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diff --git a/old/52973-0.txt b/old/52973-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index bb33253..0000000 --- a/old/52973-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12191 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Geology and Revelation, by -Rev. Gerald Molloy and J. D. Dana - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Geology and Revelation - or the Ancient History of the Earth, considered in the - geological facts and revealed religion. - -Author: Rev. Gerald Molloy - J. D. Dana - -Release Date: September 4, 2016 [EBook #52973] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGY AND REVELATION *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Wayne Hammond, Dr. Aya Katz -for the Hebrew transcription, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Transcriber's Note: - -This project uses utf-8 encoded characters. If some characters -are not readable, check your settings of your reader and that -you have a font installed that can display utf-8 characters.] - - - - -GEOLOGY AND REVELATION. - - -Sicut Augustinus docet, in hujusmodi quæstionibus duo sunt observanda. -Primo quidem ut Veritas Scripturæ inconcusse teneatur. Secundo, cum -Scriptura Divina multipliciter exponi possit, quod nulli expositioni -aliquis ita præcise inhæreat, ut si certa ratione constiterit hoc esse -falsum quod aliquis sensum Scripturæ esse credebat, id nihilominus -asserere præsumat; ne Scriptura ex hoc ab infidelibus derideatur, et ne -eis via credendi præcludatur. - - S. THOMAS, _De Opere Secundæ Diei_; Summa, Pars 1, Quæst. 68, Art. 1. - -As Augustine teacheth, there are two things to be observed in questions -of this kind. First, that the truth of Scripture be inviolably -maintained. Secondly, since Divine Scripture may be explained in -many ways, that no one cling to any particular exposition with such -pertinacity that, if what he supposed to be the teaching of Scripture -should turn out to be plainly false, he would nevertheless presume to -put it forward; lest thereby Sacred Scripture should be exposed to the -derision of unbelievers, and the way of salvation should be closed to -them. - - SAINT THOMAS, _On the Work of the Second Day_. - - - - - GEOLOGY AND REVELATION: - - OR THE - - Ancient History of the Earth, - - CONSIDERED IN THE LIGHT OF - - GEOLOGICAL FACTS AND REVEALED RELIGION. - - _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS._ - - - BY THE - - REV. GERALD MOLLOY, D. D., - PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF ST. PATRICK, MAYNOOTH. - - - WITH AN INTRODUCTION - - To the American edition; and a chapter on COSMOGONY, [by permission] - from the Manual of Geology, by Prof. J. D. DANA. - - - NEW YORK: - G. P. PUTNAM & SONS, - 1870. - - - - - Stereotyped by LITTLE, RENNIE & CO., 645 and 647 Broadway, N. Y. - - PRESS OF THE NEW YORK PRINTING COMPANY, 81, 83, and 85 Centre St., N. Y. - - - - - TO THE VERY REVEREND - - CHARLES WILLIAM RUSSELL, D. D. - - PRESIDENT OF SAINT PATRICK’S COLLEGE, MAYNOOTH, - - _This Volume is Inscribed_, - - WITH EVERY SENTIMENT OF AFFECTION AND RESPECT. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The progress of modern Science has given rise to not a few objections -against the truths of Revelation. And of these there is none which -seems to have taken such a firm hold of the public mind in England, -and, indeed, throughout Europe generally, as that which is derived from -the interesting and startling discoveries of Geology. Accordingly, -when I was engaged, some years ago, in explaining and defending the -Evidences of Revealed Religion, I found myself brought face to face -with Geological phenomena and Geological speculations. - -It was plainly impossible to consider, in a candid and philosophical -spirit, the argument with which I had to deal, so long as I remained -ignorant of the evidence on which it was based. I resolved, therefore, -to make myself familiar with the leading principles and the leading -facts of Geology. And thus I was drawn insensibly into the study of -this science; to which I have devoted, for some years, the greater part -of my leisure hours. - -Impressed with the conviction that no fact can be really at variance -with Revealed Truth, I determined, in the first place, to ascertain the -facts which have been brought to light by the researches of Geologists. -The general principles, which might afterward appear to be clearly -involved in these facts when duly classified and arranged, I was fully -prepared to admit. And I hoped, in the end, to search out and discover -the harmony which, I was satisfied, must exist between conclusions thus -established and the Inspired Word of God. - -While occupied in working out this problem for myself, it was suggested -to me that others, who had not time or opportunity to pursue the same -line of inquiry, would, perhaps, be glad to share in the fruits of -my studies. In deference to this suggestion I consented, not without -misgivings, to write a series of papers on Geology in its relations -with Revealed Religion, which have appeared, from time to time, in -the _Irish Ecclesiastical Record_. From the attention these papers -attracted, crude and fragmentary as they were, it soon became evident -that the question was not without interest for a large class of -readers. And I have been led to believe that a more full and mature, -but at the same time a popular, Treatise on the subject would be a -welcome accession to ecclesiastical literature, and would supply a want -that has long been felt. Such a Treatise I have proposed to myself in -the present Volume. - - * * * * * - -In Geology I wish to disclaim at the outset, all pretension to original -researches; which my opportunities did not permit, nor the scope of my -Work demand. It was not my object to enlarge the bounds of Geological -knowledge; but rather to ascertain what that knowledge is, and to set -it before my readers in plain and simple words. For this purpose I have -had recourse to the great masters of the science: and have endeavored -to gather into a systematic form the phenomena upon which they are all -agreed; to sketch in outline the general theory about which there is -practically no dispute; and to draw out the line of reasoning by which, -as it seems to me, this theory may be most effectively demonstrated. - -Exact references are given to the original authorities on all questions -of importance, and on many points even of minor detail: partly that -I might not seem to claim as my own what belongs to others; partly -that I might consult for the convenience of those who should wish to -investigate more minutely what I have but lightly touched. And here it -may be well to observe, with regard to the two classic works of Sir -Charles Lyell, his _Elements_ and his _Principles_, which have been -reproduced so many times and in so many forms, that I have uniformly -referred to the latest edition of each. - -The Woodcuts which illustrate the Volume will, I venture to hope, help -to convey a clear and distinct impression of many natural objects which -can be represented but imperfectly in words. Some of the most striking -and effective are taken from the admirable Manual of Geology brought -out some years ago by the Reverend Doctor Haughton, of Trinity College, -Dublin. My best thanks are due to the learned author for the kindness -with which he placed his Woodblocks at my disposal. I have also to -express my acknowledgments to Sir Charles Lyell, who has allowed me -to reproduce some of the drawings that embellish his works; and to -the eminent publishers, Messrs. Bell and Daldy of London, and Mr. -Nimmo of Edinburgh, who have, with great courtesy, furnished me with -electrotypes of several figures from the works of Doctor Mantell and -Mr. Hugh Miller. - -To my colleagues in Maynooth I am much indebted for their judicious -suggestions and friendly assistance during the progress of the Work. -In particular I desire to testify my obligations to our distinguished -Professor of Scripture, the Reverend Doctor M’Carthy, for the unwearied -kindness with which he has allowed me to draw at pleasure on his -profound and extensive knowledge of the Sacred Text. - - G. M. - - SAINT PATRICK’S COLLEGE, MAYNOOTH, - _December 1st, 1869_. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. - - -Dr. Molloy has, in the present work, made an important contribution -to a department of scientific and theologic literature, which has -already been enriched by the labors of several other Catholic Fathers, -among whom must be mentioned CARDINAL WISEMAN,[1] FATHER PERRONE,[2] -and FATHER PIANCIANI,[3] who, in Italy, maintain substantially, the -same ground which, in England, has been sustained by DR. CHALMERS, -DR. BUCKLAND, PYE SMITH, and HUGH MILLER, and we may now add with -pleasure, by DR. MOLLOY. Names which, in the United States, find their -counterparts in DR. HITCHCOCK, PROF. SILLIMAN, PROF. A. GUYOT, DR. -THOMPSON, and J. D. DANA. - -Reviewing the progress of opinion touching the relations of Science -to Revealed Religion, it is noteworthy that while many Protestant -theologians and writers on both sides of the Atlantic have, until a -recent period, treated the discoveries of science, and especially of -Geology, so far as they affect theological dogmas, in a manner, if -not of contempt, at least of distrust or unfairness: on the contrary, -the Romanist writers who have discussed these themes, have done so, -generally, in a spirit of broad catholicity well calculated to command -the respect it merits. They have shown no sensitiveness or timidity -lest, perchance, their exegesis might be disturbed by candidly -admitting the changes demanded by the discoveries of Science. - -The author’s discussion of the principles of Geology evinces much -familiarity both with the science and what is equally important, the -necessities of the unscientific reader. He has presented, in the second -part of his book, an interesting review, infused by copious quotations -from the Christian Fathers, from the time of St. Augustine, showing -that long before Geology had any existence as a science, and of course, -when the discussions and doubts it has excited were unknown, the -essential points respecting Time and the order of Creation had received -careful attention from devout thinkers, and that the conclusions at -which they arrived, on purely theological grounds, were, in most cases, -much the same as those which the best writers of our time deduce from -Geological evidence. - -It is now thirty-five years since (1835) CARDINAL, then DR. WISEMAN, -delivered in Rome, before the English College, of which he was the -head, his Lectures, already referred to, on the connection between -Science and Religion, in the fifth and sixth of which he considers more -particularly the Geological argument. The spirit of these lectures -was a just rebuke to the narrow bigotry of such writers as MR. CROLY, -FAIRHOLM, and GRANVILLE PENN, as well as certain American theologians, -who, by means of arrogance and denunciation, sought to silence the -voice of truth, as proclaimed in the language of discovery, announcing -the nature and the extent of those changes in life and in physical -development which are recorded in the Genesis of the Rocks, because -they conceived these immutable truths must of necessity conflict with -the Genesis of Moses; the real conflict being only with their narrow -interpretations. With rare moral courage DR. WISEMAN grappled with the -great questions discussed so well in his lectures, at a time when there -prevailed, with reference to such themes, a very wide-spread distrust, -even among men of moderate opinions. In fact, the candor and courtesy -displayed by DR. WISEMAN in his lectures, presents an enviable contrast -to the acrimony of many theologians, and worthy of all praise, and -in harmony with the learning and good taste which characterize his -writings. - -DR. MOLLOY is a worthy disciple of the same school, and we are glad to -find in him the same candor and liberality which it is certainly to be -hoped he will receive at the hands of those who may differ from him. -His geological arguments and illustrations are very naturally drawn, -chiefly from British authorities. It is evident that the condition -of opinion upon these matters among religious teachers and readers -in Great Britain is less advanced than it is in this country or in -continental Europe. Our author has obviously but little familiarity -with the American literature of this subject. The similarity in some -parts of his book both in thought and style with the writings on this -subject of the late PROFESSOR SILLIMAN, of Yale College, is quite -noticeable. He has obviously not seen the writings of DR. HITCHCOCK, of -GUYOT, of DANA, and of other American writers. We have therefore by the -kind permission of the author reproduced in this edition the chapter -on COSMOGONY from PROFESSOR DANA’S _Manual of Geology_.[4] The views -set forth, in a very condensed form, in this chapter, embrace also the -ideas of PROFESSOR ARNOLD GUYOT, of Princeton, as presented by him in -his unpublished lecture upon the same subject. - -American readers will remember also that PROFESSOR DANA has discussed -this subject much more at length in a series of papers published in the -_Bibliotheca Sacra_,[5] in a review of DR. TAYLER LEWIS’S _Six Days of -Creation_.[6] It is greatly to be desired that PROFESSOR DANA should -soon make a revised edition of his various writings upon this subject, -a work which would be received with interest on both sides of the -Atlantic. - -We do not propose here to present the bibliography of this subject with -any completeness, but we desire to mention, to those who have not seen -it, a little volume of excellent spirit by DR. JOS. P. THOMPSON, of -New York, entitled _Man in Genesis and Geology_,[7] which discusses -chiefly the relations of man to creation, in seven lectures, the first -of which is an “Outline of Creation in Genesis.” Even as we write -another small volume on this subject comes to hand under the title of -_Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation_,[8] by MR. JOHN PHIN, -which also contains the substance of a series of lectures delivered by -the author, who handles his theme in a spirit equally reverential and -scientific, and well calculated to do good. - -Those who desire to know the best exposition of this subject at the -hands of a modern theologian will read the first part of DR. LANGE’S -_Genesis, or the First Book of Moses_,[9] in DR. TAYLER LEWIS’S -translation, pp. 159-177. The candid and scholarly spirit of the -learned authors of this work indicates a marked change in discussions -of this nature when compared with similar literature of the last -generation. - -These few suggestions, chiefly on the American literature of this -subject, are offered in the belief that some readers may be glad to -know where to turn for similar discussions, while DR. MOLLOY will -certainly not misinterpret our kindly intentions in suggesting to him -some contemporary sources of information to most of which he very -probably had no means of access when his excellent work was prepared. - -JULY, 1870. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. - - PAGE. - - Scope of the Work explained--Geology looked on with Suspicion - by Christians--hailed with Triumph by Unbelievers--no Contradiction - possible between the Works of Nature and the Word of - God--Author not jealous of Progress in Geological Discoveries--Points - of Contact between Geology and Revelation--the - Question stated--the Answer--Division of the Work, 25 - - - PART I. - - GEOLOGICAL THEORY AND THE EVIDENCE BY - WHICH IT IS SUPPORTED. - - - CHAPTER I. - - THEORY OF GEOLOGISTS. - - Geology defined--Facts and Theories--Recent Progress of Geology - --Stratification of Rocks--Aqueous Rocks; of Mechanical - Origin--of Chemical Origin--of Organic Origin--Igneous - Rocks, Plutonic and Volcanic--Metamorphic Rocks--Summary - of the Rocks that compose the Crust of the Earth--Relative - Order of Position--Internal Condition of the Globe--Movements - of the Earth’s Crust--Subterranean Disturbing Force--Uplifting - and Bending of Strata--Denudation and its Causes--Fossil - Remains--their Value in Geological Theory, 30 - - - CHAPTER II. - - THEORY OF DENUDATION ILLUSTRATED BY FACTS. - - Principle of Reasoning common to all the Physical Sciences--This - Principle applicable to Geology--Carbonic Acid an Agent of - Denudation--Vast Quantity of Lime dissolved by the Waters of - the Rhine and borne away to the German Ocean--Disintegration - of Rocks by Frost--Professor Tyndall on the Matterhorn--Running - Water--its Erosive Power--an active and unceasing Agent - of Denudation--Mineral Sediment carried out to Sea by the - Ganges and other great Rivers--Solid Rocks undermined and - worn away--Falls of the Clyde at Lanark--Excavating Power - of Rivers in Auvergne and Sicily--Falls of Niagara--Transporting - Power of Running Water--Floods in Scotland--Inundation - in the Valley of Bagnes in Switzerland, 47 - - - CHAPTER III. - - THEORY OF DENUDATION--FURTHER ILLUSTRATIONS. - - The Breakers of the Ocean--Caverns and Fairy Bridges of Kilkee--Italy - and Sicily--The Shetland Islands--East and South - Coast of Britain--Tracts of Land swallowed up by the Sea--Island - of Heligoland--Northstrand--Tides and Currents--South - Atlantic Current--Equatorial Current--The Gulf Stream--its - Course described--Examples of its Power as an Agent of - Transport, 61 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THEORY OF DENUDATION--CONCLUDED. - - Glaciers--their Nature and Composition--their unceasing Motion - --Powerful Agents of Denudation--Icebergs--their Number - and Size--Erratic Blocks and loose Gravel spread out over - Mountains, Plains, and Valleys, at the Bottom of the Sea - --Characteristic Marks of moving Ice--Evidence of ancient Glacial - Action--Illustrations from the Alps--from the Mountains of - the Jura--Theory applied to Northern Europe--to Scotland, - Wales, and Ireland--The Fact of Denudation established--Summary - of the Evidence--This Fact the first Step in Geological - Theory, 71 - - - CHAPTER V. - - STRATIFIED ROCKS OF MECHANICAL ORIGIN--THEORY DEVELOPED - AND ILLUSTRATED. - - Formation of Stratified Rocks ascribed to the Agency of Natural - Causes--This Theory supported by Facts--The Argument - stated--Examples of Mechanical Rocks--Materials of which - they are composed--Origin and History of these Materials - traced out--Process of Deposition--Process of Consolidation - --Instances of Consolidation by Pressure--Consolidation perfected - by Natural Cements--Curious Illustrations--Consolidation of - Sandstone in Cornwall--Arrangement of Strata explained by - intermittent Action of the Agents of Denudation, 87 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - STRATIFIED ROCKS OF MECHANICAL ORIGIN--FURTHER - ILLUSTRATIONS. - - Impossible to witness the Formation of Stratified Rocks in the - Depths of the Ocean--On a small scale Examples are exhibited - by Rivers and Lakes--Alluvial Plains--their extraordinary Fertility - --Great Basin of the Nile--Experiments of the Royal Society--The - Mississippi and the Orinoco--Some Rivers fill up - their own Channels--Case of the River Po--Artificial Embankments--Large - Tract of Alluvial Soil deposited by the Rhone in - the Lake of Geneva--Deltas--The Delta of the Ganges and - Brahmapootra--Delta of the Nile, 100 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - STRATIFIED ROCKS OF CHEMICAL ORIGIN. - - Chemical Agency employed in the Formation of Mechanical Rocks--But - some Rocks produced almost exclusively by the Action of - Chemical Laws--Difference between a Mixture and a Solution--a - Saturated Solution--Stalactites and Stalagmites--Fantastic - Columns in Limestone Caverns--The Grotto of Antiparos in - the Grecian Archipelago--Wyer’s Cave in the Blue Mountains - of America--Travertine Rock in Italy--Growth of Limestone - in the Solfatara Lake near Tivoli--Incrustations of the Anio - --Formation of Travertine at the Baths of San Filippo and San - Vignone, 109 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - STRATIFIED ROCKS OF ORGANIC ORIGIN--ILLUSTRATIONS FROM - ANIMAL LIFE. - - Nature of Organic Rocks--Carbonate of Lime extracted from the - Sea by the Intervention of minute Animalcules--Chalk Rock--its - vast Extent--supposed to be of Organic Origin--A Stratum - of the same kind now growing up on the Floor of the Atlantic - Ocean--Coral Reefs and Islands--their general Appearance--their - Geographical Distribution--their Organic Origin--Structure - of the Zoophyte--Various Illustrations--Agency of the - Zoophyte in the Construction of Coral Rock--How the sunken - Reef is converted into an Island--and peopled with Plants and - Animals--Difficulty proposed and considered--Hypothesis of - Mr. Darwin--Coral Limestone in the solid Crust of the Earth, 118 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - STRATIFIED ROCKS OF ORGANIC ORIGIN--ILLUSTRATIONS FROM - VEGETABLE LIFE. - - Origin of Coal--Evident Traces of Plants and Trees in Coal - Mines--Coal made up of the same Elements as Wood--Beds of - Coal found resting upon Clay in which are preserved the Roots - of Trees--Insensible Transition from Wood to Coal--Forest-covered - Swamps--Accumulations of Drift Wood in Lakes and - Estuaries--Peat Bogs--Beds of Lignite--Seams of pure Coal - with half Carbonized Trees, some lying prostrate, some standing - erect--Summary of the Argument hitherto pursued--Objection - to this Argument from the Omnipotence of God--Answer to - the Objection, 141 - - - CHAPTER X. - - FOSSIL REMAINS--THE MUSEUM. - - Recapitulation--Scope of our Argument--Theory of Stratified - Rocks the Framework of Geological Science--This Theory - brings Geology into Contact with Revelation--The Line of Reasoning - hitherto pursued confirmed by the Testimony of Fossil - Remains--Meaning of the Word Fossil--Inexhaustible Abundance - of Fossils--Various States of Preservation--Petrifaction--Experiments - of Professor Göppert--Organic Rocks afford - some Insight into the Fossil World--The Reality and Significance - of Fossil Remains must be learned from Observation--The - British Museum--Colossal Skeletons--Bones and Shells of - Animals--Fossil Plants and Trees, 156 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - FOSSIL REMAINS--THE EXPLORATION. - - From the Museum to the Quarry--Fossil Fish in the Limestone - Rocks of Monte Bolca--in the Quarries of Aix--in the Chalk - of Sussex--The Ichthyosaurus or Fish-like Lizard--Gigantic - Dimensions of this Ancient Monster--its Predatory Habits--The - Plesiosaurus--The Megatherium or great Wild Beast--History - of its Discovery--the Mylodon--Profusion of Fossil - Shells--Petrified Trees erect in the Limestone Rock of Portland--Fossil - Plants of the Coal Measures--The Sigillaria--The - Fern--The Calamite--The Lepidodendron--Coal Mine of Treuil--Fossil - Remains afford undeniable Evidence of former Animal - and Vegetable Life--Their Existence cannot be accounted for - by the Plastic Power of Nature--nor can it reasonably be - ascribed to a Special Act of Creation, 172 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - GEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY--PRINCIPLES OF THE SYSTEM EXPLAINED - AND DEVELOPED. - - Significance of Fossil Remains--Science of Palæontology--Classification - of existing Animal Life--Fossil Remains are found to - fit in with this Classification--Succession of Organic Life--Time - in Geology not measured by Years and Centuries--Successive - Periods marked by Successive Forms of Life--The Geologist - aims at arranging these Periods in Chronological Order--Position - of the various Groups of Strata not sufficient for this purpose--It - is accomplished chiefly through the aid of Fossil - Remains--Mode of proceeding practically explained--Chronological - Table, 198 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - GEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY--REMARKS ON THE SUCCESSION OF - ORGANIC LIFE. - - Summary of the History of Stratified Rocks--Striking Characteristics - of certain Formations--Human Remains found only in - superficial Deposits--Gradual Transition from the Organic Life - of one Period to that of the next--Evidence in favor of this - Opinion--Advance from Lower to Higher Types of Organic - Life as we ascend from the Older to the more Recent Formations - --Economic Value of Geological Chronology--Illustration--Search - for Coal--the Practical Man at Fault--the Geologist - comes to his aid, and saves him from useless Expense, 217 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - SUBTERRANEAN HEAT--ITS EXISTENCE DEMONSTRATED BY FACTS. - - Theory of Stratified Rocks supposes Disturbances of the Earth’s - Crust--These Disturbances ascribed by Geologists to the Action - of subterranean Heat--The Existence of Subterranean Heat, - and its Power to move the Crust of the Earth, proved by direct - Evidence--Supposed Igneous Origin of our Globe--Remarkable - Increase of Temperature as we descend into the Earth’s Crust--Hot - Springs--Artesian Wells--Steam issuing from Crevices - in the Earth--The Geysers of Iceland--A Glimpse of the subterranean - Fires--Mount Vesuvius in 1779--Vast Extent of - Volcanic Action--Existence of subterranean Heat an established - fact, 233 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - SUBTERRANEAN HEAT--ITS POWERS ILLUSTRATED BY VOLCANOS. - - Effects of subterranean Heat in the present Age of the World--Vast - Accumulations of solid Matter from the Eruptions of Volcanos--Buried - Cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum--Curious - Relics of Roman Life--Monte Nuovo--Eruption of Jorullo in - the Province of Mexico--Sumbawa in the Indian Archipelago--Volcanos - in Iceland--Mountain Mass of Etna the Product of - Volcanic Eruptions--Volcanic Islands--In the Atlantic--in the - Mediterranean--Santorin in the Grecian Archipelago, 244 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - SUBTERRANEAN HEAT--ITS POWERS ILLUSTRATED BY - EARTHQUAKES. - - Earthquakes and Volcanos proceed from the same common Cause--Recent - Earthquakes in New Zealand--Vast Tracts of Land - permanently upraised--Earthquakes of Chili in the present Century - --Crust of the Earth elevated--Earthquake of Cutch in - India, 1819--Remarkable Instance of Subsidence and Upheaval--Earthquake - of Calabria, 1783--Earthquake of Lisbon, 1755--Great - Destruction of Life and Property--Earthquake of Peru, - August, 1868--General Scene of Ruin and Devastation--Great - Sea Wave--A Ship with all her Crew carried a Quarter of a - Mile inland--Frequency of Earthquakes, 258 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - SUBTERRANEAN HEAT--ITS POWERS ILLUSTRATED BY UNDULATIONS - OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. - - Gentle Movements of the Earth’s Crust within Historic Times--Roman - Roads and Temples submerged in the Bay of Baiæ--Temple - of Jupiter Serapis--Singular Condition of its Columns--Proof - of Subsidence and subsequent Upheaval--Indications - of a second Subsidence now actually taking place--Gradual - Upheaval of the Coast of Sweden--Summary of the Evidence - adduced to establish this Fact--Subsidence of the Earth’s Crust - on the West Coast of Greenland--Recapitulation, 271 - - - PART II. - - THE ANTIQUITY OF THE EARTH CONSIDERED IN - RELATION TO THE HISTORY OF GENESIS. - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - STATEMENT OF THE QUESTION AND EXPOSITION OF THE AUTHOR’S - VIEW. - - The General Principles of Geological Theory accepted by the Author - --These Principles plainly import the extreme Antiquity - of the Earth--Illustration from the Coal, the Chalk, and the - Boulder Clay--This Conclusion not at Variance with the Inspired - History of the Creation--Chronology of the Bible--Genealogies - of Genesis--Date of the Creation not fixed by Moses--Progress - of Opinion on this Point--Cardinal Wiseman, Father - Peronne, Father Pianciani--Doctor Buckland, Doctor Chalmers, - Doctor Pye Smith, Hugh Miller--Author’s View explained--Charge - of Rashness and Irreverence answered--Admonitions - of Saint Augustine and Saint Thomas, 280 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - FIRST HYPOTHESIS;--AN INTERVAL OF INDEFINITE DURATION - BETWEEN THE CREATION OF THE WORLD AND THE FIRST - MOSAIC DAY. - - The Heavens and the Earth were created before the First Mosaic - Day--Objection from Exodus, xx. 9-11--Answer--Interpretation - of the Author supported by the best Commentators--Confirmed - by the Hebrew Text--The Early Fathers commonly held - the Existence of created Matter prior to the Work of the Six - Days--Saint Basil, Saint Chrysostom, Saint Ambrose, Venerable - Bede--The most eminent Doctors in the Schools concurred - in this Opinion--Peter Lombard, Hugh of Saint Victor, Saint - Thomas--Also Commentators and Theologians--Perrerius, - Petavius--Distinguished Names on the other side, A Lapide, - Tostatus, Saint Augustine--The Opinion is at least not at - Variance with the Voice of Tradition--This Period of created - Existence may have been of indefinite Length--And the Earth - may have been furnished then as now with countless Tribes of - Plants and Animals--Objections to this Hypothesis proposed - and explained, 300 - - - CHAPTER XX. - - SECOND HYPOTHESIS;--THE DAYS OF CREATION LONG PERIODS OF - TIME. - - Diversity of Opinion among the Early Fathers regarding the Days - of Creation--Saint Augustine, Philo Judæus, Clement of Alexandria, - Origen, Saint Athanasius, Saint Eucherius, Procopius--Albertus - Magnus, Saint Thomas, Cardinal Cajetan--Inference - from these Testimonies--First Argument in favor of the - popular Interpretation; a Day, in the literal Sense, means a - Period of Twenty-four Hours--Answer--This Word often used - in Scripture for an indefinite Period--Examples from the Old - and New Testament--Second Argument; the Days of Creation - have an Evening and a Morning--Answer--Interpretation of - Saint Augustine, Venerable Bede, and other Fathers of the - Church--Third Argument; the Reason alleged for the Institution - of the Sabbath Day--Answer--The Law of the Sabbath - extended to every Seventh Year as well as to every Seventh Day--The - Seventh Day of God’s Rest a long Period of indefinite - Duration, 318 - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - APPLICATION OF THE SECOND HYPOTHESIS TO THE MOSAIC HISTORY - OF CREATION--CONCLUSION. - - Summary of the Argument--Striking Coincidence between the - Order of Creation as set forth in the Narrative of Moses and in - the Records of Geology--Comparison illustrated and developed--Scheme - of Adjustment between the Periods of Geology and - the Days of Genesis--Tabular View of this Scheme--Objections - considered--It is not to be regarded as an established Theory, - but as an admissible Hypothesis--Either the first Hypothesis - or the second is sufficient to meet the demands of Geology as - regards the Antiquity of the Earth--Not necessary to suppose - that the Sacred Writer was made acquainted with the long Ages - of Geological Time--He simply records faithfully that which - was committed to his charge--The Mosaic History of Creation - stands alone, without Rivals or Competitors, 343 - -[Illustration] - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - - 1. Granitic Rocks off the Shetland Islands, 63 - - 2. Iceberg seen in mid ocean, 1400 miles from land, 75 - - 3. Block of Limestone Rock with Glacial-markings, 78 - - 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Examples of living Zoophytes: - Campanularia Gelatinosa; Gorgonia Patula, 131 - Frustra Pilosa; Madrepora Plantaginea, 132 - Corallium Rubrum, 133 - - 9, 10. Fossil Ferns from the Coal Measures, 143 - - 11. Trunk and roots of a forest tree; found erect in a Coal - Mine, near Liverpool, 152 - - 12. Fossil Irish Deer, 163 - - 13. Fossil Wood, showing the rings of annual growth, 171 - - 14, 15. Fossil Fish from Monte Bolea in Italy, 173, 174 - - 16. Group of several Fossil Fish in one block of Limestone, 176 - - 17. Fossil Fish from the Chalk Rock of Sussex, 177 - - 18, 19. Two Skeletons of the Ichthyosaurus, from the Lias of - Dorsetshire, preserved in the Museum of Trinity College, - Dublin, 179 - - 20. Plesiosaurus Cramptonii, from the Lias of Yorkshire, - preserved in the Museum of the Royal Dublin Society, 182 - - 21. The Megatherium, or Great Wild Beast, 185 - - 22. The Mylodon Robustus, 186 - - 23. Section of a Quarry in the Island of Portland, showing the - stumps of an ancient forest standing erect in the solid rock, 189 - - 24. Calamite from the Coal Measures of Newcastle, 191 - - 25. Lepidodendron Sternbergii; a forest tree erect in a Coal Mine, 192 - - 26. Lepidodendron Elegans; Stem and branches, from a Coal Mine, - near Newcastle, 193 - - 27. Section of a Coal Mine near Lyons, showing an ancient forest - enveloped in Sandstone, 194 - - 28. Bird’s-eye View of Santorin during the volcanic eruption - of 1866, 255 - - -LIST OF TABLES. - - Table of Stratified Rocks Chronologically arranged, 211 - - Table of Geological Formations, showing the first appearance on - the Earth of the various forms of Animal Life, 226 - - Table exhibiting the Genealogies of Genesis according to the - various Readings of the three most ancient Versions, the - Hebrew, the Samaritan, and the Septuagint, 291 - - Table representing a possible Adjustment of the Mosaic Days with - the Periods of Geology, 251 - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -GEOLOGY AND REVELATION. - - - - -_INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER._ - - _Scope of the work explained--Geology looked on with suspicion - by Christians--Hailed with triumph by Unbelievers--No - contradiction possible between the works of Nature and the - Word of God--Author not jealous of progress in Geological - Discoveries--Points of contact between Geology and - Revelation--The question stated--The answer--Division of the - work._ - - -Among the various pursuits that engage the human mind, there are few so -attractive as Geology, none so important as Revelation. Each of these -two studies has an interest peculiar to itself. The one is chiefly -concerned about the world in which we are living: the other about the -world to which we are hastening. Geology leads us down into the depths -of the Earth, and there, unfolding to our view a long series of strange -unwritten records impressed on lasting monuments by the hand of Nature, -it proceeds to trace back the history of our Globe through myriads of -ages into the distant past. Revelation, on the other hand, comes to us -from above; and setting forth the far more wonderful records of God’s -dealings with man, holds out the hope of another world “everlasting in -the heavens”[10] which shall still remain when this earth and all the -works that are therein shall have melted away with fervent heat.[11] - -But, it may be asked, why should two such incongruous topics be set -down for discussion side by side? To answer this question is to explain -the scope and design of the present work. We are not going to write a -Manual of Geology; nor yet a Treatise on Revelation. Taken separately, -these two subjects have been handled with eminent skill and ability; -the one by the votaries of Science, the other by the friends of -Theology. It is our purpose to consider them not so much in themselves -as in their mutual relations: to compare the conclusions of Geology -with the truths of Revelation; and to inquire if it be possible to -accept the one and yet not to abandon the other. - -An uneasy apprehension has long prevailed among devout Christians, and -a declared conviction among a large class of unbelievers, that the -discoveries of Geology are at variance with the facts recorded in the -Book of Genesis. Now, the historical narrative of Genesis lies at the -very foundation of all Revealed Religion. Hence the science of Geology, -has come to be looked on with suspicion by the simple-minded faithful, -and to be hailed with joy, as a new and powerful auxiliary, by that -infidel party which, in these latter days, has assumed a position so -bold and defiant. It is now confidently asserted that we cannot uphold -the teaching of Revelation, unless we shut our eyes to the evidence of -Geology; and that we cannot pursue the study of Geology, if we are not -prepared to renounce our belief in the doctrines of Revelation. - -Vet surely this cannot be. Truth cannot be at variance with truth. If -God has recorded the history of our Globe, as Geologists maintain, on -imperishable monuments within the Crust of the Earth, we may be quite -sure He has not contradicted that Record in His Written Word. There -may be for a time, indeed, a conflict between the student of Nature and -the student of Revelation. Each is liable to error when he undertakes -to interpret the record that is placed in his hands. Many a brilliant -Geological theory, received at first with unbounded applause, has been -dissipated by the progress of discovery even within the lifetime of its -author. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that Theologians have -sometimes imputed to the Bible that which the Bible does not teach. -Learned and pious men--Protestants and Catholics alike--once believed -that the Book of Joshua represents the succession of day and night -as produced by the revolution of the Sun around the Earth: whereas -it is now considered quite plain that the Book of Joshua, properly -understood, teaches nothing of the kind; but that the Inspired Writer, -in describing a wonderful phenomenon of Nature, simply employs the -language of men according to the established usage of his time. We need -not wonder, therefore, that a conflict of opinion should sometimes -arise between the Geologist and the Theologian; but a conflict there -cannot be between the story which God has described on His works and -the story He has recorded in His Written Word. - -Though we come forward, therefore, among those whose duty and whose -glory it is to uphold Revelation, we are by no means jealous of the -wonderful ardor, and we may add, the wonderful success, with which the -study of Geology has been lately pursued. We have too much confidence -in the truth of our cause to apprehend that it can suffer in any way -from the progress of Natural Science. It is our conviction, rather, -that the more thoroughly the works of Nature are understood, the -more perfectly they will be found to harmonize with the truths of -Revelation. We are not afraid, therefore, to venture into the realms -of Geology and to come face to face with its discoveries. Too long, -perhaps, has this interesting and popular science been neglected by -those who are ranged under the banner of Religion. Let it be ours to -show that the study of God’s works is not incompatible with the belief -in God’s Word; and that it is quite possible to investigate the ancient -history of the world we inhabit without forfeiting our right to a -better. - -The points of contact between Geology and Revelation are chiefly these -two:--First, the Antiquity of the Earth; Secondly, the Antiquity of the -Human Race. In the present Volume we shall confine our attention to the -Antiquity of the Earth. The subject that offers itself for discussion -may be stated in a few words. Geologists maintain that the Crust of the -Earth has been slowly built up by means of a long series of operations -which would require hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions of years -for their accomplishment: whereas the Bible narrative, it is alleged, -allows but the short lapse of six or eight thousand years from the -creation of the world to the present time. The Geological record, then, -seems to contradict the Mosaic; and the question is, how this apparent -contradiction is to be explained. - -Some have ventured to solve the problem by rejecting the historical -narrative of the Bible: others by ignoring the plain facts of Geology. -But there is a third class of writers, including many names of the -highest eminence and authority, who contend that we may admit the -extreme Antiquity of our Globe, which Geology so imperatively demands, -without compromising in the smallest degree the truthfulness of the -Mosaic story. They say that the Chronology of the Bible stops short -with Adam, and does not go back to the beginning of the world. By -means of the data which the Bible supplies we may calculate, at least -roughly, the lapse of time from the Creation of Adam to the Birth of -Christ. But from the first beginning of all created things, when God -made the Heavens and the Earth, to the close of the Sixth Day when Adam -was introduced upon the scene, that is an interval which, in the Bible -narrative, is left altogether undefined and uncertain. This is the -view which we hope to develop and to illustrate in the course of the -following pages. - -Our task naturally divides itself into two parts. First, it will be -our duty to consider the received theory of Geology, and to examine -in detail some of the interesting and wonderful phenomena on which -it is founded. This course of investigation, while it is plainly -indispensable for the intelligent appreciation of our subject, cannot -fail at the same time to unfold many new and striking views of the -Power, and the Goodness, and the Providence of God. “For the invisible -things of Him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being -understood by the things that are made; even His eternal Power and -Godhead.”[12] - -In the Second Part we shall consider the Antiquity of the Earth in -reference to the History of Genesis. It will be our purpose to show -that, as far as the Bible narrative is concerned, an interval of -countless ages may have elapsed between the first creation of the -Heavens and the Earth and the beginning of the Six Mosaic Days. -Furthermore, we shall contend that, without any prejudice to the Sacred -History, we may suppose these Days themselves to have been, not days -in the ordinary sense of the word, but long and indefinite Periods of -Time. If we succeed in establishing these views, it will be obvious -to infer that, while the Bible enables us to determine, at least by -approximation, the Age of the Human Race, it allows time without limit -for the past history of the Earth. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PART I. - -GEOLOGICAL THEORY AND THE EVIDENCE BY WHICH IT IS SUPPORTED. - - - - -_CHAPTER I._ - -THEORY OF GEOLOGISTS. - - _Geology defined--Facts and Theories--Recent progress of - Geology--Stratification of Rocks--Aqueous Rocks; of Mechanical - Origin--of Chemical Origin--of Organic Origin--Igneous Rocks, - Plutonic and Volcanic--Metamorphic Rocks--Summary of the - Rocks that compose the Crust of the Earth--Relative order - of position--Internal condition of the Globe--Movements of - the Earth’s Crust--Subterranean disturbing force--Uplifting - and bending of Strata--Denudation and its Causes--Fossil - Remains--Their Value in Geological Theory._ - - -The object of Geology is to examine and record the appearances -presented by the Crust of the Earth; and by the aid of these -appearances, to trace out the long series of events by which it has -been brought into its present condition. Geology, therefore, like -all other natural sciences, is made up partly of fact, and partly of -theory. It belongs to the Geologist first to investigate the phenomena -which the Crust of the Earth exhibits to the eye. For this purpose he -descends into the mine and the quarry; he visits the lofty cliff by -the sea-shore, the deep ravine on the mountain side, the cutting of a -railway; in a word, every spot where a section of the Earth’s Crust is -exposed to view, either by the action of Nature or by the hand of man. -He then retires into the silence of his closet, with his note-book and -his specimens; and there, having arranged and classified the various -phenomena which he has already examined with his eyes in the outer -world, he proceeds to make his deductions, and to build up his theory. -He seeks to explain how materials, so diverse in their composition, -have come to be piled up together, with such admirable order, and yet -with such endless variety; and how the solid rocks have come to be the -repository of petrified trees and plants and bones and shells, which -seem, as it were, to start up from their graves, and to tell strange -stories of a bygone world. - -In the early days of Geology there were comparatively few who devoted -themselves with patient industry to the collection and classification -of facts: while the number was legion of those who, with a very -meagre knowledge of facts, set themselves to build up systems. A -vast multitude of different and conflicting theories were, in this -way, brought into existence, and attracted for a time much public -attention, each one being vehemently defended by its friends and as -vehemently assailed by its enemies. These theories resting on no solid -foundation, could not hold their ground against the advancing tide of -new discoveries. They flourished for a brief space, and then gave way -to others scarcely more substantial, which were destined in their turn -to be likewise rejected and forgotten. Thus it came to pass, from the -manifest instability of its principles, that Geology was long held -in light repute, and practical men set little store by its boasted -discoveries and startling revelations. - -But it would be unjust and unphilosophical to condemn the modern theory -of Geologists because of their past errors. We must judge of this -science, not according to what it once was in the feebleness of its -infancy, but according to what it now is in the growing strength of its -mature years. It seems to be in the nature of things that groundless -speculations and wild conjectures go before, and sober Science follows -in their wake. The visionary dreams of the Alchemist led the way to -the science of Chemistry, and the idle fancies of the Astrologist have -given place to the marvellous discoveries of Astronomy. So, too, amidst -the confused mass of conflicting arguments and opinions, by which the -phenomena of Geology were for a long time enveloped and obscured, the -seeds of a new science were slowly germinating. New facts were eagerly -sought after to support or to impugn the favorite theory of the hour; -and though theory after theory passed away, yet the facts remained. In -course of time this accumulation of facts became broad and deep and -solid enough to form a sound basis for inductive reasoning; and thus -almost within our own days Geology may be fairly said to have assumed -the rank and dignity of a science. - -During the last quarter of a century it has been studied with a more -ardent enthusiasm than, perhaps, any other science in England, in -France, in Germany, and in America. It has been studied, too, upon -better principles than before: less attention has been paid to the -building up of theories, and far more pains and labor have been -expended on the careful investigation of natural phenomena. There are -still, no doubt, different schools of Geologists which are divided -among themselves as regards many important details of theory; but -there are some general conclusions upon which all Geologists are -substantially agreed, and which, they assure us, are established by -evidence that is absolutely irresistible. It is to these conclusions we -wish to invite the attention of our readers; for they bear very closely -on the question of the Antiquity of the Earth. - -Geologists tell us, then, that the materials of which the Earth’s -Crust is composed, are not heaped together in a confused mass, but are -disposed with evident marks of definite and systematic arrangement. -This is an important truth, of which many examples are familiar to us -all, though perhaps we do not all attend to their significance. Thus -in a quarry, we see commonly enough first a bed of limestone, then -above that a bed of gravel, and higher still a bed of clay: and even -the limestone itself is not usually a compact mass, but is arranged in -successive layers, something like the successive courses of masonry in -a building. Now it appears that a very large proportion of the Earth’s -Crust is made up in this way of successive layers, or _strata_, as -they are called by Geologists. These _strata_ are composed of various -substances, such as clay, chalk, sand, lime, and coal; and they present -everywhere the same general appearances. They are known under the -common name of Aqueous Rocks,[13] because it is believed that they -were originally formed under water; and here it is that the professors -of Geology first come into collision with the popular notions that -formerly prevailed. - -They hold that these stratified rocks were not arranged as we see them -now, when the Earth first came from the hands of its Creator, but have -been formed, during the lapse of unnumbered ages, by the operation -of natural causes. Nay more, they have divided the rocks into sundry -classes, and they undertake to explain the particular process by which -each several variety has been produced. First in order and importance -are those which derive their existence from the mechanical force of -moving water. The materials of which they are composed first existed in -the form of minute particles, which were transported by the action of -water from one place to another; then they were spread out over a given -surface, just as we now see layers of sand, or mud, or gravel deposited -near the mouths of rivers, or in the estuaries of the sea, or even upon -the land itself during temporary inundations. Lastly, after a long -interval came the slow but certain process of consolidation. The fine -sand was cemented together and became sandstone; the loose gravel by a -similar process was transformed into a solid mass, known by the name of -Conglomerate or Pudding-stone; while the soft mud by simple pressure -was converted into a kind of slaty clay, called Shale. Thus from age to -age Nature was ever building up new strata, and consolidating the old. - -Next in order are the Aqueous Rocks, which owe their origin to the -agency of chemical laws. To this class belong many of our limestone -formations. Large quantities of carbonate of lime are held in solution -by water charged with carbonic acid gas: when the carbonic acid, in -course of time, passes off, the carbonate of lime can no longer be held -in solution, and it is accordingly precipitated in a solid form to -the bottom. In this manner was formed that peculiar kind of limestone -called Travertine, which abounds in Italy, and which is well known -to all who have visited Rome, as the stone of which the Coliseum was -built. A still more familiar example, on a small scale, is seen in the -case of Stalactites and Stalagmites. Water saturated with carbonic -acid trickles down the sides, or drops from the roof of a limestone -cavern. In its course it dissolves carbonate of lime, and holds it -in solution; afterward, reaching the floor of the cavern, it slowly -evaporates and leaves behind it a thin sheet of limestone which is -called a Stalagmite; while the icicle-like pendants that are formed by -a similar process, on the roof of the cavern, are called Stalactites. - -There is a third class of Aqueous Rocks which are supposed to be -made up almost exclusively of the fragmentary remains of plants and -animals, and are therefore called Organic. The well-known coral reefs, -so dreaded by the sailor in tropical seas, are believed to be nothing -more than a mass of stony skeletons belonging to the minute marine -animalcules known among zoologists as Polyps or Zoophytes. These -little creatures, existing together in countless multitudes, extract -carbonate of lime from the waters of the ocean in which they dwell, and -by the action of their living organs, convert it into a solid frame -or skeleton, which is called coral. From generation to generation the -same process has been going on during the long succession of Geological -ages; and huge masses of coral rock, hundreds of miles in length, have -thus been slowly built up from fathomless depths of the ocean to within -a few feet of its surface. Our vast coal formations, on the other hand, -afford a ready example of rocks which are chiefly composed of vegetable -remains. - -So much for the Aqueous or Stratified Rocks. Geology next brings before -us another and a very different group, of which the origin is ascribed -to fire, and which are consequently designated by the title of Igneous -Rocks. In their general appearance they are chiefly distinguished -from the former by the absence of regular stratification; but they -are, nevertheless, intersected by numerous planes of division, or -joints, as they are called, and thus divided into blocks of various -size and form. Geologists believe that these rocks were at one time -reduced to a molten state by the action of intense heat, and afterward -allowed slowly to cool and to crystallize. They are divided into two -classes, the Plutonic and the Volcanic. The Plutonic Rocks are chiefly -granite of some kind or another; and though they now often appear at -the surface, they are supposed to have been produced originally at -a considerable depth within the crust of the Earth, “or sometimes, -perhaps, under a certain weight of incumbent ocean.”[14] The Volcanic -Rocks have been formed at or near the surface of the Earth, and, as the -name implies, they are usually ejected, in a state of fusion, from the -fissures of an active volcano; though not unfrequently they assume the -more imposing form of basaltic columns, as at the Giant’s Causeway in -Ireland, or on the island of Staffa near the coast of Argyleshire in -Scotland. - -One group of rocks yet remains to be noticed. They have been called -by various names at different times, but are now generally designated -by the term Metamorphic. In some respects they resemble the Aqueous -Rocks, while, in others, they are more nearly allied to the Igneous. -Like the former, they are stratified in their outward arrangement; -like the latter, they are more or less crystalline in their internal -texture. As to their origin, we are told that they were first deposited -under water, like the Aqueous Rocks, and that afterward their internal -structure was altered by the agency of subterranean heat. Hence the -name Metamorphic, first suggested by Sir Charles Lyell, which conveys -the idea that these rocks have undergone a _change of form_. To this -group belong many varieties of slate, and also the far-famed statuary -marble of Italy. - -Our readers will perceive from this brief outline that, if we follow -the theory of Geologists, the rocks which compose the Crust of the -Earth may be conveniently divided, according to their origin, into -three leading groups, the Aqueous, the Igneous, and the Metamorphic. -The Aqueous are formed under water, either by the mechanical force of -the water itself when in motion, or by the agency of chemical laws, -or by the intervention of organic life. Hence they are naturally -subdivided into three classes, the Mechanical, the Chemical, the -Organic. The Igneous Rocks are produced by heat, being first melted -and then allowed to cool. When this process takes place under great -pressure in the depths of the Earth, the result is granite; and the -granite Rocks are called Plutonic: when near the surface, through the -agency of a volcano, the Rocks so formed are called Volcanic. Lastly, -the Metamorphic Rocks are nothing else than Aqueous Rocks, of which the -texture has been altered by the action of intense heat. - -As regards the relative order of position amongst these various classes -of rocks, the lowest place seems uniformly to belong to the granitic or -Plutonic group. It is true that the granite will often appear at the -surface of the Earth; but wherever there is a series of rocks piled one -above the other, the granite will always be the lowest. This assertion -is based on two broad facts; first, whenever we get to the bottom -of the other rocks, they are always found to rest on granite; and -secondly, no other rock has ever yet been found beneath it. From this -circumstance granite is conceived to be the solid foundation of the -Earth’s Crust, and so is often called fundamental granite. Above the -granite the Aqueous Rocks have been slowly spread out layer by layer -during the long lapse of ages, now in this part of the world, now in -that, according as each in its turn was exposed to the action of water. -The Volcanic Rocks do not occur in any fixed order of succession. They -are distributed irregularly over almost every country of the globe, -occurring sometimes in the form of cone-shaped mountains, sometimes in -the form of stately pillars, and sometimes in the form of massive solid -walls, called Dykes, forced right through the softer Aqueous Rocks, -which were deposited on the surface of the Earth before the eruption. -As to the Metamorphic Rocks, which are supposed to owe their peculiar -character to the contact of molten mineral matter, wherever they occur, -they are found in the immediate neighborhood of some Igneous Rock. - -The condition of the Earth beneath its thin external crust has never -been the subject of direct observation; for Geologists have never yet -been able to penetrate below the granite rocks. Nevertheless, this -subject has been often discussed, and has offered a wide field for -philosophical speculation. Upon one point all are agreed, that within -the Crust of the Earth an intense heat very generally prevails;--a heat -so intense that it would be quite sufficient, acting under ordinary -circumstances, to reduce all known rocks to a state of igneous fusion. -Hence it was a common opinion among the older Geologists that the -condition of our globe is that of a vast central nucleus composed of -molten mineral, and covered over with a comparatively thin external -shell of solid rock. The most eminent Geologists, however, of the -present day, hesitate to accept this opinion. They observe: (1) That -we have not yet learned what the material is of which the interior -of the Earth is composed; therefore we cannot tell for certain what -degree of heat is sufficient to reduce that material to a liquid state. -(2) It is uncertain how far the immense pressure at great depths may -operate to keep matter in a solid state, even when raised to a very -high degree of temperature. (3) There are certain astronomical and -physical difficulties involved in this theory, which have not yet been -fully cleared up. Modern Geologists, therefore, proceeding with more -caution than their predecessors, while they regard the opinion as -probable, refuse to set it down as conclusively demonstrated. But, that -a very high temperature prevails in the interior of our globe, is a -conclusion, they say, which is established by abundant evidence, and -which may be regarded as morally certain. - -It may be asked how the various strata of Aqueous Rocks, which -constitute the chief portion of the Earth’s Crust, have been lifted up -above the level of the sea; for, according to our theory, they were all -first deposited under water. This is a question that must inevitably -occur to the mind of every reader, and Geologists are ready with an -answer. They tell us that from the earliest ages the Crust of the Earth -has been subject to disturbance and dislocation. At various times and -in various places it was upheaved, and what had been before the bed of -the ocean became dry land; again it sunk below its former level, and -what had been before dry land became the bed of the ocean. Thus, in the -former case a new stratum which had been deposited at the bottom of the -sea, with all its varied remains of a bygone age, was converted for a -season into the surface of the Earth, and became the theatre of animal -and vegetable life: while in the latter case, the old surface of the -Earth with its countless tribes of animals and plants,--its _fauna_ -and _flora_ as they are called,--was submerged beneath the waters, -there to receive in its turn the broken up fragments of a former -world, deposited in the form of mud, or sand, or pebbles, or minute -particles of lime. Nor is this all; it is but a single link in the -chain of Geological chronology. We are asked to believe that, in many -parts of the globe, this upward and downward movement has been going on -alternately for unnumbered ages; so that the very same spot which was -first the bed of the ocean, was afterward dry land, then the bottom of -an estuary or inland lake, then perhaps once more the floor of the sea, -and then dry land again: and furthermore we are assured that, while -it remained in each one of these various conditions, thousands and -thousands of years may have rolled away. - -But from what source does that mighty power come which can thus upheave -the solid Earth, and banish the ocean from its bed? We are told in -reply that this giant power dwells in the interior of the Earth -itself, and is no other than the subterranean heat of which we have -already spoken. This vast internal fire acts with unequal force upon -different parts of the shell or Crust of the Earth, uplifting it in -one place, and in another allowing it to subside. Now it is violent -and convulsive, bursting asunder the solid rocks, and shaking the -foundations of the hills: again it is gentle and harmless, upheaving -vast continents with a scarcely perceptible undulation, not unlike the -long, silent swell of the ocean. So it has been from the beginning, -and so it is found to be even now, in this last age of the Geological -Calendar. For even within historic times mountains have been suddenly -upheaved from the level plain; and many parts of the Earth’s Crust have -been subject to a slow, wave-like movement, rising here and subsiding -there, at the rate of perhaps a few feet in a century. Sometimes, -too, the fiery liquid itself has burst its barriers, and poured its -destructive streams of molten rock far down into the peaceful, smiling -valleys. - -This theory of an internal disturbing force, which from time to time -produces elevations and depressions of the Earth’s Crust, serves to -explain another phenomenon, that cannot fail to have struck even the -least observant eye. The Aqueous Rocks of mechanical formation are -said to have been composed of minute fragments, which were first held -suspended in water, and afterward fell to the bottom. If this be true, -it follows that these rocks, in the first period of their existence, -must have been arranged in beds parallel to the horizon, or nearly -so. But we now find them, as everybody knows, in a great variety -of positions: sometimes they are parallel to the horizon, sometimes -inclined to it, sometimes at right angles to it; sometimes, too, they -are broken right across, sometimes curved and twisted after a very -fantastic fashion. Now, all these appearances are the natural results -of an upheaving force acting irregularly from below on the solid shell -of the Earth. When the subterranean fire is brought to bear equally at -the same time on a broad extent of surface, then the overlying strata -are bodily lifted up, and preserve their horizontal position. But when -the whole force acts with local intensity on a very contracted area, -then, at that particular spot, the rocks above will be tilted up, and -their position entirely changed. Sometimes they will be only bent and -crushed together, sometimes dislocated and turned over; sometimes, -perhaps, a mountain will be formed, and the rocks before parallel -to the horizon, will afterward remain parallel to the slopes of the -mountain. - -There is another process known by the name of Denudation, which we -cannot pass over in silence, for it occupies a very important place in -the Natural History of our globe. Since time first began Denudation -has been ever going on at the surface of the Earth, and it has left -its mark more or less distinctly upon every group of rocks, from the -lowest to the highest. It includes all the various operations by which -the old existing rocks are broken up into fragments, or ground into -powder, or worn away by friction, or dissolved by chemical action, -and then transported from their former site to become the elements -of new strata. Hence the name Denudation; since by these operations -the former surface of the Earth is carried away and a surface before -covered is _laid bare_. The amount of destruction effected by this -process in each successive age is always equal to the bulk of Aqueous -Rocks formed within the same time. This will be at once understood -when we remember that the Aqueous Rocks are produced, for the most -part, by the deposition of sediment; and sediment is nothing else than -the fragments, more or less minute, of pre-existing rocks. What is -deposited on the bed of the ocean has been taken from the surface of -the land; and the new strata are built up from the ruins of the old. -When we see a great building of stone towering aloft to the sky, we -are certain that somewhere else on the Earth a quarry has been opened, -and that the amount of excavation in the quarry is exactly represented -by the bulk of solid masonry in the building. Just in the same way, -the mass of Aqueous Rocks is at once the monument and the measure of -previous Denudation. - -The process of Denudation is the work of many and various natural -causes. Heat and cold, rain, hail, and snow, chemical affinities, -the atmosphere itself, all have a share in it; but the largest share -belongs to the mechanical action of moving water. Every little rill -that flows down the mountain side is charged with finely-powdered -sediment which it is ever wearing away from the surface of its own -bed. Every great stream, besides the immense quantities of mud and -sand which in times of flood it carries along in its turbulent course, -has its channel strewn over with pebbles at which it never ceases to -work, rounding off the angles and polishing the surfaces; and these -pebbles, what are they but the fragments of old rocks and the elements -of new,--the rubble-stone of Nature’s edifice on its way from the -quarry to the building? Then there are those mighty rivers, such as the -Amazon, the Orinoco, the Mississippi, the Nile, the Ganges, discharging -into the sea day by day their vast freight of mineral matter, millions -of cubic feet in bulk, and thousands upon thousands of tons in weight. -Often this ponderous volume of mud or sand is carried far out to sea by -the action of currents, but sometimes it is deposited near the shore, -forming what is called a Delta, and exhibiting an admirable example -of stratified rock in the earliest stage of its existence. Lastly, we -have to notice the giant power of the great ocean itself, acting with -untiring energies on the coasts of continents and islands all over the -world, excavating and undermining cliffs, rolling huge rocks hither and -thither, and spreading out the divided fragments in a new order at the -bottom of the sea. - -To apprehend fully the magnitude of the effects which may fairly be -ascribed to this last-mentioned power, we must remember that, according -to Geological theory, almost every portion of the Earth’s Crust has -been more than once lifted up above the surface of the ocean, and -afterward depressed below it. It is believed that this alternate -rising and sinking was effected very often, perhaps most commonly, -not by sudden convulsions, but rather by slow or gradual movements. -Now, during this process, as the land was emerging from the waters -or sinking beneath them, new surfaces would be presented in each -succeeding century to the force of the ocean currents and the erosive -action of the breakers; and it is not difficult to conceive that the -accumulated ruins produced, in a long lapse of time, by destructive -agents so powerful, so untiring, so universal, may have readily -furnished the materials for a very large proportion of the Aqueous -Rocks now in existence. - -Hitherto we have considered the Crust of the Earth as a great structure -slowly reared up by the hand of Nature; we have spoken of the Rocks -that compose it, of their origin and history, of the order in which -they are disposed, and of the various agencies that have been at -work to mould them into their present form and feature. We have now -to contemplate this marvellous structure under a new aspect; for we -are told by Geologists that it is a vast sepulchre, within which lie -entombed the remains of life that has long since passed away. Each -series of strata is but a new range of tombs; and each tomb has a story -of its own. Here a gigantic monster is disclosed to view, compared -to which the largest beast that now roams through the forest is puny -in form and contemptible in strength: there, within a narrow space, -millions of minute animal frames are found closely compacted together, -each so small that its existence can be detected only by the aid of -a powerful microscope. In one place whole skeletons are found almost -entire, embedded in the bosom of the solid rock; in another, we have a -boundless profusion of bones and shells; and again in another, neither -the skeleton itself appears, nor yet its scattered bones, but simply -the imprint of footsteps once left upon the sandy beach, and still -remaining engraved on the stone into which the fine sand has been -converted chiefly by the agency of pressure. There is no scarcity of -relics in this wonderful charnel-house of Nature. For half a century -the work of plunder has been going on without relaxation or remorse; -the tombs have been yielding up their dead; every city in the civilized -world has filled its museums, and the cabinets of private collectors -are overflowing: but the spoils that have hitherto been carried away -seem to bear a very small proportion to those which yet remain behind. - -These remains of animals and plants embedded in the Crust of the -Earth are called Fossils; and Geologists maintain that the Fossils -preserved in each group of strata represent the animals and plants -that flourished on the surface of the Earth, or in the waters of the -ocean, when that group of strata was in process of formation. There -they lived, and there they died, and there they were buried, in the -sand, or the shingle, or the mud that came down from the waters above. -Their descendants, however, still lived on, and new forms of life were -called into being by the voice of the Omnipotent Creator, making, as -it were, a connecting link between the new age of the world that was -coming in and the old one that was passing away. But they, too, died -and found a tomb beneath the waters; for Nature, with unexhausted -energies, was still busy collecting materials from the old rocks, and -building up the new. And so that age passed away like the former, and -another came; and every age was represented by its own group of strata; -and each group of strata was, in its turn, covered over with a new -deposit; and the tombs were all sealed up, with their countless legions -of dead, their massive monuments of stone, their strange hieroglyphic -inscriptions. At length came the last stage of the world’s history, and -man appeared upon the scene; and it is his privilege to descend into -this wonderful sepulchre, and to wander about amidst the monuments, and -to strive to read the inscriptions. In our own days more especially, -eager and enthusiastic students are abroad over the whole face of the -globe, and are gathering together from every country the Fossil Remains -of extinct worlds. By the aid of Natural History they seek to assign to -each its own proper place in the ranks of creation; to trace the rise, -the progress, and the extinction of every species in its turn; and even -to describe the nature and the character of all the various forms of -life that have dwelt upon the Earth from the beginning. - -Such is the theory of Geology as expounded at the present day by its -most able and popular advocates. We have passed over a multitude of -minor details that we might not weary our readers, and we have kept -aloof from disputed points that we might not get entangled in a purely -scientific controversy. Our object has simply been to gather together -into a systematic form those more general conclusions which, however -startling they may seem to practical men of the world, and even to many -of those whose minds have been accustomed to the pursuit of science -in other departments, are nevertheless regarded as certain by all -who have devoted their lives to the study of Geology. It now remains -to investigate the facts on which these conclusions are based, and -to consider the line of argument by which so many able and earnest -men have been led to accept them. In this vast field of inquiry we -shall chiefly direct our attention to those points that bear upon the -Antiquity of the Earth; and in attempting to bring home to our readers -the nature and the force of Geological reasoning, we shall confine -ourselves altogether to simple and familiar illustrations. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER II._ - -THEORY OF DENUDATION ILLUSTRATED BY FACTS. - - _Principle of reasoning common to all the physical sciences--This - principle applicable to Geology--Carbonic acid an agent - of denudation--Vast quantity of lime dissolved by the - waters of the Rhine and borne away to the German ocean--Disintegration - of rocks by frost--Professor Tyndall on the - Matterhorn--Running water--Its erosive power--An active - and unceasing agent of denudation--Mineral sediment carried - out to sea by the Ganges and other great rivers--Solid - rocks undermined and worn away--Falls of the Clyde at - Lanark--Excavating power of rivers in Auvergne and - Sicily--Falls of Niagara--Transporting power of running - water--Floods in Scotland--Inundation in the valley of - Bagnes in Switzerland._ - - -In the physical sciences it is a common principle of reasoning to -account for the phenomena that come before us in nature, by the -operation of natural causes which we know to exist. Nay, this principle -seems to be almost an instinct of our nature, which guides even the -least philosophical amidst us, in the common affairs of life. When we -stand amongst the ruins of an ancient castle, we feel quite certain -that we have before us, not alone the monument of Time’s destroying -power, but also the monument of human skill and labor in days gone -by. We entertain no doubt that ages ago the sound of the mason’s -hammer was heard upon these walls, now crowned with ivy; that these -moss-grown stones were once hewn fresh in the quarry, and piled up one -upon another by human hands; and that the building itself was designed -by human skill, and intended for the purposes of human habitation and -defence. Or, if we see a footprint in the sand, we conclude that a -living foot has been there; and from the character of the traces it has -left, we judge what was the species of animal to which it belonged, -whether man, or bird, or beast. It is true that God is Omnipotent. -He might, if it had so pleased Him, have built the old castle at the -creation of the world, and allowed it to crumble slowly into ruins: or -he might have built it yesterday, and made a ruin begin to be where no -castle had stood before; and covered the stones with moss, and mantled -the walls in ivy. And as to the footprint in the sand, it were as easy -for Him to make the impress there, as to make the foot that left the -impress. All this is true: but yet if any one were to argue in this -style against us, he would fail to shake our convictions; we should -still unhesitatingly believe that human hands once built the castle, -and that a living foot once trod the shore. - -Now, this principle of reasoning is the foundation on which the ablest -modern Geologists claim to build their science. The untiring hand of -Nature is ever busy around us: they ask us to come and look at her -works, and to judge of what she has done in past ages, by that which -she is now doing before our eyes. She is still, they say, building -up her strata all over the globe, of limestone, and sandstone, and -clay; she is still lifting up in one place the bed of the ocean, and -in another submerging the dry land; she is still bursting open the -Crust of the Earth by the action of internal fire, disturbing and -tilting up the horizontal strata; she is still upheaving her mountains -and scooping out her valleys. All these operations are open to our -inspection; we may go forth and study them for ourselves; we may -examine the works that are wrought, and we may discover, too, the -causes by which they are produced. And if it should appear that a very -close analogy exists between these works that are now coming into -existence, and the long series of works that are piled up in the Crust -of the Earth, it is surely not unreasonable to refer the latter class -of phenomena to the action of the same natural causes which we know to -have produced the former. - -It cannot be denied that this argument is deserving of a fair and -candid consideration. Let us proceed, then, to examine how far it is -founded on fact, and how far it can be justly applied to the various -heads of Geological theory. We will commence with the origin and -history of Stratified Rocks; for this constitutes, in a manner, the -framework on which the whole system of Geology is supported and held -together. It is alleged that the elements of which Stratified Rocks are -composed are but the broken fragments and minute atoms of pre-existing -rocks, carried off by the agents of Denudation, and spread out over -some distant area in regular beds or layers; which, in progress of -ages, were slowly consolidated into rocks of various quality and -texture. With the view of testing this theory by the light of the -principle just explained, we purpose, in the first place, to exhibit -some examples of the many forms in which the process of Denudation -is going on at the present day all over the world; and afterward, to -show that out of the materials thus obtained Stratified Rocks of every -description--Mechanical, Chemical, Organic--are being regularly built -up in sundry places; and that these correspond in every essential -feature with the Stratified Rocks in the Crust of the Earth. - -Among the chemical agents of Denudation, there is none more widely -diffused than Carbonic acid gas. It is everywhere given out by dead -animal and vegetable matter during the process of putrefaction; it is -plentifully evolved from springs in every country; and it is emitted -in enormous quantities from the earth in all volcanic districts, as -well those in which the volcanoes are now extinct as those in which -they are active. Now, it is well known from observation, that carbonic -acid has the property of decomposing many of the hardest rocks, -especially those in which felspar is an ingredient. This phenomenon -is exhibited on a large scale in the ancient volcanic district of -Auvergne, in central France. The carbonic acid, which is abundantly -evolved from the earth, penetrates the crevices and pores of the solid -granite, which being unable to resist its decomposing action, is -rapidly crumbling to pieces. This mysterious decay of hard rock has -been happily called by Dolomieu, “la maladie du granite.”[15] - -Again, all the water which flows over the surface of the land is highly -charged with carbonic acid. The rain imbibes it in falling through the -atmosphere; and the rivers receive still further accessions from the -earth as they pursue their course to the sea. In this combination we -discover a powerful agent of Denudation; for limestone rock will be -dissolved by water which is impregnated with carbonic acid. Thus all -the rivers and streams in the world, when they flow through a limestone -channel, are constantly dissolving the solid rock and bearing away the -elements of which it is composed. A single example will be sufficient -to show the magnitude of the results which are thus produced. It has -been calculated by Bischof, a celebrated German chemist, that the -carbonate of lime which is carried each year to the sea by the waters -of the Rhine, is sufficient for the formation of 32,000,000,000 of -oyster shells; or, to view the matter in another light, it would be -sufficient to produce a stratum of limestone one foot thick, and four -square miles in extent.[16] If such be the yearly produce of one -river, how great must be the accumulated effects of all the rivers in -the world since our planet first came from the hand of its Creator! - -Passing from the chemical to the mechanical agents of Denudation, it -is worth while to notice the immense power which is often generated by -the agency of frost, especially in those countries that are subject to -great vicissitudes of heat and cold. During a thaw, water finds its way -into the clefts and joints by which all rocks are traversed, and when -it is afterward converted into ice, it expands with a mechanical force -that is almost irresistible. The hardest rocks are burst asunder, great -blocks are detached from the mountain side, and sent rolling down its -slopes, or tumbling over crags and precipices, until at length they -come to rest in shattered fragments at the bottom of the valley. In -this condition they await but the coming of the winter’s torrent to be -borne still further on their long journey to the sea. - -The fearful havoc done in this way by the alternate action of sun and -frost contributes in no small degree to the fantastic and picturesque -forms assumed by the mountain peaks of Switzerland. Huge masses of -rock have been literally hewn away, until nothing has remained behind -but those splintered obelisks and tapering pinnacles so familiar to -the eye amidst the sublime scenery of the Alps. Indeed one of the -greatest perils encountered by the adventurous spirits whose ambition -it is to rival one another in the danger of their exploits, and to -climb whatever was before regarded as inaccessible, arises from the -enormous fragments of rock which are rent almost unceasingly from the -overhanging crags and hurled into the abysses below them. The following -incident related by Professor Tyndall is very much to the point. “We -had gathered up our things, and bent to the work before us, when -suddenly an explosion occurred overhead. Looking aloft, in mid-air was -seen a solid shot from the Matterhorn describing its proper parabola -through the air. It split to pieces as it hit one of the rock-towers -below, and its fragments came down in a kind of spray, which fell wide -of us, but still near enough to compel a sharp look out. Two or three -such explosions occurred afterward, but we crept along the back fin of -the mountain, from which the falling boulders were speedily deflected -right and left.” - -This occurred in 1862, on the occasion of an unsuccessful attempt -to reach the highest peak of the Matterhorn. Six years later, when -Professor Tyndall at length actually accomplished the object on which -he seems to have set his heart, he found the work of destruction -still going on. “We were now,” he says in his narrative, “beside a -snow-gully, which was cut by a deep furrow along its centre, and -otherwise scarred by the descent of stones. Here each man arranged his -bundle and himself so as to cross the gully in the minimum of time. The -passage was safely made, a few flying shingle only coming down upon us. -But danger declared itself where it was not expected. Joseph Maquignas -led the way up the rocks. I was next, Pierre Maquignas next, and last -of all the porters. Suddenly a yell issued from the leader: ‘Cachez -vous!’ I crouched instinctively against the rock, which formed a by no -means perfect shelter, when a boulder buzzed past me through the air, -smote the rocks below me, and with a savage hum flew down to the lower -glacier.”[17] - -Even in our own country, every one is familiar with the efficacy of -frozen water in producing landslips. The rain which soaks into the -ground in winter, is converted into ice when frost sets in; and upon -steep slopes or precipices, its expansive power bursts open the earth, -and causes large masses of stones and clay to tumble headlong to the -bottom. - -But moving water constitutes the most powerful, and, at the same -time, the most universal agent of Denudation. And it is chiefly to the -effects of moving water that we mean to direct attention; because its -action is more striking to the eye, and more easily understood by the -general reader. Every one is aware that the waters of the ocean are -constantly passing off by evaporation into the higher regions of the -atmosphere, and are there condensed into clouds. These clouds in course -of time descend upon all parts of the earth, but especially on the high -and mountainous districts. Then rivulets are formed which flow smoothly -down the gentle slopes of the undulating country, or plunge headlong -over the rocky mountain cliffs; and the rivulets uniting form streams, -and the streams, receiving new tributaries as they advance, become -rivers; and the rivers flow on to the sea, and discharge each day and -each hour their enormous volumes of water back again into the ocean -from which they came. Thus all the water of the world is constantly -in motion, ever hurrying on, as it were, in one unending round of -duty. This is the teaching of daily experience and observation. And -we may add, it is the teaching of Sacred Scripture as well. The Wise -Man said long ago: “All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea doth -not overflow: unto the place from whence the rivers come, thither they -return to flow again.”[18] - -Now, the power of this moving water is a mighty wide-spread agent of -change in the physical condition of the globe. For wherever water is in -motion over the surface of the land, whether it be a rippling stream, -or a mountain torrent, or a majestic river, it is surely wearing away -the channel through which it flows, and carrying along in its course -particles of clay, or sand, or gravel. This subject is illustrated with -great force and great simplicity by Mr. Page. “Every person,” he says, -“must have observed the rivers in his own district, how they become -muddy and turbid during floods of rain, and how their swollen currents -eat away the banks, deepen the channels, and sweep away the sand and -gravel down to some lower level. And if, during this turbid state, he -will have the curiosity to lift a gallon of the water, and allow it -to settle, he will be astonished at the amount of sediment or solid -matter that falls to the bottom. Now, let him multiply this gallon by -the number of gallons daily carried down by the river, and this day -by years and centuries, and he will arrive at some faint idea of the -quantity of matter worn from the land by rivers, and deposited by them -in the ocean. In the same way as one river grinds and cuts for itself a -channel, so does every stream and rill and current of water. The rain -as it falls washes away what the winds and frosts have loosened; the -rill takes it up, and, mingling it with its own burden, gives it to the -stream; the stream takes it up and carries it to the river, and the -river bears it to the ocean.”[19] - -When the current is feeble, the greater part of this earthy material is -thrown down upon the way, and forms a stratum of alluvial soil in the -bed of the river, and also in the adjoining lowlands, during the time -of temporary floods. But when several streams unite, then the carrying -power of the current is enormously increased: huge stones are rolled -along, and dashed one against another, and broken into fragments, and -the fragments are rounded by friction, and become pebbles, and the -pebbles become gravel, and the gravel, mud; and the mud is carried on -to the mouth of the river, and there falling to the bottom, it forms a -tongue of land which is called a delta; or else perhaps it chances to -meet with some great ocean current, and then it begins a new journey, -and is borne far away to be deposited in the profound and tranquil -depths of the sea. It is not, however, mineral matter alone that is -transported by the action of rivers. Trees that once were growing on -the banks of the stream, and the bones of animals, and human remains, -and works of art, are seen floating down with the current, and are -found embedded in the sand and mud of the delta at the river’s mouth. - -These are some of the actual realities which all may witness, who will -go and study for themselves the history of this wonderful element, -from the time when it first soars aloft as vapor to the sky, until it -returns to the bosom of its parent ocean laden with the spoils of the -land. To some of our readers, perhaps, results of this kind may appear -insignificant, when considered in relation to the enormous bulk of the -stratified rocks. But it should be remembered that the force of which -we speak is unceasing in its operation over the whole surface of the -earth; and even though the work were small which is accomplished in -each successive year, the accumulated effects produced in a lengthened -period of time must be immensely great. Besides, it would be a very -serious error to form our ideas on this subject, as many would seem to -do, from the examples which are to be found within the narrow limits of -our own island. We should rather seek for our illustrations among those -mighty rivers that drain the vast continents of the world, and exhibit -the erosive and transporting power of running water on the grandest -scale. - -It happens, fortunately for our purpose, that an attempt has been -made by scientific men to compute the amount of matter discharged -into the sea, by some particular rivers within a given time. For such -a computation it is necessary, in the first place, to calculate the -volume of water that passes down the channel during that time; and -then, by repeated experiments, to ascertain the average proportion of -earthy matter which is held suspended in the water. This has been done -with the greatest care by the Rev. Mr. Everest, in the case of the -river Ganges; and it appears that during the rainy season, which lasts -four months every year, from June to September, about 6,000,000,000 -cubic feet of mud are carried along by the stream past the town of -Ghazepoor, near which the observations were made. Now this enormous -bulk of mineral matter would be sufficient to form a stratum of rock -one foot in height, and two hundred and eighteen square miles in -extent. Or, to adopt the computation of Sir Charles Lyell, the amount -which passes by every day is equal to that which might be transported -by 2000 Indiamen, each freighted with a cargo of mud 1400 tons in -weight. And it is important to remember that this estimate represents -but a portion of the sediment which passes into the sea through the -channel of the Ganges; for the observations of Mr. Everest were taken -at a point which is 500 miles from the sea, and at which the river has -not yet received the contributions of its largest tributaries. - -We are able, therefore, with some degree of confidence, to estimate -the amount of Denudation which is every year effected by the Ganges. -And, although the same calculations have not yet been applied with -equal care to other great rivers, there is no reason to suppose that -the Ganges is an exception. It is asserted on good grounds that the -Brahmapootra, which unites with the Ganges close to the Bay of Bengal, -carries with it an equal amount of earthy sediment. According to Sir -Charles Lyell, the quantity of solid matter brought down each year by -the Mississippi amounts to 3,702,758,400 cubic feet. And it is said -that 48,000,000 cubic feet of earth are _daily_ discharged into the sea -by the Yellow River in China, called by the natives the Hoang Ho.[20] -Thus year after year the waste of the land is carried away by rivers, -to be spread out over wide areas of the ocean, and perhaps to furnish -the materials of future continents. - -The effects of running water in wearing away and transporting masses -of solid rock are not less deserving of our notice. Every one who has -followed the course of a great river when it flows through a rocky -channel, must have observed large blocks projecting from the cliffs -above, which, having been undermined by the action of the water, seem -ready to tumble headlong into the stream; and others lying below, which -had fallen before; and others again which had been already carried a -considerable distance by the winter’s torrent. Even where the rocks -are not displaced, they are gradually being worn away, partly by the -friction of the water, but much more by the grinding action of the -gravel which the water holds in suspension. Not only is the surface of -the rocks thus rounded and polished, but large circular pits, called -_pot-holes_, are formed by the whirling waters of an eddy carrying -round and round a few grains of hard sand. - -At the falls of the Clyde near Lanark in Scotland, these various -phenomena may be seen to great advantage. Good illustrations are to -be found also in many volcanic regions. Some of the larger streams in -Auvergne have in course of time forced their way through the solid lava -rock, cutting out for themselves channels broad and deep. In Sicily -too, we are told, the river Simeto, whose course was blocked up by a -current of lava about the beginning of the seventeenth century, has -since that time eaten its way through this compact and hardened mass, -and now flows on to the sea through a rocky passage forty feet in depth -and from fifty to several hundred feet in width.[21] - -But there is no part of the world yet explored where these effects -are exhibited on the same gigantic scale as at the far-famed Falls -of Niagara. The massive limestone rock from which the waters are -precipitated is slowly but certainly disappearing. An enormous volume -of water, more than a third of a mile in breadth, plunges in a single -bound over a sheer precipice of one hundred and sixty-five feet. The -soft slaty rocks upon which the limestone rests are soon eaten away -by the action of the spray which rises from the pool below; and then -the overhanging cliffs, left without any support, topple over, and -are carried off by the torrent. The position of the Falls, therefore, -is not stationary, but is receding by very sensible degrees in the -direction of Lake Erie, from which the river flows. Speaking of this -phenomenon, Sir Charles Lyell observes with much show of reason: “The -idea of perpetual and progressive waste is constantly present to the -mind of every beholder: and as that part of the chasm which has been -the work of the last hundred and fifty years resembles precisely in -depth, width, and character the rest of the gorge, which extends seven -miles below, it is most natural to infer, that the entire ravine has -been hollowed out in the same manner, by the recession of the cataract. -It must at least be conceded, that the river supplies an adequate cause -for executing the whole task thus assigned to it, provided we grant -sufficient time for its completion.”[22] - -With a view to enable our readers to understand more fully the -prodigious force which rivers have been known to exert in the -transportation of rocks, it may be useful to draw attention to one or -two principles of physical science. First, we have the well-known law -of Archimedes, that _a solid body immersed in a liquid loses a part -of its weight equal to the weight of the liquid displaced_. Now solid -rock as compared with water, bulk for bulk, is rarely more than three -times, and often not more than twice as heavy. Consequently, according -to this law, almost all rocks will lose a third of their weight, and -many will lose one-half, when immersed in water. Again, it has been -established that _the power of water to move bodies that are in it -increases as the sixth power of the velocity of the current_. Hence, -if the velocity of a current is increased _two-fold_, its moving power -will be increased _sixty-four fold_; if the velocity is increased -_three-fold_, the moving power will be increased _seven hundred and -twenty fold_; and so on. - -From these principles it follows, first, that a much smaller power is -required to move a block of stone lying in the bed of a river, than if -it were lying on the surface of the land; and secondly, that a very -slight increase in the velocity of a current effects a very great -increase in its moving power. We need not wonder, then, when we hear of -the enormous masses of rocks and trees and mason-work which are carried -away even by small rivers in times of flood.[23] - -Here are a few examples. In August, 1829, a fragment of sandstone, -fourteen feet long, three feet wide, and one foot thick, was carried -by the river Nairn, in Scotland, a distance of two hundred yards. On -the same occasion the river Dee swept away a bridge of five arches, -built of solid granite, which had stood uninjured for twenty years; -the whole mass of masonry sunk into the bed of the stream and was -seen no more. And the river Don, as we are assured on the authority -of Mr. Farquharson, forced a mass of stones four or five hundred -tons in weight up a steep inclined plane, leaving them in a great -rectangular heap on the summit. A small rivulet called the College, in -Northumberland, when swollen by a flood in August, 1827, “tore away -from the abutment of a mill-dam a large block of greenstone-porphyry -weighing nearly two tons, and transported it to the distance of a -quarter of a mile.”[24] But it is needless to multiply examples of -phenomena which are occurring every day around us, and of which many -among our readers have probably been eye-witnesses. - -The transporting power of rivers must not always be estimated by the -bulk and velocity of the current; for it is often greatly increased by -some accidental obstruction, which for a time blocks up the channel -through which the river flows. An instructive illustration is afforded -by the river Dranse, which flows through the valley of Bagnes, in -Switzerland, and empties itself into the Rhone above the lake of -Geneva. In the year 1818 the avalanches which fell down from the -mountain side formed a barrier across the valley, and thus effectually -blocked up the course of the stream. The upper part of the valley was, -in consequence, soon converted into a lake which gradually increased in -size as the season advanced. When summer came, and the melting of the -snows began, the ice barrier suddenly gave way with a tremendous crash, -and the lake was emptied in half an hour. The mass of water, thus in -a moment disengaged, burst with destructive violence over the lower -valley, sweeping away rocks, forests, houses, bridges, and cultivated -lands. Thousands of trees were torn up by the roots, fragments of -granite as large as houses were rolled along, and the whole flood -presented the appearance of a moving mass of ruins. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER III._ - -THEORY OF DENUDATION--FURTHER ILLUSTRATIONS. - - _The breakers of the ocean--Caverns and fairy bridges - of Kilkee--Italy and Sicily--The Shetland Islands--East - and south coast of Britain--Tracts of land swallowed up - by the sea--Island of Heligoland--Northstrand--Tides and - currents--South Atlantic current--Equatorial current--The Gulf - Stream--Its course described--Examples of its power as an agent - of transport._ - - -While the rain, the rivers, and the streams, are thus wasting away -the mountains and plains of the interior country, the waves of the -sea are exerting a power no less destructive on the coasts of islands -and of continents. The breakers dashing against the foot of a lofty -cliff, dissolve and decompose and wear away the lower strata; and -the overhanging rocks, thus undermined, fall down in course of time -by their own weight. With the next returning wave these rocks are -themselves hurled back against the cliff; and so, as some one has -happily remarked, the land would seem to supply a powerful artillery -for its own destruction. The effects of the breakers are often very -unequal, even on the same line of cliffs. Some parts of the rock are -more yielding than others, or perhaps they are more exposed to the -action of the waves, or perhaps they are divided by larger joints and -more freely admit the destructive element. These parts will be the -first to give way, while the harder and less exposed rock will be left -standing: and in this way forms the most capricious and fantastic are -produced. - -No finer examples could be wished for than those which are seen in the -neighborhood of Kilkee, and along the promontory of Loop Head, in the -county of Clare. Sometimes the ground is undermined with caverns, into -which, when the tide is coming in, the waves of the Atlantic rush with -resistless force, making new additions each day to the accumulated -ruins of ages. Sometimes lofty pinnacles of rock are left standing in -the midst of the waters, like giant sentinels stationed there by Nature -to guard the coast. In one or two instances these isolated fragments -are connected with the main land by natural arches of rock, which are -called _fairy bridges_ by the people; but more commonly they appear as -rocky islets, and answer exactly to the poet’s description-- - - “The roaring tides - The passage broke that land from land divides; - And where the lands retired the rushing ocean rides.” - -It is interesting to observe in passing, that, in the original verses -of the Æneid, of which these lines are Dryden’s translation, Virgil -has recorded a belief which prevailed in his time, and which, upon -scientific grounds, is now regarded as highly probable by Geologists, -that the island of Sicily had been once connected by land with Italy, -and was separated from it by the action of the waves: - - “Hæc loca, vi quondam et vasta convulsa ruina, - Tantum ævi longinqua valet mutare vetustas! - Dissiluisse ferunt, quum protenus utraque tellus - Una foret; venit medio vi pontus et undis - Hesperium Siculo latus abscidit, arvaque et urbes - Litore deductas angusto interluit æsta.” - - Æneid, iii., 414-19. - -But whatever may be thought of this opinion thus rendered immortal -by the genius of the poet, we shall not stop to discuss its merits. -For in the present stage of our argument, it is our object to deal, -not with vague and uncertain traditions, nor even with philosophical -speculations, but rather with the facts which are actually going on in -nature, and which any one of our readers may examine for himself. With -this object in view, we shall take a few examples from the Eastern and -Southern coasts of Great Britain, which have been carefully explored by -scientific men for the purpose of observing and recording the amount of -destruction accomplished by the waves within recent times. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Granitic rocks to the south of Hillswick Ness, -Shetland. From Lyell’s Principles of Geology.] - -The Shetland Islands, exposed to the whole fury of the Atlantic, -present many phenomena not unlike those of Kilkee and Loop Head, but -upon a far grander scale. Whole islands have been swept away by the -resistless power of the waters, and of others nothing remains but -massive pillars of hard rock, which have been well described as rising -up “like the ruins of Palmyra in the desert of the ocean.” Passing -to the mainland, it is recorded that in the year 1795 a village in -Kincardineshire was carried away in a single night, and the sea -advanced a hundred and fifty yards inland, where it has ever since -maintained its ground. In England, almost the whole coast of Yorkshire -is undergoing constant dilapidation. On the south side of Flamborough -Head the cliffs are receding at an average rate of two yards and a -quarter in the year, for a distance of thirty-six miles along the -coast. This would amount to a mile since the Norman Conquest, and -to more than two miles since the occupation of York by the Romans. -It is not surprising, therefore, to learn that many spots marked in -the old maps of the country as the sites of towns or villages, are -now sandbanks in the sea. Even places of historic name have not been -spared. The town of Ravenspur, from which, in 1332, Edward Baliol -sailed for the invasion of Scotland, and at which Henry the Fourth -landed in 1399, to claim the throne of England, has long since been -swallowed up by the devouring element. - -On the coast of Norfolk it was calculated, at the beginning of the -present century, that the mean loss of the land was something less -than one yard in the year. The inn at Sherringham was built on -this calculation in 1805, and it was expected to stand for seventy -years. But unfortunately the actual advance of the sea exceeded the -calculation. Sir Charles Lyell, who visited this spot in 1829, relates -that during the five preceding years seventeen yards of the cliff had -been swept away, and nothing but a small garden was then left between -the building and the sea. The same distinguished writer tells us that -in the harbor of this town there was at that time water sufficient to -float a frigate where forty-eight years before had stood a cliff fifty -feet in height with houses built upon it. And remarking upon these -facts, he says, that “if once in half a century an equal amount of -change were produced suddenly by the momentary shock of an earthquake, -history would be filled with records of such wonderful revolutions of -the earth’s surface; but if the conversion of high land into deep sea -be gradual, it excites only local attention.” - -In the neighborhood of Dunwich, once the most considerable seaport on -the coast of Suffolk, the cliffs have been wasting away from an early -period of history. “Two tracts of land which had been taxed in the -time of King Edward the Confessor, are mentioned in the Conqueror’s -survey, made but a few years afterward, as having been devoured by the -sea.” And the memory of other losses in the town itself--including a -monastery, several churches, the town-hall, the jail, and many hundred -houses--together with the dates of their occurrence, is faithfully -preserved in authentic records. In 1740 the sea reached the churchyard -of Saint Nicholas and Saint Francis, so that the graves, the coffins, -and the skeletons, were exposed to view on the face of the cliffs. -Since that time the coffins, and the tombstones, and the churchyard -itself, have disappeared beneath the waves. Nothing now remains of this -once flourishing and populous city but the name alone, which is still -attached to a little village of about twenty houses. The spot on which -the Church of Reculver stands, near the mouth of the Thames, was a -mile inland in the reign of Henry the Eighth; in the year 1834 it was -overhanging the sea; and it would long ago have been demolished, but -for an artificial causeway of stones constructed with a view to break -the force of the waves. It is estimated that the land on the northeast -coast of Kent is receding at the rate of about two feet in the year. -The promontory of Beachy Head in Sussex is also rapidly falling away. -In the year 1813 an enormous mass of chalk, three hundred feet in -length and eighty in breadth, came down with a tremendous crash; and -slips of the same kind have often occurred, both before and since. - -To these examples from Great Britain we may add one or two from the -German Ocean. Seven islands have completely disappeared within a very -narrow area since the time of Pliny; for he counted twenty-three -between Texel and the mouth of the Eider, whereas now there are but -sixteen. The island of Heligoland, at the mouth of the Elbe, has been -for ages subject to great dilapidation. Within the last five hundred -years three-fourths of it have been carried away; and since 1770 the -fragment that remains has been divided into two parts by a channel -which is at present navigable for large ships. A still more remarkable -instance of destruction effected by the waves of the sea occurred in -the island of Northstrand, on the coast of Schleswig. Previous to the -thirteenth century it was attached to the mainland, forming a part -of the continent of Europe, and was a highly cultivated and populous -district about ten miles long, and from six to eight broad. In the year -1240 it was cut off from the coast of Schleswig by an inroad of the -sea, and it gradually wasted away up to the seventeenth century, when -its entire circumference was sixteen geographical miles. Even then the -industrious inhabitants,--about nine thousand in number,--endeavored to -save what remained of their territory by the erection of lofty dykes; -but on the eleventh of October, 1634, the whole island was overwhelmed -by another invasion of the sea, in which 6000 people perished, and -50,000 head of cattle. Three small islets are all that now remain of -this once fertile district.[25] - -The breakers of the ocean receive no small aid in their work of -destruction from the action of tides and currents which co-operate with -the winds to keep the waters of the sea in constant motion. And though -the winds may sleep for a time, the tides and currents are always -actively at work, and never for a moment cease to wear away the land. -But they are even more powerful auxiliaries as agents of transport. If -it were not for them, the ruins which fall from the rocks to-day would -to-morrow form a barrier against the waves, and the work of destruction -would cease. But Nature has ordained it otherwise. When the tide -advances, it rolls the broken fragments toward the land, and when it -recedes, it carries them back to the deep; and so by unceasing friction -these fragments are worn away to pebbles, and then, being more easily -transported, they are carried off to sea and deposited in the bed of -the ocean: or else, perhaps, they are cast up on the sloping shore, to -form what is so familiar to us all under the name of a shingle-beach. - -This is a subject on which it is needless to enlarge. Every one -knows that the tides have the power of transporting solid matter; -though most of us, perhaps, do not fully appreciate the magnitude of -their accumulated effects, working as they do with untiring energies -upon the coasts of islands and continents all over the world. It is -not, however, so generally known that the ocean is traversed in all -directions by powerful currents, which, from their regularity, their -permanence, and their extent, have been aptly called the rivers of -the ocean. We do not mean here to inquire into the causes of these -currents, upon which the progress of physical science has thrown -considerable light: neither can we hope to describe even the principal -currents that prevail over the vast tracts of water which constitute -about three-fourths of the entire surface of our globe. We shall -content ourselves with tracing the course of one great system, which -may serve to give some idea of their general character and enormous -power. - -This system would seem to have its origin with a stream that flows from -the Indian Ocean toward the southwest, and then doubling the Cape of -Good Hope, turns northward along the African coast. It is here called -the South Atlantic Current. When it encounters the shores of Guinea, it -is diverted to the west, and stretches across the Atlantic, traversing -forty degrees of longitude until it reaches the projecting promontory -of Brazil in South America. In this part of its course it is known as -the Equatorial Current, because it follows pretty nearly the line of -the Equator: it varies in breadth from two hundred to five hundred -miles, and it travels at the mean rate of thirty miles a day, though -sometimes its velocity is increased to seventy or eighty. Next, under -the name of the Guyana Current, it pursues a northwesterly direction, -following the line of the coast; and passing close to the island -of Trinidad, becomes diffused, and almost seems to be lost, in the -Caribbean Sea. Nevertheless, it again issues with renewed energy from -the Gulf of Mexico, and rushing through the Straits of Florida at the -rate of four and five miles an hour, it issues once more into the broad -waters of the Atlantic. From this out it is called the Gulf Stream, and -is well known to all who are concerned in Transatlantic navigation; -for it sensibly accelerates the speed of vessels which are bound from -America to Europe, and sensibly retards those sailing from Europe to -America. - -The Gulf Stream, however, does not set out on its Transatlantic voyage -directly that it issues from the Straits of Florida. It keeps at -first a northeasterly course, following the outline of the American -continent, passing by New York and Nova Scotia, and brushing the -southern extremity of the great Newfoundland Bank. Then taking leave -of the land, it sweeps right across the Atlantic. After a time it -seems to divide into two branches, one inclining to the south, and -losing itself among the Azores, the other bending toward the north, -washing the shores of Ireland, Scotland, Norway, and reaching even to -the frozen regions of Spitzbergen. The breadth of the Gulf Stream, -when it issues from the Straits of Florida, is about fifty miles, but -it afterward increases to three hundred. Its color is a dark indigo -blue, which, contrasting sharply with the green waters of the Atlantic, -forms a line of junction distinctly visible for some hundreds of miles: -afterward, when this boundary line is no longer sensible to the eye, it -is easily ascertained by the thermometer; for the temperature of the -Gulf Stream is everywhere from eight to ten degrees higher than that of -the surrounding ocean.[26] - -We leave our readers to infer from this brief description how immense -must be the power of transport which belongs to such currents as -these. They sweep along the shores of continents, and carry away the -accumulated fragments of rock, which had first been rent from the -cliffs by the waves of the sea, and then borne out to a little distance -by the tides: they pass by the mouths of great rivers, and receiving -the spoils of many a fertile and populous country, and the ruins of -many an inaccessible mountain ridge, they hurry off to deposit this -vast and varied freight in the deep abysses of the ocean. There is one -circumstance, however, which we ought not to pass over in silence; for -it is of especial importance to the Geologist, and might easily escape -the notice of the general reader. It is a well ascertained fact that -plants and fruits and other objects from the West Indian Islands are -annually washed ashore by the Gulf Stream on the northwestern coasts of -Europe. The mast of a man-of-war burnt at Jamaica was after some months -found stranded on one of the Western Islands of Scotland;[27] and -General Sabine tells us that when he was in Norway, in the year 1823, -casks of palm-oil were picked up on the shore near the North Cape, -which belonged to a vessel that had been wrecked the previous year at -Cape Lopez on the African coast.[28] It seems most probable that these -casks of oil must first have crossed the Atlantic from east to west in -the Equatorial Current, then described the circuit of the West Indian -Islands, and finally coming in with the Gulf Stream, recrossed the -Atlantic, performing altogether a journey of more than eight thousand -miles. From these facts it is clear that, by the agency of ocean -currents, the productions of one country may be carried to another -that is far distant. And Geologists do not fail to make use of this -important conclusion when they find the animal and vegetable remains of -different climates associated together in the same strata of the Earth. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER IV._ - -THEORY OF DENUDATION--CONCLUDED. - - _Glaciers--Their nature and composition--Their unceasing - motion--Powerful agents of denudation--Icebergs--Their - number and size--Erratic blocks and loose gravel spread out - over mountains, plains, and valleys, at the bottom of the - sea--Characteristic marks of moving ice--Evidence of ancient - glacial action--Illustrations from the Alps--From the mountains - of the Jura--Theory applied to northern Europe--To Scotland, - Wales, and Ireland--The fact of denudation established--Summary - of the evidence--This fact the first step in geological theory._ - - -The next agent of Denudation to which we invite the attention of our -readers, is one of which our own country affords us no example, but -which may be seen in full operation amidst the wild and impressive -scenery of Switzerland. And we know not how we can better introduce the -subject than by the solemn address of a great poet, in whom an ardent -love of nature was blended with a deep sense of religion. As he stood -in the midst of the snow-clad mountains that shut in the valley of -Chamouni, his spirit, “expanded by the genius of the spot,” soared away -from the scenes before him to the Great Invisible Author of all that is -beautiful and sublime in nature, and he poured forth that well-known -hymn of praise and worship in which he thus apostrophizes the massive -glaciers of Mont Blanc:-- - - “Ye ice-falls! ye that from the mountain’s brow - Adown enormous ravines slope amain-- - Torrents, methinks, that heard a mighty voice, - And stopped at once amid their maddest plunge! - Motionless torrents! silent cataracts! - Who made you glorious as the gates of Heaven - Beneath the keen full moon? Who bade the sun - Clothe you with rainbows? Who with living flowers - Of loveliest blue, spread garlands at your feet? - God! let the torrents, like a shout of nations, - Answer! and let the ice-plains echo, God! - God! sing ye meadow-streams with gladsome voice! - Ye pine-groves, with your soft and soul-like sounds! - And they too have a voice, yon piles of snow, - And in their perilous fall shall thunder, God!”[29] - -A Glacier is an enormous mass of solid ice filling up a valley, and -stretching from the eternal snows which crown the summits of the -mountains, down to the smiling cornfields and rich pastures of the -plains. It is constantly fed by the accumulated snows of winter, -which, slipping and rolling down the slopes of the mountains, lodge -in the valleys below, and are there converted into ice. For it must -be remembered that the Glacier properly so called does not commonly -extend much higher than 9000 feet above the level of the sea. Beyond -that elevation the compact and massive ice gradually passes into -frozen snow, called by the French Nevé, and by the Germans Firn. The -change which takes place in the condition of the snow as it descends -into the valley is chiefly owing to these two circumstances: first, -it is closely compacted together by the weight of the snowy masses -pressing down upon it from above; and secondly, in the summer months -it is thawed upon the surface during the day by the heat of the -sun, and frozen again at night. On a small scale this process is -practically familiar to every school-boy. When he makes a snow-ball he -is practically converting a mass of snow into ice, and that by a series -of operations very closely resembling those which Nature employs in the -manufacture of a Glacier. - -In Switzerland the Glacier is often two or three miles in breadth, -from twenty to thirty miles in length, and five or six hundred feet in -depth. Though so vast in its bulk and so solid in its character, it is -not, as might be supposed, a fixed, immovable mass. On the contrary, it -is moving incessantly, but slowly, down the valley which it occupies, -at the rate of several inches--sometimes one or two feet, and even -more--in the day. In Greenland a Glacier explored by Doctor Hayes, in -his expedition to the North Pole, was found to move for a whole year at -the average rate of a hundred feet a day. It may be thought, perhaps, -that this fact requires further confirmation; but at all events it is -certain that the language of the poet, when he addresses the Glaciers -as “motionless torrents,” though it conveys an accurate and beautiful -idea of the appearance they present to the eye, is not rigorously true -in a scientific sense. Indeed, it is just because the Glaciers are not -motionless that they serve as instruments of Denudation. - -Their agency in this respect “consists partly in their power of -transporting gravel, sand, and huge stones, to great distances, -and partly in the smoothing, polishing, and scoring of their rocky -channels, and the boundary walls of the valleys through which they -pass. At the foot of every steep cliff or precipice in high Alpine -regions, a sloping heap is seen of rocky fragments detached by the -alternate action of frost and thaw. If these loose masses, instead -of accumulating on a stationary base, happen to fall upon a Glacier, -they will move along with it, and, in place of a single heap, they -will form in the course of years a long stream of blocks. If a Glacier -be twenty miles long, and its annual progression about five hundred -feet, it will require about two centuries for a block thus lodged upon -its surface to travel down from the higher to the lower regions, or -to the extremity of the icy mass. This terminal point usually remains -unchanged from year to year, although every part of the ice is in -motion, because the liquefaction by heat is just sufficient to balance -the onward movement of the Glacier, which may be compared to an endless -file of soldiers, pouring into a breach, and shot down as fast as they -advance. - -“The stones carried along on the ice are called in Switzerland the -_moraines_ of the Glacier. There is always one line of blocks on each -side or edge of the icy stream, and often several in the middle, where -they are arranged in long ridges or mounds of snow and ice, often -several yards high. The reason of their projecting above the general -level, is the non-liquefaction of the ice in those parts of the surface -of the Glacier which are protected from the rays of the sun, or the -action of the wind, by the covering of the earth, sand, and stones. -The cause of _medial moraines_ was first explained by Agassiz, who -referred them to the confluence of tributary Glaciers. Upon the union -of two streams of ice, the right lateral moraine of one of the streams -comes in contact with the left lateral moraine of the other, and they -afterward move on together, in the centre, if the confluent Glaciers -are equal in size, or nearer to one side if unequal. - -“Fragments of stone and sand which fall through crevasses in the ice, -and get interposed between the moving Glacier and the fundamental rock, -are pushed along so as to have their angles more or less worn off, and -many of them are entirely ground down into mud. Some blocks are pushed -along between the ice and the steep boundary rocks of the valley, -and these, like the rocky channel at the bottom of the valley, often -become smoothed and polished, and scored with parallel furrows, or -with lines and scratches produced by hard minerals, such as crystals of -quartz, which act like the diamond upon glass. The effect is perfectly -different from that caused by the action of water, or a muddy torrent -forcing along heavy stones; for these not being held like fragments of -rock in ice, and not being pushed along under great pressure, cannot -scoop out long rectilinear furrows or grooves parallel to each other. -The discovery of such markings at various heights far above the surface -of existing Glaciers, and for miles beyond their present terminations, -affords geological evidence of the former extension of the ice beyond -its present limits in Switzerland and other countries.”[30] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Iceberg seen in mid-ocean 1400 miles from any -known land.] - -Sometimes, however, it happens, especially in extreme northern and -southern latitudes, that the glacier valley leads down to the sea. -In such cases, huge masses of ice are floated off, and, with their -ponderous burden of gravel, mud, and rocks, are carried away by -currents toward the equator. Immense numbers of these floating islands -of ice, or Icebergs, as they are called, are seen by mariners drifting -along in the Northern and Southern oceans. In 1822 Scoresby counted -five hundred between the latitudes 69° and 70° N., many of which -measured a mile in circumference, and rose two hundred feet above the -surface of the sea.[31] The annexed drawing, copied by kind permission -of the author from Sir Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology, affords a -good idea of the appearance that such Icebergs present to the eye. The -one represented in the fore-ground was supposed to reach a height of -nearly three hundred feet, and was observed with many others floating -about in the Southern Ocean at a distance of 1400 miles from any known -land. An angular mass of rock was visible on the surface. The part -exposed was twelve feet high and from five to six broad: but it was -conjectured, from the color of the surrounding ice, that the greater -part of the stone was concealed from view. - -How enormous must be the magnitude of those ponderous masses may be -learned from the fact that the bulk of ice below the level of the water -is about eight times as great as that above: and in point of fact, -Captain Sir John Ross saw several of them aground in Baffin’s Bay, -where the water was 1500 feet deep. It has been calculated that the -beds of earth and stones which they carry along cannot be less than -from 50,000 to 100,000 tons in weight. Sir Charles Lyell, writing in -1865 from the results of the latest investigations on this subject, -says: “Many had supposed that the magnitude commonly attributed to -icebergs by unscientific navigators was exaggerated; but now it appears -that the popular estimate of their dimensions has rather fallen within -than beyond the truth. Many of them, carefully measured by the -officers of the French exploring expedition of the Astrolabe, were -between 100 and 225 feet high above water, and from two to five miles -in length. Captain d’Urville ascertained one of them, which he saw -floating, to be _thirteen miles long_, and a hundred feet high, with -walls perfectly vertical.”[32] - -They have been known to drift from Baffin’s Bay to the Azores, and -from the South Pole to the Cape of Good Hope.[33] As they approach the -milder climate of the temperate zones, the ice gradually melts away, -and thus the moraines of arctic and antarctic glaciers are deposited -at the bottom of the deep sea. In this way, submarine mountains -and valleys and table-lands are strewn over with scattered blocks -of foreign rocks, and gravel, and mud, which have been transported -hundreds of miles across the unfathomable abysses of the ocean. - - * * * * * - -Though we are chiefly concerned with Glaciers and Icebergs as agents -of Denudation, yet we cannot pass away from the subject without -referring to the Geological theory of an ancient Glacial Period. This -little digression from the main purport of our present argument will -not be unacceptable, we hope, to our readers. The theory is in itself -interesting and ingenious; and it offers an admirable illustration -of the kind of reasoning by which Geologists are guided in their -speculations. - -It is well known that the action of moving ice leaves a very peculiar -and characteristic impress on the surface of the rocks, and even on the -general aspect of the country over which it passes. This is no mystery -of science, but a plain fact which any one that chooses may observe -for himself. Every Glacier carries along in its course a vast quantity -of loose gravel, hard sand, and large angular stones. A considerable -proportion of these materials in course of time fall through crevasses -in the ice, and become firmly embedded in the under surface of the -Glacier. Then, as the moving mass slowly descends the valley, they -are shoved along under enormous pressure, and the surface of the -rocks beneath is furrowed, scratched, and polished, in a remarkable -and unmistakable manner. The furrows and scratches are rectilinear -and parallel to an extent never seen in the marks produced by any -other natural agency: and they always coincide more or less in their -direction with the general course of the valley. A reciprocal action -often takes place: the large blocks of stone, frozen into the under -surface of the Glacier, are themselves scored and polished by friction -against the floor and sides of the valley. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Block of Limestone furrowed, scratched, and -polished, from the Glacier of Rosenlaui, Switzerland. (Lyell.) - -_aa_, White streaks or scratches. _bb_, Furrows.] - -Similar effects are produced by Icebergs; not of course when drifting -about in the deep sea, but when they come into contact with a -gently-shelving coast and grate along the bottom. These mountains of -ice, laden with the débris of the land, are often carried along with -the velocity of from two to three miles an hour; and before their -enormous momentum can be entirely destroyed, an extensive surface of -rock must have been rounded, grooved, and scarred, pretty much in the -same way as by the action of a Glacier. There can be no failure of -the grinding materials. During the process of melting, the Iceberg is -constantly turning over according as the centre of gravity shifts its -position; and thus a new part of its surface, with fresh angular blocks -of stone, together with fresh masses of sand and gravel, is constantly -brought into contact with the floor of the ocean. And this is not mere -theory. All these phenomena may be witnessed any day on the shores of -Baffin’s Bay and Hudson’s Bay, and along the coast of Labrador. - -Again, the evidence of glacial action may be discovered in the -materials themselves which have been transported by ice. Many of the -large erratic blocks, after having travelled immense distances, exhibit -the same sharp angular appearance as if they had only just fallen -down from the cliff on the mountain side. By this circumstance they -are at once distinguished from blocks of stone transported by running -water; for in these the angles are sure to be rounded off by friction. -Sometimes, too, they are deposited not only far away from the same -rock, but in regions where no rock of the same kind exists. In the -case of Icebergs, they are not unfrequently carried many hundreds of -miles before being dropped into the depths of the ocean, and, in the -course of their long journey, borne over the lofty ridges of submarine -mountain chains. - -Furthermore, it often happens that a Glacier shrinks backward up the -valley, and sometimes even disappears altogether. When the melting of -the ice at the lower extremity exactly balances its onward progress, -then the Glacier seems stationary to the eye, and occupies from year to -year the same position. But, when a number of hot seasons follow one -another in immediate succession, the ice is melted more rapidly than -the Glacier advances, and in consequence it gradually becomes shorter, -and seems to the eye to recede toward the upper parts of the valley. In -this case the long lines of moraines, which before had rested on the -ice, are left spread out on the plains or deposited on the slopes of -the mountain. Immense blocks of stone are by this means frequently set -down on the summits of lofty crags, and in such like positions to which -they could not be brought by any other natural agency. These Perched -Blocks, as they are called, and also those long regular mounds of earth -and stones abound in several of the Swiss valleys, and constitute a -very striking feature of Alpine scenery. - -Now, it appears that all these various characteristic marks of glacial -operations can be distinctly traced in many countries where the action -of moving ice has been unknown within the period of history. And on -this fact is founded the Geological theory of an ancient Glacial -Period. We are confidently assured that a great part of Northern -Europe, including even our own islands, not to speak of America and -other countries as well in the northern as in the southern hemisphere, -were, in some far distant age, the scene of those same phenomena -which are witnessed at the present day amid the solemn grandeur of -the Alps, and in the frozen wastes of the Arctic regions. In that age -enormous Glaciers moved slowly downward from the snow-clad heights over -innumerable valleys now rich with the fruits of the earth; ponderous -Icebergs floated over wide areas of the ocean, where now the dry land -appears; and vast piles of promiscuous rubbish, with great angular -blocks of stone, were deposited on the slopes and crests of submarine -mountains that now tower hundreds of feet above the level of the sea. - -To illustrate this theory, we would begin with a country where the -vestiges of glacial operations in past times may be studied side by -side with the glacial phenomena of the present day. In Switzerland -it needs but little skill to discern many marks and tokens of moving -ice where moving ice is no longer found. In descending, for example, -the valley of the Hasli or the valley of the Rhone, the intelligent -traveller can hardly fail to observe how the rocks all around are -scarred and furrowed, precisely after the same fashion as the rocks in -the higher parts of the same valleys are now being scarred and furrowed -by the Glacier of the Aar and the Glacier of the Rhone. At intervals, -too, may be seen long mounds of unstratified gravel and mud, with large -fragments of rock, in every way resembling the terminal moraines now -daily accumulating at the extremities of existing Glaciers. When these -facts are once distinctly brought home to the mind, it is impossible to -resist the conclusion that several of the Alpine Glaciers once extended -far beyond their present limits down the valleys of Switzerland. - -If we proceed a little distance to the mountains of the Jura, now -wholly devoid of Glaciers, we shall find that the same glacial -phenomena with which we have become so familiar in the Alps, are still -everywhere presented to the eye. And we feel instinctively impelled to -pursue the same line of inductive reasoning. Moving ice, we know from -abundant observation, is capable of producing these effects: nor have -we ever seen effects of this kind produced by any other cause: nay, -there is no other natural agent known that is capable of producing such -effects: it is therefore reasonable to infer that moving ice was the -cause of these effects; and that, in some bygone age, great masses of -ice moved slowly over the valleys of the Jura as they now move slowly -over the valleys of the Alps. - -Another circumstance may here be noticed which is well worthy of -consideration. The Alps are composed of granite, gneiss, and such like -crystalline rocks: the Jura, of limestone and various other formations, -altogether different from those of the Alps. Now, scattered loosely -over the valleys of the Jura, and perched upon its lofty crests, we -find immense angular blocks--some of them as large as cottages--of -the Alpine rocks. The question naturally arises, how have they been -transported to their present site. Certainly not by the action of -water; for in that case the projecting angles would have been rounded -off, and the sharp edges worn away. But the work might have been easily -accomplished by the power of moving ice, and could not have been -accomplished by any other natural agency with which we are acquainted. -Thus we are led to conclude that the Glaciers of the Alps must, by some -means or another, have once made their way northward across the great -valley of Switzerland, fifty miles wide, and deposited their ponderous -burdens of gravel, sand, and erratic blocks on the mountains of the -Jura. - -It would carry us too far from our present purpose to draw out this -theory in all its details. But we cannot for-bear briefly to touch upon -some of the bold and startling conclusions to which it has led. The -Geologist having, by patient and varied exercise, in the regions of -existing Glaciers, trained his eye and his judgment in the observation -of those phenomena that mark the action of moving ice, soon begins to -discover that they are not wanting in other countries. They are not -to be found, indeed, beneath the burning sun of Africa, nor on the -borders of the Mediterranean Sea. But as he travels northward they -begin by degrees to appear; and when at length he reaches the shores -of the Baltic, they are spread out profusely before him as they were -in the bosom of the Alps. All this had puzzled Geologists for years; -but the clue has been found at last. What is going on to-day in -Switzerland, and in Greenland, and on the shores of Labrador, must have -been going on, ages ago, in Germany, and in Denmark, and on the shores -of the Baltic. We may argue from the effect to the cause. Here are the -moraines, the erratics, the perched blocks, and the surfaces of rock -furrowed and scratched with ice: at some past time there must have been -the moving Glaciers and the floating Icebergs. - -Following out this line of argument, and applying it to countries -nearer home, Geologists have come to the conclusion that the Grampian -Hills in Scotland, the mountains of Kerry in Ireland, the Snowdonian -heights in Wales, and many other ranges of hills in these islands, -were in former times subjected to the action of moving ice. Nay, it -is contended, with much show of reason, that these islands must have -been, for a considerable time, in great part submerged beneath the -sea, and traversed by floating Icebergs. When large erratic blocks are -found in the immediate neighborhood of the formation from which they -have been derived, then it is easy to explain their origin and to trace -their course. But it often happens that the nearest rock of the same -mineral composition, and therefore, the nearest rock from which they -can possibly have been derived, is separated from the site which they -now occupy by a lofty chain of mountains. By what means, then, have -they been transported hither? Not by moving water, for their sharp -edges and projecting angles are still preserved. Not by Glaciers; for -a Glacier cannot climb a steep mountain ridge. It would seem, indeed, -that in the present geographical distribution of land and water, there -is no natural cause which could carry them from the parent rocks to -their present position. But if we suppose that in some long past age of -the world, Great Britain and Ireland were submerged beneath the sea, -and that Icebergs floated in the waters above, the problem is solved -at once. The fragments of far distant rocks frozen into the Icebergs -might then have been carried over the summits of what are now lofty -mountains, and as the ice melted away, might have been deposited all -along their slopes and even on their highest crests. - -The presence of marine shells, belonging chiefly to species which now -exist only in the arctic seas, affords a strong confirmation of this -hypothesis. For they are found intimately associated with the erratic -blocks, not merely in valleys, to which the sea might be supposed -to have had access in times of extraordinary flood, but upon lofty -mountains at a height of five hundred, six hundred, and even thirteen -hundred feet above the level of the sea. There is no difficulty in -accounting for this phenomenon if we suppose the country to have been -at one time submerged, and the glacial drift in which the shells are -found embedded to have been deposited by Icebergs on the floor of the -ocean. If we refuse to make this supposition the difficulty is simply -insurmountable.[34] - - * * * * * - -But it is somewhat beside our purpose to wander so far into the region -of theory and speculation. Our main object in these chapters has been -to establish the fact that Denudation is actually taking place to an -almost incredible extent, in the present age of the world. For this -purpose we have enumerated the principal agents by which this process -is carried on; and we have endeavored to show from the authenticated -researches of travellers and scientific men that they have been at work -within the period of history, and are still at work around us. Our -summary is, indeed, brief; but it is still sufficient to demonstrate -that, even during the present age, the whole surface of the Globe has -been ever in a constant state of change; that mountain heights have -been worn away, and valleys have been scooped out, and lofty cliffs -have disappeared, and bold headlands have been rent in twain, and rocks -and earths have day by day been broken up and dissolved and decomposed, -by the never ceasing operation of natural causes; and that the broken -fragments are at every moment moving along over the surface of the land -or through the depths of the sea. - -Now Geologists tell us that these are the raw materials of a new -building which is going on in these latter times under the guiding hand -of Nature. Indeed, they say it is not so much a new building as the -uppermost story of an old building. If we descend into the Crust of -the Earth we may trace this building even from the foundations, which -are laid upon the solid granite, up through each successive stage of -limestone, and sandstone, slate, conglomerate, and clay, until we come -to the surface, where new strata, composed of the same elements, and -exhibiting the same general characteristics, are slowly growing up -before our eyes. Thus will the idea gradually steal upon the mind, that -the works of ages long gone by are reproduced once again in our own -days, and that we may study the history of the past in the mirror of -the present which nature holds up to our view. - -This is the branch of Geological argument upon which we are now about -to enter. We have visited Nature, as it were, in her quarry, and we -have seen how she collects her materials, how she fashions them to -her purpose, how she transports them to the place for which they are -designed. If it be true, as alleged, that with these materials she is -actually engaged, at the present moment, in building upon the existing -surface of our Globe a new series of stratified rocks, which are the -exact counterpart of those beneath, this fact affords at least a very -strong presumption in favor of one very important principle in the -theory of Geologists. Let us, then, follow the course of her operations -and judge for ourselves. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER V._ - -STRATIFIED ROCKS OF MECHANICAL ORIGIN--THEORY DEVELOPED AND ILLUSTRATED. - - _Formation of stratified rocks ascribed to the agency of - natural causes--This theory supported by facts--The argument - stated--Examples of mechanical rocks--Materials of which they - are composed--Origin and history of these materials traced - out--Process of deposition--Process of consolidation--Instances - of consolidation by pressure--Consolidation perfected by - natural cements--Curious illustrations--Consolidation of - sandstone in Cornwall--Arrangement of strata explained by - intermittent action of the agents of Denudation._ - - -The Stratification of Rocks is one of the most remarkable features -which the Crust of the Earth presents to our notice; and the principles -by which this phenomenon is explained belong to the very foundation of -Geological theory. It is now universally agreed that the successive -layers or strata, which constitute such a very large proportion of the -Earth’s Crust, and which cannot fail to attract the notice even of the -most careless observer, have been slowly built up during a long series -of ages by the action of natural causes. In support of this bold and -comprehensive theory, geologists appeal to the operations which are -going on in nature at the present day, or which have been observed and -recorded within historic times. There is a vast machinery, they say, -even now at work all over the world, breaking up the rocks that appear -at the surface of the Earth, transporting the materials to different -sites, and there constructing new strata, just the counterpart of those -which we see piled up one above the other, wherever a section of the -Earth’s Crust is exposed to view. It is given to us, therefore, on the -one hand to contemplate the finished work as it exists in the Crust -of the Earth, and on the other, to examine the work still in progress -upon its surface; and if both are found to agree in all their most -remarkable characteristics, it is not unreasonable to infer that the -one was produced in bygone ages by the very same causes that are now -busy in the production of the other. - -In the examination of this argument we first turned our attention to -the numerous and powerful agents that are now employed in the breaking -up and transporting of existing rocks. It was impossible within our -narrow limits to enumerate them all. But we selected those which are -at the same time the most familiar in their operations, and the most -striking in their results:--mighty rivers discharging daily and hourly -into the sea the accumulated spoils of vast continents; the breakers -of the ocean dashing with unceasing energy against all the cliffs and -coasts of the world; the tides and currents of the sea taking up the -ruins which the breakers have made, and carrying them far away to the -lonely depths of the ocean; the frozen rain bursting massive rocks -asunder with its expansive force, and sending the fragments over lofty -cliffs and steep precipices to become the prey of roaring mountain -torrents, or perhaps, more fortunate, to find a place of tranquil rest -on the bosom of the glittering Glacier; then this wondrous Glacier -itself, a moving sea of ice, bearing along its ponderous burden from -the summits of lofty mountains far down into the smiling plains, and -meanwhile, with tremendous power, grinding, and furrowing, and wearing -away the floor of the valley, and leaving behind it an impress which -even time cannot efface; and lastly, the massive Icebergs which stud -the northern and southern seas, drifting along like floating islands -above the fathomless abysses of the ocean, and scattering their huge -boulders over the surface of submarine mountains and valleys. - -All these phenomena have been learned from actual and repeated -observation. They are not philosophical speculations, but ascertained -facts. We cannot doubt, therefore, that the work of demolition is going -on; it remains for us now to inquire about the work of reconstruction. - -The reader will remember that Geologists divide the stratified rocks -into three distinct classes, Mechanical, Chemical, and Organic. This -distinction, they say, is founded on the actual operations of Nature. -From a close examination of the natural agents now at work in the -world, it appears that some strata are being formed chiefly by the -action of mechanical force; others chiefly by the influence of chemical -laws; and others again chiefly by the intervention of organic life. -Thus we have three distinct classes of rock at present coming into -existence, each exhibiting its own peculiar characteristics, and each, -moreover, having its counterpart among the strata that compose the -Crust of the Earth. We shall now proceed to set forth some of the -evidence that may be advanced in favor of these important conclusions, -beginning with those rocks that are called Mechanical. - -And first it is important to have, at least, a general idea of the -appearance which Mechanical Rocks present to the eye. We shall -take three familiar examples, Conglomerate, Sandstone, and Clay. -Conglomerate, or Pudding-stone as it is sometimes called, is composed -of pebbles, gravel, and sand, more or less compacted together, and -generally forming a hard and solid mass. The various materials of -which it is composed, though united in the one rock, nevertheless -remain their own external forms, and may be distinctly recognized even -by the unpractised eye. Sandstone, as the name implies, is made up of -grains of sand closely compressed and cemented together. The quality -and appearance of this rock vary very much according to the size and -character of its constituent particles. Often the grains of sand are -as large as peas, or even larger; sometimes they are so minute that -they cannot be distinguished without the aid of a lens. For the most -part they consist of quartz, with grains of limestone intermixed; and -they are usually rounded, as if by the action of running water. Clay -is a rather vague and general term, now commonly employed to denote -any finely-divided mineral matter which contains from ten to thirty -per cent. of Alumina, and is thereby rendered plastic, and capable, -when softened with water, of being moulded like paste with the hand. -It occurs in many different forms among the strata of the Earth, -according to the different minerals that enter into its composition -and the different influences to which it has been subjected. Marl and -Loam may be taken as well-known illustrations: the former is a clay in -which there is a large proportion of calcareous matter; the latter is -a mixture of clay and sand. Sometimes by pressure clay is condensed -into a kind of slaty rock called Shale, which has the property of being -easily split up into an immense number of thin plates or laminæ. - -It should be remembered that there is not always a perfect uniformity -in the structure of these rocks. In Conglomerate, for example, the -pebbles may be as large as cannon balls, or they may be only the size -of walnuts. So, too, we have every variety of fineness and coarseness -in the quality of Sandstone. Again, both Conglomerate and Sandstone -are often largely adulterated with clay, and on the other hand, clay -will sometimes contain more than its usual proportion of sand or lime. -Lastly, these materials are in one place compacted into hard and solid -rock, in another they are found in a loose and incoherent condition. - -But amidst all these varieties of form and texture, the rocks we have -been describing generally preserve their peculiar characteristics, -and with a little experience can be easily recognized. They are found -to constitute a very large part, perhaps we might say the larger -part, of the stratified rocks in every country that has hitherto been -explored by Geologists. Wherever we go we are met by the same familiar -appearances;--beds of Conglomerate, Sandstone, Clay, Marl, Shale, -recurring again and again through a series of many hundred strata, -sometimes in one order, and sometimes in another; sometimes without any -formation of a different kind intervening, and sometimes alternating -with limestone or other rocks of which we shall speak hereafter. - -Such is the general character and appearance of those strata which are -known among Geologists as Aqueous Rocks of Mechanical origin. Now, -it must at once strike the reader, that these rocks are made up of -just those very materials--the same both in kind and in form--that we -have already shown to be daily prepared and fashioned by a vast and -complex machinery in the great workshop of Nature. He will remember -how enormous blocks are detached from the mountain side, or from the -cliffs on the seashore, and broken up into fragments; how the fragments -in time become pebbles, sand, and mud; and how these are caught up by -rivers, tides, and currents, and carried far away to sea. Here we have -certainly all the materials that are necessary for the building up of -Conglomerate, Sandstone, and Shale. We have seen how they are prepared -by the hand of Nature, how they are moulded into shape, how they are -transported from place to place. Let us now pursue the sequel of their -history, and follow them on to the end. - -It is plain they cannot remain forever suspended in water; sooner -or later they must fall to the bottom. Yet they will not all fall -together. For though all are carried downward by the one force of -gravity, those materials that are smaller and lighter will be more -impeded by the resistance of the water. The pebbles and coarse gravel -will be the first to reach the bottom, then the sand, and last of all -the fine, impalpable mud. Thus, as the current sweeps along in its -course, the sediment which it bears away from the land will be in a -manner sorted, and three distinct layers of different materials will -be deposited in the bed of the ocean;--first, nearest to the shore, -a layer of pebbles and coarse gravel, then a layer of sand, and last -of all a layer of fine mud or clay. This is the first step in the -construction of stratified rock. To complete the work nothing more -is necessary than the consolidation of these loose and incoherent -materials. If this could be accomplished, then we should have a solid -stratum of Conglomerate, a solid stratum of Sandstone, and a solid -stratum of Shale formed in the bed of the ocean. - -With regard to this operation, however, we cannot hope for the -advantage we have hitherto enjoyed, of actual observation. The process -of consolidation, if it take place at all, is going on in the depths of -the Sea. But though it is thus removed beyond the reach of our senses, -it is not beyond the reach of our intelligence. We may borrow the torch -of Science, and search even into the hidden recesses of Nature’s secret -laboratory. - -In the first place, a partial consolidation of clay and sand, and -even of gravel, may take place under the influence of pressure alone. -Many of us are familiar with this truth, but few, perhaps, are aware -how extensively it is illustrated in the practical arts of life. Here -are some curious and interesting examples. The minute fragments of -coal which are produced by the friction of larger blocks against one -another, and which may be obtained abundantly in the neighborhood of -every coal mine, are now manufactured into a solid patent fuel by the -simple process of forcible compression. Again, the dust and rubble -of black lead, formerly cast aside as useless, are now carefully -collected, and by no other force than pressure are converted into a -solid mass, fit to be employed in the manufacture of lead-pencils. “The -graphite or black lead of commerce,” says Sir Charles Lyell, “having -become very scarce, Mr. Brockedon contrived a method by which the -dust of the purer portions of the mineral found in Borrowdale might -be recomposed into a mass as dense and as compact as native graphite. -The powder of graphite is first carefully prepared and freed from -air, and placed under a powerful press on a strong steel die, with -air-tight fittings. It is then struck several blows, each of a power -of a thousand tons; after which operation the powder is so perfectly -solidified that it can be cut for pencils, and exhibits, when broken, -the same texture as native graphite.”[35] An instance yet more to our -purpose occurs in the experiments made to try the force of gunpowder. -Leathern bags filled with sand are put into the mortar that is to -receive the cannon-ball at a distance of fifty feet from the mouth of -the gun; and the sand is often compressed by the percussion of the -ball into a solid mass of Sandstone.[36] Now the deposits of which we -are speaking cannot fail to be subjected to a very powerful and a very -constant compressing force. For, since the process of deposition is -always going on, the matter which is deposited to-day will to-morrow be -covered with a new layer, and in the course of ages it may lie beneath -an immense pile of mineral matter, hundreds or even thousands of feet -in thickness. - -But in fact there is another and more important agent at work. When -the harder and more compact blocks of Conglomerate and Sandstone are -subjected to a close analysis in the laboratory of the chemist, it is -found that they are strongly cemented together, sometimes by a solution -of lime filling up the interstices between the grains or pebbles, -sometimes by a solution of silica, sometimes by a solution of iron. Now -this discovery affords a useful clue when we come to study the present -operations of Nature. It is to the agency of a mineral cement we must -look for the perfect consolidation of Mechanical Rocks. Let us see if -such a cement can be found. - -It is well known that the water of rivers, lakes, and springs, is -more or less charged with carbonic acid gas; and therefore, when it -comes in contact with limestone, it dissolves a portion of the lime -and holds it in solution. Hence it follows that in every part of the -world there exists an abundant store of calcareous cement. Again, our -readers must have observed the brownish, rusty color sometimes produced -by streams on the surface of rocks and herbage. This is the result of -the iron with which the streams are impregnated: and we are informed by -scientific inquirers that water containing a solution of iron prevails -very generally in almost all countries. The solution of silica in water -is not so common; because pure silica cannot be dissolved by water -except at a very high temperature. Nevertheless, it has been clearly -demonstrated by observation, that silica, where it occurs in certain -combinations with other mineral substances, may be dissolved readily -enough: for instance, in the decomposition of felspar, and of all rocks -in which felspar is an ingredient, silica is carried off in a state of -solution.[37] And since these rocks are very numerous, and distributed -over every part of the earth, we may fairly conclude that a solution of -silica exists very abundantly in nature. - -Now when we bear in mind that we have on the one hand in the Crust of -the Earth, solid strata of Conglomerate and Sandstone, exhibiting the -evident operation of these mineral cements; and on the other hand, near -the surface, the loose materials of Conglomerate and Sandstone as if -ready to be cemented, and close at hand the cementing mineral itself in -a convenient form, it is not unreasonable to assume that the process -should actually take place;--that water highly charged with iron, or -lime, or silica, should filter through the loose gravel and sand, -depositing its mineral cement as it passes along, and converting the -newly-formed strata into compact and solid rock. - -But this conclusion does not rest upon antecedent probability alone. -We have proof unquestionable that a process such as we have described -is actually going on. In the dredging of the river Thames large masses -of solid Conglomerate are found from time to time, firmly compacted -together by a ferruginous cement. And there is internal evidence that -the process of solidification has been effected by natural causes -within historic times; for it happens not unfrequently that Roman coins -and fragments of pottery are found embedded in the solid block of -stone. Similar discoveries were made in deepening the bed of the river -Dove in Derbyshire, about the year 1832. Thousands of silver coins were -found about ten feet under the surface, firmly cemented into a hard -Conglomerate. Several of these coins bear dates of the thirteenth and -fourteenth centuries; and therefore the pebbles which form the rock -must have been deposited and converted into a solid mass since that -time. But we must not suppose that so long an interval is necessary for -the consolidation of rocks. In the early part of the present century -a vessel called the Thetis was wrecked off cape Frio on the coast of -Brazil. A few months afterward, when an attempt was successfully made -to recover the dollars and other treasures which had gone to the -bottom with the wreck, they were found completely enveloped in solid -masses of quartzose Sandstone. The materials of the newly-formed stone -were in this case manifestly derived from the granite rocks of the -Brazilian coast.[38] - -In many parts of the Mediterranean, and along its shores, this process -is known to be going on with equal rapidity. “The new-formed strata -of Asia Minor,” writes Sir Charles Lyell, “consists of stone, not of -loose, incoherent materials. Almost all the streamlets and rivers, -like many of those in Tuscany and the south of Italy, hold abundance -of carbonate of lime in solution, and precipitate Travertine, or -sometimes bind together the sand and gravel into solid Sandstones -and Conglomerates; every delta and sandbar thus acquires solidity, -which often prevents streams from forcing their way through them, so -that their mouths are constantly changing their position.”[39] In the -Museum at Montpelier is exhibited a cannon embedded in a crystalline -calcareous rock which was taken up from the bed of the Mediterranean -near the mouth of the Rhone.[40] - -To these examples of the solidification of rock within recent times -we are tempted to add one more, taken from a Memoir published by the -late Dr. Paris in the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of -Cornwall. “A sandstone occurs in various parts of the northern coast -of Cornwall, which affords a most instructive example of a recent -formation, since we here actually detect Nature at work in converting -loose sand into solid rock. A very considerable portion of the northern -coast of Cornwall is covered with calcareous sand, consisting of minute -particles of comminuted shells, which in some places has accumulated -in quantities so great, as to have formed hills of from forty to -fifty feet in elevation. In digging into these sand-hills, or upon -the occasional removal of some part of them by the winds, the remains -of houses may be seen; and in places where the churchyards have been -overwhelmed, a great number of human bones may be found. The sand is -supposed to have been originally brought from the sea by hurricanes, -probably at a remote period. It first appears in a state of slight but -increasing aggregation on several parts of the shore in the Bay of St. -Ives; but on approaching the Gwythian River it becomes more extensive -and indurated.... It is around the promontory of New Kaye that the -most extensive formation of Sandstone takes place. Here it may be seen -in different stages of induration, from a state in which it is too -friable to be detached from the rock on which it reposes, to a hardness -so considerable that it requires a very violent blow from a sledge to -break it. Buildings are constructed of it; the church of Cranstock is -entirely built with it; and it is also employed for various articles of -domestic and agricultural uses.” - -No reasonable doubt can therefore remain that the loose beds of gravel, -sand, and clay, which, as we have already seen, are deposited from day -to day, and from year to year, and from century to century, beneath -the waters of the ocean, may be converted in the course of time by -natural agents into solid rocks of Conglomerate, of Sandstone, and of -Shale. But this is not enough. It yet remains for us to explain how -these solid rocks come to be arranged in a series of distinct layers -or strata. The reader will remember that the supply of materials in -any given area of the ocean is not fixed and continuous, but, on the -contrary, variable and intermittent. During the periodical rains within -the tropics, and during the melting of the snows in high latitudes or -in mountain regions, the rivers become enormously swollen, and carry -down a far greater quantity of sediment than at other seasons. The -waste of cliffs, too, by the action of the waves, is much greater in -winter than in summer. Thus, while at one season a particular river -or current may be comparatively free from sediment, at another it -will carry along in its turbid course an almost incredible freight of -mineral matter. We have a notable example in the case of the Ganges. -The bulk of earthy matter which this river discharges into the sea -during the four months of rain, averages about 50,000,000 of cubic feet -per day; whereas the daily discharge during the three months of hot -weather is considerably less than one hundredth part of that amount.[41] - -Besides this variety in the quantity of materials carried, there is -also a great variety in the velocity both of rivers and of currents; -and therefore they will not always carry the same materials to the same -distance; for the less rapid the stream, the sooner will the sediment -fall to the bottom. We may add that currents, as is well known, often -change their direction from various causes, and thus at different times -they will carry the waste of the land to different parts of the ocean. - -From these considerations two conclusions may be fairly deduced: -First, that the process of deposition may often go on very rapidly -for a time over a given area, and then altogether cease, and after an -interval begin again. In this way time may be allowed for one deposit -to acquire more or less consistency before the next is superimposed; -and thus a succession of distinct beds will be produced. Secondly, we -may infer that the same precise materials will not always be deposited -over the same area; at one time it will be sand, at another gravel, -at another clay, at another some combination of these or other -mineral substances. And thus it may happen that the strata deposited -in successive periods of time shall not only be distinct one from the -other, but composed of different materials;--that there shall be, -in fact, as we so often see that there are, beds of Conglomerate, -Sandstone, Clay, Marl, and other rocks, succeeding one another in every -variety of order. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER VI._ - -STRATIFIED ROCKS OF MECHANICAL ORIGIN--FURTHER ILLUSTRATIONS. - - _Impossible to witness the formation of stratified rocks in the - depths of the ocean--On a small scale examples are exhibited - by rivers and lakes--Alluvial plains--Their extraordinary - fertility--Great basin of the Nile--Experiments of the Royal - Society--The Mississippi and the Orinoco--Some rivers fill - up their own channels--Case of the river Po--Artificial - embankments--Large tract of alluvial soil deposited by the - Rhone in the Lake of Geneva--Deltas--The delta of the Ganges - and Brahmapootra--Delta of the Nile._ - - -The argument set forth in the last chapter is simple, ingenious, -and persuasive. Nay, we must fairly confess that to us it seems -conclusive. We do not mean to say that it amounts to a rigorous -demonstration. But it affords at least a strong presumption that the -process of deposition, the process of consolidation, and the process of -stratification, are going on to a vast extent beneath the waters of the -ocean; and that, in these latter ages of the world’s history, Aqueous -Rocks are slowly growing up under the influence of natural causes, -which resemble in every important feature those that are now attracting -so much attention within the Crust of the Earth. We are therefore -prepared to accept this conclusion, if it be not found at variance with -any well-established fact, or with any known and certain truth. But in -matters of physical science the evidence of our senses is, after all, -the most satisfactory argument. And our readers, no doubt, would like -to witness, if possible, with their eyes, the building up of Stratified -Rocks. Now, though it is not given to us to see this process in all its -colossal magnitude as it goes on within the depths of the mighty ocean, -it is yet possible to behold it exhibited, as it were, in miniature, in -certain cases where the sediment of rivers is deposited within reach of -observation. - -Every one is familiar with the fact that many rivers overflow their -banks at certain seasons, and spread themselves out over a wide area, -sometimes reaching to the foot of the hills that bound the valleys -through which they flow. This is the origin of those Alluvial Plains -so remarkable for their surpassing richness and fertility. In each -successive year a thin film of sediment is deposited on the surface -of the land; and thus in the course of ages a soil is formed capable -of producing, season after season, the most luxuriant crops without -manifesting any symptoms of exhaustion. The soil of the Alluvial Plain -near St. Louis, on the Mississippi, is thus spoken of by a modern -traveller: “As to the quality of the land, any given number of crops -might be grown off it. Corn has been raised on it for a hundred years -together--as far back as the settlement is known. To inquire about the -system of farming in the West is not productive of information which -would be of service on the continent of Europe. There is no system: the -farmer scratches the ground and throws in the seed, and his bountiful -harvests come up year after year without further thought or trouble. -Thousands of centuries have made the soil for him, and it defies him to -make too heavy demands upon it. It gives him all he asks, and is never -known to disappoint or fail.”[42] - -The great basin of the Nile offers an admirable example of an -Alluvial Plain on a scale of considerable magnitude. Even in the days -of Herodotus, Egypt was regarded as the “gift of the Nile:” and the -correctness of this opinion has been placed beyond all reasonable -doubt by the investigations of modern science. The river bears along -in its current, especially during the flood season, a large quantity -of fine earthy sediment obtained by the process of Denudation from the -mountains of central Africa. Once a year, between the months of July -and November, it overflows its banks, and this sediment is deposited on -the adjoining plains. Thus a new layer of rich soil is spread out every -year over the existing surface; and the whole country is, in a manner, -growing upward at the average rate, according to a rough estimate, of -about six inches in the century. Near Cairo, where excavations have -been made, the successive layers of annual deposit are distinctly -visible to the eye. And it is worthy of remark that, although each one -of these is no thicker than a sheet of paste-board, the stratum of -alluvial soil which overlies the sands of the desert, and which to all -appearance has come into existence by the very same process, is often -forty, fifty, and even sixty feet in depth. - -A series of interesting observations and experiments have been recently -made under the auspices of the Royal Society, which afford some useful -information on this subject. The colossal statue of Rameses, near -Memphis, was found to be partly embedded in a stratum of mud which -had gradually accumulated around it. Upon sinking a shaft, it was -discovered that from the present surface of the plain to the base of -the pedestal is a distance of nearly ten feet. Now, Rameses flourished, -according to Lepsius, about one thousand three hundred and sixty years -before the Christian Era; and therefore, since that time, or within a -space of 3200 years, it is pretty clear that a thickness of ten feet -has been added at this spot to the Alluvial Plain of the Nile. It is -hard to resist the conclusion that the next stratum of ten feet as we -proceed downward, which, in every respect, resembles the first, must -have been produced in the same way by natural causes; and so on till we -reach the barren sand of the desert, which is here just forty-two feet -below the present level of the plain.[43] - -It should seem, therefore, that Egypt is nothing more than a great -Alluvial Plain, slowly built up in the long lapse of ages, by the -annual inundations of the Nile. Vast tracts of the same kind are to -be found in other parts of the world. The Mississippi, which drains -about one-seventh of the whole North American continent, has formed an -Alluvial Plain more than a thousand miles in length, and from thirty -to eighty in breadth. And in South America, the Orinoco once a year -spreads out its swollen and turbid waters over an area not unfrequently -seventy miles broad; leaving behind, when it subsides, a substantial -layer of muddy sediment to enrich the soil.[44] It would be easy to -accumulate examples. But we shall be content with having referred -the reader to the Great Basin of the Nile, which affords special -opportunities for the study of alluvial phenomena; being illustrated at -once by the historical monuments of remote antiquity and the scientific -researches of recent times. - -There is another process by which Alluvial Plains are formed. It often -happens that a river fills up the channel in which it has been moving -for years, and is forced to shift its course and seek a new passage -to the sea. In progress of time this channel is filled up like the -former and deserted, and then a third, and then a fourth. At each -change a new stratum is formed, almost always distinguished for its -extraordinary fertility. This phenomenon is chiefly to be looked for -when an extensive and almost level plain lies between some lofty range -of mountains and the sea. In such a case, the river which bears away -the waste of the mountains, will move onward in its course with a -sluggish current, and will, of necessity, deposit the greater part of -its burden on the way. There is scarcely a country in the world that -does not abound in formations of this kind; and we could point to many -notable instances in which herds of cattle are now grazing on the very -spot where, within quite recent times, the turbid waters of some great -stream flowed sullenly along. - -The river Po, which receives through a thousand mountain torrents -an enormous quantity of mineral sediment from the Alps, affords an -instructive example. Since the beginning of the fifteenth century it -has many times changed its course, often committing great devastations, -and always leaving behind unmistakable traces of its movements. Several -towns that once stood on the left bank of the river are now on the -right. In some instances parish churches and religious houses were -pulled down when the devouring stream was seen slowly to approach, -and then rebuilt with the same materials at a greater distance. An -old channel may be easily recognized at the present day near Cremona, -which bears the name of Po Morto, and another called Po Vecchio, in the -territory of Parma. - -It may be interesting to our readers to learn that these movements have -been checked in modern times. By a system of artificial embankment the -waters of the river are now confined within definite and narrow limits: -thus the velocity of the current is increased and a very considerable -portion of the sediment is carried on to the sea. Nevertheless, much -is still deposited in the bed of the river, which is, in consequence, -raised higher and higher each successive year. Hence it has become -necessary, in order to prevent inundations, to add every season to -the height of the embankments, so that the river now presents the -appearance of an enormous aqueduct, of which some idea may be formed -from the fact that, in the neighborhood of Ferrara, the surface of -the stream is higher than the roofs of the houses. This system of -embankment is carried on very extensively in Northern Italy to check -the overflowing of rivers, and to prevent them from changing their -courses. It is as old as the time of Dante, who tells us that the -inhabitants of Padua erected barriers along the Brenta when the snows -began to melt and the season of the floods was approaching, - - “Per difender lor ville e lor castelli, - Anzi che Chiarentana il caldo senta.” - - _Inferno_, Canto xv. - -As a river sometimes fills up its own channel, so too may it fill up -a lake through which it flows, and convert it likewise into a great -Alluvial Plain. Thus it is said several extensive lakes have been -transformed into dry land in modern times near Parma, Piacenza, and -Cremona. Elsewhere the process may be seen in actual operation. The -Rhone when it enters the lake of Geneva is a turbid discolored stream; -the natural consequence of the immense quantity of earthy sediment -with which it is charged. But as it slowly moves along, the sediment -falls to the bottom, and when, at length, “by Leman’s waters washed,” -it emerges at the town of Geneva, and shoots beneath the magnificent -bridge that joins the opposite shores, it has already assumed that -beautiful azure blue which travellers love to gaze on, and poets love -to sing. The sediment left behind goes to form a great alluvial tract -which is slowly but steadily advancing into the lake. An ancient town -called Port Vallais, which, eight centuries ago, stood at the water’s -edge, is now a mile and a half inland. And if the world were to last -long enough, and the natural agents at present in operation were to -remain unchanged, the time would come, we can scarcely doubt, when the -whole lake of Geneva would have been converted into an Alluvial Plain -of vast extent and inexhaustible fertility. - -This last example leads us on to the phenomenon of Deltas, which -afford, perhaps, the best opportunity of observing the actual formation -of stratified rocks. Some large rivers, as we have already seen, enter -the sea with such extreme velocity as to bear away their sediment to a -distance of several hundred miles from the land. But in other cases the -onward rush of the stream is much sooner arrested, and the sediment, -if it be not caught up by ocean currents, is deposited near the mouth -of the river, and forms a triangular tract of alluvial land. This kind -of deposit is called a Delta, from the resemblance it bears to the -letter (Δ) of that name in the Greek Alphabet. The apex of the triangle -points up the stream, the base is toward the sea. Hence, when a Delta -is formed the river naturally divides into two branches, one flowing to -the right, the other to the left. In progress of time new channels are -almost always made, and the great stream empties itself into the sea by -many mouths. - -The Delta formed in the Bay of Bengal by the two great rivers of -India, the Ganges and the Brahmapootra, offers an illustration of -this phenomenon on a scale of unusual magnitude. Indeed, strictly -speaking, it is not one Delta only, but rather two Deltas lying side -by side; the one deriving its origin from the Ganges, the other from -the Brahmapootra. This double Delta extends its base for two hundred -and fifty miles along the Bay of Bengal, and stretches inward into the -continent of India to an almost equal distance. Here, then, is a vast -tract of country manifestly composed of earthy sediment, obtained by -the process of Denudation from the Himalayan mountains, and afterward -transported to its present site by the agency of moving water. But -the deposition of earthy matter does not suddenly come to an end when -we reach the present line of the coast. The sea is visibly discolored -by the sediment far beyond the actual base of the Delta; and a sloping -bank of mud is found to stretch beneath the waters of the Bay to a -distance of a hundred miles. - -Even within the short period of a man’s life the domain of dry land -is often visibly enlarged. Sandbanks are first formed in some of -those numerous winding channels through which the two rivers find -their way to the sea. The sandbanks, receiving fresh accessions -during each succeeding flood, in a short time become islands; and -the islands have been known, in a few years, to attain a superficial -extent of many square miles. Then begins to appear a wild and -luxuriant vegetation--reeds, long grass, shrubs, and trees; and those -impenetrable thickets are formed, to which the buffalo, the rhinoceros, -and the tiger soon resort for shelter. A very extensive tract of this -kind, adjoining the sea-coast, and known as the Sunderbunds, is said to -be as large as the principality of Wales. - -The Delta of the Nile, though not quite one-half as large as the -Delta of the Ganges, presents nevertheless some features of peculiar -interest. In many places where a vertical section is exposed to view, -the phenomenon of stratification may be distinctly recognized. The -upper part of the deposit belonging to each year is composed of earth -of a lighter color than the lower part; and the whole forms a distinct -layer of hardened clay, which may be easily separated from those above -and below. This formation, therefore, corresponds exactly with those -strata of shale which we so often meet with in the Crust of the Earth. -Again, many of the old channels through which the Nile made its way -to the sea in ancient times, have been since filled up and converted -into solid land. The two extreme arms of the river, which formerly -enclosed the Delta, were two hundred miles apart where they entered -the Mediterranean. But these channels are now Alluvial Plains, and the -base of the Delta is but ninety miles in length. Hence, though the -quantity of land which has been formed by the sediment of the Nile is -much greater now than it formerly was, the size of the Delta properly -so called has not been increased but diminished. - -If we turn to the great continent of America, we are met by results -not less striking and important. The Delta of the Mississippi is two -hundred miles in length, and one hundred and forty in breadth. This -vast stratum of mud is between five and six hundred feet thick, and -covers an area twelve thousand square miles in extent. Each year it -receives from the great _Father of Rivers_ a new accession of sediment -which is computed at 3,700,000,000 of cubic feet. And besides this -annual deposit of inorganic matter, we must not omit from our estimate -the countless trees of various species and of gigantic size, which -are torn up by the floods, carried along by the impetuous stream, and -buried at last with the bones of animals, and works of human art, -and other spoils of the land, in the mud of the Delta at the river’s -mouth.[45] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER VII._ - -STRATIFIED ROCKS OF CHEMICAL ORIGIN. - - _Chemical agency employed in the formation of mechanical - rock--But some rocks produced almost exclusively by the - action of chemical laws--Difference between a mixture - and a solution--A saturated solution--Stalactites and - Stalagmites--Fantastic columns in limestone caverns--The grotto - of Antiparos in the Grecian Archipelago--Wyer’s cave in the - Blue Mountains of America--Travertine rock in Italy--Growth of - limestone in the Solfatara Lake near Tivoli--Incrustations of - the Anio--Formation of travertine at the baths of San Filippo - and San Vignone._ - - -The Aqueous Rocks of which we have spoken in the last two chapters are -called by Geologists Mechanical; inasmuch as they owe their existence -chiefly to the agency of Mechanical force. It should be observed, -however, that a very considerable share in the production of these -rocks must be ascribed, not unfrequently, to Chemical influence. -Chemical action helps to prepare the materials of which they are -composed; and Chemical action likewise furnishes the calcareous, -siliceous, and other mineral cements by which they are, in a great -measure, consolidated. There is, however, a second class of Aqueous -Rocks which are produced almost exclusively by the operation of -Chemical laws, and which we have accordingly denominated Stratified -Rocks of Chemical Origin. It is of these that we purpose to speak in -the present chapter. They constitute a much smaller proportion of the -Earth’s Crust than either the Mechanical or the Organic Rocks. But the -history of their formation is curious and instructive. We shall confine -ourselves to one or two simple and familiar illustrations. - -In the course of these illustrations we shall have a good deal to say -about Carbonate of Lime in a state of solution; and it may perhaps be -useful to explain, first of all, what is meant by a solution, in the -technical language of Chemistry. If a spoonful of salt is put into a -tumbler of water, the particles of salt, after a little time, cease to -cohere together, and become so diffused through the water as to be no -longer visible to the eye, although their presence in every part may be -easily discerned by the taste. The salt is then said to be _dissolved_, -and the water in which it is dissolved is called a _solution_ of salt. -It is important to distinguish the case of a solution from the case of -a mere mechanical mixture. If, instead of the salt, we were to put into -the tumbler of water a spoonful of very fine sand, then we should have -a _mixture_ but not a _solution_. By stirring briskly the contents of -the tumbler we might, indeed, effect a very close union between the -particles of water and the particles of sand: but this union would be -altogether different in kind from the union that was observed in the -former case between the particles of water and the particles of salt. -First, the sand would remain visible to the eye, making the water -turbid and discolored; whereas the salt entirely disappeared, leaving -the water limpid and transparent as before. Again, if the water be -allowed to rest, the sand will in time fall to the bottom, whereas the -salt will not. - -But there is a limit to the capacity of water for holding salt in -solution. If spoonful after spoonful be added, it will be found, when a -certain point has been reached, that the water can at length dissolve -no more. It is then called a _saturated solution_ of salt. If, in -this case, a portion of the water were to pass away by evaporation, -it is clear, we should have the same quantity of salt as before, in -a smaller quantity of water. The consequence would be that _all_ the -salt could not then be held in solution, and some of it would fall to -the bottom; or, in chemical language, a precipitate of salt would be -formed on the bottom of the tumbler. Now, according to the theory of -Geologists, many rocks, hundreds of feet thick, and solid enough to -form the walls of our palaces, our churches, and our castles, have been -produced in the Crust of the Earth by just such a process as this. -In support of their theory we are about to show that the process is -actually going on in our own time, and is open to the examination of -all who may desire to study it for themselves. - -We shall begin with the formation of Stalactites and Stalagmites. The -mode in which these singular masses of rock are brought into existence -is very clearly explained, and the picturesque appearance they so often -present to the eye is very graphically described, by Dr. Mantell, -in his Wonders of Geology, from which the following passages are -taken:--“One of the most common appearances in limestone caverns is the -formation of what are called Stalactites, from a Greek word signifying -distillation or dropping. Whenever water filters through a limestone -rock it dissolves a portion of it; and on reaching any opening, such as -a cavern, oozes from the sides or roof, and forms a drop, the moisture -of which is soon evaporated by the air, and a small circular plate or -ring of calcareous matter remains; another drop succeeds in the same -place, and adds, from the same cause, a fresh coat of incrustation. In -time, these successive additions produce a long, irregular, conical -projection from the roof, which is generally hollow, and is continually -being increased by the fresh accession of water, loaded with calcareous -or chalky matter: this is deposited on the outside of the Stalactite -already formed, and, trickling down, adds to its length by subsiding -to the point, and evaporating as before; precisely in the same manner -as, during frosty weather, icicles are formed on the edges of the eaves -of a roof. When the supply of water holding lime in solution is too -rapid to allow of its evaporation at the bottom of the Stalactite, it -drops on the floor of the cave, and drying up gradually, forms in like -manner a Stalactite rising upward from the ground, instead of hanging -from the roof; this is called for the sake of distinction Stalagmite. - -“It frequently happens, where these processes are uninterrupted, that a -Stalactite hanging from the roof, and a Stalagmite formed immediately -under it from the super-abundant water, increase until they unite, and -thus constitute a natural pillar, apparently supporting the roof of the -grotto. It is to the grotesque forms assumed by Stalactites and these -natural columns, that caverns owe the interesting appearances described -in such glowing terms by those who witness them for the first time. One -of the most beautiful stalactitic caverns in England is at Clapham, -near Ingleborough. In the Cheddar Cliffs, Somersetshire, there has been -discovered a similar cave richly incrusted with sparry concretions. -There are others in Derbyshire. - -“The grotto of Antiparos in the Grecian Archipelago, not far from -Paros, has long been celebrated. The sides and roof of its principal -cavity are covered with immense incrustations of calcareous spar, which -form either Stalactites depending from above or irregular pillars -rising from the floor. Several perfect columns reaching to the ceiling -have been formed and others are still in progress, by the union of the -Stalactite from above with the Stalagmite below. These, being composed -of matter slowly deposited, have assumed the most fantastic shapes; -while the pure, white, and glittering spar beautifully catches and -reflects the light of the torches of the visitors to this subterranean -palace, in a manner which causes all astonishment to cease at the -romantic tales told of the place--of its caves of diamonds and of its -ruby walls; the simple truth, when deprived of all exaggeration, being -sufficient to excite admiration and awe. - -“Sometimes a linear fissure in the roof, by the direction it gives to -the dropping of the lapidifying water, forms a perfectly transparent -curtain or partition. A remarkable instance of this kind occurs in a -cavern in North America called Wyer’s Cave. This cave is situated in -a ridge of limestone hills running parallel to the Blue Mountains. -A narrow and rugged fissure leads to a large cavern, where the most -grotesque figures, formed by the percolation of water through beds of -limestone, present themselves, while the eye, glancing onward, watches -the dim and distant glimmers of the lights of the guides--some in the -recess below, and others in the galleries above. Passing from these -recesses, the passage conducts to a flight of steps that leads into -a large cavern of irregular form and of great beauty. Its dimensions -are about thirty feet by fifty. Here the incrustations hang just like -a sheet of water that was frozen as it fell; there they rise into a -beautiful stalactite pillar; and yonder compose an elevated seat, -surrounded by sparry pinnacles. Beyond this room is another more -irregular, but more beautiful; for besides having sparry ornaments in -common with the others, the roof overhead is of the most admirable and -singular formation. It is entirely covered with Stalactites, which -are suspended from it like inverted pinnacles; and they are of the -finest material, and most beautifully shaped and embossed. In another -apartment an immense sheet of transparent Stalactite, which extends -from the floor to the roof, emits, when struck, deep and mellow sounds -like those of a muffled drum. - -“Farther on is another vaulted chamber, which is one hundred feet -long, thirty-six wide, and twenty-six high. Its walls are filled with -grotesque concretions. The effect of the lights placed by the guides -at various elevations, and leaving hidden more than they reveal, is -extremely fine. At the extremity of another range of apartments, a -magnificent hall, two hundred and fifty feet long, and thirty-three -feet high, suddenly appears. Here is a splendid sheet of rock-work -running up the centre of the room, and giving it the aspect of two -separate and noble galleries. This partition rises twenty feet above -the floor, and leaves the fine span of the arched roof untouched. -There is here a beautiful concretion, which has the form and drapery -of a gigantic statue; and the whole place is filled with stalagmitical -masses of the most varied and grotesque character. The fine perspective -of this room, four times the length of an ordinary church, and the -amazing vaulted roof spreading overhead, without any support of pillar -or column, produce a most striking effect. In another apartment, which -has an altitude of fifty feet, there is at one end an elevated recess -ornamented with a group of pendant Stalactites of unusual size and -singular beauty. They are as large as the pipes of a full-sized organ, -and ranged with great regularity: when struck they emit mellow sounds -of various keys, not unlike the tones of musical glasses. The length of -this extraordinary group of caverns is not less than one thousand six -hundred feet.” - -In the case of Stalactites and Stalagmites the actual formation of -limestone by the influence of Chemical action is brought home forcibly -to the mind, and, in a manner, made palpable to the senses. We shall -now pass to other examples in which the process is scarcely less -open to observation, and in which the limestone assumes a somewhat -more massive and rock-like form. Every one who has been in Italy is -familiar with the limestone rock called Travertine. It is seen in the -ancient walls and the venerable temples of Pæstum, which have withstood -unharmed the wasting hand of time for upward of twenty centuries. -In Rome, too, this stone is associated in our minds as well with the -enduring monuments of antiquity, as with the imposing splendor of -Christian art. The Coliseum, the most stupendous of ruins, and St. -Peter’s, the most sublime of temples, are built of Travertine. In fact -it seems to have been, in every age, the chief building stone employed -in the architecture of the Eternal City; and the quarries from which -it was taken in ancient times may still be seen at Ponte Lucano, near -Tivoli. Now it is an interesting fact, that close to this very spot, -at the Solfatara lake on the one side, and at Tivoli itself on the -other, the formation of Travertine is going on in our own time, by the -precipitation of lime from a state of solution. - -The Solfatara lake, situated about fourteen miles from Rome, on the -road to Tivoli, is supplied with an unfailing stream of tepid water, -impregnated with carbonic acid gas and saturated with carbonate of -lime. The amount of carbonate of lime which the water is capable of -holding in solution depends chiefly on three things: first, on the -presence of carbonic acid; secondly, on the high temperature of the -water; and thirdly, on its quantity. Now the carbonic acid is ever -rising in bubbles to the surface and passing away; the temperature -of the water is lowered by contact with the cooler atmosphere; and -its quantity is diminished by evaporation. Thus the capacity which -the water at first had for holding the carbonate of lime in solution -is notably diminished, and a part of the lime is precipitated to the -bottom in a solid form, or clings to the vegetable matter with which it -comes in contact. - -A very simple and interesting experiment, made in the early part of -the present century by Sir Humphrey Davy, will illustrate the rapidity -with which the formation of solid stone is even now taking place. In -the month of May he fixed a stick in the bed of the lake, and left -it standing until the following April, when he found that it was -covered with an incrustation of limestone several inches thick.[46] In -precisely the same way new layers of Travertine are annually deposited -in the bed of the lake, and incrusted on its rocky margin; and so the -lake itself is becoming smaller and smaller from year to year. We are -told that in the middle of the seventeenth century it was a mile in -circuit, and now it is a little more than a quarter of a mile.[47] -Here, therefore, we have an immense mass of compact limestone rock, -built up by natural agents within the last two centuries. - -At Tivoli, about four miles beyond the Solfatara, and two miles from -the quarries of Ponte Lucano, phenomena of the same kind are exhibited. -The waters of the Anio, which are saturated with carbonate of lime, -form incrustations of Travertine on the banks of the river; and at the -celebrated falls, where the whole volume of the stream leaps at a bound -from a height of three hundred and twenty feet, the most beautiful -stalactites are formed by the foam. - -The formation of Travertine is going on with no less activity in -other parts of the Italian Peninsula. At the baths of San Filippo, in -Tuscany, there are three warm springs which contain a very large amount -of mineral matter in solution. The water which supplies the baths falls -into a pond, where it has been known to deposit a solid stratum of rock -_thirty feet thick_ in twenty years. In the same neighborhood are the -mineral baths of San Vignone. The source from which the water flows is -situated on the summit of a hill not more than a few hundred yards from -the high road between Sienna and Rome; and so rapid is the formation -of stone, that half a foot of solid Travertine is deposited every year -in the pipe that conducts the water to the baths. At this spot we have -a very good illustration of the argument we are now considering. As -the stream of water flows down the slopes of the hill, a thin layer -of Travertine rock is produced on the surface of the earth, almost -before our eyes; and so it was previous to our own time, and so it has -been for ages, as history and tradition testify. The quantity produced -in each year and in each century is comparatively small, but we can -have no doubt that it _has_ been produced by the means described. -Now, beneath the surface of the Earth, immediately below these modern -formations, of which we have so clearly ascertained the origin, we find -strata of the same kind, composed of the same materials, and arranged -in the same way, layer resting upon layer, down to a depth of two -hundred feet: and the Geologist accounts for the formation of the one -according to the same laws which he has seen at work in the production -of the other.[48] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER VIII._ - -STRATIFIED ROCKS OF ORGANIC ORIGIN--ILLUSTRATIONS FROM ANIMAL LIFE. - - _Nature of organic rocks--Carbonate of lime extracted from the - sea by the intervention of minute animalcules--Chalk rock--Its - vast extent--Supposed to be of organic origin--A stratum of - the same kind now growing up on the floor of the Atlantic - ocean--Coral reefs and islands--Their general appearance--Their - geographical distribution--Their organic origin--Structure - of the zoophyte--Various illustrations--Agency of the - zoophyte in the construction of coral rock--How the sunken - reef is converted into an island and peopled with plants and - animals--Difficulty proposed and considered--Hypothesis of Mr. - Darwin--Coral limestone in the solid crust of the earth._ - - -We now pass to the third division of Aqueous Rocks, those, namely, -which are believed to have come into existence chiefly through the -agency of animal and vegetable life, and are therefore called Organic. -The study of these rocks has been prosecuted with no inconsiderable -ardor during the last thirty years; and the facts which have been -brought to light are certainly amongst the most curious and interesting -in the whole range of physical science. Indeed we are convinced that -a simple narrative of the researches which have recently been made -upon this subject, and the discoveries to which these researches -have led, would be no less attractive, and scarcely less wonderful, -than a fairy tale. But it is not for us to wander at large over this -vast and tempting field of inquiry. We must be content with one or -two examples, which may help to illustrate the process of inductive -reasoning upon which the general principles of geological science are -founded. - -It is argued, then, that the present operations of Nature afford -the best key for the interpretation of her works in bygone times. -We observe various beds of rocks now in course of formation on the -surface of the Earth; and within the Crust of the Earth we discover -corresponding strata of the self-same rock already complete, and laid -by, as it were, in Nature’s storehouse. Side by side, therefore, we -may study and compare the finished work and the work that is yet in -progress; and if, on a close examination, they are found to agree in -all essential characters, we have doubtless a strong presumption, -that the same causes which are now producing the one, must in former -times have produced the other. This line of argument we have already -considered in reference to those two classes of Aqueous Rocks, which -are said to be respectively of Mechanical and of Chemical origin. We -now proceed to show that it is no less applicable to those which are -called Organic. And although we may not hope to unfold all the secret -wonders of Nature’s laboratory, that have come to light in recent -times, yet we may afford a passing glimpse at her operations, which can -scarcely fail to be interesting and instructive. - -We have shown how strata of solid rock are sometimes formed in lakes by -the precipitation of lime from a state of solution. Now this process -cannot take place in the sea; for though lime is present in the sea, -the quantity of carbonic acid with which it is there associated, is -far more than sufficient to render its precipitation impossible.[49] -But Nature has another contrivance for gathering together the solid -elements of her building. The depths of the ocean are teeming with -life; and countless tribes of minute animals are furnished with the -power of extracting the lime from the waters they inhabit, and of -reproducing it under a new form. Sometimes, through this mysterious -operation of organic life, the lime is converted into a calcareous -shell, like that of the oyster; sometimes into a stony skeleton, as -in the case of the numerous families of coral-producing animalcules. -After death the soft, fleshy substance of these animals melts away -and disappears; but the limestone shells and skeletons remain, -accumulating during the long course of ages to an almost incredible -extent. And, if we are to believe Geologists, out of these accumulated -materials, sometimes preserving their original form and structure, -sometimes altered more or less by chemical action, sometimes broken -up into fragments by mechanical force, has been produced a very large -proportion of the limestone rocks which occur so abundantly in the -Crust of the Earth. - -No better illustration can be found than the white earthy limestone, -familiar to every one under the name of chalk. An undulating stratum -of Chalk Rock, attaining not unfrequently a thickness of one thousand -feet, may be said, speaking roughly, to underlie the southeastern half -of England. Sometimes it appears at the surface: sometimes it dips -downward, and forms a kind of great basin, over which are regularly -spread out various other groups of Stratified Rocks. On the southern -coast it rises to a height of several hundred feet above the level of -the sea in a line of perpendicular cliffs, conspicuous from a distance -by their dazzling whiteness. But the White Chalk of England is only an -insignificant part of a great rock-formation, which may be traced over -extensive areas throughout all Europe, from Ireland to the Crimea, from -the Baltic Sea to the Bay of Biscay; and which everywhere preserves in -a remarkable degree the same mineral character, and presents to the eye -the same general appearance. - -Now it had often been suggested by Geologists that this wide-spread -formation derived its existence chiefly from the accumulated remains -of organic life. For in many instances the broken shells of minute -animalcules could be distinctly observed to constitute a part of the -rock. And even where the organic structure could not be so clearly -traced, the carbonate of lime composing the Chalk presented just -that appearance which would naturally result from the decomposition -of such shells. This theory, however, was long put forward with -diffidence and received with incredulity. Even scientific men found -it hard to persuade themselves that a solid rock of such great extent -and thickness could have been the work of agents apparently so -insignificant. But it has been confirmed and illustrated in a very -interesting and unexpected manner within the last few years. - -When the project of connecting Europe and America by a telegraph -cable was first set on foot, it became necessary to ascertain, as far -as possible, the general configuration of the ocean bottom and the -exact nature of the bed on which the cable was to lie. Accordingly -in the year 1857 an expedition was fitted out for this purpose under -the command of Captain Dayman; and a careful series of soundings was -taken between Valentia, on the West Coast of Kerry, and Trinity Bay on -the shores of Newfoundland. It was found that the floor of the ocean -between Ireland and America is a vast irregular plain, and that by -far the greater part is covered over with a kind of soft mud or ooze. -Samples of this ooze were scooped up, even at the most profound depths, -by means of an ingenious apparatus attached to the sounding-lines, and -brought undisturbed to the surface. Afterward they were carried home to -England and submitted for examination to Professor Huxley. The result -has been to show that the materials of a limestone rock, resembling in -every essential feature the White Chalk of Europe, are being spread out -at the present day over an area of immense extent on the floor of the -Atlantic Ocean. - -With the permission of our readers we shall allow Professor Huxley, as -far as may be, to tell his own story.[50] As to the ocean floor itself, -“It is,” he says, “a prodigious plain--one of the widest and most even -plains in the world. If the sea were drained off, you might drive a -wagon all the way from Valentia to Trinity Bay. And, except upon one -sharp incline about two hundred miles from Valentia, I am not quite -sure that it would even be necessary to put the skid on, so gentle are -the ascents and descents upon that long route. From Valentia the road -would lie down hill for about two hundred miles to the point at which -the bottom is now covered by 1700 fathoms of sea-water. Then would come -the central plain, more than a thousand miles wide, the inequalities -of the surface of which would be hardly perceptible, though the depth -of water upon it now varies from 10,000 to 15,000 feet; and there are -places in which Mont Blanc might be sunk without showing its peak -above water. Beyond this the ascent on the American side commences, -and gradually leads for about three hundred miles, to the Newfoundland -shore.” - -The central plain here described, which has been since found to extend -many hundred miles north and south of the cable line, is covered almost -everywhere by that soft, mealy sort of mud of which we have already -spoken; and this, it is now confidently believed, is nothing else than -a stratum of Chalk Rock in an early stage of formation. When thoroughly -dried it assumes a whitish color, and exhibits a texture which even -to the superficial observer appears closely to resemble fine chalk. -Nay, we are told that if so disposed, one may take a bit of it in his -fingers and write with it upon a blackboard. Like chalk, too, when -chemically analyzed it is found to be almost pure carbonate of lime. - -But there is a yet more striking analogy between the mud of the -Atlantic and the White Chalk of Europe. Both have been submitted to -the magnifying power of the Microscope; and, after an examination -conducted with scrupulous care, a wonderful and almost startling -identity of mineral, or rather we should say of organic, composition -has been established between them. To the naked eye Chalk is simply a -soft, earthy sort of stone. But when a thin transparent slice is placed -under the Microscope, the general mass is found to be made up of very -minute particles, in which are embedded a vast number of other bodies -possessing a well-defined form and structure. These are of various -sizes, but on a rough average may be said not to exceed a hundredth -of an inch in diameter. Hundreds of thousands of them are sometimes -contained in a cubic inch of Chalk, together with countless millions of -the more minute granules. - -Professor Huxley succeeded in separating these bodies from the mass of -granules in which they were embedded, and by examining them apart, he -has ascertained still more fully their exact structure and composition. -“Each one of them,” he says, “is a beautifully constructed calcareous -fabric, made up of a number of chambers communicating freely with one -another. They are of various forms. One of the commonest is something -like a badly-grown raspberry, being formed of a number of nearly -globular chambers of different sizes congregated together. It is called -Globigerina; and some specimens of Chalk consist of little else than -Globigerinæ and granules.” - -Previous to 1857 the Globigerinæ of the Chalk were a matter of no small -controversy among Geologists and Naturalists. Some contended that -they were the organic remains--the shells or skeletons--of ancient -animalcules. Others were disposed to regard them simply as aggregations -of lime, which, so to speak, chanced to assume the form of these -little chambered bodies; though it was not easy to explain, on this -hypothesis, how these chance concretions, however much they varied -in size, preserved over the whole of Europe the same exact form and -structure. But the controversy is now at an end. The specimens of the -Atlantic ooze brought home by Captain Dayman, when examined under the -higher powers of the Microscope, are found, like Chalk, to be composed -almost entirely of Globigerinæ. And that no doubt may remain as to -their organic origin, a portion of the fleshy integument of the little -animalcules is seen, in many cases, still adhering to the calcareous -skeleton. - -“Globigerinæ of every size,” we are told, “from the smallest to the -largest, are associated together in the Atlantic mud, and the chambers -of many are filled by a soft animal matter. This soft substance is, -in fact, the remains of the creature to which the Globigerina shell, -or rather skeleton, owes its existence--and which is an animal of -the simplest imaginable description. It is, in fact, a mere particle -of living jelly, without defined parts of any kind--without a mouth, -nerves, muscles, or distinct organs; and only manifesting its vitality -to ordinary observation by thrusting out and retracting, from all -parts of its surface, long filamentous processes which serve for arms -and legs. Yet this amorphous particle, devoid of everything which, in -the higher animals we call organs, is capable of feeding, growing, -and multiplying; of separating from the ocean the small proportion of -carbonate of lime which is dissolved in sea-water; and of building up -that substance into a skeleton for itself, according to a pattern which -can be imitated by no other known agency.” - -That the same process is going on in other parts of the ocean appears -by observations made by Sir Leopold M’Clintock during the cruise of -the Bulldog in 1860. He discovered that a calcareous ooze having the -consistency of putty is spread out over extensive areas between the -Faroe Islands and Iceland, and also between Iceland and Greenland. Of -this mud about ninety-five per cent. is composed of Globigerinæ, which -in some instances were brought up actually living to the surface, and -busily engaged in secreting, by their vital powers, carbonate of lime -from the waters of the sea.[51] - -Professor Huxley goes yet one step further in following out the -resemblance between the Chalk Rock that exists in the Crust of the -Earth and the stratum of Chalk that is now growing up in the depths -of the Atlantic. Not only are the Globigerinæ, of which the one is in -great part composed, identical with the animalcules that make up about -nine-tenths of the other, but even the minute granules that constitute -the residue of each formation, correspond in a very remarkable manner. -“In working over the soundings collected by Captain Dayman, I was -surprised to find that many of what I have called the Granules of -that mud were not, as one might have been tempted to think at first, -the mere powder and waste of Globigerinæ, but they had a definite -form and size. I termed these bodies Coccoliths, and doubted their -organic nature. Doctor Wallich verified my observation, and added the -interesting discovery that, not unfrequently, bodies similar to these -Coccoliths were aggregated together into spheroids, which he termed -Coccospheres. So far as we knew, these bodies, the nature of which is -extremely puzzling and problematical, were peculiar to the Atlantic -soundings. - -“But a few years ago Mr. Sorby, in making a careful examination of the -Chalk by means of thin sections and otherwise, observed, as Ehrenberg -had done before him, that much of its granular basis possesses a -definite form. Comparing these formed particles with those in the -Atlantic soundings, he found the two to be identical; and thus -proved that the Chalk, like the soundings, contains these mysterious -Coccoliths and Coccospheres. Here was a further and a most interesting -confirmation, from internal evidence, of the essential identity of the -Chalk with modern deep-sea mud.” - -We may, therefore, set it down as certain, first, that the formation -of Chalk Rock is going on very extensively at the present day; and -secondly, that the chief agency employed in its production is no other -than the vital action of minute animalcules. This is no longer merely -a plausible theory or an ingenious hypothesis: it is simply a matter -of fact ascertained by direct observation. If then it is just and -philosophical to ascribe like effects to like causes, the conclusion is -plain that the White Chalk of Europe came into existence in some far -distant age by just such a process as that which is now in operation on -the bed of the Atlantic Ocean. - -From the Chalk mud of the Atlantic we will now pass to the Coral Reefs -that are growing up beneath the waters of the Pacific and the Indian -Oceans. Every one has heard of Coral Reefs and Coral Islands; yet we -fancy many persons have but vague and indefinite notions about them. -We shall, therefore, in the first place, give a brief account of their -general appearance, their extent, and their geographical distribution. -Afterward we shall give some of the evidence which goes to show that -these huge masses of rock owe their existence to the organic powers of -minute living animalcules. - -The Coral Reef is familiar to the navigator of tropical seas under a -great variety of forms, and in many different stages of development. -In one case it is a chain of hidden rocks rising not quite to the -level of the sea; in another it appears just above the waters, but is -washed over by each returning tide; while in another it rises up beyond -the reach of the waves, is clothed with luxuriant vegetation, and -inhabited by various species of animals, even by man himself. Again -there is great diversity of outline among these rocks, whether they are -sunk beneath the surface of the waters or lifted above them. But all -may be reduced to four classes, of which we propose to give a short -description. - -First is the Atoll, or lagoon island. It is a circular strip of -limestone rock enclosing a shallow lake within, and surrounded by a -deep and often unfathomable ocean without. The scene presented by -some of these circular reefs is described by travellers as equally -striking for its singularity and its beauty. “A strip of land a few -hundred yards wide is covered by lofty cocoa-nut trees, above which -is the blue vault of heaven. This band of verdure is bounded by a -beach of glittering white sand, the outer margin of which is encircled -with a ring of snow-white breakers, beyond which are the dark heaving -waters of the ocean. The inner beach encloses the still clear water -of the lagoon, resting in its greater part on white sand, and, when -illuminated by a vertical sun, of a most vivid green.” - -These lagoon islands are often found in groups stretching, with little -interruption, for many hundred miles across the ocean. The Maldives, -for example, which lie a little distance to the southwest of Hindostan, -form a continuous chain, running due north and south, four hundred and -seventy miles in length and fifty miles in breadth. Each successive -link in this chain does not consist, as might be supposed, of a single -circular reef, but it is rather a ring of small coral islets, sometimes -more than a hundred in number, each of which is itself a perfect Atoll -or lagoon island such as we have just described. Of these miniature -islets many are from three to five miles in diameter; while the larger -rings of which they form a part are from thirty to fifty. The Laccadive -islands, a little more to the north, exhibit a similar arrangement, -and indeed would seem to be a continuation of the same group. In the -Pacific are found some chains of coral islands yet more extensive; -as for instance the Dangerous Archipelago, which is upward of eleven -hundred miles in length, and from three to four hundred in breadth; but -the islands within these spaces are thinly scattered, and insignificant -in size. - -Sometimes the annular strip of coral rock encloses within itself a -lofty island, which rises up from the centre of the lagoon. In this -case it is called an Encircling Reef; the lagoon being simply a broad -channel surrounding the island in the centre, and encompassed itself by -the coral rock. An example occurs in the island of Vanikoro, celebrated -for the shipwreck of La Peyrouse, where the Encircling Reef runs at a -distance of two or three miles from the shore, the channel between it -and the land having a general depth of between two and three hundred -feet. The well-known mountainous island of Tahiti in the South Pacific -Ocean is also encompassed by an Encircling Reef, from which it is -separated by a broad belt of tranquil water. - -A third class of Coral Reefs consists of those which run parallel to -the shores of continents or great islands, from which they are cut off -by a broad channel, to which the sea has free access through certain -open passages in the rock. They are called Barrier Reefs; and differ -from the former only in this, that they do not surround the land, but -run parallel to it at a distance of some miles. The Great Barrier Reef -of Australia offers a noble example. It has been described as a huge, -massive, submarine wall or terrace, fronting the northeastern coast -of that continent, varying from ten to ninety miles in breadth, and -extending, with some trifling interruptions, to a length of 1250 miles. -Another reef of the same kind, 400 miles in length, faces the western -coast of the long narrow island of New Caledonia. - -When a chain of Coral rocks approaches close to the shore, so as to -leave no intervening channel of deep water, they are called Fringing -Reefs; and these constitute the fourth and last class of the Coral -formation. They prevail everywhere in tropical regions, and appear as -banks of Coral encrusting the rocky shores of islands and continents. - -As regards the geographical distribution of Coral Reefs, the first -circumstance that claims our notice, is that they are exclusively -confined to the warmer regions of the globe. They exist in great -profusion within the tropics, and are rarely to be found beyond the -thirtieth parallels of latitude on each side of the Equator. The only -remarkable exception is in the case of the Bermuda Islands in 32° north -latitude; but here, it is to be observed, the ocean is warmed by the -waters of the Gulf Stream. Another singular fact is the almost total -absence of Coral Reefs from the Atlantic Ocean. In fact, the Bermudas, -we believe, constitute here again the only exception. The Pacific, -on the contrary, is wonderfully productive of coral; also the Indian -Ocean, the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, and the Red Sea. - -It may gratify, perhaps, the curiosity of some readers, if we add a -word on the Red Coral which is now so favorite an ornament in the -fashionable world. Though it never attains to the magnitude of those -reefs and islands we have been describing, it partakes nevertheless of -the same peculiar structure; and no doubt is entertained that, like -them, it derives its existence from animal life, in the manner we shall -presently explain. It is produced chiefly in the Mediterranean, in the -Red Sea, and in the Persian Gulf; and is brought up from the great -depths by means of a grappling apparatus attached to boats. The largest -pieces have a shrub-like branching form, and are supposed to grow to -the height of one foot in about eight years.[52] - -So much for the existence of the Coral Formation. Next comes the -question of its origin, with which, of course, we are chiefly -concerned. It is now the received belief of all distinguished -Naturalists, that these huge and wide-spread masses of limestone rock, -against which the breakers of the ocean are ever thundering in vain, -are the work of tiny marine animalcules, and chiefly of those seemingly -insignificant creatures known by the name of Polyps or Zoophytes. The -Zoophyte, they tell us, is a mason who himself produces the stones -that he employs in his building. “He has neither plane, nor chisel, -nor trowel; there is no sound of hammer in his city. He erects mighty -and enduring edifices, yet has no mechanical power by which to raise -his rocks to their summits. He can answer thee nothing--no tongue, no -eyes, no hands, no brains has he--yet from the caves of old ocean has -he raised that which fills you with admiration.”[53] Surely if all this -be true, these countless myriads of animalcules call aloud to us from -the depths of the ocean in language that cannot be mistaken: “Know -ye that the Lord He is God; it is He that hath made us, and not we -ourselves.”[54] - -The Zoophyte belongs to the simplest form of the animal creation. Its -body consists merely of a pouch or stomach, with tentacles arranged -round the margin, which it can extend at pleasure to supply itself with -food. In many species the individuals grow together on a common stem, -from which new members are constantly shooting forth like buds from -the branches of a tree. Hence the origin of the name Zoophyte, which -literally means a plant-like animal. The common stem on which they grow -is sometimes composed of a horny substance, but more generally it is -pure carbonate of lime, which they secrete by the powers of organic -action from the waters of the sea. It forms, therefore, a kind of -internal skeleton or framework, to which the soft, gelatinous parts of -the animal adhere, pretty much as, in the case of other animals, the -flesh adheres to the bones. Thus we have, as it were, a community of -living creatures, growing together upon one common stony framework, -called a Polypidom or Polyp edifice, which they themselves build by the -very fact of living. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Campanularia Gelatinosa.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Gorgonia Patula.] - -The peculiar structure of these wonderful little communities may -perhaps be made more intelligible by the aid of a few illustrations. -Figure 4 exhibits the branching skeleton and, at the extremities of -the branches, the several Polyps by whose vital action the skeleton -has been constructed. Some of the animalcules are shown in a state of -activity, with their tiny arms spread out in search of food: others -are withdrawn within their cells, and appear in a state of repose. -This species of Zoophyte, which is highly magnified in the figure, -flourishes abundantly on the shores of Ireland and England. It has -received the name of Campanularia, from the bell-like form of its -cells. Our next cut represents a Gorgonia from the Mediterranean, -which is also considerably magnified. The fleshy integument of this -specimen is of a brilliant red color: the Polyps are arranged in rows -on each side of the stem, and are shown in a state of expansion. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Frustra Pilosa.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Madrepora Plantaginea.] - -A mass of Coral animalcules, which are known by the name of Frustra -Pilosa, is represented of the natural size in Figure 6. To the -naked eye it seems like a piece of fine net-work, disposed around a -fragment of sea-weed, which may be observed protruding in the upper -part of our illustration. With the aid of an ordinary magnifier the -net-like surface is seen to abound in minute pores arranged with much -regularity. Each of these pores is the cell of a Zoophyte. And if -a fragment of Frustra be examined with a powerful microscope, when -immersed in sea-water, the curious little inhabitants themselves may be -seen darting in and out of their cells, expanding and contracting their -long feelers, and exhibiting altogether a wonderful activity. In the -adjoining woodcut, Figure 7, is shown another interesting species of -the arborescent Zoophyte. It belongs to the family of Madrepores, and -abounds in almost all Coral Reefs. Alive under water it appears clothed -in a gelatinous coating of rich and varied hues. But when removed from -its native element this gelatinous coating, which is the living animal -substance, quickly melts away; and, in some instances, runs off from -the calcareous skeleton in a kind of watery slime. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Corallium Rubrum.] - -A good idea of the celebrated red and pink Coral of commerce, so much -admired for its brilliant color, and the high polish of which it is -susceptible, may be gathered from our next illustration. As in the -other species to which we have referred, the calcareous skeleton is -enveloped in a living gelatinous substance, from which the Zoophytes -seem to shoot out like buds from the bark of a tree. Several of these -animalcules are exhibited in our figure, in the active enjoyment of -life; gathering in, with their expanded tentacles, the elements of -their stony edifice from the surrounding waters. After death the fleshy -integument is wasted away by the action of the sea; and the framework -that remains behind, washed ashore by the waves, or hooked up by the -coral fisherman, is wrought into brooches, bracelets, necklaces, and -other ornaments of various kinds. - -Not a few varieties of the Coral-producing Zoophytes are to be found -in actual living reality on our own coasts, where the curious student -may examine for himself their habits and general structure. But it -is in the warmer regions of the Earth that they are developed in the -greatest numbers, and decked in the brightest hues. Those who have seen -them through the crystal waters of tropical seas, swarming in countless -multitudes on the clear white sand below, speak with enthusiasm of -their luxuriant profusion and of their striking beauty. Combining to -a picturesque elegance of form a rich variety and pleasing harmony of -colors, they present to the eye a scene which has been compared to -a magnificent garden, laid out in diverse beds of rare and splendid -flowers. - -So far we have spoken only of the Polypidom, that is to say, the -community of Polyps living together on a common stem of their own -construction. Now this Polypidom is the first element of the Coral -Reef. In some species of Zoophytes, the Red Coral for instance, the -calcareous stem never attains a size greater than that of a diminutive -shrub. But in others, and they are very numerous, especially in -tropical seas, there seems to be no limit to the growth of the solid -stony framework. As the existing generation of Zoophytes is dying out, -new individuals are ever budding forth, which continue unceasingly to -secrete carbonate of lime, as their predecessors had done before them, -from the waters of the ocean; and thus the tree-like form spreads its -branching arms on every side, growing upward and outward day by day. -The soft gelatinous parts of those generations that have passed away -are, in a short time, dissolved, and the stony skeleton alone remains -behind. Ages roll on: the calcareous framework, ever increasing in -size, becomes at length a formidable rock; and this rock is the Coral -Reef. - -Let it not be supposed we are here advancing a theory: we are only -stating a fact that has been established by close and repeated -observations. All the phenomena exhibited in the development of the -Polypidom, are exhibited no less plainly in every Coral Reef that -has yet been examined. On the surface of the Reef are the living -Zoophytes, clinging to the calcareous skeleton which is ever growing -larger through the unconscious action of their vital functions; while -immediately beneath may be seen the same stony skeleton, already -divested of its fleshy integument, and beginning to assume the -appearance of compact and massive rock. We can behold, therefore, the -mason at work on the upper story of his building, and the structure -already finished below. And so we have little less than ocular -demonstration that the Coral Reef is the work of the Zoophyte. - -It must not be supposed, however, that in every part of the Coral Reef, -the form and outline of the stony skeleton are exactly preserved. -Fragments of the rock are broken off by the force of the waves, and -mixed up with the comminuted shells of oysters, mussels, and other -crustaceous animals inhabiting the same waters. In this way a sort of -calcareous gravel, sometimes a calcareous paste, is formed, which fills -up the interstices, and connects the tree-like coral into a compact -rock. - -We have yet to explain how the Coral Reefs come, in many cases, to -rise above the surface of the ocean, and to form dry land: for it has -been found that the reef-building Zoophytes require to be continually -immersed in salt water, and therefore, by their own efforts, they -cannot raise their structure above the ordinary level of the sea. -This question was for a long time involved in obscurity; but it has -been cleared up by the actual observations of Naturalists in modern -times. The following description, which is given to us by Chamisso, -the companion of Kotzebue on his voyages, will convey a good idea of -the process by which a sunken reef is often converted into a smiling, -fruitful island. “When the reef is of such a height that it remains -almost dry at low water, the corals leave off building. Above this -line a continuous mass of solid stone is seen, composed of the shells -of mollusks and echini, with their broken-off prickles and fragments -of coral, united by calcareous sand, produced by the pulverization of -shells. The heat of the sun often penetrates the mass of stone when it -is dry, so that it splits in many places, and the force of the waves is -thereby enabled to separate and lift blocks of coral, frequently six -feet long and three or four in thickness, and throw them upon the reef, -by which means the ridge becomes at length so high that it is covered -only during some seasons of the year by spring tides. After this the -calcareous sand lies undisturbed, and offers to the seeds of trees -and plants cast upon it by the waves, a soil upon which they rapidly -grow, to overshadow its dazzling white surface. Entire trunks of trees, -which are carried by the rivers from other countries and islands, find -here at length a resting place after their long wanderings: with these -come some small animals, such as insects and lizards, as the first -inhabitants. Even before the trees form a wood, the sea-birds nestle -here; stray land-birds take refuge in the bushes; and, at a much later -period, when the work has been long since completed, man appears and -builds his hut on the fruitful soil.”[55] - -Another question that seems to call for some explanation is suggested -by the well-known habits of the Zoophytes themselves. From the -observations of Kotzebue and Darwin it appears that those species -which are most effective in the construction of Reefs cannot flourish -at a greater depth than twenty or thirty fathoms; whereas the coral -rocks rise up in many cases from the bottom of an unfathomable -ocean. How, then, it may be asked, have the foundations of these -wonderful structures been laid? This question opens a wide field for -philosophical speculation; and we freely admit that no theory of -Coral Reefs can be regarded as complete and satisfactory, which does -not furnish a reasonable answer. But so far as the purpose of our -argument is concerned, it is quite sufficient if a stratum of solid -limestone, twenty fathoms thick, has been formed mainly through the -agency of these minute animalcules. And this conclusion, so abundantly -demonstrated by facts, is left quite untouched by the difficulty to -which we now refer. - -It will be interesting, however, to notice in passing the explanation -of this phenomenon first suggested by Mr. Darwin, and now very -generally accepted. He maintains that the whole Coral Reef--foundations -and superstructure alike--is, in most cases, the result entirely of -organic agency. The reef-building Zoophyte always begins his labors in -water that is comparatively shallow. But as he is building upward, it -often happens that the bed of the sea is sinking downward in pretty -nearly the same proportion; and thus the reef is ever increasing in -height from its original base, while the living mass of Zoophytes on -its upper surface remains in about the same depth of water as when the -building first began. - -This theory is supported by a vast amount of curious and ingenious -reasoning. In the first place, there is nothing more remarkable in the -physical conformation of the Globe, than the immense predominance of -water over land throughout those extensive tracts of ocean where Coral -Reefs abound. Now this is just what we should naturally expect if the -hypothesis of Mr. Darwin were admitted; for wherever the Crust of the -Earth has been subsiding for many ages on a large scale, the domain of -the sea must of necessity have been considerably enlarged, and that -of the land contracted in proportion. Again, this hypothesis will be -found to harmonize most perfectly with all the phenomena of Fringing -Reefs, Barrier Reefs, Encircling Reefs, and Lagoon Islands. The -Fringing Reef represents, as it were, the first stage of progress. The -building operations have just commenced near the shore of some island -or continent, and but little space intervenes between the land and the -incrusting wall of coral. Then, as the Crust of the Earth gradually -subsides, the water encroaches on the land, and forms a channel between -it and the reef. Meanwhile the Zoophytes are at work, and the coral -rock is growing upward as the foundation on which it rests is sinking -downward: each year it is higher from the bed of the sea, and yet no -nearer to the surface of the waters. And when at length the channel, -which is ever growing wider and wider, has reached a certain limit, the -Fringing Reef becomes a Barrier Reef, or if it encompasses an island, -an Encircling Reef. Lastly, the Encircling Reef will finally become -a Lagoon Island, when the highest peaks of the land it encloses have -slowly disappeared beneath the surface of the waters. - -In confirmation of this reasoning Mr. Darwin has pointed out numerous -examples to illustrate each intermediate stage through which, according -to his hypothesis, the Coral Reef must pass in the progress of its -construction. He traces the gradual transition from the low bank of -coral incrusting a rocky shore to the Encircling Reef that compasses -round a lofty island, like Tahiti, with a broad channel between. -Then he shows how this channel insensibly becomes wider and wider, -encroaching more and more upon the land, until at length only a few -high peaks remain above water. Finally he leads us on to the case of a -perfect Atoll, within which no trace of land remains to be seen; and -the channel, now become a lagoon, is encompassed by a Reef of Coral -Rock that rises steeply from an unfathomed ocean. - -We do not mean to dwell upon this ingenious speculation, which would -carry us too far from the object at which we are aiming. It seems to -us, however, that the arguments in its favor are at least deserving of -careful consideration; and we may add that they receive new strength -from the facts we shall have occasion hereafter to bring forward, when -we come to speak of the undulating movements to which the Crust of the -Earth has been subject at many different times, and in many different -localities, even within the historic period. - -The formation and structure of existing Coral Reefs being once fairly -established, Geologists have little difficulty in ascribing a similar -origin to many of the limestone strata that are found in the Crust -of the Earth. For though the internal texture has been considerably -modified in the long course of ages, by chemical and other influences, -nevertheless the stony skeletons of the reef-building Zoophytes can be -distinctly recognized in great abundance. Indeed it is not an uncommon -thing to meet with limestone rock exhibiting plainly to the eye all -the appearance of Coral Reefs lifted up from the bed of the ocean. -“The Oolite,” says Doctor Mantell, “abounds in corals, and contains -beds of limestone which are merely coral reefs that have undergone -no change but that of elevation from the bottom of the deep, and the -consolidation of their materials. The Coral-rag of Wilts presents in -fact all the characters of modern reefs: the polypifera belong chiefly -to the Astræidæ, the genera of which family principally contribute to -the formations now going on in the Pacific. Shells, echinoderms, teeth, -and bones of fishes, and other marine exuviæ, occupy the interstices -between the corals, and the whole is consolidated by sand and gravel, -held together in some instances by calcareous, in others by siliceous -infiltrations. Those who have visited districts where the Coral-rag -forms the immediate subsoil, and is exposed to view in the quarries -or in natural sections, must have been struck with the resemblance of -these rocks to modern coral banks.”[56] - -Even in many of our finest marbles the coral skeletons may be traced -distinctly enough, and contribute not a little to that variegated color -which is so much admired. Nay, it is recorded by Mr. Parkinson that he -discovered in a piece of solid marble, the _animal membrane itself_ by -which the lime was originally abstracted from the sea. He immersed the -marble in dilute muriatic acid; and he relates with delight how, as -the calcareous earth dissolved, and the carbonic acid gas escaped, he -observed the animal tissue begin distinctly to appear in the form of -light, elastic membranes.[57] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -STRATIFIED ROCKS OF ORGANIC ORIGIN--ILLUSTRATIONS FROM VEGETABLE LIFE. - - _Origin of coal--Evident traces of plants and trees in - coal-mines--Coal made up of the same elements as wood--Beds - of coal found resting upon clay in which are preserved - the roots of trees--Insensible transition from wood to - coal--Forest-covered swamps--Accumulations of drift-wood in - lakes and estuaries--Peat bogs--Beds of Lignite--Seams of - pure coal with half-carbonized trees, some lying prostrate, - some standing erect--Summary of the argument hitherto - pursued--Objection to this argument from the Omnipotence of - God--Answer to the objection._ - - -As animals, by organic action, extract lime from the waters of the -ocean they inhabit, which, being converted in the first instance into -minute shells, or stony skeletons, afterward passes into a compact -and solid rock, so in like manner do plants and trees extract carbon -from the atmosphere in which they vegetate, and convert it into coal. -No reasonable doubt can now be entertained that coal derives its -existence, almost entirely, from the woody tissue of sunken swamps and -forests. Though the nature of the process by which this transformation -takes place, is yet but imperfectly understood, and is, indeed, at -the present moment a subject of much discussion and controversy, -nevertheless the _fact_ that the change _has_ taken place is fully -accepted by all as an established truth, and is supported by an -accumulation of evidence which it is not easy to resist. - -The first circumstance to which we shall call attention, is the -wonderful profusion of vegetable life that is always associated with -coal. Every one who has descended at any time into a coal mine, or -who has examined the specimens usually exhibited in a well-furnished -museum, must have been struck by the countless forms of trees and -plants, which still remain vividly impressed on this black and -unsightly mineral. Dr. Buckland has described this phenomenon with -much vigor and beauty in his celebrated Bridgewater Treatise: “The -finest example I have ever witnessed is that of the coal mines of -Bohemia just mentioned. The most elaborate imitations of living foliage -upon the painted ceilings of Italian palaces, bear no comparison with -the beauteous profusion of extinct vegetable forms with which the -galleries of these instructive coal mines are overhung. The roof is -covered as with a canopy of gorgeous tapestry, enriched with festoons -of most graceful foliage, flung in wild irregular profusion over every -portion of its surface. The effect is heightened by the contrast of -the coal-black color of these vegetables with the light ground-work -of the rock to which they are attached. The spectator feels himself -transported, as if by enchantment, into the forests of another world; -he beholds trees of forms and characters now unknown upon the surface -of the earth, presented to his senses almost in the beauty and vigor of -their primeval life; their scaly stems and bending branches, with their -delicate apparatus of foliage, are all spread forth before him, little -impaired by the lapse of countless ages, and bearing faithful records -of extinct systems of vegetation, which began and terminated in times -of which these relics are the infallible historians.” - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 9.--Pecopteris Adiantoides. Fig. 10.--Sphenopteris Affinis. - -Fossil Ferns found in the Coal Measures of Europe and America.] - -The next important fact that points to the vegetable origin of -Coal is, that wood and Coal are both composed of the same ultimate -elements--carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. This analogy is the more -remarkable when we are told that no other rock except Coal exhibits -anything approaching to this composition. It is true that the elements -just enumerated do not exist in the same proportions in wood and in -Coal. But the difference, when rightly understood, rather tends to -confirm our theory that the one is derived from the other. There is -more Carbon in Coal than in wood; while there is less oxygen and less -hydrogen. To explain how this may have come to pass during the process -of transition, we must call in the assistance of the chemist. It -appears from the researches of Liebig that, when vegetable matter is -buried in the earth, exposed to moisture, and partially or entirely -excluded from the air, the process of decomposition sets in, and that -under this process carbonic acid gas and carburetted hydrogen gas are -slowly evolved. At the same time a portion of the oxygen when set free -would naturally enter into a new combination with a portion of the -hydrogen, and form water. The result of these several changes would -necessarily be, that the accumulation of vegetable matter buried in the -earth would part, in course of time, with no small share of its carbon, -its hydrogen, and its oxygen, but not with all in the same proportions: -for the new combinations would use up more of the oxygen than of the -hydrogen, and more of the hydrogen than of the carbon.[58] In other -words, if the process should have gone on for a sufficient lapse of -ages, these elements would no longer exist together in the proportions -which are necessary to constitute wood, but would rather exist in the -proportions which are found to constitute coal.[59] - -This explanation is confirmed by a fact with which our readers are -no doubt familiar. According to the explanation, carbonic acid and -carburetted hydrogen are evolved during the process by which coal is -produced from wood. We should therefore expect to find these gases -closely associated with Coal. If they are _not_ so associated, their -absence is a serious objection against our theory; but if they _are_ -so associated, their presence is a strong evidence in its favor. Now -on this point, as every one knows, practical miners bear testimony -that the fact corresponds exactly with our theory. They tell us that -reservoirs of Choke-damp, which is carbonic acid, and of Fire-damp, -which is carburetted hydrogen, are found very commonly pent up in the -crevices and cavities of coal beds, and are the cause, when tapped, of -many of the accidents which take place. They even assure us that some -beds of coal are so saturated with gas that, when cut into, it may -be heard oozing from every pore of the rock, and the coal is called -_singing coal_ by the colliers.[60] - -To sum up, then, what we have said on this point: it appears, first, -that the same constituent elements are found in wood and Coal; -secondly, though they do not exist in the same proportions in the two -substances, the difference is fully accounted for by the changes which -we should naturally expect to take place when large accumulations of -vegetable matter are buried in the earth; thirdly, in the hypothesis of -these changes, carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen would certainly -be developed; and in point of fact, these gases are found intimately -associated with Coal all over the world. - -There is another remarkable fact which fits in most admirably with our -theory. Coal is found at the present day in the Crust of the Earth, -disposed in thin seams or beds, and each bed is almost uniformly -found to rest upon a stratum of fine clay, sometimes several feet in -thickness. This is just what our theory would lead us to expect. If -coal is produced from plants and trees, these plants and trees must -have grown upon some suitable soil; and, therefore, in this hypothesis -we should expect, ordinarily speaking at least, to find a bed of clay -beneath every bed of coal. But this is not all. When we examine more -closely the stratum on which the coal reposes, we find the roots and -stems of trees mingled with the clay in the greatest profusion. In -the Welsh coal field, in a depth of twelve thousand feet, there are -from fifty to a hundred beds of coal, each lying on a stratum of clay -abounding in these remains.[61] - -We now come to an argument of a practical kind which appeals to common -sense and common experience. Let us suppose that a person wholly -unacquainted with the art of manufacturing paper, were to enter a -paper-mill when the workmen are away, and the process of manufacture -for a time suspended. At first sight he would probably find it -difficult to persuade himself, that the piles of clean white paper, -which attract his notice at one end of the building, are produced -from the heaps of filthy rags which he sees accumulated at the other. -But if he be a sagacious observer, he will soon find evidence to -convince him that this is really the case. For he will perceive, upon -close examination, that the self-same material is exhibited in every -intermediate state of progress from one extreme to the other. First, -there is the great chest with its numerous compartments, in which the -rags are seen carefully sorted, according to their various degrees of -quality and texture. Next comes the fulling-mill, where they are washed -and bleached. Then the revolving cylinder, furnished on the exterior -surface with sharp blades or cutters; and the vat in which it moves is -filled with the rags, which now assume the form of a thin liquid pulp. -Advancing still further he will see this pulp evenly spread out upon -a wire-gauze frame, and now at last it is beginning to exhibit some -likeness to the form and substance of paper. Further on it is seen -pressed and dried; and last of all cut into sheets and laid aside in -lofty piles. - -Now it seems to us that we are placed in somewhat of the same -position, as regards the manufacture of Coal. We cannot observe the -process actually going on; for though, in this process, the work is -never suspended, the workmen never at rest, yet extending as it does -over a space of many centuries, it is too slow to be sensible; and -besides it is conducted in great part beneath the surface of the -Earth. Nevertheless, we can trace the progress of change through -each intermediate stage of the transition, from one extreme to the -other,--from the primeval swamps and forests through the numerous -varieties of the Peat and Lignite to the richest beds of pure Coal. - -First, then, we have the great forest-covered swamps, like those which -now occupy the valley and delta of the Mississippi. They are composed -in many cases of pure vegetable matter without any intermixture of -earthy sediment. A dense growth of reeds, and shrubs, and herbage of -every kind, covers the whole surface of the land, mixed up with the -decaying leaves and prostrate trunks of forest-trees. Sir Charles Lyell -mentions a very remarkable fact observed in the swamps of Louisiana. -During an unusually hot season, when any part of a swamp is dried up, -if the surface be set on fire, a pit is burned into the ground many -feet deep, in fact, as far down as the fire can descend without meeting -water; and it is then found that scarcely any residuum or earthy matter -is left.[62] - -Vegetable strata of this kind are produced, not only upon dry land by -the growth and decay of forests, but also beneath the waters of lakes -and estuaries, by the accumulation of Drift-timber borne along in the -current of swollen rivers. The Mackenzie River, which drains a great -part of Northwestern America, affords many admirable illustrations. -Flowing as it does from south to north, it is subject to annual -inundations when the snows begin to melt in the higher parts of its -course, while the channel lower down, situated in colder latitudes, is -still blocked up with ice. At this season then it overflows its banks, -and sweeping through vast forests, carries away thousands of uprooted -trees in its impetuous torrent. - -“As the trees,” says Dr. Richardson, “retain their roots, which are -often loaded with earth and stones, they readily sink, especially -when water-soaked; and accumulating in the eddies, form shoals, which -ultimately augment into islands. A thicket of small willows covers -the new-formed island as soon as it appears above water, and their -fibrous roots serve to bind the whole firmly together. Sections of -these islands are annually made by the river; and it is interesting to -study the diversities of appearances they present according to their -different ages. The trunks of the trees gradually decay until they -are converted into a blackish-brown substance resembling peat, but -still retaining more or less of the fibrous structure of the wood; and -layers of this often alternate with layers of clay and sand, the whole -being penetrated, to a depth of four or five yards or more, by the -long fibrous roots of the willows. A deposition of this kind, with the -aid of a little infiltration of bituminous matter, would produce an -excellent imitation of Coal, with vegetable impressions of the willow -roots. - -“It was in the rivers only that we could observe sections of these -deposits; but the same operation goes on, on a much more magnificent -scale, in the lakes. A shoal of many miles in extent is formed on the -south side of Athabasca Lake by the Drift-timber and vegetable débris -brought down by the Elk River; and the Slave Lake itself must in -process of time be filled up by the matters daily conveyed into it from -Slave River. Vast quantities of Drift-timber are buried under the sand -at the mouth of the river, and enormous piles of it are accumulated on -the shores of every part of the lake.” - -Not unfrequently it happens that these strata of vegetable matter, with -the roots and trunks of trees, their branches, fruits, and leaves, more -or less perfectly preserved, are covered over by subsequent deposits. -Such accumulations, we are assured by Doctor Mantell, have been found -deep in the soil on the coast of England, in places that are still -subject to periodical inundations. “The trees are chiefly of the oak, -hazel, fir, birch, yew, willow, and ash; in short, almost every kind -that is indigenous to this island occasionally occurs. The trunks and -branches are dyed throughout of a deep ebony color by iron; and the -wood is firm and heavy, and occasionally fit for domestic use; in -Yorkshire and elsewhere, timber of this kind is sometimes employed in -the construction of houses.”[63] Here, then, is the first stage of -the conversion of wood into Coal,--a stratum more or less compacted -together of vegetable matter, spread out sometimes over the surface of -the dry land, sometimes on the floor of lakes and estuaries, and often -buried beneath an accumulation of subsequent deposits. - -The next stage in the process of transformation may be represented by -those Peat Bogs which constitute one of the most remarkable physical -characteristics of Ireland, covering as they do an area equal to -one-tenth of the whole island. In these the vegetable matter is more -closely condensed, but the structure of the plants from which the -Peat is derived is still preserved, and may be distinctly recognized -by the naked eye. Nay, we have still the prostrate trunks of trees -lying around on every side as they fell to the ground in their ancient -forests. The researches recently pursued upon this subject have brought -to light a fact which is very much to our present purpose; for it -seems to prove our thesis by direct evidence. “In Limerick, in the -district of Maine, one of the States of North America, there are Peat -Bogs of considerable extent, in which a substance exactly similar to -_cannel coal_ is found at the depth of three or four feet from the -surface amidst the remains of rotten logs of wood and _beaver sticks_: -the peat is twenty feet thick, and rests upon white sand. This coal -was discovered on digging a ditch to drain a portion of the bog, for -the purpose of obtaining peat for manure. The substance is a true -bituminous coal, containing more bitumen than is found in any other -variety. Polished sections of the compact masses exhibit the peculiar -structure of coniferous trees, and prove that the coal was derived from -a species allied to the American Fir.”[64] A similar phenomenon was -observed by Doctor Dieffenbach in the Chathain Islands. In the same -bed of peat he was able distinctly to trace a gradual transition from -pure vegetable matter to a mineral substantially identical with common -coal.[65] - -But though Peat may thus, as it should seem, pass directly into pure -Coal, there are many cases in which it first assumes a more imperfect -form, known under the name of Lignite. This substance is described -as of a brownish color, “soft and mellow in consistence when freshly -quarried, but becoming brittle by exposure, the fracture following -the direction of the fibre of the wood.”[66] It clearly occupies an -intermediate position between Peat and Coal. Like the former, it still -exhibits the stems and woody fibre of the plants from which it is -derived, very little altered in their structure; while on the other -hand it is already beginning to acquire some of the consistency and -density of Coal; to which also it approaches much more closely in its -chemical composition. It should be remembered, moreover, that Lignite -does not designate a substance of a fixed, invariable character. On the -contrary, under the one general name are comprised a definite number of -varieties, leading from one extreme to the other by a series of almost -insensible gradations; the extreme variety on one side being scarcely -distinguishable from Peat, while the extreme variety on the other is -practically identical with ordinary Coal. It can hardly be doubted, -therefore, that Coal must have the same origin as Lignite, while it is -at least equally certain that Lignite has been derived from Peat; and -we have already seen what overwhelming evidence may be adduced to show -that the origin of Peat is to be sought for in the sunken swamps and -forests of a long past age. - -Lastly, when we come to examine the texture of Coal itself, we find -much to confirm the conclusion at which we have thus arrived. In beds -of pure Coal the remains of many species of plants have been detected, -and sometimes in such abundance as to constitute visibly the bulk of -the Coal. Even large trees are sometimes found standing erect in the -Coal fields, with their bark actually converted into this mineral. The -annexed Figure represents a portion of the stem, together with the -roots of a tall forest tree, Sigillaria, discovered not long ago in a -Coal mine at Saint Helens, near Liverpool. The stem, which was nine -feet high, was found erect in the seam of Coal, while the roots, ten -in number, stretched away into the vegetable soil beneath. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Stem and roots of a Forest Tree, Sigillaria. -From a Coal-mine, near Liverpool. - - _a_, The trunk traversing a bed of Coal. - - _b_, The roots spreading out in the underclay.] - -Not less than thirty such trees, some of them four or five feet in -diameter, and all incrusted with Coal, were laid bare a short time -since, in a Colliery near Newcastle, within an area of fifty yards -square. “In 1830,” writes Sir Charles Lyell, “a slanting trunk was -exposed in Craigleith quarry, near Edinburgh, the total length of which -exceeded sixty feet. Its diameter at the top was about seven inches, -and near the base, it measured five feet in its greater, and two feet -in its lesser, width. The bark was converted into a thin coating of -the purest and finest Coal.” Again, “in South Staffordshire, a seam of -Coal was laid bare in the year 1844, in what is called an open work -at Parkfield Colliery, near Wolverhampton. In the space of about a -quarter of an acre, the stumps of no less than seventy-three trees, -with their roots attached, appeared, some of them more than eight feet -in circumference. The trunks, broken off close to the root, were lying -prostrate in every direction, often crossing each other. One of them -measured fifteen, another thirty feet in length, and others less. They -were invariably flattened to the thickness of one or two inches, and -converted into Coal. Their roots formed part of a stratum of Coal ten -inches thick, which rested on a layer of clay two inches thick, below -which was a second forest resting on a two-foot seam of Coal. Five feet -below this again was a third forest, with large stumps of Lepidodendra, -Calamites, and other trees.”[67] - - * * * * * - -We have now brought to a close a very important line of argument in -the Science of Geology. We have pointed out that, in the strata which -compose the Crust of the Earth, there are rocks of various kinds, -distinguished from one another as well by the nature of the materials -which compose them, as by the manner in which these materials are -arranged together; and we have shown that rocks presenting the same -general appearances, and composed of exactly the same materials, are -being produced in the present age upon the Surface of the Earth, -through the agency of natural causes. Moreover, we have closely -examined, in certain cases, the nature of the process by which the -formation of these rocks is accomplished at the present day; and we -have seen how difficult it is, when the facts of the case are once -clearly before us, to resist the conclusion that the rocks which we now -find buried in the Earth, were produced in some former age, by the same -causes which are still at work. We shall next proceed to inquire how -far this conclusion is confirmed by the independent evidence of Fossil -Remains. - -But before entering on a new line of argument, it is fit we should -take notice of an objection which has sometimes been urged against the -reasoning we have hitherto pursued, and which has done much to create -and to keep alive a prejudice unfavorable to the Science of Geology. -Religious writers have not unfrequently insinuated, and sometimes have -plainly asserted, that, in ascribing the present structure of the -Earth’s Crust to the operation of natural causes, Geologists would -seem to make no account of God’s Omnipotence. A moment’s reflection -will convince the reader that this charge is utterly unphilosophical. -Is it not plain that the more fully we appreciate and acknowledge the -wonderful works of Nature, the more deeply must we become impressed -with the power and wisdom of Him who is the Author and Ruler of Nature? -To say that secondary causes exist, and to point out the monuments that -bear witness to their operation in long passed ages, is not to deny, -but rather to affirm the existence of a Great First Cause, upon whom -they all depend for their existence, their preservation, and their -guidance. - -We are everywhere reminded by abundant evidence, that it has pleased -the Great Creator to employ the agency of His creatures in the -fashioning and the adorning of this material universe. He does not -create at once, as He well might do, the great oak of the forest; but -He allows the seed to sink into the earth, where it is watered by the -gentle dews of Heaven, and fructified by the genial warmth of the sun; -soon it puts forth a tender germ; the germ, in time, imbibing the -elements of its support from the air and the earth, becomes a sappling, -and the sappling a tree, which spreads its huge branches on every side, -and serves for many purposes of ornament and of use. Or let us take -the case of the honeycomb, that most curious and ingenious work, at -once the palace and the storehouse of a vast and busy community. It is -not produced in a moment by a simple act of creation. God has not made -it Himself, but He has taught the bee to make it. In like manner He -has provided for the little birds, not by building their nests, but by -infusing into their nature that mysterious instinct which prompts them -to build, and guides them in their work. - -Geologists, therefore, when they undertake to explain the existence -of Stratified Rocks, not by the immediate action of the Creator, but -by the intervention of natural causes, are not on that account to be -accused of impiety. They do not disparage, but rather magnify His -glory, when they expatiate upon the endless variety of agents which, -according to their theory, He has employed in the structure of the -material world. If the honeycomb, as a work of contrivance and design, -excites the wonder and admiration of the philosopher, what must we -think of the contrivance and design exhibited by Him who has made, not -the honeycomb only, but the bee that builds the honeycomb? And so, too, -we get novel and unexpected views of God’s Omnipotence, when, through -the science of Geology, we come to understand the vast and harmonious -series of secondary causes by which he has brought the Crust of the -Earth into its present form and shape. The impress of His hand is -stamped upon His works; and all that is wonderful and attractive in -Nature is but the token of His power and the shadow of His beauty. And -so our national poet has sung: - - “Thou art, O GOD, the life and light - Of all this wondrous world we see; - Its glow by day, its smile by night, - Are but reflections caught from Thee. - Where’er we turn, Thy glories shine, - And all things fair and bright are Thine.” - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER X._ - -FOSSIL REMAINS--THE MUSEUM. - - _Recapitulation--Scope of our argument--Theory of - stratified rocks the framework of geological science--The - theory brings geology into contact with revelation--the - line of reasoning hitherto pursued confirmed by the - testimony of fossil remains--Meaning of the word - fossil--Inexhaustible abundance of fossils--Various states - of preservation--Petrifaction--Experiments of Professor - Göppert--Organic rocks afford some insight into the fossil - world--The reality and significance of fossil remains must - be learned from observation--The British Museum--Colossal - skeletons--Bones and shells of animals--Fossil plants and - trees._ - - -Reader, you are beginning to suspect us. ‘How long do we propose to -detain people?’ For anything that appears we may be designing to write -on to the twentieth century. ‘And _whither_ are we going?’ Toward what -object? which is as urgent a quære as, _how far_? Perhaps we may be -leading you into treason. You feel symptoms of doubt and restiveness; -and like Hamlet with his father’s ghost, “you will follow us no further -unless we explain what it is that we are in quest of.” - -These words of Thomas De Quincey to his readers, in the middle of one -of his discursive essays, which, interesting as they certainly are in -all their parts, yet sometimes beget a feeling of weariness from the -uncomfortable apprehension that they will not come to an end, are, -perhaps, scarcely less appropriate in our own case. It may be that our -readers have been left too long in the uneasy state of suspense and -hope deferred. They came to our pages to look for a practical solution -of the question, Is Geology at variance with the Bible? And what avails -it, they may ask, to discourse to them of the Gulf Stream, and Rivers, -and Glaciers, and Alluvial Plains, and Coral Rocks, and Coal Mines? -With painful steps they have been toiling after us through tedious -disquisitions, straining their eyes to see the end, but the end is not -yet in sight. Well, then, if they will rest for a few minutes by the -way, we will pause, too, and tell them what we are about, and try to -bring out more clearly the object at which we are aiming. - -Our design from the beginning was to consider the points of contact -between Geology and Revelation; to examine the relations that exist -between these two departments of knowledge,--one resting upon reason -and observation, the other given to us from Heaven; and to inquire -how far it may be possible to adopt the conclusions of the former, -while we adhere, at the same time, with unswerving fidelity, to the -unchangeable truths of the latter. With this end in view, we proceeded -at once to sketch out the more prominent features of Geological theory; -not the particular theory of one writer, or of one school, but that -more general theory which is adopted by all writers, and prevails in -every school. This theory, we were all well aware, is in many points -widely at variance with the common notions of sensible and even -well-informed men who have not devoted much attention to the study of -Physical Science. And it occurred to us that, possibly, many of our -readers might be disposed to cut the controversy short by rejecting, -in a summary way, the whole system of Geology, and treating it as an -empty shadow or an idle dream. This, we were convinced, would be a -mistaken and mischievous course. Geology is not a house of cards that -it may be blown down by a breath. It is a hypothesis, a theory, if you -will; but no one can in fairness deny that behind this theory there are -facts,--unexpected, startling, significant facts; that these facts, -when considered in their relation to one another, when illustrated -by the present phenomena of Nature, and skilfully grouped together, -as they have been by able men, disclose certain general truths, and -suggest certain arguments, which do seem to point in the direction of -those conclusions at which Geologists have arrived. - -It follows that he who would investigate fairly the claims of Geology, -must first learn to appreciate the significance of these facts, and -to estimate the value of these arguments. And this is precisely what -we have been trying to do. We are not writing a treatise on Geology. -Certainly not: it would be presumptuous in us, with our scanty -knowledge, to attempt it. Besides, Geology has it own professors, and -its lecture-halls, and its manuals. Neither do we mean to assume the -character of the advocates or champions of Geology. It does not ask -our services; in its cause are enrolled no small proportion of the -most illustrious names which for the last fifty years have adorned the -annals of Physical Science. Nor do we want even to enforce upon our -readers that more general theory of Geology which we are endeavoring to -explain and illustrate. Our purpose is merely to collect from various -sources, and to string together, the evidence that may be adduced in -its favor; that so, when we come hereafter to consider this theory -in its relation with the History of the Bible, we may not incur the -risk of discomfiture by denying that which has been proved by facts, -but rather approach the subject with such knowledge as may help us to -discover the real harmony that we know to exist between the truths -inscribed on the works of God, and those which are recorded in His -Written Word. - -In the accomplishment of this task we have devoted ourselves chiefly to -the study of the Aqueous or Stratified Rocks. According to Geologists, -these rocks, such as we find them now, were not the immediate work of -creation, but were slowly produced in the long lapse of ages, and laid -out one above another, by a vast and complex machinery of secondary -causes. The elements of which they are composed were gathered together -from many and various sources; from the ocean, from the air, from other -pre-existing rocks; and, for aught we know, may have had a long and -eventful history before they came to assume their present structure -and arrangement. Thus, for example, the Conglomerates, and Sandstones, -with which we are so familiar, are made up of broken fragments derived -from earlier rocks, and then transported to distant sites by the -mountain torrents, or the stately rivers of vast continents, or the -silent currents of the sea; the Limestone with which we build our -houses is the work of living animals that once swarmed in countless -myriads beneath the waters of the ocean; and the Coal which supplies -the motive power to our manufactories, our railways, our ships of war -and commerce, is but the modern representative of ancient swamps and -forests, which, having been buried in the earth, and there, by the -action of chemical laws, endowed with new properties, were laid by for -the future use of man in the great storehouse of Nature. - -This mode of accounting for the origin and formation of Stratified -Rocks constitutes in a manner the framework that supports and binds -together the whole system of Geology. If it be once fairly established, -Geology is entitled to take high rank as a Physical Science. If on -the contrary it should prove to be without foundation, then Geology -is no longer a science, but a dream. Moreover, it is this theory of -stratification which, from the first, has brought Geology into contact -with Revelation. For Geologists have been led to infer the extreme -Antiquity of the Earth, from the immense thickness of the Stratified -Rocks on the one hand, and, on the other, the very slow and gradual -process by which each stratum in the series has been, in its turn, -spread out and consolidated. Those likewise who claim for the Human -Race a greater Antiquity than the Bible allows, seek for their proofs -in the supposed origin and antiquity of those superficial deposits, in -which the remains of Man or of his works are sometimes found entombed. - -It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that the theory of Stratified -Rocks should engage the largest share of our attention when we -undertake to discuss the relation in which Geology stands to Revealed -Religion. For the present we say nothing about the conclusions that -flow from this theory, or the errors to which it has led when hastily -or ignorantly applied: we are only investigating the evidence by which -it is supported. In our former chapters we have drawn out at some -length the line of reasoning which is derived from the character of -the Aqueous Rocks themselves when considered in the light of Nature’s -present operations. We have shown that Stratified Rocks of many -different kinds, just such as those which compose the Crust of the -Earth, have been produced by natural causes within historic times; and -we have explained some of the more simple and intelligible parts of -that complex machinery, which, even now, is busily at work gathering, -sorting, distributing, piling up together, and consolidating the -materials of new strata all over the world. These considerations, as -we took occasion to point out, beget a strong presumption in favor -of Geological theory. Here we have Nature at work, actually bringing -into existence a stratum of rock before our eyes. And there, in the -Crust of the Earth, we find another stratum of precisely the same kind -already finished. What can be more reasonable than to ascribe the one -to the action of the same causes which we see at work upon the other? -And thus, by extending the area of our observations from one class -of Aqueous Rocks to another, the idea gradually grows upon us that -these rocks have been spread out, stratum upon stratum, during many -successive ages, by the agency of secondary causes similar to those -which are still in operation; and that each stratum, in its turn, as it -first came into existence, was for a time the uppermost of the series. - -In support of this conclusion we are now about to bring forward a new -and independent argument founded on the testimony of Fossil Remains. An -eminent writer has summed up in a few words the value and importance -of Fossil Remains in reference to Geological theory. “At present,” -he says, “shells, fishes, and other animals are buried in the mud or -silt of lakes and estuaries; rivers also carry down the carcases of -land animals, the trunks of trees, and other vegetable drift; and -earthquakes submerge plains and islands, with all their vegetable and -animal inhabitants. These remains become enveloped in the layers of mud -and sand and gravel formed by the waters, and in process of time are -petrified, that is, are converted into stony matter like the shells -and bones found in the oldest strata. Now, as at present, so in all -former time must the remains of plants and animals have been similarly -preserved; and, as one tribe of plant is peculiar to the dry plain, -another to the swampy morass; as one family belongs to a temperate, -another to a tropical region, so, from the character of the embedded -plants, we are enabled to arrive at some knowledge of the conditions -under which they flourished. In the same manner with animals: each -tribe has its locality assigned it by peculiarities of food, climate, -and the like; each family has its own peculiar structure for running, -flying, swimming, plant-eating, or flesh-eating, as the case may be; -and by comparing Fossil Remains with existing races, we are enabled to -determine many of the past conditions of the world with considerable -certainty.”[68] - -On this branch of our subject we do not mean to offer much in the -way of argument strictly so called. We shall content ourselves -with a simple statement of facts, and leave them to produce their -own impression. It will be necessary at the outset to explain some -technical matters, that what we have to say hereafter may be the better -understood: and if in this we are somewhat dry and tiresome, we will -try to make amends by the curious and interesting story of Nature’s -long buried works, which we hope in the sequel to unfold. - - * * * * * - -When the word _Fossil_ was first introduced into the English language, -it was employed to designate, as the etymology suggests, whatever is -_dug out of the earth_.[69] But it is now generally used in a much -more restricted sense, being applied only to the remains of plants -and animals embedded in the Crust of the Earth and there preserved -by natural causes. When we speak of remains, we must be understood -to include even those seemingly transient impressions, such as -foot-prints in the sand, which having been made permanent by accidental -circumstances, and thus engraved, as it were, on the archives of -Nature, now bear witness to the former existence of organic life. - -Now in every part of the world where the Stratified Rocks have been -laid open to view, remains of this kind are found scattered on all -sides in the most profuse abundance. In Europe, in America, in -Australia, in the frozen wastes of Siberia, in the countless islands -scattered over the waters of the Pacific, there is scarcely a single -formation, from the lowest in the series to the highest, that, when it -is fairly explored, does not yield up vast stores of shells, together -with bones and teeth, nay, sometimes whole skeletons of animals; also -fragments of wood, impressions of leaves, and other organic substances. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Fossil Irish Deer (County Fermanagh). In the -Museum of Trinity College, Dublin. From Haughton’s Manual of Geology] - -These Fossil Remains do not always occur in the same state of -preservation. Sometimes we have the bone, or plant, or shell, in its -natural condition; still retaining not only its own peculiar form and -structure, but likewise the very same organic substance of which it was -originally composed. Examples innumerable may be seen in the British -Museum, or, indeed, in almost any Geological collection: the fine -skeletons of ancient Irish Deer, which are exhibited in the Museum of -Trinity College, Dublin, and of which all the bones are in excellent -preservation, must be familiar to many of our readers. - -It happens, however, more frequently that the organic substance itself -has disappeared, but has left an impression on the rock, that now -bears witness to its former presence. Thus, for instance, when a shell -has been dissolved and carried away by water percolating the rock, -it has very often left after it, on the hard stone, a mould of its -outer surface and a cast of its inner surface, with a cavity between -corresponding to the thickness of the shell. In such cases we have -the form, the size, and the superficial markings of the organic body, -but we have no part of its original substance, and no traces of its -internal structure. This form of fossilization, as Sir Charles Lyell -has well put it, “may be easily understood if we examine the mud -recently thrown out from a pond or canal in which there are shells. -If the mud be argillaceous, it acquires consistency in drying, and -on breaking open a portion of it, we find that each shell has left -impressions of its external form. If we then remove the shell itself, -we find within a solid nucleus of clay, having the form of the interior -of the shell.”[70] In many cases the space first occupied by the shell -is not left empty when the shell has been removed, but is filled up -with some mineral substance, such as lime or flint. The mineral thus -introduced becomes the exact counterpart of the organic body which -has disappeared; and has been justly compared to a bronze statue, -which exhibits the exterior form and lineaments, but not the internal -organization nor the substance of the object it represents. - -There is a third form more wonderful still, in which Fossil Remains -are not uncommonly found. The original body has passed away as in the -former case, and yet not only does its _outward shape_ remain, but even -its _internal texture_ is perfectly preserved in the solid stone which -has taken its place. This kind of change is exhibited most remarkably -in the vegetable kingdom. Fossil trees of great size have been -discovered of which _the whole substance has been changed from wood -to stone_: yet with such exquisite skill has the change been effected -that the minute cells and fibres, and the rings of annual growth, may -still be clearly traced; nay, even those delicate spiral vessels which, -from their extreme minuteness, can be discerned only by the aid of the -microscope. Thus the tree remains complete in all its parts; but it is -no longer a tree of wood; it is, so to speak, a tree of stone. - -The mystery of this extraordinary transformation has not yet been -fully cleared up by scientific men; but the general principle, at -least, is sufficiently understood. It is thus briefly explained by -Sir Charles Lyell: “If an organic substance is exposed in the open -air to the action of the sun and rain, it will in time putrefy, or be -dissolved into its component elements, consisting usually of oxygen, -hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon. These will readily be absorbed by the -atmosphere or be washed away by rain, so that all vestiges of the dead -animal or plant disappear. But if the same substances be submerged -in water, they decompose more gradually; and if buried in the earth, -still more slowly, as in the familiar example of wooden piles or -other buried timber. Now, if as fast as each particle is set free by -putrefaction in a fluid or gaseous state, a particle equally minute of -carbonate of lime, flint, or other mineral is at hand and ready to be -precipitated, we may imagine this inorganic matter to take the place -just before left unoccupied by the organic molecule. In this manner -a cast of the interior of certain vessels may first be taken, and -afterward the more solid walls of the same may decay and suffer a like -transmutation.”[71] This exposition, so simple and luminous in itself, -may, perhaps, be rendered still more intelligible to the general reader -by an ingenious illustration of Mr. Jukes. “It is,” he says, “as if -a house were gradually rebuilt, brick by brick, or stone by stone, a -brick or a stone of a different kind having been substituted for each -of the former ones, the shape and size of the house, the forms and -arrangements of its rooms, passages, and closets, and even the number -and shape of the bricks and stones, remaining unaltered.”[72] - -This singular kind of petrifaction, by which not only the external -form, but even the organic tissue itself, is converted into stone, -has been illustrated, in a very interesting way, by Professor Göppert -of Breslau. With a view to imitate as nearly as he could the process -of Nature, “he steeped a variety of animal and vegetable substances -in waters, some holding siliceous, others calcareous, others metallic -matter in solution. He found that in the period of a few weeks, or even -days, the organic bodies thus immersed were mineralized to a certain -extent. Thus, for example, thin vertical slices of deal, taken from the -Scotch fir, were immersed in a moderately strong solution of sulphate -of iron. When they had been thoroughly soaked in the liquid for several -days, they were dried and exposed to a red heat until the vegetable -matter was burnt up and nothing remained but an oxide of iron, which -was found to have taken the form of the deal so exactly that casts even -of the dotted vessels peculiar to this family of plants were distinctly -visible under the microscope.”[73] - - * * * * * - -If we have succeeded in making ourselves understood, the reader will -now have a pretty accurate notion of what is meant, in modern Geology, -by Fossil Remains. They are the remains or impressions of plants and -animals, buried in the earth by natural causes, and preserved to our -time in any one of the three forms we have just described. Either -the body itself remains, still retaining its own natural substance, -together with its external form and its internal structure. Or -secondly, the organic substance and the organic structure have both -disappeared, but the outward form and the superficial markings have -been left impressed on the solid rock. Or thirdly, the substance of the -body has been converted into stone, but with such a delicate art, that -it is in all respects, outwardly and inwardly, still the same body, -with a new substance. We should observe, however, that these three -different forms of fossilization, which we have successively described, -are not always clearly distinct in actual fossil specimens, but are -often curiously blended together according as the original organic -substance has been more or less completely displaced, or the process of -petrifaction has been more or less perfectly accomplished. - -It will probably have occurred to the intelligent reader that we have -already had some insight into the Fossil world, when investigating the -origin of Organic Rocks. We have seen, for instance, that Coal is the -representative to our age of swamps and forests which once covered the -earth with vegetation; that Mountain Limestone is in great part formed -from the skeletons of reef-building corals; that the White Chalk of -Europe is almost entirely derived from the remains of marine shells. -But it should be observed that these and such like rocks, while they -afford us much valuable information about the ancient organic condition -of our planet, are not, strictly speaking, Fossil Remains. For, not -only does the substance of the organic bodies they represent exhibit -an altered character, but the internal structure has been in great -part effaced, and even the outward forms and superficial markings have -disappeared. They contain, it is true, great multitudes of Fossils. -In the Coal, for example, are found, as we have seen, trunks of trees, -together with the impressions of plants and leaves: in the Chalk and -Mountain Limestone, fragments of shells and corals are often discovered -in a state of perfect preservation. But the bulk of these formations -is made up not so much of Fossil Remains, as of that into which Fossil -Remains have been converted. Coal, for instance, is something more than -Fossil wood; Chalk, and Limestone, and Marble, are something more than -Fossil shells and corals. - -Fossil Remains properly so called present a very much more lively -picture of the ancient inhabitants of our Globe. But it is a picture -that can but faintly be conveyed to the mind by the way of mere -verbal description. He who would appreciate aright the reality and -the significance of Fossil Remains must gather his impressions from -actual observation. Let him go, for instance, to the British Museum, -and walk slowly through the long suite of noble galleries which are -there exclusively devoted to this branch of science. He will feel -as if transported into another world, the reality of which he could -scarcely have believed if he had not seen it with his own eyes. Before -him, and behind him, and on each side of him, as he moves along, are -spread out in long array forms of beasts, and birds, and fish, and -amphibious animals, such as he has never seen before, nor dreamt of in -his wildest dreams. Yet much as he may wonder at these strange figures, -he never for a moment doubts that they were once indued with life, and -moved over the surface of the earth, or disported in the waters of -the deep. Nay more, though the forms are new to him, he will be at no -loss, however inexperienced in Natural History, to find many analogies -between the creation in the midst of which he stands, and the creation -with which he has been hitherto familiar. There are quadrupeds, and -bipeds, and reptiles. Some of the animals were manifestly designed to -walk on dry land, some to swim in the sea, and some to fly in the air. -Some are armed with claws like the lion or the tiger, others have the -paddles of a turtle, and others again have the fins of a fish. Here is -an enormous beast that might almost pass for an elephant, though an -experienced eye will not fail to detect an important difference; and -there is an amphibious monster that suggests the idea of a crocodile; -and again a little further on is an unsightly creature which unites -the general characteristics of the diminutive sloth with the colossal -proportions of the largest rhinoceros. - -If left to mere conjecture, the visitor would perhaps suppose that -these uncouth monsters had been brought together by some adventurous -traveller from the remote regions of the world. But no: he will -find on inquiry that the vast majority belong to species which for -centuries have not been known to flourish on the Earth; and that many -of the strangest forms before him have been dug up almost from beneath -the very soil on which he stands,--from the quarries of Surrey, of -Sussex, and of Kent, and from the deep cuttings on the many lines of -railway that diverge from the great metropolis of London. The life -they represent so vividly is, indeed, widely different from that which -flourishes around us; but it is the life not so much of a far distant -country as of a far distant age. - -It must not be supposed, however, that such skeletons as those which -first arrest the eye in the galleries of the British Museum--so -colossal in their proportions and so complete in all their -details--fairly exhibit the general character of Fossil Remains. -Perfect skeletons of gigantic animals are rarely to be found. They are -the exception and not the general rule,--the magnificent reward of long -and toilsome exploration, or, it may be, the chance discovery that -brings wealth to the humble home of some rustic laborer. Very different -are the common every day discoveries of the working Geologist. -Disjointed bones and skulls, scattered teeth, fragments of shells, -the eggs of birds, the impressions of leaves,--these are the ordinary -relics that Nature has stored up for our instruction in the various -strata of the Earth’s Crust: and these likewise constitute by far -the greater part of the treasures which are gathered together in our -Geological Museums. - -We will suppose, then, that the visitor has gratified his sense of -wonder in gazing at the larger and more striking forms, few in number, -that rise up prominently before him, and seem to stare at him in return -from their hollow sockets: he must next turn his attention to the cases -that stand against the walls, and to the cabinets that stretch along -the galleries in distant perspective. Let him survey that multitude of -bones of every shape and size, and those countless legions of shells, -and then try to realize to his mind what a profusion and variety of -animal life are here represented. And yet he must remember that this -is but a single collection. There are thousands of others, public and -private, scattered over England, France, Germany, Italy, and beyond -the Atlantic, on the continent of America, and even in Australia; all -of which have been furnished from a few isolated spots,--scarcely more -than specks on the surface of the Globe,--where the interior of the -Earth’s Crust has chanced to be laid open to the explorations of the -Geologist. - -Lastly, before he leaves this splendid gallery, let him take a passing -glance at the Organic Remains of the vegetable world. There is no -mistaking the forms here presented to his view. He will recognize -at once the massive and lofty trunks of forest trees with their -spreading branches; the tender foliage of the lesser plants; and, in -particular, the graceful fern, which cannot fail to attract his eye by -its unrivalled luxuriance. But if the forms are familiar, how strange -is the substance, of this ancient vegetation! The forest tree has been -turned into sandstone; many of the plants are of the hardest flint; -and the rich green of the fern has given place to the jet black color -of coal. Let him take a magnifying glass and scrutinize the internal -structure of these mineralized remains; for the more closely they are -examined the more wonderful do they appear. He can observe without -difficulty their minute cells and fibres, the exact counterpart of -those which may be seen in the plants that are now growing upon the -earth; he may detect the little seed-vessels on the under surface of -the coaly fern; nay, if he gets a polished transverse section of the -sandstone tree, he may count the rings that mark its annual growth, and -tell the age it attained in its primeval forest. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Fossil Wood, from the Carboniferous Limestone -of Mayo, showing the rings of Annual Growth.] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER XI._ - -FOSSIL REMAINS--THE EXPLORATION. - - _From the museum to the quarry--Fossil fish in the limestone - rocks of Monte Bolca--In the quarries of Aix--In the chalk - of Sussex--The ichthyosaurus or fish-like lizard--Gigantic - dimensions of this ancient monster--Its predatory - habits--The plesiosaurus--The megatherium or great wild - beast--History of its discovery--The mylodon--Profusion - of fossil shells--Petrified trees erect in the limestone - rock of Portland--Fossil plants of the coal measures--The - sigillaria--The fern--The calamite--The lepidodendron--Coal - mine of Treuil--Fossil remains afford undeniable evidence - of former animal and vegetable life--Their existence cannot - be accounted for by the plastic power of nature--Nor can it - reasonably be ascribed to a special act of creation._ - - -From the galleries of the Museum we must now descend into the -subterranean recesses of the mine and the quarry. For it is not enough -to be familiar with the appearance of Fossil Remains, as they are laid -out for show by human hands: we must see them also as they lie embedded -in the successive strata of the Earth’s Crust, which are the shelves -of Nature’s cabinet. We shall begin with the celebrated quarries of -Monte Bolca, in Northern Italy, not far from Verona. Here, in the hard -limestone rock, fifty miles from the nearest sea, entire skeletons -of many different species of fish are found embedded in profuse -abundance, and in a wonderful state of preservation. They lie parallel -to the layers of the rock; and, though flattened by pressure, still -retain their scales, bones, fins, nay, even their muscular tissue, -undisturbed and unharmed. Their color is a deep brown, which forms -a remarkable contrast with the creamy hue of the limestone in which -they are enveloped. The quarries have been worked only by students of -Natural History for the sake of Organic remains, and are, therefore, -of very limited extent; yet so abundant are these fossil treasures -that upward of a hundred different species have been discovered, -and thousands of specimens have been dispersed over the cabinets -of Europe. So closely are they sometimes packed together that many -individuals are contained in a single block. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Platax Papilio. - -From the limestone of Monte Bolca.] - - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Semiophorus Velicans. From the limestone of -Monte Bolca.] - -From these facts Geologists have been led to conclude:--that the -strata in question were deposited on the bed of an ancient sea in -which these fishes swam; that the waters of the sea were suddenly -rendered noxious, probably by the eruption of volcanic matter; that the -fishes in consequence perished in large numbers, and were then almost -immediately embedded in the calcareous deposits of which the strata -are composed. These views receive no small confirmation from a very -remarkable phenomenon to which we may be allowed, in passing, to call -attention. In the year 1831 a volcanic island was suddenly thrown up in -the Mediterranean between Sicily and the African coast; and the waters -of the sea were at the same time observed to be charged with a red mud -over a very wide area, while hundreds of dead fish were seen floating -on the surface. Is it not pretty plain that when the mud subsided many -of the fish were enveloped in the deposit, and thus preserved to future -times? If so, then, we should have an exact modern parallel to the -fossil fishes of Monte Bolca. But for the present it is our purpose -rather to describe facts than to develop theories.[74] - -Near the town of Aix, the ancient capital of Provence, in the south -of France, is a group of strata, consisting chiefly of Conglomerate, -Marl, Gypsum, and Limestone, which has earned for itself no small fame -in the annals of Geology. Besides many curious relics of an extinct -vegetation, these strata yield also an abundance of Fossil Insects, -which emerge from the rocky bed in which they have slept for ages, with -a surprising freshness and a life-like reality. But the quarries of -Aix, like those of Monte Bolca, are chiefly famous for their Fossil -Fish. And in this case, too, as in the former, it would seem as if vast -multitudes had suddenly perished together from some mysterious cause, -and were then as suddenly entombed. They exhibit no mark of mechanical -violence: and yet they are found, not unfrequently, crowded together -as closely as they can fit, in every variety of position, on the same -slab of limestone. A good example of such a block is represented in our -woodcut. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Fossil Fish from Aix.] - -The White Chalk Rock of Sussex has been rendered classical to the -students of Geology by the skilful and laborious researches of the late -Doctor Mantell. Previous to his time the Fish of the Chalk were known -only by their teeth and bones, which abounded in every quarry. But he -succeeded in bringing to light many whole skeletons, and disengaging -them without injury from their chalky envelopment. In many cases these -Fossil Fish appear to have suffered little from compression: the body -still retains its rounded form; and even the most delicate scales and -fins are as little disturbed or distorted as if the original had been -surrounded by soft Plaster of Paris while floating in the water. For -many years Doctor Mantell devoted himself, with indefatigable zeal, -to the gathering of these interesting remains; and his magnificent -collection now adorns the Galleries of the British Museum. In the -annexed illustration is figured a specimen belonging to one of the -most abundant species. It is closely allied to the common perch; and -is popularly called Johnny Dory by the quarrymen of Sussex, but is -entitled Beryx Lewesiensis by the learned.[75] - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Beryx Lewesiensis, from the Chalk, near Lewes.] - -From Fossil Fish we now turn to Fossil Reptiles. Many of our readers -have, perhaps, heard or read something about an important group of -rocks known by the name of the Lias. This formation is well developed -in England, and has received much attention from Geologists. It -stretches in a belt of varying width from Whitby on the coast of -Yorkshire to Lyme Regis on the coast of Dorsetshire; passing in its -course through the counties of Leicester, Warwick, Gloucester, and -Somerset. It is composed chiefly of Limestone, Marl, and Clay; and is -celebrated for the number and size of its great Fossil Reptiles. Of -these the most remarkable is the Ichthyosaurus or Fish-like Lizard. - -This monster of the ancient seas combined, as its name denotes, the -essential characters of a reptile with the form and habits of a fish. -No such creature has been known to exist within historic times; -nevertheless, all the various parts of its complicated structure -have their analogies, more or less perfect, in the present creation. -It had the head of a Lizard, the beak of a Porpoise, the teeth of a -Crocodile, the back bone of a Fish, and the paddles of a Whale. In -length it sometimes exceeded thirty feet; it had a short thick neck, -an enormous stomach, a long and powerful tail. This last appendage, -together with four great paddles or fins, constituted the chief organs -of motion. But of all its parts the head was perhaps the most wonderful -and characteristic. In the larger species the jaws were six feet long, -and were armed with two rows of conical sharp-pointed teeth,--a hundred -below, a hundred and ten above. The cavities in which the eyes were set -measured often fourteen inches across, and the eyeballs themselves must -have been larger than a man’s head. - -Now what we want particularly to impress upon our readers is, that -the remains of this singular aquatic reptile abound throughout the -whole extent of the Lias Formation in England. Far down below the -surface of the earth they are found embedded in the marls, and clays, -and limestones of Dorsetshire, and Gloucester, and Warwick, and -Leicester, and Yorkshire. Sometimes whole skeletons are found entire, -with scarcely a single bone removed from the place it occupied during -life; but more frequently the scattered fragments are found lying -about in a state of confused disorder; skulls, and jaw-bones, and -teeth, and paddles, and the joints of the vertebral column and of the -tail. The neighborhood of Lyme Regis is a perfect cabinet of these -curious treasures. In some of the specimens there exhumed, a singular -circumstance has been observed, which is deserving of special notice. -We should naturally have expected, from the prodigious power of this -animal, from the expansion of his jaws and the immense size of his -stomach, that he preyed upon the other fish and reptiles that had the -misfortune to inhabit the waters in which he lived. And so indeed it -was. For here enclosed within his vast ribs, in the place that once was -his stomach, are still preserved the remains of his half-digested food; -and amidst the débris we can distinguish the bones and scales of his -victims. Nay, in some of the more colossal specimens of this ancient -monster, we can distinctly recognize the remains of his own smaller -brethren; which, though less frequent than the bones of fishes, are -still sufficiently numerous to prove that, when he wanted to appease -his hunger, he did not even spare the less powerful members of his own -species.[76] - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Ichthyosaurus Platyodon. Museum of Trinity -College, Dublin. Found in the Lias of Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Ichthyosaurus Communis. Museum of Trinity -College, Dublin. Found in the Lias of Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire.] - -It is with facts like these, which are revealed by the Crust of the -Earth all over the world, that Geologists are called upon to deal. When -they meet with skeletons and bones such as we have been describing, -buried deep in the hard rock, hundreds of feet beneath the green grass, -and the waving corn, they cannot help but ask the question: Where did -these creatures come from? When did they live? And by what revolutions -were they embedded here, and lifted up from beneath the waters of the -deep? - -In the same formation are found the remains of another ancient -reptile, called the Plesiosaurus, that is to say, nearly allied to -the Lizard. Of this extraordinary monster Cuvier observed that its -structure was the most singular and anomalous that, up to his time, -had been discovered amid the ruins of the ancient world. It is -chiefly distinguished from the Ichthyosaurus, to which it has no small -affinity, by the enormous length of its neck, which, in some species, -resembles the body of a serpent. Dr. Buckland tells us that in the -Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus the neck is longer than the trunk; the one -being five times, the other only four times, as long as the head. Our -illustration, for which we are indebted to the kindness of Doctor -Haughton, represents a fine specimen of Plesiosaurus Cramptonii, which -was found in the Lias Beds of Kettleness, near Whitby, in Yorkshire, -and which is now a prominent object in the Museum of the Royal Dublin -Society. - -The habits and character of the Plesiosaurus have been thus sketched -out by Mr. Conybeare:--“That it was aquatic is evident, from the form -of its paddles; that it was marine is almost equally so, from the -remains with which it is universally associated; that it may have -occasionally visited the shore, the resemblance of its extremities to -those of the turtle may lead us to conjecture. Its motion, however, -must have been very awkward on land; its long neck must have impeded -its progress through the water; presenting a striking contrast to the -organization which so admirably fits the Ichthyosaurus to cut through -the waves. May it not therefore be concluded (since, in addition to -these circumstances, its respiration must have required frequent access -of air), that it swam upon or near the surface; arching back its long -neck like the swan, and occasionally darting it down at the fish which -happened to float within its reach. It may perhaps have lurked in shoal -water along the coast concealed among the sea-weed, and raising its -nostrils to a level with the surface from a considerable depth, may -have found a secure retreat from the assaults of dangerous enemies; -while the length and flexibility of its neck may have compensated for -the want of strength in its jaws, and its incapacity for swift motion -through the water, by the suddenness and agility of the attack which -they enabled it to make on every animal fitted for its prey, which came -within its reach.”[77] - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Plesiosaurus Cramptonii. Museum of the Royal -Dublin Society.] - -The Pampas of South America are not less famous in Geology for the -remains of Gigantic quadrupeds, than the Lias of England for its -colossal marine reptiles. These vast undulating plains, which present -to the eye for nine hundred miles a waving sea of grass, consist -chiefly of stratified beds of gravel and reddish mud; and it is in -these beds that the remains of many unshapely but powerful terrestrial -animals have been found embedded. So abundant are they, that it is said -a line drawn in any direction through the country would cut through -some skeleton or bones. Indeed, Mr. Darwin is of opinion that the whole -area of the Pampas is one wide sepulchre of these extinct animals. -It will be enough for our purpose to describe one in particular, -which, from its prodigious bulk, has received the appropriate name of -Megatherium, or the Great Wild Beast. - -The Megatherium, like the Ichthyosaurus and the Plesiosaurus, had -many affinities with the existing creation. In its head and shoulders -it resembled the sloth which still browses on the green foliage of -the trees in the dense forests of South America; while in its legs -and feet it combined the characteristics of the Ant-Eater and the -Armadillo. But it was eminently distinguished from these and all the -other modern representatives of the family to which it belonged by -its colossal proportions. It was often twelve feet long and eight -feet high; its fore-feet were a yard in length and twelve inches in -breadth, terminating in gigantic claws; its haunches were five feet -wide, and its thigh bone was three times as big as that of the largest -elephant. “His entire frame,” as Dr. Buckland has admirably observed -and carefully demonstrated, “was an apparatus of colossal mechanism, -adapted exactly to the work it had to do; strong and ponderous, in -proportion as this work was heavy, and calculated to be the vehicle of -life and enjoyment to a gigantic race of quadrupeds, which, though they -have ceased to be counted among the living inhabitants of our planet, -have, in their fossil bones, left behind them imperishable monuments -of the consummate skill with which they were constructed,--each limb, -and fragment of a limb, forming co-ordinate parts of a well adjusted -and perfect whole; and through all their deviations from the form and -proportions of the limbs of other quadrupeds, affording fresh proofs -of the infinitely varied and inexhaustible contrivances of Creative -Wisdom.” - -“This Leviathan of the Pampas, as it has been justly called, became -first known in Europe toward the close of the last century. In the year -1789 a skeleton was dug up, almost entire, about three miles southwest -of Buenos Ayres, and was presented by the Marquis of Loreto to the -Royal Museum at Madrid, where it still remains. Since that time other -specimens, besides numerous fragments, have been discovered, chiefly -through the zeal and energy of Sir Woodbine Parish; by the aid of which -the form, structure, and consequently the habits of this clumsy and -ponderous animal have been fully ascertained. The complete skeleton -which forms so prominent an object of attraction in the British Museum, -and which is represented in the woodcut on the adjoining page, is -only a model; but it has been constructed with great care from the -original bones, some of which are to be found in the wall-cases of the -same room, and others in the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of -Surgeons.”[78] - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--The Megatherium. From the British Museum. -Length 12 feet; Height 8 feet.] - -Closely allied to the Megatherium, but somewhat less colossal in its -dimensions, is the Mylodon. Its remains are found associated with those -of the Megatherium and other great animals of the same family, in -the superficial gravels of South America. A splendid specimen, which -measures eleven feet from the fore part of the skull to the end of the -tail, was dug up, in the year 1841, a few miles north of Buenos Ayres. -It is well figured in the adjoining woodcut, which we reproduce, by -kind permission of the Author, from Dr. Haughton’s admirable Manual of -Geology. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Mylodon Robustus, from Buenos Ayres.] - -Passing from the petrified fish, and the reptiles, and the quadrupeds, -that thus come forth, as it were, from their graves to bring us tidings -of an extinct creation, we must next turn our attention for a moment to -Fossil Shells. These relics of the ancient world, which are scattered -with profuse abundance through all the strata of the Earth’s Crust, -may seem, indeed, of little value to the careless observer; but to -the practised eye of science they are full of instruction. They have -been aptly called the Medals of Creation; for, stamped upon their -surface they bear the impress of the age to which they belong; and they -constitute the largest, we may say, perhaps, the most valuable part of -those unwritten records from which the Geologist seeks to gather the -ancient history of our Globe. - -As regards the prodigious abundance of Fossil Shells preserved in -the Crust of the Earth, it is unnecessary for us here to speak. We -have already seen that the great mass of many limestone formations is -composed almost exclusively of such remains, broken up into minute -fragments, and more or less altered by chemical agency; and besides, -there are quarries within the reach of all, where they may collect -at pleasure these interesting relics of the olden time. But there -are one or two facts of peculiar significance connected with Fossil -Shells, which it may be useful briefly to set down. In the first place, -we would remind our readers that there is a marked and well-known -difference between the shells of those animals that can live only in -the sea, of those that inhabit rivers, and of those, finally, that -frequent the brackish waters of estuaries. Now it has been made clear -beyond all reasonable doubt, by the explorations of Geologists, that -sea-shells abound in great numbers far away from the present line -of coast, in the heart of vast continents. And they are found, not -merely on the surface, but buried deep in the Crust of the Earth, and -overlaid, in many cases, by numerous strata of solid rock, thousands -of feet in thickness. It is also to be observed that they occur at -all heights above the level of the ocean; having been discovered at an -elevation of eight thousand feet in the Pyrenees, ten thousand in the -Alps, thirteen thousand in the Andes, and above eighteen thousand in -the Himalaya.[79] Such are the phenomena which are constantly forcing -themselves on the attention of the Geologist, and which involve a -number of problems that he cannot help attempting to investigate and -explain. He is instinctively impelled to ask himself, how can the -shells of marine animals have come to exist so far away from the sea? -how have they been buried in the Crust of the Earth? how have they been -lifted up to the highest pinnacles of lofty mountains? - -Our subterranean exploration would be incomplete if it did not -illustrate the Vegetable as well as the Animal Life of the ancient -world. Let the reader then descend in fancy into the celebrated -quarries of Portland on the south coast of England, and he will see -the fossilized remains of a long past vegetation exhibited in a -very striking manner. In one, of these quarries a vertical section, -extending from the surface downward to the depth of about thirty feet, -presents the following succession of strata arranged in horizontal -layers:--first, a light covering of vegetable soil, beneath which are -thin beds of cream-colored limestone, forming a stratum of solid rock -ten feet thick; then a bed of dark-brown loam, mixed with rounded -fragments of stone, and varying in thickness from twelve to eighteen -inches. This is known to the quarrymen by the name of Dirt-bed, and -seems, in former ages, to have supported a luxuriant vegetation; for -all around are scattered the petrified fragments of an ancient forest. -The prostrate stems and shattered branches of great trees are met at -every step; but what is most striking and peculiar is, that, in many -cases, the petrified stumps are still standing erect, with their roots -fixed in the thin stratum of loam, and their trunks stretching upward -into the hard limestone rock. Immediately below the Dirt-bed is another -thick stratum of limestone, and below this again is a stratum of the -famous Portland stone, so highly prized for building purposes. As the -quarries of Portland are worked chiefly for the sake of this building -stone, little attention is paid to the Dirt-bed and its contents, which -are commonly thrown aside by the quarrymen as rubbish. - -[Illustration: Vegetable soil. - -Fresh-water Limestone. - -Clay. - -Laminated fresh-water Limestone. - -Dirt-bed with fossil trees and plants. - -Fresh-water Limestone. - -Bed of Clay. - -Portland building-stone full of marine shells. - -Fig. 23.--Section of a Quarry in the Island of Portland. Total -thickness about thirty feet.] - -The scene of this petrified forest is thus described by Doctor -Mantell:--“On one of my visits to the island the surface of a large -area of the Dirt-bed was cleared preparatory to its removal, and the -appearance presented was most striking. The floor of the quarry was -literally strewn with fossil wood, and before me was a petrified -forest, the trees and plants, like the inhabitants of the city in -Arabian story, being converted into stone, yet still remaining -in the places which they occupied when alive! Some of the trunks -were surrounded by a conical mound of calcareous earth, which had, -evidently, when in the state of mud, accumulated round the roots. The -upright trunks were generally a few feet apart, and but three or four -feet high; their summits were broken and splintered, as if they had -been snapped or wrenched off by a hurricane at a short distance from -the ground. Some were two feet in diameter, and the united fragments -of one of the prostrate trunks indicated a total length of from thirty -to forty feet; in many specimens portions of the branches remained -attached to the stem.”[80] - -The Coal Measures of Europe and America offer to the student of Geology -a boundless field for the investigation of Fossil Plants and Trees. -We have already had occasion to notice the Sigillaria. This ancient -tree, remarkable for its beautiful sculptured stem, has no exact -representative in the vegetable kingdom of the present day. But it -abounds everywhere in the Coal Measures; and there seems little doubt -that several great seams of Coal are composed almost entirely of its -carbonized remains. Indeed the ancient soil, which commonly constitutes -the floor on which the bed of Coal reposes, is often as thickly crowded -with the branching roots of the Sigillaria, as the soil of a dense -forest with the roots of the trees by which it is covered. The stem -itself, when converted into Coal, generally assumes the form of long -narrow slabs; having been flattened by pressure during the process of -mineralization. Sometimes, however, it is found uncompressed and erect. -In this case the interior of the trunk is usually observed to have been -filled up with sand or clay: and thus the forest tree, still retaining -its external shape and character, is transformed into a cylindrical -shell of carbonized bark without, and a solid cylinder of sandstone or -shale within. An interesting example is exhibited in our illustration, -Figure 11. - -Every Coal mine, too, is adorned with the imprint of the graceful Fern, -which constitutes one of the most attractive features in the Flora of -the ancient world. Not unfrequently it assumes a tree-like character, -as it often does even now in tropical countries; and then, indeed, it -is an object of striking beauty, reaching to a height of forty or fifty -feet, and expanding at the summit into an elegant canopy of foliage. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Calamites Nodosus. From the Coal Measures of -Newcastle.] - -The Calamite is another plant in which the Coal abounds. Its true -botanical character is not yet clearly ascertained; but it bears a -general resemblance, except for its gigantic dimensions, to the common -Horse-tail of our swamps and marshy grounds. It is a reed-like, jointed -stem, sometimes thirty feet in length, hollow within, and curiously -jointed without. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Lepidodendron Sternbergii; a Fossil Tree, 39 -feet high. From a Coal Mine near Newcastle.] - -Scarcely less conspicuous than the Sigillaria, the Fern, and the -Calamite, is the Lepidodendron or Scaly Tree, one of the most curious -and interesting among the plants of the Coal-bearing period. Like the -Sigillaria and the Calamite, it has been, and still is, a puzzle to -the student of Botany. But it needs not the eye of science to see that -it is unmistakably a stately forest tree, shut up in the Crust of the -Earth, encased in a solid framework of indurated Shale, or Sandstone, -or Coal, as the case may be, and overlaid with massive strata of rock -hundreds of feet in thickness. Such a specimen as that represented -in our woodcut was laid bare some years ago in Yarrow Colliery, near -Newcastle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26 Lepidodendron Elegans. Portion of Stem and -branches; Coal Mine, Newcastle.] - -In the same neighborhood was found a portion of the stem and branches -of another variety, Lepidodendron Elegans, which will enable the reader -to form a more complete idea of the appearance presented by this -ancient tree as it stood in its primeval forest. - -An unusually favorable illustration of our present subject may be -seen at the colliery of Treuil, in France, not far from the city of -Lyons. The beds of Coal are overlaid by a kind of slaty sandstone, -ten feet thick; and this sandstone is traversed by the vertical stems -of enormous petrified plants, chiefly Calamites. Here, then, to all -appearance, we have an ancient forest enveloped in sandstone. We must -suppose that the forest was submerged while the trees were still erect; -that in this condition it received the sedimentary deposits carried -down by the current of some great river; and finally, that these -deposits were, in the course of ages, compacted into sandstone by a -process already explained. It would seem that after the sandstone had -been partially, at least, consolidated, it was subjected to a sliding -movement here and there, by which the continuity of the stems was -broken; the upper part being pushed on one side, as shown in our Figure. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Section of a Coal sandstone at Treuil, near -Lyons. Showing the erect position of Fossil Trees. (Alex. Brongniart.)] - -It is time we should bring to a close our survey, meagre and imperfect -as it is, of Fossil Remains. Those who desire to pursue the inquiry -for themselves will easily find an opportunity of doing so. There are -few, we should suppose, who may not, occasionally, have access to one -or other of those splendid Museums of Geology, which have been set up -in all the great towns of Europe. And the still more extensive cabinets -of Nature’s Museum, spread out beneath our feet, are within the reach -of all. - -But even the scanty facts which have been set forth faithfully, we -trust, though perhaps feebly, in these pages, are sufficient to satisfy -all reasonable minds that the bones, the skeletons, the trunks and -branches of trees, which have been exhumed from the Stratified Rocks -are really the remains of Organic Life that once flourished on the -earth, or in the waters of the ancient seas. Obvious, however, as this -fact must appear to all who have fully realized the character and -appearance of Fossil Remains, it has been often vigorously assailed and -vehemently denounced. In the early days of Geology phenomena of this -kind were ascribed, not uncommonly, to the “plastic power of Nature,” -or to the influence of the stars. Such notions, however, meet with -little support among modern writers. They were nothing more than wild -fancies, without any foundation either in the evidence of facts or -in the analogy of Nature. The “plastic power of Nature” was a phrase -that sounded well, perhaps, in the ears of unreflecting people; but no -one ever undertook to show that Nature really possesses that “plastic -power” which was so readily imputed to her. No one ever undertook to -show that it is the way of Nature to make the stems, and branches, -and leaves of trees, without the previous process of vegetation; or -to make bones and skeletons which have never been invested with the -ordinary appendages of flesh and blood. Yet surely this is a theory -that requires proof; for all our experience of the laws of Nature -points directly to the opposite conclusion. And as for the influence of -the stars, we may be content to adopt the language of the celebrated -painter Leonardo da Vinci:--“They tell us that these shells were -formed in the hills by the influence of the stars; but I ask where -in the hills are the stars now forming shells of distinct ages and -species? and how can the stars explain the origin of gravel occurring -at different heights and composed of pebbles rounded as if by the -action of running water? or in what manner can such a cause account for -the petrifaction in the same places of various leaves, sea-weeds, and -marine crabs?”[81] - -In modern times the form of objection has been somewhat changed. We -are told by some writers that, when we seek to explain the existence -of Fossil Remains by the action of natural laws, we seem to forget the -Omnipotence of God. They urge upon us, with much solemnity, that He -could have made bones, and shells, and skeletons, and petrified wood, -though there had been no living animal to which these bones belonged, -and no living tree that had been changed into stone. And if He made -them, might He not disperse them up and down through His creation, on -the lofty mountains, in the hidden valleys, and in the profound depths -of the sea? and buried them in limestone rocks and in the soft clay? -and arranged them in groups, or scattered them in wild confusion as He -best pleased? - -To this line of argument we must be content to reply, that we have no -wish to limit the power of God. But we have learned from our daily -experience that in the physical world He is pleased to employ the -agency of secondary causes; and when we know that for many ages a -certain effect has been uniformly produced by a certain cause, and not -otherwise, then if we again see the effect, we infer the cause. When -a traveller in the untrodden wilds of Western America, comes upon a -forest of great trees, or a herd of unknown animals, surely he never -thinks of supposing that the wild beasts and the forest trees came -directly from the hand of the Creator, in that state of maturity in -which he beholds them. And why? for it might be argued that the power -of God is unbounded, and he might have created them as they now are -if He had so pleased. Is it not that the traveller is impelled, by an -instinct of his nature, to interpret the works of God which he now -sees for the first time, according to the analogy of those with which -he has been long familiar? Now this is just the principle for which we -are contending. According to all our experience of the works of God -in the physical world, the living body comes first, and the skeleton -afterward; the living tree comes first, and afterward the prostrate -trunk and the splintered branches. Therefore when we meet with a -skeleton, we conclude that it was once a living body; and when we find -the petrified stems, and branches, and leaves of trees, we have no -doubt that they are the remains of an ancient vegetation. - -But, in truth, if any one, with all the facts of the case fully before -his mind, were deliberately to adopt this theory, that Fossils, as -we find them now, were created by God in the Crust of the Earth, we -candidly confess we have no argument that we should think likely to -shake his conviction; just as we should be utterly at a loss if he -were to say that the Pyramids of Egypt, or the colossal sculptures -of Nineveh, or the ruins of Baalbec, were created by God from the -beginning. The evidence of human workmanship is certainly not more -clear in the one case than is the evidence of animal and vegetable -life in the other. We believe, however, that no such persons are -to be found; that theories of this kind have their origin, not so -much in false reasoning, as in imperfect knowledge of facts; and we -have, therefore, judged it most expedient not to spend our time in a -discussion of philosophical axioms, but to set forth the facts, and -leave them to speak for themselves. - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER XII._ - -GEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY--PRINCIPLES OF THE SYSTEM EXPLAINED AND DEVELOPED. - - _Significance of fossil remains--Science of - Palæontology--Classification of existing animal - life--Fossil remains are found to fit in with this - classification--Succession of organic life--Time in Geology not - measured by years and centuries--Successive periods marked by - successive forms of life--The Geologist aims at arranging these - periods in chronological order--Position of the various groups - of strata not sufficient for this purpose--It is accomplished - chiefly through the aid of fossil remains--Mode of proceeding - practically explained--Chronological table._ - - -The existence of Fossil Remains is, then, a fact. Go where you will -through the civilized world, and every chief town has its Museum, into -which they have been gathered by the zeal and industry of man; descend -where you can into the Crust of the Earth,--the quarry, the mine, -the railway cutting,--and there, notwithstanding the plunder which -has been going on for two centuries or more, you will find that the -inexhaustible cabinets of Nature are still teeming with these remains -of ancient life. - -When we are brought, for the first time, face to face with these -countless relics of a former world, we are impressed with a sense of -wonder and bewilderment. That the skeletons before us, though now dry -and withered, were once animated with the breath of life; that the -trees now lying shattered and prostrate, and shorn of their branches, -once flourished on the earth, we cannot for a moment hesitate to -believe. But beyond this one fact, all is darkness and mystery. These -gaunt skeletons, these uncouth monsters, these petrified forests, are -silent, lifeless, as the rocks within whose stony bosoms they have -lain so long entombed. Had they speech and memory, they could tell us -much, no doubt, of that ancient world in which they bore a part, of -its continents, and seas, and rivers, and mountains; of the various -tribes of animals and plants by which it was peopled; of their habits -and domestic economy; how they lived, how they died, and how they -were buried in those graves from which, after the lapse of we know -not how many ages, they now come forth into the light of day. As it -is, however, we can but gaze and wonder. We have nothing here but the -relics of death and destruction: there is no feeling, no memory, no -voice, in these dry bones; no living tenant in these hollow skulls, to -recount to us the history of former times. - -So thinks and reasons the ordinary observer. But far different is the -language of the Geologist. These dry and withered bones, he tells us, -_are_ gifted with memory and speech; and, though the language they -speak may seem at first unfamiliar and obscure, it is not, on that -account, beyond our comprehension. Like the birds, reptiles, fish, and -other symbols, inscribed on the obelisks of ancient Egypt, these bones -and shells stored up in the Crust of the Earth, have a hidden meaning -which it is the business of Science to search out and explain. They are -Nature’s hieroglyphics, which she has impressed upon her works to carry -down to remote ages the memory of the revolutions through which our -Globe has passed; and when we come to understand them aright, they do -unfold to us the story of that ancient world to which they belonged. - -The interpretation of Fossil Remains is, then, an important department -of Geology. Of late years it has been admitted to the rank of a -special science, under the name of Palæontology, which means, as the -word denotes--παλαιῶν ὄντων λόγος--the science which is concerned -about the organic remains of ancient life. The honor of having been -the first to place this science on a solid basis, in fact we may say -the honor of having brought it into existence, is justly accorded to -the distinguished Cuvier, whose name shed a lustre upon France during -the early years of the present century. It is therefore still in its -infancy; but it has already rewarded the zeal of its students by many -wonderful and unexpected revelations. We purpose in the first place to -examine the principles on which it is founded, and then to take a rapid -glance at the conclusions to which it has led. - -At the outset it is worthy of notice that the very existence of Fossil -Remains, buried deep in the Crust of the Earth, forcibly confirms the -Geological theory of Stratified Rocks. These rocks, as the reader will -remember, are said to have been slowly spread out, one above another, -during the lapse of many ages, by the operation of natural causes; and -we have seen how this doctrine is supported by arguments founded on an -examination of the rocks themselves,--of the materials that compose -them, and of the way in which these materials are piled together. Now -let us observe how clearly the testimony of Fossil Remains seems to -point in the same direction. - -First, the bones and shells which we now find in such profusion, far -down beneath the superficial covering of the Earth, must have belonged -to animals which, when living, flourished on what was then the surface. -Yet now they are buried in the bosom of the hard rock, and covered over -with beds of solid limestone, and sandstone, and conglomerate, hundreds -and thousands of feet in thickness. How can we explain this fact, -unless we suppose that these animals, when they perished, were embedded -in some soft materials, which afterward became consolidated, and above -which, in the course of ages, more and more matter was deposited, until -at length that lofty pile of strata was produced, beneath which the -remains are now found buried? - -Again, it is part of our theory that the formation of Stratified Rocks -took place, for the most part, under water. The Organic Remains, -therefore, which we should naturally expect to find preserved in the -strata of the earth, would be those of aquatic animals; or, if the -remains of land animals were to be looked for, it should be of those -chiefly which live near the banks of rivers and estuaries, and which, -after death, might have been carried down by the current and buried in -the silt and mud with which almost all rivers are charged at certain -seasons of the year. We know as a fact that such animals are buried at -the present day in the Deltas of the Ganges and the Mississippi; and -it would be reasonable to suppose that the same should have occurred -in former ages. Now here again the evidence of Fossil Remains exactly -fits in with our theory. For the vast bulk of them are manifestly the -remains of animals that lived in water: and the terrestrial animals, -comparatively few, whose bones are preserved in the Crust of the Earth, -are such as frequent the banks of great rivers or the marshy swamps of -estuaries. - -Thus much we may learn even from a cursory glance at Fossil Remains. -But these curious monuments of ancient times have a deeper meaning, -which cannot be unfolded without a more minute and laborious -investigation. Our readers are aware that all the animals at present -existing on the face of the Earth have been scientifically grouped -together, according to certain well-marked characteristics, into -various Kingdoms, Classes, Genera, and Species. Thus, for example, the -horse and the dog are two different Species, belonging to the same -Class of Mammalia; the eagle and the sparrow are two different Species -of the same Class called Birds. Then again the Class of Mammalia and -the Class of Birds both belong to the one common Kingdom of Vertebrata; -because, though different in many other respects, they agree in this, -that all the members of both Classes have a vertebral or spinal column, -to which the other parts of the internal skeleton are attached. - -Now when Cuvier began to examine closely the Organic Remains of former -times, to which his attention was called by the bones dug up in the -gypsum quarries of Montmartre, near Paris, about the close of the last -century, he brought with him to the task a very large acquaintance with -the various forms of life that, in the present age, prevail throughout -the world. And he was greatly struck with the marked difference between -those living animals with which he had been long familiar, and those -with which he now became acquainted for the first time. The more -he extended his researches, the more manifest did this difference -appear; until at last it became quite clear that the great bulk of -the animals whose remains are preserved in the Crust of the Earth, -have no representatives now living on its surface. Nevertheless, he -observed that, though the Species no longer exists, it often happens -that we have still other Species of the same Genus; or if the Genus, -too, be extinct, we have other Genera of the same Class. Here, then, -is the first great truth at which Cuvier arrived, and which has been -since confirmed by extensive observations:--that the animals which -formerly dwelt on this Earth of ours, were, for the most part, widely -different from those by which it is now inhabited: and yet there is a -well-defined likeness between them; that both have been created on a -plan so strictly uniform, that the one and the other naturally find -their place in the same system of classification. - -As the science of Palæontology progressed, and new facts were day by -day accumulated, another truth, not less important, was gradually but -certainly developed. In the distribution of Fossil Remains through -the various strata of the Earth, there is a certain order observed, -a certain regular law of succession, which cannot have been the mere -result of chance, and which it is the business of science to unravel -and explain. The facts are these. If we follow a particular set of -strata _in a horizontal direction_, we find that the same fossils -continue to prevail over hundreds of square miles, nay, often over a -space as large as Europe, though beyond certain limits this uniformity -of Fossil Remains will gradually be observed to disappear. But when we -penetrate _in a vertical direction_ through the strata, the forms of -animal and vegetable life that we meet with are constantly changing. -After a few hundred yards at the most, we find ourselves in the midst -of a group of fossils, altogether different from those which we have -passed in the beds above: and so on, as we proceed downward, _each -particular set of strata is found to have an assemblage of fossils -peculiar to itself_.[82] - -There can be no reasonable doubt as to the truth of these facts. They -have been established and confirmed by the positive testimony of a -whole host of Geologists, whose researches have extended to all parts -of the globe. And we have besides a kind of negative evidence on the -subject which is scarcely less convincing than the positive. Nothing -is more easy than to refute a universal proposition if it is false. If -it is not a fact that each group of strata, as we proceed downward, -exhibits a collection of Fossils peculiar to itself, the assertion may -be at once disproved by pointing out two or three different groups -with the same Fossils. There are thousands of practical Geologists at -work all over the world, eager for fame; and any one of them would -make his name illustrious if he could overturn a theory so generally -received. Now, when a statement of facts can be easily disproved if -untrue; and when, at the same time, there is a large number of men -whose interest it would be to disprove the statement if possible; -and when it is nevertheless _not_ disproved; this circumstance, we -contend, is a convincing argument that the alleged facts _are_ true. -And such precisely is the case before us. We therefore think it would -be unreasonable not to accept the facts. - -Let us next examine what is their significance. Each group of strata, -be it remembered, represents to us the animal life that flourished -on the Earth during the period in which that particular group was -in progress of formation. It is, as it were, a cabinet in which are -preserved for our instruction certain relics or memorials of that age -in the world’s history. Of course it is not a perfect collection; but -only a collection of those remains that chanced to escape destruction, -and by some natural embalming process to be saved from dissolution. -When we learn, then, that there is a marked uniformity in the -assemblage of Fossils that are spread over a large horizontal area, in -any group of strata, we conclude that, when that group was in course -of formation, there was a certain uniformity in the animal life that -extended over the corresponding area of the globe; just as, at the -present day, the same species of animals are found to flourish over -a great part of Europe, or America. And if this uniformity of Fossil -Remains does not extend horizontally to an indefinite distance, this is -precisely what we should have expected from the analogy of the existing -creation: for, when we examine the present distribution of animal life -over the earth, we find a marked diversity to exist between countries -that are removed from one another; as, for instance, between Europe and -Australia. - -In the next place, we are told that, as we proceed _downward_ into the -Crust of the Earth, each successive group of strata has an assemblage -of Fossils clearly distinct in character from those of the group above -and of the group below. The conclusion to which this fact points is -obvious enough. If, in the former case, we inferred that the animal -life of any one period, considered in itself, was the same over -extensive areas, in this case we must infer that the animal life of -each successive period was _peculiar to that particular age_; being -altogether distinct in its character from the animal life of the period -that went before and of the period that followed. It would appear, -therefore, as Sir Charles Lyell puts it, “that from the remotest -period there has been ever a coming in of new organic forms, and an -extinction of those which pre-existed on the earth; some species having -endured for a longer, others for a shorter time; while none have ever -reappeared after once dying out.”[83] - -Now, from these principles, Geologists have been gradually led to build -up a system of Geological Chronology; in other words, to determine the -order of time in which the numerous groups of strata that make up the -Crust of the Earth have been formed, and thus to fix the age of each -group in reference to the rest. This Chronology is not reckoned by the -common measures of time which are used in history, but rather by the -successive periods during which each group of rocks was in its turn -slowly deposited on the existing surface of the globe. For example, -the Coal-measures that so abound in the North of England are very much -older than the bluish clay of which London is built. But if we ask -what is the difference between the age of the one and of the other, -the answer is given not in days and years and centuries, but in the -number of different Formations that intervened between the two. We are -told that the Coal-measures belong to the Carboniferous Formation; -that this Formation was followed by the Permian, and that again in -succession by the Triassic, the Jurassic, and the Cretaceous; and that, -upon this last was spread out the Eocene, to which the London clay -belongs. Indeed, as regards the precise length of any given period, -Geologists can offer nothing but the wildest conjectures. Some form -their estimates in thousands of years; others in millions. And the -wisest amongst them fairly confess they have no sufficient data to -make an accurate computation. Nevertheless, they are all agreed in -this, that the ages of which the memory is preserved in history, that -is to say, the last six thousand years, are but a small part of one -Geological period. Compared to the voluminous chronicles laid up in the -Crust of the Earth, the records inscribed by human hands constitute but -an insignificant fraction of the world’s history. Our readers will be -glad to learn something of the way in which this startling system of -Geological Chronology is constructed and developed. - -At first sight, perhaps, it might be imagined that the order of time -in which the various strata were deposited, can be easily learned from -the relative position in which they lie. Since each stratum, when first -produced, was spread out on the existing surface of the globe, it is -clear that the one which lies uppermost in the series must be the -newest, then that which lies next below, and so on till we reach the -lowest of the pile, which must be the oldest of all. Nothing could be -more satisfactory than this reasoning, if each stratum was spread out -over the whole Earth, and if, after having been once deposited, it was -never afterward removed. We might then regard each stratum as a volume -in the Natural History of the Globe, which, when it was finished, was -laid down upon that which contained the chronicles of the preceding -age; and thus the position of every stratum would be in itself a -sufficient evidence of the age to which it belonged. - -But such is not the case. Nowhere does the Crust of the Earth exhibit -a complete series of the Stratified Rocks laid out one above another. -In any given section we can find but a few only of the long series of -groups that are familiar to Geologists. And if we follow them on, in a -horizontal direction, we shall invariably find that some of the strata -will _thin out_ and disappear, while new strata will gradually be -developed between two groups that were before in immediate contact. Let -it be observed, in passing, that this fact fits in most perfectly with -the theory we have been all along defending. The Stratified Rocks were -deposited under water; therefore, the strata of any given period were -not _spread out over the whole Globe_, but at most over those parts -only which, for the time, were submerged. With the next period came a -change in the boundaries of land and water; and the formation of strata -ceased in some localities and began in others: and so on from epoch to -epoch. Thus the areas over which the process has been going on, have -been, in every age, of limited extent, and have been ever shifting -from place to place over the surface of the earth. Moreover, there is -the opposite process of Denudation. Many of the strata deposited in -the depths of the ocean must have been afterward swept away by the -breakers, as they slowly emerged from the waters; or at a later time, -reduced to their original elements, and carried back to the sea, by the -action of rivers, rain, and frost. It should seem, therefore, as well -from the _fact_, which is obvious to any one who will examine it, as -from our _theory_, which harmonizes so completely with the fact, that -the strata which we meet with in any given section of the Earth’s Crust -present to us but a very broken and imperfect series of monuments. They -are, as it were, but odd volumes of a long series, and though they lie -in juxtaposition, they may belong, nevertheless, to Geological epochs -widely removed from each other. - -Hence, in order to construct a complete system of Geological -Chronology it is necessary to collect together these odd volumes, as -they may be called, of the Great Geological Calendar, and to assign to -each one its proper place in the series. This difficult and complicated -task is accomplished chiefly by the aid of Fossil Remains. We have -already shown that the Fossil Remains which are found embedded in -each group of strata, represent the organic life of the period during -which that group of strata was in progress of formation. Moreover, -we have seen that each period was marked by the existence of an -animal and vegetable creation peculiar to itself. If, therefore, we -find that the Fossils of two different districts exhibit the same -general character, we may conclude that the beds in which they are -preserved were deposited about the same age, and consequently belong -to the same Geological Period. Whereas, on the other hand, if, within -certain limits, we discover two groups of strata, each of which has -a collection of Fossils totally different from the other, it is a -proof that these two groups were _not_ deposited in the same age, and -must, consequently, be referred to different Epochs of the Geological -Calendar. Let us now see in what manner the practical Geologist -proceeds to apply these general principles. - -He takes first some one country, say England, and in that country he -selects some one particular district to begin with. Here he examines -a number of different sections, and makes himself familiar with all -the strata of the neighborhood, and with the order in which they lie. -Let us suppose that he finds three different groups spread out one -above another, and let us call these groups A, B, and C; A being the -lowest, B immediately above A, and C above B. The chronological order -of these strata will be, therefore, A, B, C. He will study next the -Fossil Remains which he finds embedded in each group. For convenience -we may designate the Fossils of A by the letter a, those of B by b, -and those of C by c. Now, according to the principles above explained, -these three collections of Fossils will be specifically distinct from -one another, each collection being characteristic of one particular set -of strata. Our Geologist next goes into a neighboring district, and -there examines a number of sections as before. Let us suppose that he -encounters again the groups A and B. He may, perhaps, have been able -to trace the beds from one district to the other, by observations made -upon his line of route: or it may be that the nature of the country -has rendered such observations impossible; or the observations may -have been so imperfect that from _them_ he could arrive at no certain -conclusion regarding the identity of the strata. But, at all events, if -the new district yield an abundant supply of Fossils, he cannot long -be at a loss. He will recognize the group A by the Fossils a, and the -group B by the Fossils b. An important fact, however, soon attracts his -attention. Group C has entirely disappeared, and is not to be found in -this district; while between A and B there is a new group of rocks that -he has not seen before, with a collection of Fossils different from a, -b, and c. We will call this new group X, and its Fossils x. It is clear -that the formation of X must have intervened between the formation of -A and B; and the chronological order now stands A, X, B, C. In like -manner another district may disclose a fourth group of strata, say Y, -intervening between B and C. The chronological order will then stand A, -X, B, Y, C. And thus the Geologist pursues his explorations until he -has gone through the whole country, and arranged the principal groups -of strata according to the order of time in which they were deposited. - -In this way the whole of England has been minutely explored during the -last half century. The task was first undertaken by William Smith, -who is justly called the Father of English Geology. After multiplied -researches, extending over a space of many years, during which he -travelled the whole country on foot, this eminent man published in -1815 his Geological Map of England and Wales with part of Scotland; a -work which is described by Sir Charles Lyell as “a lasting monument of -original talent and extraordinary perseverance.” Hundreds followed in -the same course, exploring every day new districts, and, by the new -facts which they brought to light, supplying what was wanting in the -work of Smith, correcting what was faulty, and confirming what was -true; until at length, in our day, it may be said that the Stratified -Rocks of England are almost as well known and as completely mapped out -as are its counties and its towns, its rivers, lakes, and mountains. - -Meanwhile, Geologists were not idle in other parts of the world. -Germany, France, Italy, even many districts of America and -Australia, have been diligently explored according to the same -principles as England. And by a comparison of the observations -made, the Chronological order of strata over a considerable part -of the Earth, but more particularly of Europe, has been now pretty -fairly ascertained. This order we have attempted to set forth in an -intelligible and sensible form by means of the table here annexed. - -In the Woodcut are represented the strata hitherto examined by -Geologists, laid out one above another, according to the order of time -in which they are supposed to have been produced. The whole series -is divided into a number of Formations, the names of which are given -in the first column, together with an approximate estimate of their -thickness, in feet. These Formations are distinguished from each other -in the drawing by a difference of shading. Each of them, according -to Geological theory, is believed to have come into existence by the -accumulation of solid matter at the bottom of the sea; and the Period -of time occupied in its production is usually designated by the -same name as the Formation itself. Thus we read of the Carboniferous -Formation and the Carboniferous Period: by the former phrase is meant -certain groups of strata contemporaneously deposited over various parts -of the Earth’s surface; and by the latter, the Period of time during -which these groups of strata were spread out. In like manner, when we -hear of the Carboniferous Fauna and Flora, we are to understand the -animal and vegetable life that flourished during the Carboniferous -Period. And again, when Geologists talk of the Cretaceous sea, and tell -us that it rolled over a great part of what is now called Europe, they -mean to speak of that sea on the bottom of which the Cretaceous rocks -were deposited. - -[Illustration: TABLE OF STRATIFIED ROCKS, - -CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED.] - -Most of the Formations comprise various groups of strata; and these -groups are made up of different varieties of rocks, which are again -divided into layers or beds of varying thickness. Even in these beds -themselves we can often distinguish an indefinite number of laminæ or -plates, scarcely thicker than a sheet of paper, which correspond to -the periodical depositions of matter by which the rock was originally -formed. These numerous subdivisions may be conveniently illustrated -from the Carboniferous Formation. It is divided into two leading groups -of strata; the Mountain Limestone below, the Coal Measures above. The -upper group is the larger as well as the more important. It attains -a maximum thickness in South Wales of 12,000 feet; and consists of -numerous strata of Sandstone and Shale, with thin seams of Coal -occasionally interposed. In one remarkable instance a hundred distinct -layers of Coal, varying in thickness from six inches to ten feet, -have been counted in one Coal-field, each resting on a bed of Shale, -called in mining phraseology the Underclay. This Shale itself naturally -divides into an indefinite number of thin plates, just like the stratum -of mud accumulated by the annual inundations of the river Nile, and -constituting the present soil of Egypt. - -We have not attempted to represent in our Woodcut these various -divisions and subdivisions of Stratified Rocks. But the names of some -important and well-known groups we have had engraved, to impress more -vividly on the mind the place to which they are to be referred in the -Geological Calendar. Thus the reader may see at a glance the respective -ages of the Coal and the Chalk; of the Lias, in which are preserved the -remains of extinct gigantic reptiles, and the Glacial Drift, in which -the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus are found entombed; -of the Mountain Limestone, which is often nothing else than vast beds -of Coral uplifted from beneath the waters of the ocean, and the Oolite, -which includes the Portland quarries, where the petrified stems of -ancient forest trees are found standing erect in the solid rock. - -As the series of Stratified Rocks is divided by Geologists into a -certain number or systems or Formations, so these are again grouped -into still larger classes, called Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary; -that is to say, first, second, and third, in the order of formation. -These larger classes correspond to the Great Epochs or Ages of -Geological time, each comprising within itself many distinct Periods. -The Primary rocks are also called Palæozoic--παλαιὁν, ancient, and -ξῶον, an organic being--because they contain the oldest forms of -organic life: in like manner the term Mesozoic--μεσον, middle, and -ξῶον--is applied to the Secondary strata, inasmuch as they contain -the middle or intermediate forms of organic life: and the name -Kainozoic--χαινὁν, new, and ξῶον--is given to the Tertiary, which -contain the newest forms of organic life. - -The term Post-Tertiary has recently been adopted to designate those -superficial deposits which are subsequent to the Tertiary Age. They are -divided into two groups; the Recent, which corresponds with the period -of history, and the Post-Pliocene which precedes it. Some writers seem -to think that these deposits, being so very insignificant and so very -modern when compared with the long series of Stratified Rocks, are not -truly Geological. But this, we should say, is a mistaken view of the -question. It seems to us that even the minute layer of mud that is -deposited every day at the mouth of the Ganges or the Mississippi, is -linked on to the long chain of events which have brought the Crust of -the Earth into its present condition; and, therefore, truly belongs -to the science of Geology, and is deserving of its proper place in -Geological classification. - -We may here observe that the names of the great Geological Epochs are -descriptive names; that is to say, the obvious meaning of the words -corresponds to the character of the strata they are used to represent. -Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, mean First, Second, and Third, in the -order of formation: Palæozoic, Mesozoic, and Kainozoic, signify -that the strata so called are characterized by Ancient, Middle, and -Modern, forms of organic life. But it is very often quite otherwise -with the names of the several Formations: and this is a point of -no small importance to the student of Geology. These names must be -regarded simply _as names_ employed to designate the strata formed in -each successive period, and not exactly to describe their character. -They generally had their origin in some accidental circumstance, or -were derived from some particular locality; and afterward, being -perpetuated, gradually came to receive a much more extended application -than that which the words themselves would seem to suggest. Thus, for -instance, the Cretaceous Formation is so called from the remarkable -stratum of white chalk (creta) which was deposited during that period -over a great part of Europe; but it would be a mistake to suppose that -the whole Formation is made up of chalk. On the contrary, in different -localities it is composed of very different materials; near Dresden, -for example, it is a gray quartzose sandstone, and in many parts of the -Alps it is hard compact limestone.[84] Again, the Devonian Formation -derives its name from Devonshire, where the rocks of the Devonian -period were first minutely examined; but we must not therefore infer -that this Formation is peculiar to the county of Devon; it is to be -found in many other parts of England, also in Ireland, and on the -continent of Europe. So, too, another Formation has received the name -of Carboniferous, which literally means Coal-bearing (carbo fero) -because of the beds of Coal which are sometimes associated with its -strata; yet this Formation is often found quite destitute of Coal over -a very extensive area. - -In looking over our Table of strata the reader must have noticed that -the successive spaces in the Woodcut are not proportioned to the -actual thickness of the successive Formations for which they stand. -The Secondary and Tertiary Rocks taken together are scarcely one-third -as thick, in reality, as the Primary; yet they occupy an equal space -in the engraving: and, more remarkable still, the Cretaceous system -is allowed double the space of the Laurentian, though less than half -as thick. This circumstance calls for a passing word of explanation. -In the early annals of a country there is generally a great scarcity -of authentic records; and, from a simple dearth of facts, the history -of a whole century is compressed, not unfrequently, into a few -pages: whereas, in later times, when documentary evidence begins to -accumulate, the historians will often spread out the events of two or -three years over several chapters. Something of the same kind takes -place in Geology. The Fossil Remains, from which, as from authentic -documents, the Geologist chiefly derives his information regarding the -history of the Earth’s Crust, are scanty in the earlier Formations, -and abundant in the more recent. And thus it happens that the older -Geological Periods, notwithstanding the vast thickness of the rocks by -which they are represented, do not occupy a very prominent position -in the annals of Geology, and are compressed into a comparatively -insignificant space in its Tables. Nevertheless, the immense depth of -the earliest Stratified Rocks must be taken into account in any attempt -to estimate the comparative duration of the several Geological Periods. -We have, therefore, set down, under the name of each Formation, an -approximate estimate of its actual thickness, taken chiefly from the -works of Doctor Haughton and Sir Charles Lyell. - -Before bringing this chapter to an end we would observe that the -system of classification we have here endeavored to explain does not -pretend to be final and complete. It is, on the contrary, little -more than a temporary expedient to render intelligible the results -at which Geologists have hitherto arrived; and is liable to manifold -modifications in proportion as their acquaintance with the records they -have undertaken to interpret becomes more extensive and more minute. -All that they now contend for is this: that the successive Formations -represent successive Periods of time, which followed one another in -the order here set forth, and during which the Earth was peopled with -certain species of Plants and Animals, for the most part peculiar to -their respective eras.[85] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER XIII._ - -GEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY--REMARKS ON THE SUCCESSION OF ORGANIC LIFE. - - _Summary of the history of stratified rocks--Striking - characteristics of certain formations--Human remains found - only in superficial deposits--Gradual transition from the - organic life of one period to that of the next--Evidence - in favor of this opinion--Advance from lower to higher - types of organic life as we ascend from the older to the - more recent formations--Economic value of geological - chronology--Illustration--Search for coal--The practical man - at fault--The geologist comes to his aid, and saves him from - useless expense._ - - -With this sketch of Geological Chronology before us, we can now more -fully realize to our minds the story we are told about the formation of -the Earth’s Crust. In the earliest age to which Geologists can trace -back the history of the Aqueous Rocks--for they do not profess to trace -it back to the beginning--this Globe of ours was, as it is now, partly -covered with water, and partly dry land. The formation of stratified -rocks went on in that age, as it is still going on, chiefly over those -areas that were under water--not indeed throughout the entire extent of -such areas, but over certain portions of them to which mineral matter -happened to be carried by the action of natural causes. And the Earth -was peopled then as now, though with animals and plants very different -from those by which we are surrounded at the present day. Some of these -happened to escape destruction, and to be embedded in the deposits of -that far distant age, and have thus been preserved even to our time. -And these strata with their Fossils are the same that we now group -together under the title of the Laurentian Formation: which being the -oldest group of stratified rocks we can recognize in the depths of the -Earth’s Crust, occupies the lowest position in our table of Chronology. -Ages rolled on; and the Crust of the Earth was moved from within by -some giant force, the bed of the ocean was lifted up in one place, -islands and continents were submerged in another, and so the outlines -of land and water were changed. With this change the old forms of life -passed away; a new creation came in; and the Laurentian period gave -place to the Cambrian. But the order of nature was still the same as -before. The deposition of stratified rocks still continued, though the -areas of deposition were, in many cases, shifted from one locality to -another. And the organic life that flourished in the Cambrian times -left its memorials behind it buried in the Cambrian rocks. Then that -age, too, came to an end, and gave place in its turn to the Silurian: -and this was, again, followed by the Devonian. Thus one period -succeeded to another in the order set forth in our table; and every -part of the globe was, in the course of ages, more than once submerged, -and covered with the deposits of more than one age, and enriched with -the Organic Remains of more than one creation. - -As we advance upward in the series of Formations we soon perceive that -the Fossil Remains, which, in the earlier groups were scanty enough, -become profusely abundant, until even the unpractised eye cannot -fail to mark the peculiar character of each successive period;--the -exuberant vegetation of the Carboniferous, with its luxuriant herbage -and its tangled forests, its huge pines, its tall tree-ferns, and its -stately araucarias: the enormous creeping monsters of the Jurassic, -the ichthyosaurs, the megalosaurs, the iguanodons, which filled its -seas, or crowded its plains, or haunted its rivers; and higher up in -the scale, the colossal quadrupeds of the Miocene and the Pliocene, the -mammoths, the mastodons, the megatheriums, which begin to approximate -more closely to the organic types of our own age. But amidst these -various forms of life, the eye looks in vain for any relic of human -kind. No bone of man, no trace of human intelligence, is to be found -in any bed of rock that belongs to the Primary, Secondary, or Tertiary -Formations. It is only when we have passed all these, and come to the -latest formation of the whole series, nay, it is only in the uppermost -beds of this Formation, that we meet, for the first time, with human -bones, and the works of human art. - -Thus it appears pretty plain, even from the testimony of Geology, that -man was the last work of the creation; and that, if the world is old, -the human race is comparatively young. These broken and imperfect -records, which have been so curiously preserved in the Crust of the -Earth, carry us back to an antiquity which may not be measured by -years and centuries, and then set before us, as in a palpable form, -how the tender herbage appeared, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit -according to its kind; and how the Earth was afterward peopled with -great creeping things, and winged fowl, and the cattle, and the beasts -of the field; and then, at length, they disclose to us how, last of -all, man appeared, to whom all these things seem to tend, and who was -to have dominion over the fish of the sea, and the fowl of the air, and -every living thing that moveth upon the earth. We do not mean to dwell -just now upon this view of the history of creation so clearly displayed -in the records of Geology. But we shall return to it hereafter when we -come in the sequel to consider how admirably the genuine truths of this -science fit in with the inspired narrative of Moses. - -It may here, very naturally, be asked, if the records of Geology -give us any information as to the manner in which each period of -animal and vegetable life was brought to an end? Did the old organic -forms gradually die out, and the new gradually come in to take their -places? or were the one suddenly extinguished and the others as -suddenly produced? This question has been a subject of controversy -among Geologists themselves; and therefore it is somewhat outside our -scope, since we propose to exhibit only that more general outline of -Geological theory which is accepted by all. Nevertheless, as it is a -question that must needs occur to the mind of every reader, it seems to -call for a few words of explanation as we pass along. In the early days -of Geology, it was commonly held that each great period was brought -to an end by a sudden and violent convulsion of Nature. The Crust of -the Earth was burst open in many places all at once; the bottom of the -ocean was upheaved with a tremendous shock; the waters, driven from -their accustomed bed, rushed with furious impetuosity over islands and -continents; and the whole existing creation perished in a universal -deluge. Then succeeded an interval of chaotic confusion, and when at -length the waters subsided, and dry land again appeared, a new age -in the history of the Globe was ushered in, and the Earth was again -peopled by a new creation. - -But this old theory has gradually given way as the Stratified Rocks -have been more and more fully examined, and at the present day it -is almost universally abandoned. Geologists have observed that the -same species of Fossil Remains which prevail in the upper beds of one -Formation, are met with also in the lower beds of the next, though in -less numbers and mixed up with new species; and that, as we ascend -higher and higher into the later Formation, the old species gradually -become more and more scarce, while the new gradually become more and -more numerous; until at length the characteristic forms of one age -have disappeared altogether, and those of the succeeding age have -attained their full development. - -For this important fact, which was brought to light within the last -half century, we are mainly indebted to the unwearied researches and -great ability of Sir Charles Lyell. Speaking of the Formations of the -Tertiary Epoch, to which, as is well known, he has principally devoted -himself, this distinguished writer thus sums up the result of his long -investigation:--“In passing from the older to the newer members of -the Tertiary system we meet with many chasms, but none which separate -entirely, by a broad line of demarkation, one state of the organic -world from another. There are no signs of an abrupt termination of one -fauna and flora, and the starting into life of new and wholly distinct -forms. Although we are far from being able to demonstrate geologically -an insensible transition from the Eocene to the Miocene, or even from -the latter to the recent fauna, yet the more we enlarge and perfect our -general survey, the more nearly do we approximate to such a continuous -series, and the more gradually are we conducted from times when many of -the genera and nearly all the species were extinct, to those in which -scarcely a single species flourished which we do not know to exist at -present.”[86] Hence he concludes, and his conclusion is now the common -doctrine of Geologists, that the extinction and creation of species has -been “the result of a slow and gradual change in the organic world.”[87] - -It was long argued against this view, that we often meet, especially -in the Primary and Secondary Formations, two groups of strata in -immediate contact, in which there is a perfectly sudden transition -from one set of Fossil Remains to another altogether different. Each -group contains a countless variety of species, and yet there is not a -single species common to the two. Does it not appear that in such a -case the organic life of one period was suddenly destroyed, and that -of the next as suddenly introduced? Not so; there is one link wanting -in the argument. It must be shown that these two strata which are -now in _immediate contact_ were originally deposited in _immediate -succession_. But this it is impossible to prove: nay, it must needs be -very often false. We have before observed that the areas of deposition -were limited in every age, and were ever shifting from one locality to -another. Therefore it must have been a frequent occurrence that, after -one bed of rock was formed, the process of deposition ceased altogether -in that locality, and did not begin again for many ages. Thus a long -lapse of time often intervened between the deposition of two strata, -which were laid out one immediately above the other. Furthermore, we -have also seen that whole groups of strata may in any age be swept away -by Denudation; and then the rocks which are next deposited in that -locality, will be in immediate contact with strata indefinitely more -ancient than themselves. From these considerations it is plain that two -groups of strata which are now found in juxtaposition, may have been -deposited in two Geological ages widely remote from each other. And -consequently a sudden transition from the Organic Life of one group to -the Organic Life of the other affords no proof of a sudden transition -from the Organic Life of one Geological Period to the Organic Life of -that which next succeeded. We may observe, however, that the recent -researches, which have contributed so much to fill up the interstices -of the Geological Calendar, have conduced in no small degree to fill up -likewise some of the more remarkable gaps or chasms in the succession -of Organic Life. It is, therefore, not unreasonable to suppose that, as -our knowledge of the Earth’s Crust becomes more and more minute, the -sudden breaks in the continuity of the scale will be still further -diminished and the successive stages of gradual transition will be made -more clearly apparent. - -This subject has been very happily illustrated by Sir Charles -Lyell:--“To make still more clear the supposed working of this -machinery [for the deposition of Stratified Rocks and the preservation -of Organic Remains], I shall compare it to a somewhat analogous case -that might be imagined to occur in the history of human affairs. Let -the mortality of the population of a large country represent the -successive extinction of species, and the birth of new individuals, the -introduction of new species. While these fluctuations are gradually -taking place everywhere, suppose commissioners to be appointed to -visit each province of the country in succession, taking an exact -account of the number, names, and individual peculiarities of all the -inhabitants, and leaving in each district a register containing a -record of this information. If, after the completion of one census, -another is immediately made on the same plan, and then another, there -will, at last, be a series of statistical documents in each province. -When these belonging to any one province are arranged in chronological -order, the contents of such as stand next to each other will differ -according to the length of time between the taking of each census. If, -for example, there are sixty provinces, and all the registers are made -in a single year, and renewed annually, the number of births and deaths -will be so small in proportion to the whole of the inhabitants, during -the interval between the compiling of two consecutive documents, that -the individuals described in such documents will be nearly identical; -whereas, if the survey of each of the sixty provinces occupies all the -commissioners for a whole year, so that they are unable to revisit -the same place until the expiration of sixty years, there will then -be an almost entire discordance between the persons enumerated in two -consecutive registers in the same province. - -“But I must remind the reader that the case above proposed has no -pretentions to be regarded as an exact parallel to the Geological -phenomena which I desire to illustrate; for the commissioners are -supposed to visit the different provinces in rotation; whereas the -commemorating processes by which organic remains become fossilized, -although they are always shifting from one area to the other, are yet -very irregular in their movements. They may abandon and revisit many -spaces again and again, before they once approach another district; and -besides this source of irregularity, it may often happen that, while -the depositing process is suspended, Denudation may take place, which -may be compared to the occasional destruction by fire or other causes -of some of the statistical documents before mentioned. It is evident -that where such accidents occur, the want of continuity in the series -may become indefinitely great, and that the monuments which follow next -in succession will by no means be equi-distant from each other in point -of time. - -“If this train of reasoning be admitted, the occasional distinctness -of the fossil remains, in formations immediately in contact, would be -a necessary consequence of the existing laws of sedimentary deposition -and subterranean movement, accompanied by a constant mortality and -renovation or species.”[88] - -There is another and a very striking fact in the succession of ancient -organic life, which claims from us a moment’s notice. As we proceed -upward through the series of Stratified Rocks, from the oldest to the -newest, we find a gradual advance in the types of animal organization -therein preserved, from the humbler and more simple forms of structure -to those of a higher and more perfect character. That form of -organization is regarded among Zoologists as the more perfect in which -there is “a greater number of organs specially devoted to particular -functions.” Now all the forms of animal life with which we are -acquainted, may be reduced to two great divisions, the Vertebrate and -the Invertebrate,--the former having a _vertebral_ or spinal column, -the latter having none: and it is agreed in conformity with the notion -set forth above, that the Vertebrate animals as a class exhibit a more -perfect organization than the Invertebrate. Again, among the Vertebrate -themselves there is a gradation; the Reptiles are ranked higher than -the Fish, the Birds higher than the Reptiles, and the Mammalia higher -again than the Birds. - -All this we learn from Zoologists, who have pursued their -investigations without any reference whatever to the science of -Geology. It is, therefore, not a little remarkable that we should -discover this very order and gradation of animal life in the successive -groups of Stratified Rocks. All the Remains hitherto discovered in the -earliest Geological Formations belong to Invertebrate animals, while -the Vertebrate, which appear for the first time in the latter part -of the Silurian Period, are, from that age on, more and more fully -developed down to the present day, and now constitute, if not the most -numerous, at least the most important part of the animal creation. -Moreover, it is to be observed that the Vertebrate animals do not all -make their appearance at once, but come in successively according to -the same scale of organic perfection,--the Fish appearing first, then -the Reptiles, then the Birds, and lastly the Mammalia. Even among -the Mammalia a well-defined order of progressive succession has been -observed, which finally culminates in the appearance of Man, the last -created and the most perfect of animals. - -[Illustration: TABLE OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS, - -SHOWING THE FIRST APPEARANCE ON THE EARTH OF THE VARIOUS FORMS OF -ANIMAL LIFE.] - -This remarkable succession of animal life in the history of the -Earth’s Crust will be more readily understood by means of the annexed -Table. The remains of Invertebrate animals have been traced as far -back as the Lower Laurentian Rocks. The Vertebrate first become -manifest in the Ludlow beds of the Upper Silurian; where they are -represented by the bones of Fish, the lowest class belonging to the -Province of Vertebrates. Next in order come the Reptiles: the oldest -known Reptile having been found in the Coal Measures of Saarbrück -between Strasburg and Treves. The skeletons of Birds are rare in the -Stratified Rocks. It is supposed that their powers of flight have in -all ages secured them, to great a extent, from being carried away by -floods, like other land animals, and buried in the sedimentary deposits -of rivers and estuaries. Nevertheless their presence in the ancient -world is frequently attested by their footsteps, impressed originally -on the sandy beach, and still preserved now that the soft sand has -been converted into solid rock. Such traces have been discovered in -great abundance on the New Red Sandstone of the Connecticut River in -America; and afford the earliest evidence we possess in the records -of Geology regarding the existence of the feathered tribe. This group -of strata belongs to the lower Trias. In the higher beds of the same -Formation we meet with the first relic of ancient Mammals. It was found -near Stuttgardt, in 1847, and belongs to the more imperfect form of -Mammalian life, the Non-Placental. Similar remains have been since -discovered in the Upper Trias of Somersetshire. The Placental, or more -perfect form of animal life in the same class, first appears in the -Eocene Formation: and the bones of Man, the highest of the Placental, -are found for the first time in the upper deposits of the Post-Tertiary -Age. - -Let it be remembered that we are here but stating the facts which have -been hitherto brought to light by the researches of Geologists. It -may be, it is indeed most probable, that new discoveries will lead to -numerous modifications in our Table. There is no reason to suppose that -Geologists have yet exhumed the earliest remains of Vertebrates or -Invertebrates preserved in the Crust of the Earth: that Fish may not -hereafter be traced back beyond the Silurian, or Reptiles beyond the -Carboniferous Period: that Birds may not be found among the Primary -Rocks, and Placentals among the Secondary. But in a science which -depends mainly upon observation, it is better to register the facts -we have than to speculate idly about those we have not. And, having -registered them, we cannot fail to be struck with the succession of -animal life on the Earth, to which they seem to point. It is certainly -deserving of notice that, as far as the Organic Remains hitherto -discovered may be taken as a guide, Invertebrates and Vertebrates, -Fish, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals, Non-Placentals and Placentals, -follow one another in the ascending series of Geological Formations -exactly in the same order as they follow one another in the ascending -scale of Zoological Classification. - - * * * * * - -And so Geologists go on ever searching out new phenomena, and grouping -them together into classes, until from particular facts they lead us -to general truths. Then starting with these general truths as the -groundwork of their science, they proceed to sketch out the Natural -History of our Globe from the remotest ages of the past down to -the present time. They first study the stratified deposits of each -succeeding age, and analyze the Fossil Remains embedded therein; -afterward they make their inferences, and they compile their history. -They describe the forms, the character, the habits, of the plants -and animals that flourished of old in this world of ours; they tell -us where the deep sea rolled its waves in each succeeding age, and -where the dry land appeared; they point out the Deltas of its ancient -rivers, they measure the breadth of its Estuaries, they trace the -course of its Glaciers, they mark the outlines of its Mountain chains. -But with these and such like speculations we are not here concerned. -Many of them are open to controversy, and not a few are at this moment -warmly disputed among Geologists themselves: besides, whether true or -false, they do not in any way affect the relations between Geology and -Revealed Religion. We shall be quite content, and it is all that our -present scope demands, if we have made intelligible the general theory -of Geological Chronology, and the kind of evidence on which it rests. - -Before taking leave of this subject, however, we will venture to offer -what seems to us an interesting illustration of the principles we -have been explaining in the last two chapters;--one that will help -to confirm the conclusions for which we have been contending, and -that will also bring home to many minds the practical advantage to be -derived from a thorough knowledge and just application of Geological -science. Perhaps, too, it may help to revive the flagging attention -of our readers; for the subject of our illustration is _Coal, and the -way to find it_. In this age of manufactories and steam-engines,--when -the atmosphere of great towns is heavy with smoke, and the quiet -solitude of the country is so rudely disturbed by the shrieking of the -railway-whistle and the snorting of the sooty locomotive,--this black, -dirty mineral has acquired a value and importance, which may succeed -in rousing even the practical money-making man to pay some heed to the -lessons of science. - -Coal might have been produced in any Geological Period; and in point of -fact, beds of coal have been discovered in many different Formations. -But in England, and in Western Europe generally, it has been found by -long experience that the Coal-beds of the Carboniferous Formation are -more abundant, and of better quality, than those of any other. Indeed -the beds of Coal that occur in other Formations are so thin, and of -such inferior quality, that they cannot be worked with profit. It is -therefore of the highest importance in the search for Coal, before -going to the enormous expense of sinking deep shafts, to discover -whether or no the rocks in which the search is to be made belong to -the Carboniferous Period. In this matter the more _practical man_ is -often seriously at fault. Coal-bearing strata generally consist pretty -largely of dark-colored clay, black shales, and similar deposits. This -is a fact which, as it strikes the eye, is perfectly familiar to all -who are engaged in the working of Coal mines. Hence it happens, not -unfrequently, that the practical man, when he meets with strata of this -kind, is apt at once to infer that Coal is near at hand. The Geologist, -on the contrary, knows well that such strata are not peculiar to the -Carboniferous rocks, but are often found in other Formations in which -there is no Coal at all, or at least no Coal that will repay the -expense of working; and therefore he will pronounce it most rash to -undertake costly works on the strength of these appearances. He has -learned, however, that there are certain species of animals and plants -which are found in the Carboniferous rocks and in them alone; he will -search for these in the strata which it is proposed to explore, and -by their presence or their absence he will know whether the strata in -question belong to the Carboniferous Formation or not. - -Again, it will often happen that, in the midst of an extensive region -well known to abound in Coal, the rocks which appear at the surface in -one particular locality, are not wholly devoid of Coal, but exhibit no -resemblance either in mineral character or in Fossil Remains to the -Coal-bearing strata. A question then arises of the highest practical -importance. May it be that the Coal-bearing strata are spread out -beneath this uppermost bed of rocks? and is it worth the expense to -sink a shaft through the one in the hope of reaching the other? The -practical miner has no very clear or certain principles to help him -in the solution of this problem; and thus it has often happened that -thousands upon thousands of pounds have been expended in sinking shafts -to look for Coal, where, as it afterward proved, there was not the -slightest chance of finding it. Now, though Geology cannot tell if we -shall succeed in finding Coal beneath these rocks, it _can_ tell if -there is a _good chance_ of succeeding. It can tell whether there is -a reasonable hope, by penetrating into the Crust of the Earth at this -particular spot, of reaching the Carboniferous Formation; and if we can -reach the Carboniferous Formation in the midst of a Coal district, it -is very likely we shall meet with beds of Coal. - -His first object will be to ascertain what is the Formation to which -the superficial rocks belong. If it be a Formation earlier in date than -the Carboniferous,--the Silurian, for instance, or the Devonian,--he -knows that it would be simply waste of money to look for Coal beneath -them; because the Carboniferous rocks cannot possibly be found -underneath the rocks of an earlier age. And so the Geologist can tell -beforehand what the mere practical man would find out only when he had -spent his money. If, on the other hand, the rocks which appear at the -surface belong to a period later than the Carboniferous, the Geologist -will not always conclude that it is expedient to sink a shaft in -search of Coal. For though the Carboniferous rocks may, in this case, -be underneath, they may be so far down in the Crust of the Earth that -we should have no chance of ever reaching them. Suppose, for example, -that the strata which appear at the surface belong to the Cretaceous -Formation. He knows from his Chronological table that the Carboniferous -age is separated from the Cretaceous by three intermediate -Periods,--the Permian, the Triassic, the Jurassic. Therefore, when he -finds the Cretaceous rocks at the surface in any locality, it is quite -possible, though of course not certain, that before the Carboniferous -Formation could be reached it would be necessary to bore through -thousands of feet of Jurassic, Triassic, and Permian rocks. And even -then there would be no certainty of meeting with the Coal-bearing -strata. Perhaps they were never deposited over this area of the earth’s -surface; or, if deposited, perhaps they were subsequently swept away -by Denudation. Hence our Geologist would reasonably conclude that, the -probable expense of the search being so enormous, and the chance of -success so remote, it would be much wiser not to make the attempt. - - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -SUBTERRANEAN HEAT--ITS EXISTENCE DEMONSTRATED BY FACTS. - - _Theory of stratified rocks supposes disturbances of the - earth’s crust--These disturbances ascribed by geologists - to the action of subterranean heat--The existence of - subterranean heat, and its power to move the crust of the - earth, proved by direct evidence--Supposed igneous origin of - our globe--Remarkable increase of temperature as we descend - into the earth’s crust--Hot springs--Artesian wells--Steam - issuing from crevices in the earth--The geysers of Iceland--A - glimpse at the subterranean fires--Mount Vesuvius in 1779--Vast - extent of volcanic action--Existence of subterranean heat an - established fact._ - - -In developing the modern theory of Geology, we have all along assumed -that the Crust of the Earth has been subject to frequent disturbances -from the earliest ages of the world. Again and again, in the course -of our argument, we have talked of the bed of the sea being lifted -up, and converted into dry land; and, on the other hand, of the dry -land being submerged beneath the waters of the sea. We have not even -hesitated to suppose that these two opposite movements of upheaval and -submersion often took place by turns over the same area; nay, that -there is scarcely a region on the surface of the Globe which has not -been several times submerged, and several times again upheaved. - -Yet all this has not been taken for granted without proof. Our readers -have seen what a long array of sober reasoning may be drawn out to -show that the Stratified Rocks have been, for the most part, deposited -_under water_:--first, from the nature and arrangement of the materials -which compose them; secondly, from the character of the Organic Remains -they contain. And since they are now _above water_, it is plain that -either they have been lifted or the ocean has subsided. Furthermore, if -we find, as we often do, two strata in immediate succession, the one -underneath, exhibiting the trees of an ancient forest still standing -erect with their roots attached, the other above, abounding in the -remains of aquatic animals; we must conclude that when the ancient -forest flourished this portion of the Earth’s Crust was above the -level of the sea; that afterward it was submerged, and a new deposit, -in which the marine remains were embedded, was spread out above the -earlier vegetation; and that, last of all it again emerged from the -waters, and became once more dry land. Finally, when a vertical section -of the Earth’s Crust exhibits a continued series of such strata -alternating with each other, it affords a proof that this particular -area must have been several times under water, and several times again -dry land, in the long course of ages. - -These conclusions are now all but universally received among -Geologists. The Crust of the Earth, we are assured, is not that -unyielding and immovable mass which men commonly take it to be. On the -contrary, it has been from the beginning ever restless and in motion, -rising here and subsiding there, sometimes with a convulsive shock -capable of upturning, twisting, distorting hard and stubborn rocks as -if they were but flimsy layers of pliant clay; sometimes with a gentle, -undulating movement, which, while it uplifts islands and continents, -leaves the general aspect of the surface unchanged, the arrangement of -the strata undisturbed, and even the most tender Fossils unharmed. -Disturbances of this kind have been going on in various parts of the -world even within the period of history; and they may be distinctly -traced to the action of subterranean Heat. In support of a theory so -startling and unexpected, Geologists appeal to the direct evidence of -facts: and we now propose to bring some of these facts under the notice -of our readers. - -At the outset, however, it is important to set forth clearly the -doctrine we hope to illustrate and confirm. With the origin of the -internal heat that prevails within the Crust of the Earth we have no -concern. This is still an unsettled point among Geologists themselves. -Some conjecture that our Globe, when first launched into space, was -in a state of igneous fusion; that is to say, that all the solid -matter of which it is composed was held in a molten condition by the -action of intense heat; that, in course of time, as this heat passed -off by radiation, the surface gradually cooled and grew hard; that -an external shell of solid rock was thus formed, which has been ever -growing thicker in proportion as the Earth has been growing cooler; and -that the actual condition of our planet is the result of this process -continued down to the present day,--a fiery mass of seething mineral -within, and a comparatively thin crust of consolidated rock without. -Others suppose that the internal heat of the Globe is developed by the -agency of chemical changes constantly going on in the depths of the -Earth; and others, again, look for a cause to the action of electricity -and magnetism. But these and such like speculations are still under -discussion, and not one of them can be regarded as anything more, at -best, than a satisfactory hypothesis. Anyhow, it is not about the -causes of internal heat that we are just now interested, but about -the fact of its existence, and the nature of its effects. Is it true -that an intense heat prevails very generally beneath the superficial -covering of the Globe? and is that heat capable of producing those -stupendous changes which are ascribed to it in our theory of Geology? -These are the questions to which we mean to devote our chief attention. - -It is a very significant fact, that _the deeper we penetrate into the -Crust of the Earth, the hotter it is_. At first, no doubt, for a short -distance, the reverse is the case. When we begin to descend we find it -cooler below than above, because the further we depart from the surface -the more we are removed from the influence of the Sun. But at a certain -point--in our climate at about fifty feet below the surface--the -influence of the Sun’s heat ceases to be sensibly felt. When this limit -is passed, the temperature begins to rise, and thenceforth the deeper -we go the hotter the earth becomes. - -This broad and general fact has been tested by experiments in every -part of the world, and has been found true in all countries, in -all climates, in all latitudes, whether in coal-pits, or mines, or -deep subterranean caves. “In one and the same mine,” says Sir John -Herschel,[89] “each particular depth has its own particular degree of -heat, which never varies: but the lower always the hotter; and that -not by a trifling, but what may well be called an astonishingly rapid -rate of increase,--about a degree of the thermometer additional warmth -for every ninety feet of additional depth,[90] which is about 58° per -mile!--so that, if we had a shaft sunk a mile deep, we should find in -the rock a heat of 105°, which is much hotter than the hottest summer -day ever experienced in England.” Now if the temperature continue -to increase at this rate toward the centre of the Earth, it is quite -certain that, at no very great distance from the surface, the heat -would be sufficiently intense to reduce the hardest granite and the -most refractory metals to a state of igneous fusion. - -Again, every one is familiar with the existence of hot springs, -which come up from unknown depths in the Earth’s Crust, and which, -appearing as they do in almost all parts of the world, testify in -unmistakable language to the existence of internal heat. At Bath, -for instance, in England, the water comes up from the bowels of the -Earth, at a temperature of 117° Fahrenheit; and in the United States, -on the Arkansas River, there is a spring at 180°--not much below the -boiling point. This remarkable phenomenon, however, may be more closely -investigated in the case of Artesian Wells, so called from the province -of Artois, in France, where they first came into use. These wells are -formed artificially, by boring down through the superficial strata of -the Earth, sometimes to enormous depths, until water is reached. It -has been found in every case that the water coming up from these great -depths is always hot; and, furthermore, that the deeper the boring the -hotter the water. A well of this kind was sunk in 1834 at Grenelle, in -the suburbs of Paris, to a depth of more than 1800 English feet, and -the water, which rushed up with surprising force, had a temperature -of 82° Fahrenheit; whereas the mean temperature of the air in the -cellars of the Paris Observatory is only 53°. The water has ever since -continued to flow, and the temperature has never varied. At Salzwerth, -in Germany, where the boring is still deeper, being 2,144 feet, the -water which rises to the surface is 91° of our scale. - -Then we have, in many countries, jets of steam which issue at a high -temperature from crevices in the Earth, and which tell of the existence -of heated water below, as plainly as the steam that escapes from the -funnel of a locomotive or from the spout of a tea-kettle. Phenomena of -this kind are very common in Italy, where they are sometimes exhibited -at intervals along a line of country twenty miles in length. But in -Iceland it is that they are displayed in the highest degree of splendor -and power. On the southwest side of that island, within a circuit of -two miles, there are nearly a hundred hot springs called Geysers, from -some of which, at intervals, immense volumes of steam and boiling water -are violently projected into the air. The Great Geyser is a natural -tube, ten feet wide, descending into the Earth to a depth of seventy -feet, and opening out above into a broad basin, from fifty to sixty -feet in diameter. This basin, as well as the tube which connects it -with the interior of the Earth, is lined with a beautifully smooth -and hard plaster of siliceous cement, and is generally filled to the -brim with water of a clear azure color, and a temperature little -below boiling point. The ordinary condition of the spring is one of -comparative repose, the water rising slowly in the tube and trickling -over the edge of the stony basin. But every few hours an eruption takes -place. Subterranean explosions are first heard, like the firing of -distant cannon; then a violent ebullition follows, clouds of steam are -given out, and jets of boiling water are cast up into the air. After a -little the disturbance ceases, and all is quiet again. Once a day, or -thereabouts, these phenomena are exhibited on a scale of extraordinary -grandeur: the explosions which announce beforehand the approaching -display are more numerous and violent than usual; then such volumes of -steam rush forth as to obscure the atmosphere for half a mile around; -and, finally, a vast column of water is projected to a height of from -one to two hundred feet, and continues for a quarter of an hour to play -like an artificial fountain. Geysers scarcely less grand and striking -are to be seen in New Zealand, from which the water is thrown up at a -temperature 214° Fahrenheit, or two degrees above boiling point. - -Such are the evident symptoms of subterranean heat,--hot springs, jets -of steam, fountains of boiling water,--which are manifested unceasingly -at the surface of the Earth in every quarter of the Globe. But it is -sometimes given us to behold, as it were, the subterranean fire itself, -and to contemplate its power under a more striking and awful form. From -time to time, in the fury of its rage, the fiery element bursts asunder -the prison-house in which it is confined, and rushes forth into the -light of day; then flames are seen to issue from the surface of the -Earth, yawning chasms begin to appear on every side, the roaring of -the furnaces is heard in the depths below, clouds of red-hot cinders -are ejected high into the air, and streams of incandescent liquid rock -are poured forth from every crevice, which, rolling far away through -smiling fields and peaceful villages, carry destruction and desolation -in their track. These are the ordinary phenomena of an active volcano -during the period of eruption; and even while we write, most of them -may be witnessed actually taking place for the hundredth time, on the -historic ground of Mount Vesuvius. Our typical example, however, we -shall take from the eruption of that mountain in the year 1779. It -was not, indeed, especially remarkable for its violence or for the -catastrophes by which it was attended; but it had the good fortune -to be accurately recorded by an eye-witness, Sir William Hamilton, -who, at that time, represented the English Government at the Court of -Naples; and we are thus more minutely acquainted with all its various -circumstances than with those of any other eruption of equal importance. - -For two years before, the mountain had been in a state of excitement -and disturbance. From time to time rumbling noises were heard -underground, dense masses of smoke were emitted from the crater, liquid -lava at a white heat bubbled up from crevices on the slopes of the -mountain, and through these crevices a glimpse could be had here and -there of the rocky caverns within, all “red-hot like a heated oven.” -But in the month of August, 1779, the eruption reached its climax. -About nine o’clock in the evening of Sunday the eighth, according to -the graphic description of Sir William Hamilton, “there was a loud -report, which shook the houses at Portici and its neighborhood to -such a degree as to alarm the inhabitants and drive them out into -the streets. Many windows were broken, and, as I have since seen, -walls cracked, from the concussion of the air from that explosion. -In one instant, a fountain of liquid transparent fire began to rise, -and, gradually increasing, arrived at so amazing a height, as to -strike every one who beheld it with the most awful astonishment. I -shall scarcely be credited when I assure you that, to the best of my -judgment, the height of this stupendous column of fire could not be -less than three times that of Vesuvius itself, which, you know, rises -perpendicularly near 3,700 feet above the level of the sea. Puffs of -smoke, as black as can possibly be imagined, succeeded one another -hastily, and accompanied the red-hot, transparent, and liquid lava, -interrupting its splendid brightness here and there by patches of -the darkest hue. Within these puffs of smoke, at the very moment of -their emission from the crater, I could perceive a bright but pale -electrical light playing about in zigzag lines. The liquid lava, mixed -with scoriae and stones, after having mounted, I verily believe, at -least 10,000 feet, falling perpendicularly on Vesuvius, covered its -whole cone, and part of that of Somma, and the valley between them. The -falling matter being nearly as vivid and inflamed as that which was -continually issuing fresh from the crater, formed with it a complete -body of fire, which could not be less than two miles and a half in -breadth, and of the extraordinary height above mentioned, casting a -heat to the distance of at least six miles around it. The brushwood of -the mountain of Somma was soon in a flame, which, being of a different -tint from the deep red of the matter thrown out from the Volcano, -and from the silvery blue of the electrical fire, still added to the -contrast of this most extraordinary scene. After the column of fire -continued in full force for nearly half an hour the eruption ceased at -once, and Vesuvius remained sullen and silent.”[91] - -The existence, then, of intense heat within the Crust of the Earth -may be regarded as an established fact where-ever an active Volcano -appears at the surface. Now let us consider for a moment, the very -extensive scale on which these fiery engines of Nature are distributed -over the face of the Globe. First, on the great continent of America. -The whole chain of the Andes--that stupendous ridge of mountains which -stretches along the western coast of South America, from Tierra del -Fuego on the south to the isthmus of Panama on the north--is studded -over with Volcanos, most of which have been seen in active eruption -within the last 300 years. Passing the narrow isthmus of Panama, this -line of Volcanos may still be traced through Guatemala to Mexico, and -thence northward even as far as the mouth of the Columbia River. Here -is a vast volcanic region extending fully 6,000 miles in length, and -spreading out its fiery arms, we know not how far, to the right and to -the left. At Quito, just on the Equator, a branch shoots off toward the -northeast, and, passing through New Granada and Venezuela, stretches -away across the West India Islands, taking in St. Vincent, Dominica, -Guadaloupe, and many others; while, in the opposite direction, it is -certain that the volcanic action extends westward, far away beneath the -waters of the Pacific, though we have no definite means of ascertaining -where its influence ceases to be felt. - -Another vast train of active Volcanos is that which skirts the eastern -and southern coasts of Asia. Commencing on the shores of Northwestern -America, it passes through the Aleutian Islands to Kamtschatka; then, -in a sort of undulating curve, it winds its course by the Kurile -Islands, the Japanese group, the Philippines, and the northeastern -extremity of the Celebes, to the Moluccas. At this point it divides -into two branches; one going in a southeasterly direction to New -Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Friendly Islands, and New Zealand; the -other pursuing a northwesterly course through Java and Sumatra into the -Bay of Bengal. - -There is a third great line of volcanic fires which has been pretty -well traced out by modern travellers, extending through China and -Tartary to the Caucasus; thence over the countries bordering the Black -Sea to the Grecian Archipelago; then on to Naples, Sicily, the Lipari -Islands, the southern part of Spain and Portugal, and the Azores. -Besides these there are numerous groups of Volcanos not apparently -linked on to any regular volcanic chain, nor reduced as yet by -scientific men to any general system; Mount Hecla, for instance, in -Iceland, the Mountains of the Moon in Central Africa, Owhyhee in the -Sandwich Islands, and many others rising up irregularly from the broad -waters of the Pacific. - -From this brief outline some idea may be formed of the magnificent -scale on which volcanic agency is developed within the Crust of the -Earth. It must be remembered, however, that any estimate based upon -the enumeration we have given, would be, in all probability, far -below the truth; for we have mentioned those Volcanos only which -have attracted the notice of scientific men, or which have chanced -to fall under the observation of travellers. Many others, doubtless, -must exist in regions not yet explored, and in the profound depths -of the seas and oceans, which cover nearly two-thirds of the area -of our planet. Moreover, we have said nothing at all of _extinct_ -Volcanos--such as those of Auvergne in France, and of the Rocky -Mountains in America--which have not been in active operation within -historical times; but in which, nevertheless, the hardened streams of -lava, the volcanic ashes, and the cone-shaped mountains terminating in -hollow craters, tell the story of eruptions in bygone ages, not less -clearly than the blackened walls and charred timbers of some stately -building bear witness to the passing wayfarer of a long extinguished -conflagration. - -We contend, therefore, that the doctrine of intense subterranean heat -is not a wild conjecture, but is based on a solid groundwork of facts. -First, there is presumptive evidence. In every deep mine, in every deep -sinking of whatever kind, the heat of the earth increases rapidly as we -descend. Hot water comes from great depths, and never cold. Sometimes -it is boiling: sometimes it has been converted into steam. All this is -found to be the case universally, whenever an opportunity has occurred -for making the trial; and it seems to afford a strong presumption that -if one could go still deeper, the heat would be found yet more intense, -and would at length be capable of reducing to a liquid state the solid -materials of which the earth is composed. Next, there is the direct -testimony of our senses. A channel is opened from the depths below, -flames are seen, red-hot cinders are cast up, and molten rock is poured -out over the surface of the Earth in a liquid stream of fire. This -evidence, however, though direct and conclusive as far as it goes, is -not universal. It proves that an intense white heat prevails within the -Crust of the Earth, not everywhere, but at least in those numerous and -extensive regions where active Volcanos exist. So stands the case, as -it seems to us, for the doctrine of subterranean heat as far as regards -the fact of its existence. - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER XV._ - -SUBTERRANEAN HEAT--ITS POWERS ILLUSTRATED BY VOLCANOS. - - _Effects of subterranean heat in the present age of the - world--Vast accumulations of solid matter from the eruptions - of volcanos--Buried cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum--Curious - relics of Roman life--Monte Nuovo--Eruption of Jorullo in the - province of Mexico--Sumbawa in the Indian Archipelago--Volcanos - of Iceland--Mountain mass of Etna the product of volcanic - eruptions--Volcanic islands--In the Atlantic--In the - Mediterranean--Santorin in the Grecian Archipelago._ - - -Having now sufficiently demonstrated the existence of intense -subterranean heat, diffused, if not universally, at least very -generally, beneath the superficial shell of the Earth, we shall next -proceed to inquire if it is capable of effecting those physical -changes which are ascribed to it in Geology;--of producing land where -none before existed, of upheaving the solid Crust of the Earth, of -driving the ocean from its bed, of dislocating and contorting solid -masses of rock. The argument is still an appeal to facts. Such effects -as these have been produced by the agency of internal heat, under -actual observation, in the present age of the world; and it is not -unreasonable to attribute to the same cause similar phenomena in ages -gone by. - -We will not run the risk of dissipating the force of this reasoning -by attempting to expand it. It will be enough for us to state the -facts: we shall leave it to our readers to estimate for themselves the -value of the argument. There are three forms, more or less distinct, -though closely associated, under which the subterranean fires have -exerted their power in modern times to disturb and modify the Physical -Geography of the Globe;--(1) the Volcano, (2) the Earthquake, (3) the -gentle Undulation of the Earth’s Crust. Of these we shall speak in -order. - -In the case of Volcanos, as we have already sufficiently conveyed, the -hidden furnaces of the Earth find a vent for their surplus energies; -and when this vent is once established, that is to say, when the active -Volcano has begun to exist, it seems probable that there is little -further upheaval, properly so called, of the surface. Nevertheless, -Volcanos contribute largely to the formation of land by the vast -accumulation of ashes, mud, and lava, which they vomit forth. The -destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii is a case in point. For eight -days successively, in the year 79, the ashes and pumice stone cast -up from the crater of Vesuvius, fell down in one unceasing shower -upon these devoted cities; while at the same time floods of water, -carrying along the fine dust and light cinders, swept down the sides -of the mountain in resistless torrents of mud, entering the houses, -penetrating into every nook and crevice, and filling even the very wine -jars in the underground cellars. - -At the present moment the layers of volcanic matter beneath which -Pompeii has been slumbering for centuries, are from twelve to fourteen -feet over the tops of the houses. Loftier still is the pile that -overlies the buried Herculaneum. This city, situated nearer to the base -of the Volcano, has been exposed to the effects of many successive -eruptions; and accordingly, spread out over the mass of ashes and -pumice by which it was first overwhelmed, in the time of Pliny, we now -find alternate layers of lava and volcanic mud, together with fresh -accumulations of ashes, to a height, in many places, of 112 feet, and -nowhere less than 70. Nor was this ejected matter confined to these two -populous towns. It was scattered far and wide over the country around, -and has contributed in no small degree to that extraordinary richness -and fertility for which the soil of Naples is so justly famed. - -As regards the production of land where none before existed, here is -one fact of singular significance. At the time of the eruption, in 79, -Pompeii was a seaport town to which merchantmen were wont to resort, -and a flight of steps, which still remains, led down to the water’s -edge: it is now more than a mile distant from the coast, and the tract -of land which intervenes is composed entirely of volcanic tuff and -ashes. - -Gladly would we linger over the reminiscences of these luxurious and -ill-fated cities. By the removal of the ashes, Pompeii is now laid -open to view for at least one-third of its extent; and a strange -sight it is, this ancient Roman city thus risen as it were from the -grave,--risen, but yet lifeless,--with its silent streets, and its -tenantless houses, and its empty Forum. Wherever we turn we have before -us a curious and interesting picture, ghastly though it is, of the -social, political, and domestic life of those ancient times, of the -glory and the shame that hung around the last days of Pagan Rome;--in -the theatres and the temples, in the shops and the private houses, in -the graceful frescoes, in the elaborate mosaics, and, not least, in -the idle scribblings on the walls, which, with a sort of whimsical -reverence, have been spared by the destroying hand of Time. Then again, -what a host of singular relics are there to be wondered at:--articles -of domestic use and luxury, kitchen utensils and surgical instruments; -female skeletons with the ornaments and vanities of the world, rings -and bracelets and necklaces, still clinging to their charred remains; -and strangest perhaps of all, eighty-four loaves of bread, which were -put into the oven to bake 1800 years ago, and were taken out only -yesterday, with the baker’s brand upon them, and the stamp of the -baker’s elbow still freshly preserved in the centre of each. No subject -could be more tempting to a writer, none more attractive to a reader. -But our present purpose is to show the effects of Volcanos in elevating -the level of the land; and so we must turn our back on the buried -cities, and crossing the Bay of Naples, seek for a new illustration in -the formation of Monte Nuovo, a lofty hill overlooking the ancient town -of Pozzuoli. - -About one o’clock at night, on Sunday, the twenty-ninth of September, -1538, flames were seen to issue from the ground close to the waters of -the beautiful bay of Baiae. After a little, a sound like thunder was -heard, the earth was rent asunder, and through the rent large stones, -red-hot cinders, volcanic mud and volumes of water, were furiously -vomited forth, which covered the whole country around, reaching even -as far as Naples, and disfiguring its palaces and public buildings. -The next morning it was found that a new mountain had been formed by -the accumulation of ejected matter around the central opening. This -mountain remains to the present day, and is called the Monte Nuovo. -In form it is a regular volcanic cone, four hundred and forty feet -high, and a mile and a half in circumference at its base, with an open -crater in the centre, which descends nearly to the level of the sea. An -eye-witness who has left us a minute account of this eruption, relates -that on the third day he went up with many people to the top of the new -hill, and looking down into the crater, saw the stones that had fallen -to the bottom, “boiling up just as a caldron of water boils on the -fire.” The same writer informs us--and it is very much to our present -purpose to note the fact--that immediately before the eruption began, -the relative position of land and sea was materially changed, the coast -was sensibly upraised, the waters retired about two hundred paces, and -multitudes of fish were raised high and dry upon the sand, a prey to -the inhabitants of Pozzuoli.[92] - -The Monte Nuovo is but a type of its class. If we travel westward 8,000 -miles from Naples to the more stupendous Volcanos of the New World, -we may witness the same phenomena on a still grander scale. In the -province of Mexico, there is an elevated and extensive plain called -Malpais, where for many generations the cotton plant, the indigo, and -the sugar-cane, flourished luxuriantly in a soil richly endowed with -natural gifts, and carefully cultivated by its industrious inhabitants. -Everything was going on as usual in this smiling and prosperous region, -and no one dreamed of danger, when suddenly, in the month of June, -1759, subterranean sounds were heard, attended with slight convulsions -of the earth. These symptoms of internal commotion continued until the -month of September, when they gradually died away, and tranquillity -seemed to be restored. But it was only the delusive lull that precedes -the fury of the storm. On the night of the twenty-eighth of September -the rumbling sounds were heard again more violent than before. The -inhabitants fled in consternation to a neighboring mountain, from the -summit of which they looked back with wonder and dismay upon the utter -annihilation of their homesteads and their farms. Flames broke out -over an area half a square league in extent, the earth was burst open -in many places, fragments of burning rock were thrown to prodigious -heights in the air, torrents of boiling mud flowed over the plain, and -thousands of little conical hills, called by the natives Hornitos or -Ovens, rose up from the surface of the land. Finally a vast chasm was -opened, and such quantities of ashes and fragmentary lava were ejected -as to raise up six great mountain masses, which continued to increase -during the five months that the eruption lasted. The least of these is -300 feet high, and the central one, now called Jorullo, which is still -burning, is 1600 feet above the level of the plain. When Baron Humboldt -visited this region just forty years after the eruption had ceased, the -ground was still intensely hot, and “the Hornitos were pouring forth -columns of steam twenty or thirty feet high, with a rumbling noise like -that of a steam boiler.”[93] Since that time, however, the face of the -country has become once more smiling and prosperous; the slopes of the -newly-formed hills are now clothed with vegetation, and the sugar-cane -and the indigo again flourish luxuriantly in the fertile plains below. - -On the opposite side of the Globe, 10,000 miles from Mexico, we have -had, almost in our own time, an exhibition of volcanic phenomena not -less wonderful than those we have been describing. The island of -Sumbawa lies about two hundred miles to the east of Java in the Indian -Archipelago; and it belongs to that remarkable chain of Volcanos which -we have already described as stretching, with little interruption, -along the coast of Asia from Russian America to the Bay of Bengal. In -the year 1815, this island was the scene of a calamitous eruption, the -effects of which were felt over the whole of the Molucca Islands and -Java, as well as over a considerable portion of Celebes, Sumatra, and -Borneo. Indeed, so extraordinary are the incidents of this eruption, -that we might well hesitate to believe them if they had not been -collected on the spot with more than ordinary diligence, and recorded -with an almost scrupulous care. Sir Stamford Raffles, who was at -the time governor of Java, then a British possession, required all -the residents in the various districts under his authority to send -in a statement of the circumstances which occurred within their own -knowledge; and from the accounts he received in this way, combined with -other evidence, chiefly obtained from eye-witnesses, he drew up the -narrative to which we are mainly indebted for the following facts. - -The explosions which accompanied this eruption were heard in Sumatra, -at a distance of 970 geographical miles; and in the opposite direction -at Ternate, a distance of 720 miles. In the neighborhood of the Volcano -itself, immense tracts of land were covered with burning lava, towns -and villages were overwhelmed, all kinds of vegetation completely -destroyed, and of 12,000 inhabitants in the province of Tomboro, -only twenty-six survived. The ashes, which were ejected in great -quantities, were carried like a vast cloud through the air, by the -southeast monsoon, for 300 miles in the direction of Java; and, still -farther to the west, we are told that they formed a floating mass in -the ocean two feet thick and several miles in extent, through which -ships with difficulty forced their way. It is recorded, too, that they -fell so thick on the island of Tombock, 100 miles away, as to cover -all the land two feet deep, destroying every particle of vegetation, -insomuch that 44,000 people perished of the famine that ensued. “I have -seen it computed,” writes Sir John Herschel, “that the quantity of -ashes and lava vomited forth in this awful eruption would have formed -three mountains the size of Mont Blanc, the highest of the Alps; and -if spread over the surface of Germany, would have covered the whole -of it two feet deep.” Finally, it appears that this eruption was -accompanied, like that of Monte Nuovo, by a permanent change in the -level of the adjoining coast; in this case, however, it was a movement, -not of upheaval, but of subsidence: the town of Tomboro sunk beneath -the ocean, which is now eighteen feet deep where there was dry land -before.[94] - -Once more we will ask our readers to take a rapid flight over the map -of the world, passing, this time, from the Indian Archipelago to the -island of Iceland,--that “wonderful land of frost and fire.” Besides -the famous Volcano of Hecla, there are five others scarcely less -formidable, all of which have been in active eruption within modern -times. Of these the most celebrated is that of Skaptar Jokul. In the -year 1783, this Volcano poured forth two streams of lava, which, when -hardened, formed together one continuous layer of igneous rock, ninety -miles in length, a hundred feet in height, and from seven to fifteen -miles in breadth. The phenomena which accompanied the eruption are -thus vividly described by Sir John Herschel:--“On the tenth of May -innumerable fountains of fire were seen shooting up through the ice -and snow which covered the mountain; and the principal river, called -the Skapta, after rolling down a flood of foul and poisonous water, -disappeared. Two days after, a torrent of lava poured down into the bed -which the river had deserted. The river had run in a ravine 600 feet -deep and 200 broad. This the lava entirely filled; and not only so, -but it overflowed the surrounding country, and ran into a great lake, -from which it instantly expelled the water in an explosion of steam. -When the lake was fairly filled, the lava again overflowed and divided -into two streams, one of which covered some ancient lava fields; the -other re-entered the bed of the Skapta lower down, and presented the -astounding sight of a cataract of liquid fire pouring over what was -formerly the waterfall of Stapafoss. This was the greatest eruption on -record in Europe. It lasted in its violence till the end of August, -and closed with a violent earthquake; but for nearly the whole year a -canopy of cinder-laden cloud hung over the island: the Faroe Islands, -nay, even Shetland and the Orkneys, were deluged with ashes; and -volcanic dust and a preternatural smoke which obscured the sun, covered -all Europe as far as the Alps, over which it could not rise. The -destruction of life in Iceland was frightful: 9,000 men, 11,000 cattle, -28,000 horses, and 190,000 sheep perished; mostly by suffocation. The -lava ejected has been computed to amount in volume to more than twenty -cubic miles.”[95] - -With these very significant facts before us, it is hard to resist the -conclusion that the great mountain mass of Etna, 11,000 feet high and -ninety miles in circumference, is formed entirely of volcanic matter -ejected during successive eruptions. For the whole mountain is nothing -else than a series of concentric conical layers of ashes and lava, such -as have been poured out more than once upon its existing surface in -modern times. Just, then, as Monte Nuovo was produced by an outburst -of volcanic power in a single night, and the far larger mountain of -Jorullo in the course of a few months, so may we believe that the more -stupendous Etna is the work of the same power operating through a -period of many centuries. And applying this conclusion to many other -mountains throughout the world of exactly the same structure, we come -to form no very mean estimate of the permanent changes wrought on the -physical geography of our Globe by the operations of volcanic agency. - -We must remember, too, that volcanic eruptions are not confined to the -land; they often break out in the bed of the sea. In such cases the -waters are observed in a state of violent commotion, jets of steam and -sulphurous vapor are emitted, light scoriaceous matter appears floating -on the surface, and not unfrequently the volcanic cone itself slowly -rises from the depths below, and continues to grow from day to day, -until at length it becomes an island of no inconsiderable magnitude. -Sometimes when the violence of the eruption has subsided, the new -island, consisting chiefly of ashes and pumice-stone, is gradually -washed away by the action of the waves; but in the other cases, these -lighter substances are compacted together by the injection of liquid -lava, and being thus able to withstand the erosive power of the ocean, -assume the importance of permanent volcanic islands. Many examples of -the former kind are recorded within the last hundred years. In 1783 an -island was thrown up in the North Atlantic Ocean, about thirty miles to -the southwest of Iceland. It was claimed by the King of Denmark, and -called by him Nyöe or New Island; but before a year had elapsed, this -portion of his Majesty’s dominion disappeared again beneath the waves, -and the sea resumed its ancient domain. A cone-shaped island of the -same kind, called Sabrina, three hundred feet high, with a crater in -the centre, appeared amongst the Azores in 1811, but was quickly washed -away again. - -A more interesting example, because the circumstances are more minutely -recorded, is the island which made its appearance in the Mediterranean, -off the southwest coast of Sicily, in the year 1831. During its brief -existence of three months, it received from contemporary writers seven -different names; but the name of Graham Island seems to be the one by -which it is most likely to be known to posterity. “About the tenth -of July,” writes Sir Charles Lyell, “John Corrao, the captain of a -Sicilian vessel, reported that, as he passed near the place, he saw a -column of water like a waterspout, sixty feet high, and eight hundred -yards in circumference, rising from the sea, and soon afterward a -dense steam in its place, which ascended to the height of 1800 feet. -The same Corrao, on his return from Girgenti, on the eighteenth of -July, found a small island, twelve feet high, with a crater in the -centre, ejecting volcanic matter and immense columns of vapor; the sea -around being covered with floating cinders and dead fish. The scoriae -were of a chocolate color, and the water, which boiled in the circular -basin, was of a dingy red. The eruption continued with great violence -to the end of the same month, at which time the island was visited by -several persons, and amongst others by Captain Swinburne, R. N., and M. -Hoffman, the Prussian Geologist.”[96] By the fourth of August the new -island is said to have attained a height of 200 feet, and to have been -three miles in circumference. Yet this was nothing more than the top of -the volcanic cone; for, a few years before, Captain W. H. Smyth, in his -survey, had found a depth of 600 feet at this very spot; and therefore -the total height from the base of the mountain must have been 800 -feet. From the beginning of August it began to melt away; and at the -commencement of the following year, nothing remained of Graham Island -but a dangerous shoal. - -But even of the islands that occupy a prominent place on the map of -the world, there is not wanting evidence to show that a large number -derive their origin from the action of volcanic power. Among these may -be mentioned many of the Molucca and Philippine groups, also several -in the Grecian Archipelago, and not a few of the Azores and the -Canaries,--in particular the lofty peak of Teneriffe, rising 12,000 -feet above the level of the sea. In some cases, indeed, the actual -process of their birth, and of their subsequent growth and development, -has been minutely observed. A remarkable example occurs among the -Aleutian Islands already referred to. In the year 1796 a column of -smoke was seen to issue from the sea; then a small black point appeared -at the surface of the water; then flames broke out, and other volcanic -phenomena were exhibited; then the small black point grew into an -island, and the island increased in size until it was at last several -thousand feet high, and two or three miles in circumference. And such -it remains to the present day. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Bird’s-eye view of Santorin during the -volcanic eruption of February, 1866. (Lyell.) - - _a._ Therasia. - _b._ The northern entrance, 1068 feet deep. - _c._ Thera. - _d._ Mount St. Elias, rising 1887 feet above the sea. - _e._ Aspronisi. - _f._ Little Kaimeni. - _g._ New Kaimeni. - _h._ Old Kaimeni. - _i._ Aphroessa. - _k._ George.] - -The neighborhood of Santorin in the Grecian Archipelago has been noted -from very remote times as the theatre of submarine eruptions. This -island, which is itself to all appearance the crater of a vast volcano, -has the form of a crescent, and, with the aid of two smaller islands -which stretch across between the horns of the crescent, encloses an -almost circular bay. We learn from Pliny that in the year 186 before -Christ, within this bay an island rose up which was called Hiera or -the Sacred island. It was twice enlarged during the Christian era, once -in 726, and again in 1427, and still exists under the name of Palaia -Kaimeni, that is to say, the Old Burnt Island. In 1573 a second island -made its appearance, and received the name of the Little Burnt Island, -Mikra Kaimeni. In 1707 and 1709, a third island was thrown up, and was -distinguished from the other two as Nea Kaimeni, the New Burnt Island. -Lastly, in 1866 the hidden volcanic power again became active, and -two new vents were formed, called respectively Aphroessa and George. -“At the end of January,” writes Sir Charles Lyell, “the sea had been -observed in a state of ebullition off the southwest coast, and part -of the Channel between New and Old Kaimeni, marked seventy fathoms -in the Admiralty chart, had become, on February the eleventh, only -twelve fathoms deep. According to M. Julius Schmidt, a gradual rising -of the bottom went on until a small island made its appearance called -afterward Aphroessa. It seems to have consisted of lava pressed upward -and outward almost imperceptibly by steam, which was escaping at every -pore through the hissing scoriaceous crust. ‘It could be seen,’ says -Commander Lindesay Brine, R. N., ‘through the fissures in the cone -that the rocks within were red hot, but it was not till later that an -eruption began.’ On February the eleventh the village of Vulcano on the -southeast coast, where there had been a partial sinking of the ground, -was in great part overwhelmed by the materials cast out from a new vent -which opened in that neighborhood, and to which the name of George was -given, which finally, according to Schmidt, became about two hundred -feet high. - -“Commander Brine having ascended on February the twenty-eighth, 1866, -to the top of the crater of Nea Kaimeni, about three hundred and fifty -feet high, looked down upon the new vent then in full activity. The -whole of the cone was swaying with an undulating motion to the right -and left, and appeared sometimes to swell to nearly double its size and -height, to throw out ridges like mountain spurs, till at last a broad -chasm appeared across the top of the cone, accompanied by a tremendous -roar of steam and the shooting up from the new crater, to the height of -from fifty to a hundred feet, of tons of rock and ash mixed with smoke -and steam. Some of these which fell on Mikra Kaimeni, at a distance of -six hundred yards from the crater, measured thirty cubic feet. This -effort over, the ridges slowly subsided, the cone lowered and closed -in, and then, after a few minutes of comparative silence, the struggle -would begin again with precisely similar sounds, action, and result. -Threads of vapor escaping from the old crater of Nea Kaimeni proved -that there was a subterranean connection between the new and the old -vents. Aphroessa, of which the cone was at length raised to a height -of more than sixty feet, was united in August with the main island. -This was due in part at least to the upheaval of the bottom of the sea, -which is now only seven fathoms deep in the channel dividing the New -and Old Kaimenis, whereas in the Admiralty chart the soundings gave a -hundred fathoms.”[97] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER XVI._ - -SUBTERRANEAN HEAT--ITS POWERS ILLUSTRATED BY EARTHQUAKES. - - _Earthquakes and volcanos proceed from the same common - cause--Recent earthquakes in New Zealand--Vast tracts of - land permanently upraised--Earthquakes of Chili in the - present century--Crust of the Earth elevated--Earthquake of - Cutch in India, 1819--Remarkable instance of subsidence and - upheaval--Earthquake of Calabria, 1783--Earthquake of Lisbon, - 1755--Great destruction of life and property--Earthquake - of Peru, August, 1868--General scene of ruin and - devastation--Great sea wave--A ship with all her crew carried a - quarter of a mile inland--Frequency of earthquakes._ - - -The chief effect of volcanic eruptions on the Geological structure of -our Globe consists in the accumulation of cinders and molten rock, -either upon the Surface of the Earth, or in the crevices and caverns -that abound within its solid Crust. Sometimes, indeed, the operations -of an active Volcano are accompanied by a movement of upheaval or -of subsidence. Thus for instance, we have seen that a portion of -the Italian coast was elevated when Monte Nuovo was thrown up, that -the town of Tomboro was submerged on the occasion of the eruption -of Sumbawa, and that the bottom of the sea was notably upheaved by -the last outbreak of the volcanic fires of Santorini. Nevertheless -it appears to be generally the case that when the Crust of the -Earth is once burst open, and a means of escape thus afforded to -the fiery agent below,--in other words, when the active volcano is -established,--the process of upheaval gives place to that of eruption. -But when, as is often the case, no such safety-valve is offered to the -surplus energies of the subterranean fires, then the giant power of -heat, in its struggle to escape, shakes the foundation of the hills, -and uplifts the superincumbent mass of solid rocks. - -This theory which ascribes the phenomena of Earthquakes and Volcanos -to the same common cause, acting under different circumstances, is -now almost universally adopted by Geologists; and it may be briefly -enforced by the following considerations. First, though Earthquakes -have sometimes occurred far away from any known volcanic region, -yet they are more frequent in the neighborhood of active or extinct -Volcanos. Secondly, almost all volcanic eruptions are preceded by -Earthquakes; and the Earthquakes generally cease, or, at least become -less violent, when the subterranean fire breaks out in the form of a -Volcano. And, Thirdly, it is plain that the condensed steam which is -generated by internal heat, and the expansive power of the heat itself, -must, of necessity, when pent up in the caverns of the Earth, tend to -produce those very phenomena by which Earthquakes are distinguished. - -Let it be observed, however, that while we explain the phenomena in -question by the agency of subterranean heat, this doctrine is by no -means necessary for the main purpose of our present argument. Whatever -may be the cause from which the Earthquake shock proceeds, it is -enough for us to show that the Crust of the Earth has been from time -to time upraised, and dislocated, and rent asunder in modern times, -just as it is supposed in Geological theory, to have been upraised, and -dislocated, and rent asunder from time to time in by-gone ages. We will -set down a few out of the many examples observed and recorded during -the last hundred and twenty years. - -When the English colonists settled in New Zealand, about fifty years -ago, they were told by the natives that they might expect a great -Earthquake every seven years. This alarming prediction has not been -literally fulfilled; but it is fully admitted that the total number of -such disturbances within the last half century has not fallen short of -what it should have been according to the above estimate. During the -years 1826 and 1827 several shocks were felt in the neighborhood of -Cook Strait, after which it was observed that the sea-shore had been -uplifted on the north side of Dusky Bay. So transformed was the outline -of the coast that its former features could no longer be recognized; -and a small cove called the Jail, which had previously afforded a -commodious harbor to vessels, engaged in seal fishing, was completely -dried up. - -But the most memorable convulsion took place on the night of January -the twenty-third, 1855. A tract of land, about as large as Yorkshire, -on the southwest coast of the North Island, was permanently upraised -from one to nine feet. The harbor of Port Nicholson, together with -the valley of the Hutt, was elevated four to five feet; and a sunken -rock, regarded before as dangerous to navigators, has remained since -the Earthquake three feet above the level of the water. The shock was -felt by ships at sea a hundred and fifty miles from the coast; and it -is estimated that the whole area affected was not less than three times -the extent of the British Islands. - -The whole coast of Chili has been subject to great disturbances and -changes of level during the present century. In November, 1837, the -town of Valdivia was destroyed by an Earthquake, and at the same -moment, a whaling vessel, a short distance out at sea, was violently -shaken, and lost her masts. The bottom of the sea was afterward -found to have been raised in some places more than eight feet; and -several rocks appeared high above the water which had previously -been covered at all times by the sea. Two years before, in 1835, the -town of Conception and several others were reduced to ruins by a like -visitation. After the first great convulsion the Earth remained for -many days in a state of commotion. More than three hundred lesser -shocks were counted from the twentieth of February to the fourth of -March. On this occasion, too, the bed of the sea was upheaved; and the -whole island of Santa Maria, seven miles in length, was lifted up from -eight to ten feet above its former level. - -The Earthquake of 1822 was more violent, perhaps, and more striking in -its effects, than either of those just mentioned. On the nineteenth of -November in that year a sudden convulsive shock was simultaneously felt -over a space 1200 miles in length. At Valparaiso, and on either side -for a considerable distance, the coast was permanently upheaved. When -Mrs. Graham, who was then living on the spot, and who has left us an -account of the Earthquake, went down to the shore on the following day, -she “found the ancient bed of the sea laid bare and dry, with beds of -oysters, mussels, and other shells adhering to the rocks on which they -grew, the fish being all dead, and exhaling most offensive effluvia.” -Some idea may be formed of the gigantic power here in operation, when -it is remembered that to uplift the coast of Chili, it was necessary -to move the mighty chain of the Andes, and, amongst the rest, the -colossal mass of Aconcagua, 24,000 feet in height. How far this process -of upheaval extended out to sea, beneath the bed of the ocean, has not -been accurately ascertained: but certain it is that, for a considerable -distance, the soundings were found to be shallower than before the -Earthquake. It is roughly estimated that the Crust of the Earth was -elevated over an extent of 100,000 square miles, or about half the area -of France. - -On the western coast of India, near the mouth of the river Indus, is -the well-known district of Cutch. In the month of June, 1819, this -extensive territory, not less than half the size of Ireland, was -violently shaken by an Earthquake, several hundred people were killed, -and many towns and villages were laid in ruins. The shocks continued -for some days, and ceased only when the outburst of a Volcano seemed to -open a vent for the troubled spirit within. But what is particularly -worthy of note is that when the Earthquake had passed away, a permanent -change was found to have been effected in the level of the surrounding -country. The town and fort of Sindree, situated on the eastern arm of -the Indus, together with a tract of land 2,000 square miles in extent, -were submerged beneath the waters. The principal buildings, however, -still remained standing, with their upper parts above the surface; and -many of the inhabitants, who had taken refuge in one of the towers -attached to the fort, were saved in boats when the Earthquake had -ceased. On the other hand, within five miles and a half of this very -spot, the level surface of the Earth was upheaved, so as to form a long -elevated bank, fifty miles in length and sixteen in breadth, which -has been called the Ullah Bund, or the Mound of God. Nine years after -this event, Sir Alexander Burnes went out in a boat to the ruins of -Sindree, and standing on the summit of the tower, which still rose two -or three feet above the surface of the water, he could see nothing -around him but a wide expanse of sea, save where a blue streak of land -on the edge of the horizon marked the outline of the Ullah Bund. Here -was a striking illustration, on a small scale, of those changes which -Geologists suppose to have been going on since the world first began; -the dry land had been converted into the bed of the sea, and the level -plain had been elevated into a mountain ridge. - -Toward the close of the last century the province of Calabria, in -Southern Italy, was the scene of an Earthquake which offers a very -apposite illustration of our present argument. This celebrated -convulsion is not, however, chiefly remarkable for its violence, or -for its duration, or for the extent of the territory moved. In all -these respects it has been surpassed by many Earthquakes, experienced -in other countries, within the last hundred and fifty years. But the -Calabrian Earthquake has an especial claim on our attention, mainly -from this unusual circumstance, that the region of disturbance was -visited, as Sir Charles Lyell tells us, “both during and after the -convulsions, by men possessing sufficient leisure, zeal, and scientific -information, to enable them to collect and describe with accuracy such -physical facts as throw light on geological questions.” - -The shocks were first felt in February, 1783, and continued for nearly -four years. Over a very considerable area of country all the common -landmarks were removed, large tracts of land were forced bodily down -the slopes of mountains; and vineyards, orchards, and cornfields were -transported from one site to another; insomuch that disputes afterward -arose as to who was the rightful owner of the property that had thus -shifted its position. Two farms near Mileto, occupying an extent of -country a mile long and half a mile broad, were actually removed for -a mile down the valley; and “a thatched cottage, together with large -olive and mulberry trees, most of which remained erect, was carried -uninjured to this extraordinary distance.” In other places the surface -of the Earth heaved like the billows of a troubled sea; many houses -were lifted up above the common level, while others subsided below it. -Again and again the solid Crust of the Earth was rent asunder, and -chasms, gorges, ravines, of various depths, were suddenly produced, -in less time than it takes to tell it. Sometimes when the strain was -removed, the yawning gulf as quickly closed again, and then houses, -cattle, and men were swallowed up in the abyss, leaving not a trace -behind. It has even been recorded--strange though it may seem--that -when two shocks rapidly followed one another at the same spot, the -people engulphed by the first, were again cast forth by the second, -being literally disgorged alive from the jaws of death. About 40,000 -persons perished in this dreadful visitation, the greater number being -crushed to death beneath the ruins of the towns and villages, others -swallowed up in the yawning fissures as they fled across the open -country, and others again burned in the conflagrations which almost -always followed the shocks of Earthquake. - -Everyone has heard of the famous Earthquake of Lisbon. It is chiefly -memorable for the extreme suddenness of the shock, for the immense -extent of the area affected, and for the amount of havoc and -destruction done. On the morning of the fatal day--it was the first -of November, 1755--the sun rose bright and cheerful over the devoted -city, no symptom of impending danger was visible in the sky above or -on the Earth below, and the gay-hearted people were pursuing their -accustomed rounds of pleasure or business, when, suddenly, at twenty -minutes before ten o’clock, a sound like thunder was heard underground, -the Earth was violently shaken, and in another moment, the greater part -of the city was lying in ruins. Within the brief space of six minutes, -60,000 people were crushed to death. The mountains in the vicinity -of the town were cleft asunder. The waters of the sea first retired -from the land, and then rolled back in a huge mountain-like wave fifty -feet above the level of the highest tide. A new quay, built entirely -of marble, had offered a temporary place of refuge to the terrified -inhabitants as they fled from the tumbling ruins of the city. Three -thousand people are said to have been collected upon it, when, all -at once, it sunk beneath the waves, and not a fragment of the solid -masonry, not a vestige of its living freight, was ever seen again. The -bottom of the sea where the quay then stood is now a hundred fathoms -deep. - -From Lisbon as a centre the shock of this Earthquake radiated over an -area not less than four times the extent of Europe. Like a great wave -it rolled northward, at the rate of twenty miles a minute, upheaving -the Earth as it moved along, to the coasts of the Baltic Sea and the -German Ocean. The waters of Loch Lomond, in Scotland, were violently -disturbed from beneath, and at Kinsale, in Ireland, the sea rushed -impetuously into the harbor without a breath of wind, and mounting over -the quay, flooded the market-place. Eastward the convulsion was felt as -far as the Alps, and westward it extended to the West India Islands, -and even to the great lakes of Canada. On the north coast of Africa the -disturbance was as violent as in Spain and Portugal; and it is recorded -that at a distance of eight leagues from Morocco, the earth opened and -swallowed up a considerable town with its inhabitants, to the number of -eight or ten thousand people. - -Even on the high seas the shock was felt no less distinctly than on -dry land. “Off St. Lucar,” says Sir Charles Lyell, “the captain of the -ship Nancy felt his vessel so violently shaken, that he thought she -had struck the ground, but, on heaving the lead, found a great depth -of water. Captain Clark, from Denia, in latitude 36° 24´ N., between -nine and ten in the morning, had his ship shaken and strained as if she -had struck upon a rock, so that the seams of the deck opened, and the -compass was overturned in the binnacle. Another ship, forty leagues -west of St. Vincent, experienced so violent a concussion, that the men -were thrown a foot and a half perpendicularly up from the deck.” It -is worthy of note that this, the most destructive Earthquake recorded -in history, was not attended with any volcanic eruption; which goes -to confirm our theory that the active Volcano serves as a kind of -safety-valve for the escape of the struggling powers confined within -the Crust of the Earth.[98] - -We must not bring our notice of Earthquakes to an end without at least -some brief account of one which has startled the world even since we -began to put together the materials of this Volume. On the Western -Coast of South America there is a long, narrow strip of land, lying -between the lofty crests of the Andes and the shores of the Pacific -Ocean, which from the earliest times has been the familiar home of -Earthquakes. Toward evening on the thirteenth of August, 1868, this -fated region was the scene of a convulsion the most appalling and -destructive that has been recorded within the present century. The -disturbance was felt in its extreme violence for a distance of 1500 -miles along the coast; from Ibarra one degree north of the Equator -to Iquique more than twenty degrees south. In ten minutes from the -first shock, 20,000 people perished, and a vast amount of property, -roughly estimated at sixty millions sterling, was utterly destroyed. -Many thriving towns--Iquique, Mexillones, Pisagua, Arica, Ylo, Chala, -and others--were levelled to the ground. Even the very ruins were not -spared. The sea rushed in when the Earthquake shock had ceased, and -carried everything before it in one universal wreck: so that in some -cases not a vestige remained behind to tell the dismayed survivors -where their homesteads once had stood. It might be fancied perhaps -that the cities seated aloft in the security of the Eternal Hills were -beyond the reach of the convulsion that shook the plain below. But no: -Arequipa, far up on the slopes of the western Cordillera, and Pasco, -the highest city in the world, situated on a level with the snowy -summit of the Jungfrau, were shattered into fragments with the same -violence as the cities of the coast. - -The various incidents recorded by the survivors are full of fearful -interest. At Iquique, according to one account, about five o’clock in -the evening of the thirteenth of August, a rumbling noise was heard, -then the earth shook violently for some minutes, then the sea, with -a great moan, retired from the shore, and rearing itself up into a -tremendous wave, rushed back upon the land and swept away the town. -“I saw,” says one writer, “the whole surface of the sea rise as if a -mountain side, actually standing up. Another shock, accompanied with -a fearful roar, now took place. I called to my companions to run for -their lives on to the Pampa. Too late! With a horrid crash the sea was -on us, and at one sweep--one terrible sweep--dashed what was Iquique on -to the Pampa. I lost my companions, and in an instant was fighting with -the dark water. The mighty wave surged and roared and leaped. The cries -of human beings and animals were dreadful. A mass of wreck covered me -and kept me down, and I was fast drowning when the sea threw me on to -a beam, but a nail piercing my coat, the timber rolled me again under, -and I lost all sense. I suppose, as in all such cases, I must have -struggled after sensation had left me, for when returning consciousness -came I was grasping under one arm a large plank. Looking round, all was -wreck and desolation. In a moment I was by a returning wave swept into -the bay, and meeting a mass of broken timber, I was struck a fearful -blow on the chin, and the broken end of the plank passed through my -thigh. I knew no more until I found myself on the Pampa, and all dark -around me. I was without trousers, coat, shoes, or hat. Trying to -collect myself, I thought of another wave, and crawled away to the -mountain side, scooped a hole in the ground, and got in; here, wet and -shivering, I spent the night. My wound bled freely. In the morning -I looked out and found Iquique gone, all but a few houses round the -church.” - -A good deal of shipping was lying in the bay of Arica. When the waters -first receded the vessels were all carried out to sea, chains, cables, -and anchors snapping asunder like packthread. A moment, afterward they -were borne back irresistibly by the returning wave, and dashed to -pieces on the coast. One more fortunate than the rest, the Wateree, a -vessel of war belonging to the United States Government, was caught up -on the crest of the wave, and with the loss of only one man, was landed -high and dry among the sand-hills a quarter of a mile from the shore. - -Before the Earthquake, Arequipa was a prosperous town of 30,000 -inhabitants. It enjoyed a considerable trade, and, in importance as -well as size, it was regarded as the third city of Peru, being inferior -only to Lima and Cuzco. The houses were constructed with especial -regard to security against the shock of Earthquakes. They were but -one story high, built of solid stone, and massive to an extraordinary -degree. But these precautions, though the fruit of long experience, -were all of no avail. At Sunset on the fatal thirteenth of August the -populous and thriving city of Arequipa was little better than a heap of -ruins. “Not a church is left standing,” writes an eye-witness, “not a -house habitable. The shock commenced at twenty minutes past five in the -afternoon, and lasted six or seven minutes. The houses being solidly -built and of one story, resisted for one minute, which gave the people -time to rush into the middle of the streets, so that the mortality, -although considerable, is not so great as might have been expected. If -the Earthquake had occurred at night, few indeed would have been left -to tell the story. As it is, the prisoners in the public prison, and -the sick in the hospital, have perished. The Earthquake commenced with -an undulating movement, and as the shock culminated, no one could keep -his feet: the houses rocked as a ship in the trough of the sea, and -came crumbling down. The shrieks of the women, the crash of falling -masonry, the upheaving of the earth, and the clouds of blinding dust, -made up a scene that cannot be described. We had nineteen minor shocks -the same night, and the earth still continues in motion. Nothing has as -yet been done toward disinterring the dead; but I do not think any are -buried alive, as certain death must have been the fate of all those who -were not able to get into the street. The earth has opened in all the -plains around, and water has appeared in various places.”[99] - -These are a few typical examples of the more violent convulsions by -which the Crust of the Earth has been disturbed within little more -than a century; and they leave no doubt as to the kind of changes -which may fairly be ascribed to similar agency in the past history of -the Globe. Nor must it be supposed that, because our examples are few -in number, the Earthquake is itself a rare and exceptional event. On -the contrary, the state of partial disturbance and convulsion would -seem to be the natural and ordinary condition of our planet. From the -interesting Catalogue drawn up by Mr. Mallet, it appears that, in our -own times, the number of Earthquakes actually observed and recorded -is, on an average, not less than from two to three every week. Now -this catalogue cannot represent more than one-third of the Globe: for -the disturbances which take place in the profound depths of the ocean -must for the most part escape observation, and many parts even of the -inhabited Earth are still beyond the reach of scientific researches. -It is, therefore, quite a reasonable speculation of Sir Charles -Lyell, that “scarcely a day passes without one or more shocks being -experienced in some part of the Globe.” - -Moreover, in Mr. Mallet’s Catalogue no account is taken of those minor -vibrations or tremblings of the Earth’s Crust, which are not attended -by any striking or noteworthy event. And yet such phenomena, when -often repeated, may produce a very important change of level, and -are far more frequent than most persons would be likely to suppose. -In our quiet region of the Globe people are too apt to take for -granted the general stability of the Earth: but in other countries -the inhabitants, warned by long experience, are no less deeply -impressed with a conviction of its instability. Sir John Herschel says -that, in the volcanic regions of Central and Southern America, “the -inhabitants no more think of counting Earthquake shocks, than we do of -counting showers of rain:” nay, he adds that, “in some places along -the coast a shower is a greater variety.” And in Sicily, we are told -they make provision against movements of the Earth’s Crust, just as -we make provision against lightning and storms; so much so that it -is quite a common thing for architects to advertise their houses as -Earth-quake-proof. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER XVII._ - -SUBTERRANEAN HEAT--ITS POWERS ILLUSTRATED BY UNDULATIONS OF THE EARTH’S -CRUST. - - _Gentle movements of the Earth’s Crust within historic - times--Roman roads and temples submerged in the bay of - Baiæ--Temple of Jupiter Serapis--Singular condition - of its columns--Proof of subsidence and subsequent - upheaval--Indications of a second subsidence now - actually taking place--Gradual upheaval of the coast of - Sweden--Summary of the evidence adduced to establish this - fact--Subsidence of the Earth’s Crust on the west coast of - Greenland--Recapitulation._ - - -SO far we have spoken of the disturbance of the Earth’s Crust in -modern times by sudden and violent convulsions. But there are many -phenomena with which the Geologist is familiar, that cannot be fairly -accounted for unless by supposing that the surface of the Earth was -often elevated and depressed in ancient times, without any sudden -shock, by a slow and almost insensible movement. And, accordingly, -gentle undulations of this kind enter largely into that general theory -of Geology which we have been attempting to draw out and illustrate. -It may be asked, therefore, if we are able to support this part of our -system by examples of similar phenomena occurring within the period -of history. In reply, we shall endeavor to set forth, as briefly as -we can, some of the evidence which has recently come to light on -this subject, and which seems to us not less conclusive than it is -interesting and unexpected. - -In the bay of Baiæ, to the west of Naples, two ancient Roman roads may -be distinctly traced, at the present day, for a considerable distance, -permanently submerged beneath the waters. There are, also, in the same -neighborhood, the ruins of the temple of Neptune and of the temple of -the Nymphs, both likewise submerged. “The columns of the former edifice -stand erect in five feet of water, the upper portions just rising -to the surface;[100] the pedestals are supposed to be buried in the -mud below.” Again, on the opposite side of Naples, near Sorrento, “a -road with fragments of Roman buildings, is covered to some depth by -the sea;”[101] and in the island of Capri, at the opening of the bay -of Naples, one of the palaces of Tiberius is also under water. Here, -therefore, it is clear that the Crust of the Earth has subsided over -a very considerable area; since what is now the bed of the sea, was -in the days of the Romans dry land, traversed by roads, and dotted -over with buildings. That the subsidence was slow and gradual may be -inferred, partly from the absence of any record or tradition of a -sudden convulsion producing such a change, and partly, too, from the -unshaken and undisturbed condition of the monuments themselves. - -But while this conclusion falls in most happily with our present -argument, it would seem on further examination to bring with it a very -serious difficulty. For, while those ancient monuments testify that -the Crust of the Earth in this locality has _subsided_, the structure -of the sea-coast, interpreted according to Geological principles, -would indicate, on the contrary, that the Crust of the Earth has -been _upheaved_. Close to the sea, at the present day, on the bay of -Baiæ, there is a low, level tract of fertile land, and at a little -distance inland, a lofty range of precipitous cliffs, eighty feet high, -parallel to the line of the coast. This fertile tract, lying between -the sea-beach and the perpendicular cliffs, is about twenty feet -above the sea level, and is composed of regularly stratified deposits -abounding in marine shells of recent species, together with works of -human art, such as tiles, squares of mosaic pavement, fragments of -bricks, and sculptured ornaments. Upon these facts a Geologist would -pronounce without hesitation:--First, that at some period since the -district around Naples was first inhabited by man, the waters of the -sea washed the base of the perpendicular cliffs; secondly, that the -strata in which we now find the recent marine shells, and the remains -of man’s workmanship, were formed during that period by the process -of deposition at the bottom of the sea; and thirdly, that at some -subsequent time, by an upheaval of the Earth’s Crust, these strata were -lifted up so as to form a pretty considerable area of dry land, fit for -agriculture and the arts of life. - -Does it not seem, therefore, that we have here a direct contradiction -between the evidence of ancient Roman buildings and the inferences of -modern Geology? Doubtless, they both agree in the main point about -which we are concerned just now, that the Crust of the Earth has -been moved in recent times on the shores of the bay of Naples; but -according to the testimony of the Roman temples, now covered by water, -this movement has been one of _subsidence_, while, according to the -inferences of Geological theory, it has been one of _upheaval_. This -apparent contradiction seems to call for some elucidation. - -If we were left in this matter to mere conjecture, we might offer -the following hypothesis as a fair and reasonable solution. We might -suppose that since the days of the Roman Empire, there have been _two -successive movements_ of the Earth’s Crust in the neighborhood of -Naples; first, a movement of subsidence, by which the ancient temples -and roads were submerged to a considerable depth beneath the sea; -afterward, a movement of upheaval, by which the marine strata were -lifted up. If this second movement were exactly equal to the first, -it is plain that the ancient roads and buildings would have been just -restored to their former level. But let us suppose that the amount of -upheaval was something less than the amount of previous subsidence, -and we should have these roads and buildings still submerged, as they -are in point of fact, in a few feet of water. By such an hypothesis, -therefore, the two classes of phenomena might be brought into perfect -harmony. - -But we are not obliged to take refuge in hypothesis: for it is now -distinctly proved by a very curious kind of evidence, that the Crust of -the Earth in and about the bay of Baiæ, has been successively depressed -and upraised since the third century of the Christian era; nay more, -that the subsidence in the first case was greater than the subsequent -upheaval. Near Pozzuoli, on the level tract of land which, as we -have said, intervenes between the sea and the lofty range of inland -cliffs, are to be seen at the present day the ruins of a splendid -Roman edifice, usually called the temple of Jupiter Serapis, though, -according to some writers, it was not a temple at all, but a public -establishment for baths. These ruins first attracted attention about -the middle of the last century. Three magnificent marble columns were -still standing erect, with their lower parts buried in the stratified -deposits already described, and their upper portions, which projected -above the surface of the land, partly concealed by bushes. When the -soil was removed the original plan of the building could be distinctly -traced. “It was of a quadrangular form, seventy feet in diameter, and -the roof had been supported by forty-six noble columns, twenty-four -of granite and the rest of marble.” Many of the pillars have been -shattered in the course of time, and lie strewn in fragments on the -pavements. The three which are still standing erect, are upward of -forty feet in height, each carved out of a solid block of marble; and, -what is chiefly to our purpose, they exhibit, curiously inscribed on -their surface, memorials of the physical changes in which they have -borne a part. - -The base of these lofty columns is, at present, slightly below the -level of the sea. Their outer surface is smooth for about twelve -feet above the pedestals; then, for the next nine feet the marble is -everywhere bored by a well-known species of mussel, which it is certain -can live only in the sea. Above this band of perforations the pillars -again present a smooth surface, and continue smooth to the top. The -first inference from these facts is, that the columns in question -must have been at one time submerged to a height of twenty-one feet -above the pedestals; otherwise they could not have been bored at that -height by a species of animal that can only exist in sea-water. Since -that time, therefore, the land at this spot must have been upraised -twenty-one feet. Furthermore, the temple of Jupiter was certainly not -built at the bottom of the sea, but upon dry land; therefore, after -the temple had been built, the Crust of the Earth must have subsided -at least twenty-one feet. Once more: as the floor of the temple is now -somewhat below the level of the sea, and as it is not very likely it -was at first so built, we may fairly infer that it is now lower than it -originally stood; and consequently, that the total amount of upheaval -has not been equal to the total amount of subsidence. Though we cannot -fix the exact date at which the subsidence began, it was probably not -earlier than the third century; for in the atrium of the temple is an -inscription recording that it was adorned with precious marbles by the -emperor Septimus Severus. - -It cannot be supposed for a moment that these changes were effected -by a rise and fall in the level of the sea rather than by a movement -of the Earth’s Crust. A permanent change in the level of the -Mediterranean, in any given locality, would, of necessity, imply a -change of level over its entire extent; and therefore, if the phenomena -exhibited in the bay of Baiæ arose from such a cause, we should meet -with phenomena of the same kind along the whole length of the Italian -coast. Now, in point of fact, no such changes of level are elsewhere -apparent; and consequently, they must be ascribed in the bay of Baiæ, -not to an upward and downward movement of the sea, but to an upward and -downward movement of the land. - -We must not omit to state, before leaving the subject, that it is now -ascertained, by a series of accurate observations, that the Crust -of the Earth in this interesting locality is once again slowly and -gradually subsiding. At the beginning of the century the platform of -the temple stood at about the level of the sea; it is now more than -a foot below it. Nay, this second subsidence appears to have begun -even before the present century. “In the year 1813,” writes a modern -traveller, “I resided for four months in the Capuchin convent of -Pozzuoli, which is situated between the road from Naples and the sea, -at the entrance of the town of Pozzuoli. In the Capuchin convents -the oldest friar is called ‘il molto reverende,’ and the one who -then enjoyed the title in this convent was ninety-three years old. -He informed me that, when he was a young man, the road from Naples -passed on the _seaward side_ of the convent; but that, from the -gradual sinking of the soil, the road was obliged to be altered to -its present course. While I was staying at the convent, the refectory -as well as the entrance gate, were from six inches to a foot under -water whenever strong westerly winds prevailed, so as to cause the -waters of the Mediterranean to rise. Thirty years previously, my old -informant stated, such an occurrence never took place. In fact, it is -not probable that the builder of the convent would have placed the -ground-floor so low as to expose to inundation as it now is.”[102] - -On the shores of the Baltic Sea we find another illustration of -our theory upon a more extended scale. About a century and a half -ago the Swedish naturalist, Celsius, expressed a belief that a -remarkable change of level was taking place along the eastern coast -of Scandinavia; and he ascribed the change to a subsidence of the -waters of the Baltic Sea. This opinion was received at first with -no small amount of incredulity; but the arguments of Celsius were -plausible and attractive enough to excite a controversy, and the -controversy once aroused was not easily set at rest. Accordingly, -since his time the facts upon which he relied have been more strictly -examined, difficulties have been started and investigated, many new -facts, at first unknown or unnoticed, have been brought to light, and -the whole question has been rigorously discussed by scientific men. -It would be tedious to go through the history of the discussion, or -to develop at any length the arguments which in the end have proved -successful, involving as they do a multitude of minute observations and -nice measurements, made at a great variety of different places with -hard-sounding names. But the general result may be readily stated and -as readily understood. - -It appears that numerous sunken reefs, well known to navigators, have, -within the last two centuries, become visible above water; that many -ancient ports have become inland towns; that many small islands have -become united to one another and to the mainland by grassy plains; -that rocky points which in former times just peeped above the water, -and afforded refuge only to a solitary sea-bird, are now grown into -little islets; and that several of the old fishing grounds are now -deserted for their shallowness, nay, in some cases, altogether dried -up. From these facts the inference is plain; either the solid Crust of -the Earth has been uplifted, or the waters of the sea have subsided. -Now it is certain there has been no subsidence of the sea; for such -a subsidence, as we before observed, if it took place at all, should -have been general; whereas there are many points on the shores of the -Baltic, especially along the coasts of Denmark and Prussia, where it -can be proved that no change of level has taken place for centuries. -And therefore the phenomena above described we must attribute to an -upheaval of the Earth’s Crust.[103] - -Such is the kind of reasoning with which this inquiry has been pursued; -and it may now be set down as a received and established fact, that a -slow and gradual process of upheaval is going on, at the present day, -on the shores of the Baltic Sea, at the rate of from two to four feet -in a century; and this is over an area of unknown breadth, and not less -than 1000 miles in length. Evidence of a similar kind has lately been -adduced to prove that the west coast of Greenland is just now gradually -subsiding for a space of more than 600 miles from north to south. -“Ancient buildings on low, rocky islands, and on the shore of the -mainland, have been gradually submerged, and experience has taught the -aboriginal Greenlander never to build his hut near the water’s edge. -In one case the Moravian settlers have been obliged more than once to -move the poles upon which their large boats were set, and the old poles -still remain beneath the water as silent witnesses of the change.”[104] - -It should seem, therefore, that the Crust of the Earth is not that -fixed and immovable mass of unyielding rock which it is often supposed -to be. Whatever the gigantic power is which lies shut up within it, -and which seems, clearly enough, to be developed in some way or -another--perhaps in many ways at once--from internal heat, that power -exercises a mighty influence from age to age on the outward form of -our planet. Like the wind, indeed, it bloweth where it listeth, and -we cannot tell whence it cometh or whither it goeth; but we can hear -the sound thereof, and witness its effects when it breaks out now in -this quarter of the world, and now in that, bursting open the massive -rocks, and furiously vomiting forth whole mountains of smouldering -ashes and molten mineral; or again, when, failing to find a vent, it -shakes the foundations of the hills, and shivers into fragments the -most enduring works of man--castles, temples, palaces,--filling every -heart with terror and dismay; or, in fine, when it gently upheaves the -bottom of the ocean, or by withdrawing the strain, allows the Crust of -the Earth to subside, with a movement so gradual and insensible as to -escape the notice of the multitudes who are toiling in the busy cities -on its Surface. That phenomena of this kind have been going on in all -past ages, is now universally assumed in the speculations of Geology: -that they are going on in the present age, we have here endeavored to -prove by the evidence of facts. If we have succeeded according to our -expectations, the reader will be prepared to admit that, on this point -at least, it is not the Geologist who may fairly be charged with having -recourse to the inventions of his fancy, but rather those who, assuming -as a first principle that Geology is false, perseveringly shut their -eyes to the physical changes that are going on around them. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PART II. - -THE ANTIQUITY OF THE EARTH CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE HISTORY OF -GENESIS. - - - - -_CHAPTER XVIII._ - -STATEMENT OF THE QUESTION AND EXPOSITION OF THE AUTHORS VIEW. - - _The general principles of geological theory accepted by the - author--These principles plainly import the extreme antiquity - of the earth--Illustration from the coal, the chalk, and the - boulder clay--This conclusion not at variance with the inspired - history of creation--Chronology of the Bible--Genealogies of - Genesis--Date of the creation not fixed by Moses--Progress of - opinion on this point--Cardinal Wiseman, Father Perrone, Father - Pianciani--Doctor Buckland--Doctor Chalmers, Doctor Pye Smith, - Hugh Miller--Author’s view explained--Charge of rashness and - irreverence answered--Admonitions of Saint Augustine and Saint - Thomas._ - - -The reader has now before him a general outline of Geological theory, -together with some familiar illustrations of the evidence by which it -is supported. We shall not attempt to enforce this evidence by any -remarks of our own. Indeed it is of a kind that can derive but little -aid from the arts of logic or rhetoric. It needs but to be fairly -understood, and if it does not altogether compel our assent, it begets -at least a presumption so strong as to leave little room for doubt or -hesitation. - -Nobody, so far as we know, has ever hesitated to believe that the -Round Towers of Ireland are the work of human hands. And yet if some -incredulous skeptic were to raise the cry against this common opinion, -were to argue that it is a mere hypothesis, and call for proof, we -should be embarrassed how to answer him. We could only say that these -monuments have all the characteristic marks of man’s handiwork; -and that buildings of this kind have never been known to come into -existence except through the agency of Man. But should our vexatious -skeptic contend that they were possibly produced by a freak of Nature; -or that they were built in the beginning by the Creator of the World, -who certainly might have made them had He been so minded, we should -think him very unreasonable, and probably not feel much disposed to -prolong the discussion. In like manner the theory of Geology which we -are defending, cannot be established by a rigid demonstration; but we -believe there is not one man of sense and judgment, who, being fully -master of the evidence on which it rests, hesitates to accept that -theory, at least in its more general outlines. No doubt many able and -eminent men are to be found arrayed against Geology; but it would -be easy to show from their writings that they have never thoroughly -examined the facts about which they talk so flippantly, and which they -often set aside so lightly. - -For ourselves, therefore, we frankly avow that while we attach -but little importance to the mere conjectures and speculations of -Geological writers; while we look with doubt and suspicion on many -plausible theories commonly enough adopted at the present day; and -while we consider that the discoveries of modern times, wonderful -though they are, have given rise to far more problems than they are -yet able to solve; yet we do fully assent to those general principles -which we have been attempting to develop and to illustrate in this -Volume. Absolutely metaphysical certainty we have not; but we have a -firm and rational conviction. We feel quite satisfied that the great -Creator of the Universe did not bring suddenly into existence the -withered remains and broken fragments of animals which had never lived; -that He did not stamp upon the massive rocks, buried in the profound -recesses of the earth, the impress of a luxuriant vegetation which had -never flourished; that He did not, in short, create under millions of -forms, the delusive appearances of things which had never been, and -scatter them through this world of ours in wild profusion, well knowing -that after many centuries they would come to light to bewilder human -reason, and to lead it into error. This conclusion, of course, we are -prepared to abandon if it should be found to clash with any certain -truth or with any demonstrated fact. But, in the mean lime, it seems -to us as well grounded and as fairly established as the conclusions -we are accustomed to accept without hesitation in the matter of other -sciences, and in the common business of life. - -It is argued, however, that Geological theory is, in fact, at variance -with the very highest order of truth; with that truth which comes to -us on the authority of God Himself. The Bible tells us that the world -first came into existence about six or eight thousand years ago: -Geology, on the contrary, tells us that six or eight thousand years are -but as yesterday in the history of the revolutions through which our -Globe has passed. This is the argument to which we are now about to -address ourselves; and it well deserves our best attention, not only -from its intrinsic importance, but also from the interesting nature of -the discussion to which it has given rise. - -In the first place, we fully admit that the extreme Antiquity of the -Earth is a necessary consequence of our theory. Setting out from the -present stage of the world’s existence, Geology carries us back from -epoch to epoch, through a long succession of ages, each extending over -many thousand years, until the mind is lost in the seeming infinity of -the past. It may be asked, perhaps, in what way Geology can testify to -the great length of each successive period in the history of the Globe. -A familiar example will furnish the most convenient reply to such a -question. - -Let the reader call to mind what we have already explained about the -origin and formation of Coal; and then let him examine the structure -of the Carboniferous Rocks. In the great Coal-fields of Wales, for -instance, he will find, in a depth of 12,000 feet, from fifty to -a hundred distinct beds of coals, spread out one above another, -with intervening strata of clay several feet thick. Now each one of -these beds represents an ancient forest which must have grown up -and flourished and decayed; or else an immense and varied mass of -Drift-wood, transported from a distance by the action of moving water, -and deposited near the mouth of some great river. In either case a -considerable lapse of time would have been necessary for such an -accumulation of vegetable matter as would furnish the elements even of -a single seam of Coal. And, when that period came to an end, only one -little stage in the long series had been accomplished: one stratum of a -few feet had been laid down in that great Formation which was to reach -at length a height of more than two miles. A new condition of things -then ensued. This layer of vegetable matter, sunk below the waters, was -gradually covered over with a thick deposit of clay, which, in course -of time, was to emerge, and become dry land, and give birth to a second -forest, destined in its turn to wither and decay. Or, at least, when -the stratum of clay had been deposited, it was to be overlaid, in some -way or another, with a second layer of vegetable matter sufficient -for the production of a second bed of coal. And so this process must -have gone on, doubtless with many and long interruptions, for a hundred -times in succession. - -Then it must be remembered that the Coal-bearing strata represent -but one of many periods, and that not the longest in the Geological -Calendar. Before the age of the Coal, England was for centuries at the -bottom of the sea, while the Old Red Sandstone was slowly spread out -over its existing surface. And after the age of the Coal, England was -again submerged, and gigantic Ichthyosaurs with their companions of the -deep, sported in the waters that rolled over her plains and covered -the tops of her mountains; and, when they had run their course, left -their remains buried in the clays of Oxfordshire and Warwickshire and -Dorsetshire. - -Furthermore, the beds in which these monstrous reptiles are entombed -were overlaid by a stratum of calcareous ooze, now forming a solid -mass of Chalk Rock, often a thousand feet in thickness. This Chalk, -as we have seen, is nothing else than a vast accumulation of shells, -so minute that millions of them would fit together on the blade of a -small pen-knife, and hundreds of millions are carried about by every -carpenter in his waistcoat pocket. How many generations of animalcules -it took to pile up such an immense thickness of rock, by the action of -their vital powers, and how many ages were consumed in the process it -is beyond the reach of science to calculate, almost beyond the power -of imagination to conceive. And yet the Chalk itself was followed by -the various Formations of the Tertiary Age; while the last of these is -separated by the Drift and Boulder Clay from the superficial deposits -which correspond with the period of history, and which go by the name -of Recent. - -This topic has been illustrated in a lively and striking manner by -Professor Huxley, in a Lecture delivered not long ago before the -working-men of Norwich. “At Cromer,” he says, “one of the most -charming spots on the coast of Norfolk, you will see the Boulder Clay -forming a vast mass, which lies upon the Chalk, and must consequently -have come into existence after it. Huge boulders of chalk are, in fact, -included in the clay, and have evidently been brought to the position -they now occupy by the same agency as that which has planted blocks of -syenite from Norway side by side with them. - -“The Chalk, then, is certainly older than the Boulder Clay. If you ask -how much, I will again take you no further than the same spot upon -your own coasts for evidence. I have spoken of the Boulder Clay and -Drift as resting upon the Chalk. That is not strictly true. Interposed -between the Chalk and the Drift is a comparatively insignificant layer, -containing vegetable matter. But that layer tells a wonderful history. -It is full of stumps of trees standing as they grew. Fir-trees are -there with their cones, and hazel-bushes with their nuts; there stand -the stools of oak and yew trees, beeches and alders. Hence this stratum -is appropriately called the Forest-bed. - -“It is obvious that the Chalk must have been upheaved and converted -into dry land before the timber trees could grow upon it. As the trunks -of some of these trees are from two to three feet in diameter, it is no -less clear that the dry land thus formed remained in the same condition -for long ages. And not only do the remains of stately oaks and -well-grown firs testify to the duration of this condition of things, -but additional evidence to the same effect is afforded by the abundant -remains of elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, and other great -wild beasts, which it has yielded to the zealous search of such men as -the Reverend Mr. Gunn. - -“When you look at such a collection as he has formed, and bethink -you that these elephantine bones did veritably carry their owners -about, and these great grinders crunch in the dark woods of which the -Forest-bed is now the only trace, it is impossible not to feel that -they are as good evidence of the lapse of time as the annual rings of -the tree-stumps. - -“Thus there is a writing upon the wall of cliffs at Cromer, and whoso -runs may read it. It tells us with an authority which cannot be -impeached, that the ancient bed of the Chalk sea was raised up and -remained dry land until it was covered with forest, stocked with the -great game whose spoils have rejoiced your Geologists. How long it -remained in that condition cannot be said; but the ‘whirligig of time -brought its revenges’ in those days as in these. That dry land, with -the bones and teeth of generations of long-lived elephants hidden away -among the gnarled roots and dry leaves of its ancient trees, sank -gradually to the bottom of the icy sea, which covered it with huge -masses of Drift and Boulder Clay. Sea-beasts, such as the walrus, -now restricted to the extreme north, paddled about where birds had -twittered among the topmost twigs of the fir-trees. How long this state -of things endured we know not, but at length it came to an end. The -upheaved glacial mud hardened into the soil of modern Norfolk. Forests -grew once more, the wolf and the beaver replaced the reindeer and the -elephant; and at length what we called the history of England, dawned. - -“Thus evidence which cannot be rebutted, and which need not be -strengthened, though, if time permitted, I might indefinitely increase -its quantity, compels you to believe that the Earth from the time of -the Chalk to the present day, has been the theatre of a series of -changes as vast in their amount as they were slow in their progress. -The area on which we stand has been first sea and then land for at -least four alternations, and has remained in each of these conditions -for a period of great length. - -“Nor have these wonderful metamorphoses of the sea into land, and of -land into sea, been confined to one corner of England. During the Chalk -Period not one of the present great physical features of the Globe was -in existence. Our great mountain ranges, Pyrenees, Alps, Himalayas, -Andes, have all been upheaved since the Chalk was deposited, and the -Cretaceous sea flowed over the sites of Sinai and Ararat. - -“All this is certain, because rocks of Cretaceous or still later -date have shared in the elevatory movements which gave rise to these -mountain chains, and may be found perched up, in some cases, many -thousand feet high upon their flanks. And evidence of equal cogency -demonstrates that, though in Norfolk the Forest-bed rests directly upon -the Chalk, yet it does so, not because the period at which the forest -grew immediately followed that at which the Chalk was formed, but -because an immense lapse of time, represented elsewhere by thousands of -feet of rock, is not indicated at Cromer. - -“I must ask you to believe that there is no less conclusive proof that -a still more prolonged succession of similar changes occurred before -the Chalk was deposited. Nor have we any reason to think that the first -term in the series of these changes is known. The oldest sea-beds -preserved to us are sands and mud and pebbles, the wear and tear of -rocks which were formed in still older oceans.”[105] - -It is needless to pursue this subject further, or to seek for other -illustrations. We may reject Geology if we will: but if we put any -faith even in its main principles, we must believe that the Crust of -the Earth has passed through an indefinite series of revolutions, -during which the Stratified Rocks were slowly built up by the action of -natural causes. And it would be utterly ridiculous to suppose that the -history of these revolutions can be compressed into the narrow compass -of six thousand years. - -Turning now to the other side of the question, we maintain that this -extreme Antiquity of the Earth, which we have learned from Geology, -is perfectly consistent with the historical narrative of the Bible. -The Bible, indeed, does fix the Chronology of the Human Race at a -comparatively recent period; but as for the Chronology of the World -itself, the Bible simply tells us that, “In the beginning God created -the Heavens and the Earth.” For all that appears to the contrary, this -Earth of ours may have been in existence for millions of years before -man was introduced upon the scene; and during that time may have been -peopled with those countless tribes of plants and animals which play -so important a part in the records of Geology. This view, which is not -only fully tolerated by the Church, but now largely supported by her -Divines and Commentators, we hope to bring home clearly to our readers -in the following pages; and thus to satisfy them that, as regards -the Antiquity of the Earth, the discoveries of Geology can offer no -prejudice to our religious belief. - -At the outset it is of some importance to understand clearly the -nature of that system of Chronology which is gathered from the Bible. -Nowhere in the Sacred Text is the age of the human race explicitly set -forth. But various data are found scattered here and there through -the historical narrative, which afford us sufficient materials to -compute the years that elapsed from the Creation of Adam to the Birth -of Christ. Unfortunately, however, these data are in some respects -obscure, and in some respects uncertain. And thus it has come to pass -that many different systems of Chronology have come into vogue, even -amongst those who profess to be guided entirely by the authority of the -Bible. - -The whole period may be conveniently divided into two parts;--from the -Creation of Adam to the Call of Abraham; and from the call of Abraham -to the Birth of Christ. As regards the latter interval, the difference -of opinion between Chronologists is not very substantial; the length -of the period may be roughly set down at about 2,000 years. But in the -computation of the former interval a very wide difference prevails, -arising from a diversity of reading in the earliest versions of the -Pentateuch. - -The materials for the computation are derived from two genealogical -lists, one extending from Adam to Noah,[106] the other from Noah to -Abraham.[107] In these lists we have not only the direct line of -descent from father to son, extending through the whole period in -question, but, moreover, we have the age of each individual member of -the genealogy at the time when the next in succession was born. As, -for example:--“Adam lived _a hundred and thirty years, and begot a -son_ to his own image and likeness, and called his name Seth. And the -days of Adam, after he had begot Seth, were eight hundred years: and -he begot sons and daughters. And all the time that Adam lived came to -nine hundred and thirty years, and he died. Seth also lived _a hundred -and five years, and begot Enos_. And Seth lived, after he begot Enos, -eight hundred and seven years, and begot sons and daughters. And all -the days of Seth were nine hundred and twelve years, and he died. And -Enos lived _ninety years, and begot Cainan:_”[108] and so on. Now it -is plain, according to this statement, that from the Creation of Adam -to the birth of Seth was a hundred and thirty years; to the birth of -Enos, a hundred and thirty, more a hundred and five years; to the -birth of Cainan, a hundred and thirty, more a hundred and five, more -ninety years. And in this way, following the genealogies of the Book -of Genesis, we may easily compute the time from the Creation of Adam -to the Birth of Abraham. Adding seventy-five years to this period, we -reach the epoch known as the Call of Abraham; for we are told that -“Abraham was seventy and five years old when he went forth from -Haran.”[109] - -Now every one knows that when a long catalogue of names and numbers is -copied and recopied from age to age, errors are very likely to creep in -and be perpetuated. And so it has been in the present case. The three -earliest versions of the Pentateuch are the Hebrew, the Samaritan, and -the Septuagint: and between these three versions there is a very great -discrepancy with regard to the figures in question; so great, indeed, -as to make up, on the whole, a difference of 1500 years, or more, in -the age of the human race. In the table that appears on the following -page, for which we are mainly indebted to the work of a modern -writer,[110] this diversity of reading is set forth in a very simple -and intelligible form. - -It is plain that of these three different versions, one only can -represent the true age of the human race when Abraham went forth, at -the command of God, from his country and his kindred and his father’s -house, to go into the land of Canaan: and at this distance of time, -it is impossible to determine with anything like certainty, which of -the three has the greatest claim on our acceptance. The Church has not -pronounced upon the subject; and the question is freely discussed among -Biblical scholars. But the details of this controversy have little to -do with our present argument. Enough it is for us to know that, from -the Creation of Adam to the Birth of Christ, cannot have been more than -six thousand years at the highest computation, nor much less than four -thousand at the lowest. Adding 1869 years of the Christian Era, the -present age of the Human Race according to the data of the Bible would -seem to lie between six and eight thousand years. - - -GENEALOGIES OF GENESIS. - - LIST OF AGE OF EACH WHEN THE NEXT - PATRIARCHS. WAS BORN. - - ACCORDING TO - Septuagint. Hebrew. Samaritan. - - Adam, 230 130 130 - Seth, 205 105 105 - Enos, 190 90 90 - Cainan, 170 70 70 - Malaleel, 165 65 65 - Jared, 162 162 62 - Henoch, 165 65 65 - Mathusala, 167 187 67 - Lamech, 188 182 53 - Noe, 500 500 500 - Sem, 100 100 100 - From the creation of Adam to the } ---- ---- ---- - birth of Arphaxad, two years after } 2242 1656 1307 - the Flood,[111] } ---- ---- ---- - Arphaxad, 135 35 135 - Cainan,[112] 130 -- -- - Sale, 130 30 130 - Heber, 134 34 134 - Phaleg, 130 30 130 - Reu, 132 32 132 - Sarug, 130 30 130 - Nachor, 79 29 79 - Thare, 70 70 70 - Abraham called by God, 75 75 75 - ---- ---- ---- - From the Flood to the Call of } 1145 365 1015 - Abraham, } ---- ---- ---- - From the Creation of Adam to } - the Call of Abraham, } 3387 2021 2322 - -The Bible, then, does determine, though with some vagueness and -uncertainty, the age of the Human Race. We have now to consider -whether, in fixing the age of the Human Race, it fixes likewise the age -of the World itself. For this purpose we must turn our attention to the -first chapter of Genesis, in which is briefly set forth the origin and -early history of our Globe from the Creation of the Heavens and the -Earth in the beginning to the Creation of Man at the close of the Sixth -Day. If it should appear that these two events were comprised within a -very narrow limit of time, as is not unfrequently supposed, then indeed -the age of the world must agree pretty nearly with the age of the Human -Race. But if on the other hand, between these two events the Sacred -Record allows us to suppose an interval of indefinite length, then it -plainly follows that the age of the Human Race, as set forth in the -Bible Genealogies, can afford no evidence against the Antiquity of the -Earth. The question is thus brought within very narrow limits. We have -simply to take up the First Chapter of Genesis, and inquire whether or -no it is there conveyed that the Creation of Man, which is described -toward the close of the chapter, followed after the lapse of only a few -days upon the Creation of the Heavens and the Earth, which is recorded -in the first verse. - -For many centuries this question received but little attention from -the readers of the Bible. It was commonly assumed that, as the various -events of the Creation are traced out in rapid succession by the -Inspired Writer, and strung together into one continuous narrative, so -did they follow one another, in reality, with a corresponding rapidity, -and in the same unbroken continuity. The progress of Physical Science -had not yet shown any necessity for supposing a lengthened period of -time to have elapsed between the Creation of the World and the Creation -of Man: nor was there anything in the narrative itself to suggest such -an idea. Thus it was generally taken for granted, almost without -discussion, that when God had created the Heavens and the Earth in the -beginning, He _at once_ set about the work of arranging and furnishing -the universe, and fitting it up for the use of man; that He distributed -this work over a period of six ordinary days, and at the close of the -sixth day, introduced our First Parents upon the scene: and that, -therefore, the beginning of the Human Race was but six days later than -the beginning of the World. - -These notions about the history of the Creation continued to prevail -almost down to our own time. It is to be observed, however, that they -were not founded on a close and scientific examination of the Sacred -Text. The hypothesis of a long and eventful state of existence prior to -the Creation of Man may be said rather to have been overlooked, than -to have been rejected, by our Commentators. There was no good reasons -for entertaining such a speculation, and so they said nothing about -it. But now that the world is ringing with the wonderful discoveries -of Geology, which seem to point more and more clearly every day to -the extreme Antiquity of the Earth, it becomes an imperative duty to -examine once again with all diligence and care the Inspired narrative -of the Creation, and to consider well the relation in which it stands -with this new dogma of Physical Science. - -We are not the first to enter upon the inquiry. Already it has engaged -the attention and stimulated the industry of Theological writers -for more than half a century. Many eminent men, distinguished alike -for their extensive acquirements and for their religious zeal, have -protested warmly against the opinion of Geologists, concerning the -Antiquity of the Earth, as one that cannot be reconciled with the -historical accuracy of the Bible. But, on the other hand, there are -writers no less illustrious, and no less sincerely attached to the -cause of religion, who contend that there is nothing in the Sacred -Text to exclude the supposition of a long and indefinite interval--an -interval if necessary of many millions of years--between the first -creation of matter and the creation of man. Thirty years ago this -opinion was defended by Cardinal Wiseman with great learning, and -with great felicity of illustration, in his famous Lectures on the -Connection between Science and Revealed Religion. The eminent Roman -Jesuit, Father Perrone, has followed the same line of argument in his -Prælectiones Theologicæ, which, as every one knows, has long since -become a classic work in schools of Theology. It has been yet more -fully discussed, and supported by more elaborate reasoning, in a work -entitled Cosmogonia Naturale Comparata col Genesi, lately published in -Rome at the press of the Civiltà Cattolica, by another distinguished -Jesuit, John Baptist Pianciani. Amongst Protestant writers, too, this -view of the Mosaic narrative has found no inconsiderable number of able -advocates. It is defended by Doctor Buckland, the eminent Geologist, -in his celebrated Bridgewater Treatise, by Doctor Chalmers in his -Evidences of the Christian Revelation, by Doctor Pye Smith in his -dissertations on Geology and Scripture, by the eloquent and original -Hugh Miller in his interesting work on the Testimony of the Rocks; and -by a host of others scarcely less distinguished than these. - -But these learned writers are not altogether of one accord as to the -precise point in the First Chapter of Genesis, at which we may suppose -a long interval of time to have intervened. Some, with Doctor Buckland, -Doctor Pye Smith, and Doctor Chalmers, consider that this interval may -best be introduced between the beginning of all time, when God created -the Heavens and the Earth, and the beginning of the First Day, when -He set about preparing the world as a dwelling-place for man. Sacred -Scripture, they say, simply records these two events, (1) that “In -the beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth,” and (2) that, -at some subsequent time, “God said: Let there be light: and light -was made.” But Sacred Scripture does not tell us what length of time -elapsed between these two great acts of Divine Omnipotence. For aught -we know from Revelation, it may have been but a single day, or it may -have been a million of years. Others again, as for instance Pianciani, -prefer to suppose that each one of the Six Days may have been itself a -period of indefinite, nay of almost inconceivable duration. So that, -between the beginning of the world and the creation of man six great -ages of the Earth’s history may have rolled by, each one distinguished -by a new manifestation of God’s power, and the introduction of new -forms of life. These writers even fancy that they can discover a close -analogy between the successive acts of creation recorded in Genesis, -and the gradual development of organic life exhibited in the great -Epochs of Geology. - -To us it seems that either one or the other of these two systems, or -both together, may be fairly admitted without any undue violence to the -text of the Inspired narrative: and this, we would observe in passing, -is the opinion to which Cardinal Wiseman appears to have inclined, -thirty years ago, in his Lectures on the Connection between Science and -Religion. We maintain, then, in the first place, that there is nothing -in the Mosaic narrative, when carefully examined, at variance with the -hypothesis of an indefinite interval between the creation of the world -and the work of the Six Days. And, in the second place, we contend that -it is quite consistent with the usage of Sacred Scripture to explain -these Days of Creation as long periods of time. - - * * * * * - -It may appear, perhaps, to some of our readers that this is dangerous -ground on which we are about to venture. They may have been accustomed -all their lives to view the history of Creation through the medium -of those notions that commonly prevailed before the discoveries of -Geology: and from the influence of long association they may have -come, in the end, to regard their own interpretation with scarcely less -veneration than the Inspired Text itself. Such persons will naturally -be disposed to look upon our undertaking with disfavor and suspicion. -They will think us guilty of irreverence toward Holy Scripture when -we seek to modify our views about its meaning, in deference to the -conclusions of Physical Science; and they may be tempted even to charge -us with putting the idle interpretations of men into the balance -against the Inspired Word of God. - -To this line of objection we would answer, that we cannot be guilty of -irreverence to the Holy Scripture, when we are only striving, with due -submission to the authority of the Church, to discover the true meaning -of an obscure and difficult passage, on which the Church has pronounced -no definite judgment. Nor can we be said to make light of the Word -of God, when we are but attempting to defend its unerring veracity -from the assaults of infidel writers. Furthermore we would add, that, -if it is a dangerous thing to modify the received interpretation of -certain parts of Scripture, when the progress of science enables us to -see physical phenomena under a new light, it is a far more dangerous -thing to persist in imputing to Scripture a doctrine that, in a very -short time, may be proved to be false, beyond the possibility of -contradiction. - -These sentiments are not altogether our own. They have come to us, in -great part, from an illustrious Doctor of the Church; and we are glad, -at this early stage of our discussion, to be able to shelter our humble -efforts under the authority of his venerable name. It is now more than -fourteen centuries and a half since Saint Augustine set about the -literal interpretation of Genesis, which he accomplished in a Treatise -of twelve books. Toward the close of the first book he expatiates at -some length on the difficulty of his undertaking, and on the variety of -diverse interpretations, which prevailed even in his time. From this -he takes occasion to warn his readers that, “if we find anything in -Divine Scripture that may be variously explained without any injury to -faith, we should not rush headlong by positive assertion either to one -opinion or the other; lest, if perchance the opinion we have adopted -should afterward turn out to be false, our faith should fall with it; -and we should be found contending, not so much for the doctrine of the -Sacred Scriptures as for our own; endeavoring to make our doctrine -to be that of the Scriptures, instead of taking the doctrine of the -Scriptures to be ours.”[113] And a little further on he again exposes -the imprudence of such a proceeding, in words that cannot but be -considered peculiarly applicable to our present subject:-- - -“It often happens that one who is not a Christian hath some knowledge -derived from the clearest arguments or from the evidence of his senses -about the earth, about the heavens, about the other elements of this -world, about the movements and revolutions, or about the size and -distances of the stars, about certain eclipses of the sun and moon, -about the course of the years and the seasons, about the nature of -animals, plants, and minerals, and about other things of a like kind. -Now it is an unseemly and mischievous thing, and greatly to be avoided, -that a Christian man speaking on such matters, as if according to the -authority of Christian Scripture, should talk so foolishly that the -unbeliever, on hearing him, and observing the extravagance of his -error, should hardly be able to refrain from laughing. And the great -mischief is, not so much that the man himself is laughed at for his -errors, but that our authors are believed by people without the Church -to have taught such things, and so are condemned as unlearned, and -cast aside, to the great loss of those for whose salvation we are so -much concerned. For, when they find one belonging to the Christian -body falling into error on a subject with which they themselves are -thoroughly conversant, and when they see him, moreover, enforcing -his groundless opinion by the authority of our Sacred Books, how are -they likely to put trust in these Books about the resurrection of the -dead, and the hope of eternal life, and the kingdom of heaven, having -already come to regard them as fallacious about those things they had -themselves learned from observation or from unquestionable evidence? -And, indeed, it were not easy to tell what trouble and sorrow some -rash and presumptuous men bring upon their prudent brethren, who, when -they are charged with a perverse and false opinion by those who do -not accept the authority of our Books, attempt to put forward these -same Holy Books in defence of that which they have lightly and falsely -asserted; sometimes even quoting from memory what they think will suit -their purpose, and putting forth many words, without well understanding -either what they say, or what they are talking about.”[114] - -And many ages after, Saint Thomas, the great luminary of the schools, -appeals to this wise admonition of Saint Augustine, and applies it -to the circumstances of his own times. Writing about the work of -the Second Day, he says that “in questions of this sort there are -two things to be observed. First, that the truth of Scripture be -inviolably maintained. Secondly, since Scripture doth admit of diverse -interpretations, that we must not cling to any particular exposition -with such pertinacity, that if what we supposed to be the teaching of -Scripture should afterward turn out to be clearly false, we should -nevertheless still presume to put it forward; lest thereby we should -expose the Inspired Word of God to the derision of unbelievers, and -shut them out from the way of salvation.”[115] - -Under the sanction of two such illustrious Saints and Doctors we -need not hesitate to proceed in our attempt to reconcile the Inspired -narrative of the Creation with the doctrine of the Antiquity of the -Earth, as set forth by the advocates of Geology. Let it be remembered, -however, that we do not undertake to prove the extreme Antiquity of -the Earth from the language of Scripture; but simply to show that -the language of Scripture leaves the Antiquity of the Earth an open -question. The Geologist holds that this Globe of ours has been in -existence for hundreds of thousands, perhaps for millions of years; and -our object is to show that, while maintaining this opinion, he may, -nevertheless, accept the historical truth of the Bible narrative. - -As before explained, two points arise for discussion: first, can we -suppose an interval of indefinite length to have elapsed between the -Creation of the World, and the work of the Six Days? and secondly, is -it lawful to explain these Days in the sense of long periods? We shall -take these two questions in succession, dealing with each upon its own -merits; and if we fail to enforce conviction, we hope, at least, to -vindicate our right to toleration. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -FIRST HYPOTHESIS;--AN INTERVAL OF INDEFINITE DURATION BETWEEN THE -CREATION OF THE WORLD AND THE FIRST MOSAIC DAY. - - _The heavens and the earth were created before the first Mosaic - day--Objection from Exodus, xx. 9-11--Answer--Interpretation of - the author supported by the best commentators--Confirmed by the - Hebrew text--The early fathers commonly held the existence of - created matter prior to the work of the Six Days--Saint Basil, - Saint Chrysostom, Saint Ambrose, Venerable Bede--The most - eminent doctors in the schools concurred in this opinion--Peter - Lombard, Hugh of Saint Victor, Saint Thomas--Also commentators - and theologians--Perrerius, Petavius--Distinguished names - on the other side, A Lapide, Tostatus, Saint Augustine--The - opinion is at least not at variance with the voice of - tradition--This period of created existence may have been of - indefinite length--And the earth may have been furnished then - as now with countless tribes of plants and animals--Objections - to this hypothesis proposed and explained._ - - -The opening verses of the Mosaic history may be rendered thus literally -from the Hebrew Text:-- - -(1) “In the beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth. - -(2) “And the Earth was waste and empty; and darkness was upon the face -of the deep; and the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. - -(3) “And God said, Let there be light; and there was light. - -(4) “And God saw the light that it was good; and God divided the light -from the darkness. - -(5) “And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. -And the evening was, and the morning was, the first day.” - -Now it appears to us that the great event with which this narrative -begins, the creation of the Heavens and the Earth, is not represented -as a part of the work that was accomplished within the Six Days. It -is not said that _on the first day_ God created the Heavens and the -Earth, but _in the beginning_. Besides, the Sacred writer, uniformly -throughout the chapter, employs one and the same peculiar phrase to -introduce the work of each successive day. In describing the operations -of God on the second day, he begins: “_And God said_, Let there be a -firmament in the midst of the waters:” on the third day, “_And God -said_, Let the waters that are under the Heavens be gathered together -into one place:” on the fourth, “_And God said_, Let there be lights -in the firmament of the Heavens to divide the day from the night:” on -the fifth, “_And God said_, Let the waters bring forth the creeping -thing having life:” on the sixth, “_And God said_, Let the earth bring -forth the living creature after its kind.” Hence, when we meet this -same phrase for the first time in the third verse, “_And God said_, -Let there be light,” we may reasonably suppose that the work of the -first day began with the decree which is set forth in these words. If -so it plainly follows that we may allow the existence of created matter -before that particular epoch of time which, in the language of Moses, -is styled the First Day: for, before the creation of light, the Heavens -and the Earth were already in existence, and the Earth was waste and -empty, and darkness was upon the face of the deep, and the spirit of -God moved upon the face of the waters. - -An objection is sometimes raised from the words of God in the -promulgation of the third commandment:--“Six days shalt thou labor -and do all thy work. But the seventh day is the sabbath of the Lord -thy God; thou shalt do no work on it.... For _in six days the Lord -made the Heavens and the Earth_ and the sea, and all that is in them, -and resteth the seventh day.”[116] It is argued that the creation of -the Heavens and the Earth is here set forth as a part of the work -accomplished within the Six Days; which is directly against our -opinion. This difficulty would be simply insurmountable, if it could be -proved that the text refers to that _first act of creation_ by which -the Heavens and the Earth were brought into existence out of nothing. -We think, however, that the phrase may fairly be understood to mean, -in six days the Lord _fashioned_ the Heavens and the Earth; that is to -say, gave to them that form and shape and outward character which they -now possess. In this sense the words would apply, not to the first act -of creation out of nothing, but rather to that subsequent series of -operations by which the Earth was fitted up and furnished for the use -of man. - -And this interpretation is supported by the authority of our best -Commentators. Perrerius formally discusses the point, and maintains -that God may truly be said to have made the Heavens and the Earth in -Six Days, although the Heavens and the Earth, as far as regards their -substantial matter, had been created before the First Day: for it was -only within the Six Days that they were adorned and completed and -perfected. Tostatus is not less explicit. In this passage, he says, the -word _made_ is very properly employed; for the Heavens and the Earth -which are here referred to, and the other things that are included -under this general designation, were all _made from matter already -existing_, but this matter itself was not _made_, it was _created_. -Petavius also adopts this view in his remarks upon the fourth verse of -the second chapter of Genesis.[117] - -We may add that this mode of explaining the passage receives no small -support from the Hebrew text. When it is said, in the first chapter -of Genesis, that “In the beginning God _created_ the Heavens and the -Earth,” the word used by the Sacred writer is ברא (_Bara_), which -strictly means to create out of nothing; whereas, in describing the -operations of the Six Days, he commonly uses the word עשה (_Hasah_), -which means to _form_ and _fashion_, or to produce something out of -pre-existing materials.[118] Now, in the text of Exodus we find the -word עשה (_Hasah_), to _fashion_ or _produce_, and not the word ברא -(_Bara_), to _create_. We do not want to insist very rigorously upon -this distinction between the two words ברא (_Bara_) and עשה (_Hasah_), -nor would we deny that they are sometimes interchanged as regards their -meaning. We think they are related to one another pretty nearly as the -corresponding words to _create_ and to _make_ in English, and we know -that the distinction between these two words is not always strictly -observed. Thus, we sometimes say that God _made_ the world, meaning -that he brought it forth from nothing, and we speak of the _creation_ -of peers; and Shakspeare says:-- - - “Now is the time of help; your eye in Scotland - Would _create_ soldiers, make our women fight - To doff their dire distresses.”--_Macbeth_, Act iv., Sc. iii. - -Nevertheless, when we compare two such passages as these:--“In the -beginning God _created_ the Heavens and the Earth,” and “In Six Days -the Lord _made_ the Heavens and the Earth and the sea, and all that in -them is,” we think the studied contrast of expression is a fair ground -for supposing that, while the one refers to the Divine decree by which -matter was first brought into existence out of nothing, the other may -be understood of those subsequent operations by which it received its -present form and shape. - -We see no difficulty, then, as far as the Sacred Text is concerned, -in supposing a condition of created existence prior to the period of -the Six Days. But since this opinion is the foundation on which our -whole argument rests, we should wish to show, moreover, even at the -risk of being tedious, that it has been put forward and defended by -the most eminent writers in every age of the Church. Amongst the early -Fathers, Saint Basil reasons after this manner when commenting upon the -passage, “There was evening and there was morning the first day:”--“The -evening is the common term of day and night; and, in like manner, the -morning is the point of union between night and day. Wherefore, in -order to signify that to the day belonged the prerogative of being the -first begotten, the sacred writer first commemorates the close of day, -and afterward the close of night; implying thereby that _the day was -followed by the night_. As to the condition of the world _before the -formation of light_, that is not called Night, but simply Darkness; -whereas that period which is distinguished from day and opposed to it, -is called night.”[119] This great Doctor, therefore, teaches that the -First Day began with a period of light which is called day, and ended -with a period of darkness which is called night; and he recognizes a -previous state of existence which was no part of the First Day. So, -too, Saint Chrysostom, in his third Homily upon Genesis, lays down that -the Earth was first created a rude and shapeless mass, without form or -ornament; that _afterward_ light was made, and that, _with the creation -of light, the First Day began_.[120] - -In the Western Church, Saint Ambrose adopts the same line of -interpretation. He sets forth that God first created the world, in the -beginning; and afterward during the Six Days furnished and adorned it; -just as a skilful workman first lays the foundation of a building, -and afterward raises the superstructure, and superadds the ornament. -And elsewhere, he says that, when the voice of God went forth, “Let -light be made,” in the same moment the First Day began. It follows, -therefore, that the world existed before the beginning of the First -Day. In another place he gives a new turn to the same idea, telling -us that in the beginning God made the world; and with the world, time -began. But not with time did the First Day begin: for the First Day is -not the beginning of time, it is rather an epoch of time.[121] - -Passing on to the middle ages, we find our view supported by the -authority of Venerable Bede, in several parts of his writings. His -notion is that, during the Six Days, God formed and fashioned the -world out of shapeless matter; but, before the Six Days began, He -had made this shapeless matter itself out of nothing. “Two things,” -he says, “did God make before all days, the angelical nature, and -shapeless matter.” And again, he dresses up this opinion in the form -of a dialogue:--“_Disciple._ Tell me the order in which things were -made throughout the Six Days? _Master._ First, in the very beginning -of created existence, were made heaven and earth, the angels, air, and -water. _Disciple._ Continue the order of creation? _Master. In the -beginning of the First Day_ light was made; on the second was made the -firmament,” etc.[122] Nothing can be more plain than the distinction -here set up between the beginning of all time, when the Heavens and the -Earth were made, and the beginning of the First Day, when light was -made. - -And when we come to still more recent times, we find this -interpretation was taken up and defended by the great masters in the -schools of Theology. Peter Lombard, the famous Magister Sententiarum, -referring to the first verse of Genesis, says that “in the beginning -God created Heaven, which means the Angels, and the Earth, which means -confused and unshapely matter, the same that is called Chaos by the -Greeks; _and this was before any day_.” Not less clearly speaks out -Hugh of Saint Victor, who for his profound and varied erudition, was -called the second Augustine. In explaining the history of the Six Days, -he says: “The first of the Divine operations was the creation of light. -But the light was not then created from nothing, it was formed from -pre-existing matter. This was the work that was accomplished on the -First Day: but the material of this work had been created _before the -First Day_. Directly with the light the day began; for before the light -it was neither night or day, though time already existed.”[123] - -Later still, St. Thomas himself clearly leans to this view when he -says: “It is better to maintain that the creation was before any day.” -And Perrerius, the most learned, perhaps, of all our commentators -on Genesis, argues with us that the world was created before the -production of light, and before the commencement of the First Day. Nay, -he adds that he cannot tell how long that primeval state of existence -may have endured before the Six Days began; nor does he think it can -be known except by a special revelation. Petavius, too, is with us. -He does not indeed accept our interpretation of the first verse. When -it is said, “In the beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth,” -he holds that these words do not describe any one particular act of -God, but represent, as it were in a brief summary, the whole work -of creation. Thus we are informed, at the outset, that the Heavens -and the Earth as we see them now are the work of God; and afterward, -the various parts that make up this great whole are described, and -the order in which they were accomplished is set forth. According to -Petavius, then, the creation of the Heavens and the Earth, recorded in -the first verse, was not a distinct act from the operations of the Six -Days, but rather includes them all. Nevertheless, he maintains, as we -do, that the earth, at least, and water, were in existence before the -creation of light; and that, therefore, some period of time must have -elapsed before the beginning of the Six Days. Furthermore, he says in -the same spirit as Perrerius, that it is beyond our power to conjecture -how long that period may have lasted.[124] - -Our opinion, then, is not open, in the slightest degree, to the -imputation of novelty or singularity. On the contrary, it would seem -rather to reflect the prevailing tradition of the Church. We think -it right, however, to add that there are great names against us. A -Lapide, for instance, who considers that the Heavens and the Earth -were created at the beginning of the First Day.[125] And Tostatus, who -incidentally notices our view, and contents himself with saying that it -is unreasonable. For himself he seems to waver between two opinions. He -thinks the primeval darkness, described in the second verse, may have -been the night belonging to the First Day; and that during that night, -which probably lasted about twelve hours, we may suppose the Heavens -and the Earth to have been created. Or else, he says, we may allow that -the First Day of the Mosaic narrative began with the creation of light; -but in that case we must hold that the Heavens and the Earth were -created at the same time with light.[126] - -Saint Augustine, too, we must reluctantly give up; or, at least, we -must be content to regard him as neutral. If he is not a decided -opponent, he is certainly not a consistent advocate, of our opinion. -No doubt he is often quoted in its favor; and it would be easy to -select passages from his works which seem to enforce it in the plainest -terms. As for example: “In the beginning, O my God, _before any day_, -Thou didst make the Heavens and the Earth.”[127] But, in truth, this -opinion is utterly irreconcilable with the well known and very singular -teaching of Saint Augustine concerning the creation of the world. -He held that all the great works recounted in the first chapter of -Genesis were, in fact, accomplished in a single instant. There was no -real succession, according to him, in the order of time, between the -production of the Heavens and the Earth, of light and the firmament, -of the sun, moon, and stars, of plants, trees, and animals. In one and -the same instant of time all these came into existence together. As to -the description given by Moses, it is accommodated to the capacity of -a rude people; and the succession there set forth is intended only to -exhibit the several parts of a great whole, in the manner best suited -to the conceptions of human intelligence.[128] - -This view of the creation is repeated again and again by Saint -Augustine in his numerous works upon Genesis, and illustrated in -diverse ways, so as to leave no doubt that he held it deliberately -and persistently. With regard to such passages as that quoted above, -in which he says that God created the Heavens and the Earth _before -any day_, it may be maintained that Saint Augustine was not always -consistent with himself, and that he held different opinions at -different times; or even that he put forward opposite opinions at the -same time, not setting them forth as true, but only as possible and -legitimate.[129] - -We think, however, that his consistency, in this case at least, can be -defended, and that he has himself sufficiently explained in what sense -he wished these passages to be understood. He tells us that we must -distinguish two kinds of succession: succession in the order of time, -and succession in the order of our conceptions. Thus, for example, -in the order of time there is no succession between the sound of the -voice in singing and the musical note that is sung: the sound is, in -fact, the note, and the note is the sound. But in the order of our -conceptions we first apprehend a thing according to its substance, and -then according to its qualities. We first conceive the sound itself, as -a sound, and then we conceive it as having that peculiar quality which -makes it a musical note. Such as this is the succession Saint Augustine -seems to admit in the order of the creation. He tells us, no doubt, -that God first created shapeless matter, and afterward gave to it form -and beauty: and certainly this statement, if standing alone, would, -according to the ordinary use of language, imply a real succession -in the order of time. But then, a little further on, he expressly -repudiates the idea of a succession in point of time, and says that -the priority he ascribes to shapeless matter is only a priority in -the order of our conceptions. We must first conceive matter to exist -before we can conceive it to have this or that particular form; and the -Inspired Writer follows the order of our conceptions, in order to adapt -his narrative to the mental feebleness of our present condition.[130] - -With the truth or falsehood of these views we are not concerned just -now. We have dwelt upon them rather from an honest desire of showing -that Saint Augustine is not so clearly on our side in this question, -as might be supposed from some isolated passages of his writings. He -says indeed that the world was created before light, and before the -beginning of the First Day; but then again he tells us that this is -only a way of speaking, and that, in reality, all things were created -together. - -But although these high authorities--A Lapide, Tostatus, Saint -Augustine--and some others less illustrious than these, are unfavorable -to our interpretation, we think it is supported by a preponderance of -the best interpreters, both in ancient and modern times. At all events, -with such an array of venerable names as we have been able to bring -forward in its behalf,--and they are but a few chosen out of many,--no -one can deny that we are fairly entitled to hold it without any note of -censure, without any suspicion of Theological error. Setting out, then, -from this point, that there was a state of created existence prior to -the Six Days of the Mosaic history, the question naturally arises, how -long did that state of existence endure? Was it for an hour? a day? -a week? a month? a century? a million of years? We cannot tell. To -these questions the Sacred Text gives no reply. It simply records that -in the beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth, and that, at -some subsequent epoch of time, His decree again went forth, Let there -be light, and light there was. One thing, however, is plain, that, if -this period existed at all, it might just as well have lasted a hundred -millions of years as a hundred seconds. It would be folly to attempt to -measure the succession of God’s acts, when he does please to produce -effects in succession, according to our petty standards of time. “One -day with the Lord is as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one -day.”[131] - -And it is not a little remarkable that, long before the discoveries of -Geology had suggested any necessity for allowing the lapse of many ages -between the first creation of the world and the creation of man, the -sagacity of our commentators led them to observe that the duration of -this interval is left undefined in the Sacred Record. “How long that -interval may have lasted,” says Petavius, “it is absolutely impossible -to conjecture.” And Perrerius, as we have seen, declared that it -could not be known except by a special revelation. And five centuries -earlier, at the very dawn of Scholastic Theology, Hugh of Saint Victor -raised the same question, and expressed his opinion that it could not -be solved from Scripture. Citing the passage, In the beginning God -created the Heavens and the Earth, he says, “From these words it is -plain that in the beginning of time, or rather with time itself, the -original matter of all things came into existence. But how long it -remained in this confused and unshapely condition the Scripture clearly -does not tell us.”[132] - -We may go further still. If we are at liberty to admit an interval of -indefinite length between the creation of the world and the work of the -Six Days, there is certainly nothing which forbids us to suppose that, -during this period, the earth should have undergone many revolutions, -and have been peopled by countless tribes of plants and animals, which, -as age rolled on after age, came into existence, and died out, and -were succeeded by new creations. We cannot, perhaps, see the use of -all this, nor can we penetrate the motives the Great Creator might -have had in bringing into existence such a boundless profusion of -organic life. Granted: but then we have studied the Sacred Text to -little purpose if we have not yet realized the solemn truth that, to -our poor and feeble intellects, His judgments are incomprehensible, -and his ways unsearchable. Did He not set His stars in the remotest -regions of space, far beyond the reach of unaided human vision, and did -they not shine there for ages, though man could see them not? And for -ages, too, did not the wild flowers spring up, and bloom, and decay, in -many a fair and favored spot of this beautiful Earth, where there was -none to admire their splendor, none to inhale their sweetness? Then -again, look at that marvellous kingdom of minute animalcules, in number -almost infinite, which only within the last few years the microscope -has revealed to our wondering eyes. They swarm around us in the air, -in the earth, in the water. Millions of them would fit in the hollow -of your hand; many hundreds might swim side by side, without crowding, -through the eye of a cambric needle. And they too, we can hardly doubt, -must have flourished for centuries in countless myriads, unseen and -unknown by man. It is impossible for us, in our present imperfect -state, to understand the motives of an All-wise Creator in this profuse -expenditure of his goodness, this lavish display of His power. How -then can we presume to say that He may not have good reasons, though -inscrutable to us, for peopling this Earth with many tribes of plants -and animals, through a long cycle of ages, before it pleased Him to fit -it up for the habitation of man? “Who is he among men that can know -the counsel of God? or who can find out His designs? For the judgments -of mortal men are hesitating, and uncertain are our thoughts. For the -corruptible body is a load upon the soul, and the earthly dwelling -presseth down the mind that museth upon many things. And hardly do we -guess aright at things that are upon earth: and with labor do we find -the things that are before us. But the things that are in heaven who -shall search out?”[133] - -We have heard it sometimes objected that plants and animals could -not have existed without light; and that light was not created until -the beginning of the First Mosaic Day. Many curious and interesting -facts are adduced in support of this argument. For example, we are -reminded that certain Fossil animals belonging to the earliest -Geological Periods, are shown by the clearest evidence, to have had -eyes constructed on the same optical principles, and accommodated to -the same optical conditions, as the eyes of those animals that have -flourished on the Earth during the period of history: and such eyes, -it is contended, plainly import the existence of light. The answer to -this objection may be stated in a very few words. We freely admit that -the hypothesis we have been defending would be of little use to account -for Geological phenomena, if it did not include the existence of light, -during that Period of indefinite duration which we suppose to have -elapsed between the first creation of the world and the work of the Six -Days. But in truth there is no difficulty in supposing that, during -such an interval, light may have prevailed upon the earth, and air, and -all the other conditions of organic life, pretty much as they do at -the present day. Afterward, at the close of the period, when, perhaps, -ages innumerable had rolled by, this planet of ours would have appeared -in that condition which is described in the second verse of Genesis: -“And the earth was waste and empty, and darkness was upon the face of -the deep.” Then the command of God would have gone forth, “Let there -be light:” and at once the darkness would have been dispelled, a new -era of existence would have commenced, and the Earth would forthwith -have been set in order and furnished, in a special manner, for the -habitation of man. - -Even as regards the Sun, Moon, and Stars, they too may have existed -before the work of the Six Days began. We read, no doubt, that on the -Fourth Day, God said, “Let there be lights in the firmament of the -heavens to divide the day from the night:” and a little farther on it -is added that “God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the -day, and the lesser light to rule the night; and the stars.” But then -it must be remembered that some of our best Commentators, without any -reference to Geology, have taught that, before this command was given, -the heavenly bodies were already in existence for three days, and were -already discharging the office of dividing day and night. They explain -the passage by saying that the Sun, Moon, and Stars, are represented -as having been made on the Fourth Day, not because they were then -produced for the first time out of nothing, but because the vapors by -which they had been obscured were, on that Day, dissipated, and they -began to shine visibly in the Firmament of Heaven. If this line of -interpretation is admissible, and it seems to us not unreasonable, -then we are certainly at liberty to hold, consistently with the Mosaic -narrative, that the Heavenly bodies may have been created with the -Heavens and the Earth in the beginning of all time; and that on the -Fourth Day they were made manifest in the Firmament to rule over the -day and the night, and to regulate the course of the years and the -seasons.[134] - -Again it is urged against our hypothesis that Moses could not have -passed over in complete silence such a long and eventful era in the -history of the world. Certainly not, we admit, if he professed to -write a complete history of the Earth and all its revolutions. But -this was not his purpose. Every book, whether sacred or profane, must -be examined and interpreted according to the end for which it was -designed. Now the end and scope of the Book of Genesis was not to -instruct mankind about the movements of the heavenly bodies, or the -physical changes of the Earth’s surface, or the laws which govern the -material universe. It was, first of all, to impress on the minds of -the Jewish people that this world of ours is the work of one only God, -distinct from all creatures, and Himself the Creator of sun, moon, -and stars, and of every other object which pagan nations were wont to -worship: and in the next place, to set forth, briefly and simply, the -story of God’s dealings with man in the first ages of the human race. -Whatever we may hold, therefore, about the revolutions and changes of -the Earth’s surface previous to the work of the Six Days, it is plain -that the history of these phenomena did not appertain to the object -which the Sacred writer had in view. Consequently he cannot be said, by -the omission of these events, to lead his readers into error; he simply -allows them to remain in ignorance. What it was his purpose to tell, -he tells truly: what did not belong to his purpose, he passes by in -silence. - -But it is further argued that this long interval of time we have -been contending for, is incompatible with the use of the copulative -conjunction, by which the several clauses of the narrative are -connected together. The Sacred text runs thus:--“In the beginning God -created the Heavens and the Earth. _And_ the Earth was waste and empty: -and darkness was upon the face of the deep; and the spirit of God moved -upon the face of the waters. _And_ God said, Let there be light; and -there was light.” Is it possible, we are asked, to admit a period of -indefinite length between events thus closely linked together? Our -answer is that, according to the idiom of the Hebrew language, the -conjunction וְ or וָ (_ve_ or _va_), which is here employed, while it -serves to connect together the clauses of a narrative, does not of -necessity imply the immediate succession of the events recorded. The -very wide and indefinite signification which belongs to this little -particle is well known to all who are familiar with the Hebrew text. It -is sometimes copulative, sometimes adversative, sometimes disjunctive, -sometimes causal. Very frequently it is used simply for the purpose of -_continuing the discourse_;[135] and this we believe is the true force -of the word in the passage under discussion. - -An example very much to the point occurs in the Book of Numbers, -twentieth chapter and first verse:--“_And_ the children of Israel, the -whole congregation came into the desert of Sin.” Here the narrative -opens with the connecting particle ויבואו בני ישראל כל העדה—:ו. And -yet the reader will find, if he carefully examine the passage, that -the event thus introduced by the sacred writer was separated by a -period of eight-and-thirty years from those which had been related in -the preרceding chapter. This conjunction, therefore, does not exclude -an interval of eight-and-thirty years between the events which it -links together in history. And that being so, there is no good reason -for supposing that it should, of necessity, exclude an interval of -indefinite length. - -The Weakness of this objection may be made even more strikingly -manifest by an inspection of the opening words in the first chapter -of Ezechiel:—ריהי בשלשים שנה. So little did the notion prevail that -the conjunction ו (_ve_) could be used only to connect together events -closely associated in point of time, that here it actually _begins_ the -narrative, and is, in fact, the first word of the whole book. In the -Douay version the passage is not inaptly rendered after this manner: -“Now it came to pass in the thirtieth year, in the fourth month, on the -fifth day of the month, when I was in the midst of the captives by the -River Chobar, the heavens were opened, and I saw the visions of God.” - - * * * * * - -We have now brought to a conclusion the first part of our inquiry. -We have endeavored to show that there is nothing in Scripture or -Tradition which forbids us to admit a long interval of time between -the Creation of the world and the work of the Six Days. It remains to -examine what was the nature of these Six Days themselves. Were they, as -Saint Augustine maintained, one single indivisible instant of time? or -were they days of twenty-four hours, as is more commonly supposed? or -were they simply periods of time of which the duration is left wholly -undetermined in the Sacred Text? - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER XX._ - -SECOND HYPOTHESIS;--THE DAYS OF CREATION LONG PERIODS OF TIME. - - _Diversity of opinion among the early fathers regarding the - days of creation--Saint Augustine, Philo Judæus, Clement - of Alexandria, Origen, Saint Athanasius, Saint Eucherius, - Procopius--Albertus Magnus, Saint Thomas, Cardinal - Cajetan--Inference from these testimonies--First argument in - favor of the popular interpretation; a day, in the literal - sense, means a period of twenty-four hours--Answer--This word - often used in Scripture for an indefinite period--Examples - from the Old and New Testament--Second argument; the days of - creation have an evening and a morning--Answer--Interpretation - of Saint Augustine, Venerable Bede, and other fathers of the - church--Third argument; the reason alleged for the institution - of the Sabbath-day--Answer--The law of the Sabbath extended to - every seventh year as well as to every seventh day--The seventh - day of God’s rest a long period of indefinite duration._ - - -No one who will take the trouble to investigate, with any reasonable -diligence and research, the nature of the Mosaic Days, can fail to be -struck with the remarkable diversity of opinion that existed on the -subject among the early Fathers of the Church. Yet this diversity of -opinion is often overlooked by modern writers. They fancy that the -meaning of the word Day is so plain as to leave no room for doubt -or controversy; that a day can be nothing else than a period of -twenty-four hours, marked by the succession of light and darkness; and -that in this sense the Mosaic narrative was universally understood -until quite recently, when a new explanation was invented, to meet the -requirements of modern science. All this is far from true. The meaning -of the Mosaic Days has been, in point of fact, a subject of controversy -from the earliest times. And Saint Augustine tells us that the question -appeared to him so difficult that he could pronounce no decisive -judgment upon it. “As to these Days,” he says, “what kind they were, it -is very difficult, nay, it is impossible to imagine, and much more so -to explain.”[136] - -Nevertheless, this great Doctor, having long pondered over the subject, -and considered it on many sides, does not hesitate to express his own -opinion. And he departs very widely, indeed, from the literal and -obvious interpretation. He maintains, at great length,[137] as we had -before occasion to observe, that God created all things in a single -instant of time, according to the words of Ecclesiasticus, “He who -liveth forever created all things at once.”[138] Thus he is led to -infer that the Six Days commemorated by Moses were, in reality, but one -day; and this not such a day as those which are now measured by the -revolution of the sun, for we find three successive days recorded by -Moses before the sun appeared in the Heavens. It was, in fact, nothing -else than that one single instant of time in which all things were -created together.[139] - -Nor was this opinion peculiar to Saint Augustine. At the very dawn of -the Christian Era it was set forth by Philo the Jew; and afterward it -was maintained by Clement of Alexandria, and by Origen. The great Saint -Athanasius seems to throw the weight of his authority in the same -direction, when he says, speaking of the Creation, that “no one thing -was made before another, but all things were produced at once together -by the self-same command.” And after the time of Saint Augustine this -figurative interpretation was defended by Saint Eucherius, Bishop -of Lyons, in the course of the fifth century, and by Procopius of -Gaza in the sixth. In the days of the schools we find it approved by -Albertus Magnus, and treated respectfully by Saint Thomas; and later -still, adopted by Cardinal Cajetan, in his commentary on the Book of -Genesis.[140] - -It will be said, perhaps, that we are here arguing against ourselves: -these eminent writers are in favor of reducing the days of Creation to -one single point of time; whereas it is our purpose to stretch them -out to periods of indefinite length. But no: our object just now is -not precisely to establish our own hypothesis, but rather to prepare -the way for its discussion. We want to show that we are quite free to -abandon the popular view of the Mosaic Days if there be good reason for -our doing so. And it seems to us that we have abundantly established -this point by a long list of eminent ecclesiastical writers, who, -without any note of censure, have diverged very widely from the common -interpretation. No doubt they have shortened the time, and we want to -lengthen it. But in this they agree with us, that the days of Creation -are not of necessity days in the ordinary sense of the word. Nay, Saint -Augustine goes farther, and maintains, from the evidence of the Sacred -Text itself, that they cannot be understood in this sense.[141] - -Having thus cleared away a serious difficulty that seemed to obstruct -our path, we may proceed without hesitation to the direct object of -our inquiry. The burden of proof, let it be remembered, is not with -us, but rather with those who contend for Days of twenty-four hours. -They must prove that this word Day in the first chapter of Genesis -means a period of twenty-four hours, and _can mean nothing else_. If it -_may_ be understood in a wider sense, consistently with the usage of -Scripture, that is quite enough for us. We are perfectly at liberty to -adopt an interpretation which, on the one hand, the Sacred Text fairly -admits, and on the other, the discoveries of Natural Science would seem -to demand. Let us examine, then, the arguments that are usually adduced -in favor of the popular interpretation. - -Throughout the first chapter of Genesis the Hebrew word יוֺם (_yom_) -is everywhere employed by Moses to designate the Days of Creation. -And many writers contend that the use of this word is, in itself, -evidence enough that he spoke of days in the common sense of the term. -It is plain, they say, from the usage of Scripture, that the word יוֺם -(_yom_) had a fixed and certain meaning in the Hebrew language; the -same precisely as that which we now attach to the English word Day. -Sometimes, when contra-distinguished from night, it was applied to -the period of light, from sunrise to sunset; otherwise, it meant the -civil day of twenty-four hours, measured by the revolution of the Sun. -Moreover, it had unquestionably attained this meaning at the time when -Moses wrote, and therefore it could not have been employed by him in -any other sense. - -This argument rests upon a false foundation. It is true, no doubt, -that the word יוֺם (_yom_) was more usually employed in one or other -of the two senses just explained;--that is to say, (1) for the period -of light from sunrise to sunset, or (2) for the period of twenty-four -hours corresponding to a complete revolution of the Sun. But, for the -validity of the argument, it would be necessary to show that, beside -these two senses, there is no other in which the word may be fairly -understood, conformably to the usage of the Hebrew language. Now this -has never yet been proved. On the contrary, the Scripture affords -abundant evidence that the word יוֺם (_yom_) had a third meaning quite -different from the other two; that it was freely used to designate -a period of time much longer than a common day, and generally of -uncertain and indefinite duration. A few examples will be interesting, -we hope, to our readers. - -In the second chapter of Genesis, Moses, having completed his account -of the Creation, says (v. 4): “These are the generations of the Heavens -and the Earth when they were created, in the _Day_ יוֺם, (_yom_) that -the Lord God created the Earth and the Heavens: (v. 5), and every -plant of the field before it was in the earth, and every herb of the -field before it grew.” There is a good deal of controversy about the -precise meaning of this passage. But one thing at least appears to be -plain, that the word יוֺם (_yom_), is not used to designate a day of -twenty-four hours; nor yet the period of light from sunrise to sunset; -but rather the whole period of the Creation. - -On this point almost all our best commentators are agreed. “It is -manifest,” says Venerable Bede, “that in this place the sacred writer -has put the word Day for all that time during which the primeval -creation was brought into existence. For it was not upon any one of -the Six Days that the sky was made and adorned with stars, and the -dry land was separated from the waters, and furnished with trees and -plants. But, _according to its accustomed practice_, Scripture here -uses the word day in the sense of time.” Saint Augustine gives even a -wider expansion to the word when he writes: “Seven Days are enumerated -above, and now that is called one Day in which God made the Heavens -and the Earth, and every green thing of the field; by which term we -may well suppose that _all time is meant_. For God then made all time -when He made creatures that live in time; and these creatures are -here signified by the Heavens and the Earth.” Molina on the same -passage says: “Learned writers tell us commonly that Moses in this -place puts the word Day in the sense of Time, just as in the passage -of Deuteronomy, ‘The day of perdition is at hand.’... And elsewhere in -Scripture Day is often used for Time.” Bannez, too, concurs in this -opinion. “The word Day,” he says, “can be understood _for any duration -whatsoever_.” Perrerius, answering an objection taken from this text, -says that “Day is put for Time, as is _frequently done in Scripture_.” -And Petavius not only adopts this interpretation, but contends that it -is conformable to the usage even of the Greek and Latin writers. He -gives an example from Cicero against Verres: “Itaque cum ego _diem_ in -Siciliam perexiguam postulavissem, invenit iste qui sibi in Achaiam -_biduo breviorem diem_ postularet.”[142] Here, then, is an instance in -which Moses himself uses the word Day (יוֺם, _yom_) not in the ordinary -sense, but for a long period of time;--for all that time, whatever it -may have been, which elapsed from the first act of creation to the -close of the Six Days. - -Another striking example occurs in the prophet Amos. “Behold, the days -are coming, saith the Lord God, and I will send forth a famine into -the land: not a famine of bread, nor a thirst of water, but of hearing -the word of the Lord. And they shall wander from sea to sea and from -the north to the east; they shall go about seeking the word of the -Lord, and shall not find it. In that _day_ (יוֺם, _yom_) shall the fair -virgins and the young men faint for thirst.”[143] Every one will see -at a glance that the word Day in the latter part of this passage does -not mean a day of twenty-four hours. It evidently refers to the whole -period during which the calamities here foretold were to be inflicted -on the Jewish people. What that period was may be a question of -dispute. By some it is taken for the time of the Babylonian captivity; -by others, for the present age of the world, in which the Jews are -wanderers on the face of the earth, without a prophet and without a -pastor, thirsting for the word of God, and seeking it in vain. But, in -any case, it is clear from the opening words: “Behold, the days are -coming,” that it was a period not of one day only, but of many. - -Then we have those well known words addressed by God the Father to His -Eternal Son: “Thou art my Son, this _day_ (יוֺם, _yom_) have I begotten -thee.”[144] The Son of God was begotten of the Father before all ages; -and the _day_, therefore, on which he was begotten, cannot be a common -day of twenty-four hours, but must rather be the long day of Eternity, -without beginning and without end. - -This text, we know, is sometimes applied to the day of our Lord’s -Resurrection; and sometimes, too, to the day of His Incarnation: -nor do we want to deny that it may be thus rightly explained in a -secondary and mystical sense. But in its literal sense we think it -plainly refers to the Eternal Generation of the Son. This meaning is -sufficiently implied by the word _begotten_, which cannot be understood -with propriety, except of that Generation by virtue of which our Divine -Lord was from Eternity the natural Son of God. Moreover, this is the -sense in which the passage is adopted by Saint Paul in his Epistle to -the Hebrews. Wishing to show that Our Lord has received by inheritance -a name more excellent than any given to the Angels, he argues thus: -“For to which of the Angels hath he said at any time, Thou art my Son, -this day have I begotten thee?”[145] Now it seems to us that, unless -we understand these words of the Eternal Generation, the point of -the Apostle’s argument is completely lost. The Angels are sometimes -called in Scripture the sons of God; but they were only the _adopted -sons_, whereas Our Lord was the _natural Son_ in virtue of His Eternal -Generation. Consequently it was no other than the Eternal Generation -which made the name of Son more excellent when applied to Christ than -the same name when applied to the angels. - -Again, it is quite a common thing, with the prophets generally, to use -the word (יוֺם, yom) for the season of tribulation and affliction, -though the same may have extended over a period of many days or even -many years. Jeremias employs it in this sense when he describes so -vividly the manifold calamities that were impending over the ill-fated -Babylon. “I have caused thee to fall into a snare, and thou art taken, -O Babylon, and thou wast not aware of it: thou art found and caught -because thou hast provoked the Lord. The Lord hath opened His armory, -and hath brought forth the weapons of his wrath: for the Lord the God -of hosts hath a work to be done in the land of the Chaldeans. Come ye -against her from the uttermost borders: open, that they may go forth -that shall tread her down: take the stones out of the way, and make -heaps, and destroy her: and let nothing of her be left. Destroy all -her valiant men, let them go down to the slaughter: woe to them, for -their _day_ (יוֺם, yom) is come, _the time_ of their visitation. The -voice of them that flee, and of them that have escaped out of the -land of Babylon: to declare in Sion the revenge of the Lord our God, -the revenge of His temple. Declare to many against Babylon, to all -that bend the bow: stand together against her round about, and let -none escape; pay her according to her work: according to all that she -hath done, do ye to her: for she hath lifted up herself against the -Lord, against the Holy One of Israel. Therefore shall her young men -fall in her streets: and all her men of war shall hold their peace in -that _day_ (םךׄר, _yom_), saith the Lord. Behold I come against thee, -O proud one, saith the Lord the God of hosts: for the _day_ (םךׄר, -_yom_) is come, the _time_ of thy visitation. And the proud one shall -fall, he shall fall down, and there shall be none to lift him up: and -I will kindle afire in his cities, and it shall devour all round about -him.”[146] And in the following chapter:--“Thus saith the Lord: Behold, -I will raise up as it were a pestilential wind against Babylon, and -against the inhabitants thereof who have lifted up their heart against -me. And I will send to Babylon fanners, and they shall fan her, and -shall destroy her land: for they are come upon her on every side in the -_day_ (םךׄר, _yom_) of her affliction.”[147] - -In another place the same prophet applies the word םךׄר (_yom_) to the -whole duration of a long campaign carried on by Nabuchodonosor against -Pharao Nechao, king of Egypt. “Prepare ye the shield and buckler, and -go forth to battle. Harness the horses, and get up, ye horsemen: stand -forth with helmets, furbish the spears, put on coats of mail. What -then? I have seen them dismayed, and turning their backs, their valiant -ones slain: they fled apace, they looked not back: terror was round -about, saith the Lord. Let not the swift flee away, nor the strong -think to escape: they are overthrown and fallen down, toward the north -by the river Euphrates. Who is this that cometh up as a flood: and -his streams swell like those of rivers? Egypt riseth up like a flood, -and the waves thereof shall be moved as rivers, and he shall say: I -will go up and will cover the earth: I will destroy the city and its -inhabitants. Get ye up on horses, and glory in chariots, and let the -valiant men come forth, the Ethiopians and the Lybians, that handle the -shield, and the Lydians that handle and bend the bow. For this is the -_day_ (םךׄר, _yom_) of the Lord the God of hosts, a _day_ of vengeance -that He may revenge Himself of His enemies: the sword shall devour, -and shall be filled, and shall be drunk with their blood: for there -is a sacrifice of the Lord God of hosts in the north country, by the -river Euphrates.... Furnish thyself to go into captivity, thou daughter -inhabitant of Egypt: for Memphis shall be made desolate, and shall be -forsaken and uninhabited. Egypt is like a fair and beautiful heifer: -there shall come from the north one that shall goad her. Her hirelings -also that lived in the midst of her, like fatted calves are turned -back, and are fled away together, and they could not stand: for the -_day_(םךׄר, _yom_) of their slaughter is come upon them, the _time_ of -their visitation.”[148] - -The prophet Ezechiel, too, furnishes a forcible illustration when -he thus foreshadows the course of a second expedition against Egypt -undertaken by the same prince:-- “Therefore thus saith the Lord God: -Behold I will set Nabuchodonosor the king of Babylon in the land of -Egypt: and he shall take her multitude, and take the booty thereof for -a prey, and rifle the spoils thereof: and it shall be wages for his -army; and for the service he hath done me against it: I have given -him the land of Egypt, because he hath labored for me, saith the Lord -God. In that _day_ (םךׄר, _yom_) a horn shall bud forth for the house -of Israel, and I will give thee an open mouth in the midst of them: -and they shall know that I am the Lord.”[149] And a little further -on:--“For the _day_ (םךׄר, _yom_) is near, yea the _day_ of the Lord -is near: a cloudy _day_, it shall be the _time_ of the nations. And -the sword shall come upon Egypt: and there shall be dread in Ethiopia, -when the wounded shall fall in Egypt, and the multitude thereof shall -be taken away, and the foundations thereof shall be destroyed. Ethiopia -and Lybia, and Lydia, and all the rest of the crowd, and Chub, and -the children of the land of the covenant, shall fall with them by the -sword.... And they shall know that I am the Lord: when I shall have -set a fire in Egypt, and all the helpers thereof shall be destroyed. -In that _day_ (םךׄר, _yom_), shall messengers go forth from my face in -ships to destroy the confidence of Ethiopia, and there shall be dread -among them in that _day_ (םךׄר, _yom_) of Egypt: because it shall -certainly come.”[150] - -Once more, this word is applied to the period of Our Lord’s life -upon earth, and even to the whole duration of the Christian Church. -Sophonias, for example, thus foretells the coming of the kingdom -of Christ. “Wherefore expect me, saith the Lord, in the day of my -resurrection that is to come, for my judgment is to assemble the -Gentiles, and to gather the kingdoms.... From beyond the rivers of -Ethiopia shall my suppliants, the children of my dispersed people, -bring me an offering. In that _day_ (םךׄר, _yom_) thou shalt not be -ashamed for all thy doings, wherein thou hast transgressed against me: -for then I will take away out of the midst of thee thy proud boasters, -and thou shalt no more be lifted up because of my holy mountain.... -Give praise, O daughter of Sion: shout, O Israel: be glad and rejoice -with all thy heart, O daughter of Jerusalem. The Lord hath taken away -thy judgment, he hath turned away thy enemies: the King of Israel the -Lord is in the midst of thee, thou shalt fear evil no more. In that -_day_ (םךׄר, _yom_) it shall be said to Jerusalem: Fear not; to Sion: -Let not thy hands be weakened. The Lord thy God in the midst of thee is -mighty, He will save: He will rejoice over thee with gladness, He will -be silent in His love, He will be joyful over thee in praise.”[151] - -And Isaias: “Is it not yet a very little while, and Libanon shall be -turned into a charmel, and charmel shall be esteemed as a forest? And -in that _day_ (םךׄר, _yom_) the deaf shall hear the words of the book, -and out of darkness and obscurity the eyes of the blind shall see. And -the meek shall increase their joy in the Lord, and the poor men shall -rejoice in the Holy One of Israel.”[152] That this passage refers to -the time of the Christian Church there can be no doubt; for our Lord -himself appeals to it in proof of His divine mission: “Go and relate to -John what you have heard and seen. The blind see, the lame walk, the -lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead rise again, the poor have -the Gospel preached to them.”[153] - -We may trace this use of the word even in the New Testament. Our Lord -says, arguing with the Jews: “Abraham your father rejoiced that he -might see my _day_: he saw it and was glad.”[154] Saint Paul, too, -though writing in the Greek language to the Corinthians, does not -hesitate to adopt a passage from Isaias, in which the same meaning is -conspicuously brought out: “And we helping do exhort you, that you -receive not the grace of God in vain. For he saith: In an accepted -time have I heard thee, and in the _day_ of salvation have I helped -thee. Behold, now is the _acceptable time_: behold, now is the _day of -salvation_.”[155] And finally, Our Divine Lord, in His last touching -address to the city of Jerusalem, applies the word _day_ to the season -of grace and mercy: “When he drew near, seeing the city, He wept over -it, saying: If thou also hadst known, and that in this thy _day_, -the things that are to thy peace: but now they are hidden from thy -eyes. For the days shall come upon thee; and thy enemies shall cast a -trench about thee, and compass thee round, and straiten thee on every -side.”[156] - -So much, then, for the first argument. From the numerous examples we -have given it is plain enough that the word word יוֺם (_yom), in -Scripture language, was often used for a period of many days, and even -many years; nay sometimes for a period of many centuries. If so, Moses -was free to use it in this sense. And consequently, as far as the word -itself is concerned, it affords no conclusive proof that the Days -of Creation were days of twenty-four hours only: we may hold them to -belong and indefinite periods of time, without departing in any degree -from the established usage of Scripture. - -But it is urged--and this is the second argument,--that, whatever -may be the meaning of the word word יוֺם (_yom) elsewhere, in the -first chapter of Genesis it must mean a day of twenty-four hours. For -we are not merely told that there was a First Day, and a Second Day, -and a Third Day; but each day is in a manner analyzed by the sacred -writer, and its component parts set forth for our instruction. _There -was evening and there was morning_, he says, the First Day; _there -was evening and there was morning_ the Second Day; _there was evening -and there was morning_ the Third Day; and so on. Now if the word were -understood of those indefinite periods we have been speaking about, -there would be no meaning in this analysis: for it could hardly be -maintained that each of those periods had but one evening and one -morning like an ordinary day. Furthermore, it is argued that there is -a peculiar appropriateness in this phrase, which goes far to confirm -the common interpretation. Amongst the Jews it was usual to compute -the civil day from sunset to sunset. The civil day began then with the -evening. And accordingly Moses, in describing the Days of Creation, -puts the evening first, and says: There was evening and there was -morning the First Day; there was evening and there was morning the -Second Day; and so for the rest. - -All this reasoning seems to us unsatisfactory and inconclusive. In -the first place, it is not a fact, as would seem to be supposed, that -the civil day is made up of evening and morning. The evening and the -morning do not make the whole day; they are only certain periods of -the day. Neither do they mark the limits of the day: for, though it is -quite true that, in the computation of the Jews, the civil day began -with the evening, it certainly did not end with the morning. If, then, -by the word Day, Moses here meant the civil day of twenty-four hours, -how is this clause to be understood, There was evening and there was -morning the First Day? It cannot mean that the evening and the morning -put together made up the First Day: for this is not a fact. It cannot -mean that the evening marked the beginning of the day, and the morning -marked its close: for the period included between the evening and the -morning is not the day but the night. What does it mean, then? - -Many writers seem to suppose that the evening and the morning are -intended by Moses to designate the night and the day;--that is to say, -the whole period of darkness and the whole period of light, which -put together make up the civil day of twenty-four hours. If the text -could be explained in this way, it would fit in, no doubt, much more -appropriately with the theory of ordinary days than with the theory of -indefinite periods. But the text _cannot_ be explained in this way. The -evening is _not_ the whole period of darkness, and the morning is _not_ -the whole period of light. No English writer could say, with propriety, -that the Day is made up of the evening and the morning. Neither could -Moses have meant to say this in the first chapter of Genesis: for the -Hebrew words ערב (_Ghereb_) _and_ בקר (_Boker_) which are found in the -original text, have a meaning not less fixed and definite than the -corresponding words Evening and the Morning in the English language. - -To prove the truth of this assertion by an investigation of all the -passages in the Hebrew Bible, in which these words are found, would -be a tedious and uninteresting task. But it may be easily tested in -another way. If the words ערב (_Ghereb_) and בקר (_Boker_) were ever -used to mean, not strictly the evening and morning, but the whole -period of night and the whole period of day, this fact would surely -have become known in the course of time to some of the many eminent -and accomplished Hebrew lexicographers. We ask, then, is there one -Hebrew lexicon of note which assigns the sense of _night_ to the word -ערב (_Ghereb_) and the sense of _day_ to the word בקר (_Boker_). For -ourselves, we have searched several of the best of them, and we have -not found a single one that even hints at such an explanation. - -Perhaps, however, some of our readers might be unwilling to accept -the authority of lexicons as conclusive on a point of this kind; -seeing that lexicons very often represent but imperfectly the full -power of a language. Well, then, there is another process, and a -simple one enough, by which they may demonstrate the inaccuracy of our -statement, if inaccurate it be. Let them produce any passage from the -Hebrew Bible in which the words ערב (_Ghereb_) and בקר (_Boker_) are -employed to designate the whole night and the whole day. If they fail -to do so,--and as far as we are aware, no such passage has yet been -discovered,--then surely we may fairly contend that the interpretation -which thus explains the words in the first chapter of Genesis -cannot be regarded as certain: nor can the argument founded on that -interpretation be received as conclusive. - -There is a text in the eighth chapter of the prophet Daniel which -might, perhaps, appear at first sight to militate against our opinion. -The prophet had a vision in which it was foreshadowed that Antiochus -Epiphanes should come and prevail against the Jews, and should profane -the temple of God, and should abolish the daily sacrifice. One of the -Angels in the vision is heard asking of another, for how long should -the daily sacrifice cease, and the sanctuary remain desolate. And -the answer is given in these words: “Unto _evening-morning_ (עד ערב -בקר, ghad ghereb boker) two thousand three hundred; then shall the -sanctuary be cleansed.”[157] Now, this is commonly understood to mean -that the daily sacrifice should be abolished for two thousand three -hundred _days_. And therefore, it would seem that, in this passage, -the _evening and morning_ are used to signify the _whole civil day_ of -twenty-four hours. - -We will not dispute the correctness of the interpretation which is here -set forth, although the words of the Angel are explained in a very -different sense by many eminent commentators. But we think that the -passage, even when understood according to this interpretation, cannot -fairly be brought in evidence against us. The evening and the morning -do not make up the whole day: but they occur once, and only once, in -each day. Therefore a period of many days may be properly signified -by noting the recurrence of the evening and morning a certain number -of times. And in point of fact, a usage of this kind seems to prevail -in most languages. The common word _fortnight_, in English, affords a -good illustration. It signifies a period of fourteen nights and days: -yet it does not specify the recurrence of fourteen days, but only the -recurrence of fourteen nights. Again, the poet says: - - “Fair was she to behold, that maiden of seventeen _summers_.” - -Nobody would argue from these examples that the word _summer_ means a -period of twelve months; or that the word _night_ means a period of -twenty-four hours. And so, in the case before us, the recurrence of the -evening and morning two thousand three hundred times may be pointed -out to mark a period of two thousand three hundred days, although the -evening and morning are not the whole day, but only certain parts of -the day. Nay, more; we fancy we can see a good reason why the Angel in -the vision should single out the evening and the morning for special -notice. He had been asked about the profanation of the sanctuary, and -the abolition of the daily sacrifice. Now it was in the evening and the -morning that the daily sacrifice was wont to be offered. And the Angel -seems to answer: The evening and the morning shall return two thousand -three hundred times; and there shall be no evening and morning -sacrifice: but, after that time, the sanctuary shall be cleansed and -sacrifice restored. - -So far we have been arguing from the common usage of Scripture that -the evening and the morning mentioned in the history of the Creation -cannot mean the whole night and the whole day. But there is a special -objection against this interpretation from the history of the Creation -itself. The fifth verse in the first chapter of Genesis runs thus: -“And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And -there was evening and there was morning the First Day.” In the first -sentence it is recorded that God, having divided the light from the -darkness, gave to each its proper name: He called the light, Day; -and the darkness, Night. Is it not highly improbable that, after -this announcement, the sacred writer would himself, in the very next -sentence, employ names altogether different, if he wished to designate -the period of light and the period of darkness? - -We are not maintaining that the phrase under consideration--“there -was evening and there was morning the First Day”--cannot be explained -on the hypothesis that the Days of Creation were days of twenty-four -hours. But we do contend that it affords no conclusive proof in favor -of that hypothesis; because even in that hypothesis the meaning of -the phrase is still doubtful and obscure. For ourselves, we candidly -confess we can offer no explanation that seems to us, in any system of -interpretation, altogether satisfactory. We may be allowed, however, to -call attention to an opinion put forward by Saint Augustine, which fits -in very appropriately with the doctrine that the Days of Creation were -long periods of time. The distinctions of evening and morning, he says, -are not to be understood in reference to the rising and setting of the -Sun, which, in point of fact, was not created until the Fourth Day; -but rather in reference to the works themselves that are recorded to -have been produced. In this way the evening will naturally represent -the bringing to an end of the work that had been accomplished; and the -morning, on the other hand, the coming in of the work that was to be. -This opinion was afterward adopted by Saint Eucherius, Bishop of Lyons, -who seems almost to borrow the very words of Saint Augustine; and also -by Venerable Bede, who says: “What is the evening, but the completion -of each work? and the morning, but the beginning of the next?” In -the twelfth century we find it again set forth by Saint Hildegarde, -who was considered by Saint Bernard, as well as by Pope Eugenius the -Third, to have been gifted with the spirit of prophecy.[158] This -interpretation, it is true, does not explain the words _evening_ and -_morning_ according to their literal signification: but then the -metaphorical sense it ascribes to them is both simple and appropriate; -more especially if we understand the word Day in the sense of a long -and indefinite period. As the morning literally means the break of day, -and the evening its decline, the Sacred Writer might, not inaptly, have -employed these words to represent metaphorically the opening and the -close of the various works which are ascribed to each successive period -in the history of the Creation. - -It may be observed, moreover, that this explanation seems quite in -accord with the etymology of the Hebrew words עֶרֶב (_Ghereb_), and -בּקר (_Boker_). The latter is formed from the root בּקֶר (_Bakar_), _to -lay open_, and used to signify the morning, because in the morning -the light of the sun is, as it were, unveiled, and _laid open_ to -the earth. Hence, the word might be applied with much propriety, in -a metaphorical sense, to the unfolding of the various works of God, -as each new period was, in its turn, ushered in with a new act of -Creation. On the other hand, עֶרֶב (_Ghereb_) seems to be derived from -ערב (_Gharab_), _to mingle_, and has probably come to signify the -evening, as the famous Hebrew scholar, Aben Ezra, suggests, because, -in the uncertain light of evening, the forms of external objects -lose their distinctness of outline, and become, in a manner, blended -together. And so this word might have been employed, not unfitly, to -represent the close of each period in the creation, which was marked, -as Geologists tell us, by the gradual dying out or extinction of the -various forms of life peculiar to that period. Anyhow, in following the -opinion of so ancient and so venerable an authority as Saint Augustine, -we cannot be charged with unduly straining the Sacred Text to meet the -exigencies of modern science. - - * * * * * - -The next argument is founded on a passage in Exodus, to which we have -already had occasion to refer: “Six days shalt thou labor, and do all -thy work. But the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: thou -shalt do no work on it, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy -man-servant, nor thy maid-servant, nor thy beast, nor the stranger -that is within thy gates. For in six days the Lord made the Heavens -and the Earth, and the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the -seventh day; therefore the Lord blessed the seventh day and sanctified -it.”[159] We are to work upon six days, and to rest upon the seventh; -_because_ in six days God accomplished all the works of the creation, -and rested on the seventh. There can be no mistake as to the meaning -of this commandment. The six days on which it is lawful to labor are, -beyond all doubt, six days in the common sense of the word; six days of -twenty-four hours each: and the seventh day, on which it is forbidden -to work, is a day of the same kind. But the example of God’s labor and -God’s rest is set forth, in the text, as the pattern after which this -law of the Sabbath was framed. And therefore, the six days in which God -furnished and embellished the earth must have been likewise six days of -twenty-four hours each. This argument is regarded by many writers as -decisive. - -To us, on the contrary, it seems by no means necessary to understand -the days on which God labored and rested, in precisely the same sense -as the days on which it is enjoined that we should labor and rest. The -examples of God is, no doubt, represented in the Sacred Text as the -reason for the Jewish Sabbath: “Six days shalt thou labor, and rest -upon the seventh; _for_ in six days the Lord made the Heavens and the -Earth, and rested on the seventh.” But, suppose for a moment that the -days of creation were long periods of time, will not the significance -of this reason remain unchanged? As God, in the great work of the -creation, labored for six successive periods, and then rested for a -seventh, so shall you likewise do all your work during six of those -successive periods into which your time is divided, and rest upon the -seventh. - -In support of this view, we may observe that the Jews were commanded to -abstain from work, not only every seventh _day_, but also every seventh -_year_. “Six years thou shalt sow thy ground, and shalt gather the corn -thereof; but the seventh year thou shalt let it alone, and suffer it -to rest, that the poor of thy people may eat, and whatsoever shall be -left, let the beasts of the field eat it: in like manner shalt thou -do with thy vineyard and thy oliveyard. Six days shalt thou work: the -seventh day thou shalt cease, that thy ox and thy ass may rest; and -the son of thy handmaid and the stranger may be refreshed.”[160] And -in another place we read: “When you shall have entered into the land -which I will give you, observe the rest of the Sabbath to the Lord. -Six years thou shalt sow thy field, and six years thou shalt prune -thy vineyard, and shalt gather the fruits thereof; but in the seventh -year there shall be a Sabbath to the land, of the resting of the Lord; -thou shalt not sow thy field, nor prune thy vineyard. What the ground -shall bring forth of itself thou shalt not reap: neither shalt thou -gather the grapes of the first fruits as a vintage; for it is a year of -rest to the land: But they shall be unto you for meat; to thee, and to -thy man-servant, and to thy maid-servant, and to thy hireling, and to -the strangers that sojourn with thee, to thy beasts of burden, and to -thy cattle, all things that grow shall be for meat.”[161] The seventh -year, then, according to Divine command, was a year of rest among the -Jews, just as the seventh day was a day of rest; and it is evident -that the one precept, no less than the other, was founded on the great -example of God’s rest when He had finished the work of Creation. We -are satisfied, therefore, that whatever may have been the length of -those six days in which God labored, and of the seventh day on which He -rested, His example might still be properly set forth as the model on -which the law of the Sabbath was founded. - -It is urged, however, that in this passage of Exodus, we have the same -word יוֺם (_yom_) applied in the very same context to the six days of -the Creation and to the six days of the week; and it can hardly be -supposed that the inspired writer would pass thus suddenly from one -meaning of the word to another, and a very different meaning, without -giving any intimation to his readers of such a transition. If this -argument is a good one, we can only say that it completely oversets the -opinion of those against whom we are contending. In the fifth verse -of the first chapter of Genesis we read: “And God called the _light_ -_Day_, and the _darkness_ he called _Night_. And there was evening and -there was morning the first _Day_.” Now, those who reject the theory -of long periods, maintain that by the word Day in the latter part of -this verse, is meant the whole civil day of twenty-four hours; while it -is plain that, in the earlier part of the verse, the same word Day is -emphatically applied to only a part of that period--that is, to the -time of light as distinguished from the time of darkness. Therefore, -they are themselves, in fact, upholding an interpretation which -supposes the inspired writer to pass from one meaning of the word Day -to another, without any intimation of a change of meaning. - -But we do not want to shrink from dealing with this argument on its -merits. The principle on which it is founded seems to us unsound and -inconsistent with the evidence of the Sacred Books themselves. It is -quite a common thing, we contend, in Scripture, for the writer to pass -from one meaning of a word to another without any explicit indication -of such a transition, when, as in the case before us, the two senses, -though different, are analogous: the one being, as it were, the figure, -or the symbol, or the pattern, of the other. A few examples will make -this clear. In the Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians, we -read as follows: “For the charity of Christ presseth us: judging this, -that if one _died_ for all, then all were _dead_; and Christ _died_ for -all.”[162] Here, when it is said that “all were _dead_,” the meaning -is, that all men were _dead spiritually_ by sin; whereas, in the clause -immediately preceding, and in the clause immediately following, the -same word is used in its literal sense for the death of Christ upon -the cross. And yet the Apostle, though he thus passed from the literal -to the metaphorical sense of the word, and then back again from the -metaphorical sense to the literal, gives no express indication of these -transitions. - -Again, in the Gospel, when a certain man, being called by our Lord, -said: “Lord, suffer me first to go and bury my father,” Jesus reproved -him in these words: “Let the _dead_ bury their _dead_; but go thou and -preach the kingdom of God.”[163] There is some difference of opinion -amongst commentators as to the exact meaning of this phrase. But -whatever interpretation be adopted, it seems evident from the context -that the _dead to be buried_ were those who were literally dead; -whereas, the _dead_ who were to _bury them_ were manifestly _not_ those -who were literally dead, but those who were dead in some analogous or -metaphorical sense. Another example occurs in the twentieth chapter of -Saint John. Christ says to His Apostles: “I ascend to my Father and -your Father, to my God and your God.”[164] When He says, “I ascend -to my Father,” the meaning is, “to Him who has begotten me from all -eternity.” When He adds, “and your Father,” the meaning is, “to Him who -has _adopted_ you for His children.” Here, then, the word Father is -first used in the sense of a natural father, and immediately after in -the sense of a father by adoption, without any explicit declaration of -a change in meaning. - -The Epistle of Saint Paul to the Romans furnishes an instance in which -the transition from one meaning to another occurs in the case of the -word Day itself: “The night is passed, and the _day_ is at hand. Let -us, therefore, cast off the works of darkness, and put on the armor of -light. Let us walk honestly as in the _day_.”[165] The word Day, in -the earlier part of this passage, is used by Saint Paul for the Day of -Eternity which is to follow the darkness of this life; while, in the -next sentence, it means clearly the period of light between sunrise -and sunset. Another illustration of the same kind occurs in the first -Epistle to the Thessalonians. “But you, brethren, are not in darkness -that that _day_ should overtake you as a thief; for you are all the -children of light and the children of the _day_.”[166] No one familiar -with the language of Scripture can doubt that the first _day_ here is -the Day of Judgment; and it is quite plain that the second _day_ is -_not_ the Day of Judgment. - -Our next example, and one most appropriate to our purpose, is taken -from the prophet Amos: “And it shall come to pass in that _day_, saith -the Lord God, that I will make the sun go down at noon, and I will -darken the earth in the clear _day_.”[167] This prophecy is commonly -referred by the Fathers to the time of our Lord, when the earth was -darkened in the clear day on the occasion of His crucifixion; but some -eminent authorities, with Saint Jerome at their head, explain it of the -Captivity in Babylon. Either interpretation will suit our argument. The -sacred writer first employs the word Day for a long period of time, and -afterward proceeds to use it in its more ordinary sense, without giving -his readers any express intimation of such a transition. - -We hope it is now pretty clear that neither the reason assigned for -the institution of the Sabbath Day, nor the particular form of words -in which that ordinance is set forth, offers any insurmountable -obstacle to the opinion we are defending. And this is quite enough for -our purpose. For we would again remind our readers that we are not -attempting to prove from the Sacred Text that this opinion _must_ be -true, but only that it _may_ be true. Our object has been sufficiently -attained if we have succeeded in showing that the hypothesis which -makes the Days of Creation long periods, is not inconsistent with the -language of Scripture. - -We are tempted, however, in the case of this objection, to go somewhat -further than the scope of our argument strictly demands. The text we -have just been discussing brings before us, in fact, a consideration -of great weight in favor of the system of long periods. “In six days -the Lord made the Heavens and the Earth and the sea, and all that in -them is, and rested on the seventh day.” Now, what was this Seventh Day -on which God rested? Was it a common day of twenty-four hours? or was -it not rather a long and undefined period of time? Saint Augustine -answers plainly enough: “The seventh day,” he says, “is without an -evening, and has no setting.” And Venerable Bede, asking why the sacred -writer had assigned no evening to the seventh day, gives this answer: -“Because it has no end, and is shut in by no limit.”[168] - -The common sentiment of Theologians, as far as we know, seems to point -in the same direction. They tell us that God is said to have rested, -inasmuch as He ceased from the creation of new species; and they -hold that since the close of the Sixth Day no new species have been -brought into existence. But whether this be true or not, it would be -very difficult, we think, to point out any sense in which God can be -said to have rested after the work of the Six Days, and in which He -is not resting at the present moment. If so, the day of His rest is -still going on; and it is not a period of twenty-four hours only, but -a period of many thousand years. Now, if the Seventh Day on which God -rested is a period of many thousand years, are we not fully justified -in supposing that the Six Days on which He formed and furnished the -Heavens and the Earth were likewise periods of many ages? - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -_CHAPTER XXI._ - -APPLICATION OF THE SECOND HYPOTHESIS TO THE MOSAIC HISTORY OF -CREATION--CONCLUSION. - - _Summary of the argument--Striking coincidence between the - order of creation as set forth in the narrative of Moses - and in the records of Geology--Comparison illustrated - and developed--Scheme of adjustment between the periods - of Geology and the days of Genesis--Tabular view of this - scheme--Objections considered--It is not to be regarded as an - established theory, but as an admissible hypothesis--Either - the first hypothesis or the second is sufficient to meet the - demands of Geology as regards the antiquity of the earth--Not - necessary to suppose that the sacred writer was made acquainted - with the long ages of geological time--He simply records - faithfully that which was committed to his charge--The - Mosaic history of creation stands alone, without rivals or - competitors._ - - -The results at which we have arrived by the long, and we fear tedious, -line of argument pursued in the last Chapter, may be briefly summed up. -First, many illustrious Fathers of the Church--Saint Augustine, Origen, -Clement of Alexandria, Saint Athanasius, and others--plainly declared -against the opinion that the Days of Creation were days in the ordinary -sense of the word; and, therefore, it is a mistake to suppose that this -opinion is supported by the unanimous voice of Christian tradition. -Secondly, the word Day is frequently used in Scripture for a long -period of time, and sometimes for a period of indefinite duration. -Thirdly, there is nothing in the language of Moses that forbids us -to explain the word according to this sense, in the first chapter of -Genesis. And fourthly, there is, at least, one grave consideration, -derived from Holy Scripture itself, which distinctly points to such -an interpretation. The Six Days of Creation are contrasted with the -Seventh Day of God’s rest; and this Seventh Day of God’s rest is -unquestionably a long period of undefined duration. From all this it is -obvious to conclude, that we may fairly adopt this mode of interpreting -the Mosaic Days, if it will assist us in reconciling the received -conclusions of science with the truths of Revelation. - -Now, there is a striking resemblance, in some important respects, -between the order of Creation as exhibited in the successive days of -the Sacred Record, and the order of Creation as manifested in the -successive periods of Geological time. Three days are specially marked -out by the Inspired Historian as distinguished by the creation of -vegetable and animal life--the Third, the Fifth, and the Sixth. On -the Third Day were created plants and trees; on the Fifth, reptiles, -fish, and birds; on the Sixth, cattle, and the beasts of the earth, -and, toward the end, man himself. Geologists, on the other hand, not -influenced in the least degree by the Scripture narrative, but guided -chiefly by the remains of animal and vegetable life which are preserved -in the Crust of the Earth, have established three leading divisions -of Geological time; the Palæozoic, or first age of organic life, the -Mesozoic, or second great age of organic life, and the Kainozoic, -or third great age of organic life. Here, no doubt, is a remarkable -coincidence. - -But it would be still more remarkable if we could recognize, in the -three epochs of Geology, the same general characteristics of organic -life as we find ascribed by Moses to the three successive days of the -Bible narrative. And so we may, it is said, if we will only take the -pains to examine for ourselves the organic remains of these geological -epochs as they lie dispersed through the Crust of the Earth, or even -as they are to be found collected and arranged for exhibition in our -museums. The first great age of Geology is eminently distinguished -for its plants and trees; the second, for its huge reptiles and great -sea-monsters; the third, for its vast herds of noble quadrupeds. Nay, -to complete the harmony between the two Records, as man is represented -by the Inspired Writer to have been created toward the close of the -last day, so, toward the close of the last Geological age, the remains -of man and of his works are found, for the first time, laid by in the -archives of the Earth. - -Such is the coincidence which some ingenious writers fancy they can -trace between the history that is set forth in the written Word of -God, and the history that is so curiously inscribed upon His works. -Our readers, perhaps, will not be unwilling to consider it a little -more in detail. We read in the first chapter of Genesis, that on the -Third Day God said: “Let the earth bring forth the green herb, and -such as may seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after its kind, -which may have seed in itself upon the earth. And it was so done. And -the earth brought forth the green herb, and such as yieldeth seed -according to its kind, and the tree that beareth fruit, having seed -each one according to its kind. And God saw that it was good.”[169] -Let us now turn to the Carboniferous Period of Geology, which occupies -a large space in the great Palæozoic age. All writers agree that it -was specially marked by a gorgeous and luxuriant vegetation: and as -we contemplate the multitudinous remains of plants and trees which -have been gathered so abundantly in our coal measures, and ranged with -such striking effect along the walls of our museums, we can scarcely -help thinking that we have before us a practical commentary on the -text of Moses. The gifted Hugh Miller, who is universally allowed -to have been one of the most practical and experienced Geologists of -the modern school, gives a very picturesque and graphic sketch of the -Carboniferous flora. “In no other age,” he says, “did the world ever -witness such a flora: the youth of the earth was peculiarly a green -and umbrageous youth,--a youth of dusk and tangled forests,--of huge -pines and stately araucarians,--of the reed-like calamite, the tall -tree-fern, the sculptured sigillaria, and the hirsute lepidodendron. -Wherever dry land, or shallow lake or running stream appeared, from -where Melville Island now spreads out its ice-wastes under the star of -the pole, to where the arid plains of Australia lie solitary beneath -the bright cross of the south, a rank and luxuriant herbage cumbered -every footbreadth of the dank and steaming soil; and even to distant -planets our earth must have shown, through the enveloping cloud, with -a green and delicate ray.”[170] Such an age as this might well be -described in history as the age in which the earth brought forth the -green herb, and the fruit-tree yielding seed according to its kind. - -Again, the work of the Fifth Day is thus described in the Sacred -Narrative:--“God also said: Let the waters bring forth the creeping -creature having life, and the fowl that may fly over the earth under -the firmament of Heaven. And God created the great whales, and every -living and moving creature which the waters brought forth, according -to their kinds, and every winged fowl according to its kind. And God -saw that it was good.”[171] And in this case, as in the former, we may -find the counterpart of the Bible story in the records of Geology. “The -secondary age of the geologist,” says the eminent writer from whom -we have already quoted, “possessed, like the earlier one, its herbs -and plants, but they were of a greatly less luxuriant and conspicuous -character than their predecessors, and no longer formed the prominent -trait or feature of the creation to which they belong. The period -had also its corals, its crustaceans, its molluscs, its fishes, and, -in some one or two exceptional instances, its dwarf mammals. But the -grand existences of the age,--the existences in which it excelled every -other creation, earlier or later,--were its huge creeping things,--its -enormous monsters of the deep,--and, as shown by the impressions of -their footprints stamped upon the rocks, its gigantic birds. It was -peculiarly the age of egg-bearing animals, winged and wingless. Its -wonderful _whales_, not however as now, of the mammalian, but of the -reptilian class--ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and cetiosaurs--must have -tempested the deep; its creeping lizards and crocodiles, such as the -teleosaurus megalosaurus, and iguanodon,--creatures some of which more -than rival the existing elephant in height, and greatly more than -rivalled him in bulk,--must have crowded the plains, or haunted by -myriads the rivers of the period; and we know that the foot-prints of, -at least, one of its many birds, are fully twice the size of those made -by the horse or camel. We are thus prepared to demonstrate that the -second period of the geologist was peculiarly and characteristically a -period of whale-like reptiles of the sea, of enormous creeping reptiles -of the land, and of numerous birds, some of them of gigantic size.”[172] - -Once more, it is written that, on the Sixth Day, “God said: Let the -earth bring forth the living creature in its kind, cattle and creeping -things, and beasts of the earth, according to their kinds. And it was -so done. And God made the beasts of the earth according to their kinds, -and cattle and every thing that creepeth on the earth after its kind. -And God saw that it was good.”[173] And again Geology seems to confirm -the truth of the Inspired narrative, and to fill up the details of the -picture. “The Tertiary period,” continues Hugh Miller, “had also its -prominent class of existences. Its flora seems to have been no more -conspicuous than that of the present time; its reptiles occupy a very -subordinate place; but its beasts of the field were by far the most -wonderfully developed, both in size and numbers, that ever appeared -upon the earth. Its mammoths and its mastodons, its rhinoceri and -its hippopotami, its enormous dimotherium and colossal megatherium, -greatly more than equalled in bulk the greatest mammals of the present -time, and vastly exceeded them in number. The remains of one of its -elephants (Elephas primigenius) are still so abundant amid the frozen -wastes of Siberia, that what have been not inappropriately termed -‘ivory quarries’ have been wrought among their bones for more than a -hundred years. Even in our own country, of which, as I have already -shown, this elephant was for long ages a native, so abundant are the -skeletons and tusks, that there is scarcely a local museum in the -kingdom that has not its specimens, dug out of the Pleistocene deposits -of the neighborhood. And with this ancient elephant there were meetly -associated in Britain, as on the northern continents generally all -around the globe, many other mammals of corresponding magnitude. ‘Grand -indeed,’ says an English naturalist, ‘was the fauna of the British -islands in those early days. Tigers as large again as the biggest -Asiatic species lurked in the ancient thickets; elephants nearly -twice the size of the largest individuals that now exist in Africa or -Ceylon roamed in herds: at least two species of the rhinoceros forced -their way through the primeval forests; and the lakes and rivers were -tenanted by hippopotami as bulky, and with as great tusks, as those -of Africa.’ The massive cave-bear and large cave-hyæna belong to the -same formidable group, with at least two species of great oxen, with a -horse of smaller size, and an elk that stood ten feet four inches in -height. Truly this Tertiary age--this third and last of the geologic -periods--was peculiarly the age of great ‘beasts of the earth after -their kind, and of cattle after their kind.’”[174] - -We shall be told, perhaps, that there are Six Days assigned to the -work of creation in the Mosaic narrative, and that we have accounted -but for three. Let it be remembered, however, that Geology does not -profess to give a complete history of our Globe. It can set before us -those events only which have left their impress indelibly stamped upon -the rocks that compose the Crust of the Earth. These events Geologists -have attempted to reduce to the order of a chronological system; and in -prosecuting this task they have been guided almost exclusively by the -evidence of Organic Remains. Hence it was not to be expected that, in -Geological Chronology, we should find a Period specially set apart as -the Period in which Light was made; or another as the Period in which -the Firmament was spread out over the Earth; or a Third as the Period -in which the sun and moon and stars shone forth in the expanse of -Heaven. Such phenomena had, indeed, a very important influence on the -physical condition of our globe. But they must occupy a very secondary -place, if indeed they are distinctly chronicled at all in the records -of Geology. It is the formation of rocks and the embedding therein of -Fossil Remains that constitute the main study of the Geologist, and -that guide him in the distribution of Geological time. - -Furthermore, we would observe that the scheme of Chronology which -Geologists put before us, affords abundant room for each and all of -the Mosaic Days. Let it be assumed for a moment that the Carboniferous -Period corresponds with the Third Day of the Sacred narrative. The -earlier Periods of the Palæozoic Age will then fit in with the First -and Second Days of Scripture; and the Permian, which intervenes between -the Carboniferous Period and the Secondary Age, may be supposed to -correspond with the Fourth Day of Scripture. This adjustment between -the Mosaic Days and the Periods of Geology will probably be made more -intelligible to the general reader by the Table that appears on the -following page. - -The reader must not think it amiss, in this distribution of the Mosaic -Days, that four out of six are crowded together into one Geological -Age, while each of the other two has an entire Age assigned to -itself. If the Days of Creation were indefinite periods, there is no -incongruity in supposing that one may have corresponded to a longer, -another to a shorter interval in the history of our planet. But, in -truth, our scheme of distribution does not of necessity imply that -the Mosaic Days were periods of unequal length. Geologists do not -pretend that there is even a remote approximation to equality between -the several divisions of Geological time. The three great Epochs are -distinguished from each other by reason of the very marked difference -in the character of their Fossil Remains. And the multiplication -of Periods in each Epoch seems to depend rather upon the degree of -completeness with which the strata of that Age have been examined, -than upon any conjecture as to the probable length of its duration. -Thus, for example, Sir Charles Lyell thinks that, as far as the present -condition of Science affords the means of forming an opinion, almost -any one of the Periods in the Palæozoic Age was as long as all the -Periods of the Tertiary Age taken together.[175] - -But there is another and a more serious objection against our -hypothesis. It has been observed more than once that the periods of -Geology are out of harmony with the Days of Genesis, even as regards -the history of Organic life. According to the Scripture narrative -no Organic life appeared upon the Earth previous to the Third Day. -Now the Third Day of Scripture corresponds, in our scheme, with the -Carboniferous Period of Geology. And yet there is abundant evidence -in the Fossil Remains of the Devonian, the Silurian, and the Cambrian -Formations, that Organic life--both plants and animals--prevailed upon -the Earth for many ages before the Carboniferous Period began. Nay, -it is now commonly held, since the discovery of the famous _Eozoon -Canadense_, the oldest known Fossil, that life already existed during -the deposition of the Laurentian Rocks, the earliest of all the -Stratified Formations. Furthermore, in the Mosaic account, Fish are -represented as having been created only on the Fifth Day, which we have -fitted in with the Secondary Age of Geology: whereas in the Geological -Record we find Fish as early as the Silurian Period, which is far back -in the Primary Age. These considerations, and divers others of a like -nature, have been regarded by some eminent writers as altogether fatal -to the hypothesis for which we are contending. - - +--------------------+-----------------+-----------------+ - | DAYS. | PERIODS. | EPOCHS. | - | | | | - | DAY OF GOD’S REST. | RECENT. | HISTORIC AGE. | - +--------------------+-----------------+-----------------+ - | | POST-PLIOCENE. | | - | SIXTH MOSAIC DAY. | PLIOCENE. | TERTIARY | - | | MIOCENE. | OR | - | | EOCENE. | KAINOZOIC AGE. | - +--------------------+-----------------+-----------------+ - | | CRETACEOUS. | SECONDARY | - | FIFTH MOSAIC DAY. | JURASSIC. | OR | - | | TRIASSIC. | MESOZOIC AGE. | - +--------------------+-----------------+-----------------+ - | FOURTH MOSAIC DAY. | PERMIAN. | | - | THIRD MOSAIC DAY. | CARBONIFEROUS. | PRIMARY | - | | { DEVONIAN. | OR | - | FIRST AND SECOND | { SILURIAN. | PALÆOZOIC AGE. | - | MOSAIC DAYS. | { CAMBRIAN. | | - | | { LAURENTIAN. | | - +--------------------+-----------------+-----------------+ - -To us, however, it appears that such points of discrepancy involve no -contradiction between the two Records. The Sacred Writer tells us, no -doubt, that on the Third Day God created plants and trees: but he does -not say, either expressly or otherwise, that previous to the Third Day -the Earth was devoid of vegetation. Again, we read that reptiles, fish, -and birds were created on the Fifth Day. But there is nothing in the -language of the Inspired narrative from which it can be inferred that -these several classes of animal life may not have been represented -before that time, by many and various species: though probably, it -was only on the Fifth Day that they were developed in such vast -numbers, and assumed such gigantic proportions, as to become the most -conspicuous objects of creation. - -The first chapter of Genesis is but a brief summary of an inconceivably -vast series of events. It is nothing more than a rapid sketch, -exhibiting, as it were, to the eye the prominent features in the -history of Creation. Moreover, we should remember that it was written -with a specific end in view. The purpose of the Sacred Writer was -plainly to impress upon the Hebrew people, naturally prone to idolatry, -the existence of One Supreme Being, who has made all things. Hence -we should naturally expect that, amid the boundless variety of God’s -works, he would make choice of those that were most calculated to -strike the mind with wonder and awe, and to bring home to a rude and -uncultivated race of men the Almighty Power and Supreme Dominion of -the Great Creator. Now the Zoophytes, and Graptolites, and Trilobites, -of the Devonian and Silurian Periods, however curious and interesting -they may be to men of science, would have had but little significance -for the Jewish people. Let us suppose that these more humble forms of -animal life had, in fact, existed during the First and Second Days -of the Mosaic narrative, and where is the wonder that the Inspired -Historian, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, should pass them -by in silence, and choose rather to commemorate the more striking and -impressive facts, that, at the bidding of God, Light shone forth from -the midst of darkness, and the blue firmament of Heaven was expanded -above the waste of waters? - -We say, then, that events which are simply left unrecorded by the -Sacred Writer are not, on that account, untrue:[176] that he describes -to us, not all the works of Creation, which would have been an endless -task, but only the more conspicuous objects in each successive stage; -and that he sketches them, most probably, as they would have appeared -to the eye of a human observer, if a human observer at the time -had existed on the Earth. If this view be admitted, then it is not -inconsistent with the Scripture narrative to suppose that plants may -have existed before the Third Day, and fish before the Fifth. Each -Day in its turn would have been rendered conspicuous to an observing -spectator by those events which are recorded by Moses. But each Day, -too, would have witnessed many other events, unnoticed by Moses, of -which the memorials have been preserved, even to our time, in the Crust -of the Earth. - -We should observe, however, that though this scheme of adapting -the Periods of Geology to the Days of Moses, may be defended as a -legitimate hypothesis, it cannot be upheld as an established truth. The -geological records that have hitherto been brought to light represent -but the merest fragment of the Earth’s past history. Each year that -passes over our heads is adding largely to the store of facts already -accumulated. And it needs but little reflection to perceive that an -hypothesis may be quite consistent with the knowledge we possess -to-day, and yet may be found altogether inconsistent with the knowledge -we shall possess to-morrow. We must be content, therefore, to suspend -our judgment, and to await the progress of events. It may be that -future discoveries shall bring to light new points of harmony between -the Days of Genesis and the Periods of Geology; it may be they shall -demonstrate that no such harmony exists. For us it is enough to have -shown that this hypothesis is consistent, on the one hand, with the -story of Genesis--on the other, with the actual discoveries of Geology; -and, therefore, that it may be adopted, in the present condition of -our knowledge, as a legitimate means of reconciling the established -conclusions of that science with the truths of Revelation. - - * * * * * - -CONCLUSION.--We have, then, two distinct systems of interpretation, -according to which the vast Antiquity of the Earth, asserted by -Geology, may be fairly brought into harmony with the history of -creation, recorded in Scripture. The one allows an interval of -incalculable duration between the creation of the Heavens and the -Earth, and the work of the Six Days: the other supposes each one of -these Six Days to have been itself an indefinite period of time. We -cannot, indeed, prove that either of these two systems is true in point -of fact; but we have attempted to show that neither is at variance with -the language of the Sacred Text. On the other hand, when we look to the -evidence of geological facts, we see no decisive reason for preferring -one to the other. Either mode of interpretation seems in itself -quite sufficient to meet all the present requirements of Geology; -for, according to either interpretation, the Bible narrative would -allow time without limit for the past history of our Globe; and time -without limit is just what Geology demands. We may say, then, on this -point, what Saint Augustine said long ago, in speaking of the diverse -interpretations which the text of Genesis admits: “Let each one choose -according to the best of his power: only let him not rashly put forward -as known that which is unknown; and let him not fail to remember -that he is but a man searching, as far as may be, into the works of -God.”[177] - -It must not be supposed that, according to our view, the Sacred -Writer, in composing his account of the Creation, had before his mind -those vast Geological Periods about which we have said so much in -the course of this volume. Such an opinion is no part of our system. -We see no good reason for believing that the author of Genesis was -specially enlightened from Heaven on the subject of Stratified Rocks -and Fossil Remains, of Upheaval and Denudation, of Volcanic Action and -Subterranean Heat. These are matters of Physical, not of Religious -Science. And it seems to be the order of Providence to leave the -discovery of such things to the industry and ingenuity of man: “Cuncta -fecit bona in tempore suo, et mundum tradidit disputationi eorum.”[178] - -What we maintain, then, is simply this: that the Sacred Writer recorded -faithfully, in language fitted to the ideas of his time, that portion -of Revelation which was committed to him; and, in the accomplishment of -this task, made such a choice of words and phrases, under the guidance -of the Holy Spirit, to whom all truth is present, as to set forth -plainly those facts that were unfolded to him, without introducing any -error about those facts of which he was ignorant. The language is the -language of men, but the voice that speaks therein is the voice of God. -And thus it comes to pass that this Mosaic story, when fairly examined -according to the ordinary laws of human speech, is found in every age -to accommodate itself, with quite an unexpected simplicity, to those -new and wonderful views of God’s manifold power which each human -science in its turn brings to light. - -Before taking leave of the subject, we would venture to bring under the -notice of our readers one very obvious reflection, which is sometimes -lost sight of in the heat of controversy. The Mosaic history of the -Creation absolutely stands alone. It has no rivals, no competitors. -Every other attempt that has been made to explain the origin of -the world, and of the human race, is refuted by its own intrinsic -extravagance and absurdity. The wisest nations of antiquity failed to -discover that great fundamental truth, which stands out so boldly on -the first page of Genesis, that there is One God who hath made all -things. The philosophers of Chaldæa were familiar with the course of -the Heavens, and could predict the eclipses of the sun and moon. But -the philosophers of Chaldæa could not rise from the contemplation of -creatures to the knowledge of the Creator: the creatures themselves -were the gods that Chaldæa worshipped. Egypt had greatness of mind to -conceive the idea of the Pyramids, and skill to devise the plan of -their construction, and strength of arms to lift up the huge stones on -these stupendous piles. But Egypt raised up temples to the river that -waters its plain, and offered sacrifice to the reptile that crawls -upon the earth, and the beast that grazes in the field. In Greece the -human mind soared to its highest flight, and ranged over the widest and -most beautiful fields of thought. Peerless is she among the nations, -the mistress of the arts, the fountain source of refined taste, the -storehouse of intellectual power, the great nurse of human genius. -Her schools of philosophy have influenced and guided to a marvellous -extent the thoughts and speculations of all subsequent times. The -song of her immortal bard has kindled the imagination of the poet in -every generation, and enriched his mind with glowing images. Orators -and statesmen still love to copy the lofty sentiments, the graceful -diction, the flowing periods, of her golden eloquence. And students -from every clime stand enraptured before the beauty and the majesty -of her sculptured marble. But Greece, Imperial Greece, knew not the -One God, the giver of all good gifts, by whom she was so highly -endowed. She fashioned for herself gods and goddesses after her own -fancy, and portioned out the universe between them. Jupiter hurled -his thunderbolts from the clouds: Neptune ruled the sea: Pluto swayed -the sceptre of the infernal regions: Minerva was the goddess of -wisdom: Vulcan the god of fire: Apollo the god of music. Nay, the very -infirmities and vices of human nature were personified under the names -of divinities, and worshipped in the Pantheon of the gods. Rome, too, -the conqueror of the world, had its philosophers and its orators, its -poets and its sculptors, whose productions still charm and instruct -mankind. Yet was Rome no exception to the common lot of the gentile -world. For Rome, like Greece, had its long array of gods and goddesses, -with their petty jealousies, their vindictive malice, their shameless -passions. Alone, amidst all the Mythologies and Cosmogonies of ancient -nations, the story of the Hebrew Legislator rises superior to the gross -and silly speculations of mortal men. It alone proclaims to mankind -what Philosophy and Science, when left to themselves, have never been -able to teach, that, In the beginning God created the Heavens and the -Earth; that the plants and the animals, the ocean and the elements, -the sun and moon and stars, man himself, and all that delights the eye -and charms the ear and fills the mind, are His creatures; and that -besides Him there is no other God. Away, then, with the idea that -this Sacred Narrative, stamped as it plainly is with the imprint of -its Divine Author, should ever be found at variance with the truths -of science,--or rather, we should say, with those scanty fragments -of truth, those crumbs of knowledge, falling from the table of our -Heavenly Father, which it is given to man here below to gather up with -laborious care, and which, however they may excite his longings, cannot -satisfy his hunger. - -Here, for the present, we must stop. At some future time, perhaps, -if our opportunities permit, we shall return to this subject, and, -taking up the second branch of the controversy, investigate the recent -discoveries of Geology in reference to the teaching of the Bible as -regards the Antiquity of the Human Race. - -[Illustration] - - - - -APPENDIX. - -EXTRACTS FROM THE FATHERS AND THEOLOGIANS. - -REFERRED TO IN THIS VOLUME. - - -(1.) SAINT AUGUSTINE.--P. 297. - -“Et in rebus obscuris atque a nostris oculis remotissimis, si qua -inde scripta etiam divina legerimus, quae possunt salva fida qua -imbuimur, alias atque alias parere sententias; in nullam earum nos -praecipiti affirmatione ita projiciamus, ut si forte diligentius -discussa veritas eam recte labefactaverit, corruamus: non pro sententia -divinarum Scripturarum, sed pro nostra ita dimicantes, ut eam velimus -Scripturarum esse, quae nostra est; cum potius eam quae Scripturarum -est, nostram esse velle debeamus.”--De Genesi ad Litteram, lib. i. cap. -18, n. 37. - - -(2.) IDEM.--P. 298. - -“Plerumque enim accidit ut aliquid de terra, de coelo, de caeteris -hujus mundi elementis, de motu et conversione vel etiam de magnitudine -et intervallis siderum, de certis defectibus solis ac lunae, de -circuitibus annorum et temporum, de naturis animalium, fruticum, -lapidum atque hujusmodi caeteris, etiam non christianus ita noverit, -ut certissima ratione vel experientia teneat. Turpe est autem -nimis et perniciosum ac maxime cavendum, ut christianum de his -rebus quasi secundum christianas Litteras loquentem, ita delirare -quilibet infidelis audiat, ut, quemadmodum dicitur, toto coelo errare -conspiciens, risum tenere vix possit. Et non tam molestum est, quod -errans homo deridetur, sed quod auctores nostri ab eis qui foris sunt, -talia sensisse creduntur, et cum magno eorum exitio de quorum salute -satagimus, tanquam indocti reprehenduntur atque respuuntur. Cum enim -quemquam de numero christianorum in ea re quam optime norunt, errare -deprehenderint, et vanam sententiam suam de nostris Libris asserere; -quo pacto illis Libris credituri sunt, de resurrectione mortuorum, et -de spe vitae aeternae, regnoque coelorum, quando de his rebus quas -jam experiri, vel indubitatis numeris percipere potuerunt, fallaciter -putaverint esse conscriptos? Quid enim molestiae tristitiaeque ingerant -prudentibus fratribus temerarii praesumptores, satis dici non potest, -cum si quando de prava et falsa opinione sua reprehendi, et convinci -coeperint ab eis qui nostrorum Librorum auctoritate non tenentur, ad -defendendum id quod levissima temeritate et apertissima falsitate -dixerunt, eosdem Libros sanctos, unde id probent, proferre conantur, -vel etiam memoriter, quae ad testimonium valere arbitrantur, multa inde -verba pronuntiant, ‘non intelligentes neque quae loquuntur, neque de -quibus affirmant’ (1. Tim., i. 7).”--Ibid., cap. 19, n. 39. - - -(3.) SAINT THOMAS.--P. 298. - -“Dicendum quod, sicut Augustinus docet, in hujusmodi quaestionibus -duo sunt observanda. Primo quidem, ut veritas Scripturae inconcusse -teneatur. Secundo, cum Scriptura divina multipliciter exponi possit, -quod nulli expositioni aliquis ita praecise inhaereat, ut si certa -ratione constiterit hoc esse falsum quod aliquis sensum Scripturae esse -credebat id nihilominus asserere praesumat; ne Scriptura ex hoc ab -infidelibus derideatur, et ne eis via credendi praecludatur.”--Summa -Theologica, Pars Prima, Quaest. lxviii. art. primus. - - -(4.) PERRERIUS.--P. 302. - -“Quod autem in xx. et xxxi. cap. Exod. dictum est, Deum sex diebus -fecisse coelum et terram, et omnia quae in eis sunt, non est huic -opinioni contrarium: illud enim spatium temporis ante primum diem -annumeratur sex diebus, quia fuit quam brevissimum, et fuit continuata -Dei operatio: nec sane plures dies naturales consumpti sunt quam sex: -ac licet ante primum diem, coelum et elementa facta sint secundum -substantiam, tamen non fuerunt perfecta et omnino consummata, nisi -spatio illorum sex dierum; tunc enim datus est illis ornatus, -complementum, et perfectio.”--Comment. in Genes., cap. 1, v. 4, n. 80. - - -(5.) TOSTATUS.--P. 302. - -“_Sex diebus fecit Dominus coelum et terram._ Recte dicitur his -_facere_, quia coelum et terra, quae hic nominantur, et omnia alia, -quae nomine eorum subintelliguntur, ista quidem omnia de materia prima -facta sunt: materia autem non _facta_ sed _creata_ est.”--Comment. in -Exod., cap. 20, quaest. 15. - - -(6.) PETAVIUS.--P. 302. - -Writing on the phrase _In die quo fecit Dominus Deus coelum et terram_, -he says, “hoc est, perpolitum et elaboratum esse sex continuis diebus, -id enim _faceindi_ vox Hebraeis ipsis interpretibus significare -videtur.”--De Opificio Sex Dierum, lib. cap. 14, sect. 1. - - -(7.) SAINT BASIL.--P. 304. - -“_Et facta est vespera, et factum est mane, dies unus._ Vespera igitur -diei ac noctis est communis terminus: et similiter mane, est noctis -cum die vicinitas. Itaque ut _prioris generationis praerogativam -diei tribueret_, prius commemoravit finem diei, deinde noctis, -velut insequente diem nocte. Nam qui status in mundo fuit ante -lucis generationem, is non erat nox, sed tenebrae: quod autem a die -distinguebatur, eique opponebatur, id nox appellatum est.”--Homilia ii. -in Hexaemeron; Edit. Bened. p. 20; Edit. Migne, Patr. Graec. Cursus -Completus, tom. 29, p. 47. - - -(8.) SAINT CHRYSOSTOM.--P. 304. - -“Ostendimus enim heri, ut meministis, quomodo beatus Moses enarrans -nobis horum visibilium elementorum creationem et opificium, dixerit: -_In principio fecit Deus coelum et terram: terra autem erat invisibilis -et incomposita:_ et vos causam docuimus, quare Deus terram informen et -nullis figuris expolitam creaverit; quae, opinor, omnia mente tenetis; -necessarium est igitur nos ad ea quae sequuntur hodie progredi. Nam -postquam dixit, _Terra autem erat invisibilis et incomposita_, nos -accurate docet, unde invisibilis erat et inculta, dicens: _Et tenebrae -erant super abyssum, et Spiritus Dei superferebatur super aquam_.... -Quandoquidem igitur diffusa erat magna universi visibilis informitas, -praecepto suo Deus, optimus ille artifex, deformitatem illam depulit, -et immensa lucis visibilis pulchritudo producta tenebras fugavit -sensibiles, illustravitque omnia.”--In Cap. i. Genes. Homil. iii.; -Edit. Migne, Patr. Graec. Cursus Completus, tom. 53, p. 33. Here Saint -Chrysostom plainly teaches that the world existed before the creation -of light. In his Fifth Homily he is equally clear that the First Day -of the Mosaic narrative began with a period of light, and not with a -period of darkness: “Vide quomodo de singulis diebus sic dicat: _Et -factum est vespere, et factum est mane, dies tertius_: non simpliciter -nec absque causa: sed ne ordinem confundamus neque putemus vespera -ingruente finem accepisse diem; sed sciamus vesperam finem esse lucis, -et principium noctis: mane autem finem noctis, et complementum dici. -Hoc enim nos docere vult beatus Moses, dicens: _Et factum est vespere, -et factum est mane, dies tertius_.”--Edit. Migne, p. 52. - - -(9.) SAINT AMBROSE.--P. 305. - -“_Terra autem erat invisibilis et incomposita._ Bonus artifex prius -fundamentum ponit: postea, fundamento posito, aedificationis membra -distinguit, et adjungit ornatum. Posito igitur fundamento terrae, et -confirmata coeli substantia, duo enim ista sunt velut cardines rerum, -subtexuit: _Terra autem erat inanis et incomposita_.”--Hexaemeron, -Lib. i. cap. 7; Edit. Bened. p. 13; Edit. Migne, Patr. Lat. Cursus -Completus, tom. 14, p. 135. - -“Principium ergo diei, vox Dei est: _fiat lux_; _et facta est -lux_.”--Lib. i. cap. 10; Edit. Bened. p 21; Edit. Migne, p. 144. - -“In principio itaque temporis coelum et terram Deus fecit. Tempus enim -ab hoc mundo, non ante mundum: dies autem temporis portio est, non -principium.”--Lib. i. cap. 6; Edit. Bened. p. 10; Edit. Migne, p. 132. - - -(10.) VENERABLE BEDE.--P. 305. - -“Scriptura ait: _Qui fecisti mundum de materia informi_. Sed materia -facta est de nihilo, mundi vero species de informi materia. Proinde -duas res ante omnem diem et ante omne tempus condidit Deus angelicam -videlicet creaturam et informem materiam.”--In Pentateuch. Comment.; -sub. cap. 1: Edit Migne, Patr. Lat. Cursus Completus, tom. 91, p. -191. In another place, citing the words of Ecclesiasticus, _Qui -vivit in aeternum creavit omnia simul_, he says, “hoc utique ante -omnem diem hujus saeculi fecit, cum in principio coelum creavit et -terram.”--Hexaemeron, Lib. i. in Genes, ii. 4; Edit. Migne, tom. 91, p. -39. - -“_Discipulus._ Da ordinem per sex dies factarum rerum? _Magister._ In -ipso quidem principio conditionis facta sunt coelum, terra, aer, et -aqua.... _Discipulus._ Sequere ordinem generationis? _Magister._ In -principio diei primae lux facta est; secunda vero factum firmamentum;” -etc.--_Quaestiones super Genesim_; Edit. Migne, Patr. Lat. tom. 93, p. -236. This work is classed by Migne among the Dubia et Spuria of Bede. -The critics, however, seem to be agreed that it belongs to a period not -later than the tenth century. If it is not the genuine composition of -Bede, which is considered more probable, then it only follows that we -have, besides Bede, another ancient authority in favor of our opinion. - - -(11.) PETER LOMBARD.--P. 306. - -“Cum Deus in sapientia sua angelicos condidit spiritus, alia etiam -creavit, sicut ostendit supradicta Scriptura, quae dicit _in principio -Deum creasse coelum_, id est, angelos, _et terram_ scilicet, materiam -quatuor elementorum adhuc confusam et informem, quae a Graecis dicta -est chaos, _et hoc fuit ante omnem diem_. _Deinde_ elementa distinguit -Deus, et species proprias atque distinctas singulis rebus secundum -genus suum dedit; quae non simul, ut quibusdam sanctorum Patrum -placuit, sed per intervalla temporum ac sex volumina dierum, ut aliis -visum est formavit.”--Sentent. Lib. ii. Distinct. 12; Edit. Migne, -Patr. Latin. Cursus Completus, tom. 192, p. 675. - - -(12.) HUGH OF SAINT VICTOR.--P. 306. - -“Principium ergo divinorum operum fuit creatio lucis, quando ipsa -lux non materialiter de nihilo creata est; sed de praejacenti illa -universitatis materia formaliter facta est ut lux esset, et vim ac -proprietatem lucendi haberet. Hoc opus prima die factum est; sed -hujus operis materia ante primam diem creata. Moxque cum ipsa luce -dies cœpit; quia ante lucem nec nox fuit nec dies, _etiamsi tempus -fuit_.”--De Sacram. Lib. i. Pars i. cap. 9: Edit. Migne, Patr. Lat. -tom. 176, p. 193. - - -(13.) SAINT THOMAS.--P. 307. - -“Sed melius videtur dicendum quod _creatio fuerit ante omnem diem_.” In -II. Sentent. Distinct. xiii. Art. 3, _ad tertium_: see also ibidem _ad -primum_, and _ad secundum_. And again in the Summa he says: “Coelum et -terram fecit in prima die, _potius ante omnem diem_.”--Pars i. Quaest. -lxxxiv. Art. 2. - - -(14.) PERRERIUS.--P. 307. - -“Licet ante _primum diem_, coelum et elementa facta sint _secundum -substantiam_, tamen non fuerint perfecta et omnino consummata, -nisi spatio illorum sex dierum: tunc enim datus est illis ornatus, -complementum, et perfectio. Quanto autem tempore status ille mundi -tenebrosus duraverit, hoc est, utrum plus an minus quam unus dies -continere solet, nec mini compertum est, nec opinor cuiquam mortalium -nisi cui divinitus id esset patefactum.”--Comment. in Genesim, cap. 1, -v. 4, n. 80. - - -(15.) PETAVIUS.--P. 307. - -“Nostra itaque sententia haec est; prima ilia Geneseos verba: _In -principio creavit Deus coelum et terram_; non peculiare opus aliquod -continere, quod initio, et ante dies sex molitus sit Deus: quasi ante -lucem, ac reliquas deinceps opificii partes, qualecumque coelum ac -terram creaverit. Sed esse generale quoddam effatum, quo omnia, quae -sunt a Deo facta, complexus est. Etenim Moses, ut initio dicebam, -Judaeos statim edocere voluit; totam illam aspectabilem rerum -universitatem a Deo conditore profectam esse. Quare ita pronuntiavit, -tanquam diceret: Quidquid videtis et quodcumque coeli ac terrae -comprehendit ambitus, una cum coelo ipso, terrâque, id omne fabricatus -est initio Deus. Postea vero per partes, ac singillatim, ut quaeque est -elaborata, decripsit.”--De Opificio Sex Dierum, Lib. i. cap. 2, sect. -10. - -“Imprimis _ante dierum sex initium_ solam cum aqua terram extitisse -credimus:.... Habet haec opinio fidem ex Mosis narratione; qui ante -coelum id est _firmamentum_, terram, et aquarum abyssum extitisse -refert.... Nam illud Severiani valde probatur, prima die Deum omnia -creasse: reliquis autem diebus, ex jam extantibus: Ubi primam diem non -lucis tantum creatione circumscribit: sed quod ante illam factum est, -id eidem tribuit. Quod intervallum quantum fuerit, nulla divinatio -posset assequi. Neque vero mundi corpora illa, quae _prima omnium -extitisse_ docui, aquam et terram, arbitror _eodem, in quem lucis ortus -incidit, fabricata esse die_; ut quibusdam placet, haud satis firma -ratione.”--Ibid., cap. 10, sect. 6. - - -(16.) A LAPIDE.--P. 307. - -“S. Basilius et Beda putant coelum et terram non primo die, sed paulo -ante primum diem, utpote ante lucem, create esse. Verum haec non ante, -sed ipso primo die, puta initio primae diei, antequam lux produceretur, -creata esse, patet Exodi xx. v. 11.”--Comment. in Genes., cap. 1, v. 1. - - -(17.) SAINT AUGUSTINE.--P. 308. - -“Fecisti ante omnem diem in principio coelum et terram.”--Confess. -Lib. xii. cap. 12: see also Lib. xii. cap. 8. And again, De Genesi ad -Litteram, Lib. i. cap. 9, he writes:--“Atque illud ante omnem diem -fecisse intelligitur, quod dictum est, _In principio fecit Deus coelum -et terram_; ... Terrae autem nomine invisibilis et incompositae, ac -tenebrosa abysso, imperfectio corporalis substantiae significata est, -unde temporalia illa fierent, quorum prima esset lux.” - - -(18.) PETAVIUS.--P. 311. - -“Quod intervallum quantum fuerit, nulla divinatio posset assequi.”--De -Opific. Sex Dierum, Lib. i. cap. 10, sec. 6. - - -(19.) PERRERIUS.--P. 311. - -“Quanto autem tempore status ille mundi tenebrosus duraverit, hoc est, -utrum plus an minus quam unus dies continere solet, nec mihi compertum -est, nec opinor cuiquam mortalium, nisi cui divinitus id esset -patefactum.”--Comment. in Genes., cap. 1, v. 4. - - -(20.) HUGH OF SAINT VICTOR.--P. 311. - -“Fortassis jam satis est de his hactenus disputasse, si hoc solum -adjecerimus _quanto tempore_ mundus in hac confusione, prius quam ejus -dispositio inchoaretur, perstiterit. Nam quod illa prima rerum omnium -materia, in principio temporis, vel potius cum ipso tempore exorta sit, -sonstat ex eo quod dictum est: in principio creavit Deus coelum et -terram. _Quamdiu_ autem in hac informitate sive confusione permanserit, -_Scriptura manifeste non ostendit_.”--De Sacram., Lib. i., pars i. cap. -6. - - -(21.) SAINT AUGUSTINE.--P. 319. - -“Qui dies cujusmodi sint, aut perdifficile nobis, aut etiam impossibile -est cogitare; quanto magis dicere.”--De Civitate Dei, Lib. xi. cap. 6. - -Again: “Arduum quidem et difficillimum est viribus intentionis -nostrae, voluntatem scriptoris in istis sex diebus mentis vivacitate -penetrare.”--De Genesi ad Litteram, Lib. iv. cap. 1. - - -(22.) IDEM.--P. 319. - -“Ac sic per _omnes illos dies units est dies, non istorum dierum -consuetudine intelligendus, quos videmus solis circuitu determinari -atque numerari_; sed alio quodam modo, a quo et illi tres dies, qui -ante conditionem istorum luminarium commemorati sunt, alieni esse non -possunt. Is enim modus non usque ad diem quartum, ut inde jam istos -usitatos cogitaremus, sed usque ad sextum septimumque perductus est; ut -longe aliter accipiendus sit dies et nox, inter quae duo divisit Deus, -et aliter iste dies et nox, inter quae dixit ut dividant luminaria -quae creavit, cum ait, ‘Et dividant inter diem et noctem.’ Tunc enim -hunc diem condidit, cum condidit solem, cujus praesentia eumdem -exhibet diem: ille autem dies primitus conditus jam triduum peregerat -cum haec luminaria illius diei quarta repetitione creata sunt.”--De -Genesi ad Litteram, Lib. iv. cap. 26. “De quo enim Creatore Scriptura -ista narravit, _quod sex diebus consummaverit omnia opera sua, de -illo alibi non utique dissonanter scriptum est, quod creaverit omnia -simul_ (Eccles. xviii. 1). Ac per hoc et _istos dies sex vel septem vel -potius unum sexies septiesve repetitum simul fecit qui fecit_ omnia -simul. Quid ergo opus erat sex dies tam distincte dispositeque narrari? -Quia scilicet ii qui non possunt videre quod dictum est, ‘Creavit -omnia simul;’ nisi cum eis sermo tardius incedat ad id quo eos ducit, -pervenire non possunt.”--Ib. cap. 33. - - -(23). PHILO JUDÆUS.--P. 320. - -“Tum igitur omnia _simul_ sunt condita. In quo quidem universali -opificio necesse erat servari ordinem.”--De Mundi Opificio; Edit. -Francofurti, p. 14. This passage may, at first sight, appear somewhat -obscure; but the meaning of it is made clear enough, when we read -elsewhere in the same writer: “_Rusticanae simplicilatis est putare, -sex diebus, aut utique certo tempore mundum conditum._... Ergo cum -audis: ‘Complevit sexto die opera, intelligere non debes de diebus -aliquot, sed de senario perfecto numero.’”--De Legis Allegor.; Edit. -Francofurti, p. 41. - - -(24). CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA.--P. 320. - -Stromatum, Lib. vi. Edit. Benid. p. 291; Edit. Migne, Patrum Graec. -Cursus Completus, vol. 9, pp. 370-5. See also Dissertatio de Libris -Stromatum, by the learned Benedictine, Nicholas le Nourry, cap. viii. -artic. 1. - - -(25). ORIGEN.--P. 320. - -“Quod autem prima die lucem, secunda firmamentum creaverit, tertia -aquae quae sub coelo erant, in suis fuerint collectae receptaculis, -atque ita terra solius naturae administratione suos fructus protulerit; -quod quarta creata fuerint luminaria et stellae, quinta vero natatilia, -sexta demum terrestria et homo, haec omnia, prout facultas tulit, in -nostris in Genesim commentariis explicavimus. Quin et supra _contra -eos qui obvio sensu Scripturam interpretantes asserunt sex dies ad -creationem mundi insumptos fuisse_, adduximus hunc locum: ‘Iste est -liber generationis coeli et terrae quando creata sunt, in die quo -fecit Deus coelum et terram,’”--Contra Celsum, Lib. vi. Edit. Bened. -pp. 678, 679; Edit. Migne, Patr. Graecor. Cursus Completus, vol. 11, -p. 1390: for the passage referred to at the close of the extract see -p. 1378. The Commentary upon Genesis of which Origen here speaks no -longer exists, but the following passage has been preserved. “Aliqui -jam absurdum existimantes Deum architecti more non aliter, quam plurium -dierum, labore, fabricam valentis absolvere, intra multos dies mundum -perfecisse _uno cuncta momento_ ac simul extitisse aiunt, et hinc illud -adstruunt; ordinis autem causa, et ut series constet, dierum et rerum -quae in illis factae sunt, numerum dictum putant. Hi probabiliter -sententiam stabiliunt ea auctoritate qua dictum est: ‘Ipse dixit et -facta sunt; ipse mandavit, et creata sunt.’”--Selecta in Genesim, Edit. -Bened. p. 27; Edit. Migne, Patr. Graec. Cursus Completus, vol. 12, p. -98. Again, in his Treatise De Principiis, Lib. iv., he says: “Quis -igitur sanae mentis existimaverit primam et secundam et tertiam diem, -et vesperam, et mane, sine sole, luna, et stellis, et eam quae veluti -prima erat, diem sine coelo fuisse?” Edit. Bened. p. 175; Edit. Migne, -vol. 11, p. 378. See also P. Danielis Huetii Origeniana, Lib. ii. cap. -2, Quaest. 8, § 6; Edit. Migne, vol. 17, p. 979. - - -(26.) SAINT ATHANASIUS.--P. 320. - -“Cum ex supra dictis constet, _nullam e rebus creatis prius altera -factam esse_, sed res omnes factas uno eodemque mandato _simul_ -extitisse.”--Oratio ii. Contra Arianos, n. 63. Edit. Bened. p. 418. New -Edition, p. 528. Edit. Migne, Patr. Graecor. Cursus Completus, p. 275. - - -(27.) SAINT EUCHERIUS.--P. 320. - -Speaking strictly we should rather say the author of a Commentary upon -Genesis belonging to a very early period of the Church, ascribed by -some to Saint Eucherius, and usually published with his works. This -author says, no doubt, that God first, in the beginning, created the -substance of all things, and afterward developed the various forms -on successive days (Gen. ii. 4): but then he tells us expressly that -the substance did not precede the forms by any priority of time, but -only by priority of origin (Gen. i. 2). Thus his view coincides pretty -nearly with that of Saint Augustine, whose words, indeed, he seems to -borrow. “‘Terra autem erat inanis et vacua.’ Id est, adhuc informis -erat ipsa materia: quia necdum ex ea coelum et terra, necdum omnia -formata erant, quae formari restabant: haec enim materia, ex nihilo -facta, praecessit tamen res ex se factas, _non quidem aeternitate -vel tempore, sicut praecedit lignum arcam_; sed sola origine, _sicut -praecedit vox verbum, vel sonus cantum_: nam ‘qui vivit in aeternum -creavit omnia simul.’”--Edit. Migne, Patr. Latin Cursus Completus, vol. -50, p. 894. - - -(28.) PROCOPIUS OF GAZA.--P. 320. - -We quote this writer on the authority of Perrerius, from whom the -following passage is taken. “Idem censet hoc loco Procopius Gazæus: -Mozen enim, inquit, in describendo mundi opificium, sex dierum -distinctione usum esse docendi gratia ob tarditatem, videlicet, -ruditatemque Judæorum, quibus hæc scribebat: qui quæ Deus _simul_ -fecerat, ob tantam eorum multitudinem atque varietatem simul et -indiscrete capere et comprehendere, ut erant angustissimis ingeniis -nequaquam potuissent.”--In Genes., cap. 2, vers. 4, 5, 6, n. 179. - - -(29.) ALBERTUS MAGNUS.--P. 320. - -“Videtur mihi Augustino consentiendum.”--Summa P. 1, Quæst. 12, art. 6. -See Pianciani, Cosmogonia Naturale, p. 23. - - -(30.) SAINT THOMAS.--P. 320. - -Summa Pars. 1. Quæst. 74, art. ii.; also in an earlier work, Super -Libros Sententiarum Petri Lombardi Commentarius, Distinct. xii. art. i. -and iii. Having explained the opinion of Saint Augustine that there was -no real succession in the order of time between the various works of -the creation, but that all were created together; and also the opinion -of other Holy Fathers, that there was a real succession, he continues -thus: “Prima ergo opinio [Sancti Augustini] _magis convenit rationi, -nec est contra Scripturam_; quia ea quae in Scriptura ordinem temporis -importare videntur, ad ordinem naturae Augustinus refert: secunda vero -magis convenit Scripturae secundum suam superficiem. Quia ergo utraque -a Sanctis patrocinium habet, utramque sustinendo, objectionibus hinc -inde factis respondendum est.”--Loco citato, art. i. Solutio. - - -(31.) CARDINAL CAJETAN.--P. 320. - -We are again indebted to Perrerius for the views of Cardinal Cajetan. -He writes thus: “Accedit huic sententiæ Cajet. in Comment. super i. -cap. Genes., et distinctionem sex dierum putat in id positam a Mose, -quo facilius declararet naturalem rerum ordinem, consequentiam et -dependentiam. Sic enim res suaptè natura inter se aptæ et connexæ sunt, -ut si mundum successivè voluisset Deus facere, non alio ordine vel -successione, quàm ut hic narratur, facturus eum fuisset.”--In Genes., -cap. ii. vers. 4, 5, 6, n. 179. - - -(32.) VENERABLE BEDE.--P. 323. - -“Aperte intelligi quia diem hoc loco Scriptura _pro omni illo tempore -ponit_ quo primordialis natura formata est. Neque enim in unoquolibet -sex dierum coelum factum est et sideribus illustratum, et terra est -separata ab aquis, atque arboribus et herbis consita; sed _more -sibi solito Scriptura diem pro tempore ponit_; quomodo Apostolus, -cum ait, ‘Ecce nunc dies salutis,’ non unum specialiter diem, sed -totum significat tempus hoc quo in praesenti vita pro aeterna salute -laboramus.”--Hexaemeron, Lib. i. in Gen. ii. 4; Edit. Migne, Patr. Lat. -Cursus Completus, vol. 91, p. 39. - - -(33.) SAINT AUGUSTINE.--P. 323. - -“Superius septem dies numerantur, nunc unus dicitur dies, quo die fecit -Deus coelum et terram, et omne viride agri, et omne pabulum, _cujus -diei nomine omne tempus significari bene intelligitur_. Fecit enim Deus -omne tempus simul cum omnibus creaturis temporalibus, quae creaturae -visibiles coeli et terrae nomine significantur.”--De Genesi contra -Manichaeos, Lib. ii. cap. 3, n. 4. - - -(34.) MOLINA.--P. 323. - -“Dicunt Doctores communiter, Moysem eo loco sumpsisse _diem_ pro -_tempore_ juxta illud Deuteronomii xxxii., juxta est dies perditionis, -... et alibi saepe, in Scriptura sumitur dies pro tempore.”--In primam -partem, De opere sex dierum, D. I. See Pianciani, Cosmogonia Naturale, -p. 27. - - -(35.) BANNEZ.--P. 323. - -“Dies potest accipi pro quacumque duratione et mensura.”--In Summa, -Pars 1. Quæst. 73. - - -(36.) PERRERIUS.--P. 323. - -“Nec officit huic sententiae, quod paullo superius ex cap. ii. Geneseos -prolatum est, ‘In die quo fecit Dominus Deus coelum et terram.’ -Ibi enim _dies pro tempore, sicut crebro fit in Scriptura, positus -est_.”--In Gen. cap. i. v. 4, n. 80; see also cap. ii., n. 186. - - -(37.) PETAVIUS.--P. 323. - -“Postquam Moyses sex dierum opificium toto primo capite descripsit, -mox in sequenti summatim universeque colligens, ‘Istae sunt,’ inquit, -‘generationes coeli et terrae, quando creata sunt, in die quo fecit -Dominus Deus coelum et terram.’ Quae verba non unius diei mentionem -faciunt, ut quibusdam videtur; qui primum diem designari putant, in quo -factum illud est, praeter lucem, quod initio libri Moyses explicat, ‘In -principio creavit Deus coelum et terram.’ Sed eam nos opinionem minime -probamus, ac supra docuimus, _diei_ nomen istic usurpari pro _tempore_: -quod apud Graecos Latinosque, non minus quam Hebraeos, usitatem est. -Exemplo sit Ciceronis illud ex libro secundo in Verrem: ‘Itaque cum -ego diem in Siciliam inquirendi prexiguam postulavissem, invenit iste, -qui sibi in Achaiam _biduo breviorem diem_ postularet.’ Igitur cum -dixisset, _in die_, id est tempore illo, factum esse coelum et terram, -hoc est perpolitum et elaboratum esse sex continuis diebus,” etc.--De -Opificio Sex Dierum, Lib. i. cap. 14, sect. 1. - - -(38.) SAINT AUGUSTINE.--P. 335. - -“Tres enim dies superiores quomodo esse sine sole potuerunt, cum -videamus nunc solis ortu et occasu diem transigi, noctem vero fieri -solis absentia, cum ab alia parte mundi ad orientem redit? Quibus -respondemus, potuisse fieri ut tres superiores dies singuli per tantam -moram temporis computarentur, per quantam moram circumit sol, ex quo -procedit ab oriente quousque rursus ad orientem revertitur. Hanc -enim moram et longitudinem temporis possent sentire homines etiamsi -in speluncis habitarent, ubi orientem et occidentem solem videre non -possent. Atque ita sentitur potuisse istam moram fieri etiam sine sole -antequam sol factus esset, atque ipsam moram in illo triduo per dies -singulos computatam. Hoc ergo responderemus, nisi nos revocaret, quod -ibi dicitur, ‘Et facta est vespera et factum est mane,’ quod nunc sine -solis cursu videmus fieri non posse. Restat ergo ut intelligamus, in -ipsa quidem mora temporis _ipsas distinctiones operum sic appellatas, -vesperam propter transactionem consummati operis, et mane propter -inchoationem futuri operis_; de similitudine scilicet humanorum operum, -quia plerumque a mane incipiunt, et ad vesperam desinunt. Habent enim -consuetudinem Divinae Scripturae de rebus humanis ad divinas res verba -transferre.”--De Genesi contra Manichaeos, Lib. i. cap. 14, n. 20. - - -(39.) SAINT EUCHERIUS.--P. 335. - -It is uncertain, as we before observed, if this commentary is the -genuine work of Saint Eucherius; at all events it is the production of -some learned and Catholic writer of the fifth or sixth century. His -words run thus: “_Vespere conditae creaturae terminus; mane initium -condendae creaturae alterius._”--Comment. in Genes. cap. i. v. 4; Edit. -Migne, Patr. Latin. Cursus Completus, vol. 50, p. 897. And again in v. -10 et seqq.:--“Si quarto die facta sunt luminaria, quomodo tres dies -jam ante fuerunt? nisi ut intelligamus, in ipsa hora temporis ipsas -operum distinctiones ita appellatas; _vesperam propter transactionem -consummati operis; mane propter inchoationem_ futuri diei; in -similitudinem humanorum operum quod plerique mane incipiunt et in -vesperam desinunt.”--Ib. p. 899. - - -(40.) VENERABLE BEDE.--P. 335. - -“Quid est _vespere_ nisi _ipsa perfectio singulorum operum_? et _mane_, -id est inchoatio sequentium?”--De Sex Dierum Creatione, De Prima Die; -Edit. Migne, Patrum Lat. Cursus Completus, vol. 93, p. 210. - -In another place he says: “Vespere autem in toto illo triduo, antequam -luminaria essent, _consummati operis terminus_ non absurde fortasse -intelligitur; Mane autem _futuræ operationis significatio_.”--In -Pentateuchum Comment. Gen. cap. i.; Edit. Migne, vol. 91, p. 194. - - -(41.) SAINT HILDEGARDE.--P. 335. - -“Sex enim dies, sex opera sunt; quia inceptio et completio singuli -cujusque operis dies dicitur.”--Epist. ad Colonienses. See Pianciani, -Cosmogonia, p. 34. - - -(42.) SAINT AUGUSTINE.--P. 342. - -“Dies autem septimus sine vespere est nec habet occasum.”--Confess. -Lib. xiii. cap. xxxvi. - - -(43.) VENERABLE BEDE.--P. 342. - -“Quia finem non habet, neque ullo termino clauditur.”--De Sex Dierum -Creatione, De Die Septima; Edit. Migne, Patr. Lat. Cursus Completus, -vol. 93, p. 218. And elsewhere he says: “Septimus dies coepit a mane et -in nullo vespere terminatur.”--In Pentateuch Comment., Gen. ii.; Edit. -Migne, vol. 91, p. 203. - - -(44.) SAINT AUGUSTINE.--P. 355. - -“Eligat quis quod potest: tantum ne aliquid temere atque incognitum pro -cognito asserat; memineritque se hominem de divinis operibus quantum -permittitur quærere.”--De Genesi Liber Imperfectus, cap. ix., n. 80. - -[Illustration] - - - - -APPENDIX TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. - -_From Prof. J. D. Dana’s Manual of Geology. [8vo. Philadelphia: T. -Bliss & Co.] By permission of the author._ - - -COSMOGONY. - -The science of cosmogony treats of the history of creation. - -Geology comprises that later portion of the history which is within -the range of direct investigation, beginning with the rock-covered -globe, and gathering only a few hints as to a previous state of igneous -fluidity. - -Through Astronomy our knowledge of this earlier state becomes less -doubtful, and we even discover evidence of a period still more remote. -Ascertaining thence that the sun of our system is in intense ignition, -that the moon, the earth’s satellite, was once a globe of fire, but is -now cooled and covered with extinct craters, and that space is filled -with burning suns,--and learning also from physical science that all -heated bodies in space must have been losing heat through past time, -the smallest most rapidly,--we safely conclude that the earth has -passed through a stage of igneous fluidity. - -Again, as to the remoter period: the forms of the nebulæ and of other -starry systems in the heavens, and the relations which subsist between -the spheres in our own system, have been found to be such as would -have resulted if the whole universe had been evolved from an original -nebula or gaseous fluid. It is not necessary for the strength of this -argument that any portion of the primal nebula should exist now at -this late period in the history of the universe: it is only what might -have been expected that the nebulæ of the present heavens should be -turning out to be clusters of stars. If, then, this nebular theory be -true, the universe has been developed from a primal unit, and the earth -is one of the individual orbs produced in the course of its evolution. -Its history is in kind like that which has been deciphered with regard -to the earth: it only carries the action of physical forces, under a -sustaining and directing hand, further back in time. - -The science also of Chemistry is aiding in the study of the earth’s -earliest development, and is preparing itself to write a history of the -various changes which should have taken place among the elements from -the first commencement of combination to the formation of the solid -crust of our globe. - -It is not proposed to enter either into chemical or astronomical -details in this place, but, supposing the nebular theory to be true, -briefly to mention the great stages of progress in the history of the -earth, or those successive periods which stand out prominently in -time through the exhibition of some new idea in the grand system of -progress. The views here offered, and the following on the cosmogony of -the Bible, are essentially those brought out by Professor Guyot in his -lectures. - -_Stages of progress._--These stages of progress are as follow:-- - -(1.) _The_ BEGINNING OF ACTIVITY IN MATTER.--In such a beginning from -matter in the state of a gaseous fluid the activity would be intense, -and it would show itself at once by a manifestation of light, since -light is a resultant of molecular activity. A flash of light through -the universe would therefore be the first announcement of the work -begun. - -(2.) _The development of the_ EARTH.--A dividing and sub-dividing of -the original fluid going on would have evolved systems of various -grades, and ultimately the orbs of space, among these the earth, an -igneous sphere enveloped in vapors. - -(3.) _The production of the_ EARTH’S PHYSICAL FEATURES,--by the -outlining of the continents and oceans. The condensible vapors would -have gradually settled upon the earth as cooling progressed. - -(4.) _The introduction of_ LIFE _under its simplest forms_,--as in the -lowest of plants, and perhaps, also of animals. As shown on page 396, -the systems of structure characterizing the two kingdoms of nature, the -_Radiate_ of the Vegetable kingdom, and the _Radiate_, _Molluscan_, -_Articulate_, and _Vertebrate_ of the Animal, are not brought out -in the simplest forms of life. The true _Zoic_ era in history began -later. As plants are primarily the food of animals, there is reason for -believing that the idea of life was first expressed in a plant. - -(5.) _The display of the_ SYSTEMS _in the Kingdoms of Life_,--the -exhibition of the four grand types under the Animal kingdom, being the -predominant idea in this phase of progress. - -(6.) _The introduction of the highest class of Vertebrates--that of -the_ MAMMALS (the class to which MAN belongs), viviparous species, -which are eminent above all other Vertebrates for a quality prophetic -of a high moral purpose,--that of suckling their young. - -(7.) _The introduction of_ MAN,--the first being of moral and -intellectual qualities, and one in whom the unity of nature has its -full expression. - -There is another great event in the Earth’s history which has not -yet been mentioned, because of a little uncertainty with regard to -its exact place among the others. The event referred to is the first -shining of the sun upon the earth, after the vapors which till then had -shrouded the sphere were mostly condensed. This must have preceded the -introduction of the Animal system, since the sun is the grand source -of activity throughout nature on the earth, and is essential to the -existence of life, excepting its lowest forms. In the history of the -globe which has been given on page 196, it has been shown that the -outlining of the continents was one of the earliest events, dating even -from the Azoic age; and it is probable, from the facts stated, that it -preceded that clearing of the atmosphere which opened the sky to the -earth. This would place the event between numbers 3 and 5, and as the -sun’s light was not essential to the earliest of organisms, probably -after number 4. - -The order will, then, be-- - -(1.) Activity begun,--light an immediate result. - -(2.) The earth made an independent sphere. - -(3.) Outlining of the land and water, determining the earth’s general -configuration. - -(4.) The idea of life expressed in the lowest plants, and afterward, -if not contemporaneously, in the lowest or systemless animals, or -Protozoans. - -(5.) The energizing light of the sun shining on the earth,--an -essential preliminary to the display of the systems of life. - -(6.) Introduction of the system of life. - -(7.) Introduction of Mammals, the highest order of Vertebrates,--the -class afterward to be dignified by including a being of moral and -intellectual nature. - -(8.) Introduction of Man. - -_Cosmogony of the Bible._--There is one ancient document on -cosmogony--that of the opening page of the Bible--which is not only -admired for its sublimity, but is very generally believed to be -of divine origin, and which, therefore, demands at least a brief -consideration in this place. - -In the first place, it may be observed that _this document if true, is -of divine origin_. For no human mind was witness of the events; and no -such mind in the early age of the world, unless gifted with superhuman -intelligence, could have contrived such a scheme;--would have placed -the creation of the sun, the source of light to the earth, so long -after the creation of light, even on the _fourth_ day, and, what is -equally singular, between the creation of plants and that of animals, -when so important to both; and none could have reached to the depths of -philosophy exhibited in the whole plan. - -Again, _If divine, the account must bear marks of human imperfection, -since it was communicated through man_. Ideas suggested to a human mind -by the Deity would take shape in that mind according to its range of -knowledge, modes of thought, and use of language, unless it were at -the same time supernaturally gifted with the profound knowledge and -wisdom adequate to their conception; and even then they could not be -intelligibly expressed, for want of words to represent them. - -The central thought of each step in the Scripture cosmogony--for -example, Light,--the dividing of the fluid earth from the fluid -around it, individualizing the earth,--the arrangement of its land -and water,--vegetation,--and so on--is brought out in the simple and -natural style of a sublime intellect, wise for its times, but unversed -in the depths of science which the future was to reveal. The idea -of vegetation to such a one would be vegetation as he knew it; and -so it is described. The idea of dividing the earth from the fluid -around it would take the form of a dividing from the fluid above, in -the imperfect conceptions of a mind unacquainted with the earth’s -sphericity and the true nature of the firmament,--especially as the -event was beyond the reach of all ordinary thought. - - Objections are often made to the word “day,”--as if its use - limited the time of each of the six periods to a day of - twenty-four hours. But in the course of the document this word - “day” has various significations, and, among them, all that - are common to it in ordinary language. These are--(1) The - light,--“God called the light day,” v. 5; (2) the “evening - and the morning” before the appearance of the sun; (3) the - “evening and the morning” after the appearance of the sun; (4) - the hours of light in the twenty-four hours (as well as the - whole twenty-four hours), in verse 14; and (5) in the following - chapter, at the commencement of another record of creation, - the whole period of creation is called a “day.” The proper - meaning of “evening and morning,” in a history of creation, is - _beginning and completion_; and, in this sense, darkness before - light is but a common metaphor. - - A Deity working in creation like a day-laborer by earth-days - of twenty-four hours, resting at night, is a belittling - conception, and one probably never in the mind of the sacred - penman. In the plan of an infinite God, centuries are required - for the maturing of some of the plants with which the earth is - adorned. - -The order of events in the Scripture cosmogony corresponds essentially -with that which has been given. There was first a void and formless -earth: this was literally true of the “heavens and the earth,” if they -were in a condition of a gaseous fluid. The succession is as follows: - -(1.) Light. - -(2.) The dividing of the waters below from the waters above the earth, -(the word translated _waters_ may mean _fluid_.) - -(3.) The dividing of the land and water on the earth. - -(4.) Vegetation; which Moses, appreciating the philosophical -characteristic of the new creation distinguishing it from previous -inorganic substances, defines as that “which has seed in itself.” - -(5.) The sun, moon, and stars. - -(6.) The lower animals, those that swarm in the waters, and the -creeping and flying species of the land. - -(7.) Beasts of prey (“creeping” here meaning “prowling”)-- - -(8.) Man. - -In this succession, we observe not merely an order of events, like -that deduced from science; there is a system in the arrangement, and -a far-reaching prophecy, to which philosophy could not have attained, -however instructed. - -The account recognizes in creation two great eras of three days -each,--an _Inorganic_ and an _Organic_. - -Each of these eras opens with the appearance of _light_: the _first_, -light cosmical; the _second_, light from the sun for the special uses -of the earth. - -Each are ends in a “day” of two great works,--the two shown to be -distinct by being severally pronounced “good.” On the _third_ “day,” -that closing the Inorganic era, there was first the _dividing of the -land from the waters_, and afterward the _creation of vegetation_, -or the institution of a kingdom of life,--a work widely diverse from -all preceding it in the era. Soon the _sixth_ “day,” terminating the -Organic era, there was first _the creation of Mammals_, and then a -second far greater work, totally new in its grandest element, _the -creation of Man_. - -The arrangement is, then, as follows:-- - - 1. _The Inorganic Era._ - - 1st Day.--LIGHT cosmical. - - 2d Day.--The earth divided from the fluid around it, or - individualized. - - { 1. Outlining of the land and water. - 3d Day.--{ 2. Creation of vegetation. - - - 2. _The Organic Era._ - - 4th Day.--LIGHT from the sun. - - 5th Day.--Creation of the lower orders of animals. - - 6th Day.--{ 1. Creation of Mammals. - { 2. Creation of Man. - -In addition, the last day of each era included one work typical of the -era, and another related to it in essential points, but also prophetic -of the future. Vegetation, while, for physical reasons, a part of the -creation of the third day, was also prophetic of the future Organic -era, in which the progress of life was the grand characteristic. The -record thus accords with the fundamental principle in history that the -characteristic of an age has its beginnings within the age preceding. -So, again, Man, while like other Mammals in structure, even to the -homologies of every bone and muscle, was endowed with a spiritual -nature, which looked forward to another era, that of spiritual -existence.--The _seventh_ “day,” the day of rest from the work of -creation, is man’s period of preparation for that new existence; and it -is to promote this special end that--in strict parallelism--the Sabbath -follows man’s six days of work. - -The record in the Bible is, therefore, profoundly philosophical in the -scheme of creation which it presents. It is both true and divine. It -is a declaration of authorship, both of Creation and the Bible, on the -first page of the sacred volume. - -There can be no real conflict between the two Books of the GREAT -AUTHOR. Both are revelations made by Him to man,--the _earlier_ telling -of God-made harmonies coming up from the deep past, and rising to their -height when man appeared, the _later_ teaching man’s relations to his -Maker, and speaking of loftier harmonies in the eternal future. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - - -[Footnote 1: Twelve Lectures on the Connection between Science and -Revealed Religion, by NICHOLAS WISEMAN, D.D., Principal of the English -College, and Professor in the University of Rome. Andover: Gould & -Newman, 1837.] - -[Footnote 2: Prelectiones Theologicæ.] - -[Footnote 3: Cosmogonia Naturale comparata Col Genesi.] - -[Footnote 4: A Manual of Geology; treating of the Principles of the -science with special reference to American Geological History, etc., by -JAMES D. DANA, M. A., LL. D., etc., 8vo, pp. 998. Philadelphia: Thos. -Bliss & Co.] - -[Footnote 5: January and July, 1856, and April and July, 1857, covering -in all 219 pages, 8vo.] - -[Footnote 6: The Six Days of Creation, or the Scriptural Cosmology; -with the Ancient Idea of Time Worlds in Distinction from Worlds in -Space, by TAYLER LEWIS, Professor of Greek in Union College. 12mo, pp. -407. Schenectady, 1855.] - -[Footnote 7: Man in Genesis and Geology; or, the Bible account of Man’s -Creation tested by Scientific Theories of his Origin and Antiquity, by -JOSEPH P. THOMPSON, D. D., LL. D. New York, 12mo, pp. 149. 1870.] - -[Footnote 8: The Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation, by JOHN -PHIN, editor of the Technologist. American News Company, New York, pp. -95, 12mo, 1870.] - -[Footnote 9: Genesis, or the First Book of Moses, together with a -General Theological and Homitetical Introduction to the Old Testament, -by JOHN PETER LANGE, D. D., Professor in Ordinary of Theology in the -University of Bonn. Translated from the German, with additions by -Professor TAYLER LEWIS, LL. D., Schenectady, New York, and A. GOSMAN, -D. D., Lawrenceville, N. J. New York: Charles Scribner & Co., 654 -Broadway. 1868. 8vo, pp. 665.] - -[Footnote 10: 2 Cor. vi. 1.] - -[Footnote 11: 2 Pet. iii. 10.] - -[Footnote 12: Rom. i. 18.] - -[Footnote 13: It may be useful once for all to inform the reader that -the term _Rock_ is employed by Geologists in a technical sense. It is -applied to every large mass of mineral matter that goes to form the -Crust of the Earth, whether it be hard and strong, or soft and plastic. -Thus, for example, gravel and clay, coal and slate, are called _Rocks_, -just as well as limestone and granite. “Our older writers endeavored -to avoid offering such violence to our language, by speaking of the -component materials of the Earth as consisting of rocks and _soils_. -But there is often so insensible a passage from a soft and incoherent -state to that of stone, that Geologists of all countries have found -it indispensable to have one technical term to include both, and in -this sense we find _roche_ applied in French, _rocca_ in Italian, and -_felsart_ in German. The beginner, however, must constantly bear in -mind, that the term rock by no means implies that a mineral mass is in -an indurated or stony condition.”--Lyell’s Elements of Geology, p. 4.] - -[Footnote 14: Lyell’s Elements of Geology, p. 7.] - -[Footnote 15: See Lyell’s Principles of Geology, vol. i., pp. 411-413.] - -[Footnote 16: See Jukes, The Student’s Manual of Geology, p. 125.] - -[Footnote 17: Professor Tyndall, Odds and Ends of Alpine Life.] - -[Footnote 18: Ecclesiastes, i. 7.] - -[Footnote 19: Page, Advanced Text-Book of Geology, p. 55.] - -[Footnote 20: See on this subject, Lyell’s Principles of Geology, vol. -i., p. 458, and pp. 480-3; Jukes, Manual of Geology, pp. 105-11; Page, -Advanced Text-Book of Geology, pp. 52-56.] - -[Footnote 21: Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. i., pp. 356-7.] - -[Footnote 22: Principles of Geology, vol. i., p. 360.] - -[Footnote 23: See Jukes, Manual of Geology, pp. 108-10; Hopkins, -Presidential Address to the Geological Society of London, 1852, p. -xxvii.] - -[Footnote 24: For these facts see Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. -i., pp. 349, 350; Quarterly Journal of Science, No. xiii., New Series; -The English Cyclopædia, Natural History Division, Alluvium.] - -[Footnote 25: For these facts illustrating the destructive action -of the waves of the sea we are chiefly indebted to the following -authorities: Hibbert, Description of the Shetland Isles; Phillips, -Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-coast of Yorkshire; Geology of Yorkshire, by -the same author; Pennant’s Arctic Zoology, vol. i.; Lyell’s Principles -of Geology, vol. i., chapters xx. and xxi.; Gardner’s History of the -Borough of Dunwich; the English Cyclopædia, Alluvium.] - -[Footnote 26: Rennell’s Investigation of the Currents in the Atlantic -Ocean; Maury’s Physical Geography of the Sea, chapters ii. and iii.; -Humboldt’s Cosmos; The English Cyclopædia, Atlantic Ocean; Lyell’s -Principles of Geology, vol. i., chapter xx.] - -[Footnote 27: Mantell’s Wonders of Geology, p. 70.] - -[Footnote 28: In his notes to the translation of Humboldt’s Cosmos, p. -xcvii.] - -[Footnote 29: A Hymn before Sunrise in the Vale of Chamouni, by Samuel -Taylor Coleridge.] - -[Footnote 30: Lyell’s Principles of Geology, vol. i., pp. 374-5.] - -[Footnote 31: Voyage in 1822, p. 233.] - -[Footnote 32: Elements of Geology, pp. 145, 146.] - -[Footnote 33: Captain Horsburg, On Icebergs in Low Latitudes. Phil. -Trans., 1830.] - -[Footnote 34: Agassiz, Etudes sur les Glaciers; Tyndall, Glaciers of -the Alps; also Heat as a mode of Motion, by the same Author; Lyell, -Principles of Geology, vol. i., chapter xvi.; Elements of Geology, -chapters xi., xii.; Wallace, Ice Marks in North Wales, in the Quarterly -Journal of Science, No. xiii.] - -[Footnote 35: Elements of Geology, p. 38.] - -[Footnote 36: Mantell, Wonders of Geology, vol. i., p. 102.] - -[Footnote 37: Lyell, Elements of Geology, p. 42; also Principles, vol. -i., p. 410.] - -[Footnote 38: Mantell’s Wonders of Geology, pp. 70, 81, 82, 83.] - -[Footnote 39: Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. i., p. 431.] - -[Footnote 40: Id. ib., p. 429.] - -[Footnote 41: The figures given by Sir Charles Lyell, and derived from -the observations of Mr. Everest, are these: total discharge during the -four months of rain, 6,082,041,600 cubic feet; total discharge during -the three months of hot weather, 38,154,240 cubic feet.--Principles of -Geology, vol. i., p. 481.] - -[Footnote 42: From a Special Correspondent, in the Times Newspaper, -December 7, 1866.] - -[Footnote 43: Horner, Alluvial Land of Egypt, Phil. Trans., part I., -for 1855; Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. i., pp. 431-9.] - -[Footnote 44: The English Cyclopædia, Alluvium.] - -[Footnote 45: Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. i., chapters XVIII., -XIX.] - -[Footnote 46: Consolations in Travel, p. 127.] - -[Footnote 47: Handbook of Rome and its Environs: Murray, 1858, p. 325.] - -[Footnote 48: Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. i., 400-3.] - -[Footnote 49: Jukes, Manual of Geology, p. 127.] - -[Footnote 50: See his Lecture On a Piece of Chalk, delivered during the -Meeting of the British Association at Norwich, 1868.] - -[Footnote 51: Lyell, Elements of Geology, p. 318.] - -[Footnote 52: Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. ii., chap. xlix.; -Mantell, Wonders of Geology, Lecture vi.; Jukes, Manual of Geology, pp. -130-3.] - -[Footnote 53: Sacred Philosophy of the Seasons, by the Rev. Henry -Duncan, D.D.; Summer, p. 168.] - -[Footnote 54: Ps. xcix. 3.] - -[Footnote 55: Kotzebue’s Voyages, 1815-18, vol. iii., pp. 331-33.] - -[Footnote 56: Wonders of Geology, p. 648.] - -[Footnote 57: Organic Remains of a Former World, vol. ii., p. 16.] - -[Footnote 58: Carbonic acid gas contains two equivalents of oxygen to -one of carbon, the chemical expression for the compound being CO_{2}; -carburetted hydrogen, which is the gas we employ in illuminating our -streets and houses, contains four equivalents of hydrogen to two of -carbon, and is chemically expressed by the symbols C_{2}H_{4}; water is -composed of one equivalent of oxygen, and one of hydrogen, the symbolic -form being HO.] - -[Footnote 59: See Jukes, Manual of Geology, pp. 138-141; Lyell, -Elements of Geology, p. 500.] - -[Footnote 60: Jukes, Manual of Geology, p. 140.] - -[Footnote 61: See Mantell, Wonders of Geology, pp. 680-2; also 760; -Lyell, Elements of Geology, 464, 465.] - -[Footnote 62: Elements of Geology, p. 488.] - -[Footnote 63: Mantell, Wonders of Geology, p. 67.] - -[Footnote 64: Mantell, Wonders of Geology, p. 66.] - -[Footnote 65: Id. Ib.] - -[Footnote 66: Chemical Technology, Ronalds and Richardson, vol. i., p. -32.] - -[Footnote 67: See Lyell, Elements of Geology, 477-81; Jukes, Manual -of Geology, 138, 149-53; The English Cyclopædia, Natural History -Department, Article, Coal; Mantell, Fossils of the British Museum, -Chapter i., Part I.] - -[Footnote 68: Page, Advanced Text-Book of Geology, n. 7, pp. 20, 21.] - -[Footnote 69: From the Latin _Fossilis_, _dug up_.] - -[Footnote 70: Elements of Geology, p. 38.] - -[Footnote 71: Elements of Geology, p. 40.] - -[Footnote 72: Manual of Geology, p. 375.] - -[Footnote 73: Lyell, Elements of Geology, pp. 40-41. The reader will -find a singularly clear and simple exposition of this subject in Doctor -Haughton’s Manual of Geology, Lecture III.; an exposition which it -was not our good fortune to have read until our own brief summary was -already in type.] - -[Footnote 74: Buckland, Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i., p. 123; Mantell, -Wonders of Geology, p. 269; Lyell, Elements of Geology, p. 687.] - -[Footnote 75: Mantell, Wonders of Geology, Lecture IV., Fossils of the -British Museum, chapter V.; see, also, Medals of Creation, and Fossils -of the South Downs, by the same Author.] - -[Footnote 76: Owen’s Palæontology, pp. 200-9; Buckland, Bridgewater -Treatise, vol. i., pp. 168-186; Mantell, Wonders of Geology, pp. -576-581; Lyell, Elements of Geology, pp. 420-425; Jukes, Manual of -Geology, pp. 598-599.] - -[Footnote 77: Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i., pp. 202-14; -Owen’s Palæontology, 223-232.] - -[Footnote 78: Buckland, Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i., pp. 139-164; -Owen’s Palæontology, pp. 390-2; Mantell, Wonders of Geology, pp. 166-9; -Fossils of the British Museum, pp. 465-480; The English Cyclopædia, -Natural History Division, Article, Megatheridæ.] - -[Footnote 79: Lyell, Elements of Geology, p. 4.] - -[Footnote 80: Wonders of Geology, p. 400.] - -[Footnote 81: See Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. i., p. 31, who -refers to Da Vinci’s MSS. now in the Library of the Institute of -France.] - -[Footnote 82: See Lyell, Elements of Geology, pp. 94-96; Principles of -Geology, p. 116; Jukes, Manual of Geology, pp. 410, 411.] - -[Footnote 83: Elements of Geology, p. 95.] - -[Footnote 84: Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. i., p. 115.] - -[Footnote 85: Lyell, Elements of Geology, p. 100.] - -[Footnote 86: Principles of Geology, vol. i., p. 312.] - -[Footnote 87: Ib. 313.] - -[Footnote 88: Principles of Geology, vol. i., pp. 321, 322.] - -[Footnote 89: Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects: London, 1867; -pp. 9, 10.] - -[Footnote 90: It would be more strictly correct to say that the rate -of increase varies considerably in different places, though the main -fact is everywhere palpably apparent that the deeper we descend into -the Earth the higher the temperature becomes. Sir Charles Lyell records -a number of careful experiments made in England, France, Germany, and -Italy, which seem to show that an increase of one degree Fahrenheit for -every sixty-five feet of descent would represent pretty correctly the -general average. See his Principles of Geology, vol. ii., pp. 205, 206.] - -[Footnote 91: See Sir John Herschel, Familiar Lectures on Scientific -Subjects, pp. 26, 27.] - -[Footnote 92: See the elaborate work of Sir William Hamilton, entitled -Campi Phlegraei, in which he gives a full account of the formation -of Monte Nuovo, accompanied with colored plates. He has preserved -two interesting narratives of the eruption written at the time by -eye-witnesses. See also Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. i., pp. -606-616.] - -[Footnote 93: Sir John Herschel, Familiar Lectures on Scientific -Subjects, p. 34; see also Lyell, Principles of Geology, chap. xxvii.; -Mantell, Wonders of Geology, pp. 872-4.] - -[Footnote 94: See Herschel, Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects, -pp. 34-6. Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. ii., pp. 104-6.] - -[Footnote 95: Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects, pp. 31, 32.] - -[Footnote 96: Principles of Geology, vol. ii., pp. 59, 60.] - -[Footnote 97: Principles of Geology, vol. ii. pp. 69, 70.] - -[Footnote 98: For the account of these various Earthquakes we are -mainly indebted to the indefatigable industry of Sir Charles Lyell, who -has collected the facts with great care partly from the descriptions -of eye-witnesses, and partly from authentic documents written upon the -spot. See his Principles of Geology, vol. ii., chap, xxviii., xxix., -xxx. See also Mr. Mallet’s Earthquake Catalogue; and the first of Sir -John Herschel’s Lectures on Familiar Subjects.] - -[Footnote 99: The following are the sources from which we have chiefly -derived our information regarding the Peruvian Earthquake of 1868: (1) -a series of letters written upon the scene of the catastrophe, and -published in _The Times_ of September 26, 1868; amongst them is one -from the British Vice-consul, and one from the agent of the Pacific -Steam Navigation Company, who were both at the time residents of Arica: -(2) a letter of Mr. Clements Markham in _The Times_ of September 15, -1868: (3) Captain Powell’s Report to the Admiralty, dated September 14, -1868.] - -[Footnote 100: Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. ii., p. 176.] - -[Footnote 101: Id. ib.] - -[Footnote 102: Letter from C. Hullmandel, Esq.; see Mantell, Wonders of -Geology, Appendix G., p. 470. For a full and elaborate disquisition on -the Temple of Jupiter Serapis, see also Lyell, Principles of Geology, -vol. ii., chap. xxv.] - -[Footnote 103: Lyell, Principles of Geology, vol. ii., chap. xxxi.] - -[Footnote 104: Ibid.] - -[Footnote 105: On a Piece of Chalk: A Lecture to Working Men.] - -[Footnote 106: Genesis, v. 3-32.] - -[Footnote 107: Ib., xi. 10-26.] - -[Footnote 108: Ib., v. 3-9.] - -[Footnote 109: Genesis, xii. 4.] - -[Footnote 110: The Genesis of the Earth and Man, Edited by Reginald -Stuart Poole: London; Williams and Norgate; 1860.] - -[Footnote 111: “Sem was a hundred years old when he begot Arphaxad, two -years after the flood.”--Genesis, xi. 10.] - -[Footnote 112: This second Cainan does not appear in the Hebrew or the -Samaritan version.] - -[Footnote 113: Appendix (1).] - -[Footnote 114: Appendix (2).] - -[Footnote 115: Appendix (3).] - -[Footnote 116: Exodus, xx. 9-11.] - -[Footnote 117: Appendix (4), (5), (6).] - -[Footnote 118: See Gesenius, sub vocibus.] - -[Footnote 119: Appendix (7).] - -[Footnote 120: Appendix (8).] - -[Footnote 121: Appendix (9).] - -[Footnote 122: Appendix (10).] - -[Footnote 123: Appendix (11) (12).] - -[Footnote 124: Appendix (13) (14) (15).] - -[Footnote 125: Appendix (16).] - -[Footnote 126: In Genes. cap. i. Quæst. xiv.] - -[Footnote 127: Appendix (17).] - -[Footnote 128: See his various works upon Genesis, passim; in -particular de Genesi ad Literam, Lib. i. cap. xv., Lib. iv. cap. -xxxiii.; De Genesi Liber Imperfectus, cap. vii. and cap. ix.] - -[Footnote 129: This latter view might be fairly maintained in -conformity with the principles which Saint Augustine professes to -follow in the interpretation of Genesis. See De Genesi ad Literam, Lib. -i. cap. xxi. and cap. xxii.] - -[Footnote 130: See De Genesi ad Literam, Lib. i. cap. xv.; De Genesi -Liber Imperfectus, cap. vii.; Confess., Lib. xii. cap. xxix.] - -[Footnote 131: 2 Peter, iii. 8.] - -[Footnote 132: Appendix (18) (19) (20).] - -[Footnote 133: Wisdom, ix. 13-16.] - -[Footnote 134: See Pianciani, Cosmogonia, pp. 384-90.] - -[Footnote 135: See Gesenius, Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old -Testament Scriptures; in voce. He thus explains the first meaning -of this word: “_copulative_, and serves to connect both words and -sentences, especially in _continuing a discourse_.”] - -[Footnote 136: Appendix (21).] - -[Footnote 137: See De Genesi ad Literam, Lib. iv. capp. xxvi.-xxxv., -Lib. v. cap. i. n. 3, and cap. iii. n. 6.] - -[Footnote 138: Ecclesiasticus, xviii. 1.] - -[Footnote 139: Appendix (22).] - -[Footnote 140: Appendix (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31).] - -[Footnote 141: See De Genesi ad Literam, Lib. iv. capp. xxvi., xxvii.; -also Lib. i. capp. x., xi., xii.] - -[Footnote 142: Appendix (32) (33) (34) (35) (36) (37).] - -[Footnote 143: Amos, viii. 11, 12.] - -[Footnote 144: Psalm ii. 7.] - -[Footnote 145: Heb. i. 5.] - -[Footnote 146: Jeremias, cap. l. vv. 24-32.] - -[Footnote 147: Jeremias, li. 1, 2.] - -[Footnote 148: Jeremias, xlvi. 3-10, 19-21.] - -[Footnote 149: Ezechiel, xxix. 19-21.] - -[Footnote 150: Ezechiel, xxx. 3-9.] - -[Footnote 151: Sophonias, v. 8-11, 14-17.] - -[Footnote 152: Isaias, xxix. 17-19.] - -[Footnote 153: Matth. xi. 4, 5.] - -[Footnote 154: John, viii. 56.] - -[Footnote 155: 2 Cor. vii. 1, 2.] - -[Footnote 156: Luke, xix. 41-43.] - -[Footnote 157: Dan. viii. 14.] - -[Footnote 158: Appendix (38) (39) (40) (41).] - -[Footnote 159: Exodus, xx. 9-11.] - -[Footnote 160: Exodus, xxiii. 10-12.] - -[Footnote 161: Leviticus, xxv. 2-7.] - -[Footnote 162: 2 Cor. v. 14, 15.] - -[Footnote 163: Matt. viii. 22; Luke, ix. 60.] - -[Footnote 164: John, xx. 17.] - -[Footnote 165: Rom. xiii. 12, 13.] - -[Footnote 166: I. Thessal. v. 4, 5.] - -[Footnote 167: Amos, viii. 9.] - -[Footnote 168: Appendix (42) (43).] - -[Footnote 169: Gen. i. 11, 12.] - -[Footnote 170: The Testimony of the Rocks, p. 125.] - -[Footnote 171: Genesis, i. 20, 21.] - -[Footnote 172: Testimony of the Rocks, p. 126.] - -[Footnote 173: Genesis, i. 24, 25.] - -[Footnote 174: Testimony of the Rocks, pp. 127, 128.] - -[Footnote 175: Elements of Geology, p. 100.] - -[Footnote 176: “Aliquid esse a Deo conditum, de quo sileat liber -Genesis, nihil repugnat.” Saint Augustine, Confess. Lib. xii., cap. -xxii.] - -[Footnote 177: Appendix (44).] - -[Footnote 178: Ecclesiastes, iii. 2.] - - -[Transcriber's Note: - -Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Geology and Revelation, by -Rev. Gerald Molloy and J. D. 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