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- margin-right: 0; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; -} - -.inlineillo{ - display: inline-block; - vertical-align:bottom; - margin-right:1em; - margin-left:1em; -} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry-container {text-align: center;} - -.poetry -{ - display: inline-block; - text-align: left; -} - -.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;} - -.poetry .indentbase {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} -.poetry .indentquotebase {text-indent: -3.5em; padding-left: 3em;} -/* End poetry*/ - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -/*CSS to set font sizes*/ -/*font sizes for non-header font changes*/ -.xxlargefont{font-size: xx-large} -.xlargefont{font-size: x-large} -.largefont{font-size: large} -.smallfont{font-size: small} -.titlefont{font-size:medium} - -/*CSS to force a page break in ePub*/ -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} - -/*CSS markup for handhelds -- put at end of CSS*/ -@media handheld -{ - img {max-width: 100%; height: auto;} /*Limit width to display*/ - - h2.no-break - { - page-break-before: avoid; - padding-top: 0; - } - - .poetry - { - display: block; - margin-left: 1.5em; - } -} -/*End CSS for handhelds*/ - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book, by Cyril Davenport - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Book - Its History and Development - -Author: Cyril Davenport - -Release Date: August 29, 2016 [EBook #52932] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK *** - - - - -Produced by MWS, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> - -<p class="center xlargefont">The “Westminster” Series.</p> - -<p class="center xlargefont" style="margin-top:3em">THE BOOK</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<div id="Ref_Frontispiece" class="figcenter" style="width: 580px;"> -<img src="images/i_frontis.jpg" width="580" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p>Golden Binding of “The Gospels of Charlemagne,” with Jewels and -Enamels, 11th or 12th Century. [<em>Frontispiece.</em></p></div> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;"> -<img src="images/i_titlepage.jpg" width="451" height="650" alt="Title page." /> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h1>THE BOOK</h1> - - -<p class="center xlargefont">ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT</p> - -<p class="center" style="margin-top:2em;line-height:1.75em"><span class="smallfont">BY</span><br /> -<span class="largefont">CYRIL DAVENPORT, V.D. F.S.A.</span></p> - -<p class="center" style="margin-top:4em"><em>ILLUSTRATED</em></p> - -<p class="center" style="margin-top:4em;line-height:1.75em">LONDON<br /> -<span class="largefont">ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. LTD.</span><br /> -10 ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE W.C.<br /> -1907 -</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> - -<p class="center smallfont">BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS<br /> -LONDON AND TONBRIDGE. -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="toc" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="smallfont">EARLY RECORDS.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="toctitle">Rock inscriptions—Marks on wood—Quipus—Wampum—Modern -ideographs—Indian palm-leaf books—Ideographs and alphabets—Diptychs</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smallfont">ROLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="toctitle">Papyrus and vellum rolls—Quaternions—The sewing of books—Headbands—The -rounding and backing of books—Mediæval books—Irish -cumdachs—Byzantine bindings—Oriental books—Modern -methods of sewing and binding</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smallfont">PAPER.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="toctitle">Paper—Watermarks and quiring</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smallfont">PRINTING.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="toctitle">Assyrian bricks with printed inscriptions—Oiron ware—Chinese types—Block -books—Costeriana—Types and stereotypes—Printing -presses</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smallfont">ILLUSTRATIONS.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="toctitle">Wood engraving—Line engraving—Etching—Stipple—Mezzotint—Aquatint—Lithography—Photography<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="smallfont">MISCELLANEA.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="toctitle">Book edges and their decoration—Embroidered books—Cloth bindings—Account -books—End papers—Small metal-bound books—Books -bound in tortoiseshell—Chained books—Horn books</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="smallfont">LEATHERS.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="toctitle">Vellum—Calf—Pig skin—Sheep skin—Goat skin—Seal skin, etc.</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="smallfont">THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITHOUT GOLD.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="toctitle">Blind tooling and stamping—Panel stamps—Cut leather—Stained calf—Cut -vellum—Transparent vellum</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="smallfont">THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITH GOLD.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="toctitle">Gold tooling in leather introduced from the East to Venice—Early -Italian gold tooled work—The spread of gold tooling in Europe—Modern -work—Gold tooling in leather—Early Venetian gold -tooled bindings—The work of Thos. Berthelet, John Day, John -Gibson, Mary Collet, Samuel Mearne, Suckerman, Eliot and -Chapman, Roger Payne, Richard Wier, Charles Hering, Kalthœber, -Staggemeier, Walther, Charles Lewis, T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, -Sir Edw. Sullivan, Douglas Cockerell, E. M. MacColl, S. Prideaux, -Adams, Woolrich, Etienne Roffet, Geoffrey Tory, Nicholas and -Clovis Eve, Le Gascon, Florimond Badier, Macé Ruette, L. A. -Boyet, Padeloup le Jeune, J. le Monnier, Derome le Jeune, Capé, -Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, Lortic</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr> -<tr><td style="text-align:left; padding-top:1em">INDEX</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>LIST OF PLATES.</h2> - - -<div class="center"> -<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Plates"> -<tr><td class="platestitle">1. GOLDEN BINDING OF “THE GOSPELS OF CHARLEMAGNE,” -WITH JEWELS AND ENAMELS, 11TH OR 12TH CENTURY. -(<em>See</em> <a href="#Ref_54">p. 54</a>)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_Frontispiece"><em>Frontispiece</em></a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="platestitle">2. PAGE FROM WILLIAM CASLON’S “SPECIMEN OF PRINTING -TYPES.” (LONDON, 1766)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_98fp"><em>To face p.</em> 98</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="platestitle">3. PAGE FROM THE “HYPNEROTOMACHIA POLIPHILI.” (VENICE, -1499)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_104fp"><em>To face p.</em> 104</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="platestitle">4. PAGE FROM CAXTON’S “MYRROUR OF THE WORLDE.” (LONDON, -1481)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_108fp"><em>To face p.</em> 108</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="platestitle">5. “THE PEACOCK.” WOOD ENGRAVING BY THOS. BEWICK, -FROM THE “HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS.” (NEWCASTLE, -1797-1804)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_110fp"><em>To face p.</em> 110</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="platestitle">6. TITLE-PAGE OF GRIMM’S “GERMAN POPULAR STORIES.” -(LONDON, 1824)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_124fp"><em>To face p.</em> 124</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="platestitle">7. FRENCH SEVENTEENTH CENTURY BINDING BY LE GASCON. RED -MOROCCO, INLAID WITH OLIVE AND CITRON MOROCCO AND -GOLD TOOLED IN THE POINTILLÉ MANNER</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_238fp"><em>To face p.</em> 238</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center" style="margin-bottom:2em"><span class="xxlargefont">THE BOOK:</span><br /> -<span class="xlargefont">ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT.</span></p> - - -<h2 class="no-break">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="titlefont">EARLY RECORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="chapblock">Rock inscriptions—Marks on wood—Quipus—Wampum—Modern -ideographs—Indian palm leaf books—Ideographs and alphabets—Diptychs.</p> - -<p>The idea of making records by means of marks cut on -stone or wood did not originate in any one place, for signs -of it are found more or less all over the world wherever -primitive man has existed. It was not until a comparatively -late period that the various kinds of record keeping were -unified after a fashion and true writing evolved itself out -of the chaos.</p> - -<p>There are some forms of record keeping that have been -largely used by the human race which, as far as we can at -present tell, have not influenced our present form of book -except negatively; but indirectly they may still have done -so in some manner that we cannot distinguish.</p> - -<p>Mankind is naturally imitative, and among his early -efforts in this direction are the scratchings on bones and -antlers. They comprise outlines of deer, mammoths, reindeer,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -seals, bears, horses and other animals. Several instances -of these early drawings have been found in the caves of the -Dordogne in France. These, however, are not records, they -are only pictures of what the artist saw, and a large proportion -of rock and stone markings come into the same category. -But there is no doubt that many of the latter are intended -to commemorate certain events; they show groupings of -marks, animals and men in positions and attitudes which are -clearly intended to mean something, and now and then it has -been possible to make a good guess at their interpretation.</p> - -<p>The earliest marks made by man that still exist are to be -found among the rock markings or carvings, as these are -often in protected places where the weather has not worn -them away. Prehistoric caves and tombs are prolific in -such treasures, and the marks, ideographs or hieroglyphics -are always of the greatest interest. There seems to be -some analogy between the great megalithic temples like -that on Salisbury Plain and many of the rock inscriptions, -but little is at present known on this point.</p> - -<p>Cup and ring markings on rocks or stones are among the -most remarkable of rock inscriptions because they are not -isolated as to their design. From Ireland to India these -marks are found possessing the same radical forms, and it is -impossible to avoid the conclusion that they have been -made by tribes of men who had some thought or idea in -common. What this idea was is still a disputed point -among archæologists.</p> - -<p>Cup and ring markings are held by some authorities to be -astronomical, sun signs, but these speculations, especially in -Scandinavian examples, soon land us in pure symbolism, -ring crosses, swastikas, triskeles and the rest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> - -<p>Apart from these, marks are found in the British Isles and -in India particularly through which a dominant idea is -clearly present. It seems likely that some common religious -symbolism is really the key to the mystery, and this belief, -disavowed by Sir J. Simpson, is strongly held by Col. -J. H. Rivett-Carnac, as well as by many others. By these -archæologists the cup and ring markings are considered to -be the ideographic expressions of one of the primitive -religions of the world which was very widely spread, and the -remains of which exist in India -at the present day.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="300" height="206" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Stone cist with ring -marks. Found at Coilsford in Ayrshire.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>But even admitting the possibility -of this interpretation, -there are still many points left -unexplained. For instance, in -the drawing, it will be seen -that the cups with their rings -are cunningly attached to each -other, and the whole design -appears as if it “means something.” No doubt some -day further light will be thrown upon this curious form -of record.</p> - -<p>The Assyrian and Babylonian sculptures both in the round -and in bas-reliefs are commonly covered with cuneiform -inscriptions, and these are also plentifully found inscribed -on stone stelæ and bronze figurines. The famous Rosetta -stone is a familiar example of a tri-lingual inscription that -will probably last as long as the world lasts. It is now in -the British Museum, and bears an inscription in Hieroglyphic, -Demotic and Greek. The Greek being understood, -it gave at once the key to the interpretation of the Hieroglyphic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -The date of the cutting of this stone is about the -beginning of the second century before the birth of Christ. -An earlier stone of a similar kind is known as the tablet of -Sen; it contains a decree of the priests at Canopus in -honour of Ptolemy Evergetes I. It was made in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 238, -but has not yet got to England.</p> - -<p>The ten commandments were engraved on stone, and -instances of inscriptions on small stones are very -numerous. From Egypt to North America amulets bearing -mystical sentences have been -commonly made. Familiar to -most of us are the turquoises -engraved with Arabic words -run in with gold, and the -curious “Garuda” and other -stones, with magical inscriptions -and credited with magical -powers, have been common in -the East from time immemorial.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_004.jpg" width="300" height="223" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Garuda amulet.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>In India inscriptions, holy names, invocations and -quotations are cut on small flat pieces of jasper, agate, -onyx, carnelian, amethyst, hematite, jade, and materials of -less value like coral or glass, some of the old and some new. -Musulman amulets of similar kinds are also sometimes found -on gold, silver, iron, and even on small bricks of baked clay.</p> - -<p>Many of these amulets have pierced ears for suspension, -and they were worn as jewellery on the neck or ears or sewn -on girdles. They were also fixed on weapons of war and -horse furniture. Some of the stones are engraved in -reverse so as to make impressions. These are seal stones, -but the greater number are engraved simply so as to read<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -straightforwardly. They are in Arabic, Persian, and rarely -Turkish.</p> - -<p>Greek and Roman cameos and intaglios are often found -bearing short inscriptions as well as the names of their -engravers. Even the diamond has not escaped, but -inscriptions on this stone are very rare because of the -difficulty of engraving it. Numbers of inscriptions, names -and mottoes can be found on ring stones of all times as well -as on real stones.</p> - -<p>Curious Chinese books are made of leaves of jade, and in -these inscriptions are cut in the decorative Chinese -character, run in with gold.</p> - -<p>It should be noted that the forms of letters have always -been much influenced by the manner in which they could -be most easily made. It is easier to cut a square form of -letter on stone than a cursive form, so we find that the -majority of rock or stone inscriptions favour the square -form rather than the rounded form of letter. We derive -our angular forms of letters from the distant past, but the -rounded forms are adapted from the later times of papyrus -or vellum, when reed or pen writing was understood.</p> - -<p>Writings on metal have been made from time to time, but -never very largely. In India inscribed plaques of bronze, -kept together by metal rings, have been often used. -Tablets of lead are recorded as having been used by ancient -peoples, and Oriental as well as European talismanic -formulæ have been engraved on small plates of silver, -bronze, brass or lead, the letters being now and then damascened -with gold and silver. In ancient Rome name-brands -were cut in bronze, and impressions could have been -printed from them. They were beautifully cut.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Nicene creed was cut in silver by order of Pope -Leo III., and in the East strips of metal have constantly -been substituted for the long thin pieces of -palm leaf which formed the normal books. The metal -leaves are found of gold, silver, or gilded copper particularly. -The plates are quite thin, and the characters -upon them are generally engraved, but sometimes they are -chased with tracer and hammer. Such records are not -only very permanent but they are also very decorative. -The modern engraving of inscriptions on metal has mainly -found refuge in monumental brasses, and in this case the -letterings are usually run -in with some pigment.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_006.jpg" width="300" height="110" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Runic calendar on bone.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Another primitive form -of record is found in the -case of notches cut in -wood. A savage warrior -of a literary turn of mind -would naturally wish to keep some record of the -number of his enemies that he had killed and perhaps -eaten, and an obvious way of doing this would be to cut or -scratch marks on his war club. Such records would, no -doubt, become customary among war-like tribes. The -handles of war axes or spears would offer excellent ground -for such marks, and presently, especially in peace times, -similar marks may well have kept tallies of the numbers of -game killed.</p> - -<p>From such personal notes the transition to others of wider -interest is not difficult, and so we find the notches used, -on bits of wood or sticks, for almanacks and calendars.</p> - -<p>Ogham and Runic inscriptions follow the ancient idea of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -notches cut along an angular edge, and these notches and -rods are the very distant ancestors of -our modern types of metal; the German -word “Buchstab,” meaning type, is -etymologically “a wooden rod.”</p> - -<p>In Denmark and Sweden in ancient -times almanacks were cut on flat pieces -of metal, bone, horn, box, fir or oak. -The majority of them are of wood, but the -other materials were sometimes used. -They are variously known as Rune -staves or stocks, Prime staves, Messe dag -staves or Brim stocks, and they are -generally hinged along one side by cords -run through holes, several slabs being -thus fastened together. Wooden calendars -are also often found among the -records kept by primitive peoples; they -have been found in Sumatra and in -many other places.</p> - -<p>Similar almanacks were used by our -Saxon ancestors, who no doubt borrowed -the idea from the Scandinavians. One -side was kept for the summer and the -other for the winter, and notches for the -days were made across the edges.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_007.jpg" width="600" height="96" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Staffordshire clog almanack.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>During the reign of Queen Elizabeth -a modification of the Scandinavian Rune -staves was largely used in England, -chiefly in Staffordshire, but not exclusively. These are -known as “clog almanacks,” and Dr. Plott says that “Clogg<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -may mean Logg, or that they are like the cloggs with which -we restrain our doggs.”</p> - -<p>English clog almanacks are squared pieces of wood, -measuring from about two feet to nine or ten inches in -length, and the larger ones are sometimes as much as three -inches square. They are notched along the angles, small -notches without ornamentation indicating week days, big -notches stand for Sundays, and Saints days have all kinds -of ornamental flourishes, which now and then show familiar -forms such as Saint Catherine’s wheel and Saint Lawrence’s -gridiron.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="400" height="62" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Modern hop-tally of wood.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Some of the clogs show a hole at the lower end, evidently -so that they could -stand upright upon a -peg, others, and these -are the most usual, -have a flat pierced -handle so that they can be suspended by a loop. They were -commonly kept in churches. Details of several well known -examples of clog almanacks will be found figured in <cite>The -Reliquary</cite> for January, 1865, in illustration of an excellent -article on the subject by Mr. John Harland. Exchequer and -other wooden tallies were common in England in the 14th -century, and in modern days a certain survival of them exists -in the form of hop-tallies. These are two strips of wood -which fit closely together with a tongue, and when in contact -notches are made across the two edges in apposition, so -that when the two pieces are apart, neither party can falsify -the notches without it being at once apparent when the -slips are finally brought together. The principle is exactly -the same as that utilised in the old legal “indentures,”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -by virtue of which a piece of vellum was cut in two -by an indentured, or toothed line, and if these did not -exactly fit whenever they were brought together it became -evident that they had been tampered with. In parts of -France tallies like these are still used by bakers.</p> - -<p>Wooden tallies are also found among the inhabitants of -Torres Straits, where they use them made of short sticks -tied together at their tops.</p> - -<p>Curious inscriptions, as yet undecipherable, have been -found at Easter Island; they are cut in thick slabs of wood -and are ideographic.</p> - -<p>Bones have been from very early times the recipients of -men’s marks; the earliest of these, however, were only copies -of things seen. But inscriptions and symbols were presently -scratched on them, and the blade bones of buffaloes in -North America as well as the shoulder blades of sheep used -by the Arabs are equally convenient for writing upon. In -Sumatra inscriptions are commonly cut in flat pieces of -bone. Instances of inscriptions in ivory are very numerous, -and the finest examples of these occur in the case of the Roman -consular diptychs which are described a little further on.</p> - -<p>Information as to direction is still often given by means -of marks or “blazes” on trees, a survival of a primitive -method, and American lumbermen or “loggers” cut -hieroglyphic marks of ownership on their logs when they -send them down stream.</p> - -<p>In times of trouble it often happens that primitive -methods of communication are resorted to, like that received -by a Cavalier from his lady love who heard that the -Roundheads were after him—she sent him a feather, and -he flew away and escaped.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_010a.jpg" width="200" height="344" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p>Such symbolical messages are common enough among -savage tribes, but without some key it is almost impossible -to interpret them. They are so -various in their composition that no -useful analysis of them can be made. -On one such message from West -Africa, strung on a string of flat fibre -knotted at each end, are a bit of shell, a -bit of fur, a bean, a cylindrical stick, -a piece of leather, a mass of frog’s eggs -or something like it, a flat piece of -bark, a feather, a tooth and a shell. -In another are two pieces of flat glass -kept together with red thread, and -two teeth on each side of it, all -strung on fibre, and so on.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_010b.jpg" width="300" height="275" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p>The Battas of Sumatra use different and probably more -elaborate messages, as they -consist of carefully cut strips -of wood, resembling the old -spillikins with which our childhood’s -days were made happy. -These strips of thin wood, -about three inches in length, -are cut into various shapes -which have no obvious collective -meaning. In one of -them is a capital model of a -little broom, accompanied apparently by a series of little -clubs and spikes. Such a message might have been -sent by an absent brave to his squaw at home, and may have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -meant that if she didn’t sweep up the wigwam before his -arrival she would experience the effect of one or other of -the clubs.</p> - -<p>The Incas of Peru had a regular system of keeping -records by means of coloured pieces of string knotted in a -peculiar way.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_011.jpg" width="600" height="323" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Peruvian Quipu.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>These knotted records, or Quipus, had special keepers -who held office in the provinces, and the results of their -energy were forwarded annually to the capital city for -examination and preservation. The provincial keepers -were called “Quipu Camayas,” and the records they -kept were mainly statistics concerning the people of their -districts. The knots were arranged either on a strong -piece of cord or upon a stick, and formed a sort of fringe; -the word “Quipu” means a knot. According to the position -of the knot a certain number was probably indicated, -and the class of person referred to is shown by the colour -of the bit of string which represents it.</p> - -<p>But it is also likely that more elaborate interpretations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -could be made by skilled interpreters of Quipus. Little -is really known as to that, but it is suggested by competent -observers that, for instance, red meant war, yellow meant -gold, white meant peace, and silver. But this is probably -guess work. The same idea has been utilised in the case of -a rare Chinese book, the leaves of which were of differently -coloured silks. Each colour was supposed to convey a -certain emotion to the student, and when he had exhausted -the emotion caused by one colour, he turned over the leaf -so as to experience the -effect of another.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="400" height="357" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Cardinal’s hat.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The use of knots as -reminders is not quite -obsolete, as it is common -enough even now to make -a knot in one’s handkerchief, -if anything easy -is to be remembered. It -is curious if this custom -is really a survival of -the Peruvian Quipu!</p> - -<p>A form of knotted record is used among several of the -tribes in the Pacific Islands, and the Jewish “Taleth,” or -scarf, has fringes which imply certain facts.</p> - -<p>The ordinary rosary with its ten beads for Ave Maria’s -and single ones for Pater Nosters has also something in -common with knots, and possibly the abacus of the Greeks -and the Chinese may have a similar origin. But probably -these last are only used as aids in mathematical -calculations.</p> - -<p>Something analogous to the Peruvian knots is to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -found in the tasselled and knotted fringes which adorn the -ceremonial hats of dignitaries in the Romish church.</p> - -<p>The hats themselves are always of the same shape, -round shallow crowns with broad brims. The fringes, -however, differ in size and colour according to the rank of -the wearer. The master cord is drawn through the brim -of the hat at its inner edge, at a point over each ear, and -kept in place by a large ornamental knot on the outside.</p> - -<p>The tassels start from one, and from this two others -depend, and from these three, and so on, one more in each -row. An abbot wears a black hat with six green tassels on -each side; a -bishop wears a -green hat with -six green tassels -on each side on -a gold cord; an -archbishop has a -violet hat with -ten violet tassels -on each side on a gold cord, and a cardinal has a red hat -with fifteen red tassels on a gold cord, depending on each -side.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="400" height="166" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Portion of North American wampum -belt.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The wampum belts of North America were primarily -used as money, but they were also made sometimes in such -a way that they formed historical records.</p> - -<p>The true “Six Nation” wampum belts were made of -little white and purple cylinders of shell very laboriously -cut, and the purple ones very difficult to get. “Wampum” -means white, and there is generally a preponderance of this -colour. The short beads are strung upon long threads or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -strips of leather, and the design shows sometimes in -purple on a white ground and sometimes in white on a -purple ground.</p> - -<p>The designs are sometimes easy to decipher, like the belt -which typifies the Iroquois League, showing the one heart -of the ruling nation in the centre, and the allied nations, -each shown by a square, united together in one bond.</p> - -<p>A very fine and interesting wampum belt was given as a -record of friendship to William Penn at the Great Treaty in -1682, by the Sachems of the Lenni Lenape. It is now preserved -by the Historical Society at Philadelphia. It is made -of eighteen rows of white and purple cylindrical shell beads, -the ground white and the designs in purple. The beads are -laced upon nineteen parallel “horizontal” strips of leather -by means of thinner strips running vertically across them -and brought twice through each bead, one running being -above the horizontal strip and the other below it. It is a -curious way of stringing beads, and was practised in -England some sixty or seventy years ago in the making of -small bead ribbons. In the centre of the belt is a -conventional figure of Penn shaking hands with the chief -Sachem.</p> - -<p>Many of the wampum belts seem to have only geometrical -designs upon them, but doubtless, without exception, -these fine white and purple shell belts, cut with infinite -patience and skill, and put together with the greatest care, -always have some meaning. The Iroquois could, until -recently, interpret them at once, but now they are less able -to understand the work of their ancestors.</p> - -<p>There are plenty of imitation wampum belts, usually -made of small shells or ordinary beads. The genuine belts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -are flat and strong, and the little shell cylinders nearly all -of the same size. The imitations are much more irregularly -and carelessly made, and they are often without any colour -but white.</p> - -<p>A common form of book in Oriental countries consists of -long narrow strips of palm leaf, kept together by two -strings run through holes near each end. The writing -upon the leaves is carried right along the length of each -leaf in successive lines, and is scratched in, and usually -strengthened by means of lamp black rubbed over it so as -to stick in the scratches.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_015.jpg" width="300" height="78" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Oriental palm-leaf -book.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>This form of book rests by itself. Apparently it has never -altered materially, neither has -it in any way affected the production -of the book as we know -it. The palm leaves are brittle, -they are troublesome to turn -over, and are likely to split and -break where the cord touches them. But the leaves -are frequently made of stronger materials than palm leaf, -some of them being of gold, silver, or gilded copper, -and in these cases the lettering is engraved or punched. -Others are written on plates of ivory, the letters being -gilded, others again on plates of lacquer with letters inlaid -with mother-of-pearl; indeed, the variety is large.</p> - -<p>The leaves are always enclosed between two covers of -stronger make but of the same shape, and these covers are -often very elaborately ornamented. Some of them have -exquisite carved work and inlaid work and others are -painted. In the case of Indian examples they are often -messed over with red stains. When this is found the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -manuscript has belonged to some shrine, and worshippers -have daubed it with rice and red paint as a sort of peace -offering. The strings with which the leaves are bound -together are also sometimes handsomely ornamented.</p> - -<p>Ancient rock inscriptions, tallies, quipus and wampums -are all more or less ideographic, and among trade signs -there are still many ideographs in common use, some of -them of considerable antiquity. There are the three golden -balls of the pawnbroker, which mean that money can be -borrowed there. They are derived from the coat of arms of -the Medici of Lombardy. The Lombards were mediæval -bankers and money lenders, and for their badge they took -three of the golden balls, or pills, out of the Medici coat.</p> - -<p>These balls varied in number and colour, they were sometimes -red, and sometimes blue, and three blue balls upon a -white ground was one of the mediæval signs used by money -lenders, but the three golden balls have proved more -lasting.</p> - -<p>Another old ideograph is the white barber’s pole, with its -red spiral, the image of the red bandage used to tie up an -arm which had just been bled. It was originally the mark -of a barber surgeon, but the barber still uses it although he -no longer bleeds his clients. An old sign for a barber is -also a shaving dish. This is oftener seen on the continent -than it is here.</p> - -<p>The embowed arm holding a hammer is an old sign of -a gold beater, and is generally itself gilded. It is clearly -an ideograph, as is also the fishing rod with a golden fish, -which is a usual sign over a fishing tackle maker’s shop. A -modern instance of the same kind is a gilded ham which is -not uncommonly seen over provision shops, quite a modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -sign. The rapidly disappearing Highlander taking snuff is -another modern ideograph. There are plenty more of such -signs, most of which tell their story directly and simply, -while others, the older ones particularly, may at first seem -arbitrary, but often a little examination will reveal a simple -origin.</p> - -<p>The curious hieroglyphics still used by gypsies are no -doubt derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics, and although -most of them have changed considerably, a certain resemblance -in some of the forms can still be traced.</p> - -<p>Ideograms are still used in North America in out of the -way places. A common mark for a cheese is a circle, and -this sign was found opposite a farmer’s name, but he had -never had one. He did, however, owe for a grindstone, -and the draughtsman clerk had forgotten to put in the -centre dot which would have marked the difference -between the stone and the edible.</p> - -<p>In common use more or less all over the civilised world -is the pointing hand, meaning either “Look there” or -“This way.”</p> - -<p>Some signs are also ideographic in character; among these -are certain of the deaf and dumb signs, and also some of -the arm signals used in the navy. In the army some of -the bugle calls imitate as far as possible the sounds to -which they refer. For instance, the “prepare for cavalry” -has some resemblance to horses galloping.</p> - -<p>Ideographs used in written languages soon change in -character. No longer do they mean simply what they portray, -but the sound of its name, and then by degrees they represented -the first syllable, and eventually only the first letter -of its name. These changes of meaning are accompanied by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -changes of form, and it is very curious to trace how an -apparently arbitrary letter form is really only the survival of -the main lines of an ancient ideogram. There are several -most interesting instances of these changes given by Dr. -Isaac Taylor in his classic “History of the Alphabet,” as well -as by other writers on the subject, particularly Sir E. Maunde -Thompson and Mr. Falconer Madan.</p> - -<p>Egyptian inscriptions show both ideographs, hieroglyphics -and alphabetic signs, as there is usually a word spelt out -in syllables or letters, and at the end of it the complete -word shown as a little picture. The hieroglyphics altered -into a style of writing which was not so pictorial about -the nineteenth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and although alphabetical -symbols were actually used as early as 4,000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, -yet it was very many years later than this that they -became of general use. The earliest piece of hieroglyphic -known is cut upon stone on a tablet now preserved in the -Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. It is supposed to have -been made about 4,000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and on it the name of King -Send is written alphabetically.</p> - -<p>Our present alphabetic writing is by no means final, as it is -even now undergoing a remarkable change, in which neither -ideograph, hieroglyphic, nor alphabet plays any part. -Shorthand will in time supersede our comparatively -cumbrous process, and it is purely phonetic.</p> - -<p>Chinese writing is still in the syllabic state, but the -Japanese, which is formed from it, has advanced many -steps towards the alphabetical stage.</p> - -<p>The earliest handwriting known is that on the Papyrus -Prisse, now in Paris. It is in Egyptian hieratic writing, -and is supposed to date perhaps from about 4,000 <span class="smcap">B.C.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></span> -The hieratic is a cursive form of hieroglyphic, and was -used particularly by priests.</p> - -<p>We derive our present letters “longo intervallo” from -Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the history of their evolution -is full of interest.</p> - -<p>It may be well here to review rapidly how it is that we -have acquired an alphabet for printing purposes which is -clear, though not beautiful. Our present type shows two -alphabets; one, the capital letters, are of Roman origin, the -other, the small letters, are a modification of what are -called Carolingian minuscules, and both alphabets have -reached us through the Latin, Greek, Phœnician and -Semitic.</p> - -<p>Up to the seventh or eighth centuries in Europe the -various styles of writing were in a mixed condition, but about -that time the different forms of letters began to arrange -themselves, and to follow distinctive lines of development -in different countries.</p> - -<p>Charlemagne interested himself in the matter, and saw -that the time had arrived when something could be done -towards clearing away the many difficulties which cropped -up by reason of the different forms of letters which then -existed. He caused careful studies to be made of existing -styles so that some sort of common ground could be found. -At Tours the Emperor set up a sort of Royal Commission -to enquire into the matter, and at the head of it he placed a -learned Englishman, Alcuin of York, who was known as a -great student and was himself a calligraphist. Alcuin was -trained in the beautiful Hiberno-Saxon hand, of which so -many magnificent examples still remain—the Book of -Kells, the Gospels of Lindisfarne, and several more.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> - -<p>At Tours the Carolingian minuscules, which are the -direct ancestors of our small, or lower-case letters, were -developed.</p> - -<p>Our capital letters have developed themselves on different -lines. They are like the ancient Roman types, which in -the twelfth century had modified themselves somewhat and -become very clear, and these forms commended themselves -to the scribes of the Renaissance period, and underwent -still more improvement in details. The early type cutters -who formed their letters directly after the shapes of letters -written by hand, soon saw that these -capitals were not only easy to cut but -were in every way the best they -could find to copy.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_020.jpg" width="200" height="204" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Roman -diptych.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>During some excavations at -Pompeii in 1875 a large collection -of small wax writing tablets or Pugillaria -was found. These tablets resemble -small slates; they are of wood, -and one side is slightly hollowed out -so as to receive a filling of blackened wax. Generally two -of the tablets were hinged together, hence their name of -diptychs, but sometimes they were in threes or even more, -like a tail or “Caudex,” from which it is said we derive our -word Codex. Diptychs are the direct prototypes of our -modern books.</p> - -<p>The writing was marked on the wax by means of a style -in the same way that writing was formerly done in England -on the curious sand tables. These styles are usually -of iron, sometimes inlaid with brass, but they were also -made of bronze, brass, wood or bone. They always have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -one end pointed to write with and the other flat to erase -with. A space was often left in the thickness of the -wooden edge of a diptych to keep the style in. The -erasing in the case of the diptych was effected by rubbing -the flat end of the style over it, and in the case of the sand -writing-tablet by a plasterer’s level or a good shake. -Sand tablets have been used up to quite recent times in -elementary schools. But the sand writing was always -temporary, whereas the wax writing is very lasting, one of -those found at Pompeii bearing the date <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 55. It records -a payment to Umbricia Januaria, and is the earliest Latin -manuscript known.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_021.jpg" width="600" height="81" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Roman diptych stylus.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Diptychs of similar form were widely used. They have -been found in Egypt, and in England—remains of the -Roman occupation—together with numbers of the styles -used for writing with.</p> - -<p>Diptychs were kept together at the back by means of metal -rings or thongs of leather, run through holes made in the -wood, so that they are true prototypes of our modern books -both as to form and manner of keeping together, the -“stabbed” form of binding, that is to say, threads or bands -or wires run through holes pierced along the back edge of -the sections of a book, having been in continual use ever -since rolls were first turned into books.</p> - -<p>When the diptychs were used as private letters they -were further fastened with a tie or clasp in front, and this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -tie was often sealed with the sender’s signet in wax or -clay.</p> - -<p>The Pompeian and all the other small wooden diptychs -are unornamented, but at a later -period, particularly from the second -to the seventh century, Roman -diptychs became of much importance -and were often decoratively -treated, being made of ivory and -elaborately carved.</p> - -<p>Labarte, Gori, Westwood and -Maskell have all written valuable -works concerning these ornamental -diptychs, and specimens of more or -less excellence can be found in most -museums that have any collection -of carvings in ivory. The earlier -examples are the best; later specimens -rapidly decline in art value, -although they are always of great -historical interest.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="200" height="542" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14</span>.—Byzantine diptych -of ivory.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>One leaf of one of the finest diptychs -in existence is fortunately in -the British Museum; it shows a full-length -figure of an archangel with -globe, cross and long-staff, and is -supposed to have been made in the third or fourth -century. A curious point about this leaf is its unusual -size, about 16 by 6 inches, and it is said that such a piece -could not be cut from any known elephant tusk. It is -possibly mammoth ivory.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> - -<p>For a long time the supreme power at Rome was vested -in the consuls who held office for one year. Naturally -anyone elected to this high position was anxious to inform -everyone holding any high place or office of his accession -to the dignity, and the usual -way of doing this was to send -round diptychs of ivory announcing -the event, as well -as subsequent ones concerning -any other important matters -which might occur during the -consulate.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/i_023.jpg" width="250" height="452" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Ivory diptych, of the -consul Valentinian, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 380.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Not only was the communication -inscribed upon the wax, -all of which is now gone, but -the outside ivory was carved -with invaluable portraits, -scenes and inscriptions. By -examining these carvings we -can frequently ascertain who -was the consul that issued -them, and often enough we -can find his portrait carefully -drawn. In one of the many -excavations made in the -Forum at Rome, tablets containing a list of Roman consuls -were found, and these serve as an official check upon our -interpretation of the records existing upon the consular -diptychs.</p> - -<p>Consular diptychs were generally larger than the -wooden pugillaria, which were always small. Ivory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -diptychs are rarely less than six or seven inches in -length.</p> - -<p>The privilege of giving away finely carved ivory diptychs -was highly esteemed, and in the fourth century the -Emperor Theodosius issued an edict forbidding any but one -of the two consuls, one at Rome and the other at Constantinople, -to issue them.</p> - -<p>In the matter of consular and official costume the Roman -carved ivory diptychs are of great importance.</p> - -<p>Figures often appear on coins or gems, but they are -always very small. On the diptychs, however, they are -sufficiently large to show full details. The subjects -depicted on them are various. There are games, combats -in the circus, scenes from the Passion, boys emptying -sacks of prizes, figures of Saints, Adam and Eve, busts -and portraits of consuls both in medallions and full length. -The best collections of consular diptychs are to be found -at Rome, Milan, Monza, Paris, Munich, Berlin, Liverpool -and London.</p> - -<p>Besides the consular there are also ecclesiastical -diptychs, the majority of which were probably only diverted -from their original intention and altered and adapted to a -new use. The original wax was removed and new -inscriptions engraved on the ivory, mostly lists of martyrs -or benefactors to the particular church which had possession -of the diptych.</p> - -<p>There is one at Liège on which the names of the -bishops of Tongres are written, and there is another -similar one at Novara. It is probable that the liking -for ivory carvings on books arose from the lead given -by the ivory diptychs. Indeed in several instances the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -sides of ivory diptychs are actually inlaid in late bindings -of MSS.</p> - - -<p class="workstitle">WORKS TO CONSULT.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Aglio, A.</span>—Antiquities of Mexico. <em>London</em>, 1830-48. (Vol. 4, at -end.) (Quipus.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Berger.</span>—Histoire de l’ecriture dans l’antiquité. <em>Paris</em>, 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gori, A. F.</span>—Thesaurus reterum diptychorum consularium et -ecclesiasticorum. <em>Florentiae</em>, 1759.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Harland, J.</span>—<cite>The Reliquary</cite>, Jan., 1865. (Clog almanacks.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Labarte, J.</span>—Histoire des Arts Industrielles au moyen age. -(Diptychs.) <em>Paris</em>, 1864-66.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lacroix, P.</span>—Les arts au moyen age. (Diptychs.) <em>Paris</em>, 1809.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lubbock, Sir J.</span>—Prehistoric Times. <em>London</em>, 1865.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Madan, F.</span>—Books in Manuscript. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Maskell, W.</span>—Ivories Ancient and Mediæval. <em>London</em>, 1875.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Maskell, A.</span>—Ivories. <em>London</em>, 1904.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Plott, R.</span>—Natural History of Staffordshire. (Clog almanacks.) -<em>Oxford</em>, 1686.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Prescott, W. H.</span>—History of the Conquest of Peru. (Quipus.) -<em>London.</em></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Reinaud.</span>—(Description des monumens Musulmanes du cabinet -de M. le Duc de Blacas.) (Indian amulets.) <em>Paris</em>, 1828.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rivett-Carnac, J. H.</span>—Prehistoric Remains in Central India. -<em>Calcutta.</em></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rivett-Carnac, J. H.</span>—Ancient Rock Sculptures in Kamaon. -<em>Calcutta</em>, 1877.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Simpson, Sir J. Y.</span>—Archaic Sculpturings. <em>Edinburgh</em>, 1867.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Smithsonian Report</span>, 1879, p. 389. (Wampum.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tavernier, J. B.</span>—Voyages. <em>Paris</em>, 1810.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Taylor, I.</span>—The Alphabet. <em>London</em>, 1883.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thompson, Sir E. M.</span>—Handbook of Greek and Roman Palæography. -<em>London</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Westwood, J. O.</span>—Cat. of Fictile Ivories. <em>London</em>, 1876.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="titlefont">ROLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="chapblock">Rolls of papyrus and vellum—Quaternions—The sewing of books—Headbands—The -rounding and backing of books—Mediæval -books—Irish cumdachs—Byzantine bindings—Oriental books—Modern -methods of sewing and binding.</p> - -<p>The length of ancient rolls of vellum has often puzzled -bibliophiles. Rolls of narrow breadth are found 16 or 17 -feet or more in length. A learned scholar on being asked -how he accounted for this extraordinary length was quite -puzzled, never having realised that the roll was in one -piece. The neck of -the giraffe seemed the -only possible solution.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_026.jpg" width="400" height="92" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Egyptian papyrus roll, with -mud seals.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The writer however -consulted a clever -leather worker and -gave him a skin measuring about 3 feet by 2, suggesting -certain ways of cutting it. He produced eventually, by -wetting, pulling and pinning, a beautiful roll of nearly 4 -inches in breadth and 16 feet 9 inches in length.</p> - -<p>Mediæval leather workers were no doubt more skilled -and practised in this particular art than anyone now is, -and the experiment showed that there is really nothing out -of the way in the very long rolls which at first sight seem -so surprising.</p> - -<p>Rolls were written upon in three ways. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -oldest rolls the usual way was to write lines across the -breadth of the roll, which was held upright before the -reader, and unrolled from the top downwards.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> -<img src="images/i_027a.jpg" width="125" height="403" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Roll -written -upon across -its shorter -diameter.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>A rare form of writing upon rolls is that -found in the prayers written on the strips -which are rolled up inside Buddhist prayer -wheels. Such prayers, however, are never read, -but are counted as being read through on each -revolution of the wheel. Each line of manuscript -runs along the entire length of the roll, -which is unrolled sideways. The prayer wheels -vary immensely in size, the best known being -the little hand ones chiefly used in Thibet; -they are variously ornamented.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_027b.jpg" width="400" height="125" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Roll written upon -longitudinally.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The form of writing in rolls that is of most -interest so far as books is concerned is a -modification of the Thibetan form. Instead -of each line running the whole -length of the roll, a space limit is now fixed, and the -lines of writing follow under each other, so that the -page form is at once -apparent. This form, -a late one, can be -seen in the case of the -Jewish scrolls of the -law. The roll is unrolled -sideways, and the -rollers at each end are often very handsomely decorated.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_028a.jpg" width="150" height="337" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Thibetan -prayer wheel.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>But writing of this last kind on rolls has suggested -another arrangement in which the reading is more easy, -and the re-rolling of the roll itself avoided.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> - -<p>It will be seen that a blank space is left between each of -the written “pages.” Now if the vellum, bark, or paper be -folded across these vacant spaces, one after the other, -backwards and forwards, like accordion -pleating, we shall find that we get a form -of book well known in the East and also -among primitive nations.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> -<img src="images/i_028b.jpg" width="350" height="109" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Roll written upon in page -form.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Curious examples of such converted rolls -can be seen in most museums, and they are -generally kept flat by means of two boards -front and back, but not otherwise fastened.</p> - -<p>The Chinese and Japanese have taken -this particular form of evolution from the -roll to the book a step further, and by help -of the ancient device of “stabbing” the -flattened roll along one of its sides, they -produce a form called an “Orihon,” easy -to consult, strong, and the blank back of the roll so hidden -up that its existence is frequently not realised. But if -some of the leaves of an Orihon are cut, its real structure -becomes at once evident, -and a book will -be produced with letterpress -and blank paper -alternately in pairs. A -similar kind of alternation -shows now and -then in the case of MS. rolls that have been cut up, but -they are oftener arranged letterpress and blank alternately.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_029a.jpg" width="400" height="179" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Sumatran bark book in the form -of a folded roll.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_029b.jpg" width="200" height="302" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—Orihon.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p>Without realising it we still preserve this blank and -letterpress sequence, found in the converted roll, in official<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -and legal manuscripts as well as in those intended for the -printer.</p> - -<p>When the printing press took the place of the scribe, the -blank leaves had no further <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">raison d’être</i>, so they dropped -out for good.</p> - -<p>Following the rule that the forms of binding have always -followed tolerably closely the forms of the manuscript they -have covered, we find that rolls were kept in cylindrical -boxes, called “scrinia.” Each roll was usually provided -with a little tag, so that if there were several of them in -one box they could easily be distinguished. The same -sort of tags are used to-day in the case of rolled maps kept -on shelves.</p> - -<p>Until a late period the term parchment must be understood -to mean vellum. Now we call sheep skin “parchment” -and calf skin “vellum,” and they are prepared in the same -way with lime, so that not being tanned they are not strictly -“leather.” The finest vellum is prepared from the very -youngest and smallest calves, and it is the most beautiful -and suitable material for writing or printing upon that has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -ever yet been found. The surface is singularly even and -offers little or no resistance to a pen, so that every sort of -handwriting, square or round, is put upon it with equal -ease. Vellum has one fault alone, particularly when bound -in book form as distinct from a roll, and this is that the -edges are apt to cockle, and by so doing they not only make -the pages look ugly, but they also admit the dust. Often -and often magnificent vellum books, especially at the top, -show large vandykes of dust-stained spaces due to this -cockling, and all such books should be provided with a close -fitting cardboard cap, to be kept upon them whenever they -are not in use.</p> - -<p>Parchment and vellum were both well-known to the -ancients, but their value as materials for writing upon does -not seem to have been fully acknowledged until the second -century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, until which period papyrus had held undisputed -pre-eminence for that purpose. At that time for -some reason the supply of papyrus from Egypt ran short, -and Eumenes II., King of Pergamum, successfully introduced -parchment in its stead. Parchment is so called -because it was first produced at Pergamum.</p> - -<p>Until about the fifth century <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, vellum MSS. were -in the roll form, but then came a change to the book form -as we now know it. This change was probably due to the -fact that stabbed binding, the only sort then used, was not -suited to vellum. The few papyri that exist in book -form were stabbed, that is to say, the rectangular pages -were kept in position by a binding cord laced through holes -pierced sideways right through the entire thickness of the -back of the book. The marks of these holes can often be -seen along the inner margins of ancient papyri, and they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -also show in many instances of rebound copies of our early -English printed books. To-day plenty of examples of this -form of sewing can be seen in the Chinese and Japanese -books, “Orihons,” which are really links between the roll -and the book form. It is also largely used for thin books -of little value, and a modification of it can be seen in -numbers of magazines, books of advertisements, and the -like, which are kept together by abominable little clamps of -wire attached on the same principle. When such books -have to be properly bound the little clamps -have to be carefully removed, and it is -generally found that they have made an -indelible stain of rust on the paper, even if -they have not also torn it considerably.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> -<img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="125" height="191" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—Stabbed binding.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>In mediæval libraries or monasteries when -a book was to be made, vellum leaves were -cut into the required size and folded once -across the middle. The folded leaves were -then fitted inside each other in groups of four -(quaternions) or five (quinternions), or whatever -other number seemed good to the bookmaker. The -leaves were then marked in some slight way so that their -order might not be lost, and sent to the scribe to be -written upon.</p> - -<p>The books count as folios because each original sheet -only forms two pages; the fact of their being arranged in -groups is accidental, and does not theoretically alter the -size of the book. For this the original skin of vellum -would have to be folded with certain further divisions, and -in the case of early manuscripts this was never done.</p> - -<p>Vellum shows a different surface on the flesh side to that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -on the hair side, and the scribe usually made his rule -marks with a blunt style to guide his writing on the hair -side, so that on this side the ruled lines are slightly -indented, whereas on the flesh side they show as little -ridges.</p> - -<p>This point is apparently trivial, but if, as seems likely, -both Greek and Latin scribes were really very particular -and consistent in the way they alternated the two sides of -the vellum, then the matter becomes one of much critical -importance. Indeed, it has already been of the utmost -value in deciding questions -as to whether new pages had -been added or not to an old -book.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_032.jpg" width="300" height="192" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Quaternion threaded -together.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>When the scribe had made -his rulings he then doubled -up his sheets once, and -arranged them as he desired -with regard to the hair or -flesh sides. When a section of four sheets were fitted into -each other, so that when pressed together they made a -solid gathering, such a gathering is called a “Quaternion,” -from which term we derive our word “Quire.” This is a -normal state of things, but it is obvious that abnormal -arrangements might easily be made, from the insertion of a -single leaf to that of an entirely additional section.</p> - -<p>Now the question arose of how best to fasten the quaternions -together, not only as to themselves but also as to -the other quaternions, which together formed the entire -book.</p> - -<p>As to the quaternion itself, it must have been evident at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -once that a stitch of thread or fibre run from the innermost -fold right through to the outermost would hold the leaves -firmly together. It is likely enough that this was done -separately at first, and then the binder would have looked -at a small heap of such gatherings wondering how best to -keep them together, and it would soon occur to any constructive -mind to knot the loose ends of the threads -together, or else to supply a supplementary cord or cords -laid at right angles to the back of the sections on which -the projecting ends of the threads might be tied or sewn.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_033a.jpg" width="300" height="189" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Four threaded -quaternions ready to be tied together.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_033b.jpg" width="300" height="194" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Four threaded -quaternions tied on to transverse bands.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p>This, in fact, was done, and very shortly the best way of -fastening the sections on to such cords or threads was hit -upon—a method indeed that we have never bettered, and -which can still be found in the work of many of our best -modern binders.</p> - -<p>At first this fastening together of the sections of a book -was no doubt done uncomfortably and roughly by hand, but -it soon became evident that some simple device in the form -of a skeleton frame might be contrived which would render -the operations of sewing and binding much easier. Not -only easier to execute but also giving a more regular and -workmanlike result.</p> - -<p>The earliest known sewing frames were the same as are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -used now. There are two strong columns of wood fixed on -a broad platform, with a slot between their bases. From -capital to capital extends a bar, and the strips of leather, -vellum, or hempen cords which are to form the bands of -the book are looped upon it, and are kept taut by means -of metal keys attached to the other end, which lock into the -slot at the bottom. The bands can be quite easily adjusted -to any space the worker -desires.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="400" height="288" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—Modern hand-sewing press.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The book, ready for -sewing and in proper -order of sections, is laid -near the worker’s hand, -and he, or she, takes it -up by sections, one at a -time. The section to be -worked upon is laid -downwards on the little -platform, with its back close against the bands, and the -worker’s left hand keeps the section open in the middle, -while with the right hand a thread is drawn through the -back fold, from the inside to the outside, round the band, -and then back from the outside to the inside, and so on until -all the bands have been caught round. Then to end up, -the thread is passed through near the extreme end of the -fold and knotted, forming what is called a “kettle stitch,” -and from this point the whole operation is repeated, backwards, -with the next section. It sounds complicated, but -is not so really, and several sections could have been sewn -together in the time that it has taken me to describe the -sewing of one of them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_035a.jpg" width="400" height="44" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Faulty sewing over a band.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Now comes an interesting point, and that is the exact -way in which the threads are passed over the bands. We -will first see that if the thread is drawn through the back -fold of the section, round a hand and back again through -another hole, that there is a weak construction, inasmuch -as the thread will have a strong tendency to cut through -the paper at <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>, because there is in each case a side -strain. It therefore -seemed necessary that -the thread should -make its return journey by the same hole through which it emerged, but if -simply done, this did not mend matters much, as the strain -still tended to pull this hole open wider. A line of exit and -entrance without any side pull was needed, and this was -found by means of a very clever device. A broad band of -leather or vellum was cut through lengthways, leaving a -solid piece at each end.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_035b.jpg" width="300" height="42" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Mediæval sewing -round double band.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Now when the sewer came to this band he ran the thread -straight through the slot, then -brought it round the entire -band, under it, between it and -the back of the book, and down -again, back through the slot, -and in at the same point from which it emerged. The result -of this is that there is no strain at all on the needle hole -through which the thread passes, as the pull is quite straight -both coming and going. This is undoubtedly the best -form of sewing a book on bands, and a book so treated is -said to be sewn on “double bands.” But our recent work -is not always true, although from the outside it appears<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -correct, because in numbers of cases such double bands -are simply glued on the outside of the back, the real -sewing, of a very inferior kind, possibly even done by -machinery, being hidden underneath the leather. Few -great binders except Charles Lewis have ever used sham -bands.</p> - -<p>Flexible sewn books can be had now if wanted, but the -sewing on the bands is not quite the same as the fine -mediæval double bands I have described. It is, however, -practically nearly as good, and the bands themselves can -be made smaller.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/i_036.jpg" width="250" height="41" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Modern sewing -round single band.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The modern method is to bring the needle and thread -through the back of the section as -usual, then give it one turn onwards -over the band and back again through -the same hole. It will be seen that -this is a thoroughly sound principle, -and brings no strain upon the back of the section.</p> - -<p>The ends of the bands of limp vellum books have always -been treated in the same way; they are drawn straight -through the vellum at the joint and then back again and -fastened inside by means of the end paper.</p> - -<p>The manner of drawing the bands of a “limp” vellum -bound book through the limp vellum cover is of much -interest, and it survives in many instances where boards -are used.</p> - -<p>In principle it is the same process as is described further -on with regard to boarded books, but in the case of the -limp vellum bindings the ends of the bands are normally -visible for a short length, but in the case of boarded books -they are always covered up with the exception of some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -vellum-covered boarded books in which the limp vellum -peculiarity is preserved.</p> - -<p>Another small point of interest about the old limp -vellum bindings is that the head and tail bands are made -of the same sort of thin vellum strip as the main bands -and carefully drawn diagonally through the vellum at the -corners and fastened inside. Dealt with in this way the -head band becomes of real structural value, much of which -is lost if it is cut off short as is done in the large majority -of cases.</p> - -<p>William Morris liked limp vellum bindings and often -used them, but without head bands. Instead of the short -strips of vellum used for bands in old books Morris used -specially prepared silk tapes, and brought them through -the vellum at the joint in the old-fashioned way. Instead -of being cut short and pasted down as the old limp vellum -bands were, Morris continued his tapes and brought them -out again near the front edge of the vellum, where they -could be tied. This is an excellent arrangement and -keeps such a book together in an admirable and effective -way.</p> - -<p>Vellum bindings required flat backs because the material -would not yield sufficiently to be tucked round the -projecting bands of a normal flexible bound book, in which -the leather back is firmly fixed over the bands. Nevertheless -in several instances old vellum books, in boards, which have -been sewn on raised bands show traces of these bands in low -relief across the back. In such cases it is common to find -that some padding has been put in the spaces between the -bands so as to level the back up. Books treated in this way -are usually stiff to open and uncomfortable to consult.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> - -<p>The flat back, which was necessary for the same reason -in the case of books bound at a later date in velvet, cloth, -silk or canvas, necessitated some modification of the thick -projecting bands of the ordinary book, and the requisite -flatness was attained by using strips of vellum or tape -instead of cords of hemp. Then it was found that it -was not necessary to fasten the back of the cover to the -back of the sections, so the “hollow back” came into -existence.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="300" height="98" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Book bound with -“open” or “hollow” back, -and modern headband, cut off -at each end.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The majority of modern books are bound with hollow -backs; it can be recognised by -opening a book to the full -and seeing if the back is separate, -and it has one real virtue -as well as several vices. If a -book should happen to be -printed too far back, a hollow -back binding will enable it to “throw up,” and show the -printing right down to the inner edge of the paper, whereas -a flexible binding always tends to open less freely, especially -in the middle.</p> - -<p>For books that are likely to be much used hollow backs -are unadvisable as they are sooner worn out, but for small -light books there is no doubt much to be said in their -favour.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_039.jpg" width="300" height="190" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Back of book prepared -with cut trenches to hold the bands.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Among English binders of note I think Charles Lewis -was the first to use hollow backs extensively. But for -fine books there is no doubt that the old-fashioned -flexible sewing on raised bands is the best in the long -run. Books bound with hollow backs often have the -bands “sawn in,” that is to say, a trench is cut for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -each band across the back of the sections. In these -trenches the bands are laid, and the sewing is of a simpler -and quicker sort than it is when the thread is brought -round each band as it is in the flexible style. Moreover, -there is a weak point where the thread touches the edge of -the saw cut, and at this place the paper is always apt to -give. It is obvious that to cut away paper from the back -of a section must always be not only a barbarism but also -structurally wrong. Such a method of sewing a book can -only be excused on the score -of cheapness, and it may be -urged that in this case it does -not matter.</p> - -<p>Towards the end of the -fifteenth century it was found -that the extreme tops and -bottoms of the backs of the -sections of bound books -not only looked untidy and -unfinished, but also that they tended to gape, in fact they -were weak points both structurally and artistically. When -it was once realised it was soon rectified, and a small -additional band was made of a strip of leather or vellum, -to fit along the outer edge of the top and bottom at -the back. This slip was then sewn on by means of -thread and button-hole stitching, being caught in at -intervals by a long stitch drawn through the centre of -one or other of the sections of the book. The loose -ends of the headband itself were drawn in to the -boards, forming in fact an additional band. The headband -is a point in the forwarding of a book which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -has not received much notice as yet, but it is of some -importance, as there is no doubt that much attention has -been paid by binders to the ornamentation of headbands -from mediæval times until now, and it is the first point in -the binding of a book in which ornament is considered.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_040a.jpg" width="300" height="253" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—French sixteenth -century headband.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_040b.jpg" width="300" height="210" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Italian fifteenth -century headband.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_040c.jpg" width="300" height="191" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—German fifteenth -century headband.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_040d.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—English seventeenth -century headband.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_040e.jpg" width="300" height="224" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—English eighteenth -century headband, by Roger Payne.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_040f.jpg" width="300" height="174" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—English nineteenth -century headband, by Charles Lewis.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p>Some of the early headbands are sewn over with strips -of soft leather, and at a later time they are cut in distinctive -ways, flat or round, and sewn over with silks of particular -colours or combinations of colours.</p> - -<p>Of late years the vice of cutting off the ends of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -headband has come into being; these ends ought to be -drawn properly into the boards, as Mr. Douglas Cockerell -has indeed done for me in several instances. But no words -can adequately condemn the miserable ready-made coloured -slips which are often found simply -<em>stuck on</em> in the proper place.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_041a.jpg" width="150" height="82" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—What a -book may do if the -back is not properly -rounded.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Vellum books were the first to be -properly bound. The papyri which -were stabbed are so rare that they may -be passed by. As I have already said, -vellum is apt to be curly; for this reason -the boards used for binding in early -days were made of thick wood, the heaviness of which, -even when unaided by clasps, tended to keep the vellum -flat.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_041b.jpg" width="200" height="108" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—Book with flat -back.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Beech wood was largely used for these old covers, and -from the German word “Buch,” meaning beech, we derive -our word “book.” Beechen boards -were light, decorative, and very -carefully dried and seasoned. It -is remarkable how flat such old -boards are, and they were no doubt -very highly valued as they often -have upon them the stamp of the -monastery in which they were used.</p> - -<p>The edges of the boards are sometimes bevelled, from -the upper side in English or French books, and from the -under side in German books—but such a distinction must -not be taken as invariable. Boards often show signs of -having been used more than once, and it is rarely that any -decoration shows on the wood. In a few cases of German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -books may be found outline drawings of an heraldic -nature.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_042a.jpg" width="200" height="110" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—Book with flat -back falling in.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The first bound books were made with flat backs, and the -boards fitted close upon the outer sheets of vellum, papyrus -or paper. In this formation, however, -it was found that there was -a strong liability for the back to -fall in and the foredge to project -outwards.</p> - -<p>As early as the fifteenth century, -in the case of printed books on -paper, this fault of the back falling -in led some few binders to neutralise it by giving the back -of the book a rounded form by means of hammering, and -this quite prevented the falling in of the back. The exact -extent of the rounding can easily be seen by looking at the -front edge of a book, because the curves of the back and front -correspond. The boards, however, -remained in their first position, -flat on the outer sheets.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_042b.jpg" width="200" height="114" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—Book with -rounded back.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>But another trouble was apparent -in both these cases, namely, -that when such books were opened, -the joint between the boards and -the back showed a tendency to pull -up the few pages next adjacent. In time these pages -became torn and injured, and constructively there was something -wrong with the principle of attachment.</p> - -<p>Paper is soft, and when a “rounded” book was fitted -with hard boards and strongly pressed there would be a -certain tendency for the boards to sink into the mass of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -paper and to throw up a small ridge along the edge of the -back. Such a small accidental ridge is often found on old -paper books.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_043a.jpg" width="200" height="111" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Book with back -rounded and backed.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_043b.jpg" width="200" height="338" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 44</span>.—Book rounded -and backed, before the -boards are put on.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>But there is no doubt that the actual process of making -an intentional groove for the boards -to fit in was practised by a few -fifteenth century binders in England. -This groove is made by an -extension of the process of rounding -the back, and it is produced by -hammering the back over two hard -boards carefully placed in the -proper position. The shape of a back thus treated is -theoretically as shown in Fig. 44, and it will be seen that the -actual joint now falls away from the body of the book and is -removed to the artificial line along -the outer edge of the groove, and -from this line the projecting bands -are drawn in to the boards. If this -operation of “backing” is properly -done it is almost impossible for the -back of a book to fall in. It will -always open easily and return to its -original form, and if the bands are -properly attached to the boards, -the latter will never fall off.</p> - -<p>Although the principle of backing was known at the -early time mentioned, it was not universally understood -and practised until quite recent times. Now, however, it is -fully recognised as one of the most important processes in -the binding of books, especially large ones.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> - -<p>We have seen that the book sewn in leather bands has -the ends of these bands left loose, projecting in the case of -a large book some two or three inches. Holes were now -carefully cut along the back edge of the board to fit the -ends of the bands, sloping upwards, and some little way in -other slots were cut from the upper surface of the board to -meet them. Into these holes the ends of the bands were -drawn, and when in proper position they were pegged -down with one or more small wooden pegs. Sometimes the -bands were drawn right through the boards and fastened -inside. Numbers and numbers of instances -of this work exist and are quite -sound to-day. But such books do not -open satisfactorily, as there is a disagreeable -pull upon the outer sections when -the book is opened. In fact, the junction -between the bands and the boards -is not scientifically correct, because the -backs are not rounded.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_044.jpg" width="150" height="175" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Half-bound -book.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The vulnerable part of the binding -will now be seen to be the soft threads which cover the -bands where they adjoin the back of the sections of the -book, and to protect these delicate threads a strip of leather -was cut, damped and pressed over the bands so as to fit -quite closely, and fastened on with glue, projecting a short -way over on to the board itself so as to cover up the holes -used for the bands. This is called a “half-binding.” On -the leather of such half-bindings there is usually some -blind tooling, lines or rolls or even small cameo stamps.</p> - -<p>Mediæval bindings are commonly provided with clasps. -The original reason of this was to help to keep the vellum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -leaves flat, but of course artistic binders saw that clasps -might be made very ornamental, and so many of them are. -They have survived as ornamental adjuncts to a binding -until the present day, although there is no necessity for -them.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_045.jpg" width="200" height="231" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—Mediæval book -with bosses, corner -pieces and clasps.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Bosses in the centre and at the corners of mediæval -bindings were of structural use, as they protected the -actual boards of the book from wear. In early days books -were kept upon their sides and probably -had flat boards between each -volume. So the bosses took the -wear and preserved the books. -Many of the mediæval bosses and -corners have ornamental settings; -they are generally of brass, but -sometimes of silver or wood. The -titles of such books were sometimes -written on the front edges and sometimes -on a slip of paper fastened -under horn on the upper board, and -in the late fifteenth century they were sometimes lettered -in gold or blind, also on the boards.</p> - -<p>It happened that the art of Byzantium was in its -prime just about the same time that vellum began to be -arranged in sections—in book form—in contradistinction -to the roll form. So we find some of the finest examples -of Byzantine art on bookbindings. Of course it must be -understood that these richly worked covers are only -ornamentally added to the true binding underneath, and the -actual work of the binding is more or less as I have already -described it. But the decorative art in these cases is so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -predominant that they are generically known as “Byzantine” -bindings.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_046.jpg" width="200" height="270" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—German binding -of about the eleventh -century, with cabochon -crystals.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The large majority of the known specimens of this kind -are no longer in company with their original manuscripts. -Many of them are preserved simply as loose covers, and -alien manuscripts have been inserted in others. I expect -that there are still considerable numbers of these bindings -preserved in remote churches and monasteries in Central -Europe, and some day perhaps some -traveller with sufficient knowledge -and time at his command will make -search for them. But for the present -fine and genuine examples of -Byzantine bindings are of great -rarity. It is said that there are -not more than about three hundred -of them known. The life history -of many of these is well known, and -so are many of the additions and -alterations to which they have been -subjected during their long life. -Luckily some of the finest are now -safely housed in our London museums, and others are, -or are likely to be, safe in a great local museum.</p> - -<p>To be able to judge whether these bindings are genuine, -a librarian must be an antiquary, a goldsmith and silversmith, -skilled both in repoussé work, engraving and cast -work, a gem cutter, an enameller, a skilled bookbinder, and -an artist, and if he fails in one of these knowledges his -judgment cannot be relied on. An ordinary art critic who -possesses “Flaire” can pick up a certain amount of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -knowledge by reason of having made many mistakes and -profited by them, and if he has been fortunately able to -associate himself only with true and known fine examples -for a long time, he may eventually be a good guesser. But -no true judgment can be given without actual technical -knowledge.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_047.jpg" width="200" height="314" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—French binding -of the thirteenth century -with enamels.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The result of all this is, that collectors of such bindings -have been freely victimised. It is -not really difficult to copy or to -imitate a Byzantine binding—it is -not nearly so difficult as to counterfeit -a fine Le Gascon or a fine -Roger Payne. It does not so much -concern the binder as the metal -worker, and in metal a little skill -goes a long way, and so it does in -the cloisonne enamel work which -alone is found in these bindings. -The present market price of a very -fine Byzantine binding—a known -one—will run into five figures, so -it is little to be wondered at that -it pays the clever <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">faussaires</i> of the Continent to direct their -attention to covers of this kind. They need not even take -the trouble to provide manuscripts for the inside; loose -covers will sell with equal readiness.</p> - -<p>Ivory carving played an important part on early bindings. -Apart from diptychs, the earliest known decorative binding -consists of plaques of ivory carved with Biblical scenes, -and having in the centre a lamb within a wreath of -cloisonne work, with inlays of coloured glass. It is now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -kept in the cathedral treasury at Milan, and is without its -original inside; it is attributed to the fifth century.</p> - -<p>Early Irish manuscripts were usually bound in quite -simple limp leather covers, but these were kept in book -boxes or “Cumdachs,” all of which still existing are of the -greatest interest.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 563px;"> -<img src="images/i_048.jpg" width="563" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—The upper cover of the Cumdach of the Stowe -Missal.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>One of the finest is that of the Stowe Missal, dating from -about the eleventh century. It belonged originally to the -monastery of Lorrha in Tipperary, whence it was taken to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -the Irish monastery of Ratisbon. In 1784 it was found by -Mr. John Grace in Austria, and afterwards belonged to the -Stowe Library, and Lord Ashburnham, from whom it was -purchased by the nation in 1883 with the rest of his library, -and then deposited in the museum of the Royal Irish -Academy.</p> - -<p>The lid is ornamented with a large cross set with pearls -and metal bosses, having in the centre a large oval crystal -over a pink ground, and enclosed with recent enamels, no -doubt replacing old ones. At each end of the cross is a -large jewel. The spaces between the arms of the cross -contain silver gilt plates engraved with figures of Saints, -and on the silver edge plates is an inscription in Irish -inviting the reader to “Pray for Dunchad descendant of -Taccan of the family of Cluan who made this.” This may -therefore be called the earliest signed binding in the world, -if a cumdach can be considered a binding. No doubt -much of the work now on this lid, as well as some of the -jewels and their settings, have been added since the original -work was made.</p> - -<p>The base of the box has a similar ornamentation upon it, -but the jewels and enamels are all gone, the spaces between -the arms of the cross being filled with silver plates cut into -an open pattern set over bronze gilt.</p> - -<p>The sides of the box are much destroyed, but they have -fortunately not been restored. The ornamentation consists -of enamelled bosses or curious castings in the centre of -each side, flanked by panels of open designs cut out of thin -silver over gilt, and corner ornaments of cast work. There -are small bosses of blue enamel.</p> - -<p>The remarkable open work over gilt bronze occurs again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -in the base of the cumdach containing Molaise gospels, it -also belongs to the eleventh century, and this sort of ornamentation -seems to be characteristic of Irish work of that -time. The lid of the box is ornamented in a modification -of the same idea, but in this case the bronze showing -through the silver is beautifully worked. The main idea -is a cross, and between the arms are the evangelistic -emblems, and with their names, Leo, Aquila, Homo, -Taurus. An inscription asks us to “Pray for Cenn, for -the successor of Molaise for whom this case was made by -Gillabaithain the artisan.” It is possible that this may be -a little earlier than the Stowe cumdach.</p> - -<p>A few more cumdachs are known, about ten of them -altogether, and others are recorded only.</p> - -<p>There is that of Dimma’s book, of the Cathach of the -O’Donnells, and several others, some of which are quite -plain.</p> - -<p>Other book cases were made of beautifully worked leather. -The satchel of the Book of Armagh is one of these, and -leather cases or “Forels” were made of cuirbouilli in the -fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, particularly in Italy. -These forels were in the shape now known as “slip off” -cases, and they generally had attachments for a strap. -They are always charmingly chased, and often bear -heraldic ornamentation.</p> - -<p>Cuirbouilli was calf or hide, worked with knife, style, or -hammer, and then probably boiled in oil, but the exact -process that was used is now unknown. It is very strong, -and its value was known in England, where it was used to -make wrist guards for archery, but as far as I know it was -never used here for bindings or covers for bindings. I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -have heard the calf or sheep bindings of the early sixteenth -century, bearing panel stamps, described as cuirbouilli, but -they are not so.</p> - -<p>The earliest cover still containing its original manuscript -is probably that given with other treasure to Theodelinda, -Queen of the Lombards, by Pope Gregory the Great, in -the seventh century. It is now kept in the cathedral -treasury at Monza.</p> - -<p>The manuscript is described in a contemporary document -as being “theca persica inclusam,” and, so far, its cover -resembles the Irish cumdachs. The case is of gold, ornamented -with a large cross, outlined with lines of small flat -garnets, with sapphires and emeralds, set in cloisons. The -body of the cross is richly jewelled with cabochon cut stones -and pearls, and at the extremity of each arm is a curious -glass bead of millefiori glass, green with a little red flower -in the centre.</p> - -<p>Between the arms of the cross are four gamma shaped -ornaments, each set with small flat jewels. Across the -sides are bands of gold on which are engraved the words -<span class="smcap">De Donis Dei offerit Theodelenda reg. gloriosissima -sancto Joanni Baptiste in Basilica quem ipsa fundavit in -Modicia prope palatium suum</span>. A handsome border with -flat garnets enclosed the whole, and the four cameos set -near the gammas are a recent addition. Byzantine art is -generally considered as a decadent form of Roman art, but -in this particular instance there is much Greek feeling, and -it is in all respects, excepting perhaps the inscription, a -magnificent piece of work.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/i_052.jpg" width="275" height="367" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—The binding of -the Gospels of Lindau, the -older side.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The binding of the Gospels of Lindau has now two -sides of different dates, each of which has been repaired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -and added to in recent times. The earlier of the two, far the -finer, is probably contemporary with the manuscript, having -been made about the later half of the ninth century, as the -Abbey of the Noble Canonesses at Lindau was founded by -the Emperor Lewis the Pious in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 834. A large golden -cross pattée is the chief motive of this beautiful piece of -work, and it is ornamented with rare enamels showing -bust figures wearing stoles, and -jewels in great variety, the -borderings being inlaid with -small flat pieces of garnet. The -spaces between the arms of the -cross are filled with bronze -plaques elaborately ornamented -with Celtic interlacings in -chiselled work. The workmanship -is probably Irish, and was -most likely done abroad, possibly -enough at Lindau itself, by some -Irish artists who had emigrated. -Irish jewellers and enamellers of -this early time were justly celebrated, -and their services were secured whenever possible.</p> - -<p>The later side of the binding is one of the finest existing -specimens of Carlovingian art. It is radically different from -the earlier side and was probably added about the eleventh -or twelfth century.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/i_053.jpg" width="275" height="361" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—The binding of the -Gospels of Lindau, the -more recent side.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>In the centre is a large cross on which is a gilt figure of -our Lord in the attitude of the crucifixion. The cross is -outlined by a structure of open work of gold ornamented -with filagree work and thickly set with jewels. Between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -the arms of the cross are angels worked in repoussé, and -rich bosses of gold and jewels, raised on arcades of open -work. The border is of great richness, and is thickly -sown with large jewels cut “en cabochon,” many of them -pierced longitudinally, betraying in all probability an -Oriental provenance. No doubt this was originally made -for some valuable manuscript now lost, and it was used to -replace the original simple lower -cover of the Gospels of Lindau -at some unknown time.</p> - -<p>The book was formerly in the -possession of the Earl of Ashburnham, -but now it is gone to -America.</p> - -<p>Beautiful Byzantine work of the -twelfth century is to be seen upon -the carved and jewelled binding -of the Psalter of Melissenda, -daughter of Baldwin II., King -of Jerusalem, and wife of Fulk, -his successor. The ivory covers -measure eight by six inches, and -are elaborately carved in bas relief with Biblical scenes. On -each side are six circles, and in each circle a little figure -group, on one side representing episodes in the life of David -and on the other works of mercy. There is lettering run in -with red, giving the names of each of the personages -shown, and their eyes are set with tiny rubies or emeralds -cut “en cabochon” like coloured grains of sand. The -spaces between the circles are filled with other Biblical -or symbolical figures, scrolls and animals, and a beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -interlacing border encloses the whole, set with turquoises -and rubies.</p> - -<p>The carver’s name, “<span class="smcap">Herodius</span>,” is cut in the lower -cover. The workmanship on these ivories is extremely -fine, and there is no doubt they were made to be used as a -binding. The majority of ivory carvings found on mediæval -bookbindings appear to have been simply added, having -been originally made for some other purpose. But there -are notable exceptions, particularly in the Bibliothèque -Nationale at Paris. The shape in which the plaque of ivory -is cut will often give a valuable indication in this matter.</p> - -<p>The finest Byzantine binding now in England is probably -that known as the <a id="Ref_54"></a>Gospels of Charlemagne, now in the -Victoria and Albert Museum. It is nearly square, and the -upper side is overlaid with gilt metal, enamels and gems. -In the centre is a seated figure of Our Lord in the attitude -of Benediction, in repoussé work. Round this is a band of -white and green enamelled lettering, restored, on which -are two hexameter lines: “<span class="smcap">Mathevs et Marcvs Lvcas -scsq Johane vox horv qvatvor reboat te xpe Redemptor.</span>” -The outer border is made up of rectangular plaques of -enamels, gold work and jewels.</p> - -<p>The work here is also largely restored, but it is, as a -rule, admirably done, and where the old work remains, -especially in the gold, it is of a high excellence. The -jewels have, for the most part, been restored. As the -book is now it is a splendid and dignified example of its -kind; the under side is simply covered with strong red -leather, with a cross marked by small studs. Like many -of these splendid altar books, this one is said to have -served as a Pax.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> - -<p>The manuscript itself is of the tenth century, and belonged -to the Abbey Church of St. Maurice d’Agaune, and -from here it was stolen in the fourteenth century. It -afterwards found a home at Sion, and was purchased for -the Victoria and Albert Museum at the Spitzer sale in -1893.</p> - -<p>No doubt examples of rich monastic bindings did exist -in England, but none of them are now known. It is -likely enough that their value condemned them, and that -they were entirely destroyed in the earlier half of the sixteenth -century to swell the revenues of the king. The -manuscripts belonging to these destroyed covers have, -luckily, been kept, and numbers of them came to the -British Museum by gift of George II.</p> - -<p>Two ornamental bindings only of English origin now -remain; these are both simple, they are the St. Cuthbert’s -Gospels and the English coronation book of Henry I. -These are described in <a href="#Page_181">Chapter VIII.</a></p> - -<p>There were plenty of leather bindings ornamented with -blind tooling or cut leather work in mediæval times, and -these also are described later on.</p> - -<p>The idea of ornamenting bindings with sunk panels is of -Arab origin. The fashion came to Europe by way of Venice, -and the Venetians themselves quickly saw that the possibilities -of decorating bindings were largely increased by -this device. It is done by means of two boards, the upper -of which is pierced, then the whole is covered with leather -and ornamented with painted work or stamped work as the -case may be. In inferior bindings of this sort, the sunk -panels are sometimes produced simply by hard pressure, -but the state of the edges of the panels will soon show how<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -they are made. If they are steep there are the double -boards, if very sloping there may only be one.</p> - -<p>Queen Elizabeth had some of these Venetian sunk -bindings presented to her and she liked them. Consequently -there were a few examples of it made in England -in the sixteenth century. At a later time Charles Lewis -bound several large books with double boards in this way, -and I think he was the only important English binder who -has ever done so to any great extent.</p> - -<p>The double boards have left a trace of their existence in -the form of a trench which is frequently found along the -edges of the boards of sixteenth century bindings of English, -Italian, and French workmanship. The trench, however, -is merely a survival and does not necessarily imply the -actual existence of double boards. It is a distant tribute -to our indebtedness to the East.</p> - -<p>In some of the double-board books bound for Queen -Elizabeth, with sunk panels, the headband is curiously -produced away from its normal finishing point and is carried -right round the entire edge of the boards in the trench -between the boards. It is a decorative and curious -peculiarity, and I have never met with it in any foreign -books.</p> - -<p>Wooden boards were used for bindings until about the -end of the fifteenth century, when the idea of using several -layers of paper pasted together—paste boards—was thought -of. In fact, paste boards may be considered to have been -introduced about the same time as printing, and waste -printed matter was often used for making them with.</p> - -<p>There are many instances in which valuable printed -matter has been found hidden up in binder’s boards, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a><br /><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -as these can generally be soaked apart and cleaned, we -already owe the preservation of several unique fragments -to the fact of their having been used for bindings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 513px;"> -<img src="images/i_057.jpg" width="513" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Painted Persian binding (Nadir Shah at the battle of -Karnul).</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Persian manuscripts of the seventeenth to the nineteenth -centuries are often ornamented in a manner which is of -considerable interest. They are bound in paste boards like -all other Oriental bindings known to me, and are covered -with some sort of gesso applied in a thin layer. On this -gesso are paintings of varied merit; some of them, especially -the historical and hunting scenes, are extremely well done, -and others, mostly floral, are of a commonplace character. -The boards are sometimes painted inside and out.</p> - -<p>The painting is done in water-colours, and is of the -same sort as is found with the manuscript inside, but -generally by an inferior artist. When finished the painting -was thickly varnished, and this varnish has darkened by -time into a mellow golden colour which improves the -appearance of the colour work underneath.</p> - -<p>The darkening of this varnish has, however, had a -remarkable result: the photographic ray cannot pierce it -except here and there—in fact, the painting is covered by -a non-actinic curtain. A photograph will only show the -surface of the varnish with here and there a patch where -the blue colour underneath succeeds in making itself felt.</p> - -<p>Ornamental though these painted and varnished bindings -are, there is unfortunately a great and inherent delicacy -about them, and it is that the varnished surface is badly -given to chipping off. It is difficult to say what the best -remedy for this chipping or flaking off is; it is probably -due to the discrepancy in hardness between the hard -varnish and the soft boards; it seems to be radical.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p> - -<p>Experiments are needed in this matter, but owners of -fine specimens, even if chipped, are naturally chary of -allowing experiments which may do harm as well as good. -I should say that probably much good might be done by -dropping a little collodion so as to make it run down -between the loosened surfaces; it will act as a cement and -strengthen as well as fasten them together. It is also likely -that thin glue applied several times might also do good used -in the same way, but I believe collodion is better and -penetrates weak places more readily.</p> - -<p>The same styles of ornamentation are used on mirror -cases and other small objects, so that although many -bindings are so treated, yet the method is not one -exclusively used for such purpose. But no doubt the -finest work was put on bindings, some of which are large.</p> - -<p>Another Persian manner is that of using large metal -stamps impressed with elaborate arabesques. The impressions -from these stamps of course give a design in relief. -The whole impression is generally gilded in various tints, -and the small design itself is often picked out with a little -colour. Many of these arabesque panel stamps are of -wonderful beauty.</p> - -<p>Arabic and other Oriental bindings have a curious flap -projecting from one of the boards, which covers and -protects the front edges. The flaps are ornamented in the -same way as the rest of the binding.</p> - -<p>The sewing and the paper of all these books is weak and -light, but there is always work of much interest on the -bindings. The backs are flat and the paste boards are thin -and covered with very thin leather. They are usually -ornamented inside and outside with blind and gilt work,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -stamped and cut work, and hand painting, in much -variety.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_060.jpg" width="400" height="256" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—Oriental binding with flap.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The open work cut with a knife from thin leather is -remarkable for its extraordinary precision and delicacy; it -is usually in arabesques with small flowers, and often -coloured by hand. It is always set on a background of -colour, either painted or a bit of coloured paper. But the -work is very frail, and -panels of it are rarely -found perfect.</p> - -<p>Oriental bindings -are altogether weak, -and they will not -stand hard wear.</p> - -<p>Now we have, chiefly -from America, machines -that will do -almost every one of the hand-operations for binding a book. -There are sewing machines that only want to be fed with -thread and the books to be sewn; there are casing machines -of wonderful speed and accuracy, backing machines and -binding machines. The only one thing that cannot yet be -done by a machine is the pasting down the ends of the -bands or tapes inside the boards. I rather think that -many of these machines strain the paper badly, and also -they require setting elaborately to a certain size. They -are very useful for large, cheap editions, but little use for -good miscellaneous work. Nothing is really so good as the -old-fashioned sewing on raised bands by hand.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cockerell, D.</span> Bookbinding. <em>London</em>, 1901.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span> Cantor Lectures on Decorative Bookbinding. -<em>London</em>, 1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span> (Encyc. Brit. Article Bookbinding). <em>London</em>, 1902.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Du Sommerard, A.</span> Les arts au Moyen Age. <em>Paris</em>, 1838-46.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gori, A. F.</span> Thesaurus vet. Diptychorum. <em>Florentiæ</em>, 1759.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Labarte, J.</span> Hist. des Arts au Moyen Age. <em>Paris</em>, 1864.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Libri, Count G.</span> Catalogue. <em>Paris</em>, 1857.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Madan, F.</span> Books in Manuscript. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="titlefont">PAPER.</span></h2> - - -<p class="chapblock center">Paper—Watermarks—Quiring.</p> - -<p>Although we get our word “paper” from “papyrus,” -this latter was not a paper at all. The essential characteristic -of a true paper is the matting or felting together of -small fibres, whether these be of wood, linen, or other substance. -Papyrus was the inner bark of a beautiful reed, -which grows along the banks of the Nile, and from a very -remote period strips of this bark were laid over each other -at right angles, fixed together with gum, or perhaps a little -Nile mud, and used for writing upon with a soft pen. The -right-angular lines of the two layers of papyrus bark can -easily be seen on any papyrus MS.</p> - -<p>Papyrus is not a good substance for writing upon; it is -at first too soft, and then it gets brittle and is apt to -crumble away. By sticking successive strips of papyrus to -each other ancient scribes produced long rolls of manuscript, -and from these rolls we derive many of the book -terms which are still in use. The most obvious is “volume,” -which is from “volvere,” “to roll up”; and “Bible” comes -from the Greek <a id="Ref_62"></a>“βυβλοἱ,” meaning the inner bark of -papyrus.</p> - -<p>In China the possibility of making thin feltings with -silk fibre was probably known at a very remote period, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -it is likely enough that from some such unsatisfactory production -the better and usable kinds made of vegetable -fibres evolved itself. We cannot now say when the possibility -of felting together fibres of wood or grass first became -known to the Chinese, but it was certainly well understood -in the fifth or sixth centuries, because specimens of it still -exist.</p> - -<p>In the middle of the eighth century, in 751 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, there -were certain tribal disturbances on the Chinese frontier of -Persia, and one of the combatants called in the help of the -Chinese. These, however, suffered defeat at the hands of -the Arab governor of Samarkand, who brought back some -Chinese prisoners to his town. These men were acquainted -with the Chinese methods of making paper.</p> - -<p>From these Chinese prisoners the Arabs and their friends -the Persians learnt the art of paper-making with vegetable -fibres, but the supply in this particular very soon gave out, -and because enough suitable fibres were difficult to get they -mixed them with pulped rags. Eventually the Samarkand -paper-makers used rags only, and these they easily got in -sufficient quantities from old linen clothes, and also the -mummy wrappings from Egypt were made use of in the -same way.</p> - -<p>From the Arabs the knowledge of paper-making passed -rapidly to Europe, and by the middle of the tenth century -it had entirely superseded the use of papyrus.</p> - -<p>The researches of Dr. J. Wiesner and Dr. J. Karabacek, -both professors of the University of Vienna, have been of -incalculable value as regards the composition and history of -ancient paper, and they were fortunate enough to have the -opportunity of examining the papers in the collection of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -Archduke Rainer, among which are specimens of very early -work. The professors have examined these and other -old papers microscopically and chemically, and found that -from the beginning it was considered necessary to load -papers with some binding or filling substance; they found -starch, starch flour, probably from rice, and among the -Chinese papers a dressing of powdered gypsum. Without -some such dressing the papers would have resembled our -blotting paper, and it would have been almost impossible to -write upon them.</p> - -<p>Professor Wiesner found that Chinese papers of the eighth -century were really mixed papers; they contained fibres of -mulberry bark, hemp and rags. Rags of fishing nets themselves -would contain fibres of flax, hemp, and China grass. -But the main constituent of ancient Chinese paper is fibre -of mulberry-bark, and I believe it is so still, although China -grass fibre is also much used.</p> - -<p>Specimens of Chinese papers from the eighth century -onwards can be seen at the British Museum. They are soft, -but have lasted fairly well, and do not appear to show any -wire marks. The colour of these papers is much the same -as Chinese papers made now, but in some instances they -have certainly darkened as modern wood pulp papers -also do.</p> - -<p>One of the later specimens, a bank note issued during the -reign of the Emperor Hung-wu, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1368-1399, is made of a -darkened pulp, probably due to admixture with a little lamp -black, and on it are lighter impressions from large stamps -bearing the square seal letters. It is just possible that -these marks may be of the nature of watermarks, and were -impressed while the pulp was soft and wet, but it is not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -possible now to take the bank note up from the cardboard -on which it has been pasted, as to do so would probably -cause it to fall to pieces, so it cannot, for the moment, be -properly examined.</p> - -<p>Corean and Japanese papers were the same as Chinese, -and they all look as if there are no wire marks or watermarks -upon them, with the one exception I have mentioned, -but Dr. Wiesner says that by the ninth century marks -show in many instances which prove that papers were -made in moulds or sieves with network bottoms, the impression -of which remains like our “chains” -or laid marks. In the King’s Library -at the British Museum is shown a piece -of Oriental paper, an official letter in -Coptic, dated <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1048. It does not look -so strong or good as the Chinese paper, -but resembles thin blotting paper, and -shows no wire mark.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="150" height="154" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—Watermark -used by -John Tate in -1495.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>An early example of European paper -is preserved in the Record Office in -London. It is a letter from the Count of Toulouse to -Henry III., and is dated <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1216. In France, however, -by this time, the making of paper had been understood for -some time, as it was made there in 1189. In Belgium -it was not made until 1551, in which year a paper mill was -set up at Tourneppe by Henri de Nevere.</p> - -<p>By the end of the fifteenth century paper-making in -Europe was perfectly understood, and the papers of that -date, and for some time after it, are frequently excellent in -every way, and as sound, strong, and good now as they were -when first made.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> - -<p>The first English book printed on English paper is Bartholomaeus, -<cite>De Proprietatibus Rerum</cite>, published 1495-6. -The paper is of high quality, it shows a fine wire mark, and -a watermark of a double circle enclosing an eight-pointed star. -The paper was made at Hertford by John Tate, who was -afterwards Lord Mayor of London; the title page is cut in -wood, and the book is illustrated with outline wood-cuts.</p> - -<p>At the end are some verses, and among these occur the -lines:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="indentquotebase">“And John Tate the younger Joye mote he broke,</div> -<div class="indentbase">Which late hath in England doo make this paper thynne,</div> -<div class="indentbase">That now in our Englysch this boke is prynted Inne.”</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>It is paper to be proud of, and John Tate the younger -would unquestionably look upon the large majority of our -modern papers with the utmost scorn, and he would be -perfectly justified in doing so.</p> - -<p>The early method of making paper was to allow the pulp -to settle at the bottom of a trough like a sieve, with a wire -bottom, in which the wires were arranged in a certain way, -thick and thin, the trade mark of the maker also being outlined -in wire. The faint marks these wires cause in the paper are -called watermarks, and although at first they were makers’ -marks, they eventually denoted the size of the sheet of -paper on which they were shown.</p> - -<p>The present method of making paper from rags is to pulp -them thoroughly in water, and let the white particles -become so thoroughly diffused that the liquid in which -they float looks like thin milk.</p> - -<p>This thin mixture, however, if left quiet, very quickly -resolves itself into a sediment of white fibres with clear water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -above them. If now the superambient water can be drawn -off, and the sediment pressed flat, paper is the result. But it -is not so easily done as said. In order to catch the sediment -in the most satisfactory way, the milky fluid containing the -rag fibres is allowed to flow in a thin stream over a long, -shallow trough, which is kept moving onwards and is also -so arranged that it has a sideways tremble, backwards and -forwards as well. The effect of this is that when the further -end of the trough is reached, on its floor there is a thin -continuous film of slightly matted fibres, the water from -which has flowed away along the sides of the trough. Now -another device comes into play; a thin light roller of wire -presses lightly on the wet film, and by this pressure the -little fibres are pressed upon each other so that they mat, -interlace, and cohere together. The paper in this state is -of course very delicate, but by reason of a quick drying and -carrying off on light rollers it soon acquires the strength -necessary to enable it to hold together until it is quite dry. -Then it goes through several other stages, the most important -of which is pressing. The various processes can -obviously be modified easily enough so as to make a thin -paper or a thick one. Paper made in this way with a -vibratory trough is called “machine made,” and by reason -of its fibres laying more or less in a uniform direction the -resulting paper is more easily torn in one direction than in -the other. If a circular piece be cut out of such pulp and -laid on water it will tend to fold up two of its opposite sides.</p> - -<p>But ancient paper was made in a trough held by hands -and given a lateral movement, then pressed and dried in -some simple way. By such a procedure the fibres are -thoroughly mixed, and do not lie in one direction more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -in another, so that if a circular bit of such paper be laid in -water it will turn upwards at the edge evenly all round, and -look like a little saucer.</p> - -<p>I have mentioned a light wire roller which presses the -wet film more or less into shape just before it leaves the -long trough to be dried. As long ago as the thirteenth -century in Europe the fact that devices could be impressed -upon the undried film by thinning it and making it more -transparent where touched appears to have been known, and -from about that time onwards “watermarks” have fortunately -been applied in the same manner, namely, so as to -come in the middle of the first leaf of the pair forming a -folio. It is also fortunate that the “chains” or wires -forming the rollers have always been laid in the same way; -it is certainly the obvious one, but obvious ways are not -always adopted. The result is that by observing the direction -of the strong chain marks and the fine “laid” marks -between them much information concerning the folding of -the original sheets can be obtained.</p> - -<p>In very early papers these rules cannot be safely followed, -because early chain marks as well as early watermarks -were not produced in the same reliable way. The paper -being made in moulds with wire netting at the bottom, the -impression came below the paper instead of above it as in -the case of the roller, and also the sizes of the sheets were -more likely to differ.</p> - -<p>Watermarks are the semi-transparent devices which show -on certain pages of a printed book. They are to be seen on -most papers of the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries, -and there has been a good deal written about them, especially -abroad. The devices were outlined in wire and set in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -the bottom of the trough or on the wire roller I have just -described, so that the lines are impressed upon the pulp just -when it is in its most sensitive condition. The pressure -from the wire device thins the pulp wherever it is touched, -and so when dry the device shows lighter than the rest of -the paper.</p> - -<p>These marks should be called wire marks rather than -watermarks, and the French word for them, “Filigranes,” -is more correct than ours. The difference in tint between -a watermark and the rest of the paper is so distinct that a -photographic negative placed under one will render a capital -photograph of it, far better than any drawing, but it needs -a long exposure.</p> - -<p>Watermarks are already of considerable value to Bibliographers, -and it is likely that in the near future they will -be much more noticed, especially in English books. Many -frauds have already been detected by reason of the watermarks, -as it is a point that <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">faussaires</i> have so far paid little -attention to. The marks are, however, not to be relied on -after about 1750, as they do not run reliably in machine -made or wove papers.</p> - -<p>Armorial devices have been largely used as watermarks. -Many of the earlier marks show the arms of towns, especially -continental ones, and among others there are the arms -of France, Portugal, William and Mary and Queen Anne, -shown in full heraldic outlines.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_070a.jpg" width="150" height="404" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—English -“hand” watermark, -1512.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The Holbein family of Ravensburg bore a bull’s head as -their armorial badge, and they were paper makers, so the -bull’s head shows on their paper as a watermark. It was -afterwards much copied, and during the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries it became a favourite mark on German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -papers. There does not seem to have been any strict copyright -in any of the devices used as watermarks. They were -freely used by any one who cared to do -so, but the copies were never very carefully -made, they were always variants of -the original. They were moreover generally -accompanied by another mark, that -of the maker, on another part of the -paper. The same privilege of using a -“maker’s” mark was also allowed to the -silversmiths in addition to the official -hall mark.</p> - -<p>To some slight extent watermarks on -paper made for particular books have -followed the subjects of those books, and -in accordance with a loyal feeling there -are instances of a crown watermark being used on paper -prepared for special copies of books intended for presentation -to reigning sovereigns.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_070b.jpg" width="200" height="133" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—English “crown” -watermark, 1745.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>On papers used for early English printed books we find -the favourite German bull’s head, -bunches of grapes, unicorns, dogs, -hands with stars, and shears. These -appear in several sizes, and show -many varieties and modifications -of their original designs.</p> - -<p>In the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries a greater variety -occur; on English paper there is found the post horn -and the fool’s cap, sometimes showing as a cap only -and sometimes as a fool’s head with cap and bells. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -similar design was largely used abroad. In the time of -Charles I. a crown was a usual watermark on official folio -paper, but the Rump Parliament ordered that the foolscap -should be in future substituted for it, which was done. -“Double foolscap” is still used as a designation for a certain -size of printing paper, so also is “double-crown.”</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_071a.jpg" width="300" height="586" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—English “foolscap” -watermark, 1661.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_071b.jpg" width="300" height="505" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—English “Britannia” -watermark, 1907.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p>The foolscap itself shortly gave way to a figure of -Britannia or a lion rampant. The post horn was another -common watermark here; it gave its name to its paper -about 1670, when the mail carrier was accustomed to -announce his approach by a blast from his horn. The -name “Post” still designates a certain size of printing -paper. The smallest folio paper of the seventeenth century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -was marked with a watermark of a “pot,” and hence the -name.</p> - -<p>For specially printed books it is a pretty fancy to have a -coat-of-arms set as a watermark, and it is now and then -done, but I fear few readers notice it. Many papers are -now made without watermarks, and it is likely enough that, -except for trade terminology, they will gradually die out -altogether as being unnecessary.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/i_072a.jpg" width="250" height="328" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—English “post” -watermark, 1679.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/i_072b.jpg" width="250" height="457" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—English “pot” -watermark, 1640.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p>The possibilities of artistic watermarking have not yet -been fully realised. At the St. Louis Exhibition in 1904 -there was a German exhibit which showed the remarkable -effect which could be made by impressing paper pulp by -means of a photographic plate in relief.</p> - -<p>The papers which had been so treated were set up in a -frame with a light behind them, and they looked like most -delicate paintings in monotone. Those exhibited were -portraits of celebrities, and they were not only excellent -but possessed the quality of permanence in a remarkable -degree.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> - -<p>Printing papers are generally white, but sometimes they -have been used in colour, green, pink, blue or yellow. -Such papers are now and then found in Italian, German, -and English books, more rarely in French. Silk and satin -have both been used for printing on in England from the -seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Vellum has also -been largely used for special copies of fine printed books.</p> - -<p>A recent French book of prayers is entirely woven in -white and black silk. It looks like a beautifully printed -book with monotone borders.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/i_073.jpg" width="275" height="195" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—“Chain lines” -thick, and “laid lines” -thin, on paper.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>An original sheet of paper can -of course be made and cut to any -size, and the terms folio, quarto, -octavo, and duodecimo do not -indicate any actual size except -in bookbinders’ specifications. -The terms only indicate the -number of times the original -sheet has been folded, and this -obviously is a matter which is subject to as much variation -as the printers choose. But fortunately such foldings -do not vary much, and so we may safely mention those -that are most commonly used. There are several ways -of finding this out, the most obvious being to count the -leaves which follow any one letter in the white line at the -bottom of the leaf. This letter is called the “signature.” -If there is an A or A 1 at the bottom of the first leaf, and -when eight leaves have been turned over a B or B 1 appears, -then the book is an octavo, and so on. Another way of -determining the same thing is by means of the direction -taken by the chain or wire marks all over the paper, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -yet another is to be found by studying the position of the -watermark. But neither of these tests are conclusive, and -often enough there are neither chain -marks nor watermarks to be found at -all, and the sheets are not always -rightly or carefully cut, which brings -the watermark all wrong, so the -following notes are only what may be -expected in normal books.</p> - -<p>If a piece of paper or page of a book -printed before 1750, and possibly in -later work, be held up to the light, -certain lines may be seen all over it -in a lighter tint than the rest of the -page. These appear as long thick lines crossed at right -angles by short thin ones. The long thicker lines are -known as “chain” lines, and the shorter ones “laid” -lines, and they are of some value when they exist for -helping to determine the “size” of the -book.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_074a.jpg" width="200" height="335" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Fol.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>—Fol. If the original sheet is folded -once it is called a folio, and in this case -the chain marks are perpendicular and -the watermark is in the middle of the -first leaf. In a folio there is one fold, -two leaves or four pages, and nothing to -cut. Most of Caxton’s books are folios -although they are quite small.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_074b.jpg" width="150" height="227" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—4<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>—4<sup>o</sup> in size. If the once folded sheet be folded again -across the other way we get a gathering with four leaves, -or eight pages, called a quarto. The chain lines are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> -horizontal, and the watermark in the middle of the back of -pp. 4 and 5; there are two foldings and two tops of leaves -to be cut.</p> - -<p>—8<sup>o</sup>. If the quarto be again folded we get a gathering -of eight leaves, or 16 pp., called an octavo, which is the -commonest size for English books. In an octavo there are -three foldings, the chain lines are perpendicular, the -watermark is quartered at the tops of pp. 3, 4, 11 and -12, and there are two tops and two fronts to be cut.</p> - -<p>The further foldings of 16<sup>o</sup>, 32<sup>o</sup>, and 64<sup>o</sup> are the same -operations carried further, but although such sizes do -exist they are so uncommon that a further description of -them is not necessary.</p> - -<p>—12<sup>o</sup>. In the case of a duodecimo a different initial -folding is followed. The original sheet instead of being -folded once across the middle, as in the case of a folio, is -now folded into three equal divisions. The parallelogram -thus formed is folded across its shorter diameter, and this -again along its longer diameter. There is now a gathering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -of twelve leaves, or 24 pp., with four foldings, the chain -marks perpendicular, the watermark halved at the tops of -pp. 3 and 9, and there are two tops and four fronts to -be cut. It is the commonest size of the smaller French -books.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_075a.jpg" width="200" height="301" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_075b.jpg" width="200" height="372" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—12<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p>As to sizes, folios run from the great Atlas of Charles II., -measuring five feet nine inches and a half by three feet two -inches and a half, and requiring eight skins of morocco for its -binding, to the tiny <cite>Galileo a Madame Cristina de Lorena</cite>, 1615, -“imprimé en 1897,” measuring one half by one quarter of -an inch. A folio cannot be recognised by its shape.</p> - -<p>The sizes of quartos and octavos are also very varied, -but, roughly speaking, they can be recognised by their -shapes, especially in the case of modern books. A quarto -is generally squarish in outline, nearly as broad as it is -long; an octavo is an elongated rectangle, its breadth considerably -less than its length. A duodecimo is always -much longer than its breadth.</p> - -<p>As curiosities, books have been made in many forms, -circular, heart-shaped, octagonal, flower or animal forms, -but they are of small importance, and have been chiefly -made as Christmas cards, valentines, and such ephemeral -publications.</p> - -<p>The rules as to quiring of books printed on paper do not -apply to books printed on vellum. Such books are always -folios, and they are generally quired in gatherings of ten -leaves, following the fashion used in the ancient manuscripts, -but, of course, they can equally well be gathered -together in any even number that may be preferred. There -is no rule.</p> - -<p>In Europe, until the nineteenth century, paper was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -always made from triturated rags, but the demand for -cheap literature which has become so urgent in recent -years has compelled paper manufacturers to find some -commoner material from which to make their paper.</p> - -<p>It is possible that the way out of the difficulty was -suggested by an analysis of Japanese paper. This has -been known here for some time. It is strong, soft, and -valuable for many reasons, and is cheaply made of fibres -from plants of the mulberry tree species. Japanese paper -is hand made and has a certain amount of dressing, its -surface is dull, but takes impressions from engraved plates -or type easily. It appears to last fairly well, but would -probably not stand much wear at the joints.</p> - -<p>The idea of using pulped vegetable matter for paper was, -however, not new, even to the Japanese, as there was such -a thing as paper made from papyrus, but it does not seem -to have been much employed, because it was not necessary -in view of the fact that the papyrus did quite well by itself -without any further manipulation.</p> - -<p>For reliable papers, the Committee on the Deterioration -of Paper appointed by the Society of Arts in 1898 give in -their report a statement that 70 per cent. should consist of -fibres of cotton, flax, or hemp, but about the middle of the -nineteenth century it was found that passable paper could -be very cheaply made from straw and from esparto grass, -and this paved the way for the disastrous use of mechanical -wood pulp for cheap newspapers and books.</p> - -<p>Many sorts of wood pulps are now made for this purpose, -and there is no doubt that the industry of breaking up -wood for the purpose of paper making is a large and -increasing one. In Norway there are several large establishments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> -already working at this output. The fibres of -spruce, pine, birch, poplar, jute, and manilla are all -extensively used. The wood is cut up into small pieces and -triturated until it is in a state of fine dissemination, a mass -of small fibres, in which condition it is mixed in certain -proportions with the other materials of which the paper is -to be composed. In spite of the warnings of the Society of -Arts Committee, there is no doubt that the use of -“mechanical” wood pulp for paper is increasing, and this -regardless of the fact that there is no lasting quality in -such material, for the fibres of the wood are invariably -brittle, and they also darken rapidly under the influence of -light.</p> - -<p>The dressing of such papers with resin or gelatine effects -a certain improvement; gelatine particularly adds to the -life of a paper and increases the elasticity of the wood -fibres, but this good effect tends to die out in time. Resin -is of less use.</p> - -<p>One particularly troublesome result of having to deal -with wood pulp papers is that it will not hold the threads -used in ordinary binding; the thread cuts right through the -paper because of the shortness or brittleness of the fibres, -and if a book printed on such paper has to be bound, the -only safe way to do it is to frame each page in a border of -sound rag paper, and then have it sewn as usual. Wood -paper will not stand bending, but breaks off short if there -is anything like a joint or fold in it, and the framing or -mounting prevents this. The process of mounting every -leaf of a book is, however, a very expensive one; a couple -of pounds may well be spent on a comparatively small -book for this operation alone, so that the prospect before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -owners of libraries who wish to keep their books in good -order is not brilliant. No amount of dressing can make -such paper really strong, as it is the fibres themselves that -are in fault.</p> - -<p>But there is another form in which the use of wood is -not so harmful, and in this case the fibres are no longer -there to be found fault with. “Chemical” wood pulp is a -form of cellulose, and it is likely that it is destined to play -an important part in the paper of the future, in conjunction -with fibres of various sorts.</p> - -<p>Chemical wood pulp is prepared from the wood fibres by -“digesting” with caustic soda or bisulphide of lime, as -reducing agents. The process is one of much interest, and -moreover a good deal of wood has to be used to make a -comparatively small amount of wood cellulose. Esparto -and straw celluloses are not so good as wood cellulose.</p> - -<p>The invention of the “half-tone” process, by which a -dotted block can be produced from a toned drawing, print, -or photograph, can be made, is responsible for much -dangerous procedure with regard to the paper upon which -the prints from the dotted blocks are to be made.</p> - -<p>In itself the invention of the half-tone process is a -wonderful and beautiful one, but it has done more to ruin -the already decadent modern paper than anything else, because -it has made the dressing of the paper of greater -importance than the paper itself.</p> - -<p>Incidentally, the half-tone block has given the death-blow -to the old and beautiful art of wood engraving, which -is now only found in quite exceptional instances. But the -half-tone block has, nevertheless, provided some small -solace for the dispossessed wood engravers, because the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -soft metal blocks go wrong in light places and themselves -need careful revision with a graver. This touching-up is -so general, and so much technical skill is required for its -proper execution, that it has already become a recognised -profession, and the engraver’s name is often enough recognised -in the lettering of the prints made from such blocks, -especially in American publications.</p> - -<p>The dots of half-tone blocks were at first of an easily -visible size, but as the method of production became better -understood it was found that they could be made so small -that they were no longer visible as separate dots to the -unaided vision, but that the effect produced was really that -of a tone-wash.</p> - -<p>But the very finely grained blocks were difficult to print -from, the ink stuck too readily between the dots, where it -was not wanted, and the surface of the paper was not even -enough to give a clear impression, even if it was calendered -and super-calendered. So something had to be done to -give the paper a more level surface, and the needed -material was found in china clay mixed more or less with -barytes. It is laid down in the <cite>Society of Arts Report</cite> that -the amount of this dressing should in no case exceed 10 -per cent. in any paper, but modern “art” papers have -for a long time much exceeded this fair proportion.</p> - -<p>From the beginning some kind of dressing has always -been found necessary in the manufacture of paper, but -nothing so dangerous as china clay has ever been used. -The net result is that almost all modern editions-de-luxe, -and fine illustrated books generally, either having half-tone -plates or colour plates done by the three colour process, -consist of little else but thin sheets of china clay supported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -by the smallest possible skeleton of wood or other cheap -fibres.</p> - -<p>It must be at once granted that the impressions from -delicate half-tone blocks made on clay paper are admirable, -and it is also true that the printing ink makes the clay -insoluble in water wherever it touches it. But the clay has -a certain affinity for damp, and books printed on clay -paper very readily show damp stains, and if left for any -time in a really damp place they are liable to become solid -bricks of white mud, quite impossible to repair.</p> - -<p>If very dry the non-cohesive clay will turn to a white -powder. Moreover, this clay-laden paper will not hold -binding threads, so again it has to be preserved. A book -printed on such material has to be treated in the same -way as I have described in the case of wood pulp paper.</p> - -<p>There is, however, a plan of preserving prints on clay, -and this is to fasten down the printed portion on a piece of -sound paper from the beginning. This is already done to -some extent, and it should be universal in the case of -isolated plates, but when a book is all printed on clay paper, -as many fine and valuable books unfortunately are, it is -difficult to say what is best to be done. The only real -remedy seems to be a refusal on the part of purchasers to -buy such books. But purchasers do not always know when -they are buying clay instead of paper. It is, however, not -difficult to tell, as the clay-laden paper feels very smooth -and soft to the touch of a dry finger. This peculiarity can -be easily detected in one or other of the American magazines, -Harper’s or Scribner’s, and the difference between -the feel of a page holding an impression from a fine half-tone -block, and that having only text, will at once be evident.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p> - -<p>If a mark may be made on a suspected sheet, a drop -of water should be put upon one corner, left a second or -two, and then dried off with blotting-paper. Now a light -scrape with a knife over the damped place will remove a -layer of white clay if it is there.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that the large majority of our modern -books will not be in readable condition in about a hundred -years’ time from the date of their publishing.</p> - - -<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p> - - -<p class="workssubtitle"><span class="smcap">Paper.</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arts, Society of.</span>—Report on the Deterioration of Paper. <em>London</em>, -1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blades, W.</span>—(<cite>Athenæum</cite>, March 30th, 1889, p. 409. Paper on -Watermarks).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blanchet, A.</span>—Essai sur l’histoire des Papier. <em>Paris</em>, 1890.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Breitkopf.</span>—Versuch die Einfuhrung des Leinenpapieres. <em>Leipzig</em>, -1784-1801.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Briquet, C. M.</span>—La Legende Paléographique du Papier de Coton. -<em>Genève</em>, 1884.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Briquet, C. M.</span>—Recherches sur les Papiers du x<sup>e</sup> au XIV<sup>e</sup> siècles. -<em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Campredon, E.</span>—Le Papier. <em>Paris</em>, 1901.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charpentier, P.</span>—Le Papier. 1890. (Frémy, E.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dunbar, J.</span>—Notes on the Manufacture of Wood Pulp Papers. -<em>Leith</em>, 1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Erfurt, J.</span>—The Dyeing of Paper Pulp. <em>London</em>, 1901.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Evans, L.</span>—Ancient Paper Making. <em>London</em>, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Girard, A.</span>—Le Papier. <em>Lille</em>, 1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Goodchild, G. F.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Tweney, C. F.</span>—A Technological and -Scientific Dictionary. <em>London.</em></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Griffin, R. B.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Little, A. D.</span>—The Chemistry of Paper -Making. <em>New York</em>, 1894.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Herring, R.</span>—Paper and Paper Making. <em>London</em>, 1855.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hoernle, A. F. R.</span>—Who was the inventor of Rag Paper? (<cite>Royal -Asiatic Society Journal</cite>, October, 1903).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hoyer, E.</span>—Die fabrikation des Papiers, 1886. (Bolley, P. A.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karabacek, J.</span>—Mittheilungen aus der Sammlung der Papyrus -Erz. Rainer. Bd. II., III., 1887.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kay, J.</span>—Paper. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Klemm, P.</span>—Handbuch der Papierkunde. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1904.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lloyd, E.</span>—Account of a sort of Paper made of Linum Asbestinum -found in Wales. (Phil. Trans., Abr. III., p. 105, 1684).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mierzinski, S.</span>—Handbuch der Praktischen Papier Fabrikation. -<em>Wien</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Payen, A.</span>—La fabrication du Papier. <em>Paris</em>, 1873.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Piot, G. J. C.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Pinchart, A.</span>—Specimens des Papiers recueillis -dans les diverses coll. de documents qui composent les archives -générales du Royaume de Belgique. <em>Bruxelles</em>, 1872.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sartori, L.</span>—L’Industria della Carta. <em>Milano</em>, 1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Schaefer, J. C.</span>—Attempts towards making Paper from Plants and -Wood. (German.) <em>Regensburg</em>, 1765.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stonhill, W. J.</span>—Paper Pulp from Wood and other fibres. 1885. -(Rattray, J.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Valenta, E.</span>—Das Papier. <em>Halle</em>, 1904.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Watt, A.</span>—The Art of Paper Making. <em>London</em>, 1890.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wiesner, J.</span>—Mikroskopische untersuchung alter ostturkestanischer -und anderer asiatischer Papiere. <em>Wien</em>, 1902.</p> - - -<p class="workssubtitle"><span class="smcap">Watermarks.</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Briquet, C. M.</span>—De la valeur des Filigranes du Papier comme -Moyen de determiner l’age de documents. <em>Genève</em>, 1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Briquet, C. M.</span>—Papiers et Filigranes des archives de Gêves 1154 -à 1700. <em>Genève</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Briquet, C. M.</span>—Les Filigranes. Dict. Hist. des Marques du -Papier. 4 vols. <em>Paris</em>, 1907.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Castan, A.</span>—Catalogue des Incunables. <em>Besançon</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Del Marmol, F.</span>—Dictionnaire des Filigranes. <em>Paris</em>, 1900.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Denne, S.</span>—Observations on Paper Marks, 1796. (<cite>Archæologia</cite>, -XII., p. 114).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heitz, P.</span>—Les Filigranes avec la crosse de Bâle. <em>Strasbourg</em>, -1904.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heitz, P.</span>—Les Filigranes des Papiers contenus dans les archives -de la ville de Strasbourg. <em>Strasbourg</em>, 1902-04.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heitz, P.</span>—Les Filigranes des Papiers de la Bibliothèque de -Strasbourg. <em>Strasbourg</em>, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lemon, R.</span>—Collection of Water Marks. 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Midoux, E.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Matton, A.</span>—Etudes sur les Filigranes des -Papiers employés en France au XIV<sup>e</sup> et XV<sup>e</sup> siécles. <em>Paris</em>, 1868.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Piot, G. J. C.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Pinchart, A.</span>—Specimens des Papiers recueillis -dans les diverses coll. des documents qui composent les archives -générales du Royaume de Belgique. <em>Bruxelles</em>, 1872.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Serma Santander, C. A.</span> de.—Supplément au Catalogue des -livres de la Bibliothèque de M. C. de Serma Santander. <em>Bruxelles</em>, -1803.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sotheby, S. L.</span>—Principia Typographica (with examples of foreign -watermarks). <em>London</em>, 1858.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sotheby, S. L.</span>—Typography of the fifteenth century (with examples -of watermarks). <em>London</em>, 1845.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="titlefont">PRINTING.</span></h2> - - -<p class="chapblock">Assyrian bricks, with printed inscriptions—Oiron ware—Chinese -types—Block books—Costeriana—Types and stereotypes—Printing -presses.</p> - -<p>There are numbers of instances of impressions from -small devices, cyphers and letterings cut on blocks of wood -or soft metal and made on pieces of pottery. These stamps -are the forerunners of the types with which our modern -books are printed. Among these impressions those which are -made on the tablets or -cylinders of baked clay, -many of which have -been found among the -ruins of Babylon and -Nineveh, are by far the -earliest. They are covered -with inscriptions printed -in cuneiform characters, -and contain records of sales of slaves, loans of money, sales -of land and the like, and on the larger bricks and cylinders -are longer inscriptions of greater interest, among them -stories of the Flood. Many of these records are contained -within an outer shell of the same shape, in which is either -a short title with seal or even a duplicate inscription. These -outer cases are the earliest examples of anything in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -shape of a cover or binding over written or printed matter. -Some of the cuneiform bricks are said to date from the -third thousand years <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and many of the later examples -belonged to the libraries of Sennacherib and Ashurhani-Pal, -Kings of Assyria.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_085.jpg" width="300" height="133" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—Assyrian tablet of clay, -impressed with cuneiform inscription. -With outer case.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Similar bricks, impressed with inscriptions, have been -found in North America. The letters on these bricks, -tablets, or cylinders were printed letter by letter by hand -upon the clay when it was wet and soft, without ink, then -the brick was dried either in an oven or in the sun, so -that this earliest method of printing is diametrically opposite -to the modern process, in which case the letters are -inked and kept rigid, while the paper or other substance on -which the impression is to come is lightly pressed upon -them.</p> - -<p>In the eleventh century the Chinese made types of clay -or porcelain, and set them up in a frame and printed from -them, and afterwards they cut the original types in wood -and made impressions, or stereotypes from them in porcelain, -and when this had been baked they cast leaden -types from it. Chinese and Japanese letters are always -most decorative, whether in the cursive or square seal -characters.</p> - -<p>Babylonian and Assyrian tablets, cylinders, and cones of -baked clay impressed with cuneiform inscriptions have -proved themselves to be the most permanent and reliable -form of record that has yet been invented by mankind. -The hammer alone seems to be able to destroy them.</p> - -<p>The most precious faience in the world is that variously -known as “Oiron,” “Henri Deux,” “Diane de Poictiers,” -or “Faience de Saint Porchaire.” There are fewer than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -seventy pieces of this ware known, and each example is a -masterpiece, no two being alike.</p> - -<p>It is said to consist mainly of clay found at Saint Porchaire, -a village in Poiton, and not far from Oiron, and at -one of these places it was probably made.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_087.jpg" width="600" height="205" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—Italian book stamps impressed upon the faience de -St. Porchaire.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The pieces are often ornamented with armorials and -devices of Francis I., Henri II., and Diane de Poictiers, -as well as those of members of the French nobility of about -the middle of the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p>There are jugs, covered cups, biberons, dishes, salts, -flower vases, and candlesticks, all curiously put together in -sections, and ornamented with impressions from binders’ -stamps run in with differently coloured clays.</p> - -<p>This use of binders’ stamps is unique, and has been made -with the utmost skill and taste. Sometimes casts have -been made from the stamps so that the impression shows -in reversed colours. The ornamentation is like a book-finisher’s -work, and several of the same stamps and rolls -show on contemporary Italian bookbindings. At that time -there was a strong Italian influence both in French as well -as in English decorative bookbindings.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p> - -<p>It has already been supposed that the ware may have -been sent as a present to Henri II. from the family of -Catherine de Medici, and M. H. Delange even goes so far as -to credit Girolamo della Robbia with the work. He, as well -as many other Florentine craftsmen, worked in France for -Francis I.</p> - -<p>It is not now likely that any definite knowledge as to the -maker of the Saint Porchaire Faience will ever be obtained, -but it will always be a notable example of the high decorative -importance of binders’ stamps, which are designed -upon certain principles, especially with regard to their -combination in groups or lines of groups.</p> - -<p>Attempts to imitate this ware have often been made, but -so far they have failed; the original seems to possess -qualities and peculiarities that are impossible to imitate -closely. Art forgeries are now so common and so excellent -that there are really very few things that cannot be copied -so exactly that it is difficult to distinguish between the -original and the copy, but the Saint Porchaire ware is so -far one of the very few things that completely baffle the -cleverest artist, and this is largely due to the curious use of -the binders’ stamps.</p> - -<p>Engraved wooden blocks were used in China, Corea, and -Japan as early as the sixth century, and quite likely long -before. These blocks were cut in the same manner as the -European block books, except that type and illustrations -were not shown on the same block. In Thibet similar -blocks were cut and charms were printed from them.</p> - -<p>The use of separately engraved types which could be -arranged as desired seems to have been known in these -countries at about the same time, but it was not so suitable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -to their then requirements, and so it made no headway. -They soon reverted to the simple block engraving as better. -No doubt the reason of this was that the number of -separate letters that might be required was so great that it -was practically prohibitive. The letters both in China and -Japan are still mainly in the syllabic stage, and so there -are a great number of them. The alphabetical stage is, -however, gradually being reached, especially in Japan.</p> - -<p>It is very likely that the European idea of cutting block -books was borrowed from China, and here from the later -half of the fifteenth century until the earlier half of the -sixteenth century such books were produced plentifully in -Germany, Holland, and England, and more rarely in -France.</p> - -<p>Single-sheet pictures were made at first, the earliest dated -example known being the “St. Christopher” of 1423, now -in the Rylands Library in Manchester. From being cut on -wood these curious prints are generally known as xylographs. -Criticism and comparison of them is a very -difficult matter, as they were designed and cut on such -broad and easy lines that they were easily copied almost -exactly, but now all the important and very early specimens -are so well known and have been so carefully listed and -described by competent bibliographers like Mr. Gordon -Duff, Sir Martin Conway, Hain, Ottley, Bradshaw, Hessels, -Proctor, and others, that there is little risk of fraudulent -imitation remaining long unrecognised.</p> - -<p>The block book proper however, shows text as well as -illustrations, the text gradually becoming more and -more important. Block books are printed in pale coloured -ink, so that they may take colour as well as possible, and are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -usually coloured more or less, sometimes by hand and sometimes -by means of stencil plates, or perhaps a combination -of both methods. Many of them are astronomical, but as a -rule the subjects are more or less religious, such as the “Ars -Moriendi” or “Biblia Pauperum”; the illustrations and -the text being variously arranged. Each page is cut on -one block, sometimes printed page by page, sometimes two -pages at a time, and always on one side of the paper only.</p> - -<p>Now and then, as in the case of the “Speculum <a id="Ref_90"></a>Humanae -Salvationis,” the text is separately cut; this remarkable -book is supposed to have been printed at Utrecht about -1470-72. Block books are always printed on paper of -excellent quality.</p> - -<p>Printing from moveable types in Europe is considered by -many authorities to have been invented by Laurens Janszoon -Coster, of Haarlem, during the earlier half of the fifteenth -century. Actual proofs are wanting, but there exist several -books and fragments of books, many of which have been -recovered from the boards of old bindings, which certainly -are not the work of Gutenberg. These fragments were -printed in Holland, and are known as “Costeriana”; -several of the letters used correspond to the Dutch manuscript -letters of the time, and many of them are copies of the school -books known as “Donatus’.” Some of the letters look much -as if they had been cut in wood. At Avignon it is recorded -that in 1444 experiments with printing types were made.</p> - -<p>The Coster legend appears to have been started by -Adrianus Junius, who in his <cite>Batavia</cite>, published at Antwerp -in 1588, speaking of Haarlem, says: “Redeo ad -urbem nostram cui primam inventae ist hic artis typographical -gloriam deberi.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> - -<p>There is no doubt that the Costeriana have a family -likeness between them, and the types used in them have -been carefully compared by Mr. Hessels with those found -in the edition of Ælius Donatus’ grammars, and in the -<cite>Doctrinale</cite> of Alex. de Villa Dei, and in his opinion they -have the same origin.</p> - -<p>Whether the rival claims of Avignon, Haarlem, or Mainz, -for the honour of having been the first town in which -printing from moveable types was done in Europe will ever -be finally settled, is questionable. But there is no doubt -that Johann Gutenberg was the first printer in Europe who -made printing with moveable type of real usefulness. In -1472, Fichet wrote that Gutenberg, who worked in Mayence, -was the first inventor of the art of printing by means of -moveable types. Curiously enough the work credited to him -shows no amateur feeling whatever. Both the Indulgences -of 1454, which may be his, and the Mazarin Bible of about -1455, which certainly is, are as finely and perfectly printed -as any books ever have been since.</p> - -<p>It must be noted here that certain authorities still maintain -that this Bible was printed by Fust and Schöffer, but the -weight of expert opinion is nevertheless strongly in favour -of Gutenberg.</p> - -<p>But however this may be, in the case of the beautiful Mainz -Psalter, we are on absolutely safe ground. In this book -appears the date 1457, and also the names of the printers -Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer. It is in every way a -magnificent specimen of typography, and the letters are -very large. It is also a fine example of colour printing, as -the initial letters are cut in wood and printed in red and -blue. Peter Schöffer was originally an illuminator of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -manuscripts, and no doubt we owe the splendid initials of -the Mainz Psalter to his liking for colour.</p> - -<p>The first printed date in a Dutch book is 1473, when -books were printed both at Utrecht and Alost.</p> - -<p>The moment separate letters were cut in wood for the -purpose of printing, it must have been obvious to any workman -interested in the matter that it would be far better to -use them as models only, and that for actual use casts in -soft metal would be more economical. In J. E. Hodgkin’s -“<cite>Rariora</cite>” there is an excellent detailed account of the -manner in which types are cast.</p> - -<p>At first the method of casting type was probably much -the same as it is now, except that it was done slowly by -hand instead of quickly by machines. The matrix was set -at the bottom of a short funnel in a little hand press. This -press was held in the left hand, funnel upwards, then a -little melted metal was run in from a ladle held in the right -hand. The metal set almost immediately, and the little -letter was jerked out, to be trimmed by hand. What the -earliest metal used for types was cannot now be known for -certain, but it was probably much the same as is now used, -lead with tin and antimony, and perhaps a little copper—a -composition which expands in cooling. By this hand process -a good workman could produce two or three thousand -letters in a day.</p> - -<p>Now things are managed differently, and there are several -automatic machines which not only save the handwork of a -type caster, but do the work equally well and at a much -greater speed.</p> - -<p>For the casting of separate letters the Wick Rotary type -casting machine is perhaps one of the most ingenious. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -consists of a horizontal wheel with radiating channels in -which the matrices of the various letters are set. The -wheel revolves, and as the opening of each little channel -reaches a certain point a jet of type metal is driven into it -and forms a letter. A little more revolution and the letter -is automatically ejected and caught on an endless chain. -This machine is capable of producing 50,000 letters in an -hour.</p> - -<p>The monotype is, however, even a cleverer invention -because it only casts the particular letter that is wanted. -An operator translates the manuscript, by means of a key-board, -into a series of holes on a strip of paper. This strip -then moves on to the monotype machine, which not only -casts the letter indicated by each hole, but puts it in its -proper place, and jerks it forward until one line is complete. -On the completion of a line the machine has a -spasm, and the line is driven bodily upwards, leaving a -space for the next line. This is probably the printing -machine of the future, as it only requires the one operator, -who translates the manuscript into dots.</p> - -<p>The methods used in the Linotype and the Monoline are -somewhat similar, and effected by the use of a key-board, -but instead of casting each letter, like the monotype, they -cast complete lines, which are more troublesome to correct -if any mistake creeps in.</p> - -<p>When the printing press was first used is not known, -but the printing of the block books would no doubt have -suggested some sort of board press long before types were -used in Europe. A block book might be printed by hand only, -but it would be a troublesome and laborious process, and -the use of a flat padded board to put over the whole block<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -and press upon it seems obvious enough, and the screw -press evolved itself out of some such expedient. The -familiar napkin press with a large wooden screw and cross -handle is the type of the earliest printing presses of which -we possess any record, the screw presently giving way -before the more effective lever -handles, and it should not be -forgotten that excellent results -can be obtained from these old -presses acting with a direct -downward pressure. They are, -however, very slow in action, -and that is not consistent with -modern requirements.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_094.jpg" width="300" height="514" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—Printing press -of about 1600. From -Stradanus.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The Dutch were the pioneers -in improvements in these -presses, and W. J. Blaew, of -Amsterdam, a clever engraver, -printer, and mechanician of -the seventeenth century, made -several improvements in many -of the details, especially as -regards the box, table, or forme, -in which the type was set. But -until Charles, third Earl Stanhope, invented the iron -printing press with levers, in 1800, they were always made -of wood, with screw handles.</p> - -<p>Lord Stanhope was a most remarkable man. He was not -only an ardent politician but also a notable man of science -and an inventor. Among other things we owe to him the -Stanhope lens; a system of logotypes, which was not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -received by the printing trade with much sympathy, -because it lessened the need for hand labour, improvements -in stereotyping, and above all the Stanhope press, which -would have made a fortune for its inventor if he had wanted -it. Lord Stanhope, however, gave his press to the Clarendon -Press at Oxford, in exchange for a pension to his assistant. -This press with its levers was for a long time the model for -all printing presses used in this country.</p> - -<p>But before the Stanhope press was invented, W. Nicholson, -of London, had patented, in 1790, a device which was -destined to supersede Lord Stanhope’s lever press and all -others like it. This was the use of a revolving iron cylinder -driven by steam to carry the paper over the inked surface of -the type. Nicholson’s invention fell flat so long as it -remained in his hands, but in about 1807 it was taken up -by Koenig, of London, improved, and put upon the market, -and it attracted the attention of Mr. Walter, of <cite>The Times</cite>.</p> - -<p>In the issue of this paper on the 20th of November, 1814, -readers were informed that it was printed by steam -machinery driving the cylinders holding the paper. By -cylinder presses upwards of 9,600 impressions can be made -in an hour. Minor improvements since that time have been -legion, and it may safely be said that no more wonderful -sight is to be seen in the whole of London than the printing -of one of our great daily papers.</p> - -<p>Newspapers are usually printed from stereotypes fixed on -cylinders; but books are always printed from <em>flat</em> formes, -the paper being applied by cylinders. Paper can now be -printed on both sides simultaneously. In Rotary machines -both the printing as well as the receiving surfaces are -arranged on cylinders.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> - -<p>The locking up of type in the case of long books was -soon found to be a great inconvenience, and the idea of -making a cast of such type in the form of a block, so as to -set the original type free, was an obvious one. It was not, -however, put into practical form until the early part of the -nineteenth century, when someone unknown made casts from -book types in plaster of Paris. Lord Stanhope made several -improvements in this, and it is possible that the use of -softened paper pulp—flong—for this purpose was his invention. -Whether this is true or not, paper was certainly -used for stereotyping in France about 1850, and it has -been universally used in this important connection ever -since.</p> - -<p>The paper pulp is hammered on to the type by means of -a hard brush, in exactly the same way that antiquaries -make impressions from incised rock sculptures. The -antiquaries, however, make their casts from the paper -moulds in plaster of Paris, but the printer makes his in -soft metal.</p> - -<p>When the paper mould is properly dry and hard the -melted metal is poured over it, and makes a perfect cast. -Such casts can either be used flat for book printing, or -curved to fix on cylinders for newspaper printing. The -metal used is practically the same as type metal. It sets -very quickly, and the heat necessary to melt it is so low, -that several casts can be made from one paper mould.</p> - -<p>Another way of making a harder printing plate is by -means of a galvanic battery. In this case the mould from -the type is made in wax, either impregnated or carefully -dusted with black lead, and these moulds, when correct, are -put into a galvanic bath, where a strong metallic deposit is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -laid all over them, the deposit being afterwards backed up -with alloy.</p> - -<p>Good types have always been difficult to design. The -types used in block books, and in early printed books generally, -were simply copies of the handwriting of the periods -to which they belonged. Even in later and in modern -times certain founts have been designed on the lines of -cheirographic writing, for example, the “caractères de -civilité,” much liked by French printers, imitated the -graceful calligraphy of the eighteenth century.</p> - -<p>But a certain differentiation in the direction of squareness -soon became apparent, as we have already noticed -in the case of rock inscriptions; it was found easier to -cut squarely-shaped letters than rounded or cursive -forms.</p> - -<p>So letters cut for the purpose of being printed tended -gradually to differentiate themselves from their written -analogues, and a new kind of designing came into existence. -It was, however, always necessary to preserve as -much of the original form of the letters as possible, otherwise -they might fail to be recognised.</p> - -<p>Printers have always liked to show their types, and from -the catalogue printed by Schöffer about 1469 to Caslon’s -eighteenth century specimens, there have been numbers of -them made and issued. A short study of these specimens -will show, firstly, how very much they are copied one from -another, and secondly, that no designer of genius seems -ever to have appeared. All that can be said is that some -are uglier than others. It has not been for want of trying, -as Geoffrey Tory shows in his <cite>Champfleury</cite>, but, except -as to Greek types, in which Robert Procter has, by his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -counsel, met with much success, there is no doubt that -good types for printing are rare.</p> - -<p>In the eighteenth century P. E. Fournier caused much -improvement in French types, both by his example and his -writings. He was the son of a typefounder, and began as -a wood engraver, but eventually followed in his father’s -footsteps and became a typefounder himself. Fournier -published a table of types in 1737, with suggestions for -designing them, but his most important work is the <cite>Manuel -typographique</cite>, which is an important work on the subject, -and had widespread influence.</p> - -<p>In the matter of facsimiles of early printed books, it may -be well here to say a word or two of warning. Photography -has revolutionised many things, it has destroyed some of -the minor arts, but in book production it has had far-reaching -effect, much of which is good.</p> - -<p>It has also opened up several new industries, and now -photo-lithographs, collotypes, half-tone blocks, and prints -from line blocks made by the swelled gelatine or other -processes, can be so wonderfully like the original, that a -page of old printing made by one or other of these methods -will often deceive an ordinary purchaser. There are many -such facsimiles in the market, and the best advice I can give -as to them is that very great attention should be given to -the <em>paper</em> on which they are done, as this will often give -the secret away. The texture and appearance of old paper -is worthy of careful study, because nearly all the photo-mechanical -processes need a paper which is radically -different to the thick good rag-made papers which were -used before cheap modern papers were thought of.</p> - -<p>Type founding in England was first carried on in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -sixteenth century, when John Day made some Anglo-Saxon -types for Archbishop Parker.</p> - -<p>Moxon, who wrote the “Mechanics of Printing” in 1693, -issued the first English specimen sheet of types in 1669, -and in 1776 William Caslon, “Letter-founder of London,” -issued a specimen of his printing types.</p> - -<div id="Ref_98fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"> -<img src="images/i_098fp.jpg" width="370" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p>Page from William Caslon’s “Specimen of Printing -Types.” (<em>London</em>, 1766.) [<em>To face p.</em> 98.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>John Baskerville, who lived and worked about the same -period, was also a very eminent typefounder, but Baskerville’s -types were too thin in the up-strokes to be considered -equal to Caslon’s. Since that time such sheets of types -have become common.</p> - -<p>Late in the nineteenth century William Morris revived -several of the old English block-letter types, and called -them by the old names, “Chaucer,” “Golden,” “Troy.”</p> - - -<p class="workstitle">WORKS TO CONSULT.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">American Art Review</span>, I.—1880, pp. 75-80. <em>Boston.</em></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Berlan, F.</span>—La invenzione della stampa a tipo mobile fuso -rivendicata all’Italia. <em>Firenze</em>, 1882.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blades, W.</span>—Who was the inventor of Printing? <em>London</em>, -1887.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>—Le Livre. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>—L’Œuvre de Gutenberg. <em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Breitkopf, J. G. L.</span>—Versuch die einfuhrung des Leinenpapieres, -&c. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1784-1801.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bucher, B.</span>—Die Faiencen von Oiron. <em>Wien</em>, 1879.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Degeorge, L.</span>—L’Imprimerie en Europe aux XV<sup>e</sup> et XVI<sup>e</sup> siécles. -<em>Paris</em>, 1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Delange, H. & C.</span>—Recueil de ... la Faience dite de Henri II. -<em>Paris</em>, 1861.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Delon, C.</span>—Gutenberg et l’invention de l’Imprimerie. <em>Paris</em>, -1881.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dupont, P.</span>—Histoire de l’Imprimerie. <em>Paris</em>, 1883.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Encyclopædia Britannica.</span>—Typography and Printing. By -<span class="smcap">John Southward</span>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Entschede, C.</span>—L. J. Coster de uitvinder van de boekdrukkunst. -<em>Haarlem</em>, 1904.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Faulmann, C.</span>—Illustrirte geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst. -<em>Wien</em>, 1881.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fillon, B.</span>—Les Faïences d’Oiron. <em>Paris</em>, 1862.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fournier, P. S.</span>—Manuel typographique. <em>Paris</em>, 1764-66.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Goebel, T.</span>—Fr. Koenig und die Erfindung der Schnellpresse. -<em>Stutt.</em>, 1883.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hessels, J. H.</span>—Gutenberg. <em>London</em>, 1882.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hessels, J. H.</span>—Haarlem the birthplace of Printing. <em>London</em>, 1887.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hodgkin, J. E.</span>—Rariora. <em>London</em>, 1902.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julien.</span>—L’Imprimerie en chine au sixième siécle de notre eré. -<em>Paris</em>, 1850.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Junius, A.</span>—Batavia. <em>Antwerp</em>, 1588.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Linde, A. v. d.</span>—Geschichte der Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst. -<em>Berlin</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Maittaire, M.</span>—Annales Typographical. <em>Hagae</em>, 1719.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Malinkrot, B. A.</span>—De ortu artis Typographical. <em>Col. Agripp</em>, -1639.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Martens, W. J.</span>—Gutenberg und die Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst. -<em>Karlsruhe</em>, 1900.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Middleton-Wake, C. H.</span>—The Invention of Printing. <em>London</em>, -1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mouet.</span>—Les machines et appareils Typographiques. <em>Paris</em>, 1879.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Monnoyer, C.</span>—Recherches sur les origines de l’Imprimerie -avant Gutenberg. <em>Le Mans</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Noble.</span>—Machine Printing. <em>London</em>, 1883.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pollard, A. W.</span>—Titlepages and Colophons.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Renault, R.</span>—Debuts de l’Imprimerie. <em>Quebec</em>, 1905.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Schaafer, J. C.</span>—Attempts towards making Paper from Plants and -Wood. (German.) <em>Regensburg</em>, 1765.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Singer.</span>—Researches into the History of Playing Cards.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Smith, G.</span>—Assyrian Discoveries. <em>London</em>, 1875.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Solon, H. L.</span>—History of old French Faïence. (Saint Porchaire.) -<em>London</em>, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tainturier, A.</span>—Les Faïences dites de Henri II. <em>Paris</em>, 1860.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vitu, A. C.</span>—Histoire de la Typographie. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wolfius, J. C.</span>—Monumenta Typographica. <em>Hamburg</em>, 1740.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wilson, F. J. F.</span>—Typographic Printing Machines. <em>London</em>, -1883.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wilson, F. J. F.</span>—Stereotyping and Electrotyping. <em>London</em>, 1880.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>N.B.—There are a large number of works on this subject, both -general and concerning Printing in particular countries.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="titlefont">ILLUSTRATIONS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="chapblock">Wood engraving—Line engraving—Etching—Stipple—Mezzotint—Aquatint—Lithography—Photography.</p> - -<p>Writing in early manuscripts was continuous, no stops, -no spaces, no initials. The inconvenience of such an -arrangement soon became apparent; the effect of it can be -well seen in the case of the <cite>Codex Alexandrinus</cite>, written in -the fifth century, although this has large initials, and the -difficulty of knowing when a word ends is bad enough, to -say nothing of sentences. The manuscript is at the -British Museum.</p> - -<p>Presently the first letters of sentences, or perhaps of -important words, were enlarged or rubricated—marked in -red—and from that starting point came the gradual development -of beautiful ornamental letters with sprays starting -from them. These sprays ultimately became rich borderings -and spread all over the page, and at last we get to the -illuminated manuscripts of mediæval times filled with -exquisite miniatures, borders, and arabesques of all imaginable -kinds.</p> - -<p>The subject of illuminated manuscripts has been fully -dealt with by several competent authorities, and it is not -necessary here to enter into it, but so far as printed books -are concerned it will be of interest to survey shortly the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -chief styles of illustrations with which they have been -provided.</p> - -<p>When printed books first began there were no illustrations -in them, but initial letters were often added in red, by -hand, and other important printed letters were marked by -a dab of red or yellow across them. The outline wood -cuts which shortly made their appearance were frequently -intended to serve as guides for hand colouring, and many -of them are so treated.</p> - -<p>Wood cutting in the case of block books was well understood -in the fifteenth century, but when similar illustrations -appear, in company with the text, in early printed -books, the art level both of the designer and wood cutter is -singularly low. This criticism only applies to the pictorial -illustrations, as in the matter of scroll work or ornamental -initials the work is excellent.</p> - -<p>The great letter “B” in Fust and Schöffer’s <cite>Mainz -Psalter</cite>, issued in 1457, is as fine as anything of its kind -that has ever been done. It is printed from two wood -blocks which fit into each other, and which were inked -alternately either red or blue, and then printed together -with the text. A slow process but thoroughly effective. -The initial letters throughout this book seem to have -been touched up in places by hand, especially in the long -scrolls which meander up and down the margins of the -pages.</p> - -<p>The earliest known book illustration cut on wood is a -beautiful outline sketch of the Goddess of Mercy. It is -full page and illustrates a chapter from a Chinese version -of the Saddharmapundarika Sutra, and was printed in -1331, nearly a hundred years before the earliest European<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -print from a wood block, the St. Christopher, of 1423, -which moreover was not a book illustration.</p> - -<p>Chinese, Japanese, and Korean wood cuts are always in -outline, thickened here and there, but quite different in -character and far better in drawing and execution than -early European work of the same sort. Most of the blocks -from which these prints are made are of soft wood, not -box, and are cut with a short knife of peculiar form set in -a handle.</p> - -<p>The drawings are made on thin paper and stuck downwards -on the blocks; then the knife is carefully run along -the edges of the various lines, cutting outwards, the interlinear -spaces being cut away with a gouge and hammer. -The wood cutting was often done by women. The method -of work is probably the same as was used in Europe in the -case of early blocks.</p> - -<p>Besides the design block, always printed in dark neutral -tint or black, during the eighteenth and succeeding -centuries, the Chinese and Japanese cut accessory blocks -which were inked in various colours. The registering of -the various colour blocks was managed either by pegs or -notches, and the colours were mixed with water or rice -paste. Most of the European colour processes of printing -require oil colours, but water colours on the Japanese -principle have been used with admirable effect in some of the -illustrations to Henry Shaw’s books on Mediæval Dresses -and Decorative Arts, and notably by Edmund Evans -and his successors in more recent times.</p> - -<p>From the earliest illustration, mentioned above, until -the present day, the style of Chinese and Japanese wood -illustrations has not altered. There have been several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -engravers of great skill in both countries, but I think the -Japanese colour prints are best known to us.</p> - -<p>The blocks are frequently signed with the names of the -designers, particularly in later times, and many names are -already well known to collectors.</p> - -<p>In the seventeenth century Korin was one of the best of -the Japanese illustrators; in the eighteenth century there -is admirable work signed by Hokusai and Hiroshige, and -among the many skilled designers of the nineteenth -century the work of Kitigawa Utamaro is perhaps the best -known.</p> - -<div id="Ref_104fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;"> -<img src="images/i_104fp.jpg" width="378" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p>Page from the “Hypnerotomachia Poliphili.” -(<em>Venice</em>, 1499.) [<em>To face p.</em> 104.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The first Italian book in which wood engravings were -used is, as far as is now known, the “Meditations” of -Turrecremata, printed at Rome in 1467, by Ulrich Hahn. -The illustrations are of a simple character in outline. -Then came instances in books printed at Naples, Rome, -Verona, and especially at Venice, where Erhard Ratdolt -produced several with beautiful initials, borders, and -pictures. Numbers of the books published at Venice in the -later part of the fifteenth century are illustrated with -exquisite wood cuts; among them the most celebrated -and the most beautiful is the <cite>Hypnerotomachia Poliphili</cite>, -printed in 1499.</p> - -<p>This celebrated book was written by Francesco Colonna, -whose name is curiously shown by the initials of the -chapters, which read “Poliam Frater Franciscus Columna -peramavit,” “Brother Franciscus Columna loved Polia -very much.” Polia has been presumably identified with -Lucretia Lelio, who was a native of Treviso, the place of -Polifilo’s dream. The many engravings are in outline, -and several of them are full page.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p> - -<p>Italians have always excelled in wood cutting, but -although there have been numbers of illustrated books -issued in the sixteenth and later centuries, those of the -fifteenth century still remain pre-eminent. Dr. Paul -Kristeller has, moreover, shown that the Italian printers -devices are well worthy of attention, and many of them -are very fine both in design and execution.</p> - -<p>Block books, Japanese wood blocks, and all very early wood -cuts, were cut by a knife, and such outline work, not too -small, is easier to execute with a properly shaped knife -than with anything else. But as soon as wood cutters -began to be more skilled, and compared their work with -line engraving, they found that a knife was not so -useful as an engraver’s burin, and so wood <em>engraving</em>, -as distinct from <em>cutting</em>, came into being. The cuts in -the <cite>Nuremberg Chronicle</cite> of 1493 show some sort of a -transitional stage; there are hatchings and shadowings -which would have been much more easily done with a -graver than with a knife, but I believe, nevertheless, they -are all knife work.</p> - -<p>Roughly speaking, it is easier to cut a broad outline -drawing with a knife than with a graver, and it is easier to -cut a small detail drawing with a graver than with a knife. -At the same time we must remember that a skilled engraver -could execute either sort of engraving in the wrong way, -just as William Harvey cut his well known wood blocks of -the Death of Dentatus in such a way as to show every -technical peculiarity, except one, of an engraving on metal.</p> - -<p>Both wood blocks and metal blocks intended to illustrate -printed books were always made of the same depth as the -type, so that they could all be printed together, and that is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> -done to-day in the case of process or half-tone blocks, which -are actually wooden blocks faced with the soft metal bearing -the design. There is always some interest in the question -as to whether a certain print has been cut on a wood block -or on a metal block, and if the print is in perfect condition it -is a very difficult matter to decide. But it is rarely that -some small defect or peculiarity does not appear by help -of which a tolerably certain judgment can be arrived at. -Early engraved blocks were often used again and again -until they became quite old, and at last they were got at by -insects who ate small holes in them. If therefore a print -shows little white circular marks upon it there is no doubt -that it was made from a wood block. Instances are by no -means unknown in which experts have decided that a -certain block had been cut on metal, and a later impression -has turned up <em>with worm holes in it</em>! The grain of wood -will sometimes show on an old print, or a broken edge will -show a sharp fracture indicating wood, in contradistinction -to a rounded one, indicating metal.</p> - -<p>The blacks on prints from an engraved metal plate always -show very even spaces, and there are usually plenty of them, -often broken, however, by small white dots, the presence of -which denotes the style known as Pointille, the finest -examples of which can be found among the French Horæ -printed for Pigouchet in the fifteenth century. The metal -used was probably a sort of pewter, lead and tin, very easy to -engrave upon, and strong enough to bear many printings. -But in many instances these little blocks seem to have been -roughly treated and have fallen about, and the result is -that outer lines which show perfectly straight in early -copies, show as slightly rounded lines on late ones. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -is taken as a decided proof that the original block was made -of soft metal, although I am by no means certain that it is -impossible for a straight edge on wood to warp into a -curved line.</p> - -<p>Prints from old wood cuts in outlines were frequently -added to early printed books and painted over thickly with -opaque colour so as to produce a different design. The -original outline has only been used as a slight guide. -Instances of these curious changes can be found in numbers -of the fine vellum books illustrated in colour which were -printed for Antoine Vérard at Paris in the fifteenth -century.</p> - -<p>In other cases, particularly in Italy and France, ornamental -printed borders and illustrations have been very -carefully painted by hand just as if they belonged to -ordinary illuminated manuscripts. But the art work in all -these cases is not good. The true <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">illuminatores</i> were -obsolescent. A few instances of attempts at colour printing -either by means of blocks or stencil plates were made by -Erhard Ratdolt at Venice, and a few others.</p> - -<p>There are two distinct schools of wood engraving, and -they are easily recognised from each other whenever either -of them is exclusively new, but the large majority of the -more recent book illustrations cut on wood show traces of -both styles.</p> - -<p>These styles are firstly that of the black line, the type of -which may be found in Caxton’s <cite>Myrrour of the Worlde</cite> -printed in 1481, and secondly that of the white line, the best -type of which may be found in the <cite>History of British Birds</cite>, -illustrated with engravings by Thomas Bewick in 1797.</p> - -<div id="Ref_108fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 405px;"> -<img src="images/i_108fp.jpg" width="405" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p>Page from Caxton’s “Myrrour of the Worlde.” (<em>London</em>, 1481.) -[<em>To face p.</em> 108.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>In judging whether an illustration in a book is printed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> -from a block cut and printed in the manner of a wood block, -the first thing to observe is whether the black lines are -pressed into the paper or not. The amount of the depression -of the black lines may be very slight, but it must -always be looked for because although the necessary -pressure for printing from type and block is slight, still -there is always some of it, and before the introduction of -the modern clay-laden papers, the paper used for printing -upon was always softened by damp, and consequently very -susceptible to pressure. If the depression of the black lines -can be recognised, the print is made from a block of some -sort, and printed with a slight pressure.</p> - -<p>William Blake’s curious illustrated poems are exceptions -to any rule. He was very poor and unable to afford to -have his writings properly published, so he wrote and drew -them out himself on copper, and then etched away the -ground very strongly so as to leave his lines in relief. The -plates were then printed as relief blocks. As curiosities -they are of great interest, and they preserve the individual -touch of the artist to just about the same extent as an -etching does. The process is exactly analogous to the -manner in which names or designs are etched on sword -blades, key rings, knife blades and the like, only Blake -allowed the acid to work a little more strongly so as to get -a slightly higher relief.</p> - -<p>The first English printed book that is illustrated is -Caxton’s <cite>Myrrour of the Worlde</cite>, printed in 1481; the cuts -are quite elementary in character, like all the wood cuts in -English books for a long time. Ornamental borders are -found in Caxton’s <cite>Fifteen Oes.</cite>, printed about 1490.</p> - -<p>Early English books were not freely illustrated, and it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -must be supposed that wood cutters were scarce. Many of -the cuts used are of foreign origin. One early book is -charmingly illustrated in colour; Dame Juliana Bernes’ -so-called <cite>Book of St. Albans</cite>, printed in 1486, has a long series -of coats-of-arms printed from wood blocks. The colour has -been added either from other blocks separately inked or -else by means of stencil plates.</p> - -<p>In the sixteenth century wood illustrations became more -numerous, but many of them were still of foreign -workmanship.</p> - -<p>Borders and designs by Holbein were used by Pynson, -and these had a renaissance feeling which was quite -foreign to the existing style. The mixed style which -consequently made its appearance is very curious. It -shows well in the semi-classical device of Lucretia used by -Thomas Berthelet, royal printer to Henry VIII. Towards -the end of the century there were several large volumes -of chronicles published in England, Halle, Grafton and -Holinshed, and these and similar volumes are all well -illustrated with wood cuts. Foxe’s “Book of Martyrs,” published -in 1563 by John Day, is also an example of a well -illustrated and popular book, the cuts in which were all -probably made here.</p> - -<div id="Ref_110fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 539px;"> -<img src="images/i_110fp.jpg" width="539" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p>“The Peacock.” Wood engraving by Thos. Bewick, from the -“History of British Birds.” (<em>Newcastle</em>, 1797-1804.) -[<em>To face p.</em> 110.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Wood engravings in England gave way gradually in the -seventeenth and the earlier half of the eighteenth centuries -before the advancing tide of line engraving, but in the latter -half of the eighteenth century Thomas Bewick came to give -it a new impetus. Bewick’s style was quite original, and -although his particular “white line” style, good as it was, -does not ever seem to have retained any hold upon the -mass of engravers, yet somehow or other we find that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -revival of wood cutting, both here and abroad, is generally -put down to his influence.</p> - -<p>Bewick worked on an entirely different principle to that -of any of his predecessors. He gave up imitating the black -line of the metal engraver and used the white line to gain -his effects. No doubt this is the true theory of wood -engraving. Bewick took several apprentices, many of -whom afterwards became famous, but, curiously enough, -none of them kept long to their master’s style. In modern -days Timothy Cole has revived the use of the white line; -his work is most excellent and learned in every way. I -have never found a wrong line in it, and if Bewick had not -shown the way, and therefore put Mr. Cole in the position -of a follower, the latter would have ranked as the greatest -master who has ever worked on wood on the white line -principle.</p> - -<p>William Harvey was one of Bewick’s apprentices; he did -an immense quantity of work, which is always excellent. -He soon gave up Bewick’s “white line,” and most of his -wood engravings are like line engravings on copper. The -engraving of the Death of Dentatus, after B. R. Haydon, is -Harvey’s most celebrated piece of work. It shows every -appearance and characteristic of a line engraving, but the -black marks are in intaglio. It is a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tour de force</i>, and -cannot but be considered as a waste of energy. It was -engraved upon several blocks clamped together by an -iron band, and prints of it can now and then be picked up -at printsellers for two or three shillings, as it is seldom -recognised as a wood engraving.</p> - -<p>Luke Clennell also worked with and helped Bewick, and -much of his early work is like that of his master. But,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -like Harvey, Clennell soon evolved a style of his own. He -cut some of the beautiful little cuts, after Stothard, in -Rogers’ “Pleasures of Memory.” No doubt the Bewick -training had much influence for good over Clennell’s -manner.</p> - -<p>Charlton Nesbit followed Bewick closely for a time, and -then, like his fellow apprentices, he worked out his own style. -His work is very good and true, and he was particularly -successful in his illustrations to Northcote’s <cite>Fables</cite> and -<cite>Rinaldo and Armida</cite>.</p> - -<p>John Thompson was quite one of our greatest wood -engravers. He worked well into the nineteenth century, -and did an immense quantity of work. He engraved a -celebrated set of illustrations to the <cite>Vicar of Wakefield</cite>, -after Mulready, and was also very successful with those to -Tasso’s <cite>La Gerusalemme Liberata</cite> in 1826. His work is quite -different from that of Bewick.</p> - -<p>The nineteenth century in England was rich in numbers -of excellent wood engravers, and a list of their names alone -would be a long one. A proof of the high estimation in -which the work of many of these artists was held is to be -found in the fact that their services as engravers were -freely sought by continental publishers of finely illustrated -books.</p> - -<p>J. B. Jackson, who introduced tone colour-printing, -actually worked with J. M. Papillon in France in the -eighteenth century. Then there were the Landells, Gray, -Whimper, Wright, Folkard, and Green, and, quite late in -the century, J. W. Whymper, Horace Harral, James Cooper, -W. J. Linton, the Dalziels, and Swain. These two last -have signed an immense quantity of excellent work, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -they were large firms, and the greater part of their work -was done by their workmen. Many of the artists of this -time did most excellent work as designers for wood -engravings, especially Sir John Millais, D. G. Rossetti, -Fred. Walker, Fred. Sandys, Lord Leighton, Birket Foster, -Sir E. Burne-Jones, G. du Maurier, and Cecil Lawson.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/i_113.jpg" width="250" height="56" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—Knife for engraving -on soft wood.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>J. M. Papillon, who worked during the earlier half of the -eighteenth century, belonged to a French family of wood -engravers, and wrote a treatise about wood-cutting with the -knife, which is of great interest. His work is small and -excellent. Papillon makes mention of a foreigner who -worked with him and used the <em>end</em> of the wood to work -upon, and that he used a graver. -This foreigner is supposed to -have been the English artist -J. B. Jackson, who was eminent -here not only as an engraver, -but also as the pioneer in the matter of colour-printing from -wood blocks.</p> - -<p>No doubt up to about the beginning of the eighteenth -century wood cuts had been made on planed pieces of pear -or other soft wood cut lengthways. The grain upon such a -piece of wood necessitating the use of a knife to cut it, the -knife may be a single blade or a double blade of the kind -known as a “scrive,” but it cannot be cut with a solid -graver.</p> - -<p>It is possible enough that to Jackson we owe the idea of -making engravings on the cross-cut of a piece of wood, and -if so he is entitled to great honour, as all wood work since -his time has been done in that way. The graver had long -been used on metal, but until the device of cutting blocks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -across the grain of a hard wood was thought of it could not -be used on wood. Hard wood was now wanted with as -little grain as possible, and box is the ideal.</p> - -<p>In the nineteenth century much excellent wood engraving -was done in France. Indeed, after a period of practical -non-existence the art once more became one of great -importance, and a school of wood engraving grew up that -was not only very large, but the work done was of very high -quality.</p> - -<p>Bewick’s style is not there, although it seems likely that -the revival was really due to his influence; the old black -line, resembling the engraved metal line, holds undisputed -sway. Moreover, the French nineteenth century revival -owes much directly to the work and influence of another -great English wood engraver, J. Thompson, and with him -worked an equally great French engraver, H. L. Brevière. -These two men were highly gifted, and their work is always -of a high order, and they met with much powerful support -from contemporary engravers, followers of their own, the -excellence of whose work in many instances ran their own -very close.</p> - -<p>Among the many engravers of this time whose work is -always pleasant to meet with and admire we may particularly -note Thiébault, S. Soyer, Sears, <a id="Ref_114"></a>Porret, Roux, La -Coste and both his sons, Rouget, and Nivet.</p> - -<p>The work of many of our contemporary English engravers -was also much liked in France, and they often helped to -illustrate fine French books. Among the more notable of -these engravers we find the names of Orrin Smith, Thomas, -Samuel, and Mary Ann Williams, and A. Best.</p> - -<p>It must be noted that the work of the artists whose work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -was interpreted by this school of highly-skilled engravers -was admirably fitted for small book vignettes, especially the -military designs so profusely issued by <a id="Ref_115"></a>Meissonier, Horace -Vernet, and Raffet, and, for larger work, the charming -figures of Gavarni.</p> - -<p>Augsburg in the fifteenth century was a great centre of -wood engraving. A Bible with small woodcuts was issued -there about 1470 by Jodoc Pflanzmann. These cuts were -meant to be coloured by hand. Several other books -illustrated with woodcuts were issued by Gunther Zainer -and Johan Bamler.</p> - -<p>Then notable illustrated books were published at Ulm -and Lubeck, and from Nuremberg we have the great -“Nuremberg Chronicle,” full of woodcuts, the best of which -are cut by Wilhelm Pleydenwurff and Michael Wohlgemuth. -The work in this book gets away from the mere -outline, and we find much clever hatching and shading, but -there is much coarseness. From Basle came Seb. Brant’s -celebrated “Narrenschiff,” one of the most popular books -ever written, and illustrated with most amusing cuts of -the various follies of the various sorts of fools described. -Albrecht Dürer did a few illustrations for books towards -the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth -centuries.</p> - -<p>Several more illustrated wood books were issued from -Nuremberg, Basle and Zurich, and some of the printers’ -devices were designed by Holbein.</p> - -<p>During the seventeenth century a lull occurred in the -production of German books illustrated with woodcuts; -but the art has always been popular in Germany, and it -never quite died out.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p> - -<p>The very decorative “Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian,” -with large woodcuts, designed by Hans -Burgkmeier of Augsburg in the early sixteenth century, -was published in 1796. German wood engraving for -books revived in the nineteenth century, and became -of high excellence. German wood engravings have -had a certain strength and vigour all their own from -the time of the “Nuremberg Chronicle” until modern -times.</p> - -<p>Artists, moreover, have not been wanting; the quite -delightful vignettes of A. Schrödter, L. Richter, G. -Osterwald, R. Jordan and others, have received adequate -and sympathetic treatment at the hands of engravers -who are second to none. Nuzelmann, E. Kretschmar, -A. Vogel, Beneworth, Joch, and the Leipzig firms of -Allanson and Sears, Nicholls and Bosse, and Peupin, some -of whom were foreigners.</p> - -<p>Line engraving on a small scale plays an important -part in book illustration. It is the simplest, and yet -requires the most technical skill of all the methods of -marking metal surfaces for the purpose of making prints. -The engraver cuts out a thread of metal, producing a little -track on the surface, and to do this properly requires the -utmost skill.</p> - -<p>It has been held for a long time that prints from -engraved metal plates owe their existence to the proofs in -sulphur which were taken from time to time from -engravings intended to be filled with niello.</p> - -<p>In the museum at Berlin there is a print on paper from -an engraved metal plate, representing the Flagellation of -Christ. It is German work and dated 1446. The lettering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -shows rightly on the print, so the engraving was made -with the intent that prints should be made from it.</p> - -<p>There is in the Bargello Museum at Florence a beautiful -Pax with a nielloed plate attributed to Maso Finiguerra, -the date of which is put at 1452. From this plate, before -it was nielloed, prints on paper were taken, and one of -them is at Paris. But the letterings on this engraving -read rightly on the metal, so it was not engraved with the -intent that prints should be made from it; indeed, they, as -well as the impressions in sulphur, were only made to -help in the working.</p> - -<p>So that it is only safe to say that the possibility of -making prints on paper from engraved metal plates was -known about the middle of the fifteenth century both in -Germany and in Italy.</p> - -<p>To make a print from an engraved plate requires great -pressure, as the paper has to be forced down into every -mark, and the resulting mark on the paper is consequently -always in relief.</p> - -<p>The principle of a print made from an engraved wood -block is that the projecting parts are covered with a thin -film of ink, and when the paper is lightly pressed down -upon these lines it picks up the ink from the surface -wherever it touches it. In the case of an engraved metal -plate, the lines on which are cut in the same way and with -a similar graver to that used for white line engraving on -wood, the inking and printing is quite different. Now it is -the incised lines which print black, and in order to ensure -this the whole plate is well rubbed over with ink so as to -fill up all the incised lines, and then the unengraved -polished surface is carefully wiped clean so as to leave the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -ink sticking in all the dots, lines and curves. Now damped -paper is very strongly pressed upon the inked plate, so as -to be squeezed right down into every dot, line and curve. -The paper consequently is in relief wherever it has been -pressed into a depression, and as there was ink there -waiting for it, it will be found to have picked up and -absorbed all the ink, so that the print shows black lines in -low relief.</p> - -<p>It will be easily realised that a print from an engraved -metal plate cannot be printed with ordinary type at the -same operation a wood-block can, so that whenever a book -occurs in which such engravings show on the same page -with type, there must have been two printings, one strong -for the engraving and one light for the type.</p> - -<p>We find, therefore, that in several instances where -engraved illustrations have been used for a book which is -for the most part printed from type, that the small piece -of text which comes on the same page as the engraving, -is also engraved. Not only this, but from time to time -entire books have been engraved, illustrations as well -as text. The finest English example of such work is -to be found in the beautiful edition of the works of -Horace, plentifully illustrated and engraved throughout -on copper by John Pine. It was published in -1733-7.</p> - -<p>John Sturt, who engraved numbers of book frontispieces, -also produced a Book of Common Prayer, engraved -throughout on silver, in 1717. He also engraved many of -John Ayres’ calligraphic works. Abroad, especially in -France and Germany, small books have been engraved, in -the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by P. Moreau,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -F. Mazot, Druet, and others, but none of them are as -important as the English. Music books are engraved, and -so are numbers of calligraphic books of small interest.</p> - -<p>The first line engravings illustrating any book appear in -Bettini’s “Monte Santo di Deo,” printed in 1477. They -are said to be after designs by Botticelli. Some of -the prints are full page and others are printed on the -same paper as the text. They are not very good. The -same kind of illustration appears in Dante’s “Divina -Commedia,” printed in 1481. Some of these prints are, -however, pasted in, but a few are on the same paper as -the text.</p> - -<p>The great excellence of Italian book illustrators on wood -seems to have eclipsed all other kinds. Italian line -engravers have excelled in large plates, but in books -there is little of this kind of work that is at all good. -Examples of small work of the kind were done in the -eighteenth century by Grandi, Schedl, Pomarade, I. Frey, -and C. Gregori.</p> - -<p>In English books line engravings do not appear until -1521, when an edition of Galen published at Cambridge -possesses an engraved border.</p> - -<p>Raynald’s “Byrthe of Mankind,” published in 1540, has -engraved plates. From this time engravings appear at -intervals until towards the end of the sixteenth century, -when frontispieces and portraits, always printed on separate -paper and inserted as extra leaves, became common.</p> - -<p>In the seventeenth century the same style prevailed, engraved -portraits and frontispieces, but gradually small pictures -came into use. The plates are often signed, and we find -the name of Renold Elstrack, who worked also in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -preceding century, Marshall, Hole, Cecil, Grover, and others -of less merit.</p> - -<p>In the eighteenth century native engravers seem to have -given way to foreigners, and the same thing happened -during the early nineteenth century. We find many -beautiful engravings in English books signed by Du Bosc, -Grignion, Scotin, De Launay, and others. Later, in the -nineteenth century, our English line engravers rallied, -and we owe much beautiful work to them. Many of their -names are widely known, and their work will be more -highly appreciated as time goes on, especially as this small -line engraving is practically a lost art.</p> - -<p><cite>The Keepsake</cite>, published by Charles Heath, 1827-57, -started the fashion in England of small books illustrated -with delicate engravings on steel, but it must be noted -that although there is engraved work in them, the -greater part of the work is really etched. Exquisite -work in this style was done by W. Finden, D. Allen, -C. Rolls, T. C. Lewis, J. H. Robinson, E. Goodall, -H. and R. Wallis, W. R. and D. Smith, W. Humphreys, -John Pye, T. S. and F. C. Engleheart, F. and J. Goodyear, -and these engravers were supplied with beautiful -subjects by several of the eminent contemporary artists, -J. M. W. Turner, Stothard, Samuel Prout, and numbers -more.</p> - -<p>Among the best examples of finely illustrated books -of this period the two volumes of Rogers’ <cite>Italy</cite> and -<cite>Poems</cite> may safely be noted. They were published in -London in 1830, and the very best results were aimed at in -their production. They are uniform, and usually bound in -red watered silk.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> - -<p>Large numbers of small books illustrated profusely with -line engravings were published about the middle of the -nineteenth century. They often have engraved title-pages, -with little pictures in them, the full page illustration being -inserted throughout. The names of both artist and engraver -are usually added at the lower edge of the print.</p> - -<p>There are <cite>Oriental Annuals</cite>, <cite>Landscape Annuals</cite>, <cite>New -Year’s Gifts</cite>, <cite>Friendship’s Offerings</cite>, <cite>Comic Offerings</cite>, <cite>Juvenile -Forget-me-nots</cite>, and a host of similar periodicals, and good -work is to be found in all of them. They were either -bound in thin panel stamped leather or else in watered silk, -and in either case the binding is of interest, and wherever -it exists it should be carefully preserved. A quaint little -woodcut often appears in these books, printed with the -text.</p> - -<p>Besides the engravers whose names I have already mentioned, -there are many others whose work appears more -particularly in small periodical publications; among these -may be noted J. C. Armytage, Geo. Corbould, Charles -and J. Heath, James Mitan, John Sharpe, R. J. Baker, -W. Greatbach, J. C. Edwards, W. Fry, W. Chevalier, -S. Davenport, H. Robins, C. Warren, T. J. Williams, J. -Cousins, W. Miller, S. Sangster, R. Rhodes, F. Bacon, R. J. -and E. Portbury, T. Willmore, R. Brandard, J. H. Kernot, -W. D. Taylor, and G. Hollis.</p> - -<p>After about 1850 small line engravings in books began to -disappear, and now they are rarely if ever done. In fact, -line engraving has been killed by mezzotint and photography, -and now takes refuge in its original goldsmiths’ use, -or in book plates.</p> - -<p>Line engraving in France did not appeal to popular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -taste until a comparatively late period. The block engravings -in the “Horae” of the fifteenth century, although they were -line engravings, were cut in the manner of wood blocks, and -the method of printing from them was different to that used -in the case of ordinary metal engravings. In the seventeenth -century there were several beautiful books illustrated -by line engravings by Sebastian Leclerc, L. Gaultier, -J. Sauné, F. Chauveau, Le Mire and H. J. Duclos.</p> - -<p>In the eighteenth century in France the graceful designs -of Ch. Eisen and J. H. Fragonard found many worthy interpreters. -La Fontaine’s fables and stories provided a suitable -literature for these illustrations, and among them may -perhaps be found the high water mark of small line -engraving. Indeed, the work is all so good that any choice -becomes almost invidious; but quite beautiful work was -done by J. B. Patas, Choffard, N. Le Mire, De Longueil, -L. Bosse, Delvaux, Johannot, Leroux, Lefebre, Ficquet, -Mottet, Prevost, J. B. Tillard, J. L. Delignon, C. L. Lingée, -Dupréel; and then come L. Halbon, J. Aliamet, J. Dambrun, -J. B. <a id="Ref_122"></a>Simonnet, P. Trière, C. S. Gaucher, and many more, -some of whom worked also in the next century.</p> - -<p>In the nineteenth century the French level of small engraved -illustrations remained exceptionally high, especially -in the earlier half, but many of the plates have much etching -mixed up with line work; this may very likely mean that the -work was done on steel, which will admit of the production -of large editions; but steel is very difficult to engrave, -although it is quite easy to etch. Among the line engravers -who used accessory etching I have noted Pauquet, Aze, -P. Choffard, and De Villiers.</p> - -<p>The engravers whose work may be safely considered of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -high quality are R. De Launay, Bertonnier, Villerey, -P. Savart, H. Dupont, Girardet, J. P. <a id="Ref_123"></a>Marillien, L. Petit, -J. F. Ribault, Chifflart, and V. Foulquier. Towards the -end of the century photography came and gradually crowded -out the small line engravers.</p> - -<p>An etching is a drawing done with a needle point upon -a sheet of metal protected by a thin impervious coat of -soft varnish. The lines made by the etching needle pierce -the varnish or “ground,” and reach down to the metal, -usually copper, exposing it in those places. When the -drawing is complete the plate is put into a bath of strong -water, usually dilute nitric acid, and wherever the surface -is not protected by the ground the acid will eat away the -metal.</p> - -<p>When now the ground is cleaned off with the help of -turpentine, the original design will be seen transferred to -the surface of the copper in the form of dull lines, shallow -if the acid has only been allowed to act for a short time, -but broad, deep and irregular if the “biting” has been -long. So that an etching always has a little more “effect” -than was put into the original work.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary here to enter into the mysteries of -“stopping out,” and several other variations of procedure, -but it is sufficient to say that variations of tone and texture -<em>can</em> be obtained; but, in fact, so far as book illustrations go, -the etchings I know of are always simple, and the best of -them are those by George Cruickshank.</p> - -<p>The printing of etchings is analogous to that of line -engravings, and a similar ink is used. A strong press is -required, the paper is damped, and the impression is in -slight relief. Line engravings are always printed in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -same way as a visiting card, the untouched parts are clean, -and print white, but in the case of etchings more ink is -usually left, so that the untouched surfaces often show grey, -none of the ink having been allowed to remain upon the -plate. The French call this “retroussage,” and printers -can produce strange effects by its use. A bad etching can -be made to look like a good one; a good etching can be -made to look weak and wretched. In fact, a clever artist -printer can produce a capital picture from a plate which -has nothing at all on it but the ink.</p> - -<p>Etchings first appeared in English books about the end -of the seventeenth century, but they are seldom signed, -neither are they good. There is an etched frontispiece to -Latroo’s “English Roque,” 1665, and another to “Æsop’s -Fables,” published in the same year.</p> - -<p>Wenceslaus Hollar, a Bohemian who worked in London, -illustrated a few English books with etchings in the seventeenth -century. Soft ground etchings printed in red and -black appear in Pennant’s “Account of London,” printed -in 1795. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries -William Blake made a few etchings for book illustrations. -In the nineteenth century came Alken’s etchings of animals, -usually coloured, Samuel Hewitt, Doyle, and especially the -excellent work of George Cruickshank, which was very -much admired by John Ruskin.</p> - -<div id="Ref_124fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;"> -<img src="images/i_124fp.jpg" width="428" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p>Title-page of Grimm’s “German Popular Stories.” (<em>London</em>, 1824.) -Illustrated with etchings by George Cruickshank. -[<em>To face p.</em> 124.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Combined with line engraving a number of small illustrations -were published in the nineteenth century. They were -etched on steel, and carefully finished with small line work, -with ruled skies. They are generally classed as engravings, -but should, I think, rather be called etchings.</p> - -<p>Etching has not played a very important part in French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -books any more than it has in English. There are the -amusing sketches of Callot, good work by Abraham Bosse -and Sebastian Leclerc, and in quite recent times the -beautiful etchings by Jules Jacquemart of works of art, in -their way unsurpassed, and marvels of technical skill. I -have already mentioned a few French etchers who combined -that work with small line engraving, probably on -steel; of these probably Choffard is best known and most -highly appreciated.</p> - -<p>Engraving by dots has been for a long time practised, as -by its means a graduated tone can be more easily obtained -than it can by the use of line alone, and stipple is the same -idea carried out by the etching needle instead of the graver.</p> - -<p>Stipple is done by means of small bunches of needles, -with which irregular dots are made in the etching ground -and then bitten by acid, as usual. In most cases a few -small finishing dots are put on the copper by hand afterwards. -Stipple is excellent for faces, and is best known in -the work of Bartolozzi, who excelled in it. It is said to -have been invented by Jacob Bylaert, a Dutchman, in -1760.</p> - -<p>In England stipple engraving was largely used in the -early nineteenth century for book illustrations. It is found -chiefly in faces, and is generally supported by line engraving -or etching. The best stipple engravers did not illustrate -books, but the work of W. Finden, C. Knight, -J. Parker, C. Marr, and W. Holl is always good, though, of -course, very small. Besides these there were numbers of -lesser stipple engravers, whose work is fair—Jenkinson, -Dean, H. Cook, C. Wagstaffe, H. Robinson, and many more.</p> - -<p>The same sort of usefulness was found for stipple abroad,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -for faces particularly, and it was successfully practised by -Pfeiffer, Vangelisty, and others, but it never took the same -hold upon the Continent that it did here, either in the case -of small book illustrations or in the more important matter -of large stipple engravings.</p> - -<p>Mezzotints are not satisfactory if they are on a small -scale. Delicate and minute work cannot be done well by -the mezzotint process alone, but require supplementary -line or etched work. So we find that mezzotints have not -been much used for book illustration.</p> - -<p>The process of mezzotinting was invented by Ludwig von -Siegen, an officer in the Hessian Army, about 1642, and at -first it was practised chiefly by foreigners, but it soon -became the favourite method of engraving upon metal in -England; indeed, the competition of the mezzotint -eventually ruined the slower and more costly process of -line engraving.</p> - -<p>Some books concerning mezzotints have explanatory -plates in them, beginning with Le Blon’s “Coloritto,” -written about 1721, but these can hardly be considered -as fair instances of ordinary book illustrations.</p> - -<p>A copper plate is prepared for mezzotint engraving by -being uniformly roughened all over, so that if it were -inked and a print made from it, the print would show a -uniform velvety black. The art of the “scraper” consists -in so skilfully cutting away or burnishing down the -roughened surface of the copper that when a print is made -a picture appears. The scraper works from black to white -whenever the surface is scraped or burnished away, so in -exact correspondence the print will show grey or white. It -is quick work, and easy work up to a point, but to make a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -first-rate mezzotint is a great art, and only a few engravers -have succeeded in doing it.</p> - -<p>Among the first students of the art was Prince Rupert, -who was an excellent artist and an accomplished workman -all round. He engraved a large plate after Spagnoletto, -called “The Great Executioner,” and when John Evelyn -wrote a little book called “Sculptura,” which was published -in 1662, and included in it a short description of the new -art, the Prince mezzotinted a plate for him, showing only -the head of the great executioner. This head, the first -mezzotint done for a book, is a finer piece of work than the -head in the larger plate.</p> - -<p>There were several anatomical plates, mostly printed in -coloured inks, which were mezzotinted about the same time, -but they are not important; then Faber’s portraits of -founders of the Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge were -used as illustrations to Rolt’s “Lives of the Reformers,” -published in 1759. These plates bear Houston’s name as -mezzotinter, but this is only one of a number of such -re-letterings which occur in the history of mezzotints.</p> - -<p>Robert Dunkarton engraved several book illustrations, -mostly portraits, and he also helped in the mezzotinting of -some of the plates in Turner’s “Liber Studiorum.” He -was a portrait painter, and his mezzotints are better than -Faber’s. John Young was an eminent mezzotinter, and in -1815 he issued a large book of portraits of the Emperors of -Turkey printed in colours. They are not particularly good, -but are interesting as being the first set of mezzotints to be -issued in colour as book illustrations. The book is rare -and, if the colour is strong, of considerable value.</p> - -<p>Turner’s “Liber Studiorum” was issued between 1807<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> -and 1819, and many mezzotinters helped in the work—F. -C. Lewis, Charles Turner, W. Say, R. Dunkarton, G. -Clint, J. C. Eastling, T. Hodgetts, W. Annis, H. Dawe, -T. Lipton, and S. W. Reynolds. The plates were not pure -mezzotint, but were strongly etched as well with some -aquatinting; the first etching was done by J. M. W. -Turner, and some of the mezzotinting. I think he probably -worked finally upon all the plates in various ways -with burin, scraper and roulette.</p> - -<p>Several books of landscapes are illustrated with mezzotints, -done on copper or steel, by T. G. Lupton, many of -them after Turner, and John Constable’s landscapes have -been admirably mezzotinted by David Lucas; perhaps the -best known is “English Landscape Scenery,” published -in 1855.</p> - -<p>In all mezzotints, large or small, it should be noted that -the <em>condition</em> of the print is important. The blacks should -be deep and velvety; if they show greyish or spotted, the -print is from an old plate. Mezzotints on steel last better -than if they are on copper. I know of no foreign books -illustrated with mezzotints.</p> - -<p>There are several ways of making aquatints, but the -best is the oldest. It was invented by a Frenchman, -J. B. Le Prince, towards the end of the eighteenth century, -and although of foreign origin, the art has been most -extensively and successfully practised in England.</p> - -<p>Le Prince allowed powdered resin to settle evenly on a -copper plate, fixed the minute grains by heat, and then treated -the plate with acid as if it were an etching. When the -plate was cleaned the acid is found to have bitten a little -line round each grain of resin, so that an aquatint made by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -this method consists of a series of small rings more or less -thick. The different thicknesses are produced by stopping -out some portions and re-biting others. The general effect -of aquatint is delicate and pleasing, and it can be -strengthened where necessary with a little etching. -Aquatint helps its followers considerably, and a good -aquatint made from a drawing or painting will often have -luminous effects that are wanting in the original.</p> - -<p>There is one other method of aquatinting that must be -mentioned, but there are more which are too numerous and -too unimportant to require explanation here. It is a modern -invention, and consists of coating the plate with resin dissolved -in alcohol; when this dries it breaks up into little -pieces, and the acid can penetrate between these pieces as in -Le Prince’s method. But the resulting prints do not show -Le Prince’s little circles, but small irregular polygons.</p> - -<p>Le Prince sold his secret to Charles Greville, and he -passed it on to Paul Sandby, who not only became an -eminent aquatinter but published a book in 1775 called -<cite>Twelve Views in Aquatinta</cite>. This drew much attention -to the beautiful new art, and it rapidly became very -popular in England. English aquatinters, like English -wood and stipple engravers, always liked colour, whether -added by hand or printed in ink, and so we find that the -large majority of English aquatinters enjoy the added -beauty of colour.</p> - -<p>The publishers Ackermann and Boydell both deserve -much honour for their consistent patronage of aquatints, -and no doubt our splendid record in that art is largely due -to their enterprise.</p> - -<p>Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -already find several fine books with hand-coloured aquatint -illustrations published in England, among these are -W. Hodge’s <cite>Select Views in India</cite>, 1786; T. Hassell’s -<cite>Picturesque Guide to Bath</cite>, 1793; Combes’ <cite>History of -the River Thames</cite>, with aquatints by J. C. Stadler; E. -Orme’s <cite>Twelve Views of Places in the Kingdom of Mysore</cite>, -with aquatints by J. W. Edy; and H. Repton’s amusing -<cite>Sketches of Landscape Gardening</cite>, with moveable plates to -show how good his suggested improvements were, all published -in 1794, and from this time for the next thirty years -were numbers of books issued with coloured aquatints concerning -domestic architecture.</p> - -<p>Early in the nineteenth century there are still numbers -of books with aquatint views in them: J. Webber’s <cite>Views -in the South Seas</cite>, published in 1808, and Boydell’s -<cite>Picturesque Scenery of Norway</cite>, with aquatints by J. W. -Edy, in 1820, and several more.</p> - -<p>Then Rowlandson, the caricaturist, aquatinted the illustrations -for Goldsmith’s <cite>Vicar of Wakefield</cite> in 1817, and the -inimitable <cite>Tour of Dr. Syntax</cite>, by Combe, in 1820, thereby -setting the fashion for caricature in aquatint, which had a -considerable vogue.</p> - -<p>In Pyne’s <cite>History of the Royal Residences</cite>, the out-door -views are printed in coloured inks, blue for the skies and -brown for the foregrounds. They have additional hand-colouring. -It is an important book, and was published in -1819; the aquatints are engraved by T. Sutherland, W. F. -Bennett, R. Reeve, and others.</p> - -<p>Then came a series of fine books on Indian scenery, -mostly engraved by T. Medland, Hassell and Ellis, -and many books of English views, mostly engraved by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -D. Havell, T. Sutherland, T. H. Fielding, J. Baily, or -T. Cartwright.</p> - -<p>Of less importance, but now becoming more esteemed, -are the numbers of graceful costume and fashion plates -which were done in aquatint and coloured by hand from -about 1790 to 1840. These books are already much sought -after, and will probably be more and more so in time; the -plates are generally anonymous.</p> - -<p>William Daniell illustrated Ayrton’s <cite>Voyage Round Great -Britain</cite> with beautiful coloured aquatints; it was published -in 1825.</p> - -<p>There are many cases in which several kinds of work -appear on the same plate; there may be aquatint and -etching, mezzotint with etching, engraving or aquatint, so -it is very important to be able to judge from the aspect of -a line or dot or a point by which method it has been -produced.</p> - -<p>The magnificent account of the <cite>Coronation of George IV.</cite>, -published in 1825, under the care of Sir George Nayler, -Garter King of Arms, is illustrated with mixed engravings, -stipple, etching, line, aquatint and mezzotint, by S. W. -Reynolds and other engravers, chiefly after designs by -F. and J. Stephanoff. The plates are coloured by hand, -and several of the special copies have much extra artistic -work added. It is said to be the most expensive book ever -published, and it never repaid its cost, but received a grant -in aid from the Government of the day. The majority -of the figures are careful portraits, and it is the highest -authority for the State costume of the time.</p> - -<p>Lithography is the art of drawing upon stone in such a -way that prints can be made from the drawing. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -drawing has to be done upon a particular sort of stone -either directly or by means of transfer from lithographic -paper, and it can be done either with a point of solid lithographic -ink resembling black chalk, or by a liquid ink, in -which case the drawing is called a lithotint. J. M. -Whistler was remarkably successful in this latter manner, -but it had been used long before by Hullmandel and -Cattermole.</p> - -<p>The discovery of lithography was due to the experiments of -Aloys Senefelder, a native of Prague, who was born late in -the eighteenth century. He accidentally found that some -writing he had put on one of the stones he used for sharpening -his tools upon came off easily on to paper or linen. -Then he tried what effect acid would have, and found that -it would eat away the stone wherever the ink did not prevent -it, so he got a block in low relief. The protective ink -is made essentially of wax, tallow, soap, shellac, and lamp -black, and the acid renders this insoluble, so that when -acid is applied to the stone the parts drawn upon remain -unaffected. The drawing ink is now removed, and when -printing ink is applied by means of a roller, it sticks only -where the drawn lines are, and from this inked stone a -print can be obtained.</p> - -<p>The surface of a lithograph is quite smooth, and the -process will not help an artist in the least—as the drawing -is so will the lithograph from it be; the only difference is in -the power of reproduction.</p> - -<p>Senefelder was unfortunate; he introduced an art to the -world which has been very largely followed, but his own -efforts were failures from a business point of view. He -came to London early in the nineteenth century, and his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -methods soon found votaries, but he shortly returned to -Munich, where his brother had assisted him in setting up a -lithographic establishment, and this practically failing, it -was taken over by the Bavarian Government and put -under the management of H. J. Mitterer, a professor of -drawing.</p> - -<p>But it was in France that lithography made most rapid -progress. The clever French draughtsmen that happened to -exist about that time very quickly mastered the process, -and between them they established a school of lithography -that is unequalled. Many of the greatest French artists -worked in it, and some of them specialised in it.</p> - -<p>Lasteyrie introduced it, and it was quickly taken up by -Horace Vernet, Pierre Guerin, Charlet, and many others -for small book illustrations, and about 1830 there are large -numbers of caricatures done in this quick and easy way. -Then Gericault, Henri Monnier, Eugène Delacroix, and -J. B. Isabey swelled the list of French lithographers, most of -the book illustrations being of small size; and a little later -there is notable work done by Honoré Daumier, Achille -Deveria, Raffet, Jean Gigoux and Gavarni, several of them -specialising in military subjects. Towards the end of the -century we find a new set of artists, many of whom use -colour as well as monotint, Fantin-Latour, Chéret, O. -Redon, Gandara and Willett.</p> - -<p>The social side of French life is perhaps the most -illustrated in lithography.</p> - -<p>In England lithography received its first impetus from -Senefelder himself, who came and worked in London, -where in 1819 his <cite>Complete Course of Lithography</cite> was -published.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> - -<p>C. J. Hullmandel and J. D. Harding were friends and -co-workers in the new art, and they were both adepts at it; -Hullmandel drew several of the beautiful plates of birds for -John Gould, and they were afterwards coloured by hand. -From the beginning colour has been much liked by English -lithographers, either added by hand or produced by means -of “chromo-lithography,” that is, several plates inked in -different colours and then printed over each other on one -piece of paper.</p> - -<p>Roberts’ <cite>Holy Land</cite> is magnificently illustrated with -lithographic plates by Louis Haghe, a left-handed Belgian, -who worked here, and these plates were afterwards coloured -by hand. Clarkson Stanfield and Cattermole both worked -in lithography, and Nash’s <cite>Mansions of England in the Olden -Time</cite>, 1839-49, are familiar to most of us. Nash coloured -several copies by hand.</p> - -<p>Owen Jones’ <cite>Plans of the Alhambra</cite>, published 1842-5, -are excellent chromo-lithographs. In quite modern times -the old tradition is worthily upheld by William Griggs, -whose colour plates of <cite>Illuminated MSS. in the British -Museum</cite> are in every way excellent—indeed, for truth and -fidelity to their originals they have never been equalled.</p> - -<p>Munich was a sort of headquarters of lithography in the -early part of the nineteenth century, when H. J. Mitterer -succeeded to Senefelder’s establishment there. Among -the first lithographers in Germany were J. M. Mittenleiter, -who also invented the art of engraving on stone, and -Joseph Hauber.</p> - -<p>Most of the German lithographers contented themselves -with making copies of existing pictures, and one of the -finest examples of this kind of lithography is to be found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -in the <cite>Gemälde Galerie des K. Museums in Berlin</cite>, published -in 1842, and containing excellent work by Fr. Jentzen, -C. Fischer, and others.</p> - -<p>Adolf Menzel did some notable lithographic work about -the middle of the century, and Mouilleron, Eybl, and Ritter -were all excellent workmen.</p> - -<p>Belgian lithographers have nearly always been very good; -besides Haghe, who worked in England, there were, with -others, Tuerlinckoe, Van der Meulen, and Van Loo.</p> - -<p>Although there have been lithographic workshops set up -at Rome, Florence, Turin, Milan, and other towns, the art -has never flourished much in Italy: it never appealed to -the sensitive artistic Italian nature. Such examples as do -exist are mostly portraits.</p> - -<p>Lithography has been popular in Spain, and Spanish -artists have done excellent work in this manner.</p> - -<p>In 1824 J. de Madrazo published the most important -Spanish work illustrated with photographs; it is called <cite>Collection -lithographica de cuadros del Rey ... Fernando VII., -lithographiada por habiles artistas</cite>, among whom are named -J. Jollivet, P. Blanchard and A. Guerrero. The work of all -of these is excellent. Lithographic work in Spain, so far as -books are concerned, has been mostly of an archæological -character—views of old buildings or old pictures particularly. -F. Goya, however, worked largely in this manner.</p> - -<p>All these methods of illustrating books worked by hand -have now been superseded by one or other of the wonderful -processes made possible by the invention of photography. -Some of these are expensive, but generally they are cheap.</p> - -<p>The most elaborate, and when well done the most wonderful, -of these processes is that known as heliogravure. By<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -means of this method reproductions of line engravings can -be made so perfectly that detection is almost impossible. A -metal plate is so treated by help of a photographic negative -that the lines of the engraving are deposited in an insoluble -form upon the plate, which is otherwise clean, then a thin -film of metal is deposited on all the clean places by means -of electrotyping, so that when the lines are dissolved out, -they are in intaglio, just as they were in the original -engraved plate. From this artificial plate prints can be -made as if from an engraved plate.</p> - -<p>For the mezzotint another method is adopted, known as -photogravure, and this is also a wonderful invention. A -metal plate is slightly roughed—if it could be more roughed -it would be better—and then a photographic relief in gelatine -is put upon it and etched. The result is a plate resembling -a fine grain mezzotint, but the prints made from it are -always deficient in the blacks. To remedy this and other -defects which at present seem to be inherent, an engraver -generally goes over the plate with roulette and burnisher. -The Photogravure has ruined the Mezzotint. The coating -of the copper-plates with steel largely adds to their life.</p> - -<p>Then we come to the wood engravings, which are all -perfectly imitated by the zinc block, made directly from the -original drawing, and set on a wood block so as to range -exactly with type in height. Wash drawings are closely -copied by the half-tone process, which is also used with -blocks that can be printed with type. The drawing to be -copied is photographed through a glass screen very finely -etched with minute lines crossing each other, so that the picture -is ultimately represented by a series of little squares, -black or white according to the tones of the original. But the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -whites are never quite satisfactory, the dots of the screen -always show a little, so the dispossessed wood engraver has -to be called in after all to touch them up with a graver. In -America, where the half-tone process has reached a very -high degree of excellence, the names of these helpful -engravers are frequently added. A curious “shot-silk” -effect is often seen in half-tone illustrations where the lines -of the screen fall at a particular angle with the lines on the -original. The same peculiarity sometimes shows in the -ruled sky lines in the small nineteenth century line -engravings.</p> - -<p>The three-colour process consists of half-tone blocks -printed in colours one over the other, but although they -look well they are not particularly true to their originals. -The reason of this is that each block is a little wrongly inked, -as the tint of the pigment put upon it depends entirely upon -the printer. He has of course a carefully coloured key given -him to match for each block, but he never quite succeeds in -doing more than get near it. There are line keys and colour -blocks, and half-tone and colour blocks, and many other -varieties of combinations of processes.</p> - -<p>The half-tone process is certainly responsible for much -charming and valuable work, but it has done one very -great harm not only to itself but even to literature, it has -been the chief cause of the introduction of clay-laden paper -(see <a href="#Page_62">Chap. III.</a>).</p> - -<p>The beauty of photographic illustrations can be best -seen in some of the recent French illustrated books in -colour published by the Société des Amis des Livres. -Other exquisite illustrations are to be found in Octave -Uzanne’s books, many of them from the drawings of Paul<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -Avril. The way in which many of these illustrations are -made to show over the printed page is often quite -charming.</p> - - -<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Baer, L.</span>—Die Illustrirten Historienbücher des 15 Jahrhunderts. -<em>Strassburg</em>, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bayard, E.</span>—Illustrations et les Illustrateurs. <em>Paris</em>, 1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blackburn, H.</span>—The Art of Illustration. <em>London</em>, 1896-1901.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bonnet, G.</span>—Manuel de Phototypie. <em>Paris</em>, 1889.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bonnet, G.</span>—Manuel d’Héliogravure et de Photogravure en relief. -<em>Paris</em>, 1890.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>—Le Livre, L’Illustration. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>—Les Livres a vignettes. <em>Paris.</em></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Brivois, J.</span>—Bibliographie des livres a gravures sur bois du XIX<sup>e</sup> -siècle. <em>Paris</em>, 1883.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Brough, W. S.</span>—Book Illustration. <em>Leek</em>, 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bullock, J. M.</span>—Art of Extra Illustration. 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Crane, W.</span>—Of the Decorative Illustration of Books. <em>London</em>, -1901.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>—Mezzotints. <em>London</em>, 1904.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dobson, A.</span>—(Chapter on Illustrated Books in Lang’s “The -Library.”) <em>London</em>, 1881.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dobson, H. A.</span>—Bewick and his Pupils. <em>London</em>, 1884.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Duchochois, P. C.</span>—Photographic Reproduction Processes. <em>London</em>, -1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Farquhar, H. D.</span>—Grammar of Photo-engraving. <em>London</em>, 1895.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gerring, C.</span>—Notes on Book Illustration. <em>Nottingham</em>, 1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Geymet, T.</span>—Traité de Gravure en demi-teint par l’invention du -cliché photographique. <em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Geymet, T.</span>—Traité de Gravure et impression sur zinc. <em>Paris</em>, 1887.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Geymet, T.</span>—Traité de Photogravure. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Geymet, T.</span>—Traité de Photo-lithographie. <em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Grolier Club</span>, New York.—Catalogue of Engraved Titles and -Frontispieces published in England during the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries. <em>New York</em>, 1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hardie, M.</span>—English Coloured Books. <em>London</em>, 1906.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henrich, M.</span>—Iconographie de las ediciones del Quijote de M. de -Cervantes Saavedra. <em>Barcelona</em>, 1905.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hinton, A. H.</span>—Handbook of Illustration. <em>London</em>, 1895-1905.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hodson, J. S.</span>—Guide to Art Illustration. <em>London</em>, 1884.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Huson, T.</span>—Photo-Aquatint. <em>London</em>, 1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jackson, J. B.</span>—An essay on engraving in Chiaro Oscuro. <em>London</em>, -1754.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kirkbridge, J.</span>—Engraving for Illustrations. <em>London</em>, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kristeller, P.</span>—Early Florentine Woodcuts. <em>London</em>, 1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kristeller, P.</span>—Die Strassburgher Bucher-illustration im XV. und -XVI. Jahrhunderts. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lietze, E.</span>—Modern Heliographic Processes. <em>New York</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Linton, W. J.</span>—The Masters of Wood Engraving. <em>New Haven, -Conn.</em>, 1889.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Linton, W. J.</span>—Wood Engraving in America. <em>London</em>, 1881.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Madrazo, J. de.</span>—Collection lithografica cuadros del Rey ... -Fernando VII. 1824.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Martineau, R.</span>—The Mainz Psalter of 1457 (Bibliographica, Vol. I.).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Massena, A. P. V.</span>—Etudes sur l’art de la gravure sur bois a -Venise. <em>Paris</em>, 1895-6.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Morin, L.</span>—French Illustrators. <em>New York</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Muther, R.</span>—Die deutsche Bücherillustration. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1884.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Papillon, J. B. M.</span>—Traité de la gravure en bois. <em>Paris</em>, 1766.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pennell, J.</span>—The Illustration of Books. <em>London</em>, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pennell, J.</span>—Modern Illustration. <em>London</em>, 1895.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pennell, J.</span>, and E. R.—Lithography and Lithographers. <em>London</em>, -1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pingrenon, R.</span>—Les livres ornés et illustrés en couleur depuis le -XV<sup>e</sup> Siècle en France et en Angleterre.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pollard, A. W.</span>—Early Illustrated Books. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pollard, A. W.</span>—Italian Book Illustrations. <em>London</em>, 1894.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Roux, V.</span>—Traité de gravure héliographique en taille douce. -<em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Schnauss, J.</span>—Collotype and Photo-lithography. <em>London</em>, 1889.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Senefelder.</span>—Complete Course of Lithography. <em>London</em>, 1879.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Singer, H. W.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Strang, W.</span>—Etching, Engraving, etc. -<em>London</em>, 1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sketchley, R. E. D.</span>—English Book Illustration of To-day. -<em>London</em>, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Smith, F. H.</span>—American Illustrators. <em>New York</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Strange, E. F.</span>—Japanese Illustration. <em>London</em>, 1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Verfasser, J.</span>—The Half-tone Process. <em>London</em>, 1904.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vidal, L.</span>—Traité Pratique de Photo-lithographie. <em>Paris</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Villon, A. M.</span>—Traité Pratique de Photogravure. <em>Paris</em>, 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">White, J. W. G.</span>—English Illustration, “The Sixties.” <em>Westminster</em>, -1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wiesbach, W.</span>—Die Baseler Buchillustration des XV. Jahrhunderts. -<em>Leipzig</em>, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wilkinson, W. T.</span>—Photo-mechanical Processes. <em>London</em>, 1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wood, H. T.</span>—Modern Methods of Illustrating Books. <em>London</em>, -1887.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="titlefont">MISCELLANEA.</span></h2> - - -<p class="chapblock">Book edges and their decoration—Embroidered books—Cloth bindings—Account -books—End papers—Small metal-bound books—Books -bound in tortoiseshell—Chained books—Horn books.</p> - -<p>The projecting bosses and corners which occur in -mediæval bindings were to protect them against the friction -of other books which lay upon them, a thin piece of wood -dividing them. The books were piled upon each other, -so that if one of the lower ones was wanted it was necessary -to remove the upper ones. This caused much trouble, so -that in due time it was found better to stand the books up -on end on shelves.</p> - -<p>The prone position is, however, the better one for the -book, and the respective levels of the edges of the book and -the edges of the boards are designed for this position. -When the books were set up on end, the discrepancy -between the levels of the book edges and the board edges -was never rectified, and the result is that a large amount of -damage has been done. When a large book is set up on -end, the weight of it rests entirely upon the lower edges of -the boards, and the lower edges of the book itself are up in -the air above the shelf by so much as the projection of the -edges of the boards beyond them. The result is that the -whole of the weight of the vellum or paper of the book -pulls upon the bands of the back in their weakest direction,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -from within and more particularly from the top, thereby -pulling the back inwards. The mass of the book falls -forward slantingly, until the lower edge of the front of it -rests upon the shelf.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to describe, but my sketch will show what I -mean, and the truth of it can be easily seen in almost any -library of old books that are kept “on end”; the edges will -be found grubby from resting on the shelf, and the top -of the back will be found pulled -forward.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 175px;"> -<img src="images/i_142.jpg" width="175" height="224" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—Inside of -heavy book fallen -forward, by -reason of being -kept upright.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Valuable books that are kept upright -should have the edges of the boards level -with the edges of the leaves, and then -this disastrous pull would not occur.</p> - -<p>A remedy, however, may be found by -means of a piece of wood cut the same -size as the lower edge of the book so as -to fit closely into the hollow between the -outer edges of the boards and the lower -edges of the leaves. Such a slip will -neutralise the drop of the leaves, and preserve the proper -form of the backs of heavy books.</p> - -<p>But before the upright position was finally adopted for -books, and their titles were put on their backs, the front -edge or “forage” of the leaves was always kept outwards, -in view, and on this space or long panel all sorts of devices -and letterings were put.</p> - -<p>Leaves of a book, pressed tightly together, provided too -tempting a space to be ignored, to say nothing of the -usefulness of giving the name or title of the book, or the -device of its owner, or even a decorative design. So on fine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -mediæval books and also on later books, following the earlier -manner in their own way, we find all sorts of designs on -book edges. It is not a subject which has attracted much -attention as yet, but it probably will in time, and there is -already enough known about it to show that much valuable -knowledge is lying hidden up in it. For instance, if a -book, otherwise likely, has the words “Rex in Æternum -Vive” painted in gold on the edges, it is a positive sign -that it issued from the workshop of Thomas Berthelet, -printer and binder to Henry VIII.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_143.jpg" width="600" height="269" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—Forage decoration in colour. Tenth century.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Edge decoration of some sort seems to have been done -from the tenth century onwards; at first elementary or -symbolical designs were simply painted upon the edges, and -not counting the mere book titles or press marks, it may be -said that since the fourteenth century heraldry has played -a very important part in edge decoration. In England this -form of adornment for a bound book has been largely -followed from that time, and there are fine examples of it -in books bound for Henry VII. and the other of our Tudor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -sovereigns, as well as for private persons of the same period. -The edges are treated as panels and the painting done -upon them when pressed firmly and solidly together. The -edges are generally coloured some neutral colour as a -groundwork and sometimes lettering in gold is done upon -them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_144.jpg" width="600" height="176" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—Italian forage decoration in gold and colour (1560).</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Henry VIII. often had the legend “<span class="smcap">Rex in Æternum -Vive Nez</span>” written in gold on the cream coloured edges -of his books, and all that are so lettered are attributed to -Thomas Berthelet as binder. The “Nez” is rather a -puzzle, and it was suggested by Mr. J. L. Scott, of the -British Museum, that it stands for the three initial letters -of the phrase in the Book of Daniel, <a id="Ref_144"></a>Ναβουχοδονὀσωρ Εσαει -ζῆθι—a quite possible solution.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> -<img src="images/i_145.jpg" width="184" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—German forage decoration -in gold and colour. -The arms of Nuremberg -(1566).</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Queen Anne Boleyn’s copy of the New Testament has her -name, “<span class="smcap">Anna Regina Angliæ</span>,” written in red upon its -gilt edges.</p> - -<p>For Queen Elizabeth, book edges were usually gilded, and -on this gilding designs were impressed with ordinary -binding tools. This is the commonest form of edge -decoration, and is called “gauffring.” Gauffred edges -are found in abundance in French, German and Italian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -work. There are fine examples -of it on books bound for Henri -II. of France and all his children, -and on those made for -Diane de Poictiers, Duchesse -de Valentinois. In all these -cases colour is often added to -the designs on the gold. Le -Gascon put some elaborately -painted edges on some of his -hooks; on Italian books and -English books colour is sparingly -used; on the other hand, -in Germany and the Low -Countries colour was often -overdone and the result is -garish.</p> - -<p>Until the time of Samuel -Mearne, towards the end of the -seventeenth century, all edge -paintings were done on the -edges of the leaves simply -pressed solidly together, but -Mearne invented a new fashion -of arranging the leaves. In -the case of the older manner -we usually find the upper and -lower edges painted as well as -the fore-edge, or “forage,” but -it is only the forage that can -be painted in Mearne’s style,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -and so in all instances of this kind the upper and lower -edges are left plain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_146.jpg" width="600" height="238" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—Book fanned out to show forage painting in Mearne’s style.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Mearne had his book forwarded, finished, and the edges -gilded before beginning his painting. Then he opened the -book by the upper board only, and laid it down flat on its -back and kept it in that position by weights. In this -position it will be found that the forage fans out into a -larger panel than exists when the book is shut up. On -this fanned-out panel the painting was done in water-colours -with as dry a brush as possible. When the -painting was finished and the book allowed to resume its -normal shut position, the edge painting entirely disappeared, -and the gilding on the forage looked as if nothing was -behind it. So thoroughly does such a painting disappear -that I have found several that were quite unknown to their -owners, and I have no doubt that there are plenty of -unrecognised examples in English private libraries in -perfect condition and safe obscurity.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;"> -<img src="images/i_147.jpg" width="182" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—Portrait of -Charles II. in colour, -on the forage of a -book bound for the -king by Samuel -Mearne.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The only name I have found on any of Mearne’s forage -paintings is that of “Fletcher.”</p> - -<p>After Mearne, for about one hundred years, I know of no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -particular development of forage -decoration, but towards the end of the -eighteenth century, the same principle -was revived by James Edwards of -Halifax. Edwards had an artist -brother, and it is likely enough that -he painted the edges on his brother’s -curious vellum-bound books. The -designs are not so markedly heraldic -as the earlier examples were, but are -often biblical.</p> - -<p>Edwards’ delicate paintings, always -on small books, were copied for some -considerable period, and many little -books were made with such work upon -them for many years. Windsor and -Eton are both favourite subjects, and -country houses of all sorts. Landscapes -are particularly suitable for -this form of painting, and many specimens -are very pleasing.</p> - -<p>All the foregoing paintings are done -so as to be complete on each book, but -some time ago a remarkable set of -Italian books, I believe of the sixteenth -century, were brought to England. -The forages of these volumes -were painted in such a manner that -the complete design only showed when they were all -arranged in proper order on a shelf with their forages outwards. -In the case of sets of books bound uniformly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -this manner of ornamenting them is worthy of the attention -of some of our enterprising modern binders.</p> - -<p>Although the greater number of books, both in manuscript -and printed, have been bound in leather or vellum, there -are still very many that have been covered in other -materials.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_148.jpg" width="600" height="646" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—English velvet binding, with seals, made for -Henry VII.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The commonest of these materials are velvet, canvas, -satin, silk, cloth, linen, and buckram. I believe that all of -these, except perhaps the last three in recent times, have -been more used in England than they have been in any -other country.</p> - -<p>Velvet is the most interesting, as its use is the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -ancient, of any of these textile materials. It is strong -and beautiful, the fur or pile being produced in a very -curious manner. Two warps are used in the manufacture -of the fabric, and small hollow brass wires, slightly flattened -at the sides, and having a groove along the top, are inserted -transversely under the raised “pile” warp at intervals as -the weaving proceeds. These wires keep the thread in the -form of upright loops, resembling those which can be seen -on a Brussels carpet on a larger scale. The wires are then -cut out by drawing a sharp specially-designed knife called -a truvat along the groove at the top. The consequent -separation of the warp threads which formed the rows of -loops now forms the pile, each thread standing upright. -It is wonderful how well velvet lasts, and what hard wear -it will stand before all the pile is worn away.</p> - -<p>Books bound in velvet are not uncommon in Dutch work; -they are sometimes inlaid in differently coloured velvets, -and sometimes embroidered. In France books have rarely -been bound in velvet, in Italy and in Germany still more -rarely.</p> - -<p>In England, however, there has been a considerable output -of velvet bindings. Examples still exist that were made -in the fifteenth century for Henry VII., whose library was -in all probability entirely bound in this material. Nothing -earlier than Henry VII.’s books are now known of English -bindings in velvet, but these are so fine that it is likely -enough that earlier work of the kind was done in the case -of very choice manuscripts.</p> - -<p>Not only are Henry VII.’s books, which are still in their -original covers, in marvellously good condition, but they -are also among the most decorative bindings that have ever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -been made, here or in any other country. Fine examples -may be seen in the library at Westminster Abbey, at the -Record Office, and in the British Museum, and in every case -their beauty and interest well repay the trouble of obtaining -access to them.</p> - -<p>These volumes -all are in the same -style, but they vary -in detail. All I have -seen are in red -velvet, and have -metal bosses in the -centre and smaller -ones in the corner.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_150.jpg" width="400" height="541" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—English embroidered book, velvet. -Made for Henry VIII.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>One of the handsomest, -which may -be taken as a type, -is a copy of the -indentures made -between Abbot Islip -and Henry VII. for -the foundation of -the chantry at Westminster. -It is a -large manuscript on vellum, and is covered in rich red -velvet projecting liberally over the edges, and bound -with gold fringe. In the centre is a circular silver cup-like -boss, containing the royal coat of arms, France and England -quarterly, with supporters of red dragon of Cadwallader -and white greyhound of De Beaufort, cut out of silver and -enamelled in proper colours. At each corner is a circular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -silver boss containing the De Beaufort device of a portcullis -gilt and cut in low relief, and set on an enamelled background -of the Tudor livery colours, green and white, per -pale. There are clasps of cloth of gold braid, fastening with -a chased silver-gilt button bearing an enamelled rose, and -dependent from the lower edge of the board are five silver -boxes bearing Tudor emblems in relief, each containing an -impression of the great seal.</p> - -<p>It is also recorded by Paul Hentzner that in 1598 he saw -Queen Elizabeth’s library, and that many of them were -bound in velvet and embroidered, a note that is fully corroborated -by such of her books as now remain.</p> - -<p>But there were also books embroidered upon canvas in the -fifteenth century, one of which is now in the British Museum. -It is a psalter of the fourteenth century, and is covered in -fine canvas on which are delicate embroideries in the manner -known as “Opus Anglicanum,” which looks like a chain -stitch, but is really a cleverly managed split stitch.</p> - -<p>This remarkable book, the earliest known example of an -embroidered binding, has upon one side a beautiful representation -of the Annunciation, and on the other a Crucifixion. -It is supposed to have been worked by Anne de -Felbrigge, a nun in the convent of Minoresses, at Brusyard, -in Suffolk, and daughter of Sir Simon de Felbrigge, K.G., -standard bearer to Richard II. It is considerably worn and -faded, but the designs can all be made out.</p> - -<p>The velvet books which were made in the next reign -were ornamented with embroidered designs appliqués, and -many of them are very handsome. The designs on such -books were nearly always heraldic, judging from those -that remain, but arabesques and floral ornamentation are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -often met with on satin. Queen Katharine Parr is said to -have embroidered some of these books, and there is one in -canvas in the British Museum, and one in canvas and one -in velvet at the Bodleian, which are supposed to have been -worked by the Princess Elizabeth, always with braid.</p> - -<p>When Elizabeth came to the throne she continued her -evident liking for velvet bound -books, and she had them of -several colours—red, green, or -black. Several of these are -richly embroidered, sometimes -with armorial designs, sometimes -floral, and sometimes -arabesque. Others are decorated -with brilliant enamels or -gold, centrepieces, cornerpieces, -and clasps, and others again -have appliqué pieces of coloured -satin, on which is gold tooling, -some of which is actually put -on the velvet itself.</p> - -<p>Canvas is rarely found -during Elizabeth’s reign, but -it does exist, and is usually embroidered in a coarse manner -with tent-stitch.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/i_152.jpg" width="275" height="406" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—English embroidered -book, canvas (1648).</p></div> -</div> - -<p>In the seventeenth century the taste for velvet bindings -still remained, but not so exclusively, as there were many -more bound in silk or satin, usually white. The majority -of these books are small, Prayers, Bibles, Psalms, and the -designs upon them are of great variety, but generally have -a symbolic tendency—figures of Faith, Hope, Charity,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -Peace, Plenty, and numbers of biblical subjects, David and -Bathsheba, Solomon and Queen of Sheba, Jacob’s Dream, -Jacob wrestling with the Angel, Abraham and Isaac, and -many more; and besides these there are numbers of quaint -little bindings with floral designs.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_153.jpg" width="400" height="437" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—English embroidered “double” -book, satin, seventeenth century.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The period of Nicholas Ferrar’s curious establishment -at Little Gidding -in Huntingdonshire -was coincident -with the reign of -Charles I. Here -were contrived most -interesting Harmonies -of the Scriptures, -done under -Ferrar’s superintendence -by his nieces -Mary Collet and her -sisters. These ladies, -moreover, bound the -Harmonies themselves, -and were not -only the first English -lady binders but also the first amateur binders, and they -bound exceedingly well. Mrs. Wordsworth was another -pioneer among lady binders. She covered her books in -pieces of her own old dresses.</p> - -<p>Not only did the ladies of Little Gidding bind their -Harmonies, sometimes very large, in sheep skin, morocco -and calf, but also in velvet, curiously ornamented. I have -already mentioned that in the sixteenth century the art of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -gilding upon velvet was known, but it was reserved for the -ladies of Little Gidding to bring it to perfection.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_154.jpg" width="400" height="487" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—English, embroidered binding -canvas, seventeenth century.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>There will always be some little doubt as to whether -these magnificent gold and silver tooled velvet books were -done entirely by the binders at Little Gidding, or with the -assistance of their -masters, Bucks of Cambridge. -There is a -marked similarity of -general style as well as -of detail, but the larger -Little Gidding books -appear particularly to -bear the impress of -more irresponsible -genius than that of the -orthodox university -printers.</p> - -<p>Gilding upon velvet -is still practised a little -in England; the service -books used at the -wedding of the present -Prince of Wales were in -red velvet with the royal monogram impressed in gold upon it.</p> - -<p>With the eighteenth century an end came to any great -output of bindings in velvet, canvas or satin; now and then -an isolated specimen is found, and the era of cloth bindings -began in the nineteenth century.</p> - -<p>The main difference is that the earlier books in velvet, -canvas or satin were always specially broad, but the cloth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -bindings were trade bindings from the beginning, with -very few exceptions.</p> - -<p>At first backs of paper bound books were strengthened -by pieces of ordinary linen or calico pasted over them, the -title being added on a label; but a special cloth for binding -purposes was made early in the century by James Leonard -Wilson, and in 1822 Pickering’s Aldine Classics bound in -that material were issued. This use of a special cloth was -largely helped and fostered by Mr. Archibald Leighton, who -made a speciality of it. The cloth was sometimes watered -and sometimes plain. Cloth soon became a favourite -binding for cheap books, and in time Wilson found a way -of gilding upon it, probably by the use of dried and -powdered albumen.</p> - -<p>Some of the early cloth bindings were ornamented by -impressions from engraved cylinders, the pattern showing -in low relief. The great pressure which was used to make -this impression had so hardened the cloth as well as the -boards upon which it is fixed, that many of the existing -examples of the work are still in perfect condition.</p> - -<p>Then gradually came ornamentation stamped in gold on -the sides and gold lettering on the back, and of recent years -designs and pictures stamped in colours upon cloth, canvas -and buckram have become common. Many of these -designs are excellent, and the work required for them gives -employment to a large number of designers as well as -colour printers and block makers. Books bound in these -materials look well and last well for a time, but they are -essentially short-lived if handled much.</p> - -<p>About the middle of the nineteenth century numbers of -small illustrated periodicals, landscape annuals, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -like were covered in watered silk, generally red, blue or -green. These also do not last well; but if any copies that -are still in a good state are found, they should be carefully -preserved as they are, and not be rebound; they represent a -type of binding that is by no means without charm. -Perhaps the most important books which were originally -issued in this form of cover were the two beautiful volumes -of Rogers’ <cite>Poems</cite> and <cite>Italy</cite>. They have gilt edges and are -bound with flat open backs and sawn in bands.</p> - -<p>Buckram is generally used for large books, as it is stiff -and troublesome to fold over in a small way. If a large -book is properly sewn and has proper boards it may well -be covered in buckram, provided it is not to be much -used. The joints soon look unsightly, as the hinge -movement causes the dressing, of which there is a large -proportion, to powder out. Buckram is rarely ornamented; -indeed, it may almost be said that a book bound in it is only -intended to keep together until such time as it can be -properly bound in some better material.</p> - -<p>Art canvas is sometimes used for bindings, and it is fairly -satisfactory, but has the same delicacy at the joints as -buckram, and soon looks shabby.</p> - -<p>There is now such a quantity of cheap literature that is -not likely to last, or to be wanted to last, that there is a -large and increasing demand for cheap binding materials -other than leather. So there is an important future for -specially prepared binding cloths and buckrams. The only -libraries that are likely to suffer by the more general introduction -of such materials are the few large ones that are -obliged to keep all their books, old or new, in working order -inside and outside.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> - -<p>Account book bindings are peculiar and very strong. -They have been used for a long time in banks and business -houses, and are purely utilitarian and comparatively quite -modern.</p> - -<p>Strong sound paper is an essential for account books. -The sewing is done in the flexible style, but on broad flat -bands of vellum or leather instead of raised bands of hemp. -The ends of the bands are fixed between two boards, pairs -of which form the boards of the book. The space between -the edge of the back of the book where the bands leave it -and their inset to the boards is not drawn close, but a -narrow margin is left so that a perfectly flexible and strong -leather joint is left. In small books this peculiarity is -known as a French joint, and it obviates the common -failing of sides falling away from otherwise sound bindings -along the joint-line at the back.</p> - -<p>The back of account book bindings looks very strong, but -it is really nothing of the sort. It is only a show back, to -take the lettering and cover up the real joints, which are -securely laid along the edges of the boards.</p> - -<p>When an account book is opened it “sets up” so that -it can be easily read right down to the sewing at the back. -This is of great value in many cases other than the keeping -of accounts, and it is the only advantage of the common, -but weak, bindings with “hollow” backs. But there is no -doubt that a modified form of account book binding, with a -French joint, is a style which might with advantage be -studied by our modern art binders.</p> - -<p>The study of end papers is to some extent necessary for -the true judgment of the work of certain binders. For -instance, Thomas Berthelet normally used white end<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -papers, Samuel Mearne used red marbled end papers, and -Roger Payne used purple or pink end papers. The Italian -binder who worked for Grolier used vellum for end -paper, and so on. The knowledge of such details is useful -in detecting frauds, as they are apt to be under-estimated -in importance by a forger.</p> - -<p>Of all end papers the most common is marbled paper, -and one of the most curious usages of it is when a beautiful -and delicate French binding has a charmingly gold tooled -doublure of splendid leather faced by a wretched leaf of -marbled paper.</p> - -<p>The usual marbled paper is made by means of a bed of -size on which colour is sprinkled by a brush, the colour -lies on the top of the size and is moved about by means of -a wide-toothed comb or a pin or anything that is handy, -until the resulting pattern is to the satisfaction of the -operator. Then the paper is laid down in the size, and -when raised up it brings all the colour with it. It is -generally easy to see how the pattern has been made by -looking at the paper, and it will be found that the most -usual forms have been made by the use of a broad-toothed -comb. I should think that the process might well have -produced something better than it ever has; undoubtedly -if J. M. Whistler had ever known of it we should have had -some remarkable results.</p> - -<p>Marbling is probably of Oriental origin, and was most -likely first practised in Germany, so far as Europe is concerned. -It was certainly understood in Nuremberg in -1599, as specimens made there are to be seen in the -<cite>Album Amicorum</cite>, of J. Cellarius, of that date. It is, -of course, obviously capable of endless modifications, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -of late years some very delicately and prettily coloured end -papers have been made.</p> - -<p>More or less in continuation of the mediæval fashion -of covering book-bindings with richly-worked metal -overlays, we find, in the seventeenth and eighteenth -centuries particularly, numbers of small books bound in -metal or with metal enrichments in the form of centrepieces -and cornerpieces. Clasps occur all along, and although I -hardly think that they have followed out any very marked -line of development, I expect -that some day a careful study -will be made of them, when -some such development may -possibly be discovered. No -student, as far as I am aware, -has made any attempt to -classify book clasps.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/i_159.jpg" width="275" height="259" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—English golden book, -made for Henry VIII.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>But the English, German, -French, Italian, and Dutch -bindings with metal enrichments -are pretty well known -and generally admired. The English are the finest by -far, and, as far as I can ascertain, the earliest. In the -reign of Henry VIII. it was the fashion for ladies to -carry small books of devotion at their girdle. These -little books were always ornamental, and they had a ring -fixed on the lower edge of the binding so that when the -book was lifted up it came right for reading. One of -these belonged to one of the queens of Henry VIII.; it -is a copy of the Psalms, and is bound in gold with a -delicate leafy spray in high relief. On it are remains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -of enamel, and in the beginning is a tiny miniature of -the king.</p> - -<p>Another beautiful little golden book with a design, probably -by Holbein, in black enamel, is now the property of -Lord Romney.</p> - -<p>Several small golden bindings with scriptural subjects in -high relief and enamelled were made late in the sixteenth -century. Most of these are now divorced from their -original texts, and are only kept as specimens of enamel -work, but in one instance the whole book is perfect. This -is a little book of prayers that belonged to Queen Elizabeth. -On one side of it is the Serpent in the Wilderness and on -the other the Judgment of Solomon.</p> - -<p>For the same queen a little copy of <cite>Christian Meditations</cite> -was bound in red velvet with golden centrepieces, -corners, and clasps. The enamels in this case are champlevé, -and still perfect in colour. They are said to have -been the work of George Heriot, Elizabeth’s goldsmith, who -founded a hospital in Edinburgh.</p> - -<p>James VI. of Scotland wrote the <a id="Ref_180"></a>βασιλικον Δωρον -for his son Henry, and the precious MS. was bound in -purple velvet with golden centrepiece and clasps. The -gold is cut out thin and then finished by engraving. When -king of England James had some of his books bound in -velvet with silver enrichments. On one of these, a little -book of <cite>Christian Meditations</cite>, which is bound in purple -velvet, the royal coat-of-arms is engraved on the centre -oval, and on the corners are the national crests of England -and Scotland, the crowned harp of Ireland, and the -fleur-de-lis of France.</p> - -<p>A beautiful little New Testament of 1643 with silver<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -portraits of Charles I. and Queen Henrietta Maria, and -cornerpieces and clasps engraved with allegorical figures, -shows that metal on velvet was still a popular style, but -on later bindings in England metal centrepieces fell quite -out of use. Metal corners, however, were still used for some -time, and clasps occasionally.</p> - -<p>Bindings entirely of silver are rare in English workmanship, -but they were not unknown, as a fine specimen with -a repoussé figure of Charity covers a -Common Prayer of 1632.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_161.jpg" width="200" height="252" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—German -binding in silver -filigree and niello.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Of German and Dutch workmanship -many metal bindings exist, and -they are of varied styles. All these -bindings have solid metal backs with -hinges along the sides, and usually a -sort of cap projecting over the headband. -Many of the later examples are -not good, but are made of bad metal -and coarsely worked in repoussé. The -worst of them are probably Dutch work.</p> - -<p>Some of the earlier German silver bindings are prettily -ornamented with niello work, and others have filigree work -over gilt metal, and the use of tortoiseshell with silver or -gilt mounts is also found of Spanish, German, or Dutch -workmanship. I should say that the best guide to determine -to which of these countries the work belongs is to -take the place of imprint as authoritative. The imprint -on a printed book does not by any means always imply -that a binding was made there, but in many doubtful cases -it is undoubtedly of much value as to mere nationality; -the style of the binding itself should always be the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -consideration. Some Dutch bindings are made in base -metal, gilt, often with open work and engraving. They -are neither good to look upon nor pleasant to handle.</p> - -<p>Italian bindings in metal are rare, and it is only in the -case of very small books that it was ever used. The -manner of this is usually fine filigree work over a gilt -groundwork. There is one example in the Victoria and -Albert Museum, which is, however, more likely to be quite -an exceptional production than one in -any way representing a national type. -It is an exquisitely enamelled golden -book cover, having on one side the -Garden of Eden and on the other the -Fountain of Youth; it contains a -missal, and is said to have been made -for Queen Henrietta Maria.</p> - -<p>In France a few silver bindings of -the sixteenth century with enamels -have been made, but they are very -rare, and the enamels of the basse -taille style, usually badly chipped.</p> - -<p>I believe some small metal bindings -with rough enamels upon them have been made in comparatively -modern times in Russia. These all have a strong -Byzantine feeling and are clear survivals of the same style -that was in vogue in Russia in mediæval times, and was -used not only for bindings but also for ikons and triptychs. -The work is coarse and unsatisfactory.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_162.jpg" width="200" height="273" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—Dutch binding -in tortoiseshell and -silver.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Tortoiseshell mounted in metal has been largely used for -bindings in Holland, Germany, and Spain. The backs are -hinged to the sides with long snuff-box hinges, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -shell itself is sometimes beautifully inlaid with silver and -mother-of-pearl. Some of these covers are very small, -particularly the Dutch ones, and designs are sometimes -impressed upon them.</p> - -<p>Mother-of-pearl has now and then been utilised for -binding very small books. The backs and hinges are -usually of silver.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_163.jpg" width="200" height="259" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—German chained -book, fifteenth century.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The curious custom of fastening books to their shelves -by means of chains was common enough in Europe in -mediæval times and became almost -universal in the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries in churches. It -was of course done as a safeguard -against thieves, and as far as I -know only in the case of printed -books. Although printed books -soon became plentiful, yet no doubt -in the case of Bibles and Prayer -Books it is likely enough that a -considerable leakage took place. -Such small books were commonly -chained to the backs of the pews -in private chapels throughout England, and undoubtedly -the custom, though inconvenient in use, was effective -enough for its purpose.</p> - -<p>Larger books would naturally belong to important -libraries, those of cathedrals and churches particularly, -and of these there are still left plenty of examples still in -chains.</p> - -<p>The chains are of iron, average 3 feet long, and are -clamped to the front edge of the upper board by means of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> -a rivet; the other end of the chain is provided with a ring -which runs freely to and fro along a locked metal rod. -Enough play is given by the chain to allow of the book -being taken off its shelf and rested on the desk close at -hand which is always provided for it.</p> - -<p>There is a certain fashion in the way of attaching these -chains. In foreign books the fastening is usually found at -the top of the upper board, while in the case of English books -it is usually fixed on the front edge of the upper board. -The books were normally kept with their forages outwards, -and on these edges the titles were written or emblazoned.</p> - -<p>The Laurentian Library at Florence has a large number -of chained books kept in beautifully carved shelves.</p> - -<p>The Church of St. Wallberg in Zutphen has several -chained books. There is a legend that the devil carried off -so many of the holy books that something had to be done, -so the chains were blessed in due form with holy water, -since when the books have been safely preserved.</p> - -<p>Plenty of examples of chained libraries are still left in -England, particularly at Hereford Cathedral, the old -treasure house at Wimborne Minster and All Saints’ Church -at Hereford; a complete list of them is given in Blades’ -“Books in Chains,” published in London in 1892.</p> - -<p>The inconvenience of chains must have been considerable, -and no doubt careless readers often got into trouble about -them. On a notice concerning the library at King’s College, -Cambridge, in 1683, readers are requested to replace the -volumes “decently without entangling the chains.”</p> - -<p>About the middle of the eighteenth century the inconvenience -of chains on books was fully realised, and from -that time there has been a general tendency to their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -removal, except in cases where their retention is advisable -for antiquarian reasons.</p> - -<p>True horn books were used in England and America, -but similar constructions also existed in other countries—chiefly -France, Germany, Italy, -and Holland—but without horn -covering.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/i_165.jpg" width="275" height="508" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—English seventeenth -century horn book.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>They were for children’s use, -and the alphabet and the Lord’s -Prayer are the commonest letterings -upon them, always beginning -with a cross, giving the first -line the name of the “Christ -cross” or “criss cross” row. -The paper for true horn books is -printed only on one side, and -then laid down upon a flat piece -of wood. Some unused eighteenth -century horn book sheets -are preserved in the Bagford -fragments at the British Museum. -Over the printed slip a piece of -horn is put, kept in place by strips of brass fastened with -nails having facetted tops, but it must be noted that after -about 1820 the facetted tops were often replaced by -flat heads.</p> - -<p>Like all books or objects which were originally cheap and -common, horn books are now very rare, but they are so -valuable that it is unluckily worth while to imitate them, -and many fraudulent modern specimens are about. A horn -book is, unfortunately, easy to copy, and it is sometimes a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -very difficult thing to say positively whether a given -specimen is genuinely old or not. Modern frauds are often -wrong in either the printing, the paper, the horn, or the -nails, but they are often right as to the wood, which is -easily made to have every proper appearance of age by -means of soaking in water, rubbing with sand, staining by -ammonia, and so on. Collectors should, if possible, get a -properly authenticated history with every specimen offered -to them.</p> - -<p>Small plaques for teaching the alphabet seem to have -existed before the invention of printing, but in printed form -they were most used towards the end of the sixteenth -century until the nineteenth, when their character altered, -the wooden frame and its horn covering disappeared, and -a degenerate production in varnished cardboard, preserving -the old form in some respects, took their place. These -cards are often called battledores, but this name was an -old one, and originally used for true horn books. The -name battledore is probably derived from the batlet, which -was used for beating clothes, the horn books somewhat -resembling this in shape.</p> - -<p>Although the general run of horn books are simple, there -are many instances in which they have been decorated; a -certain analogy thus exists between the diptychs and the -horn books. Lord Egerton of Tatton has a beautiful sixteenth -century example, the back of which is ornamented -with silver filigree work, and horn books backed with Dutch -silver, engraved, are sometimes found. These generally -have a bird or a tulip engraved upon them.</p> - -<p>Other ornamental examples are to be found in the -Birmingham Museum and in private ownership. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -are very decorative, and some of them have talc instead of -horn in front.</p> - -<p>In 1851 some curious stone moulds were found at Hartley -Castle by Sir George Musgrave, and one of them was -undoubtedly used for casting lead “horn” books, and -similar moulds have been found in Germany; the English -ones may have been made about the earlier half of the -sixteenth century.</p> - -<p>But more curious devices were found on the other side of -the same piece of stone: these are undoubtedly the emblems -of saints’ days as shown on clog almanacks of the same -period, so that the horn books may possibly have originated -from the makers of cast leaden almanacks.</p> - -<p>Horn books were also cut in ivory or bone, often with -designs engraved on the back or on the handle. The lettering -and devices were originally run in with heelball or some -such material. They were also made of boxwood with letters -burnt in, or engraved pewter, or gingerbread, and sometimes -covered in paper with panel stamp impressions in -blind or black ink.</p> - -<p>Several of the later seventeenth and early eighteenth -century horn books were covered with leather and stamped -in blind, gold, silver, or, in Dutch examples, Dutch metal, -which nearly always turns black, from panel stamps; sometimes -the designs were arabesques or flowers, and at other -times we find figures of saints or kings—St. George and the -Dragon, mermaids, and the like—and several of Charles II. -on horseback, the Duke of Cumberland, and other great -people.</p> - -<p>These same stamps are also often impressed on paper -backs as well as on leather.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> - -<p>The late cardboard horn books either leave out the cross -at the beginning or replace it by a meaningless X; they also -often show additional alphabets with little wood-cut illustrations. -At last the horn book form is quite lost, and at -last we find folded pieces of cardboard with stamped or -marbled backs, retaining only the alphabet to show that -they are survivals.</p> - - -<p class="workstitle">WORKS TO CONSULT.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blades, W.</span>—Books in Chains. <em>London</em>, 1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span>—English Embroidered Bookbindings. <em>London</em>, 1899.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span>—Book Edges. (Bibliographica.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span>—Little Gidding. (Bibliographica.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span>—Royal English Bookbindings. <em>London</em>, 1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Labarte, J.</span>—Hist. des Arts Industriels au Moyen Age. <em>Paris</em>, -1864-66.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lacroix, P.</span>—Le Moyen Age et la Renaissance. <em>Paris</em>, 1848-51.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Libri, Count G.</span>—Monuments Inedits. <em>Londres</em>, 1862.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Prideaux, S. T.</span>—Historical Sketch of Bookbinding. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tuer, A.</span>—History of the Horn Book. <em>London</em>, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Woolnough, C. W.</span>—The Art of Marbling.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="titlefont">LEATHERS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="chapblock center">Vellum—Calf—Pig skin—Sheep skin—Goat skin—Seal skin, etc.</p> - -<p>Prepared skins of animals have been the most generally -used of all materials for covering bindings of manuscripts -or printed books. Leather is tanned skin, and the hair is -generally removed. Bindings that have the hair still left on -the leather are usually of an elementary kind and are -intended to be carried about in pockets. They are not -common. Vellum (calf skin), and parchment (sheep skin), -are not tanned, but are prepared with lime and are white. -Not uncommonly, especially in Germany, other skins were -so prepared. Pig skin, deer skin, goat skin, horse skin, -and donkey skin were all “vellumised,” and are all very -strong and take excellent impressions in blind.</p> - -<p>It is likely enough that vellum was used for the first -covering of books, simply enclosing the sections, the ends -of the bands drawn in, without boards. Such bindings are -excellent for thin books, and they were successfully re-introduced -in recent times by William Morris, always used with -ties, as otherwise the vellum crinkles up.</p> - -<p>“Vellum” bindings made now, unless specially ordered, -are only ordinary bindings in boards covered with vellum. -Vellum is strong, but has some disadvantages. Although -gold looks beautiful upon vellum it is difficult to work,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -and title labels do not stick to it well. If kept near the -light it turns to something very like egg-shell and chips off. -This defect was known to librarians in past times, and -they met it by keeping their vellum books backs inwards, -the forages outwards. Many instances of this manner of -keeping vellum books occur in the Bodleian Library at -Oxford, and they generally have their old pressmarks, and -sometimes titles, written across the top of the forage. Old -vellum was cut thick, and seldom ornamented, and if kept -dry in the dark it is an excellent material. The same -peculiarities exist in the case of parchment, which is, however, -a very inferior skin, thinner, weaker, and not so good -looking. Parchment is frequently described, and used, as -vellum, and few purchasers know the difference; but the -market value of parchment is less than half that of vellum. -Vellum is particularly well suited for bindings kept in large -towns, as dust does not stick to it, and it is easily cleaned. -In time it assumes a creamy colour that is delightful. -From the late sixteenth century until now, vellum stained -green has been commonly used in England.</p> - -<p>White vellumised leather, probably deer skin, has always -been much liked in England from the time of Henry VIII., -many of whose books were bound in this material: among -them a copy of Elyot’s “Image of Governance,” printed in -London in 1541, which is one of the first books with gold -tooling upon it done in this country. Several books were -bound in the same thick white leather for the other Tudor -sovereigns, as well as for some of their richer subjects, but -in the seventeenth century limp vellum once more asserted -its sway and became very popular in England for highly -valued books. The brilliancy of the gilding upon some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -these bindings is quite wonderful; it is certainly doubtful if -any modern finishers could equal the technical beauty of -the work. Then in the eighteenth century, vellum, though -still much esteemed, only took its place as a covering for -boards, and once more, in the nineteenth century, Morris -restored it to its proper use as a limp binding.</p> - -<p>In 1785, James Edwards of Halifax patented a way of -rendering vellum transparent, so that paintings underneath -it showed through, and he used it with much success. The -process has been revived of late years in England.</p> - -<p>The Dutch binders have always liked vellum, but it is -used with boards and never limp. Dutch vellum bindings -are usually coloured, not well done, but at a distance they -look decorative, and were certainly very popular. They -often have clasps and painted edges.</p> - -<p>A few bindings have been made in England, France, and -Holland, covered with pierced vellum, showing coloured silk -underneath. They are not very satisfactory and soon get -out of order.</p> - -<p>After vellum comes calf, the outer skin of the same -animal, tanned. Calf is a good second, and I think altogether, -up to about the end of the eighteenth century, that -it has been more used than any other leather. The main -difference between old calf and modern calf is that the old -leather was properly tanned with oak bark or sumach, and -cut thick, whereas modern calf used for binding is abominably -tanned, quickly and disastrously, and cut thin. There -is no better leather than old calf, and it was used universally; -England, France, Germany, and Italy all liked it; it was -delightful to decorate, either in blind or gilt, and it mellowed -with age to a rich mahogany brown. Italian and sixteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -century English binders stained their fillets black, and -several of these calf bindings, richly gilded, and with black -fillets, are quite splendid, in perfect taste.</p> - -<p>The surface of calf is smooth, and it is very sensitive to -all sorts of stains.</p> - -<p>Calf is seen at its best when it is used to take impressions -from panel stamps, but its beautiful surface and sensitiveness -to stains of all kinds has made it a favourite ground -for all sorts of fancy markings, most of which, however -charming they may be at first, end by destroying the -leather.</p> - -<p>Russia leather is calf prepared with willow bark and -scented with birch oil. It is a modern leather, and lasts -badly, and is generally diced,—that is to say, covered all -over with diagonal rulings. It was a favourite leather of -Roger Payne’s. It is said that a book bound in Russia -leather will last better if much used, and no doubt this -is true, not only of Russia but of any other leather. -As a rule leather bindings in libraries are starved; they get -dry, and readily absorb animal oil from the human hand. -The truth of this may be found in the fact that numbers of -dictionaries and books of reference were preferentially -bound in Russia leather some thirty or forty years ago, and -whereas unused books bound at the same time in the -same way now show rotting leather, the reference books -which have been continually used are quite sound and -supple.</p> - -<p>Cow hide is like a magnified calf leather, and shows a -slightly pitted surface. It is not often used, but is of much -value for very large books that are worth full binding, as -one piece of hide could be cut large enough, for instance, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> -full-bind the <cite>Skibbereen Eagle</cite>, one of the largest Irish -newspapers. It would take three or four of the largest -goat skins to do this, and it is always advisable to avoid -joins, wherever possible, in a binding. But there is one -drawback to the use of hide for binding: it is practically -impossible to cut it smooth; however skilfully it may be -pared, when it gets on the book it is always ridgy. This is, -of course, not very important, but it militates against the use -of hide except when absolutely necessary. For the rest, -hide takes colour well, and it is a very handsome leather, -and when it is finished simply with very broad gold fillets -it is very ornamental.</p> - -<p>Pig skin is perhaps the most familiar of all bookbinding -leathers to the outside world, because saddles are made of -it. It is a thick, rich leather, and, so to speak, full of life. -It is not suitable for small books, but very good for large -ones, and has been used in England off and on for a long -time, but never very much. Charles Lewis executed some -fine examples of his larger bindings in pig skin, but I think -he never cared much for it.</p> - -<p>Pig skin responds admirably to treatment with lime, the -same method of preparation as used for vellum; and this -white “vellumised” pig skin has always been the most -favoured material for the covering of fine German books of -the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. Many -of these bindings are perfect in their way, covered all over -with delicate roll stamps showing marvellous definition and -clearness on the hard white surface.</p> - -<p>Fine though all their impressions are, it cannot be denied -that they are difficult to see; the impressions are shallow, -and indeed the designs can often be more easily made out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -by help of a rubbing with heelball on soft white paper than -by examining the binding itself.</p> - -<p>Pig skin can be recognised by its smooth hard surface, -strongly pitted with bristle holes. It is closely imitated in -inferior leather, bristle holes and all, and when such imitation -is actually on a book it is very difficult to detect, but if -in skin form it can easily be recognised. In real pig skin the -bristle holes penetrate right through the leather, and show -quite as much at the back as they do in the front, whereas -in the imitation they show little, if at all, at the back. -Also the back of real pig skin is of very firm, close texture, -but the imitation shows a more or less woolly or loose -grained back, as it is generally made of sheep skin. French -binders have never favoured pig skin much—it is not dainty -enough for them.</p> - -<p>Sheep skin has always been a favourite leather for bookbinding, -but it is not a fine leather and has never been used -for first-rate binding. It has, however, been more worked -up than anything else into imitations of fine leathers.</p> - -<p>The imitation of fine leather in inferior sheep skin has -been for a long time a very important industry, and it -is one which is still with us. All fine leathers show a -particular and well known grain on their surface, but -the most largely imitated is that of goat skin or morocco.</p> - -<p>In a well grained skin of morocco, the beautiful grain is -strongly marked, whether it be “pinhole” or “straight”—so -strongly marked indeed that a cast of it can well be made -in plaster of paris. From such a cast a metal die can be -made, and when this die is strongly pressed upon a prepared -piece of sheep skin, which will take an impression extremely -well, the result is that a surface is produced which is so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> -exactly like a piece of morocco that even a leather expert -may be, and often is, taken in by it. In course of time, -however, the impression flattens out, and the fraud betrays -itself.</p> - -<p>When such a stamped sheep skin is new on a book, and -finished with gold, no one would for a moment suspect its -genuineness, but if in skin form, the back of the leather -will at once betray it. Real morocco has a hard close -grain, but the back of the imitation will show a loose soft -texture. Other leathers are imitated in the same way: pig -skin, lizard skin, and others; and although there has been, -and still is, much of such imitation used in the matter of -bookbindings, there is still more of it used in the furniture -trade.</p> - -<p>But putting aside these base uses of sheep skin, it has a -very fair record to show on its own unaided merits. Many -early Italian bindings, good ones, were made in sheep skin; -certainly it has not lasted well, but no doubt when new it -was pleasing enough. In England, many of the early -fifteenth century panel stamp bindings were made in sheep -skin, not quite satisfactory now, but also probably well -enough when new.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to say much in favour of modern roan, -the trade name for sheep skin, which has suffered badly at -the hands of the tanner and the dyer; also probably the -binders have not been without fault, as in order to get the -leather flexible for joints and bands they have acquired a -pernicious habit of paring it too thin, and another, equally -hurtful, of unduly pulling and stretching it so that the -fibres, or what is left of them, get strained and broken.</p> - -<p>Skiver is part of a split sheep skin, the surface of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -which is altogether artificial. It is much used for cheap -pamphlet bindings and looks well for the moment, but is -not so strong as good paper. It is wonderful how cleverly -the “paste grain” or artificial surface of skiver is made; it -deceives most people easily. The remaining part of a -split sheep skin is prepared quite differently and is made -into “chamois” leather. Although this is not used for -actual bindings, it is often enough made into linings for -loose covers of fine books. It does well for this purpose, -but must be kept in a very dry place as it has a certain -affinity for damp.</p> - -<p>The finest of all leathers for binding is goat skin, morocco -as we now call it, from the reputed land of its origin. -“Levant morocco” is still the name of the finest skins. -Goats, however, have of course been common enough all -over the world for ages, and so we find very ancient bindings -in goat skin, quite possibly the most ancient, although I -rather incline to vellum in this connection.</p> - -<p>Many of the English twelfth to fourteenth century -blind tooled bindings are in goat skin, tanned brown, most -likely with oak bark, and from that period until now it -has always been used here, at some periods more than -others.</p> - -<p>Goat skin always shows small hair dots in groups all over -its surface; it is not quite smooth like calf, and also it -shows certain structural striations. In early goat bindings -both these marks show clearly, and until the time of Roger -Payne in the eighteenth century, the leather was left in its -natural state so far as surface marks went.</p> - -<p>Italian bookbinders at an early date saw the beauty of -natural sunk lines on goat skin, and accentuated them by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> -rubbing in gold leaf. On such bindings the markings on -the leather show as fine gold lines; it is a pretty idea, and -can often be found on sixteenth century bindings, especially -on those that were made for Tommaso Maioli.</p> - -<p>French morocco bindings are frequently stained with -colour, particularly those which were made about the time -of Henri II. in the sixteenth century. The stain is usually -put on the fillets or arabesques surrounding a central -oval, in which is often a painted coat-of-arms. But as a -rule such coloured bindings are in calf, which takes stain -more easily than morocco.</p> - -<p>Goat leather has never been so much liked by German -binders as calf or pig skin. This is partly due to the fact -that German bindings are as a rule ornamented with blind -tooling, and goat skin is never satisfactory when treated in -this way: its grain is against it; but for gold tooling, which -has been brought to its greatest perfection by Italian, -French and English binders, there is nothing that gives so -fine a result as goat leather.</p> - -<p>Roger Payne saw and liked the natural grain of goat -skin, or, as we may now call it, morocco. But he found -that in many cases he could get a better impression from -his very delicately cut stamps in Russia leather. Here, -however, he was restricted to one colour, and his favourite -colour, a neutral green, could only be procured in morocco. -So he ironed the morocco to flatten its natural hills and -dales, and produced something like what is now called -“crushed” morocco. Payne’s smooth morocco is, however, -not quite our modern “crushed”; it is smoother, because -now we “grain” our leather strongly before crushing it, -whereas Payne ironed his without first increasing its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -natural grain by artificial means. Morocco is often badly -injured by the ironing being done with irons that are too hot.</p> - -<p>But Payne went a step farther. No doubt he experimented -much with morocco, and it is likely enough that -before endeavouring to smoothen out his skins he wetted -them thoroughly. If he wetted a fine skin of morocco -overnight and left it alone, perhaps doubling it or rolling it -up, he would have noticed next morning that the natural -grain had become much intensified, due to a slight shrinkage -of the leather, and showed as a particularly effective -breaking up of the surface. Some such chance led him to -make definite experiments with a view to exaggerating the -natural grain of morocco, and he very soon found out -that if a damped skin was well rolled in one direction it -assumed permanently what is now known as a “straight” -grain. That is to say, the surface of the leather is lined in -the same sort of way as a ploughed field is, but not quite -so regularly. The ridges and furrows all run in one -direction. Several of Payne’s bindings are bound in -straight grain morocco, but judging from his own work, he -never got any farther with his graining.</p> - -<p>At a later time, I think towards the middle of the nineteenth -century, it was found out that if the process of straight -graining was carried out a second time at right angles to the -first operation, the little straight furrows and ridges were -broken up, and a surface was produced that consisted of a -series of minute hillocks, like a field that has been harrowed, -and this is known as a “pin-head” grain. Both these grainings -improve the strength of the leather, as it contracts -after the wetting and also the wear falls on the tops of the -ridges or hillocks before it reaches the body of the leather.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p> - -<p>French binders have always preferred smooth or crushed -morocco for their bindings, as it is easier to gild upon. -Morocco is sensitive to damp, and if affected it quickly -betrays it by giving out the strong scent of goat which is -normally quite absent.</p> - -<p>Two new leathers have been recently put upon the -market as rivals of morocco: one of these is seal skin and -the other the skin of the sea-lion.</p> - -<p>Seal skin is finished in the same way as morocco and -looks very like it, but it is, I think, not so good. It is -softer, more full of oil and has a peculiar, almost fishy, -smell. The softness of seal leather makes it unfit for -binding books that are likely to have much hard wear, but -the oiliness is probably its worst fault, as books standing -next to it are apt to be stained. But it is undoubtedly a -good-looking and useful leather, and if it can be put upon -the market at a less cost than morocco it is sure to have a -considerable vogue. Sea-lion skin is only fit for use on big -books; it is very strong and is curiously ridged in large -ridges. It has the same oiliness that seal has, but not in -so marked a degree.</p> - -<p>There are, of course, several other leathers in which -books have been bound as curiosities, and these are -generally noted in some way; a book in the British Museum -is lettered outside “Kangaroo,” and manuscript notes are -in others telling us in what strange materials they are -covered. Fish skin, known as shagreen, has sometimes -been used for bindings; it is very strong but inelastic, and -soon goes at the joints. In the seventeenth century it was -largely imitated in calf, stamped with a grain.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most curious leather in which any book can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -be bound is human skin. Such treasures are by no means -unknown. It is said that a friend of Camille Flammarion -the French writer, possessed beautiful shoulders, and that -when she died she bequeathed her skin to him as he had -always admired it. He had the skin tanned and used -some of it for a binding of one of his own books, “Ciel et -Terre.” There are other examples in private ownership, -but so far as public libraries are concerned the only -instance I know of is now in the Carnavalet Library at -Paris. It is a copy of the Constitution of 1793, and is -bound in the skin of one of the revolutionaries who was -killed at the time. The skin was tanned at Meudon. -Human skin, undyed, looks like thick calf, and it is most -difficult to get entirely rid of the hair.</p> - -<p>It is to be regretted that of late years the desire for -beautifully coloured leathers has induced the need for -much treatment before the dyes, mostly aniline, could be -properly applied. In the course of this treatment there -has been an undue use of sulphuric acid, and the presence -of this acid is fatal to the lasting qualities of any leather. -Attention has, however, been drawn to the evil from -authoritative sources, and now sound leathers can be -obtained, and it is to be hoped that the public will second -the endeavours of the committee appointed by the Society -of Arts by always insisting on the use of sound and certified -leather to bind their valuable books in.</p> - - -<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Society of Arts.</span>—Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. -<em>London</em>, 1905.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Library Association.</span>—Leather for Libraries. <em>London</em>, 1905.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="titlefont">THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITHOUT GOLD.</span></h2> - - -<p class="chapblock">Blind tooling and stamping—Panel stamps—Cut leather—Stained -calf—Cut vellum—Transparent vellum.</p> - -<p>The true binding of a book consists of the sewing of the -sections on bands, and the covering of leather is really -wanted to protect the threads on the outer surfaces of the -raised bands.</p> - -<p>But this is generally taken for granted, and now when -we speak of the binding of a book we normally mean only -the outside ornamentation. In short, the term has changed -its meaning; so in the remainder of this chapter, when I -speak of the “binding” of a book, it is to be understood as -the generally accepted meaning: namely, those parts of the -leather covering that are visible.</p> - -<p>From an artistic and æsthetic point of view we are justified -in considering only the final ornamentation of a book -binding. We rightly presume that in all great bindings, and -even in the case of most good bindings, the technical procedures -have all been truly and properly carried out. It is -safe to presume this in the case of all bindings made before -the latter half of the nineteenth century, but I regret to say -that it is not safe to say it of bindings made then and later. -There has been much improper use made of false bands,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> -false headbands, “sawn in” backs, bad leather, and -scamped sewing of sections even in books costing upwards -of a hundred pounds for their bindings.</p> - -<p>The consideration of the ornamentation of leather bindings -without the use of gold is of itself a large study, and -one that has received much attention of late years. In the -trade, ornamental outside work is called “finishing,” as -distinct from the previous work, which is known as the -“forwarding.” As a rule, now, these operations are not -done by the same hands, but a finisher does the finishing -only and makes it his speciality.</p> - -<p>Patterns stamped on leather by means of punches or -small dies are found in numbers of early instances on horse -trappings, shoes and boots, and accoutrements of various -sorts; and almost as soon as it was found out that skins of -animals could be rendered soft so as to be wearable, it was -also found out that they could be ornamented by patterns -cut or impressed upon them.</p> - -<p>Such patterns are made when the leather is damp and -soft, and on drying they become hard and permanent. -Many of the earlier impressions made on leather bindings -are done by means of hard styles held in the hand and -drawn along the leather. Beautiful Celtic interlacings done -in this way are found in the ancient Irish “polaires” or -book covers. Others are small ornamental stamps which -have been impressed on the leather in the same way as we -now make an ordinary seal.</p> - -<p>One of the earliest instances of a leather binding with -ornamental covers is on a Coptic MS. on papyrus, dating -from about the eighth century, which has been originally -stabbed, and the pattern is an interlacing one with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> -ornamented fillets, between which are impressions from -small cameo stamps. In time special tools were carefully cut -in hard wood or metal for the avowed purpose of ornamenting -leather bindings. The exact date at which this -occurred it is impossible to say.</p> - -<p>So far as Europe is concerned, the earliest known blind -tooled bindings range from about the twelfth century -onwards. Earlier books were either covered with the rich -metal and jewelled mediæval work that I have already -noticed, or else bound in vellum with ties and without -ornamentation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> -<img src="images/i_184.jpg" width="440" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—English blind tooled binding, -12th century. London.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>In England the art of blind tooling reached its highest -level from the twelfth to the fourteenth century, and, thanks -to the researches of Mr. W. H. J. Weale, there is little doubt -that the English excelled in this art. The Germans succeeded -best after the English, but German work never -approaches the English, either for excellence of general -design or for delicacy and beauty of the small engraved -stamps. The English work was on goat skin or calf, the -German generally on pig skin.</p> - -<p>The stamps used in blind tooling—that is to say, without -gold—are cut in the same manner as a seal stone is, only -that the cutting is much deeper, and in deep places needs -no finishing. When this is pressed upon the soft, damp -leather, the leather rises up of itself into the deep hollows -cut in the stamp, and so a charming, natural, and apparently -much studied relief is automatically given. Such stamps -are called “cameo” stamps because of this relief.</p> - -<p>The general typical arrangements used by England, -Germany, and France in planning out the disposition of -the stamps is a subject that is deserving of careful attention<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -by any student of blind stamped work. Some valuable -plans of these dispositions can be found in Mr. W. H. J. -Weale’s <cite>Catalogue of Bookbindings and Rubbings of Bindings -in the National Art Library, South Kensington</cite>, and they -are well worthy of study.</p> - -<p>Roughly, it will be found that the most elaborate of these -bindings have come from Durham, London, Winchester, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> -Oxford, that series of close perpendicular lines of small -stamps are characteristic of French early stamped work, -and that the marking out of the boards with large lozenges -is a German plan. But these types must not be studied -alone, as they travelled about freely; the character of the -stamps themselves, as well as the leather used, must all -receive careful consideration.</p> - -<p>London bindings often show perpendicular lines of stamps, -sometimes touching, sometimes separate; several of the -stamps are round, and others drop-shaped.</p> - -<p>The Winchester Domesday Book, now in the library of -the Society of Antiquaries, is a beautiful and typical specimen -of English twelfth century blind tooling. It is bound -in deep brown goat skin, and each side is differently -ornamented.</p> - -<p>The upper board shows an arrangement of two large -circles, largely made up by impressions of the common -English drop-shaped stamps. These circles are flanked -by two rows of rectangular stamps bearing monsters, and the -corners are filled in with circular and drop-shaped stamps.</p> - -<p>Durham bindings must be studied at Durham Cathedral, -where Bishop Pudsey’s books are kept. They are twelfth -century work, and splendid examples. On some of these -bindings occur interlacings of basket work designs, borrowed -from the East.</p> - -<p>One of the most curious English bindings in existence is -known as St. Cuthbert’s Gospels. Its history is of great -interest. It is a copy of the Gospel of St. John, and is said -to have been buried with St. Cuthbert at Lindisfarne in the -seventh century. The saint’s coffin was shortly afterwards -moved to Durham. The tomb was opened in the reign of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -Henry I. in 1105, when the little copy of the Gospel was -found in it, and removed and kept in the treasury at -Durham.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_186.jpg" width="400" height="573" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—English binding of St. Cuthbert’s -Gospels, in embossed leather.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>It then passed through many hands, and at last found -a home at Liège, -whence one of the -Jesuit Fathers -brought it to Stonyhurst -College, where -it now is.</p> - -<p>The binding is of -thin lime wood -covered with red -leather, the upper -board is ornamented -with a nearly square -central panel bearing -a Celtic scroll in -raised work. Above -and below this are -two rectangular -panels ornamented -with scroll-work impressed -with a style -and coloured by hand -with blue and yellow paint. A narrow border is ornamented -with a twisted line painted yellow. On the lower cover -is a geometrical design drawn in lines and also coloured -yellow.</p> - -<p>It is not known what the date of this binding is, and it is -likely enough that the extraordinary state of preservation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -in which it still is may be due either to very careful keeping, -or else that the seventh century work has been carefully -copied on one or other of the many occasions during which -such copy could easily have been made.</p> - -<p>Mr. Gordon Duff inclines to about the tenth century, but -I should imagine that the most likely time for such a copy -to be made was when the tomb of St. Cuthbert was opened -in 1105, and the book, then some four hundred years old, -was removed. It is likely enough that the authorities of -the Cathedral library treasury at Durham would have -admired the binding, which was probably much out of -condition, and had it carefully copied in new leather.</p> - -<p>Even if it were made then, it would still be the earliest -decorative English binding left, apart from blind tooled -work, and it is undoubtedly a most decorative and effective -example. But it is permissible to think and hope that -at all events it preserves the colour and designs of the -seventh century binding, which was the first cover of the -old manuscript.</p> - -<p>Another very early English binding, covering a Latin -Psalter of the early twelfth century with interlinear Saxon -version, is now kept in the British Museum among the -Stowe collection.</p> - -<p>It is bound in oaken boards nearly an inch thick, the -central portion of which is hollowed into a rectangular -depression. On the lower board is a bronze figure of our -Lord in the attitude of the Crucifixion. The figure has -been gilded, but most of the gold has now worn off. The -corners have small bosses set in triangular pieces of thin -metal, which are impressed with a design of a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleur-de-lys</i> -in outline within a circle. The boards are covered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> -brown leather, much worn and faded, probably deer -skin, and the brass fastenings for a clasp still remain <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in -situ</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;"> -<img src="images/i_188.jpg" width="445" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—English binding of the twelfth century, -with bronze figure of Christ.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The history of the book is as curious as the book itself; -there are several manuscript notes in it, and also much -has been written about it.</p> - -<p>It appears to be the original book on which our sovereigns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> -took their coronation oath, and it seems to have been -so used from the coronation of Henry I. to that of -Henry VII.</p> - -<p>Powell in his <cite>Repertory of Records</cite> mentions this as a -fact, and it was repeated by Thos. Madox, historiographer, -and also by Thos. Astle, Keeper of the Records in the Tower -of London, to whom it belonged, and it is believed to have -been written and bound for the coronation of Henry I.</p> - -<p>From the library of Thomas Astle the little book passed -into the possession of the Marquis of Buckingham, and was -kept at Stowe in a beautiful Gothic room built for a -library. In June, 1849, the Stowe library changed hands -and became the property of Lord Ashburnham, and -in 1883 it was acquired by the Trustees of the British -Museum.</p> - -<p>So the coronation book is now the property of the nation, -and in company with the greater part of the Stowe library, -but the Irish MSS., some of them in beautiful bindings, -went to Ireland, where they are now safely kept in the -library of the Royal Irish Academy.</p> - -<p>Caxton’s styles of binding are not distinctively English -in character. The reason for this is that in all probability -he brought foreign stamps and styles with him when he -returned from Bruges and set up in Westminster in 1477. -So the few blind stamped bindings that appear to have -issued from Caxton’s workshop bear the diamond-shaped -spaces characteristic of foreign work, filled with impressions -for cameo stamps, often triangular. Wynkyn de Worde -used the same stamps.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 482px;"> -<img src="images/i_190.jpg" width="482" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—English blind tooled bindings. -Caxton. (1491.)</p></div> -</div> - -<p>White deer skin bindings were used much in England in -the fifteenth century; they were unornamented, and usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> -had small clasps. A fine copy of the Book of St. Albans, in -a contemporary binding of this kind, was recently sold by -Mr. Quaritch.</p> - -<p>A curious treatise in bookbinding, the earliest known, is -in the Bibliothèque Nationale; but there are two treatises by -John Bagford which may be of about the same date, early -in the eighteenth century. These treatises have been -published by the Bibliographical Society, and are full of -interesting matter. Bagford mentions inscriptions on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> -stone, “slate books,” or diptychs, paste-boards, sewing, -headbands, covers, bosses, clasps, horn books, and gives -curious rules for collating, folding, and binding.</p> - -<p>At Oxford fine blind tooled bindings were produced in -considerable numbers. In the fifteenth century Theodoric -Rood and Thomas Hunt did fine work, and in the seventeenth, -Dominick Pinart and Edward Miles were especially -prominent. The main characteristic of early Oxford -bindings is the presence of small rectangular stamps closely -arranged in rows.</p> - -<p>Cambridge has also been notable among English towns -for the production of fine blind tooled bindings. The main -characteristic of these bindings may, perhaps, be considered -to be the existence of rolls on which are variations of the -Royal Tudor badges, rose, fleur-de-lys, portcullis, the castle -of De Beaufort, and the pomegranate. Larger rolls have -devices of monsters, and frequently the initials of the -binders may be found.</p> - -<p>In the sixteenth century the works of Garrett Godfrey, -Nicholas Spierinck and John Siberch are, perhaps, most -usually met with. They show the initials of their respective -binders.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_192.jpg" width="300" height="450" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>—French blind stamped -binding of the sixteenth -century. With figure of S. -Barbara.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Blind tooled bindings of French origin are numerous -enough, especially those impressed with panel stamps. -The main characteristic of early work is the existence of -perpendicular lines of blind tooling, but although this -peculiarity is oftener found on French work than on any -other, it is by no means unknown in bindings made by -English and German workmen, so must not be taken as an -absolute proof of French origin if unsupported by other -evidence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p> - -<p>Late in the fifteenth century the panel stamp was -invented in Holland, or the Netherlands, and it soon -attained a great measure of popularity. It reached -England in the early part of the sixteenth century, and -although at first foreign dies were freely used here, in time -our native binders made -their own.</p> - -<p>In France and Germany -panel stamps were also -popular, used on calf bindings, -but I think that in -Italy it never made much -headway.</p> - -<p>The Netherlands panel -stamps often have the names -of the binders upon them, -Bollcaert, Bloc, and many -more, and the same valuable -information is also -often found on French panel -stamps of the sixteenth -century.</p> - -<p>The best known names are -André Boule, Jean Moulin, -R. Macé, and Denis Roce. All these are plentiful, and -are often found in excellent condition. The English -panel stamps do not bear names upon them, but -they often have initials, but whether it is safe to interpret -these is difficult to say. We generally consider that J. R. -stands for John Reynes, I. N. for Jean Norins, R. L. for -Richard Lant, G. G. for Garrett Godfrey, R. P. for Richard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> -Pynson, and so on; but it is probable, anyhow, that -although panel stamps of English design bearing these -initials were used here, they were largely of foreign, -probably Netherlandish, -origin.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_193.jpg" width="400" height="596" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>—English blind stamped binding, -with the arms of Henry VIII.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>In the early sixteenth -century in -England, heraldry -was an important -science, and began -to show itself as -a fertile source of -ornamentation of -bindings. Many of -the panel stamps -of the early Tudor -period are heraldic. -The most interesting -of these stamps -is one which is -found in combination -with several -others; it seems -to be a sort of -backbone. The -design consists of a large Tudor rose, partly enclosed by -ribbon on which is the legend <span class="smcap">HEC ROSA VIRTUTIS DE -CŒLO MISSA SERENO ETERNUM FLORENS REGIA SCEPTRA -FERET</span>.</p> - -<p>At the side are two angels and in the corners the arms of -London and the Cross of St. George.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> - -<p>Then there are numbers of other stamps bearing in the -centre the coat-of-arms of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. up -to 1526, namely, France and England quarterly, with -supporters, the red dragon of Cadwallader and the white -greyhound of De Beaufort.</p> - -<p>Belonging to the same school of design are fine panel -stamps bearing the armorial devices of Anne Boleyn and -Queen Katharine Parr.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_194.jpg" width="600" height="419" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—English sixteenth century panel stamp, with -the initials of Julian Notary.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_195.jpg" width="400" height="586" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>—English blind stamped binding, -with the arms of Queen Katherine of -Arragon.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The question as to whether these stamps are royal or -not inevitably occurs to any student, but as with one or two -exceptions they carry with them extraneous ornament, such -as the sun and moon, and arms of London, I think that -any such stamp cannot have been royal, but it is possible -enough that when the royal arms alone are found the -stamp may have been originally cut for royalty. Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> -stamps as these are very strong and are not likely to have -ever been worn out—indeed, it is curious that instances of -unauthorised use -of royal stamps is -not commoner than -it is.</p> - -<p>One of the most -curious of these -panel stamps, not -armorial, is one -which bears upon -it the device of -John Reynes. It -shows a fancy coat-of-arms -on which -are the emblems -of the Passion, -with two unicorns -as supporters, a -royal helmet, -above which are -scourges, &c., and -a crowing cock, -and below on a -ribbon the words -“Arma redemptoris mundi.” One cannot forget here that -Dame Juliana Berners, in the Boke of Cote Armour, declares -the Christ was a gentleman of coat armour by right of his -mother Mary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 472px;"> -<img src="images/i_196.jpg" width="472" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>—English blind stamped binding, with arms -of Christ. Bound by John Reynes, c. 1530.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The English panel stamps, as well as rolls, of the early -Tudor period often bear the Tudor badges of double or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> -Tudor rose, the fleur-de-lys, and the portcullis of the -De Beauforts. These badges are usually crowned.</p> - -<p>Panel stamps were cut on latten, a metal alloy resembling -brass. The thin engraved plate was fixed on a wooden -block by means of two pegs, and the impression was made -on the leather either by the use of a hammer or by means -of weights, very likely by a combination of both these, -methods.</p> - -<p>After a time the pegs worked loose, and very frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> -panel stamps are found in which the impression from these -loosened pegs can be seen.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_197.jpg" width="300" height="468" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—English blind stamped -binding. Pynson, 1499.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Many German calf bindings of the fourteenth, fifteenth, -and sixteenth centuries are beautifully ornamented with -cut work. The outlines of the designs are cut with a sharp -small knife held slantingly, -and afterwards worked into -shape with blunted tools. -The designs upon these -bindings are often very -fine, and the workmanship -is most skilled and effective. -The earliest example -I know of is elaborately -ornamented on the upper -board with a groundwork -of floral scrolls, and has -in the centre the Austrian -coat-of-arms supported on -an eagle, which is stained -black. On a scroll above -the eagle are the words -“Fridericus rex, etc., 1451” -and below it in a long panel -the letters “A E I O U,” standing for the proud motto -“Austria est imperare orbi universo.” Along the lower -edge is cut the name of the binder, “Petrus Ligator.”</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 225px;"> -<img src="images/i_198a.jpg" width="225" height="295" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—German cut -leather binding, made -for the Emperor -Frederick of Austria. -Dated 1451.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Hunting scenes and scenes of religious life are usually -found on these early German cut leather bindings, now and -then, as in the case of the splendid sixteenth century copy -of Ranierus de Pisa’s <cite>Pantheologia</cite>, now in the British<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -Museum, showing a monk at his -desk; the borders are ornamented with -small stamps. Cut leather bindings -are done with consummate skill, and -must always have been very costly, -so we find that they were, and are, -very cleverly imitated by skilfully -cut stamps. An example of this is -so well done that it has over and -over again been described as hand -work, but in fact it is only a stamp. -German leather workers are still pre-eminent -in this small cut manner. -At the St. Louis Exhibition of 1904, in the German section -there were several examples of cut leather work done in -exactly the same way as the fifteenth century work—and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> -quite as good. It is not only used for book bindings but -also to cover boxes and small articles, but as we have noted -in the case of earlier work, many modern apparently hand-cut -German leathers are really only impressions from large -panel stamps.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_198b.jpg" width="600" height="428" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—English blind stamped binding, with the arms -of Henry VIII.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Notable among German bindings are those made by -John Richenbach, of Gyslingen, who lettered and dated -many of his fine volumes. The dates run from 1467 -onwards. There is one fine example -in the British Museum; it is like all -the rest, in pig skin, and stamped -in blind, a little transparent colour -being put over many of the stamps. -Round the outer borders of the -boards runs the inscription in large -black letters:</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">ILLIGATA PER ME IO. RICHENBACH -CAPELLANU IN GYSLINGEN, 1475.</span></p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_199.jpg" width="200" height="270" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—German binding, -by J. Richenbach. -Dated 1475.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>All Richenbach’s bindings are still -thoroughly strong and good, and -the small touch of colour upon -them redeems them from the monotony of colour which is -so marked in the later German bindings in white pig skin.</p> - -<p>German blind tooled bindings are very numerous, as the -art was always much liked by German binders, and whereas -both in England and in France blind tooling and stamping -quickly gave way before the more beautiful and popular -art of gold tooling, in Germany the quieter blind work has -retained its supremacy. German binders never took kindly -to gold tooling, and when they had to do it they generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> -used bad metal. Most early German gold tooled work is -now badly discoloured for this reason.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_200.jpg" width="200" height="311" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>—German -stamped leather binding -with portrait of -Charles V. Dated 1570.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>German bindings in calf are usually designed with a -central panel crossed by diagonals at considerable intervals, -and in the diamonds thus formed are impressions of various -stamps. On white pig skin, however, are to be found the -most characteristic of the German blind tooled works. We -find large books elaborately ornamented with impressions -of finely cut “cameo” rolls, and -having a centre panel stamp showing -the portrait of some notable person, -or a coat-of-arms. The rolls are -worthy of much attention, as they -are very carefully designed and -beautifully cut. They show an infinite -variety of designs, and may -be roughly divided into two classes, -namely, those showing human figures, -busts in profile, and those only bearing -floral or arabesque designs. -Among the former there is a long -series of allegorical figures, all with -their respective emblems, and often lettered and dated. -There are Faith, Hope and Charity; Sweetness, Prudence, -Justice; figures of the Evangelists, Christ, David, St. Paul, -Lucretia, and heads of the reformers, Luther, Melancthon -and Hus particularly.</p> - -<p>Some of the German panel stamps are very large, also -numerous and finely cut. There are splendidly executed -stamps of Charles V. and other distinguished personages, -emperors and grand dukes, Rudolf and many others, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -others of Luther and Melancthon. Some of these are set -in an arabesque framing with a space left in the middle -for an insertion. These are found impressed on calf and -on pig skin, and the dies of many of them are most -beautifully cut.</p> - -<p>Several of the later calf bindings, done in the eighteenth -and nineteenth century, show an infinite variety of -marblings, sprinklings and “tree” patternings, done with -one or other of the most appropriate chemicals—potash, -soda, oxalic acid—run on when the leather is wet. But -one and all of these rot away the surface wherever they -touch it, and many of these books can now be found from -which the original dyed spots have all entirely disappeared, -leaving, however, a little eaten-out depression in every case.</p> - -<p>James Edwards, of Halifax, invented a style of ornamenting -calf by means of ordinary book stamps loaded with -acid. The result is not unpleasing, and such books are -known as “Etruscan,” because many of the designs are of -classical feeling—little urns, the Greek fret and the like. -But Edwards’ little acid burnt designs are only used as -accessories; there is plenty of gold work and ordinary blind -work upon them as well.</p> - -<p>John Whitaker, another eighteenth century binder, went -a step further, and drew designs upon his calf bindings -with pen or brush. Some of these are very effective, but -as a rule they are now showing the effects of time, the -original darkest places, where the acid has been most freely -applied, suffering first, and showing the pale calf underneath. -But a fine specimen of Whitaker’s work is much to be -prized. He also used the “Etruscan” style. He had -many imitators, but whereas Whitaker’s bindings are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -generally ornamented with figure drawings, the imitators -as a rule preferred easier subjects—ruins or landscapes.</p> - -<p>Calf with the rough side outwards, like brown velvet, was -used in England from the seventeenth to the nineteenth -century, sometimes tooled in blind and sometimes in gold.</p> - -<p>Vellum was used at Little Gidding. One such book is -covered in vellum painted orange colour and overlaid with -openwork designs cut in white vellum. It is a harmony of -the Gospels. The centre design is circular, and the corners -have quarter circles. They are all helped with a little gold -tooling.</p> - -<p>In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries several small -French and Dutch books were prettily ornamented with -vellum cut in openwork patterns. Underneath the open -places bits of coloured silk are laid. They are dainty but -not very successful, as small edges and points of the vellum -are apt to curl up and catch.</p> - -<p>James Edwards, of Halifax, invented a curious way of -making vellum transparent, and patented it in 1785. The -vellum had to be soaked in pearlash and subjected to -various processes, pressure among them, and cut very thin -indeed, so as to be more like goldbeater’s skin than anything -else. Then the books were covered with fine white -paper and painted, generally in monotone, but sometimes -in colour, and over this painting the transparent vellum -was skilfully fixed. The result is that, except when the -thin vellum is cracked or seen through, the painting -underneath is as fresh as ever it was; but it is to be -presumed that there is not much wearing strength in -Edwards’ vellum, chiefly because of its extreme thinness. -But as a rule any fine examples of his work, especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -as they look dainty and precious, have always been well -kept and highly valued, and are in good and clean condition. -Some modern binders have essayed Edwards’ plan -with a certain measure of success.</p> - -<p>Impressions of designs in low relief were made on thin -leather bindings by means of engraved cylinders in the -earlier half of the nineteenth century. They were chiefly -used in the small and beautifully illustrated periodicals -which were so popular in England—<cite>The Age</cite>, <cite>Friendship’s -Offering</cite>, and many more—issued during the earlier half of -the nineteenth century and a little after it. Charming -designs in cameo are often found in these cases, on paste-boards -covered with thin leather, but they are nearly always -rubbed badly in projecting places. Some of the best of -these designs are by Remnant and Edmonds, Smith Elder -& Co., and De La Rue & Co.</p> - - -<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bagford’s</span> Notes on Bookbinding. (Bibliographical Soc. Proceedings, -Nov. 16, 1903.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bickell, L.</span>—Buchereinbände des XV. bis, XVIII. Jahrhunderts -aus hessischen Bibliotheken. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>—Les reluires d’Art à la Bibliothèque Nationale. -<em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>—Cantor Lectures on Decorative Bookbinding. -<em>London</em>, 1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>—Early London Bookbindings. <em>London.</em> (<em>The -Queen</em>, 1891.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Duff, E. G.</span>—Early Stamped Bindings. (Prideaux, S. T.) <em>London</em>, -1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gibson, S.</span>—Early Oxford Bindings. <em>London</em>, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gibson, S.</span>—Some Notable Bodleian Bindings. <em>Oxford</em>, 1901-4.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gray, G. J.</span>—The Earlier Cambridge Bookbinders. <em>London</em>, 1904.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gray, G. J.</span>—A Note upon Early Cambridge Binders of the -Sixteenth Century. <em>Cambridge</em>, 1900.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Grolier Club</span>, New York.—Catalogue of Decorated Early -English Bookbindings exhibited ... 1899. <em>New York</em>, 1899.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lindsay, J. L.</span> (<em>Earl of Crawford</em>).—Early Bindings Exhibited at -the Society of Antiquaries. <em>London</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Weale, W. H. J.</span>—Catalogue of Bookbindings ... in the National -Art Library, South Kensington. <em>London</em>, 1894.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="titlefont">THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITH GOLD.</span></h2> - - -<p class="chapblock">Gold tooling in leather introduced from the East to Venice—Early -Italian gold tooled work—The spread of gold tooling in Europe—Modern -work—Gold tooling in leather—Early Venetian gold -tooled bindings—The work of Thos. Berthelet, John Day, John -Gibson, Mary Collet, Samuel Mearne, Suckerman, Eliot and -Chapman, Roger Payne, Richard Wier, Charles Hering, -Kalthœber, Staggemeier, Walther, Charles Lewis, T. J. Cobden -Sanderson, Sir Edw. Sullivan, Douglas Cockerell, E. M. MacColl, -S. Prideaux, Adams, Etienne Roffet, Geoffrey Tory, Nicholas and -Clovis Eve, Le Gascon, Florimond Badier, Macé Ruette, -L. A. Boyet, Padeloup le Jeune, J. Le Monnier, Derome le Jeune, -Capé, Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, Lortic.</p> - -<p>The art of gold tooling on leather appears to have been -known in Eastern countries before it was known in the West. -There are signs of it in Saracenic work of the early fifteenth -century, but it cannot be quite certain whether much of -this work was not simply painted with gold. If a blind -line is carefully painted with gold shell and then burnished -with a fine agate, a gilded line can be made that looks -nearly as well as a properly gold tooled line. No doubt a -considerable proportion of early gold tooling was done in -this way, and some of it was not even burnished.</p> - -<p>Some early Venetian bindings show gold spaces gilded -with gold leaf in a very effective way, and in the Bodleian -some English panel stamps of the early sixteenth century -are gilded all over.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_206.jpg" width="300" height="471" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>—Italian gold tooled binding, -1514.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>There is little doubt that gold tooling, done as it is now, -was known to the Venetians towards the end of the fifteenth -century. It is a curious art, and depends for its wonderful -strength upon the fact that albumen hardens with heat. -The method used is simple: a stamp is impressed in blind -on the leather, and then -the impression is painted -over with glaire of egg—albumen. -When the albumen -is dry it is again -painted over with palm oil -or cocoa-nut oil, and on -this a piece of gold leaf is -laid. The stamp is now -heated, and when it is of -the proper temperature it -is very carefully reimpressed -in exactly the -same place as at first.</p> - -<p>The heat of the stamp -congeals the albumen -under the gold, and the now -gilded impression is likely -enough to be the strongest -part of the leather. I have -often found old leather bindings badly worn away, but the -gold tooled work and lettering still remaining in places. -Thus, instead of being <em>impressed</em>, as it originally was, it is -all in <em>relief</em>, because the albumen has soaked into the leather -a little and then been hardened, so that instead of gilded -hollows we find little mountains with golden tops.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p> - -<p>But to counterbalance this possible advantage, the -albumen presents a weak point. On an old gold tooled -binding it is not uncommon to find that a golden curve is -partly gone; half of it perhaps shows no longer as a -thin gold line, but only as a shallow trench, hollowed -out of the leather. The meaning of this is that the -albumen provides a nourishing meal for some small grub, -which, once it gets the trail, will follow it, if not disturbed -half over the book, and with wonderful accuracy will eat -away gold, albumen, and a little leather, following curves, -leaves, and letterings with close fidelity.</p> - -<p>This particular damage is most liable to occur in instances -where books are laid down in show cases on cloth or velvet -and not often moved. The soft groundwork allows the -grub more freedom than if the book is standing up closely -packed with others on a shelf.</p> - -<p>The small gilt roundels found on early Persian and Arabic -bindings as well as on early Venetian work, were set with -some sort of gesso under the gold.</p> - -<p>The trade of Venice with the East brought these matters -of ornamented leather to the notice of Venetian bookbinders, -and these, men of consummate taste, at once saw the -possibilities of the new art. Indeed, the Italian gold tooled -bindings of the late fourteenth century are the finest that -have ever yet been made, even though many of them are -quite Oriental in feeling and others very strongly so. But -the Venetians soon crept away from the Eastern trammels -and evolved beautiful styles of their own. One of the -first of these styles was the careful mingling of blind -tooled lines with gilded lines; another was the use of -small gilded roundels—themselves an Oriental idea—in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -connection with blind tooling and blind tooling coloured -by hand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 545px;"> -<img src="images/i_208.jpg" width="545" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>—Cameo stamp of Apollo and Pegasus found on binding that -belonged to D. Canevari. Italian, sixteenth century.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Then at an early date the Italians hit upon the effective -use of so-called “cameo” stamps. These were sometimes -cut on a flat piece of metal, as the “Canevari” stamps are, -and sometimes on a bossed piece of metal, as the Alexander -and Cæsar are. When on the binding these stamps show -as a depression with the design in relief within it.</p> - -<p>Many of the smaller stamps of this period are worthy of -notice. There is the “Arabic” knot, used on Aldine -binding and derived from an Oriental original from basket<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> -work, as many of the early stamps are, the Florentine leaf -and the Aldine dolphin.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> -<img src="images/i_209.jpg" width="350" height="598" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>—Italian gold tooled binding -made for Jean Grolier.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Then there is no doubt that many of the finest of the -bindings made for Jean Grolier were Italian. Who designed -them and who bound -them we do not know, -but among the earlier -examples there is no -doubt that splendid work -can be found. They may -have been done in the -workshop of Aldus -Manutius, but it rather -seems that the designs -were made by one man, -and I think it is not -unlikely that Grolier -himself may have always -given the general idea -of the decoration he -wanted.</p> - -<p>The later bindings -made for Grolier are -curiously inferior, and -sometimes in calf. The -earlier and finer bindings -are in morocco, which is sometimes marbled. The -words “<span class="smcap">Grolierii et Amicorum</span>” are always put upon such -bindings as were made for him, and the legend “<span class="smcap">Portio -mea domine sit in terra viventium</span>” also generally -appears in the centre of one or other of the boards.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> -<img src="images/i_210.jpg" width="425" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>—Italian gold tooled binding made for -Jean Grolier, 1532.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Whenever Grolier acquired a book which was already -very finely bound he added his autograph either on the -flyleaf at the beginning or at the end. Grolier was the first -collector to have his books bound in a particular way for -himself.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Grolier” bindings have been very freely imitated, -especially by a native of Bologna, who worked a good deal -for Count Guglielmo Libri, a great collector, and unfortunately -the style lends itself well to imitation. A -fraudulent finisher looks out for an old Italian book of the -right date, bound in plain leather. Then he copies parts -from one or other of the many Groliers which can be seen -and studied by any Londoner or Parisian for the asking, -and if he is fairly clever at his trade it will take a very -skilled expert to detect the fraud. Many such imitations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> -are about, and every day they become more like genuine -examples.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_211.jpg" width="500" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>—English gold tooled binding by Thos. -Berthelet. Made for Henry VIII.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The styles of binding that have been most largely and -successfully imitated are those made for Jean Grolier, -Henri II. and of his period, and the so-called “Canevari” -bindings.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 479px;"> -<img src="images/i_212.jpg" width="479" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>—English binding by Thos. Berthelet, 1552. -Made for Edward VI.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>From Italy the art of gold tooling rapidly spread through -Europe, and took hold particularly in England and France. -There is no doubt that an Italian gilder came to England -and taught Thomas Berthelet, binder and printer to -Henry VIII. Not only are numbers of Berthelet’s stamps -of distinctly Italian character, but in many of his lists of -books he describes particular examples as being bound -“after the Italian fascion.” But Berthelet quickly enough -evolved a style of his own. It appears to me that English -binders have from the time of Berthelet until now -succeeded better than those of any other nation in the -ornamentation of large books. In small books the palm -must be given to Italian and French binders, but large -books have always puzzled the best of these, and even -Le Gascon has not been successful with them.</p> - -<p>Many of the large books bound by Thomas Berthelet are -as fine as any such books can be. His best work was, -naturally enough, done for royalty, but he set the fashion -for smaller binders, and although there is a want of minute -finish and technical accuracy in everything he did, -Berthelet’s fine work will always give him a place in the -first rank of bookbinders of this or any other country.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 479px;"> -<img src="images/i_214.jpg" width="479" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>—English inlaid and gold tooled binding -by John Day. Made for Queen Elizabeth.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>After Berthelet’s time gold tooling became general in -England, but the binders who used it are anonymous. -There are some fine calf bindings with inlays of white -leather which were made in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, -on which appear the initials I. D. P., perhaps “John Day -Pegit,” and which are credited to John Day, but it is by no -means certain that they were done by that eminent printer. -The style of leather bindings of Elizabeth’s reign departed -finally from that of Berthelet, and more variety is found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> -than at any other period. The Oriental fashion of double -boards was re-introduced, the centre panels being filled -with delicate paintings, portraits or coat-of-arms, and the -remainder of the boards variously ornamented with inlays -of white leather, toolings in gold and silver, and impressions -from stamps cut in arabesques. Some of these bindings are -coloured, that is to say, the arabesques, curves or flowers -are painted by hand with some kind of enamel paint. The -main source of such coloured bindings was Lyons, from -which centre numbers of them were issued, but the fashion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> -was one which appealed to the English liking for colour, -and many fine examples, often heraldic, were made here. -In royal bindings at all times heraldry has played an -important part, but from the middle of the sixteenth -century onwards it plays an equally important part on -bindings made for ordinary armigerous people.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 516px;"> -<img src="images/i_215.jpg" width="516" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>—Italian inlaid and gold tooled binding -in Oriental style. Made for Queen Elizabeth.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Letterings often appear on the sides of bindings of the -Tudor period, mottoes, initials and names. Towards the -end of the sixteenth century a few bindings are found on -which are semis of triple dots. This is the beginning of -the style which reached its ultimate form in the next<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> -century. Also small triangular corner stamps occur now -and then. These also developed and eventually became -one of the most characteristic marks of Jacobean bindings.</p> - -<p>When James VI. of Scotland came here as our James I. -he may have brought with him John Gibson, who was his -binder in Scotland. Lists of books bound by this binder -still exist, but no book or binding mentioned by him has so -far been identified. But there are some remarkable books -among those which were certainly bound for James I. -which are not like the general type of his bindings, and it -is likely enough that these may be Gibson’s work. The -style is a very fine one, and the workmanship strong and -good, but not, in my opinion, correct enough to have been -done by a foreign binder. The same binder did some of -the re-binding for Henry Prince of Wales, and one of its -characteristics is a dotted fillet of double lines.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/i_216a.jpg" width="275" height="346" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>—The book stamp -of Robert Dudley, Earl of -Leicester.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/i_216b.jpg" width="275" height="356" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>—The book stamp of -Lord Burleigh.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is probable that many of the richer bindings of the early -seventeenth century were the work of John and Abraham -Bateman, the king’s printers and binders, but, in spite of -lists, this is again only speculation. There is no doubt -that about this time many bindings were made which -would now be called trade bindings as apart from art -bindings. Trade bindings often enough follow art bindings -at a respectable distance, and they are rarely made on -original lines.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_217a.jpg" width="300" height="494" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>—English binding by -Thos. Berthelet, 1537, with -the title on the sides.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_217b.jpg" width="300" height="384" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>—English Jacobean corner -stamp.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p>Following the lead given by some of the later Elizabethan -bindings, we find from about 1603 to 1625 a considerable -output of very showy bindings, with elaborate semis or -powderings of small stamps all over the groundwork, very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -large and over-elaborated corner stamps and centres of -arabesque or heraldic motives.</p> - -<p>Students of English royal bindings must note that with -the coming of James I. to the English throne, a great -change was made in the English coat-of-arms. The coat -which had been used from the time of Edward III., namely, -France and England quarterly, was now used as a quartering -only, and shows in the first and fourth quarters. In -the second quarter we find the ancient coat of Scotland, or, -a lion rampant within a double tressure flory counterflory -gu., and in the third quarter comes the coat of Ireland, az., -the harp of Apollo Grian, stringed ar, <em>or</em>., given, it is supposed, -by Henry VIII. as a mark of admiration for the -musical excellence of the Irish.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;"> -<img src="images/i_219.jpg" width="448" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>—English gold-tooled binding made -for James I.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Also the late Tudor supporters of the lion and dragon -give place to the familiar lion and unicorn. The unicorn -is one of the ancient supporters of the Scottish coat. It is -interesting to note in passing that the present official coat -of Scotland is, first and fourth Scotland, second England, -and third Ireland, with two unicorns as supporters. It -appears on Scottish official bindings. The interpretation -of this is of course that England and Ireland are appanages -of Scotland.</p> - -<p>But even if it is now correct to dissociate the arms of -England and Scotland, we must not forget the heraldic -marriage between the two countries which took place in -1706, on which auspicious occasion the two coats were -impaled as one. That is to say, they were treated in the -same way as the coats of married people.</p> - -<p>The semis, with large corners, is a manner which has lasted -a long time, but it is not a great style; it is, however, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -which has been largely followed in the case of trade bindings. -In this manner a very rich and brilliant effect can be produced -with a minimum of real design and of technical skill. -The centres of such bindings, if not simply coats-of-arms, -are always of oval outline, but at Little Gidding the irregular -Jacobean corners and oval centres turned into circular -centres and quarter-circle corners. The gold tooled leather -bindings made at Little Gidding followed closely in detail<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -those made by Thomas and John Buck, the Cambridge -University printers, but in the main the bindings made -by Mary Collet and her assistants were original. In the -matter of semis also the Little Gidding bindings show a -pleasant departure from the quite regular arrangements -aimed at by Jacobean binders.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 488px;"> -<img src="images/i_220.jpg" width="488" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>—English inlaid and gold tooled binding -made by Mary Collet at Little Gidding.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>After 1625 the series and corners tended gradually to fall -into abeyance, and although they did not altogether disappear, -they were each modified. Corner pieces became<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -smaller in proportion, and the semis more artistically -irregular.</p> - -<p>Towards the end of the reign of Charles I. some unknown -binder, probably Samuel Mearne, had the hardihood for -the first time to bind royal books without any ornamentation -on the boards except a coat-of-arms. The red leather, -goat skin, used on these bindings is of extremely fine colour -and quality. Simplicity in ornamentation -of bookbindings is -usually accompanied by fine leather, -and at no time has this been -more noticeable than in the case of -Mearne’s simpler work.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_221.jpg" width="200" height="266" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>—Book stamp of -the English Commonwealth.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The political troubles of the later -half of the seventeenth century may -of themselves have tended to incline -bookbinders to simplify their work, -and so also may the Puritan spirit -of the time. State bindings of the -time are studiously simple, and bear -upon them a device with shields, -showing the English cross of St. George and the harp of -Ireland side by side, impressed upon black leather.</p> - -<p>But there were other very decorative small bindings -being produced in considerable numbers about this period. -Whether these also owed their existence to Samuel Mearne -is still uncertain, but he was, I expect, a moving spirit in -the matter of fine bookbindings from the end of the reign -of Charles I. to the end of the reign of Charles II. The -little books I allude to were made during the latter half of -the seventeenth century and are always bound in black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> -morocco. They have inlays of red, yellow, and white -leather upon them and some very well designed gold tooling. -Many of the designs are in detail similar to those which -were certainly used at a later time by Samuel Mearne. John -Bagford, in a curious account of book binding written early -in the eighteenth century, mentions a workman named -Suckerman, who was “one of the best workmen that ever -took tool in hand, and commonly worked for Mr. Merne -the Binder to King Charles the 2.”</p> - -<p>It is quite possible that much of the finest English work -of this period was done by this man, but I expect he was -only a workman, and executed the designs made out for -him by a skilled designer—possibly enough Mearne -himself.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_223.jpg" width="400" height="513" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>—English gold tooled “Rectangular” -style binding, by Samuel Mearne. -Made for Charles II.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Samuel Mearne was appointed royal binder to Charles II., -and he was the second great binder in England. Mearne -bound the majority of his books in the same beautiful red -leather that I have already mentioned as being used for -some late bindings belonging to Charles I., and the same -coat-of-arms occurs on some of those bound for Charles II. -This red leather was probably dyed with cochineal. Before -this no red leather was used to any extent in England. -Brown, olive, blue, and black were all common, but not -red. The ordinary bindings made by Mearne for Charles II. -were simply and tastefully ornamented with rectangular -lines having the royal initials at the corners, but others are -more elaborate.</p> - -<p>We owe a national design to Mearne’s inventive genius, -and it is known as the “Cottage” style. The gold-lined -parallelogram is the starting point, and the upper and lower -lines are broken outwards into a gable form. From this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> -starting point Mearne developed his further decoration with -supreme success, until indeed he succeeded in producing -some of the finest bindings for large books that have ever -been made. Not only that, Mearne’s style and even the -details of his stamps continue until the present time, and -the Bible on which -King Edward VII. -took the coronation -oath was bound in -the Cottage style. -No style has ever -lasted so long, not -only in England, -but in any other -country.</p> - -<p>There was yet -another beautiful -style invented by -Mearne. It is not -so real a design as -the Cottage, as it -partakes to some -extent of the principle -of the semis, -inasmuch as symmetrical -repetition is an integral part of it. There is -no doubt that Mearne saw and admired the work of the -great French contemporary binder Le Gascon, and from -him he borrowed several ideas, among them that of the -pointille or dotted stamps, and also that of the interlacing -fillets with interstitial spaces filled with small gold tooling.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 431px;"> -<img src="images/i_224.jpg" width="431" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>—English gold tooled binding by Samuel Mearne. Made -for Charles II.</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> - -<p>The radical change that Mearne made with regard to Le -Gascon’s interlacing fillets was that he made them up by -using successive impressions -of a two-horned -curve instead -of a continuous fillet -or ribbon. Although -at first sight there -would seem to be no -connection between -one of these “all -over” bindings by -Mearne and one of -Le Gascon’s exquisite -little interlacings, I -think the connection -is undoubted.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_225.jpg" width="400" height="622" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>—English gold-tooled binding in -“all-over” style, by Samuel Mearne.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The all-over bindings, -always small, -are not uncommon; -they are in black or -red morocco, with -colours interchanged, -and are tooled in gold, -with the very decorative -addition of silver paint, water-colour, applied by hand -here and there.</p> - -<p>Eliot and Chapman did much excellent work in the -eighteenth century and invented large ornamental borders -for their bindings. These borders are not rolls, but the component -parts are separately stamped. There is an excellent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -design with arches, a bird and a fly, and another with a -globe, but all of them are admirably and effectively designed.</p> - -<p>Except the work of Eliot and Chapman, the main English -ornamentations on bookbindings during the eighteenth -century were modifications of one or other of Mearne’s -designs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 404px;"> -<img src="images/i_226.jpg" width="404" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>—English gold tooled binding showing -the influence of Samuel Mearne.</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p> - -<p>Eliot and Chapman bound largely for Robert Harley, -first Earl of Oxford, and their broad bordered style is known -as the “Harleian.” The centres, in the finest examples, -are left unornamented, but there are numbers of examples, -especially in later work, in which the centres are filled with -a diamond-shaped mass of small gold toolings. Their style -has been very largely copied.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_227.jpg" width="400" height="195" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>—The book stamp of Robert Harley.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Towards the end of the eighteenth century English -binding received a remarkable stimulus by reason of the -advent of Roger Payne, a native of Windsor, who set up -in London as a bookbinder about 1770.</p> - -<p>Payne’s two predecessors, Berthelet and Mearne, had both -enjoyed Court positions, but Payne never did; he worked -when he chose, and only then, and even if the brilliancy -and genius shown of his work had ever been known to -George III., it is doubtful whether so unreliable a man as -Payne was could ever have been allowed to hold any -responsible position.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 426px;"> -<img src="images/i_228.jpg" width="426" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>—English gold tooled binding, by -Roger Payne.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The main charm of Payne’s work consists in the spare -ornamentation of beautiful leather with exquisitely designed -and cut stamps. These stamps are said to have been cut by -himself in iron, but most of them were certainly of brass.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> -One of Payne’s stamps only is specially cut so as to be -capable of being used in combination; it is a little sprig of -vine, and he used it not only by itself, but sometimes so as -to make an entire vine oval on the side of a book. Payne -was also the first great English binder to pay much attention -to the inside of the boards of his bindings. His “Doublures,” -as they are called, often show more elaborate work than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -exists outside the books. The masses of small stamps which -occur on the borders of the fine doublures and in the -corners of Payne’s bindings are arranged in parallel lines, -but have little constructive arrangement. The brilliancy -of Payne’s gold tooling has never been exceeded.</p> - -<p>In his simpler bindings Payne used a deep soft purple -end paper, usually lined with gold round the edge. The -leather joint red or green is also often gilded, and shows a -stitch or two of the silk thread which Payne always used. -The headbands are small and rounded, of green silk, with -sometimes a gold thread here and there.</p> - -<p>The colours of Payne’s moroccos are deep blue, deep red, -orange, deep olive, or pale sea-green. If other colours are -found on bindings apparently by him, I should begin by -suspecting the work is that of Richard Wier. His Russia -leathers are always dull brown in colour, and diced. -Payne lined his backs too thickly, and his books often -open stiffly. This is not of much importance when the -binding is morocco, but when Russia leather is used it -causes it to break at the joints. Some of the designs in -the back panels of Payne’s more decorative bindings are -quite admirable. His moroccos are smooth or straight-grained, -a method of treating the leather that he invented. -Payne often added a manuscript note to his bound work -and pasted it in the beginning. Several of these notes are -of great interest, as they show the immense care and trouble -he took to do the best he could in every case. They are -also of the greatest value in showing that certain pieces of -work are unquestionably from his own hand.</p> - -<p>Richard Wier, a Scottish bookbinder, worked with Payne, -and closely copied his style. Wier was fonder of blind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> -tooling than Payne was, and they used the same stamps. -Many of the bindings credited to Roger Payne are really by -Wier, who, as well as Mrs. Wier, was a highly skilled mender -of books.</p> - -<p>Charles Hering founded his styles upon those of Payne, -but soon evolved a manner of his own. He finished some -books that Payne had left unfinished in the same style. -Originals and copies are now in the Rylands Library at -Manchester. Hering’s work is, however, only high class -trade binding, as is that of his contemporary, C. Kalthœber. -Both Hering’s and Kalthœber’s work is often signed, either -in small gilt or blind lettering along the lower edge of one -of the boards, or by an affixed ticket.</p> - -<p>Kalthœber frankly copied Payne’s styles and stamps, but -elaborated both so much that he quite lost sight of the -characteristic simplicity of the great master. Kalthœber -bound several books for George III., and many of them are -decorative enough, and if they had not been such parodies -of Payne’s work they would no doubt have taken high -rank.</p> - -<p>Staggemeier and Walther were both Germans, who worked -much in the same manner as Kalthœber. They both signed -their bindings.</p> - -<p>Charles Lewis was very nearly a great binder, but I do -not think he quite reached that level. He used flat double -bands with gold tooling upon them, but these are frequently -only shams, and are in company with hollow backs. After -that his best work was borrowed; but his bindings are -always pleasant to handle and admirably forwarded and -finished. Lewis’ headbands are flat and upright, and -generally sewn with green silk or red and green silk.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -He was fond of brilliant doublures, sometimes all gold, -sometimes vellum edged with richly gilt morocco, and he -was also fond of gilded edges richly tooled.</p> - -<p>In the nineteenth century we have in England produced -one binder who will probably in due time rank with the -highest. The work of Mr. T. J. Cobden-Sanderson will bear -comparison with the best work the past can show, either as -to general design or beauty of detail. Most of the good art -binding done now owes its inspiration to Mr. Cobden-Sanderson, -and already many of his pupils and followers -have achieved distinction for themselves; one of the best -of these is Mr. Douglas Cockerell. The rare work done by -Sir Edward Sullivan will also live. He is entirely original -in his work and in his manner of decoration.</p> - -<p>Lady bookbinders in England have also done excellent -and beautiful work, particularly Miss E. M. MacColl, Miss -Sarah Prideaux, and Miss N. E. Woolrich.</p> - -<p>Professional work of high excellence has been done in -recent years in England by Messrs. Bedford, Rivière, Zaehnsdorf, -and Morell. The younger Zaehnsdorf, G. Sutcliffe, -F. Sangorsky, Fazakerly of Liverpool, and A. De Santy -are all reliable, and may be trusted to produce work not -only technically perfect, but also charmingly finished and -admirably designed.</p> - -<p>Compared, however, to modern French professional bookbinding -of the first rank, by Capé, Duru, Lortic, Bauzonnet, -and the rest, I find that there is a certain heaviness in -English forwarding—English binders have always liked -heavy boards; but I think that in the matter of gold tooling -our best modern finishers can hold their own safely.</p> - -<p>Bookbinding has been more fostered and looked after in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -France than in any other country. As early as 1401 a -guild of all persons concerned in book production was -founded by charter from Charles VI., and continued, with -some changes, until 1791.</p> - -<p>The chief change in this guild took place in 1686, when -the binding and gilding were treated as separate arts, as, -indeed, they properly are. From the time of Francis I. -until about 1633 we find that nearly all the Kings of France -had official binders, and, as might be expected, the best -French work is to be among their work, with the exception -of that of Le Gascon, who, like our Roger Payne, was never -favoured with Court patronage.</p> - -<p>Heraldry plays a considerable part in English bookbinding, -but not so remarkable a one as it does in French bookbinding. -From royal books downwards, persons of distinction, -ecclesiastics of all ranks, ladies and private -persons, all liked to have their books ornamented with -their coats-of-arms as a principal ornament.</p> - -<p>Etienne Roffet was Royal binder to Francis I., but I do -not feel sure that any binding of his is known. It may be, -however, considered likely that he bound most of the books -bearing the King’s crowned initials and his device of a -salamander.</p> - -<p>Several of Jean Grolier’s books were bound by French -workmen. These are in the main designed on similar lines -to those bound by Italians, but there is a difference in the -details of the stamps used. One constant difference may -be found in the fact that on the Italian books the small -leaves and devices are <em>solid</em>, and on the French ones they -are <em>azured</em>, or scored across with fine lines. Some of the -French bound books have colour added on the fillets.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p> - -<p>Geoffrey Tory lived well into the sixteenth century, and -among other artistic productions he designed a special -stamp for gilding his bindings with. Tory lost his only -little daughter, and -afterwards adopted as -his device a broken -vase, symbolic of his -broken life. This vase -is sometimes pierced -by a “toret,” probably -a play upon his own -name, as he describes -it: “ung vase antique -qui est cassé par lequel -passe ung toret.” The -book stamps do not -show the toret, but -the vase is there. In -the other ornamentation -and on these Tory -bindings is a strong -Italian feeling. It is -sure enough that the -art of gold tooling reached France by way of Venice, just -as it did England.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_233.jpg" width="400" height="593" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>—French coloured and gold -tooled binding, with portrait of Henri II.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The most gorgeous period of French bookbinding was -that of Henri II. and his children. Henri himself loved fine -bindings, and so did Catherine de Medici, but unfortunately -we do not know who executed them. They are in calf or -morocco, and nearly always have coloured fillets. Those which -were bound for Diane de Poictiers, Duchesse de Valentinois,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -are equally remarkable, and all of them have, as a rule, -heraldic ornamentation. A fine portrait cameo stamp, however, -of Henri II. appears as a centrepiece on some of his -bindings, and the name Dianne appears on one of Diane’s -now in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;"> -<img src="images/i_234.jpg" width="492" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>—French sixteenth century binding, -made for Diane de Poictiers.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The cyphers which appear on all these bindings are as a -rule straightforward enough, being either those of Henri or -his Queen Catherine, but among them is one which contains -the initials H. and D. intertwined. This may mean<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -“Henri Dauphin,” but it is usually interpreted as meaning -“Henri” and “Diane.” I do not propose here to enter -into the vexed question of this curious cypher, as it has -already been fully discussed elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> but I may say that -Henri’s own device before he succeeded to the throne was a -crescent with the legend <span class="smcap">Nec impleat totem orbem</span>. An -unstrung bow as well as the -other emblems of Diana -the huntress undoubtedly -appears on bindings made -for this king. I am rather -inclined to think that these -devices of bow, crescents, -and quiver, which show on -the bindings made for -Henri as well as on those -made for Diane de Poictiers, -may really have been -separately chosen, and -have no necessary connection -with each other. On -the bindings made for -Diane de Poictiers the bow -is strung.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> -<img src="images/i_235.jpg" width="350" height="508" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>—French binding by Nicholas -Eve, 1578. Made for Henri III.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Henri III. was an eccentric -king, and it has been said that among other arts he learnt -that of bookbinding. He lost his ladylove, and ever afterwards -grieved her loss. His bindings show the device of the -confraternity of the White Monks, to which order he belonged, -and a skull and “<span class="smcap">Spes mea deus</span>.” But besides these gloomy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> -bindings we owe some of the finest bindings ever made in -France to the art of Henri’s royal binder, Nicholas Eve.</p> - -<p>The French order of St. Michel was founded by Louis -XI., in 1466, in place of an older order “De l’Etoile,” -which had been instituted by Jean II. Henri III., in 1578, -founded a new order, the Saint Esprit, and among the -State papers of the time is a note to the effect that Nicholas -Eve bound forty-two copies of the -<cite>Ordonnances de l’ordre du Sainct -Esprit</cite> for the king. One of these -books is now in the British Museum. -It is bound, as described in the official -note, in orange morocco, and agrees -in all respects with that description.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_236.jpg" width="200" height="307" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>—French, gold -tooled “Fanfare” -binding. Made for -J. A. De Thou.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>A remarkable style, known as “à -la Fanfare,” became common in -France about the end of the sixteenth -century. They are generally attributed -to Clovis Eve, who was Relieur -du Roy (1596), but there is really no -authority for such attribution. The -style is a beautiful one, and consists -of interlaced fillets enclosing graceful -sprays of laurel or palm, and arabesque curves. Some -of the finest examples were bound for J. A. de Thou, the -historian, and bear his arms, a chevron between three -gadflies, as a centre ornament.</p> - -<p>Most of De Thou’s books are bound in morocco, and -among those which were made during the life of his second -wife Gasparde de la Chastre are some that are curiously -ornamented. They are bound in pale yellow morocco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> -which has been stamped all over with impressions in black -outline, probably from a wood block, in floral or conventional -designs. The designs have afterwards been filled in by -hand with colour stains, green, red and blue. The leather -has been cut for the binding without any notice being taken -of the coloured designs, which consequently appear -irregularly on the finished work. The books are finished -with gold lines and the arms of De Thou and La Chastre -side by side.</p> - -<p>It has been said that De Thou chose certain colours for -certain subjects, for the bindings of his books, but although -it may be so in some cases I do not think it is consistently -carried out.</p> - -<p>Certain colours have no doubt been chosen in some cases -as distinctive of ownership, as for instance in the libraries -of the three daughters of Louis XV., all of whom bore the -same coat-of-arms. The books belonging to Madame -Victoire were bound in olive, those of Madame Adelaide in -red, and those of Madame Sophie in citron.</p> - -<p>French bindings in morocco were sometimes stained -with colour, especially about the time of Henri II., but -colour on morocco is more generally added as a pigment.</p> - -<p>In recent times some very decorative Spanish moroccos -have been curiously stained with a sort of marbling. Large -consignments of these coloured moroccos have been -imported into this country, and they have been used -especially by Mr. Roger De Coverly, one of our foremost -bookbinders. The morocco is not of a very good quality, -and it is too early to say whether the stains are harmful -to the leather, as they probably would be if they were -on calf.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p> - -<p>Colour as indicating subject is usually given in the case -of large libraries that do their own binding. Red commonly -indicates history and art; blue, theology; green, agriculture -and botany; and so on.</p> - -<p>In the early seventeenth century the mysterious “Le -Gascon” invented the “pointillé” or dotted style of gold -tooling, which has been more universally copied than any -other small peculiarity in book finishing.</p> - -<div id="Ref_238fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 504px;"> -<img src="images/i_238fp.jpg" width="504" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p>French Seventeenth Century Binding. Inlaid and Gold Tooled. -By Le Gascon. [<em>To face p.</em> 238.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Le Gascon was supreme in the binding of small books, -whether ornamented with interlaced fillets, inlaid, or with -the curious design of a swollen cross. Le Gascon’s small -pointillé curves are most cleverly designed; two or three of -them suffice to cover a considerable space with an apparently -complicated design. The glittering effect of the small -pointillé work massed together is heightened by the free -addition of small golden dots wherever space can be found -for them.</p> - -<p>Red morocco was Le Gascon’s favourite groundwork, -and on this he frequently set inlays of coloured morocco, -citron, olive and marbled brown. These were mostly used -in the case of bindings bearing a design of interlacing -fillets, with gold tooling between them. No signed binding -by Le Gascon is as yet known, but there are some bearing -the name of Florimond Badier, who was son-in-law to Jean -Gillède, which nearly resemble Le Gascon’s work, but lack -his exquisite finish. On some of these appears a small -dotted profile head, which is supposed to be a mark of -Le Gascon’s. This same head is copied on some of the -bindings of our English Samuel Mearne, who must therefore -have seen and admired some of Le Gascon’s or Badier’s -work. “Le Gascon” was probably Jean Gillède.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p> - -<p>Macè Ruette followed many of Le Gascon’s manners, and -his son Antoine did the same. These binders were royal -binders to Louis XIII. and Louis XIV. respectively, and -probably bound most of the fine bindings made for these -kings, bearing their coats-of-arms.</p> - -<p>The bindings made for the Baron de Longepierre are -not uncommon. They were probably bound by Luc -Antoine Boyet, royal binder to Louis XV. These little books -bear upon them the device of a golden fleece, because the -Baron wrote plays, and the only successful one was called -“Medea” and dealt with the subject of the Argonauts. -The bindings are all exquisitely finished, and of beautiful -red leather; they sometimes have finely decorated doublures -and marbling under the gold on the edges, a charming -detail which has been much liked by French binders ever -since.</p> - -<p>Padeloup le Jeune was royal binder to Louis XV. after -Boyet, and belonged to one of the many French families of -binders. Padeloup’s work is luckily often signed by means -of a small ticket on the title page or end paper. He -perfected the patterns known as “Dentelles,” which had -been first thought of by Boyet. These designs start from -the edges of the boards inwards, and the inner edge is -deeply dentated and is supposed to resemble lace. Padeloup -used blue and red morocco, and executed several small -bindings with inlays of coloured leather in geometrical -designs.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_240a.jpg" width="300" height="452" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>—French inlaid -and gold tooled binding, -1718, by Padeloup le -Jeune.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_240b.jpg" width="300" height="424" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>—French gold -tooled binding “Dentelle -à l’oiseau,” by Derôme le -Jeune.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p>Padeloup made several large bindings, and his stamps -are often large and boldly cut, but his successors gradually -fined his style down until the original bold indented work -became quite small and lace-like in itself.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p> - -<p>The liking for inlaid work which was started by Padeloup -rapidly grew, and it caused a certain deterioration in the -taste of French binding because it gave such scope for -minute technical skill that this soon became more sought -after than the power of fine designing. The skill shown -on inlaid bindings by Jean le Monnier, for instance, is -astonishing, but the designs on all his bindings are weak. -The same may be said of the work of J. A. Derôme. But -the work of both these binders is much sought after and -esteemed by many collectors.</p> - -<p>Derôme le Jeune was the most important French binder -of the late eighteenth century. He took Padeloup’s large -“dentelles” and altered them so much that he at last -evolved a style of his own from them. Derôme drew the -whole design out in a much smaller and more delicate way, -and always put in some bird figures, and these designs are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -known as “Dentelles a l’oiseau.” He used citron, olive -and red morocco. Derôme has not a good reputation as a -forwarder; he is said to have cropped his books badly, and -also to have “sawn in” his bands so as to get flat or open -backs. Even so, he did not invent “sawn in” bands, as -that vice was practised in England a hundred years before -Derôme’s time, in the case of embroidered books; but the -fact of these two mannerisms having been noticed in the -work of this great binder only shows that the same faults -were probably universally prevalent at the time.</p> - -<p>Modern French work is astonishing for its technical skill. -The work of Capé, Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, -Lortic, Niedrée, Marius-Michel, Chambolle, and many -others is admirable from all workmanlike points of view.</p> - -<p>But there is no genius in any of it; a great French -binder of this century is yet to come.</p> - -<p>Spanish bindings are often very handsomely gold tooled, -and are usually ornamented with heraldic designs. Little -is known at present about them, but it is certainly doubtful -whether any great school of gold tooling in bindings has -ever existed outside Italy, England or France.</p> - - -<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon Review.</span>—<em>London</em>, 1899. (Articles at the beginning -of each vol., by Cyril Davenport.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bauchart.</span>—<em>See</em> Quentin-Bauchart.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Beraldi, H.</span>—La Reliure du XIX<sup>e</sup>. Siècle. <em>London</em>, 1895-97.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bernard, A. J.</span>—G. Tory. <em>Paris</em>, 1857.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bickell, L.</span>—Bucheinbände des XV. bis XVIII. Jahrhunderts aus -hessischen Bibliotheken. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bosquet, E.</span>—La Reliure. <em>Paris</em>, 1894.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>—De la Reliure. <em>Paris</em>, 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>—Le Livre. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>—Les reliures d’Art à la Bibliothèque Nationale. -<em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Brassington, W. S.</span>—Historic bindings in the Bodleian Library. -<em>London</em>, 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Brunet, C. G.</span>—Etudes sur la reliure des Livres. <em>Bordeaux</em>, -1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Burlington Fine Arts Club.</span>—Illustrated Catalogue of -Bookbindings. <em>London</em>, 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cundall, J.</span>—Bookbindings Ancient and Modern. <em>London</em>, 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>—Cantor Lectures on Decorative Bookbindings. -<em>London</em>, 1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>—Bagford’s Notes on Bookbinding. <em>London</em>, -1894.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>—Life of Samuel Mearne. <em>Chicago</em>, 1907.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>—Life of Thos. Berthelet. <em>Chicago</em>, 1901.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>—Royal English Bookbindings. <em>London</em>, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Derôme, L.</span>—La Reliure de Luxe. <em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fletcher, W. Y.</span>—Bookbindings in France. <em>London</em>, 1894.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fletcher, W. Y.</span>—English Bookbindings in the British Museum. -<em>London</em>, 1895.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fletcher, W. Y.</span>—Foreign Bookbindings in the British Museum. -<em>London</em>, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fournier, E.</span>—L’Art de la Reliure en France. <em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gruel, L.</span>—Conférence sur la Reliure et la Dorure des Livres. -<em>Paris</em>, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gruel, L.</span>—Manuel de l’Amateur de Reliures. <em>Paris</em>, 1887.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guigard.</span>—Armorial du Bibliophile. <em>Paris</em>, 1890.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hoe, R.</span>—One hundred and seventy-two historic bookbindings from -the Library of Robert Hoe. <em>New York</em>, 1895.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Holmes, R. R.</span>—Specimens of Bookbindings from the Royal Library, -Windsor Castle. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Horne, H. P.</span>—The Bindings of Books. <em>London</em>, 1894.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Matthews, J. B.</span>—Bookbindings Old and New. <em>London</em>, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Michel, M.</span>—La Reliure Française. <em>Paris</em>, 1881.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Prideaux, S. T.</span>—Bookbinders and their Craft. <em>London</em>, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Prideaux, S. T.</span>—Historical Sketch of Bookbinding. <em>London</em>, -1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Quentin-Bauchart, E.</span>—Les Femmes Bibliophiles de France, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>XVI<sup>e</sup>, XVII<sup>e</sup>. et XVIII<sup>e</sup>. Siècles. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thoinan, E.</span>—Les Relieurs Français. <em>Paris</em>, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Uzanne, O.</span>—L’Art dans la Decoration Extérieure des Livres en -France. <em>Paris</em>, 1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Uzanne, O.</span>—La Reliure Moderne. <em>Paris</em>, 1887.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wheatley, H. B.</span>—Remarkable Bindings in the British Museum. <em>London</em>, -1889.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <cite>Anglo-Saxon Review</cite> and <cite>Burlington Magazine</cite>, July, 1907.</p></div></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div> - -<h2>INDEX.</h2> - -<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">A.</li> - -<li class="indx">Abacus, the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Account book binding, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ackermann, publisher, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Æsop’s <cite>Fables</cite>, 1665 ... <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“A E I O U,” <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">African symbolic messages, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alcuin of York, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aliamet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alken, H., artist, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“All-over” style of binding, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">All Saints’ Church, Hereford, chained library at, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Allanson and Sears, wood engravers, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Allen, D., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Almanacks cut on wood, bone, etc., <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">American loggers’ marks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote2">”</span>wampums, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amulets, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aniline dyes for leather, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anne Boleyn’s New Testament, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anne de Felbrigge, embroidress, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Annis, W., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aquatints, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arabic knot, the, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>panel stamps, the, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arabic style of binding, the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Armagh, satchel of the book of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Armytage, J. C., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Ars Moriendi</cite>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Art canvas bindings, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ashburnham, Lord, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Assyrian bricks and cylinders, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Astle, T., keeper of the records in the Tower of London, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Avril, P., artist, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ayres, J., calligraphist, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ayrton’s <cite>Voyage Round Great Britain</cite>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aze, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">B.</li> - -<li class="indx">“B” capital in Mainz Psalter, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Babylonian cylinders and bricks, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Backing, the, of books, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Backs, flat and rounded, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bacon, F., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Badier, F., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bagford, J., author, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baily, J., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baker, R. J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baldwin II., King of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Bamler, J., publisher, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bands of bindings, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bank note of Chinese paper, 1368 ... <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barber’s poles, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bark books, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bartholomaeus’ <cite>De proprietatibus rerum</cite>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bartolozzi, F., etcher, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baskerville, J., printer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bateman, John and Abraham, binders, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Battas of Sumatra and symbolic messages, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Battledores, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bauzonnet, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bedford, F., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beneworth, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bennett, W. F., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bernes, Dame Juliana’s, <cite>Book of St. Albans</cite>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Berthelet, T., printer and binder, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bertonnier, line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Best, A., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bettini’s <cite>Monte Santo di Deo</cite>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bewick, T., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Biblia Pauperum</cite>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blaew, W. J., mechanician, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blake, W., artist, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blanchard, P., lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blazes on trees, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blind tooling on bindings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bloc, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Block books, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boards of books, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bollcaert, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bone, markings on, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Book edges, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bosse, A., etcher, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bosse, L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bosses on mediæval books, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boule, A., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boydell, publisher, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boydell’s <cite>Picturesque Scenery in Norway</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boyet, L. A., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brandard, R., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brant’s <cite>Narrenschiff</cite>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brevière, H. L., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brim stocks, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Britannia” watermark, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Buck, Thomas and John, printers and binders, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Buckingham, Marquis of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Buckram bindings, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Bull’s Head” watermark, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Burgkmeier, H., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Burne-Jones, Sir E., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bylaert, J., artist, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Byrthe of Mankind</cite>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Byzantine bindings, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote2">”</span>diptychs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">C.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calf leather, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Callot, etcher, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cambridge bindings, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cameo stamps, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Canevari” stamps, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Canvas bindings, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Capé, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Caractères de civilité,” <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cardinal’s hat, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carolingian Minuscules, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cartwright, T., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caslon, W., printer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Casting of type, the, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cathach, of the O’Donnells, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cattermole, artist, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Caxton’s bindings, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span><cite>Fifteen Oes</cite>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span><cite>Myrrour of the Worlde</cite>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cecil, Lord Burleigh’s, book stamp, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cecil, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cellarius’ <cite>Album Amicorum</cite>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cellulose used in paper, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Chain” lines on paper, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chained books, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chambolle, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chamois leather, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Charlemagne’s gospels, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote3">”</span>interest in writing, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Charles II., portrait on book edges, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Charlet, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chauveau, F., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cheap paper, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chemical wood pulp, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chéret, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chevalier, W., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chifflart, line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">China clay in paper, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chinese books of Jade, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>colour blocks, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>paper, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>types of porcelain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>woodcuts, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Choffard, P., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Christ, arms of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clasps on mediæval books, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clay-laden papers, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clennell, L., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clint, G., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clog almanacks, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cloth bindings, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cochineal dye for leather, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cockerell, D., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Codex Alexandrinus</cite>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cole, T., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Collet, M., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Collodion as a preservative for Persian bindings, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Colonna’s <cite>Hypnerotomachia Poliphili</cite>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Colour on block books, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coloured printing papers, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Combe’s <cite>History of the River Thames</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span><cite>Tour of Dr. Syntax</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Commonwealth book stamp, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Constable, J., artist, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Consular diptychs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cook, H., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cooper, J., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coptic binding of the eighth century, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corbould, G., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corean paper, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Coronation of George IV.</cite>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coster, L. J., printer, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Costeriana, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Cottage,” style of binding, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cousins, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cow-hide for bindings, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Crown” watermark, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cruickshank, G., artist, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Crushed” morocco, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cuirbouilli, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cumdachs, <a href="#Page_48">48-50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cuneiform inscriptions, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cup markings on rocks, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Curiously-shaped books, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cut leather work, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cylinders engraved for making designs in book covers, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote19">”</span>for printing presses, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">D.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dalziels, the, wood engravers, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dambrun, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Daniel, W., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dated binding, 1475 ... <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Daughters of Louis XV., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Daumier, H., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Davenport, S., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dawe, H., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Day, J., printer, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dean, stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">De Coverly, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Deer-skin bindings, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Delacroix, E., artist, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">De Launay, R., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“De l’Etoile,” French order, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Delignon, J. L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">De Longueil, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Delvaux, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Dentelle” bindings, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Dentelles à l’oiseau,” <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Derome le Jeune, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">De Sauty, A., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">De Thou, J. A., book collector, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Deveria, A., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">De Villiers, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diamond engraved, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diane de Poictiers, bindings made for, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote37">”</span>edges of her books, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote37">”</span>faience, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dimma’s book, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diptychs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Donatus’ grammars, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Double board bindings, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doublures by R. Payne, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doyle, etcher, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Druet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Du Bosc, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Duclos, H. J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dudley, R., Earl of Leicester, book stamp, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Duff, G., author, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Du Maurier, G., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dunchad, Irish binder, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dunkarton, R., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Duodecimos, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dupont, H., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_248"></a>Dupréel, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dürer, A., artist, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Durham bindings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Duru, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dutch printing, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">E.</li> - -<li class="indx">Easter Island inscriptions, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eastling, J. C., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ecclesiastical diptychs, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Edwards, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>J. C., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Edy, J. W., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Egerton of Tatton, Earl, his silver horn book, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Egyptian mummy cloth paper, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>papyrus rolls, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eisen, C., artist, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eliot and Chapman, bookbinders, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Elizabeth, Queen, embroidered books, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote35">”</span>golden book, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Elizabeth, Queen, velvet books, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ellis, aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Elstrack, R., line engraver, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Elyot’s <cite>Image of Governance</cite>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Embroidered books, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Enamelled bindings, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">End papers, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Engleheart, F. C. and T. S., line engravers, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">English blind tooled bindings, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>coronation book, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>panel stamped bindings, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>paper, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>psalter of the twelfth century, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Engraved metal blocks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Engraving on wood, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Etching, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>soft ground, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Etruscan” bindings, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">European early paper, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Evangelistic emblems on the cover of the Molaise gospels, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eve, C., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote9">”</span>N.,<span class="spacequote24">”</span><a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Evelyn’s <cite>Sculptura</cite>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Exchequer tallies, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">F.</li> - -<li class="indx">Faber, mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Fanfare” bindings, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fantin-Latour, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fashion plates in aquatint, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fazakerly, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ferrar, N., of Little Gidding, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ficquet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fielding, T. H., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Filigree bindings, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Finden, W., line and stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Finiguerra, M., artist, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fischer, C., lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fish-skin bindings, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fishing-rod sign, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flagellation of Christ, engraving, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fletcher, painter of book edges, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Flong,” paper pulp, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Folios, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Folkard, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Foolscap” watermark, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Forage decoration, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Forels for books, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foster, B., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foulquier, V., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fournier, P. E., type founder, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fragonard, J. H., artist, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fraudulent bindings, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frederick of Austria, binding made for, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">French blind tooled bindings, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fry, W., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fust, J., printer, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">G.</li> - -<li class="indx">Galvanic battery used in stereotyping, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gandara, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Garuda stones, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gaucher, C. S., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gauffring of book edges, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gaultier, L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gavarni, artist, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Gemälde Galerie des K. Museums in Berlin</cite>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gericault, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">German blind tooled bindings, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">German book edges, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>cut leather work, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>panel stamps, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gibson, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gigoux, J., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gillède, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Girardet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Girolamo della Robbia, artist, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goat leather, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Goddess of Mercy,” woodcut, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Godfrey, G., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gold beaters’ sign, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gold tooling in leather, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote25">”</span>on velvet, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Golden bindings, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goldsmith’s <cite>Vicar of Wakefield</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goodall, E., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goodyear, F. and J., line engravers, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gould, J., naturalist, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goya, F., artist, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grace, J., traveller, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gray, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greatbach, W., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greek engraved gems, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Green, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gregory the Great, Pope, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greville, Charles, patron of art, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Griggs, W., chromo-lithographer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grignion, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grolier, W., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grover, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guerin, P., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guerrero, A., lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guild of Bookbinders in France, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gutenberg, J., printer, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gypsies’ hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">H.</li> - -<li class="indx">Haghe, L., lithographer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hahn, U., printer, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Halbon, L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Half bindings, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Half-tone blocks, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote19">”</span>process, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ham sign, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Hand” watermark, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hard wood for engraving, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harding, J. D., lithographer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harland, J., author, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Harleian” bindings, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harley, R., Earl of Oxford, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harvey, W., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hassell, aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hauber, J., lithographer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Havell, D., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Haydon, B. R., artist, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Headbands, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Heath, C. and J., line engravers, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote13">”</span>Ch., publisher, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Heliogravure, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Henri II., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>faience, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Henry III., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Henry VII., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Henry VIII., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Henry, Prince of Wales, bindings made for, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Heraldry on bindings, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hereford Cathedral, chained library at, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hering, C., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Heriot, G., goldsmith, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Herodius, ivory carver, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hewitt, Samuel, etcher, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Hiberno-Saxon writing, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hieratic writing, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hiroshige, artist, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hodges’ <cite>Select Views in India</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hodgetts, T., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hodgkin’s <cite>Rariora</cite>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hokusai, artist, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Holbein, artist, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hole, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Holl, W., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hollar, W., etcher, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hollis, G., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hollow backs, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hop tallies, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horæ of the fifteenth century, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horn books, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Houston, mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hullmandel, lithographer, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Human leather, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Humphreys, W., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hunt, T., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Hypnerotomachia Poliphili</cite>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">I.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ideographs, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Illustrations in books, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, etc.</li> - -<li class="indx">Imitations of bindings by S. Mearne, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Indentures, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Indian amulets, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Irish bindings, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote9">”</span>book satchels, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iroquois League wampum, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Isabey, J. B., artist, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Italian book stamps used on faience, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote13">”</span>wood engravings, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ivory bindings, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">J.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jackson, J. B., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jacquemart, J., etcher, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jade books, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">James I., heraldry of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span><a id="Ref_251"></a>Βασιλικον Δωρον, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Japanese colour blocks, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>paper, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>wood blocks, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jenkinson, stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jentzen, F., lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jewish taleth, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Joch, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Johannot, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jollivet, J., lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jones’ <cite>Plans of the Alhambra</cite>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jordan, B., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Junius, A., author, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">K.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kalthœber, C., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kangaroo leather, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Karabacek, J., Professor, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Katherine of Arragon, Queen, bindings made for, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Keepsake, the</cite>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kernot, J. H., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knife for engraving soft wood, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knight, C., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Koenig, printing press maker, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Korean wood cuts, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Korin, artist, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kretschmar, E., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kristeller, P., author, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">L.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Costes, wood engravers, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Laid” lines on paper, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Landells, the, wood engravers, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Lant, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lasteyrie, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Latroo’s <cite>English Rogue</cite>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Latten, panel stamps cut in, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Laurentian library, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lawson, C., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leathers used for binding, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Le Blon’s <cite>Coloritto</cite>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leclerc, S., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lefebre, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Le Gascon, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leighton, A., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote19">”</span>Lord, artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lelio, Lucretio, of Treviso, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Le Mire, N., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Le Monnier, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Le Prince, J. B., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leroux, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Levant morocco, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lewis the Pious, Emperor, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote12">”</span>C., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote12">”</span>F. C., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote12">”</span>T. C., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Libri, Count G., collector, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lindau gospels, binding of the, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Line engraving, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lingée, C. L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Linotype, the, machine, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Linton, W. J., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lipton, T., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lithography, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lithotint, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Little Gidding, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote29">”</span>bindings made at, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Loggers’ marks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lombards signs, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Longepierre, Baron de, bindings made for, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lortic, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lucas, D., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lucretia, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lupton, T. G., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lyons bindings, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">M.</li> - -<li class="indx">MacColl, Miss E., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Macé, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Madan, F., author, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Madox, T., historiographer, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Madrazo’s <cite>Collection Lithographica, etc.</cite>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mainz Psalter, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maioli, T., collector, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marbled calf, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span>morocco, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span>papers, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_252a"></a>Marillier, J. P., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marius-Michel, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marr, C., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marshall, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Maximilian, Triumph of</cite>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mazarine Bible, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mazot, F., line engraver, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mearne, S., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mechanical wood pulp papers, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Medici coat of arms, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Medland, T., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_252b"></a>Meissonnier, artist, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Melissenda, psalter of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Menzel, A., artist, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Messe dag staves, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Metal bindings, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote11">”</span>blocks engraved, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote11">”</span>inscriptions, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mezzotints, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Miles, E., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Millais, Sir J., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Miller, W., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mitan, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mittenleiter, J. M., lithographer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mitterer, H. J., professor of drawing, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Modern ideographs, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Molaise gospels, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monnier, H., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monoline machine, the, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monotype machine, the, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monza, binding at, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moreau, P., line engraver, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Morrell & Co., bookbinders, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Morocco leather, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Morris, W., printer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mottet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moulin, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mulready, artist, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Musgrave, Sir G., collector, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Musulman amulets, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">N.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nash’s <cite>Mansions of England</cite>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nayler’s, Sir G., <cite>Coronation of George IV.</cite>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nesbit, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nicene Creed cut in silver, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nicholls and Bosse, wood engravers, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nicholson, W., inventor, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Niedrée, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Niello work on bindings, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nivet, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Norms, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Northcote’s <cite>Fables</cite>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Notches cut in wood, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nuremberg, arms of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote24">”</span>Chronicle, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nuzelmann, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">O.</li> - -<li class="indx">Octavos, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">O’Donnell’s cathach, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ogham inscriptions, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oiron ware, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Open backs, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Openworked vellum, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Opus Anglicanum, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oriental bindings with flaps, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>palm leaf books, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>panel stamps, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orihons, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orme’s <cite>Twelve Views of Places in the Kingdom of Mysore</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Osterwald, G., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oxford bindings, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">P.</li> - -<li class="indx">Padeloup le Jeune, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Painted bindings, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Panel stamps, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paper, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote12">”</span>pulp, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Papillon, J. M., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Papyrus, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span>Prisse, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parchment, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parker, J., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parr, Queen Katharine, embroidress, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paste boards, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Patas, J. B., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pauquet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Payne, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Pegs on panel stamps, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Penn, W., and the wampum belt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pennant’s <cite>Account of London</cite>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Persian bindings, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peruvian records, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Petit, L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peupin, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pfeiffer, stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pflanzmann, J., publisher, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Photographic facsimiles, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Photogravure, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pierced vellum, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pig-skin, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pigouchet, printer, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Pin-head” grained morocco, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pinart, D., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pine, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pisa’s, R. de, <cite>Pantheologia</cite>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pleydenwurff, W., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pointillé engraving, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Polia, of Treviso, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pompeian diptychs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Porcelain types, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_254"></a>Porrett, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Portbury, E. and R. J., line engravers, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Portraits in watermarks, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Post” watermark, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Pot” watermark, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prayer wheels, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prehistoric caves, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prevost, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prideaux, Miss S., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prime staves, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Printing in Europe, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>on Babylonian cylinders and bricks, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>press, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Printing paper in colour, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Proctor, R., author, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prout, S., artist, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pudsey, Bishop, library of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pugillaria, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pye, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pyne’s <cite>History of the Royal Residences</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pynson, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Q.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quartos, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Quaternions, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Quinternions, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Quipus of Peru, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Quires, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">R.</li> - -<li class="indx">Raffet, artist, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rag paper of Samarkand, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rainer, Archduke, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ratdolt, E., printer, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ratisbon, Irish monastery at, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Raynald’s <cite>Byrthe of Mankind</cite>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Rectangular” style of binding, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Redon, O., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reeve, R., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Repton’s <cite>Sketches of Landscape Gardening</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Retroussage, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Rex in Æternum vive” on book edges, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reynes, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reynolds, S. W., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rhodes, R., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ribault, J. F., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Richenbach, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Richter, A., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rinaldo and Armida, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ring markings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rivett-Carnac, Col. H. J., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rivière & Son, bookbinders, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roan leather, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Robins, H., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Robinson, H., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote2">”</span>J. H., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roberts’ <cite>Holy Land</cite>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roce, D., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rock markings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roffet, E., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rogers’, S., <cite>Italy</cite> and <cite>Poems</cite>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote23">”</span><cite>Pleasures of Memory</cite>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rolls, C., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rolt’s <cite>Lives of the Reformers</cite>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roman diptychs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>engraved gems, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>name brands, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Romney, Lord, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rood, T., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rosaries, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rosetta stone, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rossetti, D. G., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rouget, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rough side of calf leather, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rounded backs of books, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roux, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rowlandson, artist, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Royal Irish Academy, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ruette, M., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rune staves, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Runic inscriptions, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rupert, Prince, mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Russia leather, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">S.</li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>Saddharmapundarika Sutra</cite>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Christopher, woodcut, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Cuthbert’s gospels, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Esprit, French order of the, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. John Latran, bookbinders’ guild, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Maurice D’Agaune, church of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Michel, French order of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Porchaire, Faience de, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Wallberg, church of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Samarkand, paper made at, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sandby, P., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sandys, F., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sangorsky, F., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sangster, S., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Satchels for books, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Satin bindings, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote1">”</span>printing on, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sauné, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Savart, P., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Sawn in” backs, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Say, W., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Schöffer, P., printer, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Schrödter, A., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scotin, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scott, J. L., of the British Museum, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scrive knife, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sea lion leather, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Seal leather, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sears, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Semis, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sen, tablet of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Send hieroglyphic, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Senefelder, A., lithographer, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sewing frames for binders, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sewing of books, the, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Sharpe, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sheep leather, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shot silk effect in half-tone prints, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Siberch, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Siegen, L. von, mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Signatures” in printed books, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silk bindings, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote8">”</span>paper, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote8">”</span>printing on, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silver bindings, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_256b"></a>Simounet, J. B., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Simpson, Sir J., antiquary, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sion, in the Rhone valley, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Six Nations” wampum, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sizes of printed books, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Skiver” leather, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Small metal bindings, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smith, D. and W. R., line engravers, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote13">”</span>O., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smooth morocco, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Société des Amis des Livres, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Society of Arts Committee on Paper, 1898 ... <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Soft wood engravings, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Soyer, S., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_256a"></a><cite>Speculum, Humanæ Salvationis</cite>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spierinck, N., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Split sheep-skin, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sprinkled calf, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stabbed bindings, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stadler, J. C., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Staffordshire clog almanacks, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Staggemeier, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stanfield, artist, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stanhope, C., Earl, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Star” watermark, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steam printing press, 1814 ... <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steel engraving, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stencil plates for colouring prints, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stephanoff, F. and J., artists, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stereotyping, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stipple engraving, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stothard, artist, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stowe House, library at, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote12">”</span>missal, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Straight grained” morocco, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sturt, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Styles for writing on wax, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sullivan, Sir E., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sulphuric acid in leather, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sumatran bark books, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>calendars, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>symbolic messages, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sutcliffe, G., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sutherland, T., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Swain, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Symbolic messages, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>signs on rocks, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -</ul> - -<div> -<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">T.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taleth fringes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Talismans, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tallies, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tasselled ecclesiastical hats, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tasso’s <cite>Gerusalemme Liberata</cite>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tate, J., printer, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Taylor’s, I., <cite>History of the Alphabet</cite>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Taylor, W. D., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Test for clay paper, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Theodelinda, Queen of the Lombards, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thibetan prayer wheels, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thiebault, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Thompson, Sir E. M., <cite>Manual of Greek and Roman Palæography</cite>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote22">”</span>J., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thouvenin, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Three-colour process, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tillard, J. B., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><cite>The Times</cite> of 20th November, 1814 ... <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Title-page engraved on wood, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Torres Straits, tallies used in the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tortoiseshell bindings, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tory, G., artist, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tours, conference at, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Transparent vellum, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trautz, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tree marbled calf, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trench along the edges of book boards, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trière, P., <a id="Ref_245"></a>line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tudor badges, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tuerlinckoe, lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turner, C., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>J. M. W., artist, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turrecremata, <cite>Meditations</cite>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Type casting, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote1">”</span>founding in England, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote1">”</span>metal, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote1">”</span>specimen sheets, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">U.</li> - -<li class="indx">Utamaro, K., artist, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Uzanne, O., author, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">V.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vander Meulen, lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vangelisty, stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Van Loo, lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vellum bindings, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>pierced, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>preparation of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>printing on, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>rolls, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>transparent, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Velvet bindings, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Venetian bindings, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Verard, A., printer, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vernet, H., artist, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Villa Dei, A. de, <cite>Doctrinale</cite>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Villerey, line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vogel, A., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">W.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wagstaffe, C., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Walker, F., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wallis, H., and R., line engravers, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Walther, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wampum belts, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Warren, C., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Watermarks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Weale, W. H. J., author, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Webber’s <cite>Views in the South Seas</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whimper, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whistler, J. M., artist, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whitaker, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“White line” engraving, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whymper, J. W., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wick rotary type-casting machine, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wier, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wiesner, J., <cite>Professor</cite>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Willett, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Williams, M. A., S., and T., wood engravers, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote19">”</span>T. J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Willmore, T., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wilson, J. L., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wimborne Minster, chained library at, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Winchester Domesday Book, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wohlgemuth, M., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wood-cut illustrations, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wood pulp used for paper, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wooden types, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Woolrich, Miss N. E., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wordsworth, Mrs., amateur bookbinder, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Woven book, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wright, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">X.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xylographs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Y.</li> - -<li class="indx">Young, J., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Z.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zaehnsdorf, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Zainer, G., publisher, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Zinc blocks, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class="center smallfont">BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<div class="transnote"> -<h2 style="margin-top: 0em">Transcriber’s Notes:</h2> - -<p>The single footnote has been moved to the end of its chapter.</p> - -<p>Illustrations have been moved to paragraph breaks near where they are -mentioned.</p> - -<p>Punctuation has been made consistent.</p> - -<p>Variations in spelling, hyphenation, and accenting were retained as -they appear in the original publication, except that obvious -typographical errors have been corrected.</p> - -<p><a href="#Ref_62">p. 62</a>: βυβλοἱ transliterates into English as bubloi.</p> - -<p><a href="#Ref_144">p. 144</a>: Ναβουχοδονὀσωρ Εσαει ζῆθι transliterates into English as -Nabouchodonosôr Esaei zêthi.</p> - -<p><a href="#Ref_180">p. 180</a>: βασιλικον Δωρον transliterates into English as basilikon Dôron.</p> - -<p><a href="#Ref_251">p. 251</a>: Βασιλικον Δωρον transliterates into English as: Basilikon Dôron.</p> - -<p>Several Index entries are spelled differently than their targets, including:</p> - -<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_252a">p. 252</a>: Marillier versus Marillien on <a href="#Ref_123">p. 123</a> (Marillier, J. P., line)</p> - -<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_252b">p. 252</a>: Meissonnier versus Meissonier on <a href="#Ref_115">p. 115</a> (Meissonnier, artist, 115)</p> - -<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_254">p. 254</a>: Porrett versus Porret on <a href="#Ref_114">p. 114</a> (Porrett, wood engraver)</p> - -<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_256a">p. 256</a>: Humanæ versus Humanae on <a href="#Ref_90">p. 90</a> (<cite>Speculum, Humanæ Salvationis</cite>)</p> - -<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_256b">p. 256</a>: Simounet versus Simonnet on <a href="#Ref_122">p. 122</a> (Simounet, J. B., line)</p> - -<p>The following changes were made:</p> - -<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_245">p. 245</a>: page number 122 added (line engraver, 122.)</p> - -<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_248">p. 248</a>: Dupréal was changed to Dupréel (Dupréel, line engraver)</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book, by Cyril Davenport - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK *** - -***** This file should be named 52932-h.htm or 52932-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/9/3/52932/ - -Produced by MWS, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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