutch <i>pije</i>, a rough woollen coat. ‘Jacket’ is -redundant. Not connected with <i>pea</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Peal</b> of bells, Fr. <i>appel</i>, a call with drum or trumpet.</p> - -<p><b>Penthouse</b>, O. E. <i>pentice</i>, Fr. <i>appentis</i>, Lat. <i>appendicium</i>. Not -connected with <i>house</i>. A corruption like <i>Bird-cage Walk</i> for -<i>Bocage</i>, (shrubbery) walk.</p> - -<p><b>Pickaxe</b>, O. Fr. <i>pikois</i>. No connection with <i>axe</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Poach</b>, originally to put into the <i>pouch</i> or <i>pocket</i>. Cf. to -<i>bag</i>, to <i>Pocket</i>, <i>sack</i> and <i>satchel</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Pocket</b>, a little <i>poke</i> or <i>pouch</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Porpoise</b>, the <i>hog fish</i>, from Lat. <i>porcus</i>, a pig, and <i>piscis</i>, -a fish.</p> - -<p><b>Proxy</b>, contracted from an obsolete <i>procuracy</i>, a taking care of -for another.</p> - -<p><b>Quicklime</b>, <i>lime</i> in a <i>quick</i> or active state. Compare the phrase, -‘the quick and the dead.’ Cf. also <i>quick</i>sand = sand easily moved, -<i>quick</i>silver, a fluid metal which is very mobile.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_52" id="page_52"></a>{52}</span></p> - -<p><b>Rhyme</b>, properly <i>rime</i> = number, confused with rhythm = flow.</p> - -<p><b>Rubbish</b>, that which is <i>rubbed</i> off; waste matter.</p> - -<p><b>Scent</b> (for sent), from Lat. <i>sentio</i>, I feel.</p> - -<p><b>Sexton</b>, Fr. <i>sacristain</i>, sacristan.</p> - -<p><b>Shamefaced</b>, is shame<i>fast</i>—that is, shame<i>fixed</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Sheaf</b>, a quantity of things, especially the stalks of grain, -<i>shoved</i> together and bound.</p> - -<p><b>Sheriff</b>, a <i>shire-reeve</i>, the <i>governor</i> of a <i>shire</i> or county.</p> - -<p><b>Ship</b>, something <i>scooped</i> or dug out, and therefore hollow. Compare -<i>skipper</i>, where the hard <i>k</i> reappears.</p> - -<p><b>Somerset</b>, a corruption of O. Fr. <i>soubresault</i>, from Lat. <i>supra</i> -and <i>saltus</i>, a leaping over.</p> - -<p><b>Sorry</b>, <i>sore</i> in mind.</p> - -<p><b>Soup</b>, that which is <i>supped</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Splice</b>, to <i>split</i> in order to join.</p> - -<p><b>Squirrel</b>, Fr. <i>écureuil</i>, Gr. <i>skiouros</i> = bushy or shadow tail. -From Gr. <i>skia</i>, shade, and <i>oura</i>, a tail.</p> - -<p><b>Starboard</b>, the <i>steering</i> side of a ship—that is, the right hand -side to one looking toward the bow.</p> - -<p><b>Stew</b>, to put into a <i>stove</i> to be cooked.</p> - -<p><b>Stirrup</b>, put for <i>sty-rope</i>; A.S. <i>stig-rap</i>, a mounting rope. From -the same root are <i>stair</i>, <i>sty</i>, <i>stile</i>, and <i>stag</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Straight</b>, <i>stretched</i> out, tight.</p> - -<p><b>Strong</b>, with the muscles <i>strung up</i>. Compare <i>wrong</i> from <i>wring</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Sweetheart</b>, from <i>sweet</i> and <i>heart</i>, an expression as old as -Chaucer.</p> - -<p><b>Tackle</b>, things to be <i>taken</i> hold of.</p> - -<p><b>Tale</b>, that which is told, what is counted. So also <i>teller</i> (in a -bank).</p> - -<p><b>Thorough</b>, passing <i>through</i>, or to the end.</p> - -<p><b>Thread</b>, that which is <i>thrown</i> or twisted.</p> - -<p><b>Treacle</b>, Lat. <i>theriaca</i>, Gr. <i>thēriakē</i>, viper’s flesh; <i>therion</i> -(a wild beast), a name often given to the viper. Originally an -antidote to the viper’s bite. Milton speaks of ‘the treacle of -sound doctrine.’</p> - -<p><b>Twist</b>, to twine or wind <i>two</i> threads together. (Compare <i>twine</i>, -<i>twirl</i>, <i>twiddle</i>, etc.)</p> - -<p><b>Verdigris</b>, Fr. <i>verd-de-grise</i>, Lat. <i>viride æris</i>, <i>green</i> of -brass. Not connected with <i>grease</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Walrus</b> = <i>whale horse</i>, O. E. <i>hwæl</i>, whale; <i>hors</i>, horse. The <i>r</i> -has shifted its place, as in <i>three</i>, <i>third</i>; <i>turn</i>, <i>trundle</i>, -etc.</p> - -<p><b>Whole</b>, hole, O. E. <i>hael</i>. The <i>w</i> is redundant; just as it is in -the <i>pronunciation</i> of <i>one</i>. It does not appear in <i>heal</i>, -<i>health</i>, etc.</p> - -<p><b>Wiseacre</b>, a corruption of the Ger. <i>weiss sager</i>, a wise-sayer or -soothsayer, or prophet.</p></div> - -<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_53" id="page_53"></a>{53}</span><a name="sect-4-V" id="sect-4-V">4.</a> <b>WORDS THAT HAVE CHANGED THEIR MEANING.</b></h3> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>Artillery</b>, great weapons of war; was once used to include -crossbows, bows, etc., before gunpowder was invented, 1 Sam. xx. -40: ‘And Jonathan gave his artillery unto his lad, and said unto -him, Go, carry <i>them</i> to the city.’</p> - -<p><b>Blackguard</b>, a name originally applied to the lowest kitchen -servants from the dirty work they had to do.</p> - -<p><b>Bombast</b>, originally cotton-wadding, affected language.</p> - -<p><b>Boor</b>, originally a peasant or tiller of the soil. In South Africa a -farmer is called a <i>boer</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Brat</b> meant originally a rag or clout, especially a child’s bib or -apron; hence, in contempt, a child. Mandeville speaks of ‘Abraham’s -brats.’</p> - -<p><b>Carriage</b> once meant baggage. Acts, xxi. 15: ‘And after those days -we took up our carriages, and went up to Jerusalem.’</p> - -<p><b>Censure</b> once meant opinion or judgment. Shakspeare, <i>As You Like -It</i>, IV. i. 7: ‘Betray themselves to every modern censure.’</p> - -<p><b>Charity</b>, once love, now almsgiving. 1 Cor. xiii. 3: ‘And though I -bestow all my goods to feed <i>the poor</i>, and though I give my body -to be burned, and have not <i>charity</i>, it profiteth me nothing.’</p> - -<p><b>Cheat</b> originally meant to seize upon anything which was <i>escheated</i> -or forfeited.</p> - -<p><b>Churl</b>, a countryman or farmer.</p> - -<p><b>Conceit</b>, originally a thought or notion. ‘Dan Chaucer was a -conceited clerk’—that is, a learned man full of new inventions or -thoughts (conceits).</p> - -<p><b>Cunning</b>, originally knowing, clever, skilled in a craft or trade. -The Bible speaks of ‘cunning workmen.’</p> - -<p><b>Demure</b>, originally of good manners, now staid, grave.</p> - -<p><b>Disaster</b>, an unkindly <i>star</i> (Gr. <i>astēr</i>, a star); a term from the -old astrology.</p> - -<p><b>Fond</b> once meant foolish.</p> - -<p><b>Gazette</b>, a small newspaper, originally a small coin. The newspaper -was so named because a <i>gazetta</i> was paid for it.</p> - -<p><b>Gossip</b> (<i>sib</i>, or related, in <i>God</i>), originally a sponsor in -baptism. <i>Gossip</i> is the kind of talk that goes on between people -who are connected with a family. Compare Fr. <i>commère</i> and -<i>commèrage</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Heathen</b>, an unbeliever, originally a dweller on a heath. Compare -<i>pagan</i>, a dweller in a <i>pagus</i>, or country canton.</p> - -<p><b>Idiot</b>, from Gr. <i>idiōtēs</i>, a private person. It afterwards meant a -person who kept himself aloof from public business and politics; a -person despised by the Athenians.</p> - -<p><b>Imp</b>, formerly used in a good sense, meaning scion or offspring. Now -a demon of mischief.</p> - -<p><b>Impertinent</b>, not relating or belonging to the matter in hand.</p> - -<p><b>Influence</b>, a <i>flowing down</i> from the stars; originally a term in -astrology.</p> - -<p><b>Kind</b>, originally <i>born</i>; hence <i>natural</i>, and so loving.</p> - -<p><b>Knave</b>, originally a boy or servant. Sir John Mandeville speaks of -Mohammed as a ‘poure knave.’</p> - -<p><b>Miser</b> sometimes means merely a wretched creature. Spenser, <i>Faerie -Queene</i>, II. i. 8:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">‘Vouchsafe to stay your steed for humble miser’s sake.’<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><b>Officious</b>, sometimes used in a good sense, obliging, serviceable. -Shakspeare, <i>Tit. And.</i> V. ii. 202:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">‘Come, come, be every one officious<br /></span> -<span class="i1">To make this banquet.’<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><b>Ostler</b> = hosteller, properly the keeper<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_54" id="page_54"></a>{54}</span> of a hostelry or hotel; -now applied to the horse-groom.</p> - -<p><b>Pagan</b>, from <i>paganus</i>, a dweller in a canton, a countryman or -villager; hence a heathen or unbeliever. Christianity was first -preached in the large cities.</p> - -<p><b>Painful</b>, originally painstaking. ‘Rev. J. Flavel was a painful -preacher.’</p> - -<p><b>Polite</b>, from Lat. <i>polītus</i>, polished.</p> - -<p><b>Prevent</b> (to), originally to go before (<i>præ</i> and <i>venio</i>). ‘Prevent -us, O Lord, in all our goings.’</p> - -<p><b>Silly</b>, the adj. originally happy, blessed; whence it came to mean -innocent, simple, foolish.</p> - -<p><b>Sycophant</b> (Gr.), originally a <i>fig-shower</i>; a person who informed -the police regarding the smuggling of figs into Athens.</p> - -<p><b>Tawdry</b> was applied originally to goods bought at St Audrey’s fair -(St Audrey = St Ethelreda).</p> - -<p><b>Varlet</b> once meant a serving-man. Valet is a doublet of <i>varlet</i>. -(From <i>vassaletus</i>, an inferior vassal.)</p> - -<p><b>Villain</b>, a farm-servant, a peasant; from Lat. <i>villanus</i>, a servant -on a <i>villa</i> or farm.</p></div> - -<h3><a name="sect-5-V" id="sect-5-V">5.</a> <b>WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS.</b></h3> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>Amazon</b>, the name of a nation of warlike women, who were said to cut -off their right breasts that they might use the bow. (From Gr. <i>a</i>, -without, and <i>mazos</i>, the breast.)</p> - -<p><b>Argosy</b>, from <i>Argo</i>, the name of a famous ship in which the Greek -warrior Jason sailed to seek the golden fleece, which was at -Colchis, on the eastern shore of the Black Sea.</p> - -<p><b>August</b> was named so in honour of the Roman Emperor Augustus -(Cæsar).</p> - -<p><b>Brougham</b>, after Lord Brougham, a famous English lawyer and -politician.</p> - -<p><b>Cravat</b>, named from the Croats (Crabats), the people of Croatia, in -Austria, from whom we derived the custom of wearing cravats.</p> - -<p><b>Dahlia</b>, from Dahl, a Swede, who introduced the flower into Europe.</p> - -<p><b>Dunce</b>, from Duns Scotus (d. 1308), the great schoolman whose name -was used as a term of reproach by his opponents, the followers of -the learned Thomas Aquinas.</p> - -<p><b>Filbert</b>, from St. Philibert, whose anniversary falls in the nutting -season.</p> - -<p><b>Friday</b>, from Freya, the wife of Odin; one of the Saxon goddesses.</p> - -<p><b>Galvanism</b>, from Galvani of Bologna, who discovered it. He died in -1798.</p> - -<p><b>Herculean</b>, very powerful; from Hercules, one of the Greek demigods, -who was very strong.</p> - -<p><b>Jacobite</b>, one of those who were favourable to the Stuarts; from -Jacobus II., the Latin name for James II.</p> - -<p><b>January</b>, from Janus, the god with two heads, who opened the year.</p> - -<p><b>Jeremiad</b>, a sorrowful story; from Jeremiah, who wrote the -<i>Lamentations</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Jovial</b>, cheerful; from Jove, the king of the ancient gods.</p> - -<p><b>July</b>, from Julius Cæsar, the great Roman statesman and general.</p> - -<p><b>Macadamise</b>, to pave a road with small cubical stones; from Macadam, -who invented this method of making roads. He died 1836.</p> - -<p><b>March</b>, from Mars, the Roman god of war.</p> - -<p><b>Martial</b>, from Mars, the Roman god of war.</p> - -<p><b>Mausoleum</b>, a magnificent tomb; from Mausolus, a king of Caria, in -Asia Minor, whose widow erected a splendid tomb to his memory.</p> - -<p><b>Mercury</b>, quicksilver; from Mercury, the light-footed messenger of -the gods who dwelt on Olympus.</p> - -<p><b>Panic</b>, from Pan, the god of shepherds,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_55" id="page_55"></a>{55}</span> who often appeared to them -suddenly and terrified them.</p> - -<p><b>Petrel</b>, a sea-bird; from Peter, who is said to have walked upon the -waters.</p> - -<p><b>Philippic</b>, a speech full of strongly passionate language; from -Philip, king of Macedon, against whom Demosthenes delivered some -fiery speeches of this kind.</p> - -<p><b>Saturday</b>, from Sæter, one of the old Saxon gods.</p> - -<p><b>Saturnine</b>, grave, severe; from Saturn, the father of the Roman -gods.</p> - -<p><b>Stentorian</b>, very loud; from Stentor, the name of a Greek herald, -who is mentioned by Homer, and who had a very loud voice.</p> - -<p><b>Tantalise</b>, from Tantalus, who is said to have been always thirsty -and up to his chin in water, which went out of his reach whenever -he tried to drink.</p> - -<p><b>Thursday</b>, from Thor, the Saxon god of thunder.</p> - -<p><b>Tuesday</b>, from Tiew, the Saxon god of war.</p> - -<p><b>Wednesday</b>, the day of Woden or Odin, the Saxon god of war. The <i>es</i> -is the old possessive form.</p></div> - -<h3><a name="sect-6-V" id="sect-6-V">6.</a> <b>WORDS DERIVED FROM NAMES OF PLACES.</b></h3> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>Academy</b>, a school; from Academia, the name of the gymnasium where -Plato, the Greek philosopher, taught his pupils.</p> - -<p><b>Attic</b>, an upper room; from Gr. <i>Attikos</i>, Athenian. In Athens the -houses are said to have been built with a low upper story.</p> - -<p><b>Bayonet</b>, a kind of dagger, from Bayonne, in France.</p> - -<p><b>Bedlam</b>, a lunatic asylum; from Bethlehem, a monastery in London, -which was afterwards used as a madhouse.</p> - -<p><b>Calico</b>, a kind of cotton cloth; from Calicut, in India.</p> - -<p><b>Cambric</b>, fine linen; from Cambray, in French Flanders.</p> - -<p><b>Canary</b>, a bird, and a kind of wine; from Canary Islands, whence -these things were brought.</p> - -<p><b>Canter</b>, from Canterbury. The pilgrims to this shrine are said to -have ridden at an easy pace.</p> - -<p><b>Cashmere</b>, <b>Cassimere</b>, or <b>Kerseymere</b>, a rich kind of woollen cloth; -from Cashmere, a province among the Himalayas, in the north of -India, noted for the manufacture of fine woollen fabrics.</p> - -<p><b>Cherry</b>, from Cerăsus, on the Black Sea, whence the fruit was -introduced into Europe.</p> - -<p><b>Copper</b>, a metal; from Cyprus, an island in the eastern part of the -Mediterranean.</p> - -<p><b>Currant</b>, from Corinth, in Greece, where these small dried grapes -were first produced.</p> - -<p><b>Damson</b>, <b>Damask</b>, from Damascus, in Syria.</p> - -<p><b>Dollar</b>, from St Joachim’s Thal or valley, in Bohemia. These coins -were first made there about 1518, and were called <i>thalers</i> or -<i>talers</i>: whence <i>dollars</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Florin</b>, a coin; from Florence, in Italy.</p> - -<p><b>Gin</b>, an alcoholic liquor; from Geneva, in Switzerland. (<b>Gin</b>, a -trap, is an abbreviation of <i>engine</i>.)</p> - -<p><b>Guinea</b>, a coin worth twenty-one shillings; from Guinea (or Gold -Coast) in Africa, whence the gold of which these coins were first -made was brought.</p> - -<p><b>Gypsy</b>, from Egypt, whence these people were supposed to have come. -They really came from India.</p> - -<p><b>Holland</b>, a kind of linen cloth; <b>Hollands</b>, a kind of gin; from -Holland.</p> - -<p><b>Indigo</b>, from India.</p> - -<p><b>Jersey</b>, a woollen jacket; from Jersey, one of the Channel Islands.</p> - -<p><b>Magnesia</b>, <b>Magnet</b>, from Magnesia, a town in Asia Minor.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_56" id="page_56"></a>{56}</span></p> - -<p><b>Mantua</b>, a lady’s gown; from Mantua, in Italy.</p> - -<p><b>Meander</b>, to wind about; from Mæander, a river in Asia Minor, which -had a very winding course.</p> - -<p><b>Milliner</b>, from Milan, in Italy.</p> - -<p><b>Morocco</b>, leather prepared in a certain way; from Morocco, in North -Africa.</p> - -<p><b>Nankeen</b>, a kind of cotton cloth; from Nankin, in China.</p> - -<p><b>Port</b>, a dark red wine; from Oporto, in Portugal, whence great -quantities of it are shipped.</p> - -<p><b>Sherry</b>, a light-coloured wine; from Xeres, in Spain.</p> - -<p><b>Spaniel</b>, a kind of dog; from Spain.</p> - -<p><b>Turkey</b>, a large domestic fowl; from Turkey, whence the bird was -supposed to have come.</p> - -<p><b>Worsted</b>, woollen yarn; from Worsted, the name of a village near -Norwich.</p></div> - -<h3><a name="sect-7-V" id="sect-7-V">7.</a> <b>ENGLISH (OR TEUTONIC) ROOTS.</b></h3> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>Ac</b>, an oak; acorn, Acton [oak-town], Uckfield.</p> - -<p><b>Æcer</b>, a field; acre, God’s acre [the churchyard].</p> - -<p><b>Æsc</b>, an ash; ash, Ascot, Ashby.</p> - -<p><b>Æthele</b>, noble; Atheling, Ethelbert, Ethelrede [noble in <i>rede</i> or -counsel].</p> - -<p><b>Bacan</b>, to bake; bake, baker, baxter [a woman baker], batch.</p> - -<p><b>Bana</b>, a slayer; bane, henbane, baneful.</p> - -<p><b>Beám</b>, a tree, or anything in a straight line; beam, sunbeam.</p> - -<p><b>Beorgan</b>, to save or shelter; bury, burgh, harbour, harbinger.</p> - -<p><b>Bigan</b> or <b>beogan</b>, to bend; bow, elbow, buxom.</p> - -<p><b>Bindan</b>, to bind; bind, band, bundle, bond, bandage.</p> - -<p><b>Blówan</b>, to blossom; blow, bloom.</p> - -<p><b>Brecan</b>, to break; break, breakers, breakfast.</p> - -<p><b>Cáld</b> or <b>ceald</b>, cold; cold, chill.</p> - -<p><b>Ceápian</b>, to buy; chapman, Cheapside, cheap, Chippenham, Copenhagen -[= Merchants’ Haven].</p> - -<p><b>Cunnan</b>, to know, to be able; can, con, cunning.</p> - -<p><b>Cwellan</b>, to slay; quell.</p> - -<p><b>Cwic</b>, alive; quick, quicksand.</p> - -<p><b>Cyning</b>, a king; king, Kingston.</p> - -<p><b>Dragan</b>, to drag; drag, draw, dray, draught, dredge, draggle.</p> - -<p><b>Drypan</b>, to drop; drop, drip, dribble.</p> - -<p><b>Eáge</b>, an eye; eye, eyebright, daisy [= day’s eye].</p> - -<p><b>Erian</b>, to plough; ear.</p> - -<p><b>Faran</b>, to go; fare, ferry, wayfarer, fieldfare, ford.</p> - -<p><b>Fleógan</b>, to flee; flee, fly, flight, fledge.</p> - -<p><b>Fleótan</b>, to float; float, fleet.</p> - -<p><b>Fod</b>, food; feed, fodder, foster [= foodster].</p> - -<p><b>Gangan</b>, to go; go, gang, gait, gangway.</p> - -<p><b>Geard</b>, an inclosure; yard, orchard, vineyard.</p> - -<p><b>Gód</b>, good; good, goodwife.</p> - -<p><b>Grafan</b>, to dig; grave, engraver, groove, grove.</p> - -<p><b>Hál</b>, sound; hale, heal, healthy, whole, wholesome.</p> - -<p><b>Healdan</b>, to hold; hold, holding, behold.</p> - -<p><b>Here</b>, an army; harbour, herring, harbinger [a person sent on before -to provide quarters for a <i>here</i> or army].</p> - -<p><b>Hláf</b>, a loaf; lady, lord, Lammas (loaf-mass).</p> - -<p><b>Hús</b>, a house; house, housewife.</p> - -<p><b>Lædan</b>, to lead; loadstone, loadstar.</p> - -<p><b>Læt</b>, late; late, latter, last, later, belate.</p> - -<p><b>Lang</b>, long; long, length, along, linger.</p> - -<p><b>Lif</b>, life; life, alive.</p> - -<p><b>Mere</b>, a lake; mere, Windermere, marsh.</p> - -<p><b>Móna</b>, the moon; moon, month.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_57" id="page_57"></a>{57}</span></p> - -<p><b>Nosu</b>, or <b>nasu</b>, a nose; nose, the Naze, Ness, nostril, Sheerness.</p> - -<p><b>Rædan</b>, to read; read, rede, riddle.</p> - -<p><b>Reáfian</b>, to rob; rob, bereave, rover.</p> - -<p><b>Scíran</b>, to cut; shear, share, shire, shore, short, skirt, -ploughshare.</p> - -<p><b>Settan</b>, to place; <b>sittan</b>, to sit; sit, set, seat, settle.</p> - -<p><b>Spell</b>, a message; gospel [= good spell].</p> - -<p><b>Stede</b>, a place; homestead, bedstead.</p> - -<p><b>Stelan</b>, to steal; steal, stealth.</p> - -<p><b>Stow</b>, a place; Chepstow, bestow.</p> - -<p><b>Tellan</b>, to reckon; tell, tale, tell-tale.</p> - -<p><b>Thyrel</b>, a hole; thrill, nostril, drill.</p> - -<p><b>Tredan</b>, to tread; tread, treadle.</p> - -<p><b>Wácian</b>, to watch; wake, watch.</p> - -<p><b>Ward</b>, a looker at or guard; ward, warden, weir.</p> - -<p><b>Witan</b>, to know; wit, witness, wisdom, wistful.</p> - -<p><b>Wyrcan</b>, to work; work, wright.</p> - -<p><b>Wyrt</b>, an herb; wort, wart, orchard [wort-yard].</p></div> - -<h3><a name="sect-8-V" id="sect-8-V">8.</a> <b>LATIN ROOTS.</b></h3> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>Acer</b>, sharp; acrid, acrimony, vinegar [= sharp wine].</p> - -<p><b>Acidus</b>, sour; acid, acidity.</p> - -<p><b>Ædes</b>, a house; edifice, edify.</p> - -<p><b>Æquus</b>, equal; equality, equator, adequate, iniquity, equanimity.</p> - -<p><b>Æstimo</b>, I value; estimation, estimate, esteem.</p> - -<p><b>Ager</b>, a field; agriculture, peregrinate.</p> - -<p><b>Agger</b>, a heap; exaggerate.</p> - -<p><b>Ago</b>, I do; act, agile, agency, cogent.</p> - -<p><b>Alacer</b>, cheerful; alacrity.</p> - -<p><b>Alo</b>, I nourish; aliment, alimony.</p> - -<p><b>Alter</b>, the other of two; alternation, subaltern.</p> - -<p><b>Altus</b>, high; altitude, exalt.</p> - -<p><b>Ambulo</b>, I walk; amble, perambulator.</p> - -<p><b>Amo</b>, I love; amity, amorous, inimical.</p> - -<p><b>Anima</b>, the soul; animation, inanimate.</p> - -<p><b>Animus</b>, the mind; magnanimity.</p> - -<p><b>Annus</b>, a circle or year; annual, perennial.</p> - -<p><b>Aperio</b>, I open; aperient, April [the opening month, the month of -spring when the buds open out].</p> - -<p><b>Appello</b>, I call; appeal, appellation.</p> - -<p><b>Aptus</b>, fit; apt, aptitude.</p> - -<p><b>Aqua</b>, water; aqueduct, aquatic, aqueous.</p> - -<p><b>Arbiter</b>, a judge; arbitration, arbitrary.</p> - -<p><b>Arbor</b>, a tree; arboraceous, arbour.</p> - -<p><b>Ardeo</b>, I burn; ardent, arson.</p> - -<p><b>Arduus</b>, steep [with the idea of difficulty of attainment]; arduous.</p> - -<p><b>Arma</b>, weapons; arms, armistice, disarm, army.</p> - -<p><b>Aro</b>, I plough; arable.</p> - -<p><b>Ars</b> (<b>art</b>-is), art; artificial, inertia, artisan.</p> - -<p><b>Artus</b>, a joint; articulate, article.</p> - -<p><b>Audio</b>, I hear; audience, audible.</p> - -<p><b>Augeo</b>, I increase: augment, auctioneer.</p> - -<p><b>Avis</b>, a bird; aviary.</p> - -<p><b>Barba</b>, a beard; barber, barbel, barb.</p> - -<p><b>Bellum</b>, war; bellicose, belligerent, rebellious.</p> - -<p><b>Bibo</b>, I drink; imbibe, winebibber.</p> - -<p><b>Bis</b>, twice; biscuit, bissextile.</p> - -<p><b>Bonus</b>, good; benevolent, bounty.</p> - -<p><b>Brevis</b>, short; brevity, abbreviate, brief.</p> - -<p><b>Cado</b> (<b>cas</b>-um), I fall; casual, accident.</p> - -<p><b>Cædo</b> (<b>cæs</b>-um), I cut or kill; precise, excision, decide.</p> - -<p><b>Campus</b>, a plain; camp, encamp.</p> - -<p><b>Candeo</b>, I shine; <b>candidus</b>, white, incandescent, candidate.</p> - -<p><b>Cano</b>, I sing; canticle, chant, incantation.</p> - -<p><b>Capio</b> (<b>capt</b>-um), I take; captive, accept, reception.</p> - -<p><b>Caput</b>, the head; capital, captain.</p> - -<p><b>Caro</b> (<b>carn</b>-is), flesh; carnal, carnival, carnivorous.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_58" id="page_58"></a>{58}</span></p> - -<p><b>Castus</b>, pure; chastity, castigate, chastise.</p> - -<p><b>Causa</b>, a cause; accuse, causation.</p> - -<p><b>Caveo</b> (<b>caut</b>-um), I take care; caution, cautious.</p> - -<p><b>Cavus</b>, hollow; cavity, cave, excavate.</p> - -<p><b>Cedo</b> (<b>cess</b>-um), I yield; cede, accede, proceed. I go; procession, -ancestor.</p> - -<p><b>Centum</b>, a hundred; century, centurion.</p> - -<p><b>Cerno</b> (<b>cret</b>-um), I notice or discern; discern, decretal, -discretion.</p> - -<p><b>Cingo</b> (<b>cinct</b>-um), I gird; cincture, succinct.</p> - -<p><b>Cito</b>, I rouse; excite, citation.</p> - -<p><b>Civis</b>, a citizen; civic, civil, city.</p> - -<p><b>Clamo</b>, I shout; clamour, proclamation, reclaim.</p> - -<p><b>Clarus</b>, clear; clarify, declare, clarion.</p> - -<p><b>Claudo</b> (<b>claus</b>-um), I shut; close, exclude, seclusion.</p> - -<p><b>Clivus</b>, a slope; declivity.</p> - -<p><b>Colo</b> (<b>cult</b>-um), I till; cultivate, arboriculture.</p> - -<p><b>Copia</b>, plenty; copious, cornucopia.</p> - -<p><b>Coquo</b> (<b>coct</b>-um), I boil; decoction, biscuit.</p> - -<p><b>Cor</b> (<b>cord</b>-is), the heart; courage, cordial, discord.</p> - -<p><b>Corpus</b> (<b>corpor</b>-is), the body; corpse, corps, incorporate.</p> - -<p><b>Credo</b>, I believe; credibility, credence, miscreant.</p> - -<p><b>Creo</b>, I create; create, creation, creature, recreation.</p> - -<p><b>Cresco</b> (<b>cret</b>-um), I grow; crescent, increment.</p> - -<p><b>Crimen</b>, a charge; crime, criminate.</p> - -<p><b>Crux</b> (<b>cruc</b>-is), a cross; crucial, crucifix.</p> - -<p><b>Cubo</b>, I lie down; incubate, recumbent.</p> - -<p><b>Culpa</b>, a fault; culpable, exculpate, culprit.</p> - -<p><b>Cura</b>, care; sinecure, curate, secure, accurate.</p> - -<p><b>Curro</b> (<b>curs</b>-um), I run; cursory, course, recur, occur.</p> - -<p><b>Decem</b>, ten; decimal, December.</p> - -<p><b>Dens</b> (<b>dent</b>-is), a tooth; dentist, dental, indent.</p> - -<p><b>Deus</b>, a god; deity, deify, divine.</p> - -<p><b>Dexter</b>, right hand; dexterous.</p> - -<p><b>Dico</b> (<b>dict</b>-um), I say; verdict, dictation, dictionary, indictment.</p> - -<p><b>Dies</b>, a day; diary, meridian.</p> - -<p><b>Dignus</b>, worthy; dignity, indignant.</p> - -<p><b>Do</b> (<b>dat</b>-um), I give; donor, add [= <i>ad-do</i>, I give to], data.</p> - -<p><b>Doceo</b> (<b>doct</b>-um), I teach; docile, doctor.</p> - -<p><b>Dominus</b>, a lord; dominant, dominion, dame.</p> - -<p><b>Domus</b>, a house; domicile, domestic.</p> - -<p><b>Dormio</b>, I sleep; dormitory, dormant.</p> - -<p><b>Duco</b> (<b>duct</b>-um), I lead; induct, education, duke, produce.</p> - -<p><b>Duo</b>, two; dual, duel, (double), duplex.</p> - -<p><b>Durus</b>, hard; durable, obdurate, duration.</p> - -<p><b>Emo</b> (<b>empt</b>-um), I buy; redeem, exemption.</p> - -<p><b>Eo</b> (<b>it</b>-um), I go; exit, transit, circuit, ambition.</p> - -<p><b>Equus</b>, a horse; equine, equestrian.</p> - -<p><b>Erro</b>, I wander; error, aberration.</p> - -<p><b>Esse</b>, to be; essential, essence.</p> - -<p><b>Facies</b>, the face; facial, facet, superficial.</p> - -<p><b>Facilis</b>, easy; facile, facility, difficult.</p> - -<p><b>Facio</b> (<b>fact</b>-um), I make; manufacture, factor, faction.</p> - -<p><b>Fallo</b> (<b>fals</b>-um), I deceive; false, infallible, fallacious.</p> - -<p><b>Fama</b>, a report; fame, defame, infamy.</p> - -<p><b>Fans</b> (<b>fant</b>-is), speaking; infant [= a non-speaker].</p> - -<p><b>Felix</b> (<b>felīc</b>-is), happy; felicity, infelicity.</p> - -<p><b>Fero</b>, I bear or carry; infer, reference, difference.</p> - -<p><b>Ferrum</b>, iron; ferruginous.</p> - -<p><b>Ferveo</b>, I boil; fervent, effervesce, ferment.</p> - -<p><b>Fido</b>, I trust; confide, infidel, perfidy, diffident.</p> - -<p><b>Filius</b>, a son; filial, affiliation.</p> - -<p><b>Filum</b>, a thread; file, defile, profile.</p> - -<p><b>Finis</b>, an end; final, infinite, confine.</p> - -<p><b>Firmus</b>, firm; infirm, affirm.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_59" id="page_59"></a>{59}</span></p> - -<p><b>Flecto</b>, I bend; flexible, inflection.</p> - -<p><b>Flos</b> (<b>flōr</b>-is), a flower; floral, Flora, floriculture.</p> - -<p><b>Fluo</b> (<b>fluct</b>-um), I flow; fluent, flux, refluent, fluid.</p> - -<p><b>Forma</b>, a form; form, formal, reform, conformity.</p> - -<p><b>Fortis</b>, strong; fortify, fortitude, fortress.</p> - -<p><b>Frango</b> (<b>fract</b>-um), I break; fragile, fragmentary, infraction.</p> - -<p><b>Frater</b>, a brother; fraternal, fratricide.</p> - -<p><b>Frons</b> (<b>front</b>-is), the forehead; frontispiece, frontal, frontier.</p> - -<p><b>Fruor</b> (<b>fruct</b>-us), I enjoy; fruit, fructify, fruition.</p> - -<p><b>Fugio</b>, I flee; fugitive, refugee, subterfuge.</p> - -<p><b>Fundo</b> (<b>fus</b>-um), I pour; fusible, diffusion, foundry.</p> - -<p><b>Fundus</b>, the bottom; foundation, profound.</p> - -<p><b>Furor</b>, madness; furious, fury.</p> - -<p><b>Gelu</b>, frost; gelid, jelly, congeal.</p> - -<p><b>Gens</b> (<b>gent</b>-is), a nation; gentile, genteel, gentle, congenial.</p> - -<p><b>Genus</b> (<b>genĕr</b>-is), a kind; general, genus.</p> - -<p><b>Gero</b> (<b>gest</b>-um), I bear or carry; gesture, suggestion.</p> - -<p><b>Gradior</b> (<b>gress</b>-us), I go; <b>gradus</b>, a step; degrade, progress, -degree.</p> - -<p><b>Grandis</b>, great; grand, aggrandise.</p> - -<p><b>Gratia</b>, favour; <b>gratiæ</b>, thanks; gratitude, ingratiate, gratis.</p> - -<p><b>Gravis</b>, heavy; gravitate, gravity, (grief).</p> - -<p><b>Grex</b> (<b>greg</b>-is), a flock; gregarious, egregious.</p> - -<p><b>Habeo</b>, I have; habit, able, exhibit, prohibition.</p> - -<p><b>Hæreo</b> (<b>hæs</b>-um), I stick; adhere, cohesion.</p> - -<p><b>Homo</b>, a man; homicide, human.</p> - -<p><b>Hospes</b> (<b>hospit</b>-is), a guest; hospital, hostel, hotel.</p> - -<p><b>Hostis</b>, an enemy; host, hostile.</p> - -<p><b>Humus</b>, the ground; posthumous, exhume.</p> - -<p><b>Ignis</b>, fire; ignite, igneous.</p> - -<p><b>Impero</b>, I command; imperial, emperor, empire.</p> - -<p><b>Insula</b>, an island; isle, insular, peninsula, insulate. [<i>Island</i> is -not connected with this root. It was in older English spelled -<i>iland</i>.]</p> - -<p><b>Iter</b> (<b>itiner</b>-is), a journey; itinerant.</p> - -<p><b>Jacio</b> (<b>jact</b>-um), I throw; adjective, project, injection.</p> - -<p><b>Judex</b> (<b>judĭc</b>-is); (adjudge), judicial.</p> - -<p><b>Jungo</b> (<b>junct</b>-um), I join; junction, conjoin, juncture.</p> - -<p><b>Jus</b> (<b>jur</b>-is), law, right; justice, jurisdiction, jury.</p> - -<p><b>Labor</b> (<b>laps</b>-us), I glide; lapse, collapse.</p> - -<p><b>Lædo</b> (<b>læs</b>-um), I injure; collision, lesion.</p> - -<p><b>Lapis</b> (<b>lapĭd</b>-is), a stone; lapidary.</p> - -<p><b>Latus</b>, broad; latitude.</p> - -<p><b>Laus</b> (<b>laud</b>-is), praise; laud, laudable.</p> - -<p><b>Lego</b> (<b>lect</b>-um), I gather or read; college, collect, prelection, -lecture.</p> - -<p><b>Lĕvis</b>, light; levity, alleviate, relief.</p> - -<p><b>Lex</b> (<b>lēg</b>-is), law; legal, legislate.</p> - -<p><b>Liber</b>, free; liberal, liberty.</p> - -<p><b>Libra</b>, a balance; deliberate.</p> - -<p><b>Ligo</b>, I bind; ligament, religion.</p> - -<p><b>Limes</b> (<b>limit</b>-is), a boundary; limit.</p> - -<p><b>Linquo</b> (<b>lict</b>-um), I leave; relinquish, relict, relics.</p> - -<p><b>Litera</b>, a letter; literature, literary, letters, obliterate.</p> - -<p><b>Locus</b>, a place; location, dislocate.</p> - -<p><b>Longus</b>, long; elongate, longitude.</p> - -<p><b>Loquor</b> (<b>locūt</b>-us), I speak; loquacious, eloquent, elocution.</p> - -<p><b>Ludo</b> (<b>lus</b>-um), I play; ludicrous, allusion.</p> - -<p><b>Lumen</b> (<b>lumin</b>-is), light; illuminate, luminous.</p> - -<p><b>Luna</b>, the moon; Luna, sublunary, lunacy.</p> - -<p><b>Luo</b>, I wash; ablution, dilute.</p> - -<p><b>Lux</b> (<b>luc</b>-is), light; lucid, pellucid.</p> - -<p><b>Magister</b>, a master; magistrate, master.</p> - -<p><b>Magnus</b>, great; magnificent, magniloquent, magnify.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_60" id="page_60"></a>{60}</span></p> - -<p><b>Malus</b>, bad; malady, malice, maltreat.</p> - -<p><b>Maneo</b> (<b>mans</b>-um), I remain; mansion, permanent.</p> - -<p><b>Manus</b>, the hand; manufacture, manual, manuscript.</p> - -<p><b>Mare</b>, the sea; marine, mariner.</p> - -<p><b>Mater</b>, a mother; maternal, matricide.</p> - -<p><b>Maturus</b>, ripe; mature, maturity.</p> - -<p><b>Medeor</b>, I heal; medicine, remedy.</p> - -<p><b>Medius</b>, the middle; medial, immediate, Mediterranean.</p> - -<p><b>Memini</b>, I remember; <b>memor</b>, mindful; memorable, commemorate, -memento, immemorial.</p> - -<p><b>Mens</b> (<b>ment</b>-is), the mind; mental, comment.</p> - -<p><b>Mereo</b> (<b>merit</b>-um), I deserve; merit, meretricious.</p> - -<p><b>Mergo</b> (<b>mers</b>-um), I dip; submerge, immersion.</p> - -<p><b>Merx</b> (<b>merc</b>-is), goods; merchant, commerce, mercantile.</p> - -<p><b>Miles</b> (<b>milĭt</b>-is), a soldier; military, militant, militia.</p> - -<p><b>Mille</b>, a thousand; mile, million.</p> - -<p><b>Miror</b>, I admire; admire, miracle, mirage.</p> - -<p><b>Misceo</b>, I mix; miscellaneous, promiscuous.</p> - -<p><b>Mitto</b> (<b>miss</b>-um), I send; mission, missile, remittance.</p> - -<p><b>Mŏdus</b>, a measure; modify, mood, accommodate.</p> - -<p><b>Mollis</b>, soft; mollify, emollient.</p> - -<p><b>Moneo</b> (<b>monĭt</b>-um), I advise; admonition, monitor.</p> - -<p><b>Mons</b> (<b>mont</b>-is), a mountain; mountain, promontory.</p> - -<p><b>Monstro</b>, I point out; demonstrate.</p> - -<p><b>Mors</b> (<b>mort</b>-is), death; mortify, mortal.</p> - -<p><b>Moveo</b> (<b>mot</b>-um), I move; motion, movable, move.</p> - -<p><b>Multus</b>, many; multiplex, multitude.</p> - -<p><b>Munus</b> (<b>munĕr</b>-is), a gift; remunerate, munificent.</p> - -<p><b>Muto</b>, I change; mutable, immutable, transmute.</p> - -<p><b>Nascor</b> (<b>nat</b>-us), to be born; nascent, natal, nativity.</p> - -<p><b>Navis</b>, a ship; navigate, naval, navy.</p> - -<p><b>Necto</b> (<b>nex</b>-us), I tie; connect, nexus, annex.</p> - -<p><b>Nego</b>, I deny; negative, negation.</p> - -<p><b>Noceo</b>, I hurt; noxious, innocuous, innocent.</p> - -<p><b>Nomen</b> (<b>nomĭn</b>-is), a name; nominal, nomination, cognomen.</p> - -<p><b>Nosco</b> (<b>not</b>-um), I know or mark; note, notation.</p> - -<p><b>Novus</b>, new; novel, novitiate, innovation.</p> - -<p><b>Nox</b> (<b>noct</b>-is), night; nocturnal, equinoctial.</p> - -<p><b>Nudus</b>, naked; nude, denudation.</p> - -<p><b>Numero</b>, I number; enumerate, numeration.</p> - -<p><b>Nuntio</b>, I announce; nuncio, annunciation, pronounce.</p> - -<p><b>Nutrio</b>, I nourish; nutriment, nurse.</p> - -<p><b>Octo</b>, eight; octave, octagon, October.</p> - -<p><b>Oculus</b>, the eye; oculist.</p> - -<p><b>Odor</b>, smell; odour, redolent.</p> - -<p><b>Omnis</b>, all; omnipotent, omniscient.</p> - -<p><b>Onus</b> (<b>onĕr</b>-is), a burden; onerous.</p> - -<p><b>Opus</b> (<b>opĕr</b>-is), a work; operate, operation.</p> - -<p><b>Ordo</b> (<b>ordĭn</b>-is), order; ordinal, ordinary.</p> - -<p><b>Oro</b>, I pray; oration, inexorable, peroration.</p> - -<p><b>Os</b> (<b>ōr</b>-is), the mouth; oral, adore.</p> - -<p><b>Os</b> (<b>Oss</b>-is), bone; ossify, ossification.</p> - -<p><b>Pando</b> (<b>pans</b>-um or <b>pass</b>-um), I spread; expand, expanse, compass.</p> - -<p><b>Pango</b> (<b>pact</b>-um), I fix; compact, impinge.</p> - -<p><b>Panis</b>, bread; pantry, pannier, company.</p> - -<p><b>Par</b>, equal; (pair), par, parity.</p> - -<p><b>Pareo</b>, I appear; apparent, apparition.</p> - -<p><b>Paro</b> (<b>parat</b>-um), I prepare; prepare, repair, apparatus.</p> - -<p><b>Pars</b> (<b>part</b>-is), a part; partition, particle.</p> - -<p><b>Pasco</b> (<b>past</b>-um), I feed; repast, pastor.</p> - -<p><b>Pater</b>, a father; paternal, patricide.</p> - -<p><b>Patior</b> (<b>pass</b>-us), I suffer; impatient, passion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_61" id="page_61"></a>{61}</span></p> - -<p><b>Pauper</b>, poor; pauper, poverty.</p> - -<p><b>Pax</b> (<b>pāc</b>-is), peace; pacify, pacific.</p> - -<p><b>Pello</b> (<b>puls</b>-um), I drive; repel, expel, expulsion.</p> - -<p><b>Pendeo</b> (<b>pens</b>-um), I hang; dependent, suspend.</p> - -<p><b>Pendo</b>, I weigh out, hence, I pay; expend, recompense.</p> - -<p><b>Pes</b> (<b>pĕd</b>-is), the foot; impede, pedestrian, biped.</p> - -<p><b>Peto</b> (<b>petīt</b>-um), I seek; petition, petulant.</p> - -<p><b>Pingo</b> (<b>pict</b>-um), I paint; picture, pigment.</p> - -<p><b>Placeo</b>, I please; placid, complacent.</p> - -<p><b>Planus</b>, level; plane, plain, plan.</p> - -<p><b>Plaudo</b> (<b>plaus</b>-um), I clap the hands; applause, (explode).</p> - -<p><b>Plecto</b> (<b>plex</b>-um), I weave; complex, perplex.</p> - -<p><b>Pleo</b> (<b>plēt</b>-um), I fill; complete, completion, repletion.</p> - -<p><b>Plĭco</b>, I fold; complicate, reply.</p> - -<p><b>Plus</b> (<b>plūr</b>-is), more; plurality, surplus.</p> - -<p><b>Pœna</b>, punishment; penalty, repent.</p> - -<p><b>Pondus</b> (<b>pondĕr</b>-is), weight; ponderous, pound.</p> - -<p><b>Pono</b> (<b>posĭt</b>-um), I place; disposition, exposition, imposition.</p> - -<p><b>Pons</b> (<b>pont</b>-is), a bridge; pontiff, transpontine.</p> - -<p><b>Popŭlus</b>, the people; populace, popular.</p> - -<p><b>Porto</b>, I carry; export, deportation, report.</p> - -<p><b>Possum</b>, I am able; <b>potens</b>, able; possible, potency, potentate, -impotent.</p> - -<p><b>Poto</b>, I drink; potion, poison, potable.</p> - -<p><b>Prĕcor</b>, I pray; precarious, imprecation.</p> - -<p><b>Prehendo</b>, I take; apprehend, comprehension, apprentice.</p> - -<p><b>Premo</b> (<b>press</b>-um), I press; compress, print.</p> - -<p><b>Pretium</b>, a price; precious, appreciate, prize.</p> - -<p><b>Primus</b>, first; prime, primitive, primrose.</p> - -<p><b>Prīvo</b>, I separate; deprive, privateer, private.</p> - -<p><b>Probo</b>, I try or prove; probable, prove, reproof.</p> - -<p><b>Proprius</b>, one’s own; property, appropriation.</p> - -<p><b>Pugna</b>, a fight; pugnacious, repugnant.</p> - -<p><b>Pungo</b> (<b>punct</b>-um), I prick; pungent, poignant, punctual.</p> - -<p><b>Puto</b>, I cut or think; amputate, compute, reputation.</p> - -<p><b>Quæro</b> (<b>quæsīt</b>-um), I seek; quest, inquiry, inquisition.</p> - -<p><b>Quatuor</b>, four; quadrilateral, square, quarry, quart, quadrant.</p> - -<p><b>Quies</b> (<b>quiēt</b>-is), rest; acquiesce, quiet, requite.</p> - -<p><b>Radius</b>, a ray; radiant, irradiate, (ray).</p> - -<p><b>Radix</b> (<b>radic</b>-is), a root; radical, eradicate.</p> - -<p><b>Rapio</b> (<b>rapt</b>-um), I seize; rapture, rapine, surreptitious.</p> - -<p><b>Ratio</b>, reason; rational, ration, reason.</p> - -<p><b>Rego</b> (<b>rect</b>-um), I rule; regiment, regal, regulate, rector, rectify.</p> - -<p><b>Res</b> (<b>re</b>-i), a thing; real, reality, republican.</p> - -<p><b>Rex</b> (<b>reg</b>-is), a king; regal, interregnum, royal.</p> - -<p><b>Rideo</b> (<b>rīs</b>-um), I laugh; deride, derision.</p> - -<p><b>Rivus</b>, a brook; river, rival.</p> - -<p><b>Rodo</b> (<b>ros</b>-um), I gnaw; erosion, corrode.</p> - -<p><b>Rogo</b>, I ask; derogatory, interrogation, arrogate.</p> - -<p><b>Rota</b>, a wheel; rote, rotation, rotund, round.</p> - -<p><b>Rumpo</b> (<b>rupt</b>-um), I break; rupture, disruption, irruption, eruption.</p> - -<p><b>Rus</b> (<b>rūr</b>-is), the country; rural, rustic.</p> - -<p><b>Sacer</b>, sacred; desecrate, sacrilege.</p> - -<p><b>Sal</b>, salt; saline, salary [= salt-money].</p> - -<p><b>Salio</b> (<b>salt</b>-um), I leap; sally, assail, assault, insult, salmon [= -the <i>leaping</i> fish], salient.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_62" id="page_62"></a>{62}</span></p> - -<p><b>Salus</b> (<b>salūt</b>-is), health; <b>salvus</b>, safe; salutary, salubrious, -salvation.</p> - -<p><b>Sanctus</b>, holy; sanctify, saint</p> - -<p><b>Sanguis</b> (<b>sanguin</b>-is), blood; sanguinary.</p> - -<p><b>Sano</b> (<b>sanāt</b>-um), I cure; sanitary, sane, insane.</p> - -<p><b>Sapio</b>, I taste or am wise; sapient, insipid, savour.</p> - -<p><b>Scando</b> (<b>scans</b>-um), I climb; <b>scala</b>, a ladder; scan, scale, -ascension, descend.</p> - -<p><b>Scio</b>, I know; science, scientific, conscience, omniscient.</p> - -<p><b>Scribo</b> (<b>script</b>-um), I write; scribe, scripture, manuscript, -describe.</p> - -<p><b>Seco</b> (<b>sect</b>-um), I cut; dissect, insect, segment, section.</p> - -<p><b>Sedeo</b> (<b>sess</b>-um), I set; sediment, subside, residence.</p> - -<p><b>Senex</b>, an old man; senile, senior, senate, senator.</p> - -<p><b>Sentio</b> (<b>sens</b>-us), I feel or perceive; sense, sentimental.</p> - -<p><b>Septem</b>, seven; septennial, September.</p> - -<p><b>Sequor</b> (<b>secūt</b>-us), I follow; sequel, consecutive, consequent.</p> - -<p><b>Servio</b>, I serve; servant, service, servitor.</p> - -<p><b>Servo</b>, I preserve; reserve, conservative, conservatory.</p> - -<p><b>Signum</b>, a mark; sign, signify, designation.</p> - -<p><b>Simĭlis</b>, like; dissimilar, similitude, resemble, dissemble.</p> - -<p><b>Sisto</b>, I stop; insist, consistency.</p> - -<p><b>Solus</b>, alone; solitary, sole.</p> - -<p><b>Solvo</b> (<b>solūt</b>-um), I loose; absolute, resolve, solution, resolution.</p> - -<p><b>Somnus</b>, sleep; somnolent, somnambulist.</p> - -<p><b>Specio</b> (<b>spect</b>-um) I see; aspect, retrospect, specious.</p> - -<p><b>Spero</b>, I hope; despair, desperate.</p> - -<p><b>Spiro</b>, I breathe; spiral, aspire, inspiration, conspiracy.</p> - -<p><b>Spondeo</b> (<b>spons</b>-um), I promise; respond, sponsor, (spouse).</p> - -<p><b>Statuo</b>, I set up; <b>sto</b> (<b>stat</b>-um), to stand; statute, statue, -institute, restitution, extant, substance.</p> - -<p><b>Stella</b>, a star; stellar, constellation.</p> - -<p><b>Stringo</b> (<b>strict</b>-um), I bind; stringent, stricture, constrain.</p> - -<p><b>Struo</b> (<b>struct</b>-um), I build; structure, (construe, destroy), -destruction.</p> - -<p><b>Suadeo</b> (<b>suas</b>-um), I persuade; persuasion, dissuade.</p> - -<p><b>Sumo</b> (<b>sumpt</b>-um), I take; resume, consumption.</p> - -<p><b>Surgo</b> (<b>surrect</b>-um), I arise; insurgent, resurrection.</p> - -<p><b>Taceo</b>, I am silent; tacit, taciturn.</p> - -<p><b>Tango</b> (<b>tact</b>-um), I touch; intangible, contact, contagious.</p> - -<p><b>Tego</b> (<b>tect</b>-um), I cover; integument, detect.</p> - -<p><b>Tempus</b> (<b>tempŏr</b>-is), time; temporal, tense.</p> - -<p><b>Tendo</b> (<b>tens</b>-um), I stretch; extend, intension, tent, tense.</p> - -<p><b>Teneo</b> (<b>tent</b>-um), I hold; contain, tenacious, retentive.</p> - -<p><b>Terminus</b>, an end or boundary; term, terminus, determine.</p> - -<p><b>Tero</b> (<b>trīt</b>-um), I rub; contrition, trite, detritus.</p> - -<p><b>Terra</b>, the earth; subterranean, Mediterranean.</p> - -<p><b>Terreo</b>, I frighten; terror, terrify.</p> - -<p><b>Testis</b>, a witness; testator, testify, contest.</p> - -<p><b>Texo</b> (<b>text</b>-um), I weave; texture, context, textile.</p> - -<p><b>Timeo</b>, I fear; timid, intimidation.</p> - -<p><b>Tono</b>, I thunder; astonish, detonate.</p> - -<p><b>Torqueo</b> (<b>tort</b>-um), I twist; torture, torsion.</p> - -<p><b>Traho</b> (<b>tract</b>-um), I draw; contractile.</p> - -<p><b>Tribuo</b>, I give; tribute, contribution.</p> - -<p><b>Tribus</b>, a tribe; tribe, tribune, tribunal.</p> - -<p><b>Trudo</b> (<b>trus</b>-um), I thrust; extrusion, intrude.</p> - -<p><b>Turba</b>, a crowd; turbid, turbulent.</p> - -<p><b>Umbra</b>, a shadow; umbrage, adumbration.</p> - -<p><b>Unda</b>, a wave; undulate, inundation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_63" id="page_63"></a>{63}</span></p> - -<p><b>Unguo</b> (<b>unct</b>-um), I anoint; unguent, unctuous, ointment.</p> - -<p><b>Unus</b>, one; unity, union.</p> - -<p><b>Urbs</b>, a city; urban, suburb.</p> - -<p><b>Utor</b> (<b>us</b>-us), I use; use, utensil, usury.</p> - -<p><b>Vacca</b>, a cow; vaccinate.</p> - -<p><b>Valeo</b>, I am strong; valour, valiant, prevail.</p> - -<p><b>Vanus</b>, empty; vain, vanish, vanity.</p> - -<p><b>Vas</b> (<b>vās</b>-is), a vessel; vase, vascular, vessel.</p> - -<p><b>Veho</b> (<b>vect</b>-um), I carry; vehicle, convey.</p> - -<p><b>Vello</b> (<b>vuls</b>-um), I pluck; convulsion.</p> - -<p><b>Venio</b> (<b>vent</b>-um), I come; venture, advent.</p> - -<p><b>Ver</b>, the spring; verdant, vernal, verdure.</p> - -<p><b>Verbum</b>, a word; verb, verbal, verbose, proverb.</p> - -<p><b>Verto</b> (<b>vers</b>-um), I turn; controvert, aversion.</p> - -<p><b>Verus</b>, true; verdict, veracious, verity.</p> - -<p><b>Vestis</b>, a garment; invest, vesture.</p> - -<p><b>Vetus</b> (<b>vetĕr</b>-is), old; veteran.</p> - -<p><b>Via</b>, a way; deviate, previous.</p> - -<p><b>Video</b> (<b>vĭs</b>-um), I see; vision, provident.</p> - -<p><b>Vinco</b> (<b>vict</b>-um), I overcome; victor, victory, convince.</p> - -<p><b>Vir</b>, a man; virtue, virile.</p> - -<p><b>Vita</b>, life; vital, vitality.</p> - -<p><b>Vitium</b>, a fault; vitiate, vicious, vice.</p> - -<p><b>Vivo</b> (<b>vict</b>-um), I live; survive, victuals.</p> - -<p><b>Voco</b>, I call; <b>vox</b> (<b>vōc</b>-is), the voice; voice, convocation, revoke, -vociferate.</p> - -<p><b>Volo</b>, I fly; volatile, volley.</p> - -<p><b>Volo</b>, I wish; involuntary, volition, benevolence, malevolence.</p> - -<p><b>Volvo</b> (<b>volūt</b>-um), I roll; involution, evolve, volume.</p> - -<p><b>Voveo</b> (<b>vot</b>-um), I vow; vow, devote.</p> - -<p><b>Vulgus</b>, the common people; vulgar, divulge.</p> - -<p><b>Vulnus</b> (<b>vulnĕr</b>-is), a wound; vulnerable.</p></div> - -<h3><a name="sect-9-V" id="sect-9-V">9.</a> <b>GREEK ROOTS.</b></h3> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>Ago</b>, I lead; pedagogue, synagogue.</p> - -<p><b>Agōn</b>, a contest; agony, antagonist.</p> - -<p><b>Allos</b>, another; allopathy, allegory.</p> - -<p><b>Anggelos</b>, a messenger; angel, evangelist.</p> - -<p><b>Anthrōpos</b>, a man; misanthrope, philanthropy.</p> - -<p><b>Archo</b>, I begin or rule; monarch, archaic [= early]; archbishop, -archdeacon.</p> - -<p><b>Arctos</b>, a bear; Arctic, Antarctic, Arcturus.</p> - -<p><b>Arithmos</b>, number; arithmetic.</p> - -<p><b>Aster</b> or <b>astron</b>, a star; astronomy, astrology, asteroid, disaster.</p> - -<p><b>Atmos</b>, vapour; atmosphere.</p> - -<p><b>Autos</b>, self; autocrat, autograph.</p> - -<p><b>Ballo</b>, I throw; symbol.</p> - -<p><b>Bapto</b>, I dip; baptise, baptist.</p> - -<p><b>Baros</b>, weight; barometer.</p> - -<p><b>Biblos</b>, a book; Bible, bibliomania.</p> - -<p><b>Bios</b>, life; biography, biology.</p> - -<p><b>Cheir</b>, the hand; surgeon [older form, chirurgeon].</p> - -<p><b>Chrio</b>, I anoint; Christ, chrism.</p> - -<p><b>Cholē</b>, bile; melancholy.</p> - -<p><b>Chronos</b>, time; chronology, chronic, chronicle.</p> - -<p><b>Daktŭlos</b>, a finger; dactyl, pterodactyl, date—<i>the fruit</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Deka</b>, ten; decagon, decalogue.</p> - -<p><b>Dēmos</b>, the people; democrat, endemic, epidemic.</p> - -<p><b>Dokeo</b>, to think; <b>doxa</b> and <b>dogma</b>, an opinion; doxology, orthodox, -heterodox, dogma, dogmatic.</p> - -<p><b>Drao</b>, I do; drama, dramatic.</p> - -<p><b>Dunămis</b>, power; dynamics.</p> - -<p><b>Eidos</b>, form; kaleidoscope.</p> - -<p><b>Eikon</b>, an image: iconoclast.</p> - -<p><b>Electron</b>, amber; electricity.</p> - -<p><b>Ergon</b>, a work; surgeon [= chirurgeon], energy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_64" id="page_64"></a>{64}</span></p> - -<p><b>Eu</b>, well; eucharist, euphony, evangelist.</p> - -<p><b>Gamos</b>, marriage; bigamy, monogamist, misogamy.</p> - -<p><b>Gē</b>, the earth; geography, geometry, geology.</p> - -<p><b>Gennao</b>, I produce; genesis, genealogy, hydrogen, oxygen.</p> - -<p><b>Grapho</b>, I write; <b>gramma</b>, a letter; graphic, grammar, telegraph, -biography, diagram.</p> - -<p><b>Haima</b>, blood; hæmorrhage, hæmorrhoid.</p> - -<p><b>Haireo</b>, I take away; heresy, heretic.</p> - -<p><b>Helios</b>, the sun; helioscope, heliotype.</p> - -<p><b>Hemi</b>, half; hemisphere.</p> - -<p><b>Hieros</b>, sacred; hierarchy, hieroglyphic.</p> - -<p><b>Hippos</b>, a horse; hippopotamus, hippodrome.</p> - -<p><b>Hŏdos</b>, a way; method, period, exodus.</p> - -<p><b>Hŏmos</b>, the same; homœopathy, homogeneous.</p> - -<p><b>Hudor</b>, water; hydraulic, hydrophobia.</p> - -<p><b>Ichthus</b>, a fish; ichthyology.</p> - -<p><b>Idios</b>, one’s own; idiom, idiot, idiosyncrasy.</p> - -<p><b>Isos</b>, equal; isochronous, isobaric (of equal weight).</p> - -<p><b>Kalos</b>, beautiful; caligraphy, calotype.</p> - -<p><b>Kephalē</b>, the head; hydrocephalus.</p> - -<p><b>Klino</b>, I bend; climax, climate.</p> - -<p><b>Kosmos</b>, order; cosmogony, cosmography, cosmetic.</p> - -<p><b>Krino</b>, I judge; critic, criterion, hypocrite.</p> - -<p><b>Kuklos</b>, a circle; cycle, cycloid, cyclone.</p> - -<p><b>Kuon</b>, a dog; cynic, cynicism.</p> - -<p><b>Lĕgo</b>, I say or choose; eclectic, lexicon.</p> - -<p><b>Lithos</b>, a stone; lithograph, aerolite.</p> - -<p><b>Lŏgos</b>, a word, speech; logic, dialogue, geology.</p> - -<p><b>Luo</b>, I loosen; dialysis, analysis.</p> - -<p><b>Metron</b>, a measure; metronome, diameter, thermometer, barometer.</p> - -<p><b>Mŏnos</b>, alone; monastery, monogram, monosyllable.</p> - -<p><b>Morphē</b>, shape; amorphous, dimorphous, metamorphic.</p> - -<p><b>Naus</b>, a ship; nautical.</p> - -<p><b>Nekros</b>, a dead body; necropolis, necromancy.</p> - -<p><b>Nŏmos</b>, a law; autonomous, astronomy, Deuteronomy.</p> - -<p><b>Oikos</b>, a house; economy, economical.</p> - -<p><b>Onŏma</b>, a name; anonymous, synonymous, patronymic.</p> - -<p><b>Optŏmai</b>, I see; optics, synoptical.</p> - -<p><b>Orthos</b>, right; orthodoxy, orthography.</p> - -<p><b>Pais</b> (<b>paid</b>-os), a boy; pedagogue [lit. <i>a boy-leader</i>].</p> - -<p><b>Pan</b>, all; pantheist, panoply, pantomime.</p> - -<p><b>Pathos</b>, feeling; pathetic, sympathy.</p> - -<p><b>Pente</b>, five; pentagon, pentateuch, Pentecost.</p> - -<p><b>Phainŏmai</b>, I appear; phantasy, phantom, fantastic, fancy.</p> - -<p><b>Phero</b>, I bear; periphery, phosphorus [= the light-bearer].</p> - -<p><b>Phileo</b>, I love; philosophy, Philadelphia.</p> - -<p><b>Phōs</b> (<b>phōt</b>-os), light; photometer, photograph.</p> - -<p><b>Phusis</b>, nature; physics, physiology, physician.</p> - -<p><b>Planao</b>, I cause to wander; planet.</p> - -<p><b>Poieo</b>, I make; poet, poetic, pharmacopœia.</p> - -<p><b>Polis</b>, a city; Constantinople, metropolis.</p> - -<p><b>Polus</b>, many; polytheist, Polynesia, polyanthus.</p> - -<p><b>Pous</b> (<b>pŏd</b>-os), a foot; antipodes.</p> - -<p><b>Pur</b>, fire; pyrotechnic, pyre.</p> - -<p><b>Rheo</b>, I flow; rhetoric, catarrh, rheumatic.</p> - -<p><b>Skŏpeo</b>, I see; microscope, telescope, spectroscope, bishop [from -<i>episkopos</i>, an overseer].</p> - -<p><b>Sophia</b>, wisdom; sophist, philosophy.</p> - -<p><b>Stello</b>, I send; apostle, epistle.</p> - -<p><b>Stratos</b>, an army; strategy, strategic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_65" id="page_65"></a>{65}</span></p> - -<p><b>Strĕpho</b>, I turn; catastrophe.</p> - -<p><b>Technē</b>, an art; technical.</p> - -<p><b>Tĕlē</b>, distant; telegraph, telescope, telephone, telegram.</p> - -<p><b>Temno</b>, I cut; anatomy, lithotomy.</p> - -<p><b>Tetra</b>, four; tetrachord, tetrarch.</p> - -<p><b>Theāomai</b>, I see, behold; theatre, theory.</p> - -<p><b>Theos</b>, a god; theist, enthusiast, theology.</p> - -<p><b>Thermē</b>, heat; thermal, thermometer, isotherm.</p> - -<p><b>Tithēmi</b>, I place; <b>thēsis</b>, a placing; synthesis, hypothesis.</p> - -<p><b>Treis</b>, three; triangle, trigonometry, trilobite.</p> - -<p><b>Trĕpo</b>, I turn; trophy, tropic.</p> - -<p><b>Tupos</b>, the impress of a seal; type, stereotype.</p> - -<p><b>Zōon</b>, an animal; zoology, zodiac.</p></div> - -<h3><a name="sect-10-V" id="sect-10-V">10.</a> <b>THE BRANCHING OF WORDS FROM LATIN STEMS.</b></h3> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>Ag</b>-o (<b>act</b>-um), I do.—<b>Act</b>, that which is done; <b>active</b>, engaged in -doing; <b>action</b>, a doing; <b>enact</b>, to make an <i>act</i>, to establish as -law; <b>enactment</b>; <b>transaction</b>, the doing of a thing thoroughly; -<b>react</b>, to do again.</p> - -<p><b>Apt</b>-us, fitted.—<b>Apt</b>, fit: <b>aptitude</b>, fitness; <b>adapt</b>, to fit to; -<b>adaptability</b>, capability of being fitted to; <b>adaptation</b>, a fitting -to; <b>adept</b>, one who is fitted for doing things.</p> - -<p><b>Ced</b>-o, I go.—<b>Accede</b>, to go to, hence to agree to; <b>access</b>, a going -to, hence an approach or entrance; <b>accessory</b>, going to or aiding; -<b>concede</b>, to go away from, to give up; <b>concession</b>, the act of giving -up; <b>exceed</b>, to go out of; <b>excess</b>, that which goes out or beyond; -<b>excessive</b>, going beyond; <b>intercede</b>, to go in between, hence to act -as a peacemaker; <b>intercessory</b>, going in between; <b>precede</b>, to go -before; <b>procession</b>, a going forth, or that which goes forth; -<b>recede</b>, to go back; <b>recess</b>, a space which goes back; <b>succeed</b>, to -come from under, hence to follow in order; <b>success</b>, the act of -succeeding; <b>successor</b>, one who follows; <b>successively</b>, following in -order.</p> - -<p><b>Cor</b> (<b>cord</b>-is), the heart.—<b>Cordial</b>, hearty; <b>cordiality</b>, heartiness; -<b>concord</b>, state of being of the same heart, harmony; <b>discord</b>, want -of heart or agreement; <b>discordant</b>; <b>record</b>, to call back to the -heart or mind; <b>recorder</b>, one who keeps records or registers; -<b>courage</b> (through Fr.), heart—that is, bravery; <b>encourage</b>, to put -heart in; <b>discourage</b>, to take heart from; <b>discouragement</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Cur</b>-a, care.—<b>Cure</b> (verb and noun); <b>curable</b>, that may be cured; -<b>cureless</b>, without cure; <b>curate</b>, one who has the cure (or care) of -souls; <b>curator</b>, one who has care of anything; <b>curative</b>, tending to -cure; <b>curious</b>, full of care, anxious; <b>curiosity</b>; <b>accurate</b>, done -with care, hence without error; <b>procure</b>, to take care of; -<b>procurator</b>, one who takes care of; <b>secure</b>, free from care; -<b>security</b>, state of being free from care; <b>sinecure</b>, an office -without care.</p> - -<p><b>Curr</b>-o, I run.—<b>Current</b>, that which runs; <b>currency</b>, a running, the -money which runs in a country; <b>concur</b>, to run together, hence to -agree; <b>incur</b>, to run into; <b>occur</b>, to run in the way of; <b>recur</b>, to -run back; <b>course</b> (through Fr.), the track on which anything runs; -<b>courser</b>, a runner; <b>recourse</b>, a running back, a going to for aid; -<b>intercourse</b>, a running between; <b>precursor</b>, one who runs before; -<b>courier</b> (Fr.), one who runs; <b>corridor</b> (Spanish), a passage or -gallery running along.</p> - -<p><b>Do</b> (<b>dat</b>-um, what is given), I give.—<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_66" id="page_66"></a>{66}</span><b>Add</b>, to give to; <b>addition</b>, -act of giving to; <b>condition</b>, state in which things are put -together, or exist; <b>conditionally</b>; <b>edit</b>, to give forth or out; -<b>edition</b>, what is given out; <b>editor</b>, one who gives out; <b>date</b>, the -time given in a letter.</p> - -<p><b>Duc</b>-o, I lead.—<b>Duke</b>, a leader; <b>ducal</b>, pertaining to a leader; -<b>ductile</b>, that which may be led or drawn out; <b>ductility</b>, the quality -of being ductile; <b>educate</b>, to lead out; <b>education</b>; <b>conduct</b> (verb -and noun), to lead together; <b>induce</b>, to lead into; <b>produce</b>, to lead -forth; <b>reduce</b>, to lead back; <b>seduce</b>, to lead out of the right path.</p> - -<p><b>Dur</b>-us, hard.—<b>During</b>, lasting (but now used as a <i>preposition</i>); -<b>dure</b>, to last; <b>duration</b>; <b>durable</b>; <b>durability</b>; <b>durableness</b>; <b>endure</b>, -to be hard, firm, or lasting; <b>obdurate</b>, hardened against.</p> - -<p><b>Fac</b>-io, I do, or I make.—<b>Fact</b>, a deed; <b>factor</b>, a maker; <b>affect</b>, to -act upon; <b>affection</b>; <b>affected</b>; <b>affectation</b>, acting upon one’s self; -<b>defect</b>, a want; <b>effect</b>, something thoroughly done; <b>effective</b>; -<b>perfect</b>, to make thoroughly; <b>perfection</b>, state of being thoroughly -made; <b>imperfect</b>, not thoroughly made.</p> - -<p><b>Fer</b>-o, I carry.—<b>Confer</b>, to come together for council; <b>conference</b>; -<b>defer</b>, to bear one’s self down or yield to the wishes of another; -<b>deference</b>; <b>differ</b>, to carry asunder, hence to disagree; <b>different</b>; -<b>differently</b>; <b>difference</b>; <b>offer</b>, to carry in the way of; <b>prefer</b>, to -carry before, hence to esteem more than another; <b>preference</b>; <b>refer</b>, -to carry back; <b>suffer</b>, to bear up, hence to undergo; <b>transfer</b>, to -carry across.</p> - -<p><b>Firm</b>-us, strong.—<b>Firm</b>, strong; <b>firmness</b>; <b>firmly</b>; <b>confirm</b>, to make -more strong; <b>confirmation</b>; <b>affirm</b>, to declare strongly; <b>infirm</b>, not -strong; <b>infirmity</b>, state of being infirm, hence disease; <b>infirmary</b>, -a place for the infirm; <b>firmament</b>, that which is firm, the place -supposed to be fixed above the earth.</p> - -<p><b>Form</b>-a, shape.—<b>Form</b>, shape; <b>formal</b>, according to form; <b>informal</b>, -not according to form; <b>formality</b>; <b>formally</b>; <b>formative</b>, giving form; -<b>formula</b>, a little form; <b>conform</b>, to make of the same form with; -<b>deform</b>, to alter or injure the form of; <b>inform</b>, to put into form or -shape, educate, instruct; <b>information</b>; <b>misinform</b>, to give wrong -knowledge to; <b>perform</b>, to form thoroughly; <b>reform</b>, to form again; -<b>reformation</b>; <b>transform</b>, to change the form of.</p> - -<p><b>Grati</b>-a, favour.—<b>Grace</b> (through Fr.); <b>graceful</b>, full of the power -to win favour; <b>gracefulness</b>; <b>gracefully</b>; <b>gracious</b>, full of grace; -<b>disgrace</b>, state of being out of grace or favour; <b>grateful</b>, thankful -for favour; <b>ingratitude</b>; <b>ingrate</b>, an ungrateful person; <b>gratify</b>, to -please; <b>gratuitous</b>, by favour and without price; <b>gratitude</b>; <b>agree</b> -(Fr.).</p> - -<p><b>Habe</b>-o, I have.—<b>Habit</b>, the having one’s self in a certain -condition; <b>habitual</b>; <b>habitable</b>, that may be inhabited; <b>habitat</b>, the -place which a plant or an animal inhabits; <b>habitation</b>, place where -one dwells or inhabits; <b>exhibit</b>, to hold out to view; <b>inhibit</b>, to -hold in or keep back; <b>inhibition</b>; <b>inhabit</b>, to be in the habit of -living in; <b>prohibit</b>, to hold before one, hence to check.</p> - -<p><b>Jac</b>-io (<b>jact</b>-um), I throw.—<b>Eject</b>, to throw out; <b>ejectment</b>, a -throwing out; <b>ejection</b>, the act of throwing out; <b>ejaculate</b>, to -throw out (a sound); <b>ejaculation</b>; <b>abject</b>, thrown down; <b>adjective</b>, -that which is thrown to or added to; <b>conjecture</b>, a throwing -together of chances, or a guess; <b>deject</b>, to throw down; <b>inject</b>, to -throw into; <b>interjection</b>, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_67" id="page_67"></a>{67}</span> throwing into the middle of; <b>project</b> -(verb and noun), to throw forward; <b>subject</b> (verb and noun), to -throw under; <b>reject</b>, to throw back.</p> - -<p><b>Jung</b>-o (<b>junct</b>-us, joined), I join.—<b>Join</b> (through Fr.); <b>joint</b>, a -place where things are joined; <b>joiner</b>, one who joins; <b>juncture</b>, a -joining; <b>conjoin</b> (Fr.), to join together; <b>conjuncture</b>, a joining -together; <b>disjoin</b> (Fr.), to separate; <b>adjunct</b>, something joined to; -<b>conjunction</b>, that which joins together.</p> - -<p><b>Leg</b>-o (<b>lect</b>-um), I gather or read.—<b>Collect’</b>, to gather together; -<b>col’-lect</b>, what is gathered together; <b>collection</b>; <b>collector</b>; <b>elect</b>, -to gather out from; <b>election</b>; <b>elector</b>; <b>select</b>, to choose apart, to -pick out; <b>legend</b>, that which should be read; <b>legible</b>, that which -may be read.</p> - -<p><b>Mitt</b>-o (<b>miss</b>-um), I send.—<b>Admit</b>; <b>commit</b>, to send together with, to -intrust to; <b>commitment</b>, a sending together; <b>commission</b>, a sending -with authority; <b>emit</b>, to send out; <b>emission</b>, a sending out; <b>omit</b>, -to send away, to leave out; <b>omission</b>, the act of leaving out; -<b>permit</b>; <b>permission</b>; <b>remit</b>, to send back; <b>transmit</b>, to send through.</p> - -<p><b>Norm</b>-a, a rule.—<b>Normal</b>, according to rule; <b>normally</b>; <b>enormous</b>, -great, beyond rule; <b>enormity</b>; <b>abnormal</b>, away from rule.</p> - -<p><b>Nosc</b>-o (<b>not</b>-um), I know or mark.—<b>Note</b>, something by which a thing -may be known, hence a mark; <b>noted</b>, known; <b>notable</b>, deserving to be -known; <b>noble</b> (Fr.); <b>notify</b>, to make known; <b>notorious</b>, too well -known; <b>notice</b>, a warning to know; <b>noticeable</b>, likely to be observed -or known.</p> - -<p><b>Ord</b>-o (<b>ordin</b>-is), arrangement.—<b>Order</b>; <b>ordain</b>, to arrange or put in -order; <b>ordinal</b>, that which shows arrangement; <b>ordination</b>, the act -of arranging; <b>ordinary</b>, according to the common arrangement; -<b>extraordinary</b>, out of the common arrangement; <b>disorder</b>, want of -arrangement; <b>orderly</b>, properly arranged.</p> - -<p><b>Pars</b> (<b>part</b>-is), a part.—<b>Part</b>; <b>particle</b>, a small part; <b>tripartite</b>, -divided into three parts; <b>partition</b>, that which divides into parts; -<b>partial</b>, relating to a part only; <b>apart</b>, parted from; <b>depart</b>, to -part from; <b>impart</b>, to give part to.</p> - -<p><b>Pell</b>-o (<b>puls</b>-um), I drive.—<b>Compel</b>, to drive together; <b>compulsion</b>, -the act of driving together; <b>dispel</b>, to drive asunder; <b>expel</b>, to -drive out; <b>expulsion</b>; <b>impel</b>, to drive forward (or into); <b>impulse</b>; -<b>propel</b>, to drive forward; <b>repel</b>, to drive back; <b>repulse</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Pend</b>-o (<b>pens</b>-um), I hang.—<b>Append</b>, to hang to; <b>appendage</b>, something -hung on to; <b>depend</b>, to hang down from; <b>dependant</b>, one who hangs -from another; <b>independent</b>, not hanging from another; <b>independence</b>, -the state of not hanging from another; <b>pendant</b>, that which hangs; -<b>suspend</b>, to hang under; <b>suspense</b>, state of hanging [under].</p> - -<p><b>Pon</b>-o (<b>posit</b>-um), I place.—<b>Post</b>, something placed, and hence the -place in which it stands; <b>position</b>, state of being placed, hence -place; <b>composition</b>, a placing together; <b>opposition</b>, a placing in -the way of; <b>proposition</b>, a placing before.</p> - -<p><b>Port</b>-o, I carry.—<b>Porter</b>, one who carries; <b>export</b>, to carry out of -a country; <b>import</b>, to carry into a country; <b>report</b>, to carry back, -to repeat; <b>report</b>, what is carried back or repeated; <b>reporter</b>; -<b>support</b>, to bear up from under; <b>transport</b>, to carry across; -<b>transportation</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Prem</b>-o (<b>press</b>-um), I press.—<b>Press</b>; <b>compress</b>, to press together; -<b>compression</b>, the act of pressing together; <b>depress</b>, to press down; -<b>express</b>, to press out, hence to utter or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_68" id="page_68"></a>{68}</span> say; <b>impress’</b>, to press -into (as of a seal); <b>im’press</b>, the mark left by anything impressed; -<b>repress</b>, to press back; <b>suppress</b>, to press under.</p> - -<p><b>Rect</b>-us, right.—<b>Rectify</b>, to make right; <b>rectitude</b>, state of being -right; <b>correct</b>, to put right; <b>corrector</b>; <b>correction</b>, a putting -right.</p> - -<p><b>Reg</b>-o (<b>rect</b>-um), I rule.—<b>Regal</b>, pertaining to a king or ruler; -<b>rector</b>, one who rules (in the church); <b>rectory</b>, the house in which -the rector lives.</p> - -<p><b>Rump</b>-o (<b>rupt</b>-um), I break.—<b>Abrupt</b>, broken off; <b>rupture</b>, a -breaking; <b>corrupt</b>, to break thoroughly, to break in pieces; <b>corrupt</b> -(<i>adj.</i>) broken in pieces; <b>corruptible</b>, that which may be -corrupted; <b>irruption</b>, a breaking into; <b>eruption</b>, a breaking out; -<b>disruption</b>, a breaking asunder.</p> - -<p><b>Scrib</b>-o (<b>script</b>-um), I write.—<b>Scribe</b>, one who writes; <b>describe</b>, to -write down; <b>inscribe</b>, to write upon; <b>inscription</b>; <b>subscribe</b>, to -write under; <b>subscription</b>; <b>scripture</b>, that which is written.</p> - -<p><b>Sed</b>-eo (<b>sess</b>-um), I sit.—<b>Sedentary</b>, in the habit of sitting; -<b>preside</b>, to sit before others, hence to be in authority; <b>assiduous</b>, -sitting close to (work); <b>subside</b>, to sit under, hence to settle; -<b>session</b>, a sitting.</p> - -<p><b>Serv</b>-o (<b>servat</b>-um), I keep.—<b>Conserve</b>, to keep together; -<b>conservatory</b>, a place for keeping things together; <b>observe</b>, to keep -in the way of (the eyes), hence to keep in view; <b>observatory</b>, a -place for observing (the stars); <b>reserve</b>, to keep back; <b>reserve</b>, -what is kept back.</p> - -<p><b>Spec</b>-io (<b>spect</b>-um), I look.—<b>Aspect</b>, look; <b>spectator</b>, one who looks -at; <b>speculum</b>, a looking-glass; <b>suspicion</b>, a looking under.</p> - -<p><b>Statu</b>-o (<b>statut</b>-um), I set up.—<b>Statue</b>, something set up; <b>statute</b>, -a law set up.</p> - -<p><b>Tang</b>-o (<b>tact</b>-um), I touch.—<b>Tangent</b>, a line which touches; -<b>tangible</b>, which may be touched; <b>tactile</b>, that which can touch; -<b>contact</b>, touching; <b>tact</b>, the art of knowing as it were by mere -touch.</p> - -<p><b>Tend</b>-o (<b>tent</b>-um or <b>tens</b>-um), I stretch.—<b>Distend</b>, to stretch -asunder; <b>extend</b>, to stretch out; <b>extent</b>, the amount a thing -stretches; <b>tense</b>, stretched; <b>tent</b>, something which is stretched.</p> - -<p><b>Ten</b>-eo (<b>tent</b>-um), I hold.—<b>Tenant</b>, one who holds (a house or land); -<b>tenacious</b>, holding much or firmly; <b>contain</b>, to hold together; -<b>detain</b>, to hold down, hence to hinder; <b>retain</b>, to hold back; -<b>retentive</b>, holding back or keeping.</p> - -<p><b>Trah</b>-o (<b>tract</b>-um), I draw.—<b>Attract</b>, to draw to; <b>contract</b>, to draw -together; <b>traction</b>, the act of drawing; <b>subtract</b>, to draw from -under, hence to take away; <b>subtrahend</b>, that which has to be taken -away; <b>contraction</b>, a drawing together.</p> - -<p><b>Ut</b>-or (<b>us</b>-us), I use.—<b>Use</b>; <b>abuse</b>, to use away from its proper -purpose; <b>peruse</b>, to use thoroughly, hence to read through; <b>usury</b>, -money paid for the use of money; <b>utensil</b>, something to be used; -<b>utility</b>, usefulness.</p> - -<p><b>Veh</b>-o (<b>vect</b>-um), I carry.—<b>Vehicle</b>, that in which goods are -carried; <b>convey</b>, to carry together; <b>conveyance</b>, that in which goods -are carried together.</p> - -<p><b>Ven</b>-io (<b>vent</b>-um), I come.—<b>Convene</b>, <i>originally</i> to come together, -<i>afterwards</i> to summon; <b>convention</b>; <b>advent</b>, a coming to; <b>intervene</b>, -to come in between; <b>contravene</b>, to come against, hence to oppose; -<b>circumvent</b>, to come round; <b>intervention</b>, the act of coming in -between.</p> - -<p><b>Vert</b>-o (<b>vers</b>-um), I turn.—<b>Convert</b>, to turn together; <b>conversion</b>, -the act of turning together; <b>advert</b>, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_69" id="page_69"></a>{69}</span> turn towards; <b>divorce</b>, to -turn asunder; <b>invert</b>, to turn into; <b>inversion</b>, the act of turning -into; <b>reverse</b>, to turn back; <b>verse</b>, a kind of composition in which -the writer <i>turns back</i> from the end of the line.</p> - -<p><b>Vid</b>-eo (<b>vis</b>-um), I see.—<b>Visitor</b>, one who sees; <b>vision</b>, what is -seen; <b>visual</b>, pertaining to seeing; <b>visible</b>, what may be seen; -<b>provide</b>, to see before; <b>providence</b>, a seeing beforehand; <b>prudence</b> -(Fr.), another form of <i>providence</i>.</p> - -<p><b>Voc</b>-o (<b>vocat</b>-um), I call.—<b>Convoke</b>, to call together; <b>convocation</b>, -a meeting which has been called together; <b>revoke</b>, to call back; -<b>vocal</b>, calling—that is, having a voice; <b>voice</b>, that by which one -calls; <b>vociferate</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Volv</b>-o (<b>volut</b>-um), I roll.—<b>Convolution</b>, a rolling together; -<b>revolve</b>, to roll round; <b>involve</b>, to roll into.</p></div> - -<h3><a name="sect-11-V" id="sect-11-V">11.</a> <b>THE BRANCHING OF WORDS FROM ENGLISH STEMS.</b></h3> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>Bac</b>-an, to bake.—<b>Bake</b>; <b>baker</b>; <b>baxter</b> (bakester), a woman who -bakes; <b>batch</b>, what is baked.</p> - -<p><b>Beat</b>-an, to strike.—<b>Bat</b>, an instrument to strike a ball with; -<b>beetle</b>, an instrument to beat clothes with.</p> - -<p><b>Ber</b>-an, to carry.—<b>Bearer</b>; <b>burden</b>; <b>barrow</b>, that on which something -is borne; <b>bier</b>, that on which a corpse is borne; <b>forbear</b>, to bear -forth or off, hence to abstain; <b>overbear</b>, to bear over, to -overpower.</p> - -<p><b>Brec</b>-an, to break.—<b>Break</b>, an instrument for breaking the speed of -a train; <b>breach</b>, a break in a wall; <b>brook</b>, a stream which breaks -from the ground.</p> - -<p><b>Brinn</b>-an, to burn.—<b>Burn</b>; <b>brown</b> is the burnt colour; <b>brand</b>, a mark -made by burning; <b>brandy</b>, a drink made by burning wine; <b>brunt</b>, the -burning or hottest part of a fight; <b>brimstone</b>, burning stone (a -name for sulphur); <b>brindled</b>, striped with brown; <b>bran new</b> [=brand -new].</p> - -<p><b>Drag</b>-an, to pull.—<b>Drag</b>; <b>draw</b>, another form of drag; <b>dray</b>, a kind -of cart which is drawn along; <b>draught</b>, what is drawn; <b>draft</b>, a -cheque drawn on a banker; <b>drain</b>, a ditch for drawing off water; -<b>drawl</b>, to keep drawing out one’s words.</p> - -<p><b>Far</b>-an, to go.—<b>Far</b>, that which requires much going to reach; -<b>farewell</b>, go well! <b>fieldfare</b>, a bird which goes in the fields; -<b>thoroughfare</b>, a place where people go through; <b>ford</b>, a place in a -river where one can go across on foot; <b>ferry</b>, a place in a river -where one can go over in a boat; <b>fare</b>, the money paid for going.</p> - -<p><b>Hæl</b>, sound.—<b>Hale</b>; <b>heal</b>, to make hale; <b>health</b>, state of being sound -or hale; <b>healthy</b>; <b>healthful</b>; <b>holy</b>, spiritually hale; <b>hail</b>, be hale! -or be healthy! <b>whole</b>, in a state of being hale (the <i>w</i> is -intrusive); <b>wholesome</b>, what tends to make hale.</p> - -<p><b>Lig</b>, lie.—<b>Lie</b>, to lie down; <b>lay</b>, to make to lie; <b>lair</b>, the place -where a wild beast lies; <b>law</b>, what lies or is in due order; <b>low</b>, -what is (lying) down.</p> - -<p><b>Maw</b>-an, to mow.—<b>Mower</b>; <b>math</b>, the grass that is mowed; <b>aftermath</b>, -the grass that is mowed after the first crop; <b>mead</b>, a place where -grass is mowed; <b>meadow</b>, a small mead.</p> - -<p><b>Met</b>-an, to meet.—<b>Mote</b>, a meeting (an old word now found only in -wardmote and folkmote); <b>meet</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Reaf</b>-ian, to take away.—<b>Reave</b>; <b>bereave</b>; <b>reef</b>, what is taken in in -a sail; <b>rifle</b>, to plunder or take away; <b>robber</b>, a person who takes -away what does not belong to him.</p> - -<p><b>Sceot</b>-an, to throw.—<b>Shoot</b>, to throw out (by means of a gun or -otherwise); <b>shut</b>, to throw to (the door); <b>shoot</b>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_70" id="page_70"></a>{70}</span> a branch thrown -out by a tree; <b>shot</b>, what is thrown out (by a gun or otherwise); -<b>shout</b>, to throw out of the mouth; <b>shuttle</b>, an instrument thrown by -a weaver; <b>sheet</b>, what is thrown over (a bed); <b>shutter</b>, what is -thrown to, to guard a window.</p> - -<p><b>Sit</b>-an, to sit.—<b>Sit</b>; <b>set</b>, to make to sit; <b>beset</b>, to set about; -<b>onset</b>, a setting on; <b>overset</b>, to turn over; <b>upset</b>; <b>setter</b>, a kind -of dog; <b>settle</b>, a kind of seat; <b>settle</b>, to set or fix; <b>settler</b>; -<b>settlement</b>; <b>seat</b>, the place where one sits.</p> - -<p><b>Treow</b>-an, believe.—<b>Trow</b>, to believe; <b>true</b>, what should be -believed; <b>truth</b>; <b>truthful</b>; <b>truthfully</b>; <b>truism</b>; <b>trust</b>; <b>intrust</b>; -<b>trustee</b>; <b>trusty</b>; <b>trustworthy</b>; <b>troth</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Wac</b>-an, to wake.—<b>Wake</b>; <b>awake</b>; <b>awaken</b>; <b>wakeful</b>; <b>wakefulness</b>; <b>watch</b>; -<b>watchful</b>; <b>watchfulness</b>.</p></div> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br /><br /> -<b>Prefixes and Suffixes.</b></h2> - -<h3><a name="PREFIXES" id="PREFIXES"></a><i>PREFIXES.</i></h3> - -<h4><a name="sect-1-VI" id="sect-1-VI">1.</a> <b>ENGLISH (OR TEUTONIC).</b></h4> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>A</b> (a broken-down form of the A.S. preposition <i>on</i>), at, to, on, -in, etc.; astern, abed, aboard, afield, afoot, ashore, alive, -aweary.</p> - -<p><b>After</b>; afternoon, afterthought, aftermath, aftercrop.</p> - -<p><b>At</b>; atone (to bring together into one); ado (= at-do); twit (= -at-wit).</p> - -<p><b>Be</b>, used both with nouns and with verbs—behalf, behoof, behest, -bequest; betake, begin, become, bespatter, bedim, besprinkle, -behead.</p> - -<p><b>Down</b>; downfall, downstroke, downcast.</p> - -<p><b>For</b>, not; forbid, forsake (not to seek), forget, forgo (wrongly -spelled forego); or utterly; as, forlorn, fordone.</p> - -<p><b>Fore</b>, before; foretell, forefather, foresee, forebode, forecast, -forenoon.</p> - -<p><b>Gain</b>, against; gainsay, gainstay (gainstand).</p> - -<p><b>In</b>, <b>im</b>, <b>en</b>, <b>em</b>; income, inlet, insight, inlay, inborn, inbred, -into, ingraft, inlay, infold, imbed, endear, enthral, engrave, -embower.</p> - -<p><b>Mis</b>, wrong; mislead, mistrust, misdeed, mishap, mistake.</p> - -<p><b>Mid</b>, in the middle of; midmost, midnight, midsummer, midday.</p> - -<p><b>Off</b>, from; offshoot, offset, offspring, offal (= off-fall), -offhand.</p> - -<p><b>Out</b>; outset, outstrip, outvie, outrun, outdo.</p> - -<p><b>Over</b>; overwise, overfed, overmuch, overcoat, overhand, overseer, -oversight.</p> - -<p><b>Through</b>, <b>thorough</b>; thoroughfare, throughout, thoroughbred, -thoroughgoing.</p> - -<p><b>To</b>, this; to-day, to-night, to-morrow.</p> - -<p><b>Un</b>, (1) not; unclean, unwise, untrue, unbelief, unrest: or (2) -back; undo, untie, unlock, unfold, unbind, unloose.</p> - -<p><b>Under</b>; undergrowth, underbred, underhand, undersell, underwood.</p> - -<p><b>Up</b>; uproar, upland, upstart, upset, upbear, upbraid, upright.</p> - -<p><b>Wel</b>, <b>well</b>; welfare, welcome, well-born, well-bred, well-trained.</p> - -<p><b>With</b>, against; withstand, withdraw (drawing-room = -withdrawing-room), withhold.</p></div> - -<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_71" id="page_71"></a>{71}</span><a name="sect-2-VI" id="sect-2-VI">2.</a> <b>LATIN.</b></h4> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>Ab</b> (<b>a</b>, <b>abs</b>), from or away; averse, avert, aversion, abdicate, -abstract, abstain, abjure, abate, abound, abuse, abduction.</p> - -<p><b>Ad</b> (<b>ac</b>, <b>af</b>, <b>ag</b>, <b>al</b>, <b>am</b>, <b>an</b>, <b>ap</b>, <b>ar</b>, <b>as</b>, <b>at</b>, <b>a</b>), to: adore, advise, -accord, annex, accuse, accede, allude, allusion, announce, appear, -assent, attend, aspire, affirm, affix, aggrieve, annul, ammunition, -apparent, arrive, assume, assault, assumption, attend, attentive, -attention, assimilate, attain, ascribe, avow.</p> - -<p><b>Am</b> (<b>amb</b>), round; ambient, amputate, ambition, ambiguous.</p> - -<p><b>Ante</b> (<b>anti</b>), before; antedate, antenuptial, antenatal, antechamber, -antediluvian, anticipate.</p> - -<p><b>Circum</b> (<b>circu</b>), round; circumlocution, circumnavigate, circuit, -circumvent, circuitous, circulate, circumference.</p> - -<p><b>Con</b> (<b>col</b>, <b>com</b>, <b>cor</b>, <b>co</b>), together with; consonant, connect, -contend, conduct, compact, compound, commend, collision, collect, -correct, corrupt, co-heir, coerce.</p> - -<p><b>Contra</b> (<b>contro</b>, <b>counter</b>), against; contradict, contravene, -controversy, controvert, contraband, counterfeit.</p> - -<p><b>De</b>, down or from; denote, describe, depart, descent, devise, -demure.</p> - -<p><b>Dis</b> (<b>dif</b>, <b>di</b>); disjoin, difficult, diffuse, divide, differ, dilute, -dissent.</p> - -<p><b>Ex</b> (<b>ef</b>, <b>e</b>), out of; extort, exhume, efface, educe, extrude, extol, -effect, education.</p> - -<p><b>Extra</b>, beyond; extraordinary, extravagant, extraneous.</p> - -<p><b>In</b> (<b>il</b>, <b>im</b>, <b>ir</b>, <b>em</b>, <b>en</b>), into; invade, incite, induce, illusion, -illude, improve, impulse, impel, irruption, embrace, endure, -encourage, embroil, irradiate, innate.</p> - -<p><b>In</b> (<b>ig</b>, <b>il</b>, <b>im</b>, <b>ir</b>), not; insecure, ignoble, illiterate, -inconvenient, incurable, incapable, incapacitate, immortal, -irregular, improper, illegitimate, irrational, innocent, infant.</p> - -<p><b>Inter</b> (<b>intel</b>, <b>enter</b>), between; intercourse, intelligent, interfere, -interdict, enterprise, entertain, interrupt.</p> - -<p><b>Intro</b>, within; introduce.</p> - -<p><b>Ob</b> (<b>oc</b>, <b>of</b>, <b>op</b>, <b>os</b>), against; oblige, obtain, object, occur, -offend, oppose, occult, offer, ostentation.</p> - -<p><b>Pene</b>, almost; as, peninsula.</p> - -<p><b>Per</b> (<b>pel</b>), through; perform, permit, pellucid, pertain.</p> - -<p><b>Post</b>, after; postpone, posthumous.</p> - -<p><b>Præ</b> or <b>pre</b>, before; prelection, preface, prevent, precede, -premature, predict.</p> - -<p><b>Præter</b> or <b>preter</b>, beyond; preternatural, preterite.</p> - -<p><b>Pro</b> (<b>por</b>, <b>pur</b>, <b>pol</b>), forth, on or before; proceed, pollution, -portend, purvey, portrait, purloin, purchase, pronoun, purpose.</p> - -<p><b>Re</b> (<b>red</b>), back; refute, result, redolent, redound, reduce, redeem.</p> - -<p><b>Retro</b>, backwards; retrograde, retrospect.</p> - -<p><b>Se</b> (<b>sed</b>), aside or apart; select, seclude, secede, seduce, -sedition.</p> - -<p><b>Sub</b> (<b>suc</b>, <b>suf</b>, <b>sug</b>, <b>sup</b>, <b>sur</b>, <b>sus</b>, <b>su</b>), under, up from below; -subject, suspect, succeed, suffer, suggest, suppose, suspend, -suspect, succinct, suppress, surrogate, susceptible, subdue, -suffuse, subtract, succour, supplant.</p> - -<p><b>Subter</b>, beneath; subterfuge.</p> - -<p><b>Super</b> (<b>sur</b>), over; superstructure, surplus, survive, superscribe, -surfeit, surcharge, supernatural, surname, supercilious.</p> - -<p><b>Trans</b> (<b>tra</b>, <b>tres</b>); across; transmarine, translate, tradition, -trespass, traduce.</p> - -<p><b>Ultra</b>, beyond; ultramontane, ultramarine.</p> - -<p><b>Vice</b>, instead of; viceroy, viceregal, viscount.</p></div> - -<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_72" id="page_72"></a>{72}</span><a name="sect-3-VI" id="sect-3-VI">3.</a> <b>GREEK.</b></h4> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>A</b> or <b>an</b>, not; anarchy, anomaly, anonymous, apteryx (wingless), -atheist.</p> - -<p><b>Amphi</b>, on both sides, round; amphibious, amphitheatre.</p> - -<p><b>Ana</b>, up; anatomy, analysis, anabasis, analyse.</p> - -<p><b>Anti</b> (<b>ant</b>), against; antithesis, antipathy, antarctic, antitype, -antidote.</p> - -<p><b>Apo</b> (<b>ap</b>, <b>aph</b>), from; apogee, apology, apostrophe, aphelion, -aphorism.</p> - -<p><b>Cata</b>, down; catarrh, catalepsy, catastrophe, catechism, cathartic, -cathedral, catalogue.</p> - -<p><b>Di</b> (<b>dis</b>), two; diphthong, dissyllable, dilemma, diploma.</p> - -<p><b>Dia</b>, through; diameter, diagonal, diaphonous, diabolic, diagnosis, -diastole, diaphragm.</p> - -<p><b>En</b> (<b>el</b>, <b>em</b>), in; ellipse, emblem, energy, enthrone, empyrean, -emphasis, emporium.</p> - -<p><b>Endo</b>, within; endogenous.</p> - -<p><b>Epi</b> (<b>ep</b>), upon; epilogue, epitaph, epiphany, epistle.</p> - -<p><b>Exo</b>, without; exogenous, exotic.</p> - -<p><b>Hyper</b>, over or above; hyperbola, hyperbole, hyperbolical, -hypercritical, hyperborean.</p> - -<p><b>Hypo</b> (<b>hyph</b>), under; hypotenuse, hypothesis, hypocrite, hyphen.</p> - -<p><b>Meta</b> (<b>met</b>, <b>meth</b>) signifies after, change; metathesis, metonomy, -method, metaphor.</p> - -<p><b>Para</b> (<b>par</b>), beside; parabola, paraphrase, parhelion, parody, -parable.</p> - -<p><b>Peri</b>, round; perimeter, peristyle, perigee, periphery, period.</p> - -<p><b>Pro</b>, before; prologue, problem, prophet, program.</p> - -<p><b>Pros</b>, towards; prosody, proselyte.</p> - -<p><b>Syn</b> (<b>sy</b>, <b>syl</b>, <b>sym</b>), together with; syndic, syntax, symbol, -syllogism, syllable, system, systole, synchronous, symptom, -sympathy.</p></div> - -<h3><i><a name="SUFFIXES" id="SUFFIXES"></a>SUFFIXES.</i></h3> - -<h4><a name="sect-4-VI" id="sect-4-VI">4.</a> <b>ENGLISH (OR TEUTONIC).</b></h4> - -<h5><b>Noun Suffixes.</b></h5> - -<div class="blockquott"><p>1. <i>Denoting a person or the doer of an action</i>:</p> - -<p><b>-er</b> or <b>-ar</b>; singer, baker, beggar, liar, lawyer, bowyer (a -bow-maker), sawyer, sailor, speaker, miller, (fletcher = flechier, -an arrow-maker).</p> - -<p><b>-nd</b> (old present participial ending); friend (= a loving person), -fiend (= a hating person), errand, wind.</p> - -<p><b>-ster</b> (originally a <i>female</i> agent); Spinster, songster, maltster, -huckster, baxter [= bakester], (now a term of contempt); youngster, -gamester, punster.</p> - -<p><b>-ter</b>, <b>-ther</b>, <b>-der</b>; daughter, father, spider (that is, spinder), -mother, brother, foster (= foodster).</p> - -<p>2. <i>Denoting an instrument</i>:</p> - -<p><b>-der</b> or <b>-er</b>; ladder, rudder, bladder (from <i>blow</i>), feather, -weather, rudder, murder, stair, finger (from <i>fangen</i>, to seize).</p> - -<p><b>-el</b> or <b>-le</b>; shovel, girdle, shuttle, settle (a small seat), -thimble.</p> - -<p>3. <i>Forming abstract nouns</i>:</p> - -<p><b>-dom</b>; kingdom, earldom, freedom, thraldom, wisdom, martyrdom, -Christendom.</p> - -<p><b>-hood</b>, or <b>-head</b>; manhood, boyhood, childhood, priesthood, Godhead, -hardihood, neighbourhood, wifehood.</p> - -<p><b>-ing</b>; hunting, blessing, standing, reading, clothing.</p> - -<p><b>-ness</b>; witness (= a person who <i>wits</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_73" id="page_73"></a>{73}</span> or knows), wilderness, -darkness, goodness, redness, weakness, hardness.</p> - -<p><b>-red</b>; hatred, kindred.</p> - -<p><b>-ship</b>, <b>-scape</b>; friendship, lordship, worship (= worthship), -hardship, fellowship, landscape (in Milton, <i>landskip</i>: compare -<i>skipper</i> for <i>shipper</i>).</p> - -<p><b>-t</b>, <b>-th</b>, <b>-st</b>, <b>-d</b>; weight, height, sleight (from <i>sly</i>), gift, rift -(from <i>rive</i>), theft, drought (from <i>dry</i>), frost, flight, warmth, -health, width, death, birth, sloth (from <i>slow</i>), trust (from -<i>trow</i>, to believe), flood (from <i>flow</i>), seed (from <i>sow</i>).</p> - -<p>4. <i>Diminutives</i>:</p> - -<p><b>-el</b> or <b>-le</b>; thimble (from <i>thumb</i>), riddle (from <i>read</i>).</p> - -<p><b>-en</b>; maiden, kitten, chicken.</p> - -<p><b>-ing</b>; farthing, tithing (from <i>tithe</i> = tenth), riding (from -<i>thrid</i> = third).</p> - -<p><b>-kin</b>; lambkin, mannikin, pipkin.</p> - -<p><b>-ling</b> (= <i>l</i> + <i>ing</i>); darling (from <i>dear</i>), duckling, suckling, -hireling, gosling, fatling, firstling, nestling, underling, -starveling, suckling.</p> - -<p><b>-ock</b>; bullock, hillock, paddock.</p> - -<p><b>-y</b>, <b>-ie</b>; lassie, Annie, Charlie, baby, Tommy, doggie.</p> - -<p><b>Adjective Suffixes.</b></p> - -<p><b>-d</b> or <b>-ed</b> (originally a perfect participle-ending); hard, cold, -loud: also added to nouns, as gifted, wretched, ragged, long-eared, -feathered, landed.</p> - -<p><b>-el</b> or <b>-le</b>; fickle, brittle, little, idle, mickle (from <i>much</i>).</p> - -<p><b>-er</b>; lower, higher, brighter, sooner.</p> - -<p><b>-er</b>; bitter, clever.</p> - -<p><b>-ern</b>, denoting the region of the globe; northern, eastern, -southern, western.</p> - -<p><b>-est</b>; lowest, highest, brightest, soonest.</p> - -<p><b>-fold</b>; manifold, twofold, threefold, hundredfold, etc.</p> - -<p><b>-ful</b>; scornful, sinful, wilful, truthful, tearful, needful, awful, -dreadful, sorrowful.</p> - -<p><b>-ish</b>, <b>-sh</b>, or <b>-ch</b>, denotes partaking of the nature of; childish, -foolish, slavish, swinish, churlish, waspish, whitish, goodish, -brutish, girlish, boyish.</p> - -<p><b>-less</b> denotes destitute of; worthless, fearless, heedless, -hopeless, tearless, sinless, godless, lawless, toothless.</p> - -<p><b>-like</b>, <b>-ly</b>, denotes like; warlike, childlike, womanly, manly, -heavenly, godly, ghastly, likely.</p> - -<p><b>-n</b> or <b>-en</b> (also a perfect participle-ending); drunken, shaken, -broken, molten, shorn, torn. It also denotes the material of which -a thing is made, as golden, linen, wooden, silvern, flaxen, hempen, -leathern.</p> - -<p><b>-some</b> denotes the possession of a quality; wholesome, blithesome, -gladsome, winsome, lissom (from <i>lithe</i>), buxom (that is, <i>buhsum</i>, -from <i>bugan</i>, to bend), quarrelsome, tiresome.</p> - -<p><b>-t</b> (like <b>d</b>), probably perfect participial ending; short (from -<i>sceran</i>, to shear), blunt, tight, slight.</p> - -<p><b>-ward</b> denotes direction; homeward, heavenward, seaward, northward, -awkward (from <i>awk</i>, contrary), toward, froward (from <i>from</i>).</p> - -<p><b>-y</b> or <b>-ey</b> denotes the possession of a quality; bloody, thirsty, -guilty, woody, mighty, healthy, greedy, moody, sundry (from -<i>sunder</i>), sticky, sorry (from <i>sore</i>), hairy, bushy, stony, -clayey.</p> - -<h5><b>Verb Suffixes.</b></h5> - -<p><b>-el</b> or <b>-le</b> gives a frequentative meaning to the verb; waddle (from -<i>wade</i>), startle, sparkle, dazzle (from <i>daze</i>), dribble (from -<i>drip</i>), swaddle (from <i>swathe</i>), dapple (from <i>dip</i>), crawl, kneel -(from <i>knee</i>), struggle, mingle, hurtle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_74" id="page_74"></a>{74}</span></p> - -<p><b>-en</b> denotes making or doing; fatten, broaden, soften, open (from -<i>up</i>), lighten, sadden, gladden, sweeten, frighten, lengthen.</p> - -<p><b>-er</b>, also frequentative; glimmer, stagger, patter, flitter, -flutter, wander, batter, sputter, stutter.</p> - -<p><b>-k</b>, also frequentative; stalk (from <i>steal</i>), hark (from <i>hear</i>), -walk.</p> - -<h5><b>Adverb Suffixes.</b></h5> - -<p><b>-ere</b> denotes place in which; here, there, where.</p> - -<p><b>-es</b>, <b>-se</b>, <b>-ce</b>, <b>-s</b>, which are old (possessive) genitive -terminations; sometimes, besides, unawares, else, twice (= twiës), -thrice, hence, thence, whence, needs, outwards.</p> - -<p><b>-ly</b> denotes manner; sweetly, sadly, cleanly.</p> - -<p><b>-ther</b> denotes direction towards; hither, thither, whither.</p> - -<p><b>-ward</b>, <b>-wards</b>, denote direction; homeward, homewards, heavenward, -heavenwards, hitherward, inwards.</p> - -<p><b>-wise</b>, <b>-ways</b>, denote manner or fashion; otherwise, anywise, nowise, -straightway, alway, always, sideways, lengthways.</p></div> - -<h4><a name="sect-5-VI" id="sect-5-VI"></a>5. <b>LATIN.</b></h4> - -<h5><b>Noun Suffixes.</b></h5> - -<div class="blockquott"><p>1. <i>Those denoting persons or the doer of an action</i>:</p> - -<p><b>-an</b>, <b>-ain</b>; artisan, grammarian, villain.</p> - -<p><b>-ant</b> or <b>-ent</b>; agent, student, assistant, attendant, recreant, -tenant, miscreant.</p> - -<p><b>-ate</b>, <b>-ee</b>, <b>-ey</b>, <b>-y</b>; legate, magistrate, advocate, curate, nominee, -trustee, legatee, committee, attorney, covey, ally, deputy, jury.</p> - -<p><b>-ess</b> denotes a fem. agent; governess, traitress, empress, duchess.</p> - -<p><b>-ive</b>, <b>-iff</b>; captive, fugitive, caitiff, plaintiff.</p> - -<p><b>-tor</b>, <b>-sor</b>, <b>-or</b>, <b>-our</b>, <b>-er</b>, <b>-eer</b>, <b>-ier</b>, <b>-ar</b>, <b>-ary</b>; doctor, -successor, chancellor, emperor, actor, Saviour, founder, enchanter, -governor, preacher, juror, author, monitor, victor, auditor, -sponsor, engineer, auctioneer, grenadier, brigadier, registrar, -usher, archer, farrier, vicar, premier, lapidary.</p> - -<p><b>-trix</b>, female agent; executrix.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Those forming Abstract Nouns</i>:</p> - -<p><b>-age</b>; age, homage, savage, marriage, voyage, tillage, courage, -personage, breakage, salvage. (Tonnage, bondage, shrinkage are -hybrids.)</p> - -<p><b>-ance</b>, <b>-ancy</b>, <b>-ence</b>, <b>-ency</b>; distance, constancy, infancy, -consistence, resistance, decency, consistency, persistence, -conveyance, cadence, chance (a form of cadence).</p> - -<p><b>-ice</b>, <b>-ise</b>; avarice, service, merchandise, justice, exercise.</p> - -<p><b>-ion</b>, <b>-tion</b>, <b>-sion</b>, <b>-som</b>, <b>-son</b>, originally denoted the action of a -verb; action, potion, opinion, poison, venison, malison, fusion, -reason, tension, lection, ransom, season, position, nation, -occasion.</p> - -<p><b>-or</b>, <b>-our</b>; labour, honour, ardour, savour, clamour, amour.</p> - -<p><b>-tude</b>; servitude, latitude, fortitude, altitude, longitude, -magnitude, custom (from <i>consuetudo</i>).</p> - -<p><b>-ty</b>, <b>-ity</b>; cruelty, charity, bounty, poverty, fealty, city, vanity.</p> - -<p><b>-ure</b>; juncture, censure, culture, measure, cincture, picture, -inclosure.</p> - -<p><b>-y</b>, <b>-cy</b>, <b>-ce</b>; family, copy, memory, story, victory, misery, -aristocracy, fancy, grace.</p> - -<p>3. <i>Diminutives</i>:</p> - -<p><b>-el</b>, <b>-le</b>; damsel, mongrel.</p> - -<p><b>-et</b>, <b>-let</b>; pocket, rivulet.</p> - -<p><b>-ette</b>; coquette, rosette.</p> - -<p><b>-icle</b>, <b>-cule</b>; article, animalcule.</p> - -<p><b>-ule</b>; globule, granule.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_75" id="page_75"></a>{75}</span></p> - -<h5><b>Adjective Suffixes.</b></h5> - -<p><b>-able</b>, <b>-ible</b>, <b>-ble</b>; culpable, probable, flexible, edible, capable, -soluble, feeble, amiable.</p> - -<p><b>-acious</b> denotes tendency, generally excessive; loquacious, -veracious, vivacious, tenacious, voracious.</p> - -<p><b>-al</b>, <b>-ar</b>; comical, regal, legal, general, regular, singular, loyal, -royal, equal, secular.</p> - -<p><b>-an</b>, <b>-ane</b>, <b>-ain</b>, <b>-en</b>, <b>-on</b>; human, urban, pagan, humane, mundane, -certain, mizzen (from <i>medius</i>). Surgeon and sexton have become -nouns.</p> - -<p><b>-aneous</b>, <b>-ain</b>, <b>-aign</b>, <b>-eign</b>, <b>-ange</b>; cutaneous, mountain, champaign, -foreign, strange.</p> - -<p><b>-ant</b>, <b>-ent</b>; volant, fluent, patent, innocent.</p> - -<p><b>-ary</b>, <b>-arian</b>, <b>-arious</b>; stationary, contrary, necessary, gregarious, -agrarian.</p> - -<p><b>-ate</b>, <b>-ete</b>, <b>-eet</b>, <b>-ite</b>, <b>-ute</b>, <b>-te</b>; fortunate, deliberate, concrete, -effete, discreet, erudite, minute, chaste.</p> - -<p><b>-estrial</b>, <b>-estrian</b>; terrestrial, equestrian.</p> - -<p><b>-ic</b>; civic, classic, barbaric, unique.</p> - -<p><b>-id</b>; fervid, morbid, acid, tepid.</p> - -<p><b>-ile</b>, <b>-il</b>, <b>-eel</b>, <b>-le</b>; servile, senile, fragile, civil, frail, -genteel, gentle, able.</p> - -<p><b>-ine</b> denotes belonging to; feminine, divine, feline, lacustrine, -canine, equine, saline.</p> - -<p><b>-ive</b>, inclined to; pensive, massive, captive, plaintive, restive, -native, fugitive, active.</p> - -<p><b>-ous</b>, <b>-ose</b>, denote full of; famous, ingenuous, glorious, copious, -assiduous, querulous, anxious, verbose, grandiose, jocose, -dangerous.</p> - -<p><b>-ory</b>; illusory, amatory, admonitory.</p> - -<p><b>-und</b>; jocund, moribund, floribund, rotund.</p> - -<h5><b>Verb Suffixes.</b></h5> - -<p><b>-ate</b>; advocate, complicate, anticipate, supplicate, eradicate.</p> - -<p><b>-eer</b>; domineer, career, volunteer.</p> - -<p><b>-esce</b> denotes the beginning of an action; effervesce, coalesce.</p> - -<p><b>-fy</b> denotes to make (from <i>facio</i>), magnify, terrify, qualify, -signify.</p> - -<p><b>-ish</b>; nourish, perish, cherish, finish, flourish, banish, punish.</p> - -<p><b>-ite</b>, <b>-ete</b>, <b>-t</b>; expedite, delete, perfect, conduct, reflect, -connect.</p></div> - -<h4><a name="sect-6-VI" id="sect-6-VI"></a>6. <b>GREEK.</b></h4> -<h5><b>Noun Suffixes.</b></h5> - -<div class="blockquott"><p><b>-et</b>, <b>-t</b>, <b>-ete</b>, <b>-ate</b>, denote the agent; poet, prophet, athlete, -comet, planet, apostate, æsthete(?), patriot.</p> - -<p><b>-isk</b> has diminutive signification; asterisk, obelisk.</p> - -<p><b>-ism</b> denotes the result of an action; deism, fatalism, egotism, -criticism, aneurism.</p> - -<p><b>-ist</b> denotes the agent; baptist, sophist, evangelist.</p> - -<p><b>-ma</b>, <b>-em</b>, <b>-me</b>, <b>-m</b>, denote the result of an action; diorama, drama, -dogma, system, scheme, theme, diadem, phlegm, enema.</p> - -<p><b>-sis</b>, <b>-sy</b>, <b>-se</b>, denote action; crisis, poesy, phase, genesis, -emphasis, paralysis, hypocrisy, ellipse, phrensy.</p> - -<p><b>-ter</b>, <b>-tre</b>, denote the instrument; metre, centre.</p> - -<p><b>Verb Suffixes.</b></p> - -<p><b>-ise</b> signifies to do; criticise, baptise, eulogise.</p></div> - -<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_76" id="page_76"></a>{76}</span><a name="LITERATURE" id="LITERATURE"></a><i>LITERATURE.</i></h2> - -<h3><a name="I" id="I"></a>I.<br /><br /> -<b>Outline of Our Early Literature</b></h3> - -<p class="c">(WITH ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE EARLY LANGUAGE).</p> - -<p><a name="sect-1-LIT" id="sect-1-LIT">1.</a> <b>THE BEOWULF.</b>—The <i>Beowulf</i> is a poem which recounts the life and -death of a hero of that name, who slays a monster called <i>Grendel</i>. It -was a poetic legend brought from the Continent by our Teutonic -ancestors. It does not seem to have been written down, or committed to -paper, till the seventh century; and it was probably preserved in the -memory of different generations, by its being taught by fathers to their -sons, and by the habit of chanting portions of it at the banquets of -kings and warriors. It is a poem which in substance belongs to the -Continental Teutons as much as to the English; and it marks the point at -which their literatures and languages begin to branch off. The scene is -laid in the north of Denmark; so that the poem is Northern, and not -Southern, Teutonic. Its present form is due to a Christian writer of -Northumbria. In literary form, therefore, it is English; and is one of -the earliest monuments of our literature. The poem consists of 6350 -short lines, and is written throughout in head-rhymes,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> or -alliterative rhymes.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-2-LIT" id="sect-2-LIT">2.</a> <b>CÆDMON.</b>—But the first true English poem was the work of a -Northumbrian called <span class="smcap">Cædmon</span>, who was a servant to the monks of the abbey -of Hilda, in Whitby. It was written about the year 670. It is a -paraphrase of the history given in the Old and the New Testament. It -sings of the creation of the world, of the history of Israel, of the -life of Christ, of death, judgment, purgatory, heaven, and hell.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_77" id="page_77"></a>{77}</span></p> - -<p><a name="sect-3-LIT" id="sect-3-LIT">3.</a> <b>BÆDA.</b>—The oldest literature of a nation—the early writings of its -childhood—are always poetic; and prose-writings do not appear until the -nation has, as it were, grown up. The first English prose-writer was -<span class="smcap">Bæda</span>—or, as he is generally called, The Venerable Bede. He was born in -the year 673. Like Cædmon, our first poet, he was a Northumbrian, and -belonged to the monastery of Jarrow-upon-Tyne. His most important -writings were in Latin; and the best known of them is an <i>Ecclesiastical -History of the English People</i>. But the work which makes Bæda our first -writer of English prose, is a translation into English of the <i>Gospel of -St John</i>. It was his last work; and, in fact, he died just after he had -dictated the last sentence. This was in the year 735.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-4-LIT" id="sect-4-LIT">4.</a> <b>KING ALFRED.</b>—Up to the year 866, Northumbria was the home of -learning and literature; and the Northumbrian monks were its loving and -diligent cultivators. But the incursions of the Danes, the destruction -of the monasteries, and the perpetual danger to life and property -arising from the troubled condition of the country, put a stop for some -time to study and to letters. The cultivation of English as a -book-language reappears, towards the end of the ninth century, in the -south of the island. Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, is its great -friend and promoter. Winchester was the capital of his kingdom; and it -was at Winchester that Alfred and his colleagues laboured at the writing -of English books. He invited great scholars from different parts of the -world; he set up schools; he himself taught a school in his own court; -he translated the Latin manuals of the time into English, and added -largely to them from his own materials; he translated also the <i>History</i> -of the Venerable Bede; and, most probably, he worked at the <i>Anglo-Saxon -Chronicle</i>, and made it much fuller and more detailed than it had ever -been before. He founded schools in the different parts of his kingdom, -with the purpose and in the hope that ‘every free-born youth, who has -the means, may attend to his book till he can read English writing -perfectly.’ Alfred was born in the year 849, and died in 901. His own -personal diligence—his unceasing head-work, are well known. He gave -eight hours a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_78" id="page_78"></a>{78}</span> day to the work of public affairs—of managing the -business of his kingdom; eight hours to books and study; and he reserved -only eight hours for sleep, meals, exercise, and amusement. The -following is a passage from one of King Alfred’s writings:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="margin:auto auto;max-width:70%;"> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p>Swa claenë heo waes othfeallen on Angel-cynne, thaet swithe feawa -waeran be-heonan Humbre the hira thenunge cuthon understandan on -Englisc, ohthe farthon an aerend-gewrit of Ledene on Englisc -areccan; and ic wene thaet naht monige be-geondan Humbre naeron.</p> -</td><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"> </span></td> -<td><p>So clean (completely) it was ruined (had ruin fallen) on the -English folk (kin), that very few were on this side Humber who -their service could understand in English, or out (forth) an -epistle (errand-writing) from Latin into English declare (= -translate); and I wene that not many beyond Humber were (who could -do this).</p></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><a name="sect-5-LIT" id="sect-5-LIT">5.</a> <b>THE ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE.</b>—This chronicle was written chiefly by -monks, and was, in its earliest forms, a dry register or record of -events—of the births and deaths of kings, bishops, earls, and other -distinguished persons. In Alfred’s time, it became more of a history; -and even war-songs and battle odes are quoted in it. It was continued -down to the death of King Stephen in 1154; and the last portions of it -were composed and transcribed by the monks of Peterborough.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-6-LIT" id="sect-6-LIT">6.</a> <b>ARCHBISHOP ÆLFRIC.</b>—Ælfric was Archbishop of Canterbury in the early -part of the eleventh century; and he translated the first seven books of -the Bible, and part of Job, into the oldest form of English, which is -generally called <i>Anglo-Saxon</i>. The following is a specimen:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="margin:auto auto;max-width:70%;"> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p>1. On anginnë gesceôp God heofenan and eordan.</p> -</td><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"> </span></td> -<td><p>In beginning shaped God heaven and earth.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr valign="top"><td><p>4. God geseah thâ, thaet hit gôd vaes, and he gedaeldë thaet leóht -fram thâm theóstrum.</p></td> -<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"> </span></td> - -<td><p>God saw then, that it good was, and he dealed (divided) the light -from the darkness.</p></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><a name="sect-7-LIT" id="sect-7-LIT">7.</a> <b>ANGLO-SAXON GOSPELS.</b>—This translation of the four gospels forms -another land-mark in the history of our English tongue. This translation -was made before the Norman Conquest—before French words had come into -our<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_79" id="page_79"></a>{79}</span> language, and therefore before the inflections of English had -dropped off from the words.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-8-LIT" id="sect-8-LIT">8.</a> <b>OLD ENGLISH DIALECTS.</b>—For more than a century after the Conquest, -English ceased to be used as a literary language—as a book-speech, -except in the <i>Saxon Chronicle</i>, which was continued down to 1154. It -still continued, of course, to be the language of the English nation. -The Normans, when they used books at all, imported French books from -France; and they never dreamed that English was a language worthy to be -written down. Different English counties spoke different kinds of -English; and this continued for many centuries—and still continues to a -considerable extent. Thus the English spoken by a Yorkshire-man is very -different from the English spoken by a Dorsetshire-man; and the English -of both differs very much from that spoken in Kent. But, in the eleventh -and twelfth centuries—and even much later—travelling was very -difficult and expensive; working-men could not travel at all; there was -little motive to travel for any one; and generations were born and died -within the same village, or on one farm, or at least in one part of the -‘country-side.’ Thus different parts of this island pronounced their -English in their own way; had their own grammar—that is, their own -inflections; and each division of England looked upon itself as the -right and correct speakers of the English tongue. But, among the large -number of different dialects, there gradually emerged into distinct and -even remarkable prominence three chief dialects. These are now known as -the <b>Northern</b>, <b>Midland</b>, and <b>Southern</b>. The grammar of the three differs in -several respects; but the chief grammatical mark is found in the plural -ending of the present tense of verbs. This is <b>ës</b> in the North; <b>en</b> in the -Midland dialect; and <b>eth</b> in the South. Thus we have:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="c"><i>N.</i></td> -<td class="c"><i>M.</i></td> -<td class="c"><i>S.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">We hopës,</td><td align="left">we hopen,</td><td align="left">we hopeth.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">You hopës,</td><td align="left">you hopen,</td><td align="left">you hopeth.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">They hopës, </td><td align="left">they hopen, </td><td align="left">they hopeth.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>This variety of the plural forms the test which enables<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_80" id="page_80"></a>{80}</span> readers of -books written in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, to determine -in what part of England and in what dialect they were written. The -following are the chief books written in these dialects:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="hang3"><b>NORTHERN</b> (spoken between the Forth and the Humber)—the <b>Cursor -Mundi</b>, a version of Scripture in rhyme, written about - -</td> -<td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1320</b></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="hang3"><b>MIDLAND</b> (spoken in the East-Anglian counties, and the whole of the -Midland district)—<b>Orm’s Ormulum</b>, a paraphrase in verse of the -parts of the gospels given in the church service, written in - -</td> -<td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1215</b> -</td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="hang3"><b>SOUTHERN</b> (spoken in all the counties south of the Thames, and also -in several western counties)—<b>Layamon’s Brut</b> (a translation of a -French poem by John de Wace), written in</td> - -<td class="rt" valign="bottom"><b>1205</b></td></tr> - -</table> - -<p><a name="sect-9-LIT" id="sect-9-LIT">9.</a> <b>THE FIRST ENGLISH BOOK AFTER THE NORMAN CONQUEST.</b>—Normandy was lost -to England in the reign of King John, in the year 1204. From that date, -as we have seen, there was a compulsion on the Norman-French to forget -their foreign origin, and to look upon themselves as genuine Englishmen. -A year after, in the year 1205, ten years before the winning of the -Magna Charta, appeared the first work—it was a poem—that was written -in English after the Conquest. It is a translation by a Somersetshire -priest called <b>Layamon</b> or <b>Laweman</b>, from a French poem. <i>Brut</i> is the -French form of the name <i>Brutus</i>, who was said to be a son of Æneas, and -to be the founder of the British nation. In those rude times, when -history was quite unknown, the origin of every nation was traced up to -Troy, and the persons of the <i>Iliad</i> of Homer. The <i>Brut</i> is a poem -written chiefly in head-rhymes, and consists of about thirty thousand -lines. But though it is translated from a French poem, there are not -fifty French words in the whole—that is, there is not one French word -in every six hundred lines.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-10-LIT" id="sect-10-LIT">10.</a> <b>ORM’S ORMULUM, 1215.</b>—The <i>Ormulum</i> was a poem written by an -Augustine monk, called <b>Orm</b> or <b>Ormin</b>, and called after his own name. It -is a poem of nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_81" id="page_81"></a>{81}</span> twenty thousand short lines, without rhyme of any -kind—but with a regular number of accents. There are not five French -words in the whole poem. Orm was extremely particular about his -spelling; and, when an accent struck a consonant after a <i>short</i> vowel, -he insisted on doubling the consonant.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-11-LIT" id="sect-11-LIT">11.</a> <b>LANGLAND AND CHAUCER.</b>—William Langland represents the part of the -nation that spoke pure English; Geoffrey Chaucer, that part which spoke -English with a large admixture of Norman-French. In fact, Chaucer’s -poems show the high-water mark of the French saturation of our English -vocabulary. Langland—a west-countryman, a monk, a man of the people, -and of intensely radical sympathies—was born in 1332; Chaucer, a -Londoner, in the very centre of English society, page to the Duchess of -Clarence at sixteen years of age, and afterwards for great part of his -life in court employment, was born in 1340. Both died in the year 1400. -Langland’s most important poem is the <i>Vision of (concerning) Piers -Plowman</i>. It is written in pure English, and in head-rhyme. It is the -last English poem that was written in this kind of alliterative verse. -The following lines are taken from the introduction:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr> -<td>In a somer seasun<br /> -when softe was the sonnë,<br /> -I shop me into a schroud<br /> -a scheep as I werë,<br /> -in habite of an hermite<br /> -unholy of werkes,<br /> -wende I wydene in this world<br /> -wondrës to here.</td> -<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;"> </span></td> - -<td>In a summer season<br /> -when soft was the sun,<br /> -I shape me into (dressed) shrouds (clothes)<br /> -shepherd as I was,<br /> -in habit as a hermit,<br /> -unholy in works,<br /> -went (far and) wide in this world,<br /> -wonders to hear. </td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Chaucer’s great work is his <i>Canterbury Tales</i>, a series of tales -supposed to be told by a company of pilgrims to beguile their journey to -the shrine of St Thomas of Canterbury. The company represented men and -women of almost every class in England; and their manners and character -are painted with wonderful truth and beauty. The following is a passage -from the <i>Prologue</i> to the <i>Canterbury Tales</i>; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_82" id="page_82"></a>{82}</span> the French words are -in italics. It is from the character of the <i>Knight</i>:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">And evermore he had a <i>sovereyn prys</i>,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a><br /></span> -<span class="i0">And, though that he was worthy, he was wys,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And of his <i>port</i><a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> as meke as is a mayde.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">He nevere yit no <i>vileinye</i><a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> ne sayde<br /></span> -<span class="i0">In al his lyf, unto no <i>maner</i><a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> wight.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">He was a <i>verray perfight gentil</i><a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> knight.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">But, for to tellen you of his <i>array</i>,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a><br /></span> -<span class="i0">His hors was good, but he ne was nought <i>gay</i>.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a><br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><a name="sect-12-LIT" id="sect-12-LIT">12.</a> <b>ALLITERATION OR HEAD-RHYME.</b>—Alliteration is the correspondence of -the first letter of several words in the same line. It is like the -well-known: ‘Peter Piper picked a peck of pepper off a pewter plate.’</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Round the rugged rocks the ragged rascals ran.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>In Old English or Anglo-Saxon poetry it was the only kind of rhyme used. -The rhyme which is called end-rhyme was not known to the Saxons, and was -imported into England by the Normans. In the ordinary Old English verse, -the lines are written in pairs, and in each pair there are usually three -alliterations, two in the first line and one in the second. Even as late -as the fourteenth century we find such verses as the following, written -by Langland:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">I shop me into a schroud,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">A scheep as I werë.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>Shakspeare is fond of making fun of it. But it has unconsciously -survived in the language; and there is not a single great English poet, -from Shakspeare to Tennyson, who does not make a large use of it. Thus -Shakspeare himself has</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">In maiden meditation, fancy-free.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Full fathom five thy father lies.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">and many other similar lines.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_83" id="page_83"></a>{83}</span></p> - -<p>Milton gives us such lines as:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i8">Him the Almighty power<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>Shelley has the line:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Our sweetest songs are those which tell of saddest thought.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>Tennyson is very fond of alliteration. Thus, in the <i>Day-Dream</i>:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">And o’er them many a sliding star<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And many a merry wind was borne;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And, streamed through many a golden bar,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">The twilight melted into morn.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><a name="sect-13-LIT" id="sect-13-LIT">13.</a> <b>JOHN GOWER.</b>—A contemporary of Chaucer was John Gower, a gentleman -of Kent. The date of his birth is not known; but he survived Chaucer -eight years, dying in 1408. He wrote the <i>Lover’s Confession</i> in English -verse; the <i>Mirror of the Meditative Man</i> in French verse (lost); the -<i>Voice of one crying</i>, in Latin. His style was heavy and prosaic. -Chaucer called him the ‘moral Gower.’</p> - -<p><a name="sect-14-LIT" id="sect-14-LIT">14.</a> <b>JOHN BARBOUR.</b>—Another eminent contemporary of Chaucer was John -Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, who wrote in the Scottish, or Northern -English, form of our tongue. He was a learned man, and a man of the -world, who filled important office in the employment of the Scottish -king. His great work was a narrative poem, <i>The Bruce</i>, giving an -account of the life and adventures of the great Bruce. It is valuable -both as a monument of our language and a storehouse of historical -incident. Barbour died about 1395. The literature of Scotland was -worthily continued by the royal poet, James I. (1394-1437), brought up -as a prisoner in England, and well educated. His great work was the -<i>King’s Quhair</i> (or book), a poem in the style and in one of the metres -of Chaucer.</p> - -<p><a name="sect-15-LIT" id="sect-15-LIT">15.</a> <b>SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE.</b>—Sir John Mandeville is the first writer of the -<i>new</i> English prose—the prose with a large addition of French words. He -is sometimes called the Father of English Prose. He was born at St -Albans, in Hertfordshire, in 1300, and died at Liège, in 1372. He was a -great<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_84" id="page_84"></a>{84}</span> traveller, soldier, and physician; travelled through the Holy -Land, served under the Sultan of Egypt and the Great Khan of Cathay (the -old name for <i>China</i>); and wandered through almost all the then known -parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. He wrote his travels in three -languages—first in Latin for the learned; then in French for the -Norman-French; and lastly in English, ‘that every man of the nation -might understand them.’ The following is a specimen of his prose:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>And 2 myle from Ebron (Hebron) is the grave of Lothe (Lot) that was -Abrahames brother. And a lytille fro Ebron is the mount of Mambre, -of the whiche the valeye takethe his name. And there is a tree of -oke, that the Sarazinis clepen (call) <i>Dirpë</i>, that is of Abrahames -tyme, the whiche men clepen the drye tree. And thei saye, that it -hathe ben there sithe the beginnynge of the world, and was sumtyme -grene, and bare leves, unto the tyme that oure Lord dyede on the -cros; and thanne it dryede, and so dyden alle the trees, that weren -thanne in the world.</p></div> - -<p>This is almost quite like modern English—with the exception of the -spelling;</p> - -<p><a name="sect-16-LIT" id="sect-16-LIT">16.</a> <b>JOHN WICLIFFE.</b>—John Wicliffe,* or John de Wycliffe, was born at the -village of Hipswell, near Richmond, in Yorkshire, in the year 1324. He -died at the vicarage of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire, in the year -1384, at the age of sixty. He was the first Englishman who attempted to -make a complete translation of the Scriptures. Of this work, however, -the Gospels alone can be certainly identified as the work of Wicliffe -himself. The Old Testament and apocryphal books were translated -principally by Nicolas de Hereford, and it is supposed that his work was -interrupted in 1382, and that the Bible was completed about that time by -extracting the text of the gospels from Wicliffe’s commentary on the -gospels (written in 1360), and adding to it a new translation of the -rest of the New Testament. A later version was finished by Wicliffe’s -friend, John Purvey, about 1388, and appears to be mainly a revision of -the work of Hereford and Wicliffe. The later is a less close and literal -version than the former, and is expressed in more idiomatic and less -laboured English.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_85" id="page_85"></a>{85}</span></p> - -<p><a name="sect-17-LIT" id="sect-17-LIT">17.</a> <b>OUR ENGLISH BIBLE AND ITS HISTORY.</b>—The first fresh translation from -the original sources was that of <b>William Tyndale</b>. His New Testament, -printed at Cologne and at Worms, reached the English shores in 1526, and -was followed three years later by the Pentateuch. To this translation -our authorised version owes much of its peculiar force and beauty. The -first complete English Bible was that of <b>Miles Coverdale</b>, which appeared -in 1535. In April 1539 appeared the <b>Great Bible</b> (so called from its -large size), prepared by Coverdale at Paris, but completed in London -under the patronage of Thomas Cromwell. The translation of the psalms in -the Great Bible has remained, without alteration, the Psalter in the -Book of Common Prayer. During the last year of Mary’s reign and the -beginning of Elizabeth’s, the English refugees at Geneva completed a -fresh revision of the Great Bible, which was published in 1560, in a -handy size, with a marginal commentary, and the chapters divided into -verses. The <b>Genevan version</b> (sometimes called the Breeches Bible), -became popular with the Puritans, and more than two hundred editions of -it were published, and it gave way slowly before the present authorised -version. Soon after Elizabeth’s accession, Archbishop Parker organised a -revision of the Great Bible of 1539, which was published in 1568, and -became known as the <b>Bishops’ Bible</b>. During Elizabeth’s reign, the Popish -exiles at Rheims produced a new version from the Vulgate, which was -printed at Douay in 1609, and is known as the <b>Douay Bible</b>. The English -Bible which is now recognised as the ‘<b>authorised version</b>’ wherever the -English language is spoken, is a revision of the Bishops’ Bible, begun -in 1604 and finished in 1611. Of this noble version many millions have -been printed, and its general acceptance by all English-speaking people -is the best testimony to its excellence. No book has had so great an -influence on our language and literature; its words and phrases have -been preserved in our vocabulary, and are the most familiar to our ears, -consecrated as they are with the associations of two hundred and seventy -years. A revision of our version by the most eminent scholars is now in -progress, and the revised<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_86" id="page_86"></a>{86}</span> New Testament was published, May 17, 1881. -Appended is a passage from Romans (xii. 6-8), as it appears in -Wicliffe’s, Tyndale’s, the Great Bible, the Genevan Bible, the Bishop’s -Bible, and our Authorised Version:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary=""> -<tr valign="top"> - -<td><p class="c">1. WICLIFFE.</p> - -<p>6 Therfor we that han yiftis dyuer-synge, aftir the grace that is -youun to vs, ethir prophecie, aftir the resoun of feith;</p> - -<p>7 ethir seruise, in mynystryng; ethir he that techith, in techyng;</p> - -<p>8 he that stirith softli, in monestyng; he that yyueth, in -symplenesse; he that is souereyn, in bisynesse; he that hath merci, -in gladnesse.</p></td> - -<td><p class="c">2. TYNDALE.</p> - -<p>6 Seyinge that we have divers gyftes accordynge to the grace that -is geven vnto vs, yf eny man have the gyft off prophesy lett hym -have it that itt be agreynge vnto the fayth.</p> - -<p>7 Let hym that hath an office, wayte on his office. Let hym that -teacheth take hede to his doctryne.</p> - -<p>8 Let hym that exhorteth geve attendaunce to his exhortacion. Yf -eny man geve, lett hym do it with singlenes. Let hym that rueleth -do it with diligence. Yf eny man shewe mercy lett hym do itt with -cherfulnes.</p></td> -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="c">3. GREAT BIBLE.</p> - -<p>6 Seynge that we haue dyuers gyftes accordynge to the grace that is -geuen vnto vs: yf any man haue the gyfte of prophecy let him haue -it that it be agreing vnto ye fayth.</p> - -<p>7 Let hym that hath an office wayte on hys office. Let hym that -teacheth take hede to hys doctrine.</p> - -<p>8 Let hym that exhorteth geue attendaunce to his exhortacion. If -any man geue, let hym do it wyth synglenes. Let hym that ruleth do -it with diligence. If any man shewe mercy, let him do it with -cherfulnes.</p></td> - -<td><p class="c">4. GENEVAN BIBLE.</p> - -<p>6 Seeing then that we haue giftes that are diuers, according to the -grace that is giuen vnto vs whether we haue prophesie, let us -prophesie according to the proportion of faith:</p> - -<p>7 Or an office let vs waite on the office: or hee that teacheth on -teaching.</p> - -<p>8 Or he that exhorteth on exhortation: hee that distributeth let -him do it with simplicitie: he that ruleth with diligence: hee that -sheweth mercie with chearefulnes.</p></td></tr> -<tr valign="top"> -<td><p class="c">5. BISHOPS’ BIBLE.</p> - -<p>6 Seeing that wee haue diuers giftes according to the grace that is -giuen vnto vs eyther prophecie, after the measure of fayth.</p> - -<p>7 Eyther office, in administration: or he that teacheth, in -teaching.</p> - -<p>8 Or he that exhorteth, in exhorting: he that giueth in -singlenesse, he that ruleth in diligence: hee that is mercyfull in -chearefulnesse.</p></td> - -<td><p class="c">6. AUTHORISED VERSION.</p> - -<p>6 Hauing then gifts differing according to the grace that is giuen -to vs, whether prophecie, let vs prophecie according to the -proportion of faith.</p> - -<p>7 Or ministery, let vs wait, on our ministring: or hee that -teacheth on teaching.</p> - -<p>8 Or he that exhorteth, on exhortation: he that giueth let him doe -it with simplicite: hee that ruleth, with diligence: hee that -sheweth mercy with cheerefulnesse.</p></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_87" id="page_87"></a>{87}</span></p> - -<h3><a name="II" id="II"></a>II.<br /><br /> -<a name="Tabular_Outline_of_modern_English_Literature" id="Tabular_Outline_of_modern_English_Literature"></a>Tabular Outline of modern English Literature.</h3> - -<p class="c">(Poems are mentioned in <i>Italics</i>.)</p> - -<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">WILLIAM DUNBAR, 1450-1530.<br /> -Poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>The Thistle and the Rose</i> (1503); <i>The Golden Terge</i> (1508); <i>The -Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins</i>. The greatest of the Scottish poets -except Burns. He has been called ‘the Chaucer of Scotland.’</p></td> -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">SIR THOMAS MORE, 1480-1535.<br /> -Barrister; Lord Chancellor of England; writer on social philosophy; -historian.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">History of King Edward V., and of his brother, and of Richard III. -(1513); Utopia (1516)—a description of a model state of society, -written to influence the bettering of the laws of England.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"> -<td><p class="hang">WILLIAM TYNDALE, 1477-1536.<br /> -Priest; translator; author.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Translation of New Testament (1525, 1534), also of the Pentateuch -and Jonah (1530-31). He has done more by his version to fix and -shape our language in its present form, than any writer between -Chaucer and Shakspeare.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">SIR DAVID LYNDSAY, 1490-1556.<br /> -Keeper of Prince James (afterwards James V. of Scotland); Lyon -king-at-arms; poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Satire of the Three Estates</i>, that is, King, Lords, and Commons; -<i>Monarchie</i>.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">ROGER ASCHAM, 1515-1568.<br /> -Lecturer on Greek at Cambridge; tutor to Edward VI. and Queen -Elizabeth.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Toxophĭlus, a treatise on shooting with the bow; The Schoolmaster, -a book about teaching, especially the teaching of Latin.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JOHN FOX, 1517-1587.<br /> -Prebendary of Salisbury Cathedral.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Book of Martyrs (1563), an account of the chief Protestant martyrs, -chiefly those in the reign of Mary.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">EDMUND SPENSER, 1552-1599.<br /> -Secretary to Viceroy of Ireland; poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Shepherd’s Calendar</i> (1579); <i>Faerie Queene</i> (1590-96), in six -books.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">RICHARD HOOKER, 1553-1600.<br /> -Scholar and theologian; Master of the Temple; and rector of a -country church.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity. This is a defence of the Church of -England, and contains passages of great majesty and splendour of -diction.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">SIR PHILIP SIDNEY, 1554-1586.<br /> -Courtier; romancist; poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Arcadia, a romance (1580); Defence of Poesie. Some <i>Sonnets</i>.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">FRANCIS BACON, 1561-1626.<br /> -Lord High Chancellor of England; essayist; philosopher.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Essays (1597); Advancement of Learning (1605); Novum Organum -(1620); and other works on philosophy, and the art of gaining new -knowledge.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">SIR WALTER RALEIGH, 1552-1618.<br /> -Courtier; navigator; historian.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">History of the World (1614), written in the Tower of London, where -he lay for about thirteen years. His work is ‘one of the finest -models of our quaint and stately old English style.’</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">WILLIAM SHAKSPEARE, 1564-1616.<br /> -Dramatist and poet; born at Stratford-on-Avon; went to London at -the age of twenty-two; left London in 1609, and from that time -lived in his native town.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Tragedies</i> and <i>Comedies</i>, and <i>Historical Plays</i>; thirty-seven in -all. Among his greatest tragedies are, <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Lear</i>, <i>Macbeth</i>, -<i>Othello</i>, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>. Of his comedies the best are the -<i>Tempest</i>, <i>Midsummer Night’s Dream</i>, <i>As you like it</i>, <i>Merchant -of Venice</i>, &c. Of his historical plays, <i>Richard III.</i> and <i>Julius -Cæsar</i> are specially worth mention. <i>Minor Poems.</i> Wrote no prose.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">BEN JONSON, 1574-1637.<br /> -Dramatist; poet; prose-writer.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Tragedies and Comedies</i>, of the latter, the greatest are <i>Volpone -or the Fox</i>; <i>Every Man in His Humour</i>; and <i>The Alchemist</i>.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">WILLIAM DRUMMOND, 1585-1649.<br /> -Poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Sonnets</i> and <i>Religious Poems</i>.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">SIR THOMAS BROWNE, 1605-1682.<br /> -Medical practitioner at Norwich.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Religio Medici (the religion of a physician), contains the author’s -opinions on a great variety of subjects; Urn Burial, a learned and -eloquent work.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JOHN MILTON, 1608-1674.<br /> -Poet; Latin secretary to Cromwell (1649). Became blind in 1654. -</p></td><td><p class="hang"><i>Minor Poems</i>; <i>Paradise Lost</i>; <i>Paradise Regained</i>; <i>Samson -Agonistes</i>. Many prose works, chiefly on politics, and in defence -of the Commonwealth.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">THOMAS HOBBES, 1588-1679.<br /> -Philosopher.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Leviathan (1651), a great philosophical and political work.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JEREMY TAYLOR, 1613-1667.<br /> -Bishop of Down in Ireland.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Holy Living and Holy Dying (1649); and many other books and -sermons.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">SAMUEL BUTLER, 1612-1680.<br /> -Secretary to the Earl of Carberry.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Hudibras</i> (1663), a mock-heroic poem, written to caricature the -Puritans.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JOHN DRYDEN, 1631-1700.<br /> -Poet-laureate and Historiographer Royal. Also a playwright; poet; -prose-writer; critic.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Annus Mirabilis</i> (1667)—a poem on the <i>Plague</i> and the <i>Fire of -London</i>; <i>Absalom and Achitophel</i> (1681)—a poem on political -matters; <i>Hind and Panther</i> (1687). He wrote many <i>Tragedies</i> and -<i>Comedies</i> and <i>Odes</i>; a translation of the <i>Æneid</i> of Virgil. He -wrote a great deal of the best prose—chiefly Essays and -Introductions to his poems.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JOHN BUNYAN, 1628-1688.<br /> -Tinker and preacher.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678); the Holy War, and other works.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JOHN LOCKE, 1632-1704.<br /> -Member of the Board of Trade; one of the leading men in English -philosophy.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Letters on Toleration (1689); Essay concerning the Human -Understanding (1690); Thoughts concerning Education, and other -prose works.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">DANIEL DEFOE, 1661-1731.<br /> -Pamphleteer; journalist; had a very troubled and changeful career.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Robinson Crusoe (1719); <i>The True-born Englishman</i>; Journal of the -Plague; The Shortest Way with the Dissenters; and more than a -hundred books and pamphlets in all. He is one of the most taking -writers that ever lived.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JONATHAN SWIFT, 1667-1745.<br /> -Dean of St Patrick’s in Dublin; satirist; poet; prose-writer.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Battle of the Books; Tale of a Tub (1704); Gulliver’s Travels -(1726). Many of the ablest political pamphlets of the day. A number -of <i>Poems</i>. His prose was the strongest and most nervous prose -written in the eighteenth century.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">SIR RICHARD STEELE, 1671-1729.<br /> -Gentleman usher to Prince George; a fashionable man about town.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Essays in the Tatler, in the Spectator, in the Guardian—all of -them a kind of magazine. A few plays.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JOSEPH ADDISON, 1672-1719.<br /> -Secretary of State.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Essays in the Tatler, in the Spectator, and in the Guardian. -<i>Cato</i>: a tragedy (1713). Several short <i>Poems</i>. His prose is the -finest, most genial, and most delicate of all the prose-writings of -the eighteenth century.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">ALEXANDER POPE, 1688-1744.<br /> -Poet; a Roman Catholic.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Essay on Criticism</i> (1711); <i>Rape of the Lock</i>—the story of the -stealing of a lock of hair; <i>Translations of the Iliad and -Odyssey</i>, half of the latter done by assistants (1715-20); the -<i>Dunciad</i>; <i>Essay on Man</i>. A few essays in prose; and a volume of -Letters.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JAMES THOMSON, 1700-1748.<br /> -Poet; held sinecure cure offices under government.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>The Seasons</i>—a poem in blank verse; <i>The Castle of Indolence</i>, a -poem in the nine-lined stanza of Edmund Spenser.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">HENRY FIELDING, 1707-1754.<br /> -Novelist and journalist.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Many comedies—now forgotten. Joseph Andrews (1742); Tom Jones -(1749); Amelia (1751). He was the ‘first great English novelist, -and he remains to this day one of the greatest.’</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">DAVID HUME, 1711-1776.<br /> -Librarian; secretary to the British Embassy in France.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Treatise of Human Nature (1737); Essays (1742); Inquiry concerning -the Principles of Morals; History of England (1754-62). Writes very -clear and pleasant prose.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">DR SAMUEL JOHNSON, 1709-1784.<br /> -Schoolmaster; literary man; dictionary-maker.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>London</i> (1738); the <i>Vanity of Human Wishes</i>; The Rambler -(1750-52); The Idler; English Dictionary (1755); Rasselas, a kind -of novel; Lives of the Poets; and other prose works.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">THOMAS GRAY, 1716-1771.<br /> -Poet; letter-writer; professor of Modern History, Cambridge.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Odes; <i>Elegy written in a Country Churchyard</i>, one of the most -pleasing, perfect, and oft-quoted poems in the language. He was -also a good letter-writer.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">WILLIAM ROBERTSON, 1721-1793.<br /> -Clergyman; historian; Principal of the University of Edinburgh.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">History of Scotland (1759); History of Charles V. (1769); History -of America (1777). Most readable and fluent prose.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">TOBIAS GEORGE SMOLLETT, 1721-1771.<br /> -Medical practitioner; poet; pamphleteer; critic and novelist.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Roderick Random; Peregrine Pickle; and Humphrey Clinker. His novels -are notable for their broad humour, and an easy picturesque style -of narration.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">ADAM SMITH, 1723-1790.<br /> -Professor of Logic in the University of Glasgow; then of Moral -Philosophy.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759); Enquiry into the Nature and -Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). The founder of the science -of economics (or wealth of nations).</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">OLIVER GOLDSMITH, 1728-1774.<br /> -Poet; literary man; play-writer.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">The Vicar of Wakefield (1766); the <i>Deserted Village</i>; She Stoops -to Conquer, a comedy. The <i>Traveller</i>; Citizen of the World; -Histories and minor <i>Poems</i>. The writer of the most pleasant prose -of the eighteenth century.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">EDMUND BURKE 1730-1797.<br /> -Statesman; ‘the first man in the Commons;’ writer on political -philosophy.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful (1756); Reflections on the -French Revolution (1790). Many speeches, pamphlets, and articles on -political matters. One of the deepest political thinkers, most -eloquent speakers, and ornate writers of prose that ever lived.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">WILLIAM COWPER, 1731-1800.<br /> -Poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Truth</i>, the <i>Progress of Error</i> (1781), and other poems; the -<i>Task</i> (1785); <i>John Gilpin</i>; <i>Translations of the Iliad and -Odyssey</i> (1791) in blank verse; <i>Hymns</i>. His prose—which consists -of letters—is clear, humorous, and pleasant.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">EDWARD GIBBON, 1737-1794.<br /> -Historian; sat eight years in the House of Commons, but never -spoke.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-87); Essays on the Study -of Literature (in French). His style is a splendid example ‘of -smiting phrases and weighty antithesis.’</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">ROBERT BURNS, 1759-1796.<br /> -Ploughman; farmer; Excise officer; poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Poems</i> and <i>Songs</i> (1786-96) (<i>Cottar’s Saturday Night</i>, <i>Jolly -Beggars</i>, <i>Tam o’ Shanter</i>, <i>Mountain Daisy</i>, etc.) His prose -consists chiefly of letters.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">WILLIAM WORDSWORTH, 1770-1850.<br /> -Distributor of stamps for the county of Westmoreland; poet; -poet-laureate.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Descriptive Sketches</i> (1793); <i>Lyrical Ballads</i> (1798); <i>Sonnets</i>; -<i>The Excursion</i> (1814); <i>The Prelude</i>. He marks the dawn of a new -school of poetry in the nineteenth century.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE, 1772-1834.<br /> -Journalist; secretary; literary man; poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>The Ancient Mariner</i> and <i>Christabel</i> (1797-1806); several plays, -including a translation of Schiller’s <i>Wallenstein</i>; many minor -poems; The Friend—a set of essays; Confessions of an Inquiring -Spirit; Biographia Literaria; Aids to Reflection. His prose is very -elaborate and also very musical.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">ROBERT SOUTHEY, 1774-1843.<br /> -Literary man; historian; reviewer; poet; poet-laureate.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Joan of Arc</i> (1793); <i>Thalaba the Destroyer</i>; the <i>Curse of -Kehama</i>; Life of Nelson. Firm, clear, and sensible prose. Wrote -more than a hundred volumes.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">CHARLES LAMB, 1775-1835.<br /> -Clerk in the East India House; essayist and humorist.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Essays of Elia (1820-25), which are quaint and familiar, and full -of kindly wit and grotesque humour.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">SIR WALTER SCOTT, 1771-1832.<br /> -Advocate; poet: novelist.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Border Minstrelsy</i>—a collection of old Border ballads (1802); -<i>Lay of the Last Minstrel</i> (1805); <i>Marmion</i> (1808); the <i>Lady of -the Lake</i> (1810); Waverley (1814)—the first of that remarkable -series, the Waverley Novels. In verse, he is the ‘Homer of -Scotland;’ and he was a master of most fluent, bright, flowing -narrative prose.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">THOMAS CAMPBELL, 1777-1844.<br /> -Poet; literary man.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Pleasures of Hope</i> (1799); <i>Minor Poems</i>—such as <i>Hohenlinden</i>, -<i>Battle of the Baltic</i>, <i>Ye Mariners of England</i>, <i>Gertrude of -Wyoming</i> (1809). His prose consists chiefly of the Introductions to -his <i>Specimens of the British Poets</i>.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">THOMAS MOORE, 1779-1852.<br /> -Poet; biographer; historian.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Odes and Epistles</i> (1806); <i>Lalla Rookh</i> (1817); Life of Byron -(1830); <i>Irish Melodies</i> (1834); History of Ireland (1836).</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">LORD BYRON, 1788-1824.<br /> -(George Gordon). Peer; poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>English Bards and Scotch Reviewers</i> (1808); <i>Childe Harold</i> -(1812); the <i>Bride of Abydos</i> (1814); and many <i>Plays</i>. His -prose—which is full of vigour, fire, and eloquence—consists -chiefly of letters.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY, 1792-1822.<br /> -Poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Queen Mab</i> (1813); <i>Revolt of Islam</i>; <i>Prometheus Unbound</i> -(1819)—a tragedy; <i>Odes</i> (<i>The Cloud</i>, <i>To the Skylark</i>, etc.), -and many minor poems. His prose consists chiefly of letters.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">HENRY HALLAM, 1778-1859.<br /> -Historian; literary man; Trustee of the British Museum.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages (1818); -Constitutional History of England (1827); Literature of Europe -(1837); History of the Middle Ages (1848). A clear and impartial -writer.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">THOMAS DE QUINCEY, 1785-1859.<br /> -Literary man.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Confessions of an English Opium-eater (1821); Essays on subjects in -almost every department of History, Philosophy, and Literature. His -style is eloquent, musical, and elaborate. In his own way, he was -the finest prose-writer of the nineteenth century.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JOHN KEATS, 1795-1821.<br /> -Poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Endymion</i> (1818); <i>Hyperion</i>; <i>Eve of St Agnes</i>; <i>Odes</i>. His poems -are full of beauty and rich and picturesque imagery.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">THOMAS CARLYLE, 1795-1881.<br /> -Mathematician; literary man; reviewer; historian.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Sartor Resartus (1833); The French Revolution, a History (1837); -Oliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches (1845); Life of John -Sterling (1851); History of Friedrich II. of Prussia (1858-65). His -style is full of force, fire, and grotesqueness; he paints in vivid -colours, and presents a true and exact picture of the living man.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">LORD MACAULAY, 1800-1859.<br /> -Barrister; reviewer; Secretary of the Board of Control for India; -member of the Supreme Council of India; historian; peer.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Essay on Milton (1825); <i>Lays of Ancient Rome</i> (1842); Essays -(1843); History of England (1848-1859). Wrote a style of the -greatest force and picturesqueness—full of allusion, illustration, -grace, clearness, and point.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">LORD LYTTON, 1805-1873.<br /> -Novelist; poet; statesman.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Eugene Aram (1831); The Last Days of Pompeii; The Caxtons; some -plays, minor <i>Poems</i>, and essays. Writes a most clear, fluent, -bright, ornate, and readable English style.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JOHN STUART MILL, 1806-1873.<br /> - -Clerk in the East India House; Utilitarian philosopher.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">System of Logic (1843); Political Economy (1844); Essay on Liberty. -One of the foremost thinkers of his time.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW, 1807-1882.<br /> -Professor of Modern Languages and Literature; poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Evangeline</i> (1847); <i>Hiawatha</i> (1855); <i>Minor Poems</i> (<i>Excelsior</i>; -<i>A Psalm of Life</i>, etc.) One of the sweetest and best known of -American poets.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">ALFRED TENNYSON, 1809-<br /> - -Poet; poet laureate.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Poems, chiefly Lyrical</i> (1830); <i>In Memoriam</i> (1850); <i>Idylls of -the King</i> (1859-73); <i>Enoch Arden</i> (1864); and several dramas. His -poetical style is full of beauty, sweetness, and variety.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">ELIZABETH BARRETT BROWNING, 1809-1861.<br /> -Poetess; the wife of Robert Browning.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Poems</i> (1838); <i>Aurora Leigh</i> (1856); <i>The Cry of the Children</i>; -<i>Cowper’s Grave</i>; <i>Sonnets from the Portuguese</i>, etc. A poetess of -infinite sweetness and power.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">ROBERT BROWNING, 1812-<br /> -Poet.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang"><i>Pauline</i> (1833); <i>Paracelsus</i> (1836); <i>The Ring and the Book</i>, and -about two dozen more volumes. His poems are very difficult to -understand, but are very well worth understanding.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY, 1811-1863.<br /> -Novelist.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Vanity Fair (1846); Pendennis (1849); Esmond; English Humorists, -etc. The finest novelist and one of the best prose-writers of the -century.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">CHARLES DICKENS, 1812-1870.<br /> -Novelist.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Pickwick Papers (1837); Oliver Twist; Nicholas Nickleby; David -Copperfield; Dombey and Son; Christmas Books, etc. He has been read -over and over again by hundreds of thousands of delighted readers.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">JOHN RUSKIN, 1819-<br /> - -Art-critic; moralist; literary-man.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Modern Painters (1843); The Seven Lamps of Architecture; The Stones -of Venice (1851-53); Sesame and Lilies; Lectures on Art; Fors -Clavigera. One of the most wonderful and imaginative writers of -English prose that ever lived.</p></td> - -</tr> - -<tr valign="top"><td><p class="hang">GEORGE ELIOT 1820-1880.<br /> -(Marian Evans), Novelist.</p></td> - -<td><p class="hang">Adam Bede (1858); Middlemarch (1871); Daniel Deronda (1876); -<i>Poems</i>. The novels of this accomplished lady rank among the -greatest of modern times.</p></td> - -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="c"> -THE END.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Edinburgh:<br /> -Printed by W. & R. Chambers.<br /> -</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="cb">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Pronounced <i>Mootter</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Pronounced <i>Brooder</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Thus we have <i>Wedn<b>es</b>day</i> = the day of Woden or Odin.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Jutland</i> means the <i>land of the Jutes</i>; <i>not</i> the <i>land -that juts out</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The division called <b>Wessex</b> included <i>Hampshire</i>, -<i>Wiltshire</i>, <i>Berkshire</i>, <i>Somersetshire</i>, <i>Dorsetshire</i>, -<i>Gloucestershire</i>, and <i>Devonshire</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The Revival of Letters, or the Renascence (or -<i>Renaissance</i>), is the name given to the new enthusiasm which seized -Italians, Germans, Frenchmen, and Englishmen, in the fifteenth and -sixteenth centuries, to read the great treasures of literature that may -be found in Greek and Latin books.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The same root exists in <i>monarch</i>, a person who rules -alone.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Two-languaged.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> What is called <i>the feudal system</i> was based upon war. A -knight held land of his baron; a baron of his king—on condition of -bringing so many men into the field on the summons of his overlord.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Low Latin</i> is the name for that kind of corruption of -Latin which was written and spoken after the breaking up of the Roman -Empire in the fifth century.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> A <i>synonym</i> is a word that has the <i>same meaning</i> as -another word; like <i>begin</i> and <i>commence</i>; <i>will</i> and <i>testament</i>. There -are very few real synonyms in English; because when the language -acquired a word of similar meaning, it at once set to work to use it in -a different <i>way</i>, or to give it a different <i>function</i>, or to bestow on -it a different tone, colouring, or shade.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> He might have said <i>hall</i> and <i>bower</i>. In the old English -times, the <i>hall</i> was the outer room of the cottage, into which the -front door opened, and <i>bower</i> was the inner room.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> A <i>liche</i> or <i>lyke</i> originally meant <i>body</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <i>Ayenbite</i> = <i>againbite</i>. The <i>again</i> corresponds to the -<i>re</i> in <i>remorse</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> In head-rhymes, two or three words in each line begin with -the same letter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The highest value.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Carriage.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Unbecoming or unkind thing.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Kind of person.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Very perfect gentle.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Dress.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Gaily dressed.</p></div> - -</div> -<hr class="full" /> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Outline of the history of the English -language and literature, by Anonymous - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTLINE HISTORY ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE *** - -***** This file should be named 53094-h.htm or 53094-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/0/9/53094/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif and The Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet -Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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