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-The Project Gutenberg eBook, Grave-mounds and Their Contents, by
-Llewellynn Frederick William Jewitt
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-
-Title: Grave-mounds and Their Contents
- A Manual of Archæology, as Exemplified in the Burials of the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon Periods
-
-
-Author: Llewellynn Frederick William Jewitt
-
-
-
-Release Date: August 29, 2016 [eBook #52906]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-
-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS***
-
-
-E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, Wayne Hammond, and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
-generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org)
-
-
-
-Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
- file which includes the almost 500 original illustrations.
- See 52906-h.htm or 52906-h.zip:
- (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52906/52906-h/52906-h.htm)
- or
- (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52906/52906-h.zip)
-
-
- Images of the original pages are available through
- Internet Archive. See
- https://archive.org/details/gravemoundstheir00jewiuoft
-
-
-Transcriber's note:
-
- Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
-
- Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
-
- Some characters might not display in this UTF-8 text
- version or in the html version. If so, the reader should
- consult the original page images referred to above.
-
-
-
-
-
-GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
-
-
-[Illustration: CIB HILL TUMULUS, NEAR ARBOR-LOW, DERBYSHIRE.]
-
-
-
-
-GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS:
-
-A Manual of Archæology,
-
-As Exemplified in the
-Burials of the Celtic, the Romano-British, and
-the Anglo-Saxon Periods.
-
-by
-
-LLEWELLYNN JEWITT, F.S.A.,
-
-ETC., ETC.
-
-With nearly Five Hundred Illustrations.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-London:
-Groombridge and Sons,
-5, Paternoster Row.
-
-1870.
-
-
-
-
- TO
-
- MY OLD AND MUCH-ESTEEMED FRIEND,
-
- JOSEPH MAYER, ESQ.,
-
- FELLOW OF THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF LONDON;
- FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NORTHERN ANTIQUARIES
- OF COPENHAGEN;
- FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY;
- MEMBER OF THE SOCIETIES OF ANTIQUARIES OF
- FRANCE, NORMANDY, THE MORINI,
- ETC., ETC., ETC.;
- ONE OF THE MOST ARDENT AND ZEALOUS OF ARCHÆOLOGISTS,
- AND MOST KINDLY OF MEN;
- THE PRINCELY DONOR TO THE PUBLIC
- OF THE FINEST AND MOST EXTENSIVE
- MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITIES
- EVER COLLECTED TOGETHER BY A SINGLE INDIVIDUAL;
-
- I, WITH TRUE PLEASURE,
-
- Dedicate this Volume.
-
- LLEWELLYNN JEWITT.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS.
-
-
- CHAPTER I.
-
- Page
-
- Grave-mounds in general--Their Historical Importance--General
- Situation--Known as Barrows, Houes, Tumps, and Lows--List of
- Names--Division into Periods 1
-
-
- CHAPTER II.
-
- Ancient British or Celtic Period--General characteristics of
- the Barrows--Modes of construction--Interments by inhumation
- and by cremation--Positions of the Body--Hitter Hill
- Barrow--Elliptical Barrow at Swinscoe--Burial in contracted
- position--In sitting and kneeling positions--Double Interments 6
-
-
- CHAPTER III.
-
- Ancient British or Celtic Period--Interment by
- cremation--Discovery of lead--Burial in Urns--Positions of
- Urns--Heaps of burnt Bones--Burnt Bones enclosed in cloth
- and skins--Stone Cists--Long-Low--Liff’s-Low, etc.--Pit
- Interments--Tree-coffins 31
-
-
- CHAPTER IV.
-
- Ancient British or Celtic Period--Sepulchral Chambers
- of Stone--Cromlechs--Chambered Tumuli--New Grange and
- Dowth--The Channel Islands--Wieland Smith’s Cave, and
- others--Stone Circles--For what purpose formed--Formation of
- Grave-mounds--Varieties of Stone Circles--Examples of different
- kinds--Arbor-Low, etc. 50
-
-
- CHAPTER V.
-
- Ancient British or Celtic Period--Pottery--Mode of
- manufacture--Arrangement in classes--Cinerary or Sepulchral
- Urns--Food Vessels--Drinking-cups--Incense Cups--Probably
- Sepulchral Urns for Infants--Other examples of Pottery 83
-
-
- CHAPTER VI.
-
- Ancient British or Celtic Period--Implements of
- Stone--Celts--Stone Hammers--Stone Hatchets, Mauls,
- etc.--Triturating Stones--Flint Implements--Classification
- of Flints--Jet articles--Necklaces, Studs, etc.--Bone
- Instruments--Bronze Celts, Daggers, etc.--Gold articles 109
-
-
- CHAPTER VII.
-
- Romano-British Period--General Characteristics--Modes of
- Burial--Customs attendant on Burial--Interments by cremation
- and by inhumation--Barrows--Tombs of Stone--Lead Coffins--Clay
- and Tile Coffins--Sepulchral Inscriptions, etc. 134
-
-
- CHAPTER VIII.
-
- Romano-British Period--Pottery--Durobrivian Ware--Upchurch
- Ware--Salopian Ware--Pottery found at Uriconium--Potteries
- of the New Forest, of Yorkshire, and of other
- places--Sepulchral Urns--Domestic and other vessels 151
-
-
- CHAPTER IX.
-
- Romano-British Period--Pottery--Samian Ware--Potters’
- Stamps--Varieties of Ornamentation--Glass Vessels--Sepulchral
- Vases, etc.--Lachrymatories--Bowls--Beads--Coins found
- with Interments 175
-
-
- CHAPTER X.
-
- Romano-British Period--Arms--Swords--Spears,
- etc.--Knives--Fibulæ--Armillæ--Torques of Gold, etc.--Other
- Personal Ornaments 190
-
-
- CHAPTER XI.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Distribution of Anglo-Saxon Population
- over England--General characteristics of Grave-mounds--Modes
- of Burial--Poem of Beowulf--Interments by cremation and by
- inhumation--Articles deposited with the Dead--Positions of
- the Body--Double and other Interments--Burial in
- Urns--Cemeteries and Barrows 202
-
-
- CHAPTER XII.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Pottery, general characteristics
- of--Cinerary Urns--Saxon Urn with Roman Inscription--Frankish
- and other Urns--Cemeteries at Kings Newton, etc.--Mode
- of manufacture--Impressed Ornaments 214
-
-
- CHAPTER XIII.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Glass
- Vessels--Drinking-glasses--Tumblers--Ale-glasses--Beads--Necklaces
- --Ear-rings--Coins, etc. 228
-
-
- CHAPTER XIV.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Arms--Swords--Knives--Spears--Shields--Umbones
- of Shields--Buckles--Helmets--Benty-Grange Tumulus--The
- Sacred Boar--Grave at Barlaston--Enamelled
- Discs and pendant Ornaments, etc.--Horse-shoes 236
-
-
- CHAPTER XV.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Fibulæ--Enamelled circular Fibulæ--Gold
- Fibulæ--Pendant Cross--Cruciform Fibulæ--Penannular
- Fibulæ--Irish and English examples--Pendant Ornaments, etc. 266
-
-
- CHAPTER XVI.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Buckets--Drinking-cups of wood--Bronze
- Bowls--Bronze Boxes--Combs--Tweezers--Châtelaines--Girdle
- Ornaments--Keys--Hair-pins--Counters, or Draughtmen,
- and Dice--Querns--Triturating Stones, etc.--Conclusion 280
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
-
-
-ANCIENT BRITISH OR CELTIC PERIOD.
-
- Fig. Page
-
- Gib Hill Tumulus. (Frontispiece.)
-
- 2 Section of Grave-mound, Lord’s Down, Dewlish, Dorset 8
-
- 3 Section of Grave-mound, Gib Hill, Derbyshire 9
-
- 4 Section of Grave-mound, with two modes of interment by
- cremation 10
-
- 5 Section of Grave-mound, with inverted urn 10
-
- 6 Interment, Smerril Moor 12
-
- 7 Interment, Tissington 13
-
- 8 Interment, Roundway Hill 14
-
- 9 Interment, Hitter Hill 15
-
- 10 Plan of Barrow, showing interments, Hitter Hill 17
-
- 11 Interments, Hitter Hill 18
-
- 12 Interments, Hitter Hill 20
-
- 13 Skull, Hitter Hill 21
-
- 14 Plan, with interments, Swinscoe 23
-
- 15 Interment, sitting position, Parcelly Hay 26
-
- 16 Interment, sitting position, Monsal Dale 28
-
- 17 Plan of Barrow, with interments, Monsal Dale 29
-
- 18 Plan of Barrow, with interments, Cressbrook 30
-
- 19 Section of Barrow 32
-
- 20 Stone Cist, Baslow Moor 33
-
- 21 Section of Barrow 33
-
- 22 Inverted Urn, with burnt bones, Wardlow 34
-
- 23 Plan of Long-Low 36
-
- 24 Stone Cist, Long-Low 38
-
- 25 }
- } Skull, Long-Low 39
- 26 }
-
- 27 Mode of construction, Long-Low 40
-
- 28 Stone Cist, Middleton Moor 41
-
- 29 Stone Cist, Liff’s-Low 42
-
- 30 Stone Cist, Gib Hill 43
-
- 31 Portion of woollen garment, Scale House 45
-
- 32 }
- } Tree-coffin, Gristhorpe 48
- 33 }
-
- 34 Dagger, etc., Gristhorpe 49
-
- 35 Flint, etc., Gristhorpe 49
-
- 36 Tree-coffin, boat shape 49
-
- 37 Cromlech, Lanyon 52
-
- 38 Cromlech, Lanyon plan 52
-
- 39 Cromlech, Chun 53
-
- 40 Cromlech, Chun plan 53
-
- 41 Cromlech, Plas Newydd 54
-
- 42 Minning-Low, plan 55
-
- 43 New Grange, general view 56
-
- 44 New Grange, entrance to passage 57
-
- 45 Dowth, general view 58
-
- 46 Dowth, entrance to passage 58
-
- 47 Cromlech, Knockeen 59
-
- 48 Cromlech, Knockeen plan 59
-
- 49 Cromlech, Gaulstown 60
-
- 50 Cromlech, Gaulstown plan 60
-
- 51 Cromlech, Ballynageerah 61
-
- 52 Cromlech, Ballynageerah 62
-
- 53 Cromlech, Ballynageerah plan 62
-
- 54 Cromlech, L’Ancresse 63
-
- 55 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, south entrance 64
-
- 56 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, opening in north chamber 65
-
- 57 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, plan of chamber 65
-
- 58 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones 65
-
- 59 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones 66
-
- 60 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones 66
-
- 61 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones 67
-
- 62 Chambered Tumulus, Stony Littleton 68
-
- 63 Chambered Tumulus, Stony Littleton plan 58
-
- 64 Chambered Tumulus, Five Wells, Taddington 69
-
- 65 Chambered Tumulus, Five Wells, Taddington plan 69
-
- 66 Flax Dale Barrow, plan 72
-
- 67 Section, Elk-Low 73
-
- 68 Stone Circle, “Nine Ladies,” Stanton Moor 73
-
- 69 Stone Circle, “Nine Ladies,” Stanton Moor plan 74
-
- 70 Stone Circle, construction of 75
-
- 71 Stone Circle, Sancreed 76
-
- 72 Stone Circle, 76
-
- 73 Stone Circle, Isle of Man 76
-
- 74 Stone Circle, Trewavas Head 77
-
- 75 Stone Circle, Mule Hill 77
-
- 76 Stone Circle, Channel Islands 78
-
- 77 Stone Circle, with “twin barrow” 78
-
- 78 Stone Circle, with “twin barrow” 79
-
- 79 Stone Circle, construction 79
-
- 80 Stone Circle, Boscawen-un 80
-
- 81 Stone Circle, Aber 80
-
- 82 Stone Circle, Berriew 81
-
- 83 Stone Circle, Penmaenmaur 81
-
- 84 Stone Circle, Arbor-Low, Derbyshire 82
-
- 85 Pottery--fragment, Darwen 86
-
- 86 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Monsal Dale 87
-
- 87 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Ballidon Moor 88
-
- 88 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Ballidon Moor _in situ_ 88
-
- 89 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Trentham 89
-
- 90 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Darwen 90
-
- 91 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Dorsetshire 91
-
- 92 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Dorsetshire 91
-
- 93 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Darley Dale 92
-
- 94 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Stone 93
-
- 95 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Cleatham 93
-
- 96 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Cleatham 93
-
- 97 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Calais Wold, Yorkshire 94
-
- 98 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Darley Dale 95
-
- 99 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Tredinney 96
-
- 100 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Morvah 96
-
- 101 Pottery--Food vessel, Trentham 97
-
- 102 Pottery--Food vessel, Fimber 98
-
- 103 Pottery--Food vessel, Hitter Hill 98
-
- 104 Pottery--Food vessel, Hitter Hill 99
-
- 105 Pottery--Food vessel, Monsal Dale 100
-
- 106 Pottery--Food vessel, Fimber 100
-
- 107 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Fimber 102
-
- 108 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Hay Top, Monsal Dale 102
-
- 109 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Grind-Low 102
-
- 110 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Elk-Low 103
-
- 111 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Elk-Low bottom 104
-
- 112 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Roundway Hill 104
-
- 113 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Gospel Hillock 105
-
- 114 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106
-
- 115 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106
-
- 116 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106
-
- 117 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106
-
- 118 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106
-
- 119 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106
-
- 120 Pottery--Incense cup, Dorsetshire 106
-
- 121 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106
-
- 122 Pottery--Incense cup, Stanton Moor 107
-
- 123 Pottery--Incense cup, Baslow 107
-
- 124 Pottery--Incense cup, Dorsetshire 107
-
- 125 Pottery--Incense cup, Darley Dale 107
-
- 126 Pottery--Handled vessel, Yorkshire 108
-
- 127 }
- }
- 128 }
- }
- 129 } Stone celts, Royal Irish Academy 110
- }
- 130 }
- }
- 131 }
-
- 132 Stone celt, Derbyshire example 110
-
- 133 Stone hammer-head, Wollaton 111
-
- 134 Stone celt, Derbyshire example 112
-
- 135 Stone hammer-head, Winster 112
-
- 136 Stone hammer-head, Cambridgeshire 112
-
- 137 Stone hammer-head, Trentham 112
-
- 138 Stone hammer-head, Dorsetshire 113
-
- 139 }
- }
- 140 } Stone mauls, Royal Irish Academy 113
- }
- 141 }
-
- 142 Stone hammer-head, Mickleover 113
-
- 143 }
- } Triturating stones 114
- 144 }
-
- 145 Spindle whorl 115
-
- 146 }
- }
- 147 }
- }
- 148 }
- }
- 149 }
- } Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire 116
- 150 }
- }
- 151 }
- }
- 152 }
- }
- 153 }
-
- 154 Flint, Green-Low 117
-
- 155 Flint, Arbor-Low 118
-
- 156 Flint, Calais Wold 119
-
- 157 Flint, Calais Wold 119
-
- 158 Flint, Gunthorpe 119
-
- 159 Flint, Ringham-Low 119
-
- 160 Flint, Calais Wold 119
-
- 161 Flint, Calais Wold 119
-
- 162 }
- }
- 163 }
- }
- 164 }
- }
- 165 }
- } Flint, Derbyshire examples 120-122
- 166 }
- }
- 167 }
- }
- 168 }
- }
- 169 }
-
- 170 Flint celt, Gospel Hillock 122
-
- 171 Necklace of jet, Middleton Moor 123
-
- 172 Necklace of jet and bone 124
-
- 173 Necklace of jet, Fimber 125
-
- 174 Jet studs, Gospel Hillock 126
-
- 175 Jet studs, Calais Wold 126
-
- 176 Jet pendant, Derbyshire 126
-
- 177 Bone implement, Green-Low 126
-
- 178 }
- }
- 179 }
- } Bone implement, Thor’s Cave, etc. 127
- 180 }
- }
- 181 }
-
- 182 Bone pendant, Arbor-Low 127
-
- 183 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 128
-
- 184 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 129
-
- 185 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 129
-
- 186 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 129
-
- 187 Bronze celt, Moot-Low 129
-
- 188 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131
-
- 189 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131
-
- 190 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131
-
- 191 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131
-
- 192 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131
-
- 193 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131
-
- 194 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131
-
- 195 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131
-
- 196 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131
-
- 197 Bronze socketed celt, Kirk Ireton 131
-
- 198 Bronze dagger, Bottisham 132
-
- 199 Coin, Mount Batten 133
-
- 200 Coin, Mount Batten 133
-
- 201 Coin, Mount Batten 133
-
- 202 Coin, Mount Batten 133
-
- 203 Coin, Mount Batten 133
-
- 204 Coin, Birkhill 133
-
- 205 Coin, Blandford 133
-
-
- ROMANO-BRITISH PERIOD.
-
- 206 Cist of stone, York 144
-
- 207 Leaden coffin, Colchester 144
-
- 208 Leaden coffin, Bishopstoke 145
-
- 209 Clay coffin, Aldborough 145
-
- 210 Chest of stone, with pottery, etc., Avisford 147
-
- 211 Tomb of tiles, York 148
-
- 212 Potter’s kiln, Castor 152
-
- 213 }
- }
- 214 } Pottery, Headington 154
- }
- 215 }
-
- 216 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments 155
-
- 217 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments 157
-
- 218 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments 157
-
- 219 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments 157
-
- 220 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, hare hunting 157
-
- 221 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, hare hunting 158
-
- 222 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, hare hunting 158
-
- 223 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, stag hunting 158
-
- 224 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, stag hunting 158
-
- 225 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, stag hunting 159
-
- 226 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, indented urn 161
-
- 227 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, cup 161
-
- 228 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, indented urn 161
-
- 229 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, indented urn 161
-
- 230 Pottery, Upchurch ware, group of vessels 163
-
- 231 Pottery, Upchurch ware, urn 164
-
- 232 Pottery, Salopian ware, group of vessels 166
-
- 233 Pottery, group, Headington 167
-
- 234 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Toot Hill 167
-
- 235 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Little Chester 168
-
- 236 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Leicester 168
-
- 237 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Little Chester 169
-
- 238 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, 169
-
- 239 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, 169
-
- 240 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, London 170
-
- 241 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Water Newton 170
-
- 242 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, London 170
-
- 243 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Leicester 170
-
- 244 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Winchester 170
-
- 245 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Castor 170
-
- 246 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Water Newton 170
-
- 247 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Castor 170
-
- 248 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Castor 171
-
- 249 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, London 171
-
- 250 Pottery, Amphora London 172
-
- 251 Pottery, Amphora London 172
-
- 252 Pottery, Amphora London 172
-
- 253 Pottery, Amphora London 172
-
- 254 Pottery, Mortarium London 171
-
- 255 Pottery, group, Headington 173
-
- 256 Pottery, Headington 173
-
- 257 Pottery, Headington 173
-
- 258 Pottery, Headington 173
-
- 259 }
- }
- 260 }
- }
- 261 }
- }
- 262 }
- } Pottery, various localities 174
- 263 }
- }
- 264 }
- }
- 265 }
- }
- 266 }
-
- 267 Pottery, Samian ware, cup, Leicester 175
-
- 268 to 275 Potters’ marks 176
-
- 276 Potters’ stamp 177
-
- 277 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, London 178
-
- 278 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Arezzo 179
-
- 279 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Arezzo 179
-
- 280 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, London 179
-
- 281 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, London 180
-
- 282 Pottery, Samian ware, patera London 180
-
- 283 Pottery, Samian ware, foliage 181
-
- 284 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Castor 182
-
- 285 Pottery, Samian ware, bacchanalian scene 182
-
- 286 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Castor 183
-
- 287 Pottery, Samian ware, Cologne 183
-
- 288 to 291 Samian ware, cups, etc., London 184
-
- 292 Glass, sepulchral vessel, Bartlow Hills 185
-
- 293 Glass, bowl, Leicester 186
-
- 294 to 297 Glass beads 186
-
- 298 Glass beads, etc. 187
-
- 299 Sword, Lough Lea 191
-
- 300 Sword, Lincolnshire 191
-
- 301 Spear or lance-head, Little Chester 190
-
- 302 Spear or lance-head, Hartshay 190
-
- 303 Spear or lance-head, Wardlow 192
-
- 304 Arrow-head, bronze 192
-
- 305 Knife 192
-
- 306 Knife Wetton 193
-
- 307 Fibula, Waleby 194
-
- 308 Fibula, Elton 194
-
- 309 Fibula, Monsal Dale 194
-
- 310 to 315 Fibulæ, various localities 194
-
- 316 Fibula, Royal Irish Academy 194
-
- 317 Fibula, Little Chester 194
-
- 318 Fibula, Bottisham 195
-
- 319 Fibula, Elton 195
-
- 320 Fibula, Hoylake 195
-
- 321 Armillæ, Stony Middleton 196
-
- 322 Torques, Needwood Forest 198
-
- 323 Torques, Royal Irish Academy 199
-
- 324 Horse-shoe, lamp, and fibulæ, Gloucester 201
-
-
- ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD.
-
- 325 Plan of interment, Lapwing Dale 209
-
- 326 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Kingston 215
-
- 327 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, North Elmham 217
-
- 328 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Chestersovers 217
-
- 329 Pottery, drinking vessel 217
-
- 330 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Selzen 221
-
- 331 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Londinières 221
-
- 332 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Selzen 221
-
- 333 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Londinières 221
-
- 334 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Cologne 221
-
- 335 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau 223
-
- 336 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau 223
-
- 337 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau 223
-
- 338 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau 223
-
- 339 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 222
-
- 340 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 222
-
- 341 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 224
-
- 342 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 224
-
- 343 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 224
-
- 344 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 225
-
- 345 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 225
-
- 346 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 225
-
- 347 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 226
-
- 348 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 226
-
- 349 Pottery, notched stick 227
-
- 350 Pottery, notched stick 227
-
- 351 Pottery, punctured ornament, Kings Newton 227
-
- 352 Pottery, cup, Kings Newton 227
-
- 353, 354, 355 Glass tumblers 229
-
- 356, 357 Ale-glasses 229
-
- 358 Glass cups 229
-
- 359 Cup-bearer, with ale-glass 230
-
- 360 Cellarer, with barrels and pitchers 230
-
- 361 Banquet 231
-
- 362, 363 Glasses, decanter shape 231
-
- 364, 365, 366 Ale-glasses 232
-
- 367, 368, 369 Glass and clay beads 233
-
- 370 Glass and amber necklace 234
-
- 371 Glass Bead and ring 235
-
- 372 Sword, Tissington 237
-
- 373 Sword, Grimthorpe 237
-
- 374 Sword, Grimthorpe guard 237
-
- 375 Sword, Grimthorpe chape 237
-
- 376 to 390 Swords, from illuminated MSS. 239
-
- 391 Swordsman with shield and sword 240
-
- 392 to 396 Knives or daggers, Kentish graves 242
-
- 397 to 403 Spear-heads, Kentish graves, etc. 244
-
- 404 Spears, from illuminated MSS. 244
-
- 405 Shield plates, etc., Grimthorpe 246
-
- 406 Umbone of shield, Kentish graves 247
-
- 407 Umbone of shield, Kentish graves 247
-
- 408 Umbone of shield, Tissington 247
-
- 409 to 416 Shields, from illuminated MSS. 248
-
- 417 to 428 Buckles, from Kentish graves 249, 250
-
- 429 Drinking-cup, Benty Grange 251
-
- 430 Enamelled ornaments, etc., Benty Grange 251
-
- 431 Helmet, Benty Grange 253
-
- 432 Ornaments, Benty Grange 253
-
- 433 Plan of interment, Barlaston 259
-
- 434 Bronze ring, Barlaston 259
-
- 435 Enamelled disc, Barlaston 260
-
- 436 Enamelled disc, Middleton Moor 261
-
- 437 Enamelled ornament, Middleton Moor 262
-
- 438 Enamelled ornament, Royal Irish Academy 262
-
- 439 Bronze disc and rivets, Grimthorpe 263
-
- 440 Horse-shoe, Berkshire 264
-
- 441 Horse-shoe, Berkshire 264
-
- 442 Plan of interment, Rhine 265
-
- 443 Fibula, Kingston Down 267
-
- 444 Fibula, Winster Moor 269
-
- 445 Pendant cross, Winster Moor 269
-
- 446 Fibula, Sittingbourne 270
-
- 447 Fibula, Wingham 270
-
- 448 Fibula, Kent 270
-
- 449 Fibula, Stowe Heath 271
-
- 450 Fibula, Ingarsby 271
-
- 451 Fibula, Northamptonshire 272
-
- 452 Fibula, Stow Heath 272
-
- 453 Fibula, Royal Irish Academy 272
-
- 454 Fibula, Royal Irish Academy 273
-
- 455 Fibula, Royal Irish Academy 273
-
- 456 Fibula, Westmoreland 274
-
- 457 Fibula, Bonsall 275
-
- 458 Fibula, Bonsall 276
-
- 459 Fibula, Westmoreland 277
-
- 460 Bucket, Northamptonshire 281
-
- 461 Bucket, Fairford 281
-
- 462 Bucket, Envermeu 282
-
- 463 Drinking-cup, Sibertswold 283
-
- 464 Drinking-cup, Sibertswold 283
-
- 465 Bronze bowl, Over-Haddon 284
-
- 466 Bronze box, etc., Church Sterndale 285
-
- 467 Bronze ornament, Church Sterndale 285
-
- 468 Bronze box, Newhaven 286
-
- 469 Comb, Royal Irish Academy 287
-
- 470 Comb, Kent 287
-
- 471 Comb, Thames 288
-
- 472 Comb, Arica 288
-
- 473 Comb, Arica 288
-
- 474 Comb, Indian scalp 288
-
- 475 Comb, Tweezers, Leicestershire 289
-
- 476 Châtelaines, Kent 290
-
- 477 Latch-keys (?) Ozengall 291
-
- 478 Girdle suspenders, Wilbraham 291
-
- 479 Girdle suspenders, Searby 291
-
- 480 Hair-pin, Searby 292
-
- 481 Hair-pin, Royal Irish Academy 292
-
- 482 Hair-pin, Royal Irish Academy 292
-
- 483 Hair-pin, Royal Irish Academy 292
-
- 484 Draughtmen, Cold Eaton 294
-
- 485 Dice, Gilton 295
-
- 486 Quern, Winster 295
-
- 487 Quern, Kings Newton 296
-
- 488 Triturating stones 296
-
- 489 Triturating stones 296
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-
-The object of the following work is, I apprehend, so obvious as to
-render an introduction scarcely needful. It may be well, however,
-to remark, that it is the only work of its kind which has ever been
-issued, and that therefore, taking a stand of its own, and following no
-other either in plan or treatment of its subject, it is hoped that it
-will command the attention of antiquaries and of all who are interested
-in the history and the manners and habits of our early forefathers.
-
-It has long appeared to me that a general _résumé_ of the almost
-endless store of knowledge presented by the very varied relics of the
-grave-mounds of the three great divisions of our history--the Celtic,
-the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon--kept distinct from the
-histories of those peoples, and from extraneous matters, and treating
-them more in a general than in an ethnological manner, could not fail
-to be a useful addition to our archæological literature, and would
-prove of great value and convenience to the general reader, as well as
-to the antiquary and the historian. Thus it is that I have been induced
-to prepare the present volume.
-
-I have treated my subject in a popular manner, divesting it of
-technicalities, of theories, and of discursive matter, and have
-endeavoured, as far as space would permit, to give, simply and clearly,
-as correct an insight as possible into the modes of burial adopted
-in early times in our own country, and into the various remains of
-different races which an examination of their grave-mounds discloses.
-
-Having great faith in the usefulness of engravings, and believing that,
-if judiciously introduced, a work of the kind cannot be too profusely
-illustrated, I have brought together in my present volume a larger
-number of engravings than could well have been expected; and these,
-I trust, will add much to its usefulness and value. To all my kind
-friends who have aided me in this matter I give my hearty thanks.
-
-The work may have some, perhaps many, defects. If such exist, I shall
-be thankful to have them pointed out, and to remedy them in a future
-edition.
-
- LLEWELLYNN JEWITT.
-
- WINSTER HALL,
- DERBYSHIRE.
-
-
-
-
-Grave-mounds and their Contents.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER I.
-
- Grave-mounds in General--Their Historical Importance--General
- Situation--Known as Barrows, Houes, Tumps, and Lows--List of
- Names--Division into Periods.
-
-
-To the grave-mounds of the early inhabitants of our island, more than
-to any other source, we are indebted for our knowledge of their arts,
-their habits, and their occupations. Indeed, to these mounds and their
-contents, we owe almost all the knowledge we possess as to the history
-of the races and peoples who have preceded us, and are enabled to
-determine, approximately, their chronological succession as masters of
-the soil.
-
-From the very earliest ages men of every race have bestowed peculiar
-care over the graves of the dead, and have marked to later ages, in an
-unmistakable manner, these places of sepulture, which have, in many
-instances, been preserved with religious care to modern times. Thus
-the relics which they contain have come down to us intact, and even
-now tell their wondrous tale, in a language of their own, of ages and
-of races of beings long since passed away. A single implement of stone
-or of flint; a weapon or an ornament of bronze, of iron, or of bone; a
-bead of jet or of glass; an urn, or even a fragment of pottery; or any
-one of the infinity of other relics which are exhumed, no matter to
-what period they belong, or from what locality they may have come; one
-and all tell their own tale, and supply new links to our ever-extending
-chain of knowledge.
-
-To the graves, then, of our earliest ancestors, must we mainly turn for
-a knowledge of their history and of their modes of life; and a careful
-examination and comparison of their contents will enable us to arrive
-at certain data on which, not only to found theories, but to build up
-undying and faultless historical structures.
-
-As, wherever the country was populated, interments of the dead must,
-as a necessity, have taken place, these all-important store-houses
-of after-knowledge exist, or have existed, to more or less extent in
-almost every district throughout the land, and give evidence, whenever
-opened by experienced hands, of their historical value and importance.
-The earliest grave-mounds are mostly found in the mountainous districts
-of the land--among the hills and fastnesses; the latter overspreading
-hill and valley and plain alike. Thus, in Cornwall and Yorkshire,
-in Derbyshire and in Dorsetshire, in Wiltshire and in many other
-districts, the earliest interments are, or have been, abundant; while
-the later ones, besides being mixed up with them in the districts
-named, are spread over every other county. In the counties just
-named Celtic remains abound more than those of any other period. In
-Dorsetshire, for instance, that county, as the venerable Stukeley
-declares, “for sight of barrows not to be equalled in the world,” the
-early mounds abound on the downs and on the lofty Ridgeway, an immense
-range of hills of some forty miles in extent, while those of a later
-period lie in other parts of the county. In Yorkshire, again, they
-abound chiefly in the wolds; and in Cornwall, on the high lands. The
-same, again, of Derbyshire, where they lie for the most part scattered
-over the wild, mountainous, and beautiful district known as the
-High Peak--a district occupying nearly one half of the county, and
-containing within its limits many towns, villages, and other places
-of extreme interest. In this it resembles Dorsetshire; for in the
-district comprised in the Ridgeway and the downs are very many highly
-interesting and important places, around which the tumuli are most
-plentiful.
-
-It is true that here and there in Derbyshire, as in other counties,
-an early grave-mound exists in the southern or lowland portion of the
-county; but, as a rule, they may be almost said to be peculiar, and
-confined, to the northern, or hilly district, where in some parts they
-are very abundant. Indeed, there are districts where there is scarcely
-a hill, even in that land, where
-
- “Hills upon hills,
- Mountains on mountains rise,”
-
-where a barrow does not exist or is not known to have existed. In
-passing along the old high-road, for instance, over Middleton Moor
-by way of Arbor Low,[1] Parcelly Hay, High Needham, Earl Sterndale,
-and Brier Low, to Buxton, or along the high-roads by way of Winster,
-Hartington, or Newhaven, the practised eye has no difficulty in resting
-on the forms of grave-mounds on the summits of the different hills or
-mountains, whose outlines stand out clear and distinct against the sky.
-
-The situations chosen by the early inhabitants for the burial of their
-dead were, in many instances, grand in the extreme. Formed on the tops
-of the highest hills, or on lower but equally imposing positions, the
-grave-mounds commanded a glorious prospect of hill and dale, wood and
-water, rock and meadow, of many miles in extent, and on every side
-stretching out as far as the eye could reach, while they themselves
-could be seen from afar off in every direction by the tribes who
-had raised them, while engaged either in hunting or in their other
-pursuits. They became, indeed, land-marks for the tribes, and were,
-there can be but little doubt, used by them as places of assembling.
-
-Sepulchral tumuli are known as barrows, lows, houes, tumps, etc.
-_Barrow_ is of pretty general use; _low_ is almost universal in
-Derbyshire, Staffordshire, and other districts; _tump_ is in use in
-Gloucestershire, etc.; and _houe_ in Yorkshire.
-
-In Derbyshire and Staffordshire, the term “Low” is so very usual that,
-wherever met with, it may be taken as a sure indication of a barrow
-now existing or having once existed at the spot. As a proof of this,
-it will only be necessary to say that at about two hundred places in
-Derbyshire alone, and at about half that number on the neighbouring
-borders of Staffordshire, which bear the affix of _Low_, barrows are
-known to exist or have already been opened. For my present purpose,
-it will be sufficient to give the few following names:--Arbor-Low,
-Kens-Low, Ringham-Low, Blake-Low, Fox-Low, Gib-Low, Green-Low,
-Great-Low, Grind-Low, Cal-Low, Chelmorton-Low, Casking-Low, Larks-Low,
-Thirkel-Low, Ribden-Low, Har-Low, Bas-Low, High-Low, Foo-Low, Lean-Low,
-Huck-Low, Borther-Low, Dow-Low, Totman’s-Low, Staden-Low, Stan-Low,
-Blind-Low, Boar-Low, Bottles-Low, Brown-Low, Caldon-Low, Calver-Low,
-Cock-Low, Cop-Low, Cow-Low, Cronkstone-Low, Dars-Low, Drake-Low,
-Elk-Low, End-Low, Far-Low, Pike-Low, Fowse-Low, Galley-Low, Gris-Low,
-Grub-Low, Herns-Low, Hawks-Low, Horning-Low, Hard-Low, Knock-Low,
-Knot-Low, Laidmans-Low, Lady-Low, Liffs-Low, Lomber-Low, Lousy-Low,
-Mick-Low, Moot-Low, Money-Low, Musden-Low, May-Low, Needham-Low,
-Nether-Low, Ox-Low, Off-Low, Pars-Low, Painstor-Low, Peg-Low,
-Pigtor-Low, Pike-Low, Pinch-Low, Queen-Low, Ravens-Low, Rains-Low,
-Rick-Low, Rocky-Low, Rolley-Low, Round-Low, Rusden-Low, Saint-Low,
-Sitting-Low, Sliper-Low, Thoo-Low Three-Lows, Ward-Low, Warry-Low,
-White-Low, Whithery-Low, Wool-Low, and Yarns-Low. To some of these I
-shall again have occasion to make reference. In Yorkshire, the names
-of William Houe, Three Houes, and Three Tremblers Houes, will be
-sufficient indication of the local use of the term “Houe.”
-
-Grave-mounds may, naturally, be divided into the three great periods;
-the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon. This division
-will be adopted in the present volume, and it will be its aim, while
-speaking of the characteristics of each, to classify and describe their
-contents, and to point out, briefly, such circumstances of interment,
-and such evidences of customs, as they may present, and which may
-appear to be of sufficient interest and importance to its plan.
-
-Of the forms of barrows, and their characteristics and modes of
-construction, occasion will be taken to speak in a later chapter.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER II.
-
- Ancient British, or Celtic, Period--General characteristics of
- the Barrows--Modes of construction--Interments by inhumation
- and by cremation--Positions of the body--Hitter Hill
- Barrow--Elliptical Barrow at Swinscoe--Burial in contracted
- position--In sitting and kneeling positions--Double interments.
-
-
-The barrows of the Celtic, or ancient British, period vary in their
-form and size as much as they do in their modes of construction, and in
-their contents. Sometimes they are simply mounds of earth raised over
-the interment; sometimes heaps of stones piled up over the body; and
-sometimes again a combination of cist and earth and stone. Generally
-speaking the mounds are circular, rising gradually and gently from
-the level of the ground towards the centre, but in some instances the
-rise is somewhat acute. Now and then they are oval in form. Where
-elliptical barrows occur (generally known as “long barrows”), they
-are, I have reason to believe, not matters of original design, but of
-accident, through additional interments; and I much doubt the propriety
-of archæologists at the present day continuing the very questionable
-nomenclature adopted by Sir R. C. Hoare and others. In some cases,
-however, as in the instances of chambered or walled tumuli, the
-elliptical form of the barrow can be easily understood. An examination
-of a very large number of barrows leads me to the opinion that the
-original form of all was circular, and that no deviation from that
-form, and no difference in section, can be taken as indicative of
-period or of race.
-
-The other appellation occasionally used, of “twin barrows,” is further
-evidence of this--two interments having been made within a short
-distance of each other, and the mounds raised over them running into
-and joining each other. It may, however, for purposes of description,
-and for this alone, be well to retain the names, while discarding
-much of the theory and of the system which has been attempted to be
-established regarding them.
-
-The mounds of earth alluded to, present occasionally highly interesting
-and curious features, and show that, like those of a different
-construction, they have frequently been used for successive interments.
-The section of one of these is shown on the next page. It is one of
-a group of six barrows on Lord’s Down, in the parish of Dewlish, in
-Dorsetshire. It was eighty-two feet in diameter, and fourteen feet in
-height in the centre. The primary interment, an urn, was placed in a
-cist cut in the chalk sub-soil. Over the urn was raised a small cairn
-of flints, and the cist was then filled in, and raised a little above
-the surface with chalk rubble. Over this was a layer of earth, upon
-which an interment had taken place, and in its turn covered with a
-thick layer of chalk rubble, in the centre of which, in a cist, another
-interment had again been made. Above this rose another layer of earth,
-another of chalk, and then a final one of earth, on each of which
-interments had at different periods been made. Thus the tumulus, which
-was formed of alternate layers of chalk and earth, exhibited no less
-than six successive sepulchral deposits.[2] The interments were both by
-inhumation and cremation.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 2.
-
- 1. Earth to the depth of three feet.
- 2. Chalk, two feet in depth.
- 3. Earth to the depth of three feet.
- 4. Loose rubble chalk, three feet in depth.
- 5. Earth, one foot in depth.
- 6. Chalk rubble, six inches in depth.
- Cist, filled with chalk rubble and flints, two feet in depth.
-]
-
-Another example of a barrow of this period is shown in section on the
-fig. 3. There had originally been four small mounds, or barrows,
-formed in a group, on the natural surface of the ground (see the two
-dotted lines in the engraving). They were composed of tempered earth,
-approaching in tenacity almost to clay, and on these the general mound
-was raised to a height of about eighteen feet, and was composed of
-earth, intermixed with loose rubbly limestones. Nearly at the top, in
-the centre, a stone cist, enclosing an interment, was discovered. It
-was in form a perfect, though miniature, example of what are commonly
-called cromlechs.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
-
-It is not an unfrequent occurrence in barrows to find that interments
-have been made at different periods and by different races, as will be
-hereafter shown.
-
-The two examples of mounds of earth already given will show the
-successive layers which have occurred in their formation. The simpler,
-and intact, mounds of earth, which are very common, require no
-illustration. They are simply immense circular heaps of earth raised
-over the interment, whether in cist or not.
-
-Barrows, or mounds, of stone are of frequent occurrence. They are
-of very simple construction. The interment, whether by cremation or
-otherwise, having been made in a natural or artificial cist, or simply
-laid upon the natural surface of the ground, rough stones were placed
-in a large circle around it, and an immense quantity of stones were
-then piled up to a height of several feet. Some of these cairns are
-of very great size, and cover a large area of ground. Sections of two
-tumuli of this description are given in figs. 4 and 5. The cairn of
-stone was, as will be seen, covered to some depth with earth; perhaps
-in some instances this might be a part of the original design, but in
-most cases the soil which now covers these stone barrows may be traced
-to the ordinary process of decay of vegetation in successive ages.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
-
-Barrows were not unfrequently surrounded by a circle of stones, set
-upright in the ground. These circles, in many instances, remain to the
-present day in different parts of the kingdom, and, the barrow itself
-having disappeared, are commonly called by the general appellation of
-“Druidical circles.” But of these, later on. The construction of the
-stone circles varied considerably. In some instances the upright stones
-were pretty close together; in others, wide apart; and in others,
-again, the spaces between the uprights were filled in with a rude loose
-rubble masonry, which thus formed a continuous wall.
-
-Some tumuli contained stone chambers and passages, formed of massive
-upright slabs, and covered with immense blocks of stone. Over these
-chambers, etc., the mounds of earth, or of stone, or of both combined,
-were raised, as will be hereafter shown.
-
-Interments in the Celtic grave-mounds were both by inhumation and
-cremation, and the modes of interment, in both these divisions, was
-very varied.
-
-Where inhumation obtained, the body was sometimes laid on its side, in
-a contracted position; at others, extended full length on its back or
-side; and in other instances, again, was placed in an upright sitting
-or kneeling posture. Occasionally, too, where more than one body has
-been buried at the same time, they have been laid face to face, with
-their arms encircling each other; at other times an infant has been
-placed in its mother’s arms.
-
-When cremation has been practised, the remains have either
-been gathered together in a small heap on the surface of the
-ground--sometimes enclosed in a small cist, at others left uncovered,
-and at others covered with a small slab of stone--or wrapped in a
-cloth or skin (the bone or bronze pin which has fastened the napkin
-being occasionally found), or enclosed in cinerary urns, inverted or
-otherwise. In some instances, even when placed in urns, they were first
-enclosed in a cloth.
-
-These are the general characteristics of the interments of the Celtic
-period, and they will be best understood by the following examples.
-
-When the body has been buried in a contracted position, it is found
-lying on its side; the left side being the most usual. The head
-generally inclines a little forward; the knees are drawn up near to
-the chest, and the heels to the thighs; the elbows are brought near
-to the knees,--frequently, indeed, one of them will be found beneath,
-and the other on, the knees, which have thus been held between them;
-and the hands are frequently brought up to the front of the face. This
-position, which is after all, perhaps, the most easy and natural one
-to choose, will be best understood by the following engraving (fig. 6),
-which shows an interment found in a barrow on Smerril Moor, opened by
-my much lamented friend the late Mr. Thomas Bateman. In this case the
-body had been laid on its left side in an irregularly formed cavity
-on the surface of the natural rock, on a bed of clay, over which, as
-usual, the mound was formed of loose stones and mould. Behind the
-skeleton, as will be seen in the engraving, was found a remarkably
-fine “drinking cup,” along with a bone meshing rule or modelling tool,
-twelve inches long, made from the rib of a horse or cow; a flint
-dagger; an arrow-head; and some other implements, also of flint, all of
-which had been burned. The femur of this skeleton measured nineteen
-and a half inches, and the tibia sixteen inches.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
-
-The next example (fig. 7), from Tissington, will be seen to have been
-laid in very much the same position. It lies on its left side, the
-knees drawn up, and the feet, elbows, and hands in the position I have
-already described. This barrow possessed considerable interest, from
-the fact that a later interment--of the Anglo-Saxon period--had been
-made immediately above the figure here subjoined. To this I shall
-refer under the head of Anglo-Saxon. In the same barrow, shown at A
-on the engraving, was a deposit of burnt bones. Fig. 8, again, shows
-an interment in the contracted position, the head, in this instance,
-resting upon the left hand. The skeleton lay in an oblong oval cist,
-five feet long by two and a half feet wide, smoothly hollowed out of
-the chalk, and over this the mound was raised. Along with it were
-found a bronze dagger, a barbed arrow-head of flint, a beautiful
-drinking cup and other objects. This example is from Roundway Hill,
-in North Wiltshire.[3] Another excellent example, from Hitter Hill,
-Derbyshire, is given in the next engraving (fig. 9), which shows
-successive interments, each being on the left side, in the usual
-contracted position.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
-
-Of this barrow, the opening of which presented peculiarly interesting
-features, a tolerably detailed account will be advisable. It was opened
-by myself and Mr. Lucas in 1862. The mound, which was about twenty-two
-feet in diameter, was composed of rough stone and earth intermixed. It
-was only about three feet in height, its centre being somewhat sunk.
-The first opening was made at the part marked A on the accompanying
-ground-plan (fig. 10), where, from the outside, we cut a trench, four
-feet in width, in a north-easterly direction, towards the centre of
-the barrow, and soon came upon an interment of burnt and unburnt human
-bones. Along with these were an immense quantity of rats’ bones[4]
-and snail-shells. After proceeding to a distance of seven feet, we
-came upon the side, or what may almost be called the entrance, of
-a cist formed partly of the natural rock, and partly of stones set
-up edgewise. The dimensions of this cist were about forty inches by
-twenty-six inches, and it was two feet in depth, the floor being
-three feet six inches below the surface. The cist was formed between
-two portions of natural rock, and protected at its entrance by a large
-flat stone set up edgwise, and other stones filled up the interstices
-at the sides. It was also covered with a large flat stone. On clearing
-away the surrounding earth, after removing the covering stone, we were
-rewarded by finding that the cist contained the fragmentary remains
-of a young person, which had lain on its right side, in the usual
-position, with the knees drawn up. The accompanying engraving (fig.
-11) will show the opened cist, with the stone across its entrance, and
-the interment _in situ_. In front of the skeleton, and close to its
-hands, was a remarkably good and perfect food vessel, which was richly
-ornamented with the diagonal and herring-bone lines, formed by twisted
-thongs impressed into the soft clay.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
-
-The next morning we dug a trench four feet wide, on the west side
-towards the centre, as shown at B on the plan (fig. 10), and the day’s
-labours had an equally satisfactory result. At about the same distance
-as on the previous day we came to the side of a cist, immediately in
-front of which, at F on the plan, lay a heap of burnt bones, and a few
-flakes of burnt flint. Having cleared away the surrounding stones and
-earth, and removed the large flat covering stones, which showed above
-the surface of the mound, we found the cist to be composed on one side
-by the natural rock, and on the other by flat stones set up on edge.
-Its dimensions were about one foot ten inches by four feet, and it
-contained a large quantity of rats’ bones and snails’ shells. In this
-cist was an interment of an adult, much crushed by one of the large
-covering stones having fallen upon it. Thanks to this circumstance,
-however, a food vessel, which we discovered, owed its preservation.
-The body lay in the usual contracted position, on its right side, as
-shown on the ground-plan at B, and in front and close to the hands was
-the food vessel, which, like the other, was taken out entire. It is
-five and a quarter inches in height, and six and a quarter inches in
-diameter at the top, and is richly ornamented.
-
-Continuing the excavations to the south, we found that another cist
-C adjoined the one just described, and was, like it, formed of flat
-stones set up edgewise; in fact, it was like one long cist divided
-across the middle. In this second cist, besides the usual accompaniment
-of rats’ bones, was the remains of an interment, sufficiently _in
-situ_ to show that the skeleton had, like the others, been deposited
-in a contracted position. A small fragment of pottery was also found,
-but owing to the cist being so near the surface the stones had been
-partially crushed in, and thus both the deposit and the urn had become
-destroyed. A portion of a stone hammer was also found.
-
-The two cists are here shown (fig. 12), which also shows the central
-interment at a higher level, to be hereafter described.
-
-On the following Monday we resumed our operations by making an opening
-on the north-west side, as shown at D on the plan. Here, again, at a
-few feet from the outer edge, we came upon an interment H, without a
-cist, accompanied by an unusual quantity of rats’ bones. Continuing the
-excavation, we were again rewarded by the discovery of a fine cist,
-but at a greater depth than those before described. Above this cist
-we found some large bones of the ox, and on the covering stone was a
-deposit of burnt bones and ashes, with innumerable quantities of rats’
-bones.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
-
-The cist, which was covered with one extremely large flat stone, we
-found to be formed partly of the natural rock, and partly--like the
-others--of flat stones set up edgewise; and it was, without exception,
-the most compact and neatly formed of any which have come under
-our observation. Its form will be seen on the plan at D, and its
-appearance, when the interior soil was removed, is shown on fig. 9. The
-dimensions of the cist were as follows:--Width at the foot, twenty-four
-inches; extreme length, forty inches; general depth, twenty inches.
-The floor was composed of the natural surface of the rock, with some
-small flat stones laid to make it level, and at the narrow end a raised
-edge of stone, rudely hollowed in the centre, formed a pillow on which
-the head rested. The sides of the cist were square on the one side to
-the length of twenty-eight, and on the other of twenty-one, inches, and
-it then gradually became narrower until at the head its width was only
-ten inches. When the cist was cleared of its accumulation of soil and
-rats’ bones--of which scores of jaw-bones were present, thus showing
-the large number of these ravaging animals which had taken up their
-abode there--it presented one of the most beautiful and interesting
-examples of primeval architecture ever exhumed. It contained the
-skeleton of an adult, laid on his left side, in the usual contracted
-position, but without any pottery or flint. The skull, of which an
-outline engraving is given on fig. 13, is a most interesting and
-characteristic example of the cranium of an ancient Coritanian Briton.
-It is brachy-cephalic, and is the subject of deformity from nursing
-on the cradle-board in infancy.[5] It is the skull of a middle-aged
-man, and is remarkably well formed. The bones, with the exception of
-some of the small ones, were all remaining, and formed a skeleton
-of considerable ethnological interest. The small bones were gnawed
-away by the rats, and it is curious to see to what distances, in some
-interments, these active little animals have dragged even large bones
-from their original resting-places. It may not be without interest to
-note, that within the skull of this skeleton the bones of a rat, head
-and all, were found imbedded in the soil, along with some small stones,
-which he doubtless had dragged in with him on his last excursion. We
-continued our excavations in a north-easterly direction, as shown at
-G on the plan, and found another interment, but without a cist or any
-other notable remains; and next day we commenced opening that portion
-of the centre of the barrow between the cists already described, and
-soon came upon an interment of an adult person, as shown on the plan
-at E. The bones were very much disturbed, but sufficient remained to
-show that the deceased had been placed on his left side, in the same
-contracted position as the others in this mound. The body was not more
-than twelve inches below the surface, and was much disturbed, but it is
-more than probable the top of the barrow had at some distant time been
-taken off, most likely for the sake of the stone. The position of this
-interment will be seen on reference to the plan, and it is also shown
-on figs. 9, 11, and 12.
-
-In addition to these illustrations, it will be sufficient to give the
-annexed engraving (fig. 14), which shows the position of a number of
-interments uncovered by Mr. Bateman in the centre of an elliptical
-barrow[6] at Swinscoe. The interments were as follows:--1. A young
-adult, lying in a contracted position, on its right side, in a shallow
-grave cut about six inches deep in the chert rock, with a stone placed
-on edge at the head, and another at the feet. 2. A young adult, lying
-on its right side, an upright stone at its head. 3. A middle-aged
-person, lying with the face upwards, and guarded by a large stone at
-its side. 4. The bones of a young hog, enclosed in a stone cist. 5.
-Remains of a cinerary urn and burnt bones. 6. Skeleton of an aged
-man, lying in a contracted position, on its left side, upon a thin
-layer of charred wood. 7. A deposit of burnt bones. 8. Skeleton, very
-fragmentary. 9. A double interment, consisting of two skeletons, with a
-flat stone on edge by their side. These were an adult, and a child of a
-few months old only. 10. Skeleton of an aged man, lying in the usual
-position, on his left side, enclosed in a circle of stones. Behind him
-lay a handsome drinking-cup. 12. Portions of a skeleton in a pentagonal
-cist. 13. Skeleton of a young person, placed close up to an upright
-flat stone. 14. Skull and portions of a skeleton. Several flints and
-other remains were found with these various interments.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
-
-Interments where the body has lain extended are of much rarer
-occurrence, in this period, than those just described. Some few
-instances have been brought to light in Derbyshire, and in other
-counties, but they are indeed “few and far between,” and are the very
-rare exceptions to a general rule. One of the most interesting of
-these instances is the one called “Shuttlestone Low,” opened a few
-years ago by Mr. Bateman, and thus described by him: “It consisted of
-a compact mass of tempered earth down to the natural surface of the
-land, below which point, in the centre of the barrow, there appeared a
-large collection of immense limestones, the two uppermost being placed
-on edge, and all below being laid flat, though without any other order
-or design than was sufficient to prevent the lowest course resting
-upon the floor of the grave inside which they were piled up, and which
-was cut out to the depth of at least eight feet below the natural
-surface; thus rendering the total depth, from the top of the mound
-to the floor of the grave, not less than twelve feet. Underneath the
-large stones lay the skeleton of a man, in the prime of life, and of
-fine proportions, apparently the sole occupant of the mound; who had
-been interred while enveloped in a skin of dark-red colour, the hairy
-surface of which had left many traces both upon the surrounding earth
-and upon the verdigris, or patina, coating; a bronze axe-shaped celt
-and dagger deposited with the skeleton. On the former weapon there
-are also beautifully distinct impressions of fern leaves, handfuls of
-which, in a compressed and half-decayed state, surrounded the bones
-from head to foot. From these leaves being discernible on one side
-of the celt only, whilst the other side presents traces of leather
-alone, it is certain that the leaves were placed first as a couch for
-the reception of the corpse, with its accompaniments, and after these
-had been deposited, were then further added in quantity sufficient
-to protect the body from the earth. The position of the weapons with
-respect to the body is well ascertained, and is further evidenced by
-the bronze having imparted a vivid tinge of green to the bones where in
-contact with them. Close to the head were one small black bead of jet
-and a circular flint; in contact with the left upper arm lay a bronze
-dagger with a very sharp edge, having two rivets for the attachment
-of the handle, which was of horn, the impression of the grain of that
-substance being quite distinct around the studs. About the middle of
-the left thigh-bone was placed the bronze celt which is of the plainest
-axe-shaped type. The cutting edge was turned towards the upper part of
-the person, and the instrument itself has been inserted vertically into
-a wooden handle, by being driven in for about two inches at the narrow
-end--at least the grain of the wood runs in the same direction as the
-longest dimension of the celt,--a fact not unworthy of the notice of
-any inclined to explain the precise manner of mounting these curious
-implements. The skull--which is decayed on the left side, from the body
-having lain with that side down--is of the platy-cephalic form, with
-prominent parietal tubers--the femur measures 18½ inches.”
-
-Another good instance is from Yorkshire, where two skeletons were found
-side by side, extended, with their heads respectively east and west,
-lying in a bed of charcoal.
-
-Occasionally, as has been stated on a previous page, interments have
-been made in an upright sitting position. Instances of this kind are
-rare and very curious. Our engraving (fig. 15) shows an interment of
-this kind, which occurred in a barrow at Parcelly Hay. The body had
-been placed in a sitting posture, leaning back against the side of
-the cist, which was only three feet in height, and not more than that
-in its greatest width. The cist was roughly covered in with large
-slabs of limestone. The skull, which was a remarkably fine one, has
-been engraved in “Crania Britannica.”[7] On the covering-stones lay
-another skeleton, among the loose stones of which the barrow itself was
-composed. This secondary interment was accompanied by a fine axe-head
-of stone and a bronze dagger. Of course the seated skeleton must have
-been of an earlier date still.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
-
-Another remarkable instance of this kind of interment--but this time
-in a kneeling position--was discovered in the Cromlech De Tus, or
-De Hus, in Guernsey, by Mr. F. C. Lukis.[8] This interesting relic
-is situated near Paradis, in the parish of Vale, and is a chambered
-tumulus of simple but excellent construction. The mound is surrounded
-by a circle of stones, about twenty yards in diameter. In the centre
-is the principal chamber, covered with large flat stones, and from it
-to the extremity of the mound, on the east, was a passage formed by
-upright stones, and covered here and there with cap-stones dividing it
-into chambers. On the north side of this passage was a chamber formed
-by upright stones, on which rested the large flat covering stone; and
-close to this was another similar but smaller chamber. In the first
-were discovered “vases, bone instruments, celts, and human remains.”
-In the latter, on removing the soil at the top, “the upper part of two
-human skulls were exposed to view. One was facing the north, and the
-other the south, but both disposed in a line from east to west,”--in
-other words, side by side, and shoulder to shoulder, but facing
-opposite ways. They were skeletons of adult males, and, on clearing
-away the soil, they were found to have been buried at the same time.
-“The perfect regular position of a person kneeling on the floor, in an
-upright posture, with the arms following the direction of the column,
-pelvis, and thigh-bones, and gradually surrounded by the earth, in like
-manner as may be conceived would be done were the persons buried alive,
-will give an exact representation of this singular discovery.”
-
-Another excellent example of this very unusual mode of interment--this
-time in a sitting posture--was discovered by some tufa-getters,
-and examined by Mr. Bateman, in Monsal Dale, and is shown on the
-accompanying engraving, fig. 16, which exhibits a section of the rock,
-etc.; and shows the position of the skeleton, and the manner in which
-the cavity containing the body had been filled up with the river sand.
-The body in this case, as in the last, had been placed in the cavity,
-in a sitting position, and must have been so placed from an opening in
-front. The cavity was ten or twelve feet above the bed of the river
-Wye, and above it were some five feet in thickness of solid tufa rock,
-while, from the face of the rock, the cavity was about twelve feet. The
-body may therefore be said to have been entombed in the middle of the
-solid rock. The roof of the cavity when found was beautifully covered
-with stalactites. The skeleton was that of a young person, and near it
-were found a flint and some other matters. The cavity was filled to
-part way up the skull with sand.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
-
-Another example of interment in a sitting posture was discovered some
-years ago, at Kells in Ireland. These will be sufficient to show the
-curious character of this mode of interment.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
-
-Several examples of double interments, besides those described above,
-have been discovered in different localities. One of the most curious
-is the one in the largest cist, in fig. 17. In this cist, which is
-composed of four upright slabs of stone,[9] were the skeletons of a man
-and woman, and the remains of two children; the family having probably
-been immolated at the death of its head, and all buried together. A
-small urn was found in the same cist; and in the same barrow, in
-other portions which were excavated, as shown in the plan, were other
-interments, both by cremation and by inhumation.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
-
-In No. 9, on fig. 14, an interment of a mother and her child together
-is shown. Another instance is shown on the next engraving, fig. 18. In
-this instance the woman was laid in the usual contracted position, on
-her left side, with her head to the east. Close in front of the breast,
-lying in the arms in the same contracted position, lay the infant. Some
-flints and a fragment of pottery were found along with this touching
-interment.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER III.
-
- Ancient British or Celtic Period--Interment by
- cremation--Discovery of lead--Burial in urns--Positions of
- urns--Heaps of burnt bones--Burnt bones enclosed in cloth
- and skins--Stone cists--Long-Low--Liff’s-Low, etc.--Pit
- interments--Tree-coffins.
-
-
-When the interment has been by CREMATION, the remains of the burnt
-bones, etc., have been collected together and placed either in a small
-heap, or enclosed in a skin or cloth, or placed in a cinerary urn,
-which is sometimes found in an upright position, its mouth covered
-with a flat stone, and at others inverted over a flat stone or on the
-natural surface of the earth. This position, with the mouth downwards,
-is, perhaps, the most usual of the two. In some instances the bones
-were clearly enclosed, or wrapped, in a cloth before being placed in
-the urn. The place where the burning of the body has taken place is
-generally tolerably close to the spot on which the urn rests, or on
-which the heap of burnt bones has been piled up. Wherever the burning
-has taken place there is evidence of an immense amount of heat being
-used; the soil, for some distance below the surface, being in many
-places burned to a redness almost like brick. Remains of charcoal, the
-refuse of the funeral pyre, are very abundant, and in some instances
-I have found the lead ore, which occurs in veins in the limestone
-formation of Derbyshire, so completely smelted with the heat that it
-has run into the crevices among the soil and loose stones, and looks,
-when dug out, precisely like straggling roots of trees.
-
-Is it too much to suppose that the discovery of lead may be traced to
-the funeral pyre of our early forefathers? I think it not improbable
-that, the fact of seeing the liquid metal run from the fire as the ore
-which lay about became accidentally smelted, would give the people
-their first insight into the art of making lead--an art which we know
-was practised at a very early period in Derbyshire and other districts
-of this kingdom.[10] Pigs of lead of the Romano-British period,
-inscribed with the names of emperors and of legions, have occasionally
-been found; but much earlier than these are some cakes (if the term can
-be allowed) of lead which have evidently been cast in the saucer-shaped
-hollows of stones. Of these, which are purely British, some examples
-have fortunately been preserved.
-
-But to resume. The positions I have spoken of in which the cinerary
-urns and heaps of burnt bones have been usually found, will be
-best understood by the accompanying engravings. The first (fig.
-19) represents a section of a barrow in which, at _a_, is shown a
-sepulchral urn in an upright position, capped with a flat stone; and
-at _b_ a heap of burnt bones piled up in the usual fashion, and first
-covered with earth and then with the loose stones of which the whole
-barrow was composed.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
-
-The next engraving (fig. 20) again shows, within a cist, in a barrow
-on Baslow Moor called “Hob Hurst’s House,”[11] two heaps of bones, the
-one simply collected together in a small heap, and the other guarded by
-a row of small sandstone “boulders” all of which had been subjected to
-fire. The next illustration (fig. 21) gives a section of the Flax Dale
-barrow at Middleton by Youlgreave, which shows the inverted position of
-the sepulchral urn. This barrow was formed on a plan commonly adopted
-by the ancient Britons, and will therefore serve as an example of mode
-of construction as well as of the inverted position of the urn. A
-circle of large rough stones was laid on the surface of the ground,
-marking the extent of the proposed mound. Within this the interments,
-whether in an urn or not, were placed, and the mound was then raised of
-stones to the required height, and afterwards covered to some thickness
-with earth, and thus the outer circle of the barrow was considerably
-extended, as will be seen by the engraving.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
-
-Another excellent example of the inverted position of the sepulchral
-urns is here given (fig. 22) from one of the cists in Rolly-Low, near
-Wardlow. I have chosen it because, when found by Mr. Bateman, it had
-received a considerable fracture on one side, and thus showed the
-burnt bones which it contained, through the aperture. The urn was
-about sixteen inches in height and twelve inches in diameter, and was
-ornamented in the usual manner with indentations produced by a twisted
-thong. It was inverted over a deposit of calcined human bones, among
-which was a large red deer’s horn, also calcined. The urn was so
-fragile as to be broken to pieces on removal.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
-
-In some urns discovered in Cambridgeshire, at Muttilow Hill, the Hon.
-R. C. Neville found that the calcined bones had been collected and
-wrapped in cloth before being placed in the urns. The contents of one
-of the urns he describes as “burnt human bones enveloped in a cloth,
-which, on looking into the vessel, gave them the appearance of being
-viewed through a yellow gauze veil, but which upon being touched
-dissolved into fine powder.”[12] The urns were all inverted.
-
-A somewhat peculiar feature of urn burial was discovered at Broughton,
-in Lincolnshire, where the urn containing the burnt bones was placed
-upright on the surface of the ground, and another urn, made to fit the
-mouth, inverted into it to form a cover.
-
-In instances where the ashes of the dead have been collected from the
-funeral pyre, and laid in a skin or cloth before interment, the bone
-or bronze pins with which the “bundle” was fastened still remain,
-although, of course, the cloth itself has long since perished.
-
-In other instances small stones have been placed around, and upon, the
-heap of burnt bones before raising the mound over the remains.
-
-It is frequently found in barrows, where the interment has been by
-cremation, that there will be one or more deposits in cinerary urns,
-while in different parts of the mound, sometimes close by the urn,
-there will be small heaps of burnt bones without any urn. The probable
-solution of this is, that the simple heaps of bones were those of
-people who had been sacrificed at the death of the head of the family,
-and burned around him.
-
-It is a very frequent occurrence in barrows for the interments to
-be made in stone cists, and these, of course, vary both in size and
-in form, according to the nature of the spot chosen, and to the
-requirements of each particular case. The cists are usually formed of
-rough slabs of limestone, grit-stone, granite, or other material which
-the district offers, set up edgeways on the surface of the ground, so
-as to form a sort of irregular-square, rhomboidal, or other shaped
-compartment. In this the interment, whether of the body itself or
-of the urn containing the calcined bones, or of the calcined bones
-without an urn, has been made, and then the cist has been covered with
-one or more flat stones, over which the cairn of stones, or earth,
-or both, has been raised. Some barrows contain several such cists,
-in each of which a single, or in some instances a double, interment
-has been made. Excellent examples of these are afforded by the
-accompanying engravings, and by figs. 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 17, 20, 28,
-and 29. Occasionally, when the natural surface of the ground was not
-sufficiently even or solid for the interment to be as conveniently made
-as might be wished, a flooring of rough slabs of stone was laid for the
-body to rest upon. This was the case in a barrow called “Long-Low,”
-near Wetton, in the moorlands of Staffordshire (shown on fig. 24),
-which was opened by Mr. Carrington.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
-
-As there are some singular features connected with this barrow, a
-detailed account of the mode of its construction becomes necessary.
-This very peculiar barrow had been thought, time out of mind, to be
-a “mine rake,” and attempts have from time to time been made by lead
-miners to find a shaft, by removing certain portions of the mound--a
-shaft had, in fact, been sunk very nearly in the centre of the barrow.
-This rendered the operations of opening both difficult and laborious.
-Long-Low is what is usually denominated a “twin barrow,” consisting
-of two circular mounds, connected by a bank, which altogether are 220
-yards long. A plan of this barrow, drawn to scale, is shown on the
-accompanying engraving (fig. 23). The circular mound at the north-east
-end is thirty yards across and seven feet high in the centre, that
-at the south-west end not so large; the connecting bank at its base
-is fifteen yards wide, and where entire about six feet in height,
-with regular sloping sides where not mutilated. “The barrow runs in
-a straight line along the highest part of the land, a strong wall,
-separating the fields, is built over it lengthways, the stone for
-which, like other field walls in the vicinity, appears to have been
-procured from the bank of the tumulus, which, with the exception of
-some parts of the surface, is formed of large flat stones, which have
-evidently been procured in the immediate neighbourhood, where the
-surface of the land is lowered to a considerable extent. This is the
-only instance (as far as my experience goes) of a barrow being formed
-of stones got by quarrying, they being generally composed of such
-stones as are found on the surface of uncultivated land, which, owing
-to exposure to the atmosphere, have their angular points rounded.
-The strata in the neighbourhood of this barrow are but slightly
-consolidated, and are separated from each other by a thin seam of
-earthy matter, and abound with vertical cracks, so that it would not be
-a difficult task to dig out stones with sharpened stakes--the principal
-instruments, I presume, for such purposes in primitive times.”
-
-The internal construction of this cairn is singular. By making holes
-in various places along the bank, was found a low wall in the centre,
-built with large stones, which appears to be carried the whole length
-of the bank. Against this, large flat stones, with their tops reclining
-against the wall, are placed, thus leaving many vacancies, and showing
-an economical way of raising the mound at less expenditure both of
-labour and materials. The portions of this which have been laid bare
-are, with remains of interments, shown on the plan (fig. 23) at C, D,
-E, and F.
-
-A large cist, or chamber, was discovered near the centre of the large
-mound. It was formed by four immense stones, inclosing an area six feet
-long, five feet wide, and about four feet deep. In all probability
-the capstone had been removed, as none was found. On the cist being
-cleared, was discovered a regular paved floor of limestone, entirely
-covered over with human bones, presenting a confused mass of the relics
-of humanity. The skeletons lying in the primitive position, crossed
-each other in all directions. They proved to be the remains of thirteen
-individuals, both males and females, varying from infancy to old age.
-The interior of this cist is shown on the accompanying engraving, and
-its position in the mound will be seen at A on the plan.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
-
-On the floor were found three arrow-heads of flint, wrought into
-beautiful thin leaf-shaped instruments, and many other calcined flakes
-of the same material; also bones of the ox, hog, deer, and dog. Not
-far from the cist, and near the surface, was found a skeleton minus
-the head, imbedded in gravel, rats’ bones, and charcoal. On the floor
-some animal bones were found that had been burned, also neatly wrought
-arrow-heads and pieces of flint, and fragments of two human skulls.
-The point of a bone spear and a bone pin were found during our labours
-in this mound. “Another skeleton was found in the bank, crushed into
-small fragments; and where another grave had been made in the bank,
-for a secondary interment, the sides and bottom were found to have
-been burned to lime, which now resembled old mortar, to an extent that
-could not have been effected by an ordinary fire. It is not unusual
-to find small stones burnt to lime on the floors of barrows; in the
-present instance it had acquired a hardness almost equal to the stones,
-effected during a very long period by imbibing carbonic acid gas from
-the atmosphere, to which it had free access; pieces several inches
-thick were broken up intermixed with charcoal.”
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
-
-On one side of the cist two skulls lay close together, and mixed up
-with a skeleton, the bones of which, in some instances, crossed each
-other; in the centre lay the fine skull shown in figs. 25 and 26.[13]
-Two other remarkable skulls, one of a woman of about fifty years of
-age, and the other of a girl not more than seven years old, were also
-found.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
-
-When the mound at the other extremity of the “bank” was opened,
-calcined bones and animal remains only were found, but the singular
-construction of this portion of the barrow made ample compensation for
-the paucity of relics. It appeared that the longitudinal wall, noticed
-before, terminated in the centre of this mound; and at its termination
-another and well-built wall was carried crossways at right angles with
-it (fig. 27), which was laid bare to the length of more than half the
-diameter of the mound--it was three feet in height--the whole extent
-was not proved. From the centre of this wall, and forming a straight
-line with the longitudinal one, there was a row of thin moderately
-large stones, set on edge, by the ends being set in the soil that
-formed the floor of the mound; these were placed with their edges close
-together, and occasionally in two or three ranks, as if for better
-support in an upright position. They were from 1½ to 2 feet in height,
-and were extended from the wall to the length of five yards. The burnt
-bones were found in the west angle formed by the cross wall and the
-upright stones, as shown in the engraving. It appeared as though the
-bones had originally been deposited near the surface, as they were now
-found in the interstices betwixt the stones, from near the top to the
-bottom. This mound was formed of large stones, like the other parts,
-reared against each other all around, with their tops inclining towards
-the centre.
-
-A tolerably good cist, formed of rough masses of stone surrounding
-the body, is the one engraved on fig. 28, from Middleton. This cist
-contained the skeleton of a woman, lying on her left side, in a
-partially contracted position. Above her lay the remains of an infant,
-and about her neck were the beads of a remarkably fine necklace of jet.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
-
-Another good example of a stone cist is the next (fig. 29), from
-Liff’s-Low. The cist was formed of eight large slabs of rough
-limestone, set edgewise; and formed a chamber of very compact and
-almost octagonal form. It contained the skeleton of a man, lying in a
-partly contracted posture on his left side, the face looking to the
-west. Behind the knees was placed a hammer-head, formed of the lower
-part of the horn of the red deer. One end is rounded and polished, and
-the other knotched across, somewhat, (to use a homely comparison) like
-what is usually called a “wafer-seal.” Behind the head were a number
-of miscellaneous but highly interesting articles, showing, as they
-did after the lapse of so many centuries, that “the savage Briton,
-reposing in this cairn, had cultivated the art of making war amongst
-the inhabitants of the forest in preference to molesting his fellow
-savages; as almost the first observed articles were a pair of enormous
-tusks of the wild boar, trophies of some, perhaps his last, sylvan
-triumph. Next came two arrow-heads of flint, delicately chipped, and of
-unusual form; two spear-heads of the same material; two flint knives,
-polished on the edge, one of them serrated on the back in order to
-serve as a saw; and numerous pieces of flint of indescribable form and
-use, which, together with all the flint instruments enumerated above,
-seem to have undergone a partial calcination, being gray, tinted with
-various shades of blue and pink. With these articles were found three
-pieces of red ochre, the rouge of these unsophisticated huntsmen,
-which, even now, on being wetted, impart a bright red colour to the
-skin, which is by no means easy to discharge.” With these articles lay
-a small urn of unique form.
-
-On fig. 30 is shown a remarkably pretty cist, formed of four upright
-stones, supporting a capstone. It contained a vase of good form.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
-
-Pit interments are occasionally met with, but are very rare. One
-instance will suffice: it is that at Craike Hill, near Fimber,
-Yorkshire, and was opened by Mr. Mortimer.[14] In it no less than four
-interments were made, one above another, in a pit or grave covered over
-by a mound. The two lower and the upper were skeletons in the usual
-contracted positions; the other a heap of calcined bones, with a fine
-food vessel. Near the upper skeleton was another heap of burnt bones
-and another food vessel. With one of the skeletons, that of a female,
-was found a splendid necklace of jet, and a drinking cup of elaborate
-design. These are all engraved in the present volume.
-
-Burials in tree-coffins, of various periods, have been occasionally
-met with in grave-mounds, and a few words concerning them may here be
-introduced. One of the most interesting was found recently by that
-indefatigable antiquary, the Rev. Canon Greenwell, at Scale House, in
-Yorkshire.[15] The barrow was about thirty feet in diameter, and five
-feet in height, and was surrounded by a circle of soil at the base.
-It was entirely composed of soil, interspersed here and there with
-fragments of charcoal, firmly compacted. On the top, for a space of
-about six or seven feet in diameter, a covering of flattish stones
-was laid just below the surface. On digging down at this spot it was
-found that a hollow had been made in the natural surface, that had been
-filled up with soil, upon which had been placed a few stones and then
-a coffin, constructed of the trunk of a small oak tree. This primitive
-coffin was laid north and south, the thicker end, which no doubt
-contained the head of the corpse, towards the south; which was also
-the case in the Gristhorpe barrow. The oaken trunk, or tree-coffin,
-was seven feet three inches in length, and one foot eleven inches in
-diameter, at the spot in which it was measured. The Gristhorpe coffin
-“is seven feet and a half long, and three feet three inches broad.”
-Above the coffin the soil was finer, and upon this finer stratum was
-situated a layer of dark matter a good deal burned, and containing
-pieces of charcoal. Over the whole was a covering of the ordinary
-compacted soil of which the barrow was composed. The body inhumed in
-this tree-coffin, and not burned, had gone totally to decay, leaving
-only a whitish unctuous matter behind. This substance was no doubt
-_adipocire_, the production of which is to be accounted for by the
-extreme wetness of the barrow. Before interment the corpse had been
-clothed, or wrapped, _from head to foot_ in a woollen fabric,[16] a
-specimen of which is represented in the following figure:--
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
-
-There were no flint chippings discovered in the soil of which the
-barrow was composed, or other object, and nothing else was contained
-in the tree-coffin, save the body in its wrappings. Some pieces of a
-bright black substance like pitch, which appeared to have been placed
-on the inside of the coffin, on examination are found to be composed of
-carbon and oxide of iron.
-
-It is most unfortunate that this curious and interesting barrow had
-been previously opened at the top. By this proceeding the tree-coffin
-had been broken through, and its contents disturbed about the middle.
-And it is also much to be regretted that the barrow was saturated with
-moisture, which had percolated into the coffin, carrying the soil with
-it. By this means all the contents of the barrow, save the _adipocire_
-of the body itself, including both the tree-coffin and the woollen
-garment, had acquired a rottenness which precluded the recovery of
-anything more than mere fragments. Those of the woollen dress were so
-filled with particles of soil, and at the same time so tender, as to
-admit of being reclaimed only in a very imperfect manner. The woollen
-cloth, which went from head to foot, there is no doubt had been loosely
-wrapped round the body, in the manner of a shroud, not swathed like
-an Egyptian mummy, so that “the fabric filled the whole of the inside
-of the coffin from end to end.” Hence, as is confirmed by the barrows
-opened in Jutland, there is every reason to infer that it was the
-ordinary woollen dress of the individual interred in the tumulus, who
-must have held such a position in society as to ensure these great
-attentions to his remains.
-
-“In many ancient British barrows marks of the garments of the deceased
-have been discovered, in which the body appears to have been wrapped
-before interment. Indications of skin dresses are seen early, and
-after these, in the bronze and iron periods, where the rust of weapons
-has retained impressions of such grave-clothes, tissues of linen and
-woollen appear. Mr. Bateman met with signs of such textures, and in
-the case of the Tosson cists, in Northumberland, from one of which
-the skull of plate 54 of the _Crania Britannica_ was derived, an
-iron spear-head was found in one of them, and there were signs of two
-fabrics of cloth impressed upon the oxidized surface of this relic.
-
-“Again, British barrows have been opened containing tree-coffins,
-in which the remains have been inhearsed. The celebrated Gristhorpe
-barrow, the skeleton from which is preserved in the Scarborough Museum,
-and of the skull of which there is a fine engraving, plate 52, and a
-careful description by Dr. Thurnam, in the work just named, offers
-an instance of a tree-coffin formed of a split oak of small girth.
-In this case, the body had been wrapped in the skin of some animal
-having soft hair. The interment had belonged to the ancient British
-late stone or the bronze period. The coffin contained three flakes, or
-rude implements of flint, as well as objects made of bronze and bone.
-In the course of the description alluded to, there are references to
-many other examples of coffins hollowed out of solid trunks, oaken
-and tree-coffins. These appear to belong to very different periods,
-extending from the ancient British to early Saxon, and perhaps
-Christian times. That called the “King Barrow,” at Stowborough, in
-Dorsetshire, contained an oaken tree-coffin with the body in an
-envelope of deer-skins. It is said, that more recently a barrow opened
-in the wolds of Yorkshire offered fragments of an oaken coffin,
-together with the remains of a British urn. Also, at Wath, in the North
-Riding of Yorkshire, in an oaken coffin an urn was found of the later
-British type, the whole being enclosed in a barrow.”
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
-
-The Gristhorpe coffin, shown on figs. 32 and 33, consisted of the
-trunk of a large oak, roughly hewn, and split into two portions. The
-markings seemed to indicate that it had been hollowed with chisels of
-flint; but that the tree had been cut down with a much larger tool,
-the marks being such as would be made by a stone hatchet. It is seven
-and a half feet long and three feet three inches broad. In the bottom
-is a hole three inches in length. The lid was kept in place by the
-uneven fracture of the wood. The back was in good preservation, with
-its coatings of lichens distinct. At the narrow end of the lid, cut
-in the bark, was a sort of leaf-shaped knob, perhaps intended for a
-handle. The objects found in the coffin alluded to above are shown on
-figs. 34 and 35. In these engravings, Nos. 1, 2, and 6 are flakes of
-flint. The first has been slightly chipped at the edge, but the others
-are simply split off from the native flint. No. 5 is a bronze dagger,
-three and a half inches long, but much corroded--the two rivets showing
-that the handle was not of much thickness. No. 4, no doubt the top
-of such handle, is a disc of bone, polished, and of oval shape with
-perforations on either side for the pins by which it was fastened. No.
-8 is a small implement of wood, with a rounded head, and flattened
-on one side to about half its length. No. 3 is the fragment of a ring
-of horn--a fastening, perhaps, of the dress. On the lower part of the
-breast was an ornament of very brittle material, in the form of a
-rosette, with two loose ends. By the side was a shallow basket, about
-six inches in diameter, formed of bark, curiously stitched with the
-sinews of animals; at the bottom were decomposed remains, perhaps of
-food. There was also a quantity of vegetable substance, mixed with
-lanceolate foliage supposed to be that of the mistletoe.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
-
-Another form--which may be called the “boat shape”--of tree-coffin is
-here shown for the purpose of comparison.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IV.
-
- Ancient British or Celtic Period--Sepulchral Chambers
- of stone--Cromlechs--Chambered Tumuli--New Grange and
- Dowth--The Channel Islands--Wieland Smith’s Cave, and
- others--Stone Circles--For what purpose formed--Formation of
- Grave-mounds--Varieties of Stone Circles--Examples of different
- kinds--Arbor Low, etc.
-
-
-One of the most important classes of barrows is that which contains
-sepulchral chambers of stone; not the simple cists which have been
-spoken of in the preceding chapter, but of a larger, more complicated,
-or colossal character. Mounds of this description exist, to more or
-less extent, in different districts. In most instances the mound
-itself, _i.e._, the earth or loose stones of which the superincumbent
-mound was composed, has been removed, and the gigantic sepulchral
-chamber alone left standing. In many instances the mounds have been
-removed for the sake of the soil of which they were formed, or for
-the purpose of levelling the ground in the destructive march of
-agricultural progress. In many cases, however, they have doubtless been
-removed in the hope of finding treasure beneath; it being a common
-belief that immense stores of gold--in one instance the popular belief
-was that a “coach of gold” was buried beneath--were there for digging
-for. Where the mounds have been removed, and the colossal megalithic
-structures allowed to remain, they have an imposing and solemn
-appearance, and seem almost to excuse the play of imagination indulged
-in by our early antiquaries in naming them Cromlechs, and in giving to
-them a false interest by making them out to be “Druids’ altars”--altars
-on which the Druids made their sacrifices. These same authorities
-have, indeed, gone so far in their inventions as to affirm, that when
-the capstone was lower on one side than another, as must necessarily
-frequently be the case, it was so constructed that the blood of the
-victims might run off in that direction, and be caught by the priests;
-that some of the naturally formed hollows in the stones were scooped
-out by hand to receive the heart and hold its blood for the highest
-purposes; and that when the cromlech was a double one, the larger was
-used for the sacrifice, and the smaller for the Arch-Druid himself
-whilst sacrificing.
-
-Researches which have been made in recent times show the absurdity
-of all this, and prove beyond doubt that the cromlechs are neither
-more nor less than sepulchral chambers denuded of their mounds. In
-several instances they have been found intact, and, these mounds
-being excavated, have been brought to light in a perfect state. These
-instances have occurred in Cornwall, in Derbyshire, and in other
-districts of England, as well as in the Channel Islands and elsewhere.
-One instance is that of the Lanyon cromlech in Cornwall. It seems that
-some seventy years ago “the farmer” to whom the ground belonged cast a
-longing eye on what appeared to be an immense heap of rich mould, and
-he resolved to cart it away and spread it over his fields. Accordingly
-he commenced operations, his men day after day digging away at the
-mound, and carting the soil off to the fields. By the time some hundred
-cart loads or so had been removed the men came to a large stone,
-which defied their efforts at removal, and, not knowing what it might
-be, or what it might lead to, they went on removing the surrounding
-earth, and gradually cleared, on all its sides, the majestic cromlech
-which is now one of the prides of Cornwall. This highly interesting
-chamber contained a heap of broken urns and human bones. This “Lanyon
-cromlech,” a view of which is given on fig. 37, consists now of
-three immense upright stones, on which rests an enormous capstone,
-measuring about eighteen and a half feet in length and about nine
-feet in width, and is computed to weigh above fifteen tons. How such
-stones were raised and placed on the rough upright stone supports which
-had been prepared for them is almost beyond comprehension, when it
-is recollected that they were raised by a people who were devoid of
-machinery.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
-
- “The heart,
- Aching with thoughts of human littleness,
- Asks, without hope of knowing, whose the strength
- That poised thee here.”
-
-This cromlech when first uncovered consisted of _four_ upright stones,
-on which rested the capstone. In 1815, during a tremendous storm,
-the capstone and one of the supports were thrown down. In 1824 the
-capstone was replaced, under the superintendence of Lieut. Goldsmith,
-R.N., and at this time a piece was broken off at A. The fourth upright
-stone was not replaced, having been broken when thrown down. Fig. 37
-shows the cromlech as replaced. Fig. 38 is a plan of it, showing the
-uprights and the capstone. The large outline is the capstone, the part
-marked A being the part broken off; the shaded parts are the present
-three uprights; and B the fourth upright, broken.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
-
-Kits Cotty House, in Kent; the Chun cromlech, in Cornwall (figs. 39 and
-40)--the covering stone of which is calculated to weigh twenty tons;
-the Molfra cromlech, in the same county, which consists of a compact
-cist closed on three sides and open on the fourth; the Zenor cromlech;
-the Plas Newydd cromlech, and many others which it is not necessary to
-enumerate, are all of the same class. The Plas Newydd (fig. 41) is a
-double cromlech, the two chambers being close together, end to end. The
-capstone of the largest, which is about twelve feet in length by ten
-feet in breadth, originally rested on seven stones, two of which have
-disappeared. The two erections undoubtedly were originally covered with
-a single mound.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
-
-At Minninglow, in Derbyshire, erections of this kind occur, but, not
-being denuded of their mounds, are still partially buried. The mound
-is of large size. Under the centre and in four places in the area of
-the circle are large cists, which if cleared from the earth would be
-fine cromlechs of precisely the same form as those just described.
-They are formed of large slabs of the limestone of the district,
-placed upright on the ground, and are covered with immense capstones
-of the same material. All these chambers had contained interments.
-The accompanying plan (fig. 42) of some of these cists gives the
-situation of the stones forming the sides of the large chamber; of the
-passage leading to it; of the slabs which closed its entrance; and of
-the covers or capstones. The chamber is rather more than five feet in
-height, and the largest capstone about seven feet square, and of great
-thickness. A kind of wall similar to those which have been found to
-encircle some of the Etruscan tumuli, forms the circle of this mound,
-which rises to a height of more than fifteen feet from the surface of
-the ground.[17]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
-
-The general arrangement of this example will be seen to bear an analogy
-to the Plas Newydd and others spoken of, and shows by what an easy
-transition the building of galleries, or a series of chambers for
-family tombs, in these large mounds, would be arrived at. Of this kind
-some very large examples exist in Ireland, and in the Channel Islands,
-as well as in various parts of England.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
-
-One of the most important in size, as well as in general interest; is
-the one at New Grange, county Meath. “The cairn, which even in its
-present ruinous condition measures about seventy feet in height, and is
-nearly three hundred feet in diameter, from a little distance presents
-the appearance of a grassy hill, partly wooded; but upon examination
-the coating of earth is found to be altogether superficial, and in
-several places the stones, of which the hill is entirely composed, are
-laid bare. A circle of enormous stones, of which eleven remain above
-ground,[18] originally encircled its base. The opening (of which an
-engraving is shown on fig. 44) was accidentally discovered about the
-year 1699, by labouring men employed in the removal of stones for the
-repair of a road. The gallery, of which it is the external entrance,
-extends in a direction nearly north and south, and communicates with
-a chamber, or cave, nearly in the centre of the mound. This gallery,
-which measures in length about fifty feet, is at its entrance from the
-exterior about four feet in height, in breadth at the top three feet
-two inches, and at the base three feet five inches. These dimensions it
-retains, except in one or two places, where the stones appear to have
-been forced from their original position, for a distance of twenty-one
-feet from the external entrance. Thence towards the interior its sides
-gradually increase, and its height where it forms the chamber is
-eighteen feet. Enormous blocks of stone, apparently water-worn, and
-supposed to have been brought from the mouth of the Boyne, form the
-sides of the passage; and it is roofed with similar stones. The ground
-plan of the chamber is cruciform; the head and arms of the cross being
-formed by three recesses, one placed directly fronting the entrance,
-the others east and west, and each containing a basin of granite.
-The sides of these recesses are composed of immense blocks of stone,
-several of which bear a great variety of carvings.[19] In front of the
-entrance (fig. 44) will be seen one of these carved stones.”
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
-
-At Dowth and Nowth (Dubhath and Cnobh), very similar chambered tumuli
-exist, the former of which is also remarkable for its sculptural
-stones, which bear a strong resemblance to those at New Grange. The
-Cairn of Dowth here engraved (fig. 45), is of immense size, and
-contains a cruciform chamber similar to that at New Grange, with a
-passage twenty-seven feet in length, composed--as was the chamber--of
-enormous stones. On some of the stones were carvings and Oghams. The
-mouth of the passage leading to the cruciform chamber is shown on fig.
-46.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
-
-Other excellent examples of Irish cromlechs and chambers are those at
-Monasterboise (“Calliagh Dirras House”); Drumloghan (full of Oghams);
-Kells; Knockeen (figs. 47 and 48); where the right supporting stones
-are six in number, and arranged rectangularly, so as to form a distinct
-chamber at the S.E. end, the large covering stone being 12 feet by 8
-feet, and weighing about four tons, and the smaller one about half that
-size; Gaulstown (figs. 49 and 50), the inner chamber of which measures
-7 feet by 6 feet 4 inches, and is seven feet in height; Ballynageerah
-(figs. 51, 52, and 53), the capstone of which is cleverly and
-curiously poised on two only of the upright stones, as will be seen
-by the engravings;[20] Howth, Shandanagh, Brennanstown, Glencullen,
-Kilternan, Mount Brown, Rathkenny, Mount Venus, and Knock Mary, Phœnix
-Park, as well as at many other places.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 54.]
-
-In the Channel Islands the indefatigable and laudable researches of
-Mr. Lukis show that the galleried stone chambers of the tumuli in
-that district had been used by successive generations for many ages.
-One of the most important of these is the gigantic chambered burial
-place, surrounded by a stone circle, at L’Ancresse, in Guernsey. In
-this, “five large capstones are seen rising above the sandy embankment
-which surrounds the place; these rest on the props beneath, and the
-whole catacomb is surrounded by a circle of upright stones of different
-dimensions.” The length of the cromlech is 41 feet from west to east,
-and about 17 feet from north to south, on the exterior of the stones.
-At the eastern entrance the remains of a smaller chamber is still seen;
-it consisted of three or four capstones, and was about seven feet in
-length, but evidently within the outer circle of stones.[21] In a
-careful examination made by Mr. Lukis, many highly interesting features
-were brought to light, of which he has given an excellent account in
-the “Archæological Journal,”[22] to which the reader cannot do better
-than refer. The engravings there given, show the interiors of some of
-the chambers, with their deposits _in situ_, and exhibit some of the
-highly interesting relics found during the excavations. The pottery was
-of a totally distinct character from that of the Celtic period found
-in England, some of the forms being of what are usually considered the
-Anglo-Saxon type, and are the result of the use of these chambers by
-successive generations, as already named.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 55.]
-
-Another of the more remarkable structures of the Channel Islands is
-that of Gavr Innis, in the Morbihan, Brittany. The tumulus is about
-thirty feet high, and its circumference at the base about 300 feet.
-The cromlech is entered from the south end (fig. 55), fig. 56 being
-the opening on the north, and consists of 14 upright stones on the
-east side, 13 on the west, and 2 on the north, supporting, in all, 10
-capstones. In general features it bears a strong resemblance to those
-at New Grange, Dowth, and other places. The remarkable feature of this
-chambered tumulus is that the stones composing the passage are for the
-most part sculptured in lines and patterns, which have been described
-as very similar to the patterns tattooed on their faces and bodies by
-the New Zealanders. Examples of these will be seen on the accompanying
-engravings, which exhibit some of the more marked and distinct of
-the patterns noticed and copied by Mr. Lukis, in his examination
-of this mound, and described by him in the journal of the British
-Archæological Association, to the Council of which I am indebted for
-these illustrations.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 56.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 57.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 58.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 59.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 60.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 61.]
-
-In England, besides those already named, and others, “Wayland,” or
-“Wieland Smith’s Cave,” at Ashbury, in Berkshire; one at Stoney
-Littleton, near Wellow, in Somersetshire; the “Five Wells,” at
-Taddington, in Derbyshire; and one or two others in the same county,
-as well as in other places, are the most important. The annexed
-woodcut, fig. 62, exhibits a section of the chambered tumulus at
-Stoney Littleton, and fig. 63 is a ground plan of the same. “The
-entrance was on the north-west side, where a stone upwards of seven
-feet long and three and a half feet wide, supported by two others,
-left a square aperture of about four feet high, which had been closed
-by another large stone. This entrance led to a long passage or avenue,
-extending in the direction from north-west to south-east forty-seven
-feet six inches, and varying in breadth. There were three transepts, or
-recesses, on each side. The side walls were formed of thin laminæ of
-stone piled closely together without cement, and a rude kind of arched
-roof made of stones so placed as to overlap each other. When the large
-stones in the side walls did not join, the interstices were filled up
-with layers of small ones.”[23] Interments had evidently been made in
-each of these chambers, some by cremation, and others by inhumation,
-but the bones were scattered about, the result of previous rifling of
-its contents. One urn was found.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 64.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 65.]
-
-The chambered tumulus, called the “Five Wells,” near Taddington, of
-which an engraving is here given (fig. 64), has been a mound of large
-size, and the chambers and passages, or gallery, have been extensive.
-A plan of this tumulus is given in fig. 65. The “Five Wells” tumulus
-consists of two vaults or chambers, situated near the centre of a
-cairn (which is about thirty yards in diameter), each approached by
-a separate gallery or avenue, formed by large limestones standing
-edgeways, extending through the tumulus, respectively in a south-east
-and north-west direction. These chambers are marked B and G on the
-plan, G being the cist engraved on fig. 64. E E E are stones supposed
-to be the capstones thrown down. Another five-chambered tumulus in the
-same county is called Ringham-Low, which has many interesting remains.
-
-Another extremely important mound of this description is the one at
-Uley, in Gloucestershire, of which an able account has been written by
-Dr. Thurnham.[24] The mound is about 120 feet in length, 85 feet in
-its greatest breadth, and about 10 feet in height. It is higher and
-broader at its east end than elsewhere. The entrance at the east end
-is a trilithon, formed by a large flat stone upwards of eight feet in
-length, and four and a half in depth, and supported by two upright
-stones which face each other, so as to leave a space of about two and
-a half feet between the lower edge of the large stone and the natural
-ground. Entering this, a gallery appears, running from east to west,
-about twenty-two feet in length, four and a half in average width,
-and five in height; the sides formed of large slabs of stone, set
-edgeways, the spaces between being filled in with smaller stones. The
-roof is formed, as usual, of flat slabs, laid across and resting on
-the side-slabs. There are two smaller chambers on one side, and there
-is evidence of two others having existed on the other side. Several
-skeletons were found in this fine tumulus when it was opened, many
-years ago.
-
-It will have been noticed that circles of stones surrounding
-grave-mounds have frequently been named in this and the preceding
-chapter. It will, therefore, be well to devote a few lines to these
-interesting remains.
-
-Circles of stone of one kind or other are not unfrequently to be
-noticed in various parts of the kingdom, and they vary as much in their
-size and in their character as they do in their other features. The
-bases of grave-mounds were frequently defined by these circles, and
-sometimes by a shallow fosse, and occasionally by a combination of
-both. To this circumstance the origin of many of the circles of stones
-remaining to this day are to be traced; while others of a far larger
-construction, and of a totally different character, such as those of
-Stonehenge, Abury, Rollrich, and, probably, Arbor-Low, have been formed
-for totally different purposes. With these larger ones, except in so
-far as they are connected with sepulchral tumuli, I have in my present
-work but little to do. Of the smaller ones, those which have surrounded
-grave-mounds, I will now proceed to give some particulars.
-
-Excavations into various grave-mounds have proved beyond doubt the fact
-that, in many instances, when an interment was made, the size of the
-proposed cairn to be raised over the remains was marked by a circle
-of stones laid on the surface of the ground, or inclining inwards, or
-set upright in the earth. The stones were then piled up within this
-enclosure, till the whole size and altitude of the mound was reached.
-In the case of the Flax Dale barrow, this mode of construction is shown
-in the next engraving (fig. 66). A circle of large flat stones was
-placed upon the surface of the earth, around the interment (which in
-this case consisted of calcined bones, in urns and without), and upon
-these a second course of stones was placed. The mound was then raised
-in the manner indicated in fig. 4, and over this a thick layer of earth
-was laid, which increased both the circumference and the altitude of
-the barrow. To render this crust more compact, fires were evidently
-lit on the circumference of the circle, which had the effect, by
-burning the soil, of hardening it, and making it in some cases almost
-of the consistency of brick.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 66.]
-
-An example of the second mode of construction I have indicated is at
-Elk-Low, a section of which is given on fig. 67. The barrow has a
-depression running around its upper surface, something like an elevated
-fosse, as will be seen in the section. The interments were made on the
-natural surface of the ground, where, in the centre, lay a skeleton,
-on its right side, in a contracted position, with its head resting on a
-piece of limestone which was placed as a pillow. Other skeletons were
-also found, as was likewise an interment of burnt bones, and some flint
-and stone instruments. The outer circle was constructed of very large
-stones inclining inwards, and covered with small stones and earth, and
-thus forming an extremely durable mound.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 67.]
-
-Both of these examples, if denuded of their mounds, would form striking
-and very perfect stone circles, and would be among the best remaining
-examples of small “Druidical circles,” as they are commonly called.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 68.]
-
-Where the circles have been formed of upright stones, they have not,
-certainly, always been covered with the mound, but have formed a kind
-of ring fence, a sort of sacred enclosure, around the barrow. A great
-number of examples of this kind exist in different districts, and will
-easily be recognised by the zealous archæologist. The circle next
-shown, on figs. 68 and 69, is that on Stanton Moor, known by the name
-of the “Nine Ladies.” This circle, of which a plan is here given, is
-formed of a circular mound of earth, on which the upright stones are
-placed. It is about thirty-six feet in diameter. It has formerly
-consisted of a larger number of stones; those that are now remaining
-being at irregular distances, varying from eight to nineteen feet
-apart. In the centre are the remains of a rifled sepulchral mound.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 69.]
-
-Another circle, bearing the same name, “The Nine Ladies,” is on
-Hartle Moor, but of this only four stones are now remaining. It has
-undoubtedly been a sepulchral mound, encircled by upright stones. On
-other parts of these moors other circles have existed, or still exist,
-which have, by excavations, been proved to have enclosed sepulchral
-deposits.
-
-On Brassington Moor, near a fine chambered tumulus, now unfortunately
-destroyed, existed two similar circles, the one thirty-nine, and the
-other twenty-two, feet in diameter. On Leam Moor, too, circles are
-known to have existed, surrounding interments. On Eyam Moor circles of
-this kind, encircling sepulchral mounds, exist. One of these is about
-a hundred feet in diameter, and is, like the “Nine Ladies” on Stanton
-Moor, formed of a circular mound of earth, on which the stones are
-placed. Only ten of the stones remain _in situ_. In the centre a cist
-was discovered many years ago. Other circles occur in the same county,
-on Abney Moor, on Froggat Edge, on the East Moor, on Hathersage Moor,
-and in other localities.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 70.]
-
-On Dartmoor, in Devonshire, many circles yet remain, as they do also
-in Cornwall and in other counties. Mr. Blight, who has paid a vast
-deal of attention to the antiquities of his native county, Cornwall,
-has collected together many data concerning these structures, which
-tend to throw much light upon their modes of construction, as well
-as uses. To his researches I am indebted for much of the following
-information regarding the Cornish circles, and also for the diagrams
-which illustrate it. Upright stones were, as in the case of the ring
-fences already named, placed at tolerably regular intervals around the
-barrow, either on the natural surface of the ground or on a circular
-embankment thrown up for the purpose. The intervening spaces were
-then, in many instances, filled in with small stones, so as to form
-a compact kind of wall, as shown in the next engraving. This mode
-of construction was adopted for encircling grave-mounds, and in the
-forming of hut dwellings, etc. It will easily be seen that in course
-of time the loose walled parts would be thrown down and disappear,
-while the uprights, being firmly fixed in the ground, would remain, and
-would thus form the stone circles as now seen, and as commonly called
-“Druidical circles.” In some instances, as in the case of the circle
-enclosing a perfect stone cist, covered by a mound, at Sancreed,
-shown on fig. 71, the upright stones touched each other, and thus
-formed a remarkably fine enclosure. This circle is about fifteen feet
-in diameter. Another variety is shown in fig. 72. This is a double
-circle, or rather two circles, one within the other, and about two feet
-apart, surrounding a stone cist. The stones in this example nearly
-touch each other. A somewhat similar one, but with the circles farther
-apart from each other, exists in the Isle of Man, and is shown on the
-ground plan (fig. 73). The mound in this instance, probably, rose
-from the inner circle only, and covered the central cist. In several
-instances the interment was not in the centre of the circle, but was
-made in different situations within its area. For instance, in the
-next example (fig. 74), from Trewavas Head, the cist is near to the
-circle of stones. The outer diameter of the mound is thirty-five feet,
-the diameter of the circle of stones being nineteen feet six inches.
-Other examples, similar in arrangement, might be adduced. Fig. 75
-shows a totally different construction. In this instance the circle is
-composed of a number of stone cists, or sepulchral chambers, pretty
-close together, end to end. This curious example, of which a somewhat
-analogous one exists in the Channel Islands (see fig. 76), is on Mule
-Hill, in the Isle of Man. Fig. 77 shows the remains of a stone circle
-surrounding the larger of a pair of “twin-barrows,” of which some of
-the stones have now disappeared. The circle is about seventy feet in
-diameter, and the stones vary from six to eight feet in height. Fig.
-78 is the plan of another “twin-barrow,” so called, the circle in the
-larger being about thirty-five, and the smaller twenty-four, feet in
-diameter. In the centre, at A B, are the remains of a stone cist, or
-chamber. “The mounds were both cairns of loose stones. Remains of other
-barrows, similarly formed, occur in the vicinity. There were two within
-a few hundred yards of the ‘twin-barrow’ last described, the greater
-portions of which have recently been taken away to build a neighbouring
-hedge, but of which I found enough to show how they were built.
-First, there was an enclosing circle of stones, some placed upright,
-some longitudinally (fig. 79), the intention being simply to make an
-enclosing fence; within this the grave was constructed; then small
-stones heaped over the whole, the cairn extending, by about six feet,
-outside the built circle.” The more perfect of the “twin-barrows” also
-had the cairn extending beyond the circle.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 71.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 75.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 76.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 77.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 78.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 79.]
-
-Some larger circles, such, for instance, as the Bosawen-ûn circle,
-eighty feet in diameter (fig. 80), the Aber circle (fig. 81), and
-others, it is supposed, may have been formed around a group of
-interments, instead of single interments, as in many of the others.
-In some instances a single stone was placed to mark the place of
-interment. Three such exist in the barrow at Berriew (fig. 82). A large
-circle (fig. 83), twenty-seven yards, in diameter, on Penmaenmaur, was
-constructed of several uprights, connected by smaller masonry. Here the
-interments were apparently made beside the pillars. Against the inner
-side of the tallest pillar A, on the eastern part, were the remains
-of a small stone cist; while against the pillar B, facing it on the
-opposite side, was heaped up a small cairn. The whole is surrounded by
-a ditch, within which, at C, is another small cairn.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 80.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 81.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 82.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 83.]
-
-Arbor-Low, in the High Peak of Derbyshire, to which allusion has been
-made, is represented in fig. 84. No sepulchral remains have been
-discovered within the circle, but barrows of great extent, which have
-yielded important remains on being excavated, are closely connected
-with it. It is, however, probable, that interments have existed, and
-been removed in past ages.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 84.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER V.
-
- Ancient British or Celtic Period--Pottery--Mode of
- manufacture--Arrangement in classes--Cinerary or Sepulchral
- Urns--Food Vessels--Drinking Cups--Incense Cups--Probably
- Sepulchral Urns for Infants--Other examples of Pottery.
-
-
-Having spoken of the principles of construction of the grave-mounds of
-the Celtic period, and described the various modes of interment which
-they exhibit, I now proceed to speak of the objects found in them.
-Before doing so, however, it is necessary to say, that in the course
-of examination of barrows of this period it not unfrequently happens
-that the spot where the funeral pyre has been lit can very clearly be
-perceived. In these instances the ground beneath is generally found to
-be burned to some considerable depth; sometimes, indeed, it is burned
-to a fine red colour, and approaches somewhat to brick. Where it was
-intended that the remains should be collected together, and placed in
-an urn for interment, I apprehend, from careful examination, that the
-urn, being formed of clay--most probably, judging from the delicacy
-of touch, and from the impress of fingers which occasionally remains,
-by the females of the tribes--and ornamented according to the taste
-of the manipulator, was placed in the funeral fire, and there baked,
-while the body of the deceased was being consumed. The remains of the
-calcined bones, the flints, etc, were then gathered up together, and
-placed in the urn; over which the mound was next raised. When it was
-not intended to use an urn, then the remains were collected together,
-piled up in a small heap, or occasionally enclosed in a skin or cloth,
-and covered to some little thickness with earth, and occasionally with
-small stones. Another fire was then lit on the top of this small mound,
-which had the effect of baking the earth, and enclosing the remains
-of calcined bones, etc., in a kind of crust, resembling in colour and
-hardness a partly baked brick. Over this, as usual, the mound was
-afterwards raised.
-
-The most important feature in the construction of the grave-mounds of
-the Celtic period is, perhaps, the pottery, and to this, therefore,
-the present chapter will be devoted. The pottery of this period may
-be safely arranged in four classes;[25] viz., 1. _Sepulchral Urns_,
-which have contained, or been inverted over, calcined human bones. 2.
-_Food Vessels_ (so called), which are supposed to have contained an
-offering of food, and which are more usually found with unburnt bodies
-than along with interments by cremation. 3. _Drinking Cups_, which
-are usually ornamented. 4. _Incense Cups_ (erroneously so called for
-want of more knowledge of their use), which are very small vessels,
-found only with burnt bones, and usually containing them, in the large
-cinerary urns.
-
-The pottery was, without doubt, made on, or near to, the spot where
-found. It was, there is every probability, the handiwork of the females
-of the tribe, and occasionally exhibits no little elegance of form, and
-no small degree of ornamentation. The urns, of whatever kind they may
-be, are formed of the coarse common clay of the district where made,
-occasionally mixed with small pebbles and gravel; they are entirely
-wrought by hand, without the assistance of the wheel, and are, the
-larger vessels especially, extremely thick.
-
-From their imperfect firing, the vessels of this period are usually
-called “sun-baked” or “sun-dried,” but this is a grave error, as any
-one conversant with examples cannot fail, on careful examination,
-to see. If the vessels were “sun-baked” only, their burial in the
-earth--in the tumuli wherein, some two thousand years ago, they were
-deposited, and where they have all that time remained--would soon
-soften them, and they would, ages ago, have returned to their old
-clayey consistency. As it is, the urns have remained of their original
-form, and although, from imperfect baking, they are sometimes found
-partially softened, they still retain their form, and soon regain their
-original hardness. They bear abundant evidence of the action of fire,
-and are, indeed, sometimes sufficiently burned for the clay to have
-attained a red colour--a result which no “sun-baking” could produce.
-They are mostly of an earthy brown colour outside, and almost black in
-fracture, and many of the cinerary urns bear internal and unmistakable
-evidence of having been filled with the burnt bones and ashes of the
-deceased, while those ashes were of a glowing and intense heat. They
-were, most probably, fashioned by the females of the tribe, on the
-death of their relative, from the clay to be found nearest to the spot,
-and baked on or by the funeral pyre. The glowing ashes and bones were
-then, as I have already stated, collected together, and placed in the
-urn, and the flint implements, and occasionally other relics belonging
-to the deceased, deposited along with them.
-
-The _Cinerary_, or _Sepulchral, Urns_ vary very considerably in size,
-in form, in ornamentation, and in material--the latter, naturally,
-depending on the locality where the urns were made; and, as a general
-rule, they differ also in the different tribes. Those which are
-supposed to be the most ancient, from the fact of their frequently
-containing flint instruments along with the calcined bones, are of
-large size, ranging from nine or ten, to sixteen or eighteen inches
-in height. Those which are considered to belong to a somewhat later
-period, when cremation had again become general, are of a smaller size,
-and of a somewhat finer texture. With them objects of flint are rarely
-found, but articles of bronze are occasionally discovered. The general
-form of the cinerary urns will be best understood from the annexed
-engravings.
-
-The principal characteristic of the cinerary urns found in Derbyshire
-and Staffordshire, and in some other districts, is a deep overlapping
-border or rim, and their ornamentation, always produced by indenting or
-pressing twisted thongs into the soft clay, or by simple incisions, or
-by indentations produced by simple means, as will be more particularly
-named later on, is frequently very elaborate. It usually consists
-of diagonal lines (see fig. 85) arranged in a variety of ways, or
-of herring-bone or zigzag lines, or of reticulations, or of rows of
-punctures, etc., etc. This ornamentation is usually confined to the
-upper portion of the urn, including the over-lapping rim and the neck;
-and in many instances the upper edge and the inside of the rim were in
-like manner ornamented. Some of the more usual forms are the following.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 85.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 86.]
-
-Fig. 86, from a barrow at Monsal Dale, was found along with many
-other interesting relics. It is twelve inches in height, and has a
-deep overlapping border. When found, it was inverted over a deposit
-of calcined bones placed on some rough stones on the natural surface,
-and having among them a calcined bone pin. Near it was a large mass
-of limestone, and a celt-shaped instrument five inches long, with
-a cutting edge, formed from the lower jaw of some animal. Another
-excellent example is exhibited in the urn from Ballidon Moor (fig. 87).
-It is eleven and a half inches in height, and measured nine inches
-in diameter at the mouth. It is ornamented by patterns impressed in
-the soft clay from a twisted thong. It contained burnt bones; amongst
-them were a portion of an animal’s jaw, a fine bone pin, four inches
-long, rats’ bones, a fragment of pottery, and a flint arrow-head. The
-presence of partially burnt human bones in the sand, the discolouration
-of the latter, and the occurrence of calcined rats’ bones in the urns,
-demonstrated the fact of the corpse having been consumed upon the spot.
-The following engraving (fig. 88), exhibiting a section of the barrow,
-will show the position of the urn when found, and also of the other
-interments which it contained.[26]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 87.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 88.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 89.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 90.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 91.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 92.]
-
-Fig. 89, from Trentham, Staffordshire, is a remarkably fine urn of the
-same character as the preceding examples, and fig. 90, from Darwen,
-Lancashire, has a central band as well as the overlapping rim. Figs.
-91 and 92 are of totally different form; their ornamentation consisting
-of incised lines and impressed thumb marks, etc.[27] They are from
-Dorsetshire. The next example, from Darley Dale (fig. 93), is of a
-different type, as are also figs. 94, from Stone, Staffordshire, and
-95 and 96, from Cleatham, in Lincolnshire. Other forms, again, are
-shown on fig. 97, from the Calais Wold-barrow, Yorkshire, discovered
-by Mr. Mortimer. It is eleven inches in height, and is ornamented
-with a number of small semi-punctures. A very fine urn was discovered
-by the Rev. Canon Greenwell in a barrow on Sutton Brow, near Thirsk,
-in the same county. It is sixteen inches in height, and eighteen in
-width, and is ornamented with lines produced by an impressed cord or
-thong, and by semi-punctures or indentations. The next example (fig.
-98) is from Darley Dale, and is, as will be seen from the engraving,
-of a very different character from the other examples given. Around
-the upper portion are encircling lines, between which is the usual
-zigzag ornament. Around the central band, too, are encircling lines,
-between which are a series of vertical zigzag lines. The whole of the
-ornamentation has been produced by pressing twisted thongs into the
-pliant clay--some, however, being of much tighter twist than others.
-Inside, the rim is ornamented with encircling and diagonal lines. It
-has on its centre band four projecting handles or loops, which are
-pierced, as shown in the engraving. Another form, with small loops on
-its sides, is shown on fig. 99, which was found in one of the Cornish
-barrows, as was also fig. 100, which appears to have a kind of ear, or
-semi-handle, at its sides.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 93.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 94.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 95.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 96.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 97.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 98.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 99.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 100.]
-
-The _Food Vessels_, the next division, vary considerably, in form, in
-size, and in ornamentation, from the very rudest to the most elegant
-and elaborate. These vessels are generally wide at the mouth, and
-taper gradually downwards from the central band. They are found both
-where the interments have been by inhumation and by cremation, but
-much more frequently with the former. In these instances they are more
-usually placed near the head of the skeleton than in other positions,
-although they are occasionally found placed otherwise. Their average
-size is from four to six inches in height, and the ornamentation is
-produced in the same manner as has already been spoken of in reference
-to the cinerary urns, viz., by impressing twisted thongs or cords into
-the soft clay, by punctures, and by indentations produced in a variety
-of ways.
-
-The “food vessels,” like the cinerary urns, have evidently been made
-from the clay of the district where the interment has taken place, and
-they have been “fired” to about an equal degree of hardness with them.
-
-Their general form will be best understood from the following examples,
-chosen from different districts.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 101.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 102.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 103.]
-
-The first example (fig. 99), from Trentham, in Staffordshire, is, it
-will be seen, of very rude form and make, and its ornamentation of
-simple character. Fig. 102, from Fimber, in Yorkshire (5⅝ inches in
-depth and 6½ inches wide at the mouth), is of a more usual form, and is
-more advanced in point of ornamentation. Fig. 103 is from Hitter Hill,
-Derbyshire, as is also fig. 104. They were found in the interments
-shown on figs. 10, 11, and 12.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 104.]
-
-The first of these urns is four and three quarter inches in height, and
-five and a half inches in diameter at the top. It is richly ornamented
-with the usual diagonal and herring-bone lines, formed by twisted
-thongs impressed into the soft clay, in its upper part. Around the body
-of the urn itself, however, is a pattern of lozenge form, very unusual
-on vessels of this period. The second urn is five and a quarter inches
-in height, and six and a quarter inches in diameter at the top. It
-is very richly ornamented with the characteristic patterns found on
-the Celtic urns of this district, and is one of the finest and most
-elaborately ornamented which has been exhumed.
-
-On Wykeham Moor, Yorkshire, some urns of a different form, wide at the
-mouth, were discovered by that hard-working antiquary, the Rev. Canon
-Greenwell.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 106.]
-
-Fig. 105 is from Monsal Dale, Derbyshire, and fig. 106, from Fimber,
-Yorkshire, was found along with fig. 107. These, as will be at once
-seen, are of a different character from the preceding examples, in
-so far that on four sides they have in the central sunk band a kind
-of handle or raised stud, which in some instances is pierced in the
-same manner as the cinerary urn (figs. 98 and 99). They are among the
-most elaborate, in point of ornamentation, of any of these interesting
-vessels. Other forms, besides those indicated, are occasionally found.
-
-The _Drinking Cups_ are the most highly and elaborately ornamented
-of any of the varieties of Celtic fictile art found in barrows.
-They are found with the skeleton, and are usually placed behind the
-shoulder. In size they range from about six to nine inches in height.
-They are usually tall in form, contracted in the middle, globular in
-their lower half, and expanding at the mouth. Their ornamentation,
-always elaborate, usually covers the whole surface, and is composed
-of indented lines placed in a variety of ways, so as to form often
-intricate, but always beautiful, patterns, and by other indentations,
-etc. They are much more delicate in manipulation than the other
-varieties of urns.
-
-Instances have been known in which a kind of incrustation has been very
-perceptible on their inner surface, thus showing that their use as
-vessels for holding liquor is certain, the incrustation being produced
-by the gradual drying up of the liquid with which they had been filled
-when placed with the dead body.
-
-Fig. 107, from a barrow at Fimber, is an elegant and highly
-characteristic example of this kind of vessel. It stood close behind
-the shoulders of the skeleton of a strong-boned middle-aged man,
-which lay on its right side. The ornamentation is most elaborate and
-delicate, and it is, perhaps, one of the finest and best preserved
-examples in existence.
-
-The next two engravings (figs. 108 and 109) show two excellent
-examples, the first from the Hay Top barrow and the second from a
-barrow at Grind-Low, of a slightly different form at the mouth. The
-next example (fig. 110), found in Derbyshire, is of different shape,
-and has the unusual feature of being ornamented in quite as elaborate a
-manner on its bottom as it is around its sides. The bottom is shown on
-fig. 111. The ornamentation throughout is produced by the indentations
-of twisted thongs into the soft clay. Figs. 112 and 113 are of a
-different form and character; the first of these is from Roundway Hill,
-Wiltshire (see fig. 8 for interment with which this interesting
-vessel was found), and the second from “Gospel Hillock,” in Derbyshire.
-Others of a similar form have been found also in Yorkshire and other
-counties.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 110.]
-
-Those which have been engraved are, perhaps, the most usual of
-the forms of the drinking cups, but other shapes are occasionally
-discovered.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 111.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 112.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 113.]
-
-The next division, the so-called “_Incense Cups_,” a name which ought
-to be discarded, consists of diminutive vessels which, when found at
-all (which is seldom) are found _inside_ the sepulchral urns, placed
-on, or among, the calcined bones, and frequently themselves also filled
-with burnt bones. They range from an inch and a half to about three
-inches in height, and are sometimes highly ornamented, and at others
-plain.
-
-The examples I here introduce (figs. 114 to 125) will give a good
-general idea of these curious little vessels, which I believe have
-not been “incense cups,” but small urns to receive the ashes of an
-infant, perhaps sacrificed at the death of its mother, so as to
-admit of being placed within the larger urn containing the remains of
-its parent. The contents of barrows give, as I have before stated,
-incontestable evidence of the practice of sacrificing not only horses,
-dogs, and oxen, but of human beings, at the graves of the Ancient
-Britons. Slaves were sacrificed at their masters’ graves; and wives,
-there can be no doubt, were sacrificed and buried with their husbands,
-to accompany them in the invisible world upon which they were entering.
-It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that infants were occasionally
-sacrificed on the death of their mothers, in the belief that they would
-thus partake of her care in the strange land to which, by death, she
-was removed. Whether from sacrifice, or whether from natural causes,
-the mother and her infant may have died together, it is only reasonable
-to infer from the situation in which these “incense cups” are found
-(either placed on the top of a heap of burnt bones, or inside the
-sepulchral urn containing them), and from their usually containing
-small calcined bones, that they were receptacles for the ashes of the
-infant, to be buried along with those of its mother.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 114.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 115.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 116.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 117.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 118.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 119.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 120.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 121.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 122.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 123.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 124.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 125.]
-
-The form will be seen to vary from the simplest salt-cellar-like cup to
-the more elaborately rimmed and ornamented vase. Some are pierced with
-holes, as if for suspension, and one or two examples have handles at
-the side. The best examples of this kind are those shown on figs. 120,
-124, and 125.
-
-Among the most curious vessels of this period may possibly be reckoned
-the singular one here engraved (fig. 126), of which form only two
-examples have been discovered. They are much in shape like the drinking
-cups before engraved, but have the addition of a handle at the side,
-which gives them the character of mugs. One of these is in the Ely
-museum, and the other in the Bateman museum.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 126.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VI.
-
- Ancient British or Celtic Period--Implements of
- Stone--Celts--Stone Hammers--Stone Hatchets, Mauls,
- etc.--Triturating Stones--Flint Implements--Classification
- of Flints--Jet Articles--Necklaces, Studs, etc.--Bone
- Instruments--Bronze Celts, Daggers, etc.--Gold Articles.
-
-
-The implements of stone found in the Celtic grave-mounds, or in their
-immediate neighbourhood, consist of celts[28] or adzes, hammer-heads
-or axe-heads, mauls, etc., etc. They are of various materials--chert,
-shale, green-stone, syenite, basalt, porphyry, felstone, serpentine,
-sandstone, limestone, etc., etc., and of various degrees of finish and
-workmanship.
-
-Stone celts of one form or other are the most common of all stone
-implements. In shape they are not inaptly described as being like the
-mussel shell. The lower, or cutting end is slightly convex, and rubbed
-down to a fine-shaped edge. As this cutting edge has become dulled or
-chipped by use it has been again and again rubbed down and sharpened,
-until, in many instances which have come under my notice, the celt has
-been shortened fully one-third or more of its original length. The
-forms of these instruments will be seen in the examples here following
-(fig. 127 and in the succeeding figures). Fig. 132 is, perhaps, the
-most usual of these forms. It is of the same type as the first example
-on the previous engraving. Another excellent example is given on the
-illustration (fig. 134). It is of chert, and has, as will be seen,
-straight sides instead of the usual curved ones. It is now 5½ inches
-long, but has probably originally been much longer, having been rubbed
-down in sharpening.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 127.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 128.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 129.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 130.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 131.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 132.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 133.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 135.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 136.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 137.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 138.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 139.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 140.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 141.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 142.]
-
-Stone hammers are occasionally found in grave-mounds. They vary much
-both in form and size, as will be best understood from the following
-engravings. Fig. 133 was found at Woolaton, and is remarkable for
-being hollow on its upper and lower surfaces, and ribbed or fluted
-along its sides. It is eleven inches[29] long, four inches in width,
-and three inches in thickness. Fig. 135, found at Winster, is thin,
-very taper, and of very different form. It is ten inches long. Other
-examples are shown in figs. 136 and 137. Occasionally they partake
-more of the hatchet shape. A good example is fig. 138, and others of
-still more elaborate form have occasionally been discovered. Examples
-of another variety, generally called mauls, which partake more of the
-common mallet form, are here given on figs. 139, 140, and 141. The
-first is from Horsley, Derbyshire, and the other two are from Ireland.
-A different variety (named punches or cutters) is shown on fig. 142,
-which was found at Mickleover.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 143.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 144.]
-
-Rough stones, which have probably been used for triturating purposes,
-for the grinding of corn, etc., are occasionally found. In the
-Derbyshire barrows, for instance, portions of rubbed stones, and
-also of rubbers, have now and then been discovered. Two triturating
-stones, belonging to a different period, are given, for purposes of
-comparison, on figs. 143 and 144.[30] Whetstones, spindle-whorls, and
-other objects of stone, are also occasionally found. One of these
-spindle-whorls is shown on fig. 145.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 145.]
-
-FLINTS, _i.e._, various instruments formed of flint, are undoubtedly
-the most abundant of any relics of the Ancient Britons found in or
-about grave-mounds. They are extremely varied in form, and many of
-them are of the most exquisite workmanship--such, indeed, as would
-completely baffle the skill, great though that skill undoubtedly is,
-of “Flint Jack”[31] to copy. The arrangement, classification, and
-nomenclature of flints is at present so uncertain, and so mixed up
-with absurd theories, that it is difficult to know how to place them
-in a common-sense manner. All I shall attempt to do in my present
-work--which is intended to describe, generally, the relics to be found
-in the barrows of the period, and not to be a disquisition on flints
-alone--will be to give examples of some of the more usual forms which
-have from time to time been found, so as to facilitate comparisons with
-those of various districts and countries.
-
-Of barbed arrow-heads, the examples here given will be sufficient to
-show the variety of forms and sizes which are usually found. The three
-first examples are from Green-Low, and are in the Bateman museum; the
-next three (figs. 149, 150, and 151) are also from Derbyshire examples
-in my own collection; fig. 152 is also from my own collection, but of
-a totally different form, approaching to the next example, fig. 153,
-which is in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy. Fig. 149 will be
-noticed to be peculiarly elegant in form, and marvellously delicate in
-manufacture--the barbs being extremely sharp and clearly defined. It is
-engraved of its full size, as are most of the other examples. Fig. 150
-measures two and five-eighths inches in length.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 146.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 147.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 148.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 149.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 150.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 151.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 152.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 153.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 154.]
-
-The dagger-blade variety is of what is usually called the “leaf-shaped”
-type, and is the prototype of the bronze dagger of a later period. The
-example here given (fig. 154) is from Green-Low, and is of remarkably
-fine form. Another, and of perhaps much finer form, is shown on the
-accompanying plate (fig. 155). It was found at Arbow-Low, in June,
-1865, and is five and seven-eighths inches in length, and nearly two
-and a quarter inches in width in the centre. In its thickest part it
-is scarcely three-eighths of an inch in thickness, and is chopped
-and worked with the utmost nicety to a fine edge. It will be noticed
-that its sides, as they begin to diminish, are deeply serrated for
-fastening with thongs to the haft or handle. It is engraved the exact
-size of the original.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 155.]
-
-The next illustrations exhibit a different variety of flints. They
-are arrow-heads of the leaf-shaped types, and exhibit four varieties.
-Figs. 156 and 157 are from Calais Wold, in Yorkshire; fig. 158 is
-from Gunthorpe, in Lincolnshire; and fig. 159, which is of remarkably
-elegant form, is from Ringham-Low, Derbyshire. They are engraved of
-their full size. This type of flint varies, it will be seen, from
-the acutely angled and sharply pointed shapes to those of a nicely
-rounded and egg-shaped form. Two other remarkable examples, possibly
-spear-heads, are here engraved, from the Calais Wold barrow, in
-Yorkshire (figs. 160 and 161). They are among the finest examples which
-have ever been found.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 156.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 157.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 158.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 159.]
-
-Another type, one not common in England, is shown on fig. 162. It is
-a fine example, and was found in Derbyshire. It is deeply serrated on
-the edges, and at its base is cut for tying with a thong. It is here
-engraved of its full size.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 160.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 161.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 162.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 163.]
-
-Fig. 163 is a modification of this form, and is a good example of its
-kind. Figs. 164 and 165 are Derbyshire examples in my own collection,
-and are good specimens of another class of flint instruments not
-unfrequently found in grave-mounds and elsewhere.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 164.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 165.]
-
-Another variety, again, and one which varies extremely, both in size
-and in form, is what, I suppose for want of a better name, is the kind
-usually called “scrapers,” or “flint knives.” One example (fig. 166)
-will be sufficient.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 166.]
-
-Another description, again, which appears more intended for throwing
-than for any other purpose, and which, with its sharp cutting edges,
-and the unerring aim of the Briton, must have been indeed a deadly
-weapon, is frequently found, and is shown on fig. 167. It is a simple
-circular lump of flint, an inch and a half or a couple of inches or
-more in diameter; flat on one side and chipped into a roundness on the
-other. These are often called “thumb flints.”
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 167.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 168.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 169.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 170.]
-
-Flakes of various sizes and forms constantly occur, and are called by
-many absurd names. Small, delicately formed, and very beautiful flints,
-of an oviform or circular shape, are also found (fig. 168), as are a
-large number of other forms besides those I have illustrated. These
-will, however, be sufficient for my present purpose, and will enable
-the reader to form a pretty correct and extended estimate of the
-number and variety of flints which the grave-mounds produce. Celts of
-flint are also occasionally found. An example here shown (fig. 170) was
-discovered in a very interesting barrow called “Gospel Hillock,” at Cow
-Dale, near Buxton, by Captain Lukis. It measured four and a half inches
-in length.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 171.]
-
-In JET, the articles found consist of beads, rings, necklaces, studs,
-etc., and some of these are of the utmost beauty. A very elaborate
-example of necklace, found by Mr. Bateman in the cist (fig. 28) on
-Middleton Moor, is here engraved (fig. 171). The beads of which it is
-composed lay about the neck of the skeleton. It was formed of variously
-shaped beads and other ornaments of jet and bone curiously ornamented.
-The various pieces of this elaborate necklace count 420 in number;
-348 being thin laminæ, 54 of cylindrical form, and the remaining 18,
-conical studs and perforated plates, some of which are ornamented with
-punctures.
-
-Another example (fig. 172), with elongated beads, and pierced ornaments
-of bone, is here given.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 172.]
-
-Another good example is engraved on the next page. It was found at
-Fimber, by Mr. Mortimer, and consists of 171 laminæ, or small jet discs
-(No. 2), and a triangular pendant, or centre, of jet (No. 3), an inch
-in length, and perforated in the middle.
-
-Studs and pendants of jet are of various forms, and are perforated for
-suspension in a variety of ways. Fig. 174 shows a jet stud from Gospel
-Hillock. It is engraved of its full size, as is also the next example
-(fig. 175), from the Calais Wold barrow. These are very similar in
-form, and in their perforations. Another form, a ring pierced for
-suspension, is shown on fig. 176.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 173.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 174.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 175.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 176.]
-
-Implements of bone are frequently found, but in many instances their
-use is not easily determined. They consist chiefly of modelling tools
-(supposed to have been used in the manufacture of pottery), pins,
-mesh-rules, studs, pendants, and other personal ornaments; lance-heads,
-spear-heads, whistles (?), hammers, and beads. Some of these are shown
-in figs. 177 to 182.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 177.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 178.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 179.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 180.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 181.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 182.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 183.]
-
-In BRONZE, the articles found are celts, daggers, awls, pins, etc.
-Celts are, however, but seldom met with in barrows, although frequently
-ploughed up in the course of agricultural operations. Palstaves and
-socketed celts, etc., are also occasionally picked up. The ordinary
-form of celt will be best understood by the engravings here given
-(figs. 183 and 185) from Irish examples, and by the next figure (187),
-from Moot-Low, near Dove Dale. One of these celts, of precisely similar
-form to fig. 187, found in a barrow at Shuttlestone, has been the
-means of throwing considerable light on the mode of interment adopted.
-The barrow contained “the skeleton of a man in the prime of life and of
-fine proportions, apparently the sole occupant of the mound, who had
-been interred whilst enveloped in a skin of dark red colour, the hairy
-surface of which had left many traces both upon the surrounding earth
-and upon the verdigris or patina coating of a bronze axe-shaped celt
-and dagger, deposited with the skeleton. On the former weapon there
-are also beautifully distinct impressions of fern leaves, handfuls of
-which, in a compressed and half-decayed state, surrounded the bones
-from head to foot. From these leaves being discernible on one side
-of the celt only, whilst the other side presents traces of leather
-alone, it is certain that the leaves were placed first as a couch for
-the reception of the corpse, with its accompaniments, and after these
-had been deposited, were then further added in quantity sufficient to
-protect the body from the earth.”[32] With the skeleton, besides the
-celt, were a fine bronze dagger, with two rivets for attachments to the
-handle, which had been of horn, the impression of the grain being quite
-distinctly perceptible; a small jet bead; and a circular flint. The
-celt had been, as was evident from the grain of wood still remaining,
-driven vertically, for about two inches of its length, into a wooden
-handle.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 184.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 185.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 186.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 187.]
-
-Other forms of celts are shown on the accompanying series of figures
-(184, 185, 186, and 188 to 195), and another excellent example is fig.
-196, which has the loop (as also fig. 197) for attaching to the handle
-by means of a thong. A great many other varieties are also met with.
-
-The bronze daggers which barrows have afforded vary in length from two
-and a half or three, to five and a half or six, inches, on the average;
-the larger ones being an inch and a half to three inches in breadth
-at their broadest part, where the handle has been attached, from whence
-they taper gradually down to the point. They are sometimes ribbed or
-fluted. In most instances the handle has been attached by three rivets;
-in some cases, however, as in fig. 198, only two have been used, and
-occasionally there is evidence of the attachment being effected by
-thong or other ligature. The handles were of horn or wood, and were
-usually semi-lunar where attached to the blade; in one instance,
-however, the blade has a “tang” or “shank,” which has fitted into the
-square-ended handle, to which it has been fastened by a single peg. The
-blades occasionally present incontestible evidence of long use, having
-been worn down by repeated sharpenings. In the instance of the dagger
-found at Stanshope, which had been fastened to the handle by a couple
-of rivets as well as by ligatures, evidence existed of its having been
-enclosed in a sheath of leather, and this example also presented the
-somewhat curious feature of impressions of maggots, which had probably
-made their way from the decaying body into the inside of the sheath,
-between it and the blade, and had there remained, and thus gradually
-become marked upon the corrugated surface of the bronze.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 188.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 189.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 190.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 191.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 197.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 192.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 193.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 194.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 195.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 196.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 198.]
-
-Articles of gold, and coins, are extremely rare as found _in_
-grave-mounds, although not unusually turned up in their neighbourhoods,
-and in places which have been inhabited by the pre-historic races.
-Simply for the purpose of showing the character of some of the Celtic
-coins, the following engravings are given.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 199.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 200.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 201.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 202.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 203.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 204.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 205.]
-
-Of torques of gold, and other remains in that metal, I shall speak in a
-later chapter.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VII.
-
- Romano-British Period--General characteristics--Modes of
- Burial--Customs attendant on Burial--Interments by cremation
- and by inhumation--Barrows--Tombs of Stone--Lead Coffins--Clay
- and Tile Coffins--Sepulchral Inscriptions, etc.
-
-
-The grave-mounds and burial-places of the Romano-British period
-are, naturally, in many districts, far more abundant than those of
-the preceding period, while, in others again, as in Derbyshire and
-Cornwall, and some other counties, they are far less common than the
-Celtic ones. In these counties the Roman was, it would seem, more of
-a “bird of passage” (as well as, to some extent, a “bird of prey”)
-than a settler, and the consequence is, that no remains--or next to
-no remains--of villas or of settlements are found, and that where
-burial has taken place it has not unusually been in the same mound with
-those of an earlier period. The Ancient Briton raised the mounds over
-the remains of his own people; and his Roman subjugator, as occasion
-required, took possession of them, and therein laid his own dead. Thus
-the same barrow is sometimes found to contain, besides its primary
-Celtic interment, and others belonging to the same race, later deposits
-(nearer to the surface or to the side) of the Romano-British or of the
-Anglo-Saxon periods.
-
-In other counties, where the Roman population made permanent
-settlements and built their towns and villas, regular cemeteries
-were formed for the burial of their dead, and to these mainly are
-we indebted for a knowledge of their customs and of their arts. The
-burials were, as in the previous period, both by inhumation and by
-cremation. The first appears to have been the most ancient practice of
-the Roman people, and it was not, as is stated, until the time of the
-dictator Sylla that burning of the dead was practised. From his time
-downward both of these usages were in vogue, according as the friends
-of the deceased preferred. So indiscriminately were these usages
-adopted in England that both are found in the same burial-places, and
-indeed (as in those of the Celtic period) in close proximity to each
-other.
-
-The cemeteries attached to Roman towns were outside the walls,
-and usually by the road leading to the chief town--Londinium. In
-the country the owner of a villa had his burial-place in his own
-precincts.[33] Almost always, except when the interment was made in an
-earlier barrow, the dead were laid near to the living. In fact, the
-Roman seems, even when dead, to have still courted the proximity of the
-living, for he always by preference sought to establish his last home
-as near as possible to the most frequented road; and the inscriptions
-on his roadside tomb often contained appeals to the passers-by--in
-terms such as SISTE VIATOR (_stay, traveller_), or, TV QVISQVIS ES
-QVI TRANSIS (_thou, whoever thou art, who passest_)--to think on the
-departed. The epitaph on a Roman named Lollius, published by Grüter,
-concludes with the following words, intimating that he was placed by
-the roadside in order that the passer-by might say, “Farewell, Lollius!”
-
- HIC . PROPTER . VIAM . POSITVS
- UT . DICANT . PRAETEREVNTES
- LOLLI . VALE.
-
-These examples will explain the position of the cemeteries of Uriconium
-and other Roman towns in Britain.
-
-Mr. Wright, than whom no one is more able to speak authoritatively
-on the matter, thus speaks of the burial customs and observances of
-the Romans in Britain; and as it is necessary, before speaking of the
-objects found with the sepulchral remains of the people, to give a
-sketch of the formalities attending their death and burial, his account
-will add considerable interest to their consideration.
-
-“The last duty to the dying man was to close his eyes, which was
-usually performed by his children, or by his nearest relatives, who,
-after he had breathed his last, caused his body first to be washed
-with warm water, and afterwards to be anointed. Those who performed
-this last-mentioned office were called _pollinctores_. The corpse was
-afterwards dressed, and placed on a litter in the hall, with its feet
-to the entrance door, where it was to remain seven days. This ceremony
-was termed _collocatio_, and the object of it is said to have been to
-show that the deceased had died a natural death, and that he had not
-been murdered. In accordance with the popular superstition, a small
-piece of money was placed in the mouth, which it was supposed would
-be required to pay the boatman Charon for the passage over the river
-Styx. In the case of persons of substance, incense was burnt in the
-hall, which was often decked with branches of cypress, and a keeper was
-appointed, who did not quit the body until the funeral was completed.
-The public having been invited by proclamation to attend the funeral,
-the body was carried out on the seventh day, and borne in procession,
-attended by the relatives, friends, and whoever chose to attend,
-accompanied by musicians, and sometimes with dancers, mountebanks, and
-performers of various descriptions. With rich people, the images of
-their ancestors were carried in the procession, which always passed
-through the Forum on its way to the place of burial, and sometimes
-a friend mounted the rostrum, and pronounced a funeral oration. In
-earlier times the burial always took place by night, and was attended
-with persons carrying lamps or torches, but this practice seems to
-have been afterwards neglected; yet the lamps still continued to be
-carried in the procession. Women, who were called _præficæ_, were
-employed not only to howl their lamentations over the deceased, and
-chant his praises, like the Irish keeners, but to cry also; and their
-tears, it appears, were collected into small vessels of glass; and
-this circumstance is termed, in some of the inscriptions found on the
-Continent, being ‘buried with tears’--_sepultus cum lacrymis_; and the
-tomb is spoken of as being ‘full of tears’--TVMVL . LACRIM . PLEN.
-
-“The next ceremony was that of burning the body. In the earlier ages of
-their history the Romans are said to have buried the bodies of their
-dead entire, without burning; and there seems to be no doubt that, at
-all events, the two practices, burning the body and cremation, existed
-at the same time; but the latter appears to have become gradually more
-fashionable, until few but paupers were buried otherwise. In the age
-of the Antonines the practice of cremation was finally abolished in
-Italy; but the imperial ordinances appear to have had but little effect
-in the distant provinces, where the two manners of burial continued
-to exist simultaneously. Both are accordingly found in the Roman
-cemeteries in Britain, in interments which were undoubtedly not those
-of Christians. Perhaps the practices varied in different parts of the
-island, according to the usages of the country from which the colonists
-derived their origin. It is a circumstance worthy of remark that, as
-far as discoveries yet go, no trace has been met with of burials in the
-Roman cemeteries of Uriconium, otherwise than by burning the dead.
-
-“The funeral pile, _pyra_, was built of the most inflammable woods,
-to which pitch was added, and other things, which often rendered this
-part of the ceremony very expensive. An inscription, preserved by
-Grüter, speaks of some persons whose property was only sufficient to
-pay for the funeral pile and the pitch to burn their bodies--_nec ex
-eorum bonis plus inventum est quam quod sufficeret ad emendam pyram et
-picem quibus corpora cremarentur_. It had been ordered by a law of the
-Twelve Tables, that the funeral pile must be formed of timber which
-was rough and untouched by the axe, but this rule was perhaps not very
-closely adhered to in later times. When the body was laid on the pile,
-the latter was sprinkled with wine and other liquors, and incense and
-various unguents and odoriferous spices were thrown upon it. It was
-now, according to some accounts, that the _naulum_, or the coin for the
-payment of the passage over the Styx, was placed in the mouth of the
-corpse, and at the same time the eyes were opened. Fire was applied
-to the pile by the nearest relatives of the deceased, who, in doing
-this, turned their faces from it while it was burning; the relatives
-and friends often threw into the fire various objects, such as personal
-ornaments, and even favourite animals and birds. When the whole was
-reduced to ashes, these were sprinkled with wine (and sometimes with
-milk), accompanied with an invitation to the _manes_, or spirit of the
-deceased. The reader will call to mind the lines of Virgil (Æn. vi.
-226):--
-
- ‘Postquam collapsi cineres, et flamma quievit,
- Relliquias vino et bibulam lavere favillam,
- Ossaque lecta cado texit Corynæus aëno.’
-
-“The next proceeding, indeed, was to collect what remained of the bones
-from the ashes, which was the duty of the mother of the deceased, or,
-if the parents were not living, of the children, and was followed by a
-new offering of tears. Some of the old writers speak of the difficulty
-of separating the remains of the burnt bones from the wood ashes, and
-we accordingly find them usually mixed together. When collected, the
-bones were deposited in an urn, which was made of various materials.
-The urn in Virgil was made of brass, or perhaps bronze. Instances are
-mentioned of silver, and even gold, being used for this purpose, as
-well as of marble; and those found in Britain are often of glass, but
-the more common material was earthenware. One of the performers in
-the ceremony, whose duty this was, then purified the attendants by
-sprinkling them thrice with water, with an olive branch (if that could
-be obtained), and the _præficæ_ pronounced the word _Ilicet_ (said to
-be a contraction of _Ire licet_, ‘you may go’). Those who had attended
-the funeral, thrice addressed the word _Vale_ (farewell) to the manes
-of the dead, and departed. A sumptuous supper was usually given after
-the funeral to the relatives and friends.
-
-“In the case of people of better rank, the body was burnt on the ground
-which had been purchased for the sepulchre, but for the poorer people
-there was a public burning-place, which was called the _ustrina_, where
-the process was probably much less expensive, and whence the urn, with
-the remains (_relliquiæ_) of the deceased, was carried to be interred.
-The tombs of rich families were often large and even splendid edifices,
-with rooms inside, in the walls of which were small recesses, where the
-urns were placed. None of the buildings remain in any Roman cemetery
-in our island, but we can hardly doubt that such tombs did exist in
-the cemetery of Uriconium, and that they were scattered along the side
-of the Watling Street. At one place at Uriconium the foundations of
-a small building were met with, which appeared to have consisted of
-an oblong square, with a rectangular recess behind, but the western
-portion of it has been destroyed by the process of draining. When
-opened, ashes and fragments of an urn were found in the enclosed space,
-so that it is not improbable that this may have been a tomb with a
-room. An inscribed stone, which was found not far from this spot,
-bears evidence, in the appearance of its reverse side and in its form,
-of having been fixed against a wall, probably over a door.” The urn was
-perhaps here interred beneath the floor of the room. In many cases the
-dead body was certainly burnt on the spot where it was to be buried.
-A square pit had been dug, on the floor of which the funeral pile had
-been laid. The fire had then been lit in the pit or grave, and the body
-consumed in its own grave. Remains of the timber of the funeral pile
-still remained in a pit of this kind at Uriconium, as it had sunk on
-the floor, the ends of which were unconsumed, and the earth underneath
-quite red from burning.
-
-In most of the other interments in the cemetery of Uriconium, a small
-hole or pit appears to have been sunk in the ground, and the urn,
-which had no doubt been brought from the _ustrina_, was placed in it
-and covered up. These interments were not far distant from each other,
-and appear to have been placed in rows, nearly parallel to the road.
-Perhaps the ground may have been bought for this purpose in common, by
-associations of the townsmen, such as trade corporations, or it may
-have been set aside for burial purposes by the municipal authorities,
-and sold in small portions to individuals, as the practice now exists
-in modern cemeteries. The average depth at which the urns have been
-found is somewhat less than four feet, so that, allowing two feet for
-the accumulation of soil, the Romans seem to have dug pits about two
-feet deep for their reception.
-
-Coins were, as has just been stated, buried with the dead, in
-conformity with a superstitious belief that they would expedite the
-passage of the soul across the lake in Hades. The magic power of money
-in all connections with human life originated this custom. In all
-worldly matters money then was, as it unfortunately now still is, the
-main, if not the only, sure passport to place and honour; and thus
-it was believed that the soul of the man who had not received the
-usual rites of burial, and in whose mouth no fee for the ferryman of
-the Stygian lake had been placed,[34] would wander hopelessly on its
-banks, while decent interment and a small brass coin would obviate any
-disagreeable inquiries that Charon might else be inclined to make as
-to the merits or claims of the applicant. Thus in the cinerary urns of
-the period of which I am speaking coins are very commonly found, and
-also in interments by inhumation a small coin has, in more than one
-instance in Derbyshire, been found with the skull, in such a manner
-as to leave no doubt of its having been placed in the mouth of the
-deceased. In some instances a considerable number of coins have been
-found deposited together, or scattered about, in a barrow, along with
-human remains. In Haddon Field a large number of coins, principally
-consisting of third brass of Constantine, Constans, Constantius II.,
-Valentinian, Valens, and Gratian, were found, along with bones and
-fragments of pottery, traces of decayed wood, and a portion of a glass
-vessel. At Minning-Low, the fine chambered tumulus described on p. 54,
-_ante_, where several interments of the Romano-British period have
-undoubtedly been made in the earlier Celtic mound, many Roman coins,
-along with portions of sepulchral urns, etc., have from time to time
-been found. These are principally of Claudius Gothicus, Constantine the
-Great, Constantine Junior, Valentinian, and Constantius. In a barrow
-near Parwich, upwards of eighty coins of the later emperors were found.
-At most places, in fact, where Roman interments have taken place, coins
-have been found, and these range from an early to a late period in
-Roman history.
-
-When interment was by inhumation, in many instances the body was simply
-laid in the earth without any further covering than the usual dress. In
-other instances there are abundant appearances of the body having been
-enclosed in a wooden coffin or chest. In others, again, the body had
-been enclosed in a stone sarcophagus or chest, which was occasionally
-elaborately carved. Sometimes, again, coffins of lead were used. Mounds
-or barrows over sepulchral chambers and other modes of interment were
-frequently raised, to which I shall have to draw further attention.
-Examples of the first and most simple of these modes of burial have
-been discovered in different parts of the country, those at Bartlow
-Hills and at Little Chester being, perhaps, among the most notable.
-At the latter place a skeleton of a man found some years ago lay full
-length on its back, the arms straight down by the sides. Iron rivets,
-which were found much corroded, lay near various parts of the body, and
-a thin stratum of ferruginous matter encased the skeleton at a little
-distance from the body and limbs. From these circumstances it is to be
-inferred that the deceased was interred in his armour. Other interments
-by inhumation have been recently discovered in the same neighbourhood,
-but without, in some instances, the ferruginous appearances. The
-remains of horses were found along with them. Interments by inhumation
-have also been found at Brough and at other stations in the same
-county, and, as later deposits, in Celtic barrows. Those where the
-bones have been found _in situ_ appear, like the one I have spoken of
-at Little Chester, at Bartlow, and at other places, to have been laid
-at full length on the back, the arms straight down by the sides. They
-appear in most instances to have been simply laid in a very shallow
-grave, but little below the surface of the already formed mound, and to
-have been then covered to no great thickness with earth. Those found at
-Bartlow lay parallel to, but a short distance apart from, each other,
-their heads to the west and feet to the east. They were laid flat on
-their backs, their limbs straight out, their arms by their sides, and
-hands on the thighs. Some coins of Constantine and Tetricus, and other
-little matters, were found with them.[35] Traces of wooden chests or
-coffins were discernible around these skeletons, and this feature is
-not uncommon in burials of this description.
-
-When the body was placed in a stone chest or sarcophagus, it was in
-full dress, on its back, on the bottom of the chest, and any relics
-which were intended to be buried with it were laid about. The chest,
-as is evident from the examples found at York, was then partly filled
-with liquid lime, the face alone not being covered with the corroding
-liquid. When now found, a perfect impression of the figure is preserved
-in the bed of lime in which it was encased, and in some instances even
-the colour and texture of the dress is plainly distinguishable.[36]
-Frequently the stone chest contained a leaden coffin, in which the body
-was placed. A remarkably fine sculptured chest found in London,[37]
-and others found at York,[38] will be sufficient references to these
-interesting sarcophagi, which are occasionally inscribed.
-
-A tomb of a different description, which will be seen to partake
-largely of the construction of the stone cist of the earlier period, is
-here engraved (fig. 206). It is formed of ten rough slabs of gritstone,
-two on each side, one at each end, and four others laid as covering
-on the top. On removing the covering stones, a regularly shaped mass
-of lime presented itself, which had derived its form from a wooden
-coffin that had so nearly perished as to leave only small fragments
-behind. The wood was evidently cedar. On turning over this mass of lime
-an impression of the body of a man, which had been enveloped in, or
-covered with, a coarse linen cloth, fragments of which still remained,
-was distinctly seen. In another instance the impression of the body of
-a woman who had been clothed in rich purple, with a small child laid
-upon her lap, was distinctly visible in the lime.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 206.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 207.]
-
-Coffins of lead are of not unfrequent occurrence in the cemeteries
-of London, Colchester, York, Kingsholme, Southfleet, Ozengal, and
-elsewhere. They are, as will be seen by the example from Colchester
-(fig. 207),[39] usually ornamented with raised escallop shells,
-beaded mouldings, annulets, etc, in a variety of ways. The next
-engraving (fig. 208) exhibits a leaden coffin discovered in 1864 at
-Bishopstoke,[40] in Hampshire. The lead which formed the coffin was
-about a quarter of an inch in thickness. The coffin, which was five
-feet six inches in length, and sixteen and a half inches in breadth,
-inside measure, had not been cast in a mould, but the lead cut so as
-to form the sides. The lid appeared to be formed of one sheet, and
-had been bent or lapped over the lower part of the coffin. The lead
-was much corroded, and lime had evidently been placed in the coffin.
-There was none of the ornamentation on the outside, so common on leaden
-cists. Nearly the whole of the skeleton remained, but the skull was
-broken. The teeth were perfect and good. The skeleton was that of
-a female. Inside the cist were the remains of small glass bottles,
-probably lachrymatories. The glass was thin, and of a very pale green
-colour. There was no appearance of handles to the glass vessels, nor
-were there any marks of ornamentation on them, except a faint line or
-ring marked upon one of the three necks found. Around the coffin were
-the remains of the wooden chest in which it had been placed.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 208.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 209.]
-
-Coffins of baked clay, and cists formed of tiles, were also used. Of
-these, many examples have been found at York and at Aldborough. One of
-peculiar form, from the latter place, is here given (fig. 209).
-
-Sepulchral chambers, sometimes of considerable size, were occasionally
-built above ground, and these were sometimes, like the immense
-chambered burial-places of earlier times, covered with a gigantic mound
-or barrow. A remarkable example of this is Eastlow Hill, in Suffolk,
-where the tomb appeared like a miniature house, of strong masonry, with
-the roof tiled and peaked. It was built upon a mass of concrete, the
-size of the tomb being twelve, by six and a half, feet. The walls were
-two feet thick, and the extreme height of the tomb, or house, was five
-feet. The interior was a cylindrical vault, and in the middle stood the
-leaden coffin containing the skeleton. The wooden chest in which it had
-been encased had decayed away, but some fragments and a number of nails
-remained. Over this remarkable tomb the mound called Eastlow Hill had
-been raised.
-
-When the burial was by incremation, the ashes were carefully placed
-in the cinerary urn, and interred either by themselves, or with more
-or less ostentatious surroundings. In many instances a hole was dug
-in the earth, or in a Celtic barrow, and the urn, on being placed in
-it, simply covered with a flat stone. At other times it was placed in
-a sarcophagus, or chest, and surrounded with vessels of various kinds
-and with other relics. At others, again, it was enclosed in a leaden,
-or stone, or other vessel, before being consigned to the earth. In
-many cases barrows were raised over these remains. There was a general
-belief in the minds of the Roman people that articles of various kinds
-buried or burnt with their dead, would add to the comfort and happiness
-of the spirit in another world. Thus jewels, personal ornaments, food,
-wine, articles for the toilet, culinary vessels, pottery, and glass of
-various kinds, and numberless other articles were buried or burned with
-the bodies. Branches of trees and garlands were also burned or buried
-with the dead.
-
-Some remarkable examples of tombs and graves containing burials by
-cremation have been discovered at the Bartlow Hills, at Colchester, at
-Uriconium, at Rochester, at York, at Chester, and in other places. The
-grave, or chest, was formed of wood, or tiles, or of stone. In this
-the urn containing the ashes of the dead was placed, and around it
-were put smaller vessels which probably contained ointments, balsams,
-and other offerings; a lamp; and other articles. One example, formed
-by tiles, contained when discovered a few years ago, besides fragments
-of the cinerary urn, four earthenware bottles, six pateræ, three small
-urn-shaped vessels, a terra-cotta lamp, and a lachrymatory. A chest of
-stone (fig. 210) found at Avisford, Sussex, contained a large square
-vase of fine green glass, filled with burnt bones, and around it were
-placed three elegant vases with handles, several pateræ, a pair of
-sandals elegantly and fancifully studded with brass nails, an oval dish
-with handle containing a fine agate, a double-handled glass bottle, and
-three lamps placed on projections in the angles of the chest.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 210.]
-
-An example of a tomb formed of tiles is shown on the next engraving
-(fig. 211). It was found at York, and is composed of ten roof tiles,
-with a row of ridge tiles at the top. Within this the interment
-had taken place. The tiles were inscribed with the impress of the
-Sixth Legion-- LEG VI VI (_Legio Sexta Victrix_--“the Sixth Legion
-victorious.”)
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 211.]
-
-Sepulchral inscriptions to the memory of the deceased are not uncommon,
-and one or two examples of their style of wording will be sufficient.
-One, at York, reads thus:--
-
- D . M . SIMPLICIAE . FLORENTINE
- ANIME . INNOCENTISSIME
- QVE . VIXIT . MENSES . DECEM
- FELICIVS . SIMPLEX . PATER . FECIT
- LEG . VI . V.
-
-“To the gods of the shades. To Simplicia Florentina, a most innocent
-thing, who lived ten months. Her father of the Sixth Legion, the
-victorious, made this.” Another, from Carvoran in Northumberland, is
-thus affectionately worded:--
-
- D . M
- AVRE . FAIAE
- D . SALONAS
- AVR . MARCVS
- C . OBESEQ . CON
- IVG . SANCTIS
- SIMAE . QVAE . VI
- XIT ANNIS XXXIII
- SINE VLLA MACVLA
-
-“To the gods of the shades. To Aurelia Faia, a native of Salona,
-Aurelius Marcus, a centurion, out of affection for his most holy
-wife, who lived thirty-three years without any stain.” Another, from
-Caerleon, is thus:--
-
- D . M . IVL . IVLIANVS
- MIL . LEG . II . AVG . STIP
- XVIII . ANNOR . XL
- HIC . SITVS . EST
- CVRA . AGENTE
- AMANDA
- CONIVGE
-
-“To the gods of the shades. Julius Julianus, a soldier of the Second
-Legion, the Augustan, served eighteen years, aged forty, is laid
-here by the care of Amanda his wife.” Another, from Chesters, in
-Northumberland, is as follows:--
-
- D . M . S
- FABIE HONOR
- ATE . FABIVS . HON
- ORATIVS . TRIBVN
- COH . I . VANGION
- ET . AVRELIA . EGLIC
- IANE . FECER
- VNT . FILIE . D
- VLCISSIMME
-
-“Sacred to the gods of the shades. To Fabia Honorata, Fabius
-Honoratius, Tribune, of the First Cohort of Vangiones, and Aurelia
-Egleciane, made this to their daughter most sweet.” And one at Bath is
-thus:--
-
- D . M.
- AEL . MERCV
- RIALI . CORNICVL
- VACIA . SOROR
- FECIT
-
-“To the gods of the shades. To Ælius Mercurialis, a trumpeter, his
-sister Vacia made this.”
-
-The articles which the grave-mounds and cemeteries of the
-Romano-British period most frequently produce are pottery of various
-kinds; glass vessels; coins; arms, both of bronze and of iron; fibulæ,
-armillæ, and other personal ornaments; knives, scissors, etc.; and a
-large variety of other things. To a brief notice of these contents of
-the graves I shall next, in this division of my work, confine myself.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VIII.
-
- Romano-British Period--Pottery--Durobrivian Ware--Upchurch
- Ware--Salopian Ware--Pottery found at Uriconium--Potteries of
- the New Forest, of Yorkshire, and of other places--Sepulchral
- Urns--Domestic and other vessels.
-
-
-The pottery of the Romano-British period, so far as relates to what
-is found in the grave-mounds of that people, consists, in the main,
-of cinerary urns, jugs (so called), pateræ, amphoræ, bowls, and vases
-of various kinds. Of the pottery alone of this period, sufficient
-interesting matter to fill a couple of goodly volumes might easily be
-written. It will, therefore, be at once understood that in a work like
-the present, which is simply intended to be a descriptive sketch of the
-contents of grave-mounds, elaborate accounts of the different kinds of
-ware made by that people, and of the modes of manufacture which they
-adopted, would be unnecessary. The principal divisions are the Samian
-ware, the Durobrivian ware, the pottery of the Upchurch marshes, the
-Hampshire ware, the Salopian ware, and the Yorkshire wares, and to
-these divisions I shall devote some few pages, and in so doing express
-thanks to my friend, Mr. Thomas Wright, for some excellent articles[41]
-on the Durobrivian, the Upchurch, and the Samian wares, which he has
-written. Before proceeding to speak of the different vessels found with
-interments, it will be well to glance at these different wares and
-their characteristics.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 212.]
-
-The _Durobrivian_ or _Castor ware_, as it is variously called, is the
-production of the extensive Romano-British potteries on the river Nen
-in Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire, which, with settlements,
-are computed to have covered a district of some twenty square miles
-in extent. The discovery of this pottery and of the kilns in which
-its productions were fired, etc.--one of which is engraved on fig.
-212--is due to the late Mr. Artis, who prosecuted his examination of
-the locality with great perseverance and skill. There are several
-varieties of this Durobrivian ware, and two especially have been
-remarked; the first, blue or slate-coloured, the other reddish-brown
-or of a dark copper colour. The former was coloured by a simple though
-curious process, which Mr. Artis was enabled to investigate in a very
-satisfactory manner. It will, perhaps, be best told in his own words.
-“During an examination of the pigments used by the Roman potters of
-this place,” he says, “I was led to the conclusion that the blue and
-slate-coloured vessels met with here in such abundance, were coloured
-by suffocating the fire of the kiln at the time when its contents had
-acquired a degree of heat sufficient to ensure uniformity of colour.
-I had so firmly made up my mind upon the process of manufacturing and
-firing this peculiar kind of earthenware, that for some time previous
-to the recent discovery [in 1844] I had denominated the kilns in which
-it had been fired _smother kilns_. The mode of manufacturing the
-bricks of which these kilns are made is worthy of notice. The clay
-was previously mixed with about one-third of rye in the chaff, which,
-being consumed by the fire, left cavities in the room of the grains.
-This might have been intended to modify expansion and contraction, as
-well as to assist the gradual distribution of the colouring vapour.
-The mouth of the furnace and top of the kiln were, no doubt, stopped;
-thus we find every part of the kiln, from the inside wall to the earth
-on the outside, and every part of the clay wrappers of the dome,
-penetrated with the colouring exhalation. As further proof that the
-colouring of the ware was imparted by firing, I collected the clays of
-the neighbourhood, including specimens from the immediate vicinity of
-the smother kilns. In colour some of these clays resembled the ware
-after firing, and some were darker. I submitted them to a process
-similar to that I have described. The clays dug near the kilns whitened
-in firing, probably from being bituminous. I also put some fragments
-of the blue pottery into the kiln; they came out precisely of the same
-colour as the clay fired with them, which had been taken from the side
-of the kilns. The experiment proved to me that the colour could not
-be attributed to any metallic oxide, either existing in the clay or
-applied externally; and this conclusion is confirmed by the appearance
-of the clay wrappers of the dome of the kiln. It should be remarked,
-that this colour is so volatile that it is expelled by a second firing
-in an open kiln.” Fortunately, some of the kilns remained almost
-entire, and many had been left with the pottery partly packed in them
-for firing, so that there was no difficulty in understanding the nature
-of the process here employed by the Roman potters.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 213.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 214.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 215.]
-
-This Durobrivian pottery is especially interesting, from its being
-covered with ornaments and figures, in relief, like those on the
-Samian ware, but not like it cast from moulds. “The vessel,” Mr. Artis
-remarks, “after being thrown upon the wheel, would be allowed to become
-somewhat firm, but only sufficiently so for the purpose of the lathe.
-In the indented ware, the indenting would have to be performed with
-the vessel in as pliable a state as it could be taken from the lathe.”
-The ornamenter then took a slip of rather liquid material, and with an
-implement made for the purpose, formed all the ornaments and figures
-with the hand. The slip used for this purpose was often white, which
-was laid on a dark ground. “The vessels, on which are displayed a
-variety of hunting subjects, representations of fishes, scrolls, and
-human figures, were all glazed after the figures were laid on; where,
-however, the decorations are white, the vessels were glazed before the
-ornaments were added. Ornamenting with figures of animals was effected
-by means of sharp and blunt skewery instruments, and a slip of suitable
-consistency. These instruments seem to have been of two kinds: one
-thick enough to carry sufficient slip for the nose, neck, body, and
-front thigh; the other of a more delicate kind, for a thinner slip for
-the tongue, lower jaws, eye, fore and hind legs, and tail. There seems
-to have been no retouching after the slip trailed from the instrument.”
-
-Of the forms of mere ornamentation of this ware, the scroll ornaments
-appear to have been the most popular. The arrangement and combination
-of the scrolls, which are sufficiently varied, are often both tasteful
-and very effective. In the cut (fig. 216) I have selected two examples
-of the most common forms of this kind of ornamentation, and others I
-show on the following engravings, figs. 217, 218, and 219, and again on
-figs. 213, 214, and 215.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 216.]
-
-“It is, however, the figured pottery of Durobrivæ, which presents some
-of the characteristics of the Samian ware, that possesses the greatest
-interest for the antiquary and the historian. The variety of subjects
-in the Samian ware is far greater, and they are treated in a more
-elaborate and more highly finished style of art, yet similar classes
-of subjects appear to have enjoyed greater popularity than others in
-the Durobrivian and Samian pottery, and we can hardly help suspecting
-that there was some design of imitating, or perhaps a sentiment of
-rivalry. Considering that they were only executed with the hand, and
-it would appear rapidly, the style of drawing is remarkably good and
-spirited. But they have another and a peculiar value; when we consider
-that they were certainly executed in this country, and by artists who
-could hardly have done otherwise than copy what was constantly before
-their eyes, we can have no doubt that these are all true pictures,
-pictures which we could hardly in any other way have obtained, of
-life in Britain under the Romans, and they show us, as well as could
-be shown in subjects capable of being represented by such artists,
-those occupations in which the enjoyment of life was then believed
-to consist. The more common of these subjects are hunting scenes and
-scenes taken from the amphitheatre or racecourse.” For instance, the
-dog hunting the hare, given in our cut (fig. 220) taken from an example
-of Durobrivian ware engraved in Artis’s plates, must be recognized at
-once as a greyhound, the same variety of dog which is still used for
-the same purpose. It has been suggested that this may be the dog to
-which the Romans gave the name of _vertagus_, and which is said to have
-been a British dog. Martial describes it in one of his epigrams as--
-
- “Divisa Britannia mittit
- Veloces, nostrique orbis venatibus aptos.”
- Nemesiani _Cynegetica_, l. 123.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 217.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 218.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 219.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 220.]
-
-Other examples of hunting subjects are here given (figs. 221 to 225),
-and others again will be found on a subsequent page.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 221.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 222.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 223.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 224.]
-
-The engravings fig. 223 and 224, taken from a sample of this pottery
-given in one of Mr. Artis’s plates, represents the British staghound
-of the Roman period chasing a stag. We have a different dog in other
-examples, as in fig. 225, which is taken from a very remarkable vessel
-of this ware, now known as the Colchester vase, where it appears
-driving before it both stags and hares. The hunting of the boar is also
-introduced in some examples of this pottery. Gladiatorial combats are
-also favourite subjects on the pottery made at Durobrivæ, as on the
-Samian ware, and they leave no doubt that these cruel and degrading
-exhibitions were cherished by the Romans in Britain as well as in Italy.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 225.]
-
-That very remarkable monument of the ceramic art in Roman Britain,
-known as the “Colchester vase,” was found in 1853, in the Roman
-cemetery which occupied the site of West Lodge, near Colchester. It
-had been used as a sepulchral urn, and when found contained calcined
-bones, and was covered with an inverted shallow vessel or dish. “The
-ornamentations consist of three groups, one of which is the flight
-of stags and hares pursued by a dog, given in our cut (fig. 225).
-The second and, perhaps we may say, the principal group represents,
-in perfectly correct drawings, the combat of the two classes of
-gladiators, a _Secutor_ and a _Retiarius_, the latter of whom,
-vanquished, has dropped his trident, and raises his hand to implore the
-mercy of the spectators. The _Secutor_, with a close helmet over his
-head, and a short sword in his hand, advances to strike the fatal blow,
-unless arrested by the success of his adversary’s appeal. Over the head
-of the _Retiarius_ is the inscription, VALENTINV LEGIONIS XXX., meaning
-clearly, “Valentinus, of the thirtieth legion,” which was doubtless the
-name of the individual here represented. A similar inscription over the
-head of the _Secutor_ is read without difficulty--MEMN.N.SAC.VIIII.,
-which is explained by Mr. Roach Smith, who considers the A in SAC
-as an error for E, as standing for _Memnius_ (or _Memnon_) _numeri
-secutorum victor ter_; _i.e._, “Memnius, or Memnon, of the number (or
-band) of secutors, conqueror thrice.” There is no reason for supposing
-that this inscription has any reference to the individual whose
-remains were buried in the vase, but it has probably reference to some
-remarkable gladiatorial combat which had created a sensation in Roman
-Britain, like some one of the celebrated boxing matches of modern
-times; sufficiently so to have become a popular subject of pictorial
-representation.[42]
-
-“The third group on the Colchester vase also represents a performance
-which was very popular among the Romans and among Saxons, and, indeed,
-throughout the Middle Ages, that of a bear-tamer and disciplined
-bear. The bear, in this case, appears inclined to be rebellious, and
-his keeper, whose left arm bears what appears to be a shield, and
-his legs and right arm protected by bands or thongs, is menacing the
-animal with a whip. An assistant is approaching, with what appear to
-be two staves in his hands, for the purpose also of intimidating the
-ferocious animal. Over the head of the man holding the whip are the
-letters SECVNDVS MARIO, the intended application of which is not very
-clear.”[43]
-
-On another vase in the British Museum, the figures represent a
-chariot-race in the Roman racecourse or stadium.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 226.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 227.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 228.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 229.]
-
-Another class of subjects of extreme interest, as coming from a
-Romano-British pottery, are mythological subjects, which appear to have
-been rather a favourite ornament of the Durobrivian pottery. Fragments
-of several vessels, with the figures of the seven gods and goddesses,
-have been met with. Another characteristic of the Durobrivian ware,
-consists of indentations made in the side of the vessel, while still
-soft, but after it had left the lathe, and continued with regularity
-round it. Sometimes, where little ornament was employed on the rest
-of the vase, these indentations were left quite plain; sometimes
-an ornament was introduced in the centre; and not unfrequently the
-indentation was formed into a niche for the reception of a figure. For
-indented vases see figs. 226, 228, and 229.
-
-The _Upchurch ware_, so called because made on the tract of land now
-known as the Upchurch Marshes, on the river Medway below Chatham, is
-next in importance, as far as extent of works go, to the Castor ware.
-The district where these pot-works are proved to have existed extends
-to a distance of five or six miles in length, and from one to two miles
-in breadth, and throughout this tract a bed of refuse pottery exists.
-This is seen to the best advantage about Otterham Creek, not far from
-Upchurch church, and from its being first noticed here the name of
-Upchurch ware has arisen.
-
-“The Roman ware made in the Upchurch potteries presents distinctive
-peculiarities which cannot be mistaken, and it must have been in
-great repute, certainly the next after the foreign Samian and the
-native Durobrivian wares, in this province of the empire. Like the
-Durobrivian, too, it has been found on Roman sites in France and
-Germany, so that it was probably exported. As Battely has described
-it, the greater proportion of this ware is of a ‘blackish colour,’ or
-rather of a bluish or greyish black, which was produced, no doubt,
-by the process of the smother-kiln, already described in connection
-with the Durobrivian pottery. Some of the Upchurch pottery presents
-a colour approaching to dark drab. Examples of both are given. The
-forms, as well as the sizes, vary greatly, but they all present those
-delicate forms of the curve which we recognise at once as coming from
-the hands of the Roman artist. The texture of the pottery itself is
-fine, and it is very thin. The ornamentation also is varied, but not
-very elaborate or very refined. One of the patterns consists of a
-band of half-circles, made with compasses, from each of which a band
-of parallel lines descends vertically. Examples of various kinds of
-ornament are given in the accompanying woodcut (fig. 230). The little
-vessel in the front of the cut has had two handles, but one is lost; it
-is supposed to be an incense pot.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 230.]
-
-“The instruments used in the ornamentation of this pottery appear to
-have been of a very rude description, and were, as it seems, chiefly
-mere sticks, some sharpened to a point, and others with a transverse
-section cut into notches. The former were used in tracing the lines
-already described; the latter had the section formed into a square, or
-rhomboid, the surface of which was cut into parallel lines crossing
-each other, so as to form a dotted figure, and this was stamped on
-the surface of the pottery in various combinations and arrangements.
-Sometimes these dots are arranged so as to form bands, as in the
-example in the back of the group. The large urn in the middle of the
-group furnishes an example of another kind of ornamentation found
-on the Upchurch pottery, formed by parallel intersecting lines. In
-its shape this vessel has much the appearance of a sepulchral urn.
-A considerable quantity of this pottery is without ornament at all.
-Among this unornamented pottery are found, especially, jug-shaped
-vessels, commonly with a handle. Two of these vessels are represented
-in the group, in which is also shown a curiously shaped plain urn
-and an unornamented vessel of another form. At different spots over
-the locality which was covered by these potteries, Mr. Roach Smith
-has found remains which indicate the former existence of kilns, and
-further researches will most probably bring to light some of the kilns
-themselves. Traces have also been found of the residences and of the
-graves of the potters.”[44]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 231.]
-
-The _Romano-Salopian_ potteries--the works which produced such a large
-quantity of vessels from the clay of the Severn valley, probably in
-the neighbourhood of Broseley, which bed is still worked for fictile
-purposes--were, there is reason to believe, much less extensive than
-either of those spoken of, but yet they must, from the large quantity
-of examples which have been dug up at Wroxeter, have been of some
-considerable extent. Of these wares, “two sorts especially are found in
-considerable abundance; the one white, the other of a rather light red
-colour. The white, which is made of what is commonly called Broseley
-clay, and is rather coarse in texture, consists chiefly of rather
-handsomely shaped jugs of different sizes, of mortaria, and of bowls
-of different shapes and sizes, which are often painted with stripes
-of red and yellow. The other variety, the red Romano-Salopian ware,
-is also made from one of the clays of the Severn valley, but it is of
-a finer texture, and consists principally of jugs not dissimilar to
-those in the white ware, except in a very different form of mouth,
-and of bowl-shaped colanders.”[45] A group of vessels of the Salopian
-ware is here given (fig. 232). These examples are all from Uriconium
-(Wroxeter), and have been found in the cemetery there. They are
-cinerary urns which have, of course, contained the ashes of the dead,
-and domestic vessels which have been buried along with them.
-
-The pottery of the New Forest bears in some respects a striking
-resemblance to that from Castor. The clays there found were white and
-fawn-coloured.[46] The Yorkshire productions present some peculiarities
-in pattern which will be noticed later on, and those of Oxfordshire are
-somewhat similar to the Castor ware. Of other pot manufactories it will
-not be necessary to speak in this work.[47]
-
-The sepulchral urns--those which were intended to receive the burnt
-bones of the dead--vary much in size as well as in form, material, and
-ornamentation. Many are of globular form, and of a dark bluish-grey
-colour in fracture They are somewhat coarse in texture, and are thrown
-on the wheel. The engraving (fig. 234) exhibits one of these vessels.
-When found, it was, like the others I am about to notice, filled
-with burnt bones. The engravings (figs. 235 and 236) show two urns
-containing human remains, the smaller one of which, found at Little
-Chester, is formed of a black clay, mixed with small pieces of broken
-shells--a kind of pottery much used for sepulchral purposes. The larger
-urn is of a hard and compact clay, and is beautifully “thrown” on the
-wheel. These examples are entirely devoid of ornament. A good example
-of this form will be seen in the centre of the group (fig. 230), but in
-this instance the urn is covered with a reticulated ornament. Examples
-whose forms partake a little more of the jar shape will be noticed
-on fig. 232, and others are given on Fig. 233, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 6.
-Fig. 237 is from Little Chester, and is formed of a fine reddish-brown
-clay, and is ornamented with “slip” in an unusual manner. It measures
-3½ inches only in height, and the same in diameter at the mouth. When
-found, it was filled with burnt bones, among which were some small
-fragments of bronze ornaments, which had evidently been burned along
-with the body. The next examples (figs. 238, 242, 248, and 249), are
-of a different character, both in ornamentation and in colour of clay.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 232.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 233.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 234.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 235.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 236.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 237.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 238.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 239.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 240.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 241.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 242.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 243.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 244.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 245.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 246.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 247.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 248.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 249.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 254.]
-
-The domestic vessels, and other varieties of Roman pottery found with
-interments, vary very considerably one from another, so much so,
-indeed, as almost to require a detailed dissertation on the entire
-fictile arts of that people. Examples of some of the different vessels
-which are found are shown on figs. 243 to 266, and on figs. 230, 232,
-and 233, which exhibit some of the more usual and better known forms.
-Figs. 250, 252, and 253 are amphoræ, found in London, as was also the
-small amphora-shaped vessel, fig. 251. Fig. 254 is a good typical
-example of a mortarium, of which considerable numbers, usually in
-fragments, are found wherever there has been a Roman settlement. The
-next group (fig. 255) represents five examples of blackware vessels,
-the ornaments on which are produced by tracing lines on the surface.
-The remainder of the engravings (figs. 258 to 268) exhibit cups, bowls,
-unguentaria of different forms, and various shapes of vases. They are
-all characteristic examples of Romano-British ware, and will be useful
-to the student in correctly appropriating any specimens which may fall
-into his hands.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 250.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 251.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 252.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 253.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 255.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 256.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 257.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 258.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 259.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 260.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 261.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 262.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 263.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 264.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 265.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 266.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 267.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 268.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IX.
-
- Romano-British Period--Pottery--Samian Ware--Potters’
- Stamps--Varieties of Ornamentation--Glass Vessels--Sepulchral
- Vases, etc.--Lachrymatories--Bowls--Beads--Coins found with
- Interments.
-
-
-In the preceding chapters I have purposely avoided including vessels of
-Samian ware. As these are frequently found with sepulchral deposits, I
-now proceed to speak of this peculiar and beautiful ware.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 269.]
-
-_Samian ware_ is that peculiarly fine, close-textured, and
-richly-coloured red-ware, which is so frequently found, and is so well
-known to antiquaries. The body of this ware is of a fine red colour,
-but its surface is of a deeper and richer tone, much like the best
-red sealing-wax. It is extremely hard and brittle, and is sonorous in
-sound when struck. The vessels of this ware consist for the most part
-of bowls, cups, and pateræ or dishes, in each of which divisions are
-found an almost endless variety of forms, and while some are perfectly
-plain, others are more or less covered with ornaments--figures of men,
-animals, foliage, borders, etc.,--in relief. These relief ornaments
-were produced from moulds, and the names of the makers of the vessels
-were also frequently stamped upon them. Of these ornaments and
-potters’ marks, Mr. Wright says, “The potter’s name was placed in a
-small rectangular label, as in the examples given on figs. 270, 271,
-272, 273, and 274. The name was most commonly put in the genitive
-case, combined with O or OF, abbreviations of the word _officina_,
-as in the example given in our cut, where OF MODESTI stands for
-_officina Modesti_, _i.e._ ‘from the workshop of Modestus;’ or with
-M for _manu_, as COBNERTI M, for _Cobnerti manu_, ‘by’ or ‘from the
-hand of Cobnertus.’ Sometimes the name is given in the nominative
-case, followed by F or FE, for _fecit_, as COCVRO F, for _Cocuro
-fecit_, ‘Cocuro made it.’ Doubled or ligulated letters are frequently
-introduced into these inscriptions, an example of which is given in
-the lower figure to the right, where the first letter is the ligulated
-T and E, and the name is TETTVR. Sometimes we meet with an error in
-the spelling of the word; and in one or two instances the person who
-made the stamp inscribed the name carelessly, so that it read direct
-on the stamp, and consequently it is reversed in the impression on the
-pottery. An example is given in the cut, where the inscription reversed
-reads PRASSO·O. The name is not always placed in a square label, though
-examples to the contrary are rare. In a few instances it has been found
-inscribed round a small circle. It is a peculiarity of the Arrentine
-ware, described by Fabroni, that the label not unfrequently assumes
-the form of the sole of a man’s foot. The stamp of this form given in
-our cut occurs on a piece of the red Samian ware found at Lillebonne,
-in Normandy. The inscription appears to be HIL·O·L·TITI, which may
-perhaps stand for _Hilarii officina liberti Titi_, ‘from the workshop
-of Hilarius, the freedman of Titus.’ The next cut (fig. 276) represents
-one of the stamps used for impressing the label with the potter’s name.
-It was found at Lezoux, in Auvergne and presents the name AVSTRI·OF.
-‘from the workshop of Austen.’ A similar die of a potter named
-Cobnertus is preserved in the museum at Sevres. Both these names occur
-on specimens of Samian ware found in England. Other potters’ names are
-shown on figs. 272 to 275. The first of these bears the name CELSINVS
-. F .; the second, MICCIO; the third, AISTIVI.M; and the fourth is the
-one referring to Aretium.”
-
-[Illustration: Figs. 270 and 271.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 272.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 273.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 274.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 275.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 276.]
-
-
-Similar dies for stamping the ornaments and figures have also been
-found in France. In the latter, each die contained a single figure, or,
-at all events, a single group, and this explains why the same figures
-are so frequently found on the pottery in different combinations. One
-of these dies contains a single festoon and tassel of the well-known
-festoon ornament, so common on this pottery.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 277.]
-
-The ornamental borders which are most commonly met with on Samian
-ware are elegant festoon-and-tassel borders, and the egg-and-tongue
-ornament, both of which, as well as a border consisting of a range of
-figures representing the Medicean Venus, are shown on the accompanying
-engraving (fig. 277) of a fine bowl found in London. Wavy lines
-and lines of circles are also common, and we frequently meet with
-scroll-work of very elegant design, commonly formed of leaves, flowers,
-and fruit. Examples, selected from a numerous variety, are given on
-engravings (figs. 278 to 282). These scrolls are generally used to
-form a border round the upper part of the bowl, as shown on figs. 280
-and 281. The foliage most in favour for these scrolls was that of
-the vine, and the ivy (fig. 282), and also that of the strawberry;
-the former of which especially shows that this pottery was, as Pliny
-says of the Samian ware, particularly intended for the service of the
-table. The ivy-leaf, indeed, is almost the only ornament of the plainer
-description of this red ware. Sometimes the leaves of the vine are
-gracefully intermingled with the clusters of the fruit, and with little
-birds which are feeding upon the latter, as in the fragment represented
-in our cut (fig. 283).
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 278.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 279.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 280.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 281.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 282.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 283.]
-
-Animals of all kinds are found in abundance among the ornaments of the
-Samian ware. Among these the boar was a great favourite. For instance,
-a cup will be divided into compartments, in which figure alternately
-two boars, and a man confronting them with a spear. In a similar
-compartment under arches, in another, we have two heads of lions above,
-and below, a rabbit and a dog. Another, again, is ornamented with
-fishes, separated by squares filled with a singular ornament, which is
-perhaps intended to represent water. Sometimes the whole outside of a
-bowl is covered with birds, beasts, and fishes mixed together in the
-utmost confusion.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 284.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 285.]
-
-The subjects in which human figures are introduced present still
-greater variety, and it need hardly be added that they are much more
-interesting. Subjects from the classical mythology are very common, and
-among the figures of the deities we recognize some, such as the Venus
-de Medici (fig. 277), which were copied from well-known models of art.
-Combats of pygmies and cranes appear as favourite subjects, as in the
-paintings, etc., in Pompeii. Sacrifices and religious ceremonies are
-not uncommon; and especially bacchanalian processions, and dances of
-bacchantes and satyrs--another proof that this ware was used for the
-festive board. The spirited manner in which figure subjects are often
-treated, will be seen by the engravings we have given, and by examples
-to be found in most collections. One vessel represents a bacchanalian
-scene, in which Silenus figures among satyrs and fauns. A faun is
-drinking from a horn supplied from a wine skin which he holds in his
-left hand, while Silenus attempts to snatch it from his hands. Genii,
-one of whom appears with wings on another fragment of the same vessel,
-appear to be directing or presiding over the scene. Among other very
-favourite subjects are hunting scenes, gladiatorial combats, and the
-sports of the amphitheatre. Others represent sacrifices and religious
-offerings. Musicians performing on various instruments are also common;
-and domestic scenes are depicted in great variety. Many of these are
-of a character not to be described, but sufficiently characteristic
-of the degraded state of morality under the Roman empire. The bowls
-here engraved (figs. 285 and 286) are good examples of these kinds
-of decoration. Another is ornamented with a series of figures, which
-appear to have no connection one with another. In the middle is a
-bacchanal with his thirsus; to the right of him a figure playing on a
-double pipe; on both sides a group of bears; and to the extreme right a
-charioteer, followed by a bear “rampant.”
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 286.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 287.]
-
-The great quantity of this Samian ware which is found on Roman sites
-admits of easy explanation, from the circumstance that it was held in
-great favour, and that the manufactories on the Continent continued to
-work with activity in producing it during the whole Roman period. The
-number of names of potters, collected from fragments found in England
-alone, amounts to more than two thousand, and we must suppose them to
-have been spread over a long period.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 288.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 289.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 290.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 291.]
-
-Other examples of the common forms of Samian-ware vessels are given
-on figs. 288 to 291, and a clay mould for forming heads on pottery,
-discovered by myself at Headington, is shown on fig. 287.
-
-_Glass_ was very successfully and beautifully worked by the Romans,
-not only abroad, but in Britain, and vessels of this material are
-frequently found with sepulchral deposits. They are of great variety,
-and evidently made for many different uses. Those found in the graves
-are usually those made for holding the burnt bones of the dead; small
-vessels, commonly called lachrymatories, although their use was most
-probably that of holding the unguents and aromatics usually buried with
-the dead; small bowls, cups, or drinking vessels; and beads.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 292.]
-
-Of the sepulchral vessels of glass the one here engraved (fig. 292),
-from Bartlow Hills, will show the general form. They are of somewhat
-thick green glass, with neck and handle, and are literally bottles.
-The one from Bartlow Hills is of square form, and is six inches in
-height and four inches square on the bottom. Others are round in
-form. They contained the calcined bones of the dead. Of the forms of
-the small vessels known as lachrymatories, to which I have alluded,
-the examples in pottery on figs. 259 to 263 will convey a tolerably
-correct idea. They are usually from three to five inches in height. One
-found at Mount Bures, Colchester, is a remarkable example, being made
-of beautifully variegated glass. Cups or bowls, or, as they may not
-inaptly be called, basins, are of the common basin form, or jar shaped.
-They are usually of green glass, and of elegant workmanship. Beads
-are, perhaps, the most frequently found of any remains of Roman glass;
-this being of course owing to their more solid and, consequently, less
-perishable nature. They are of various kinds and sizes, and are more
-or less ornamented. The accompanying examples (figs. 294, 295, 296,
-and 297), will be sufficient to direct attention to these interesting
-relics. A number of beads, said to have been found with undoubted
-Roman remains, are shown on fig. 298.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 293.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 294.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 295.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 296.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 297.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 298.]
-
-The COINS found along with Romano-British interments are, of course,
-of various emperors and of various periods. They are only occasionally
-found, and, when discovered, cannot, it must be remembered, be
-taken as any criterion as to date of deposit, or, indeed, cannot be
-considered alone as evidence of the barrow or interment belonging to
-the Romano-British period. The Romans seem to have sowed their coins
-broadcast over the whole length and breadth of the land, to have
-thrown them about as they would useless chaff, to have buried them in
-urns in every conceivable place, and to have deposited them, either
-singly or otherwise, in the barrows of their predecessors. It is
-unnecessary to speak, then, of the varieties of coins which are from
-time to time turned up by the antiquary in his researches into the
-early grave-mounds. They form but a thousandth part of the coins which
-are found away from interments.
-
-It may, however, be well, as showing the relative proportions of
-the coins of different emperors found in this country, to give the
-following analysis, by Mr. Roach Smith, of more than eleven hundred
-coins picked up at different times in one locality--Richborough in Kent.
-
- Augustus 7
- Agrippa 1
- Tiberius 2
- Antonia, wife of Drusus, sen. 1
- Caligula 2
- Claudius 15
- Nero 11
- Vespasian 13
- Titus 1
- Domitian 10
- Nerva 1
- Trajan 7
- Hadrian 5
- Sabina 5
- Ællius Cæsar 1
- Antoninus Pius 5
- Faustina 3
- Marc Aurelius 4
- Faustina 5
- Lucius Verus 2
- Lucilla 1
- Commodus 2
- Severus 5
- Julia Domna 3
- Caracalla 3
- Julia Maesa 1
- Severus Alexander 7
- Gordianus 6
- Philippus 4
- Valerianus 3
- Valerianus, junior 1
- Galliense 19
- Salonina 4
- Postumus 10
- Victorinus 14
- Marius 1
- Tetricus 13
- Claudius Gothicus 15
- Luntillus 2
- Aurelianus 4
- Tacitus 5
- Florianus 1
- Probus 7
- Garinus 1
- Numerainus 2
- Diocletianus 8
- Maximianus 16
- Caräusius 94
- Allectus 45
- Constantius 4
- Helena 8
- Theodora 13
- Galerius Maximianus 1
- Maxentius 2
- Romulus 1
- Licinius 12
- Licinius, junior 1
- Constantine the Great 149
- Fausta 2
- Crispus 18
- Delmatius 1
- Constantine II. 98
- Constans 77
- Constantius II. 42
- Urbs Roma 52
- Constantinoplis 60
- Magnentius 21
- Decentius 4
- Julianus II. 7
- Helena 1
- Jovianus 1
- Valentinianus 22
- Valens 39
- Gratianus 49
- Theodosius 14
- Magnus Maximus 6
- Victor 3
- Eugenius 1
- Arcadius 27
- Honorius 8
- Constantine III. 1
- ----
- Total 1144
-
-Of these coins, fifty-six only were of silver, six of gold, fifteen of
-billon, or base silver, and the remainder were of brass, the greater
-portion being, naturally, what are denominated “third brass.”
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER X.
-
- Romano-British Period--Arms--Swords--Spears,
- etc.--Knives--Fibulæ--Armillæ--Torques of Gold, etc.--Other
- Personal Ornaments--Horse-shoes.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 301.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 302.]
-
-Of ARMS but few examples are found in grave-mounds, although more
-abundant in the neighbourhood of Roman stations and towns. They consist
-of swords, daggers, spear-heads, and other weapons. They are, however,
-perhaps the most scarce of any remains of the period. The swords of
-bronze (figs. 299 and 300) which have frequently been ascribed to the
-British period, are now pretty generally admitted to belong possibly
-to Roman times. The examples engraved are of the most general type, as
-are also the next engravings of spear and lance heads. The first (fig.
-301), which is of iron, is from Little Chester, where it was found
-along with human remains. Fig. 302 is of bronze, and is, as will be
-seen, of somewhat unusual form, and has a loop on either side. The next
-(fig. 303) is of bronze, and is three and a half inches long. It is of
-remarkably good form, deeply socketed, like the preceding example, and
-of a kind of leaf shape. Arrow-heads are also occasionally found. Of
-these the example here engraved is a good type. It is of bronze, and
-measures about an inch and a quarter in length.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 299.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 300.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 303.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 304.]
-
-Iron knives are occasionally found with interments. Some remarkable
-instances of this have been recently brought to light near Plymouth,
-and others again at Wetton and other places. The knives are of the form
-engraved on fig. 305. They appear to have had wooden handles, which, of
-course, except small traces of texture, have entirely decayed away.
-Another knife, although not actually found with an interment, shows the
-form so well that it is here engraved. It was nine and a half inches
-long, of peculiar shape, still retaining its handle of stag’s horn,
-rubbed or worn smooth; the good preservation of which we may attribute
-to having been imbedded in the fire-hardened earth, and sufficiently
-deep to secure it from injury by the fire. With the knives in the
-Plymouth cemetery were found portions of scissors, of the form of the
-sheep-shears of the present day, and these have also been found in
-other localities. They were of iron, and several fragments of other
-implements of the same material were at the same time discovered.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 305.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 306.]
-
-Of FIBULÆ an almost endless variety in form, in size, and in material
-has at one time or other been exhumed. They are, however, but very
-occasionally found with interments. The most usual form, perhaps, is
-that which is commonly called harp-shaped, or bowed, and this is of
-such extreme variety that scarcely two examples out of the hundreds
-that are known are precisely alike. Several have a cross bar at the
-top, and are hence called “cruciform” (figs. 307, 310 to 312, and 315).
-Others have coiled springs of wire at the top, variously fashioned.
-Some of these are extremely complicated and ingenious, as will be seen
-by the engraved examples. The more simple of the twisted springs, a
-coiled spring only, formed by the end of the bow being attenuated into
-the pin, is known as the “rat-trap spring,” from its coiled resemblance
-to the spring used in those “vermin killers.” Examples to show this
-form are here given (figs. 313, 314, 316, and 317). This form of fibula
-is generally known as the “dolphin” shape. Occasionally wire only,
-twisted in like manner as recently reproduced for skeleton shawl pins,
-are found. Sometimes the fibula really assumed the form of an animal,
-a bird or a serpent, with an inflated body. One of this character is
-engraved on fig. 318. It is of one continuous piece of bronze, and the
-pin, having a coiled spring, answers to the tail of the serpent, and
-hooks into a projection on the neck.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 307.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 308.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 309.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 310.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 311.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 312.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 313.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 314.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 315.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 316.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 317.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 318.]
-
-The ornamentation is as varied as the form. Sometimes they are chased
-or engraved in minute patterns of rows of dots, scales, etc.; at
-others, enamelled or inlaid; and at others, again, raised ornaments are
-riveted upon their surface. Instances of S-shaped fibulæ also occur, as
-do many other grotesque forms.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 319.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 320.]
-
-Circular fibulæ are occasionally met with, and these, like the bowed
-forms, vary very considerably in design. Sometimes they are flat on
-the face, and enamelled or inlaid in different colours. One of the most
-curious, but elegant, modifications of the circular form is fig. 320,
-where the ends, which are serpents’ heads, are turned back to the sides
-of the body.
-
-ARMILLÆ, or bracelets, are found both in bronze, in silver, and in
-gold. They vary very considerably in form. Of these, one example (fig.
-321) will be sufficient. The pair here represented are of base silver,
-and bear evidence of having been much worn. Examples of analogous type
-have been found at Castleford and other places. Other armlets partake
-more of the character of torques, torquis, or collar; and others,
-again, are simply bars of metal, twisted in one or more coils, like a
-spiral spring, around the wrist.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 321.]
-
-While speaking of armlets and torques, it may not be out of place, as
-I purposely omitted them in the Celtic division of this work, to say
-a few words about the latter. There can be no doubt that the torque
-was worn both by the ancient Briton and by his Roman conqueror, and
-therefore it is perhaps best, as it is at present not easy to say which
-of the known examples are to be attributed to the earlier and which to
-the later of these periods, to speak of them generally under this head.
-
-The torque, or torquis, is said, by ancient writers, to have been first
-used by the Persians and by the nations of Northern and Western Europe.
-Virgil describes it as worn by the Trojans when they came to colonize
-Italy:--
-
- “Omnibus in morem tonsa coma pressa corona,
- Cornea bina ferunt præfixo hastilia ferro;
- Pars leves humero pharetras; it pectore summo
- Flexilis obtorti per collum circulus auri.”
-
-It is first mentioned in Roman history in the year 360 B.C., when
-Manlius, having torn a torque of gold from the neck of a vanquished
-Gaul--here is evidence of its being a decoration worn by a similar race
-to our ancient British population _before_ being spoken of in Roman
-history--placed it on his own, and received, from this circumstance,
-the name of Torquatus. From this time the practice was adopted in
-the wars with the Gauls--the example set by Torquatus Manlius being
-frequently followed by the Roman leaders,--and the torque being
-adopted as a reward for military merit. “The Roman writers speak of
-them as worn by the Britons; and the Queen of the Iceni, Boadicea, is
-described by Dion Cassius as having a torquis of gold round her neck.
-This was the metal of which they were usually made. They consisted of
-a long piece of gold, twisted or spiral, doubled back in the form of
-a short hook at each end, and then turned into the form of a circle.”
-The torque was known to, and worn by, the Egyptians, the Persians,
-Persepolitans, the Gauls, and the Britons, as well as, later on, to
-the Romans, and it was very usual, as is evident by the many examples
-which have been found, with the Irish celts. The most usual forms
-will be found engraved in the catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy,
-the largest known example measuring five feet seven inches in length.
-A remarkably fine example of this type, found on the borders of
-Derbyshire and Staffordshire, measures three feet nine and a quarter
-inches. Many other varieties are found, sometimes formed of square bars
-of gold twisted spirally, sometimes of flat bars of the same metal
-twisted in a lighter manner, and sometimes, again, of more than one bar
-twisted together. The ends, too, are of various forms: sometimes being
-simply hooks, and at others swelling out into cup-shaped terminations,
-and at others partaking of the form of a serpent’s head, etc. A very
-remarkable torque, now belonging to Her Majesty, was found in 1848 in
-Needwood Forest, and is here engraved (fig. 322). It is formed of eight
-cords of gold plaited together, and weighs 1 lb. 1 oz. 7 dwts. and 10
-grains. Another example of a different character, from Ireland, is here
-given (fig. 323).
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 322.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 323.
-
-_Side View_]
-
-It is safer, perhaps, although there is no doubt that torques were
-worn by the Romans, to assign them to the British period than to that
-of their conquerors. Much, however, necessarily depends on the remains
-found with them, and the locality where discovered.
-
-Other personal ornaments, and bone and bronze pins, hair-pins, etc.,
-are occasionally found, but need no special notice here. Instruments of
-the toilette, too, are occasionally discovered. Prominent among these
-is the mirror, or speculum, which is sometimes found in the graves
-of Roman ladies. Among the most interesting of these are some found
-in a Roman cemetery at Plymouth. They consist of a circular plate of
-polished metal, generally of bronze set in a frame of the same metal or
-otherwise, and have a handle to hold them by. They are of much the same
-form as the small handled toilet glasses of the present day. The back
-was generally, as in the case of the Plymouth examples, “ornamented
-with a considerable quantity of scroll engraving. The pattern of one
-of these consists of three circular figures, the two bottom ones being
-larger than that which I take to be the central top one. Although each
-circular scroll differs from the others, they are evidently figured
-upon one general plan; the lines within, being segments of circles of
-various sizes, form crescents with various modifications. Some portions
-of the engraving, in order to give solidity to its character, were
-filled in with numerous striated spots, consisting of three lines one
-way and three lines at right angles to them. The entire surface of the
-mirror was surrounded by a narrow border or rim, which was formed of a
-separate piece, and folded over the margin. This specimen was damaged
-in many parts, particularly upon the under surface, and some of the
-edge was entirely eaten away, but where the rim was preserved the plate
-was not only in good preservation, but not even oxidized, retaining
-the bright colour of the bronze as perfectly as when, probably, in use
-by its ancient possessor. A second had the handle attached to it. The
-handle is cast in one piece in the form of a loop, having been made
-by folding one half back against the other, and securing them in that
-position by a band, the two free ends being spread out to hold the
-mirror, which is received in a groove, and supported on each side by a
-scroll work of bronze, of much of which, although lost, the impression
-still remains upon the plate. The greater diameter of the mirror is
-eight inches, that of the handle of the duplicate specimen, which
-is supposed to be of the same size as the missing handle, is four
-inches.” Several of these mirrors have been found in the cemeteries at
-Colchester and in other places.
-
-Combs, both of wood and bone, are also found in the interments, as
-are strigils, tweezers, locks and keys of numberless forms and sizes,
-remains of small caskets, and a great many other articles. Of combs I
-shall say a few words when speaking of those of the Anglo-Saxon period.
-
-Horse-shoes of this period are occasionally met with in interments when
-the horse has been buried with his rider, or otherwise. One example,
-so as to show the form, will be sufficient. It was found at Gloucester
-some years ago, along with the lamp and circular fibulæ here engraved,
-and with other relics of the same period. Of the other articles it will
-not be necessary to make further mention.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 324.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XI.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Distribution of Anglo-Saxon Population
- over England--General characteristics of Grave-mounds--Modes
- of Burial--Poem of Beowulf--Interments by Cremation and by
- Inhumation--Articles deposited with the Dead--Positions of the
- Body--Double and other Interments--Burial in Urns--Cemeteries
- and Barrows.
-
-
-The grave-mounds and cemeteries of the Anglo-Saxon period present
-marked and decided features of difference to those of either of the
-preceding periods; and again, the characters of these mounds and
-cemeteries vary in different parts of the kingdom, according as such
-districts were inhabited by different tribes or peoples.
-
-The date usually assigned to the first coming of the Saxons into
-England, after the final departure of the Romans, is the middle of
-the fifth century. They landed on the Isle of Thanet, and shortly
-afterwards established themselves in Kent, and became a kingdom.
-“Within thirty years another body of Saxons settled upon the south
-coast of Britain, taking possession of the tract now called Sussex,
-or the South Saxons. At the beginning of the sixth century a third
-detachment from the same Germanic family landed further westward, and
-founded the kingdom of the West Saxons, in which was included the Isle
-of Wight. From the same source which supplies the brief notices of
-these events, we learn that towards the middle of the sixth century
-were formed the states of the East and Middle Saxons, in the districts
-which, in consequence, took the names of Essex and Middlesex. We also
-gather that the Angles who settled in the east and north-east of
-Britain, and in the interior parts, probably made their first descents
-towards the middle of the sixth century; so that the kingdoms known
-as those of the East Angles (Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire),
-the Middle Angles, the Northumbrians (from the Humber northwards), and
-Mercia (on the borders of Wales), appear not to have been definitely
-settled until at least a century after the landing of the Saxons in
-Kent, in A.D. 449. Vague and unsatisfactory as are most of the details
-of Saxon history, the gradual subjugation of Britain by successive
-immigrations of Teutonic tribes may at least be accepted as the most
-reconcilable with reason; and there seems nothing very repugnant to
-the more rigid rules of criticism to regard these tribes under their
-historic designation of Jutes, Saxons, and Angles; and, further, to
-believe that at least a century was required to transform Britain,
-after the Romans, into a heptarchy of Teutonic kingdoms.
-
-“Testing our Saxon antiquities with reference to the usually received
-chronology of the advent and settlement in Britain of the Teutonic
-tribes, it would be no unimportant result should they be in accordance
-with accepted historical facts. They will be invested with novel and
-higher interest if they should be found to carry in their form and
-character certain peculiarities which suggest earlier and later dates,
-and a diversity of parentage. For instance, if in the remains of the
-Kentish Saxons and in those of the Isle of Wight we may recognise,
-from close resemblance to each other, the weapons, the ornaments,
-and the domestic implements of the Jutes; if, in the cemeteries of
-Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and Norfolk, we may, in like manner, identify
-the funeral usages of the Angles; and in remains found in the midland
-and western districts see still different peculiarities, but which
-point to a kindred origin; it is not improbable that discoveries may
-enable us to resuscitate, as it were, our remote predecessors; to
-restore to those of the various Saxon kingdoms the very objects which
-accompanied them when living: to the men, their weapons; to the women,
-their peculiar jewellery, and those more humble and homely objects
-which we may look upon as emblems of their domestic virtues. It is
-not a slight analogy in some instances only that will establish this
-theory; it must spring from the remains themselves, and be palpable and
-convincing, or it must be rejected.”[48]
-
-Bearing this in mind, and also bearing in mind the modifications
-which only a few years make in fashions and customs; and also bearing
-in mind that although for convenience sake, as well as for want of
-more definite knowledge, we call the whole population by the one term
-of Anglo-Saxons, yet they were divided into as distinct classes, or
-families, or tribes, as at the present day; we shall quite readily
-understand why the modes of burial, and the objects found in the
-graves, of one district are different from those, although coeval,
-found in others. At the present day we use the general term Englishmen
-for the whole of our population, and no better or clearer term could
-be adopted; but we must bear in mind that the differences both
-of appearance, of habits, of customs, of dialect, nay, of almost
-everything, are as marked among us as if the inhabitants of the
-various counties were each settlers from different nations. The men
-of Derbyshire, for instance, are as far removed as well can be in
-general character and in language from those of Somersetshire; and
-these, again, are both totally dissimilar from the “Men of Kent,”
-from the Lancashire operative, from the Yorkshiremen, or the men of
-Devonshire, Hampshire, and many other counties. Each of these districts
-has, and always has had, and long, long may it continue to have! its
-own peculiar customs, its own peculiar habits, its own peculiar
-observances; and each has what might almost be termed a _nationality_
-of its own, which it holds despite the levelling influence of railways
-and other modern contrivances. If it is so at the present day, with a
-settled population of so many centuries’ standing, how much more must
-it have been so when each district was peopled by a different tribe
-of settlers, speaking to some extent different languages, holding
-different views, following different occupations, and observing
-different customs!
-
-The grave-mounds and cemeteries of these different districts exhibit
-a marked difference in modes of burial, in style and decoration of
-pottery, and in characteristics of other remains, which will be made
-apparent in the following _resumé_ of their varied contents. Thus,
-as Mr. Smith says, “in Kent one of the most conspicuous features
-in the Saxon sepulchral remains is the richly ornamented circular
-fibulæ. These are sparingly found beyond the district occupied by the
-earliest Saxon settlers. When they do occur, here and there, they
-are exceptions; but throughout the county of Kent it would be a rare
-occurrence to discover a Saxon funeral deposit without an example
-of this elegant and peculiar ornament. In Suffolk, in Norfolk, in
-Cambridgeshire, in Northamptonshire, in Leicestershire, and further
-north, these circular fibulæ do but casually appear, but others of
-a totally distinct character abound. In Berkshire, Oxfordshire,
-and Gloucestershire are found saucer-shaped fibulae unlike either
-of these two classes, and forming a third variety. In Suffolk, in
-Cambridgeshire, in Leicestershire, and in other parts, have been
-repeatedly found metal implements or ornaments, which I have designated
-by the modern name of _chatellaine_, to give some notion of their form
-and use. These remarkable objects in no instance have been found in
-Kent, but other objects have been found in Kentish barrows which have
-nowhere else been discovered.”
-
-The sepulchral remains of the Anglo-Saxons are of two general
-classes--barrows and cemeteries--and in these the modes of burial have
-been both by inhumation and by cremation.
-
-The grave-mounds, or barrows, are, as a rule, of much less altitude,
-and of smaller dimensions, generally, than those of either of the
-preceding periods. In some districts they are found in extensive
-groups, frequently occupying elevated sites; at other times they are
-solitary, and frequently the elevation above the surrounding surface is
-so slight as to be scarcely perceptible except to the most practised
-eye. Fortunately the mounds and cemeteries are particularly rich in
-remains, and thus enable us to form a clearer idea of the habits,
-and manners, and lives of our Saxon forefathers than we can of their
-predecessors. In Kent, Sussex, and the Isle of Wight, Saxon graves
-abound on the Downs; and in Derbyshire, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire,
-Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, Norfolk, and
-Yorkshire, cemeteries of more or less extent and importance exist, with
-here and there a solitary barrow, or a group of barrows. Like their
-Roman predecessors the Anglo-Saxons, to some extent, took possession
-of, and buried in, the grave-mounds of the Ancient Britons, and it is
-not a very unusual occurrence to find overlying the primary deposit an
-interment of the Saxon period.
-
-Fortunately an early Anglo-Saxon poem, recounting the adventures of
-the chieftain Beowulf, is preserved to us, and gives us a valuable and
-highly graphic and interesting description of the ceremonies attendant
-on his burial; the lighting of the funeral pyre, the burning of the
-body of the hero, the raising of the mound over his remains, and the
-articles placed beside him in his last home. Dying he
-
- bæꝺ̣ þæꞇ ᵹe ᵹe-ƿoꞃhꞇon
- æꝼꞇeꞃ ƿineꞅ ꝺæꝺū
- in bǽl-ꞅꞇeꝺe
- beoꞃh þone heán,
- micelne anꝺ mæꞃne.--
-
-Which is translated:--
-
- “he bad that ye should make,
- according to the deeds of your friend,
- on the place of the funeral pyle,
- the lofty barrow
- large and famous.”
-
-His request was carried out, the funeral pile raised, and every
-preparation befitting his deeds was made. The pile was--
-
- “hung round with helmets,
- with boards of war,[49]
- and with bright byrnies,[50]
- as he had requested.
- Then the heroes, weeping,
- laid down in the midst
- the famous chieftain,
- their dear lord.
- Then began on the hill,
- the warriors, to awake
- the mightiest of funeral fires;
- the wood-smoke rose aloft
- dark from the fire;
- noisily it went
- mingled with weeping.”
-
-The body of the hero having been consumed by the wood-fire, in the
-midst of weeping friends, the people began to raise the barrow over his
-ashes. This mound--
-
- “was high and broad,
- by the sailors over the waves
- to be seen afar.
- And they built up
- during ten days
- the beacon of the war-renowned.
- They surrounded it with a wall
- in the most honourable manner
- that wise men
- could desire.
- They put into the mound
- rings and bright gems,
- all such ornaments
- as before from the hoard
- the fierce-minded men
- had taken;
- they suffered the earth to hold
- the treasure of warriors,
- gold on the earth,
- where it yet remains
- as useless to men
- as it was of old.”
-
-When the burial was simply by inhumation, the body appears usually to
-have been placed in a shallow grave, over which the mound was raised.
-The graves were of rectangular form, and of various depths. On the
-floor of the grave or pit the body was laid flat on its back, the arms
-straight down by its sides, the hands resting on the pelvis, and the
-feet close together. It was buried in full dress, and surrounded by a
-number of articles pertaining to the deceased--both personal ornaments,
-domestic instruments and vessels, and other things--and that had been
-used or valued by him or her. Sometimes the body was enclosed in a
-wooden chest or coffin before being placed in the grave. The grave, in
-either of these cases, was then filled in--usually with a tempered or
-“puddled” earth, which formed a close and extremely compact mass--and
-the mound raised over it. This mound or hillock was called a _hlœw_, or
-a _beorh_, _beorgh_, or _bearw_, from the first of which the name now
-commonly used, _low_, is derived, and from the last the equally common
-name _barrow_ originates.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 325.]
-
-With the females, necklaces, rings, ear-rings, brooches, chatelaines,
-keys, buckets, caskets, beads, combs, pins, needles, bracelets,
-thread-boxes, tumblers, and a variety of other articles were found.
-With the males, swords, spears, knives, shields, buckles, brooches,
-querns, draught-men, etc., etc., are found. The warrior was usually
-laid, in his full dress, flat on his back (as already spoken of); his
-spears lying on his right side, his sword and knife on his left, and
-his shield laid on the centre of his body. The accompanying engraving
-(fig. 325) of a grave opened by the late Mr. Bateman, on Lapwing Hill,
-will pretty tolerably illustrate this mode of Anglo-Saxon burial.
-Beneath the bones of the skeleton were “traces of light-coloured hair,
-as if from a hide, resting upon a considerable quantity of decayed
-wood, indicating a plank of some thickness, or the bottom of a coffin.
-At the left of the body was a long and broad iron sword, enclosed in
-a sheath made of thin wood covered with ornamental leather. Under or
-by the hilt of the sword was a short iron knife, and a little way
-above the right shoulder were two small javelin heads, four and a half
-inches long, of the same metal, which had lain so near each other as to
-become united by corrosion. Among the stones which filled the grave,
-and about a foot from the bottom, were many objects of corroded iron,
-including nine loops of hoop iron (as shown in the engraving) about an
-inch broad, which had been fixed to thick wood by long nails; eight
-staples, or eyes, which had been driven through a plank, and clenched;
-and one or two other objects of more uncertain application, all which
-were dispersed at intervals round the corpse throughout the length
-of the grave, and which may therefore have been attached to a bier
-or coffin in which the deceased was conveyed to the grave from some
-distant place. Indications existed of the shield having been placed
-in its usual position over the centre of the body, but no umbone was
-in this instance found. The mounds are usually, as in this instance,
-very low, frequently not being raised more than a foot above the
-natural surface of the ground. The earth was, as I have stated, usually
-“puddled” or tempered with water, and thus the body in the grave became
-closely imbedded in a compact and tenacious mass.”
-
-That the tempering, or puddling, was accompanied with some corrosive
-preparation, there can be little doubt; for it is a fact, though a very
-remarkable one, that whilst the skeletons of the Celtic period are
-found in good condition, and in some instances perfect and sound, those
-of the Anglo-Saxons have, almost invariably, entirely disappeared.
-Thus, in a Celtic barrow, the primary interment of that period may be
-found in perfect condition, while the secondary interment, that of the
-Anglo-Saxon, although some centuries later in date, and some three or
-four feet nearer the surface, will have decayed away and completely
-disappeared. Thus, in a barrow at Wyaston, which had been raised over
-the body of a Saxon lady, every indication of the body had disappeared,
-with the exception of the enamel coating of the teeth, while a splendid
-necklace of beads, a silver ring, silver ear-rings, and a silver brooch
-or fibula, remained _in situ_ where the flesh and bones had once been.
-Another instance (to which I shall have occasion again to allude) which
-may be named, was the barrow at Benty Grange--a mound not more than
-two feet in elevation, but of considerable dimensions, and surrounded
-by a small fosse or trench, raised over the remains of a Saxon of
-high rank. In this mound, although a curious and unique helmet, the
-silver mountings of a leather drinking-cup, some highly interesting
-and beautiful enamelled ornaments, and other objects, as well as
-indications of the garments, remained, not a vestige of the body,
-with the exception of some of the hair, was to be seen. The lovely
-and delicate form of the female and the form of the stalwart warrior
-or noble had alike returned to their parent earth, leaving no trace
-behind, save the enamel of _her_ teeth and traces of _his_ hair alone,
-while the ornaments they wore and took pride in, and the surroundings
-of their stations, remained to tell their tale at this distant date.
-In a barrow at Tissington, in which the primary (Celtic) interment was
-perfect, the later Saxon one had entirely disappeared, while the sword
-and umbone of the shield remained as they had been placed.
-
-The mode of interment with the funeral fire, as well as the raising
-of the barrow, is curiously illustrated by the opening of two Saxon
-graves at Winster. A large wood fire had, apparently, been made upon
-the natural surface of the ground. In this a part of the stones to be
-used for covering the body, and some of the weapons of the deceased,
-were burned. After the fire was exhausted the body was laid on the spot
-where it had been kindled, the spear, sword, or what not, placed about
-it, and the stones which had been burnt piled over it. The soil was
-then heaped up to the required height to form the mound.
-
-Usually, of course, the graves contain only one body, but instances
-occasionally occur in which two or more bodies have been buried at the
-same time. For instance, at Ozengal a grave has been opened which was
-found to contain two skeletons. They were those of a man and a woman
-who were laid close together, side by side, with their faces to each
-other. In another were three skeletons, those of a man, a woman, and a
-little girl. The lady lay in the middle, her husband on her right hand,
-and their little daughter on her left; they lay arm in arm. In other
-cases two or more interments have been found, usually lying side by
-side, on their backs.
-
-In many Anglo-Saxon barrows, bones, thrown in indiscriminate heaps
-or otherwise, are found at the top, over the original interments.
-These are, very plausibly, conjectured to be the remains of slaves or
-captives slain at the funeral, and thrown on the graves of their master
-or mistress.
-
-When the burial has been by cremation, the ashes, after the burning
-of the body which is so graphically described in the extract I have
-given from Beowulf, were collected together and placed in urns. These
-were usually buried in small graves, and their mouths not unfrequently
-covered with flat stones. Some very extensive cemeteries where the
-burials have been by this mode, have been discovered in Derbyshire,
-Nottinghamshire, Northamptonshire, and other counties. With these it is
-very unusual to find any remains of personal ornaments or weapons. Two
-extensive and remarkable cemeteries of this kind have been discovered
-at Kingston and at King’s Newton, both near Derby. At the first of
-these places an extensive cemetery was uncovered in 1844, and resulted
-in the exhumation of a large number of urns--indeed, so large a number
-that, unfortunately, at least two hundred were totally destroyed by the
-workmen before the fact of the discovery became known. On the surface
-no indication of burials existed; but as the ground had, some sixty
-years before, for a long period been under plough cultivation, and as
-the mounds would originally have been very low, this is not remarkable.
-The urns had been placed on the ground in shallow pits or trenches.
-They were filled with burnt bones, and the mouth of each had been
-covered with a flat stone. They were, when found, close to the surface,
-so that the mounds could only have been slightly elevated when first
-formed. Of the form of the urns I shall have to speak later on. The
-cemetery at King’s Newton was discovered during the autumn of 1867, and
-a large number of fragmentary urns were exhumed. The mode of interment
-was precisely similar to that at Kingston, and the urns were of the
-same character as those there discovered. There were no traces, in
-either instance, of mounds having been raised, although most probably
-they had originally existed. To the pottery found in these cemeteries
-I shall refer later on. Cremation was the predominating practice among
-the Angles, including Mercia, and the modes of burning the body, and
-of interment of the calcined bones in ornamental urns, which I have
-described in the two cemeteries just spoken of, are characteristic
-of that kingdom. King’s Newton is within three miles of Repton
-(Repandune), the capital of the kingdom of Mercia, and the burial place
-of Mercian kings, and Kingston is also but a few miles distant.
-
-In some cases the burial has been without urns--the ashes being simply
-gathered together in a small heap in the grave, or on the surface, and
-the mound raised over it.
-
-I will now, as in the previous divisions, proceed to speak of the more
-usual descriptions of relics which are found in the grave-mounds of
-the Anglo-Saxons, and I will, as in those divisions, commence with the
-fictile remains.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XII.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Pottery, general characteristics
- of--Cinerary Urns--Saxon Urn with Roman Inscription--Frankish
- and other Urns--Cemeteries at King’s Newton, etc.--Mode of
- Manufacture--Impressed Ornaments.
-
-
-The pottery of the Anglo-Saxon period, so far as examples have come
-down to us, are almost, if not entirely, confined to sepulchral urns.
-We know, from the illuminated MSS. of the period, to which we are
-accustomed to turn for information upon almost any point, that other
-vessels--pitchers, dishes, etc.--were made and used, but for those
-which have come down to us we are indebted to the grave-mounds; and,
-in these, sepulchral vessels, almost exclusively, are found to occur.
-Cinerary urns are, therefore, almost the only known productions of
-the Saxon potteries, and these, like those of the Celtic period, were
-doubtless, in most cases, made near the spot where the burial took
-place, and were formed of the clays of the neighbourhood. This is
-proved, incontestably, in the case of the urns found at King’s Newton,
-where the bed of clay still exists, and has very recently been used for
-common pottery purposes.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 326.]
-
-The shapes of the cinerary urns are somewhat peculiar, and partake
-largely of the Frankish form. Instead of being wide at the mouth,
-like the Celtic urns, they are contracted, and have a kind of neck
-instead of the overhanging lip or rim which characterizes so much of
-the sepulchral pottery of that period. The urns are formed by hand,
-not on the wheel, like so many of the Romano-British period, and
-they are, as a rule, perhaps, more firmly fired than the Celtic ones.
-They are usually of a dark-coloured clay, sometimes nearly black,
-at other times they are dark brown, and occasionally of a slate or
-greenish tint, produced by surface colouring. The general form of these
-interesting fictile vessels will be best understood by reference to
-the engravings which follow. One of these (on fig. 326) will be seen
-to have projecting knobs or bosses, which have been formed by simply
-pressing out the pliant clay from the inside with the hand. In other
-examples these raised bosses take the form of ribs gradually swelling
-out from the bottom, till, at the top they expand into semi-egg-shaped
-protuberances. The ornamentation on the urns from these cemeteries
-usually consists of encircling incised lines in bands or otherwise,
-and vertical or zigzag lines arranged in a variety of ways, and not
-unfrequently the knobs or protuberances of which I have just spoken.
-Sometimes, also, they present evident attempts at imitation of the
-Roman egg-and-tongue ornament. The marked features of the pottery
-of this period are the frequency of small punctured or impressed
-ornaments, which are introduced along with the lines or bands with very
-good effect. These ornaments were evidently produced by the end of a
-stick cut and notched across in different directions so as to produce
-crosses and other patterns. In some districts--especially in the East
-Angles--these vessels are ornamented with simple patterns painted upon
-their surface in white; but so far as my knowledge goes, no example of
-this kind of decoration has been found in the Mercian cemeteries.
-
-Of these urns--the East Anglian, etc.--Mr. Wright (to whom, and to Mr.
-Roach Smith, is mainly due the credit of having correctly appropriated
-them to the Anglo-Saxon period), thus speaks:--
-
-“The pottery is usually made of a rather dark clay, coloured outside
-brown or dark slate colour, which has sometimes a tint of green, and
-is sometimes black. These urns appear often to have been made with the
-hand, without the employment of the lathe; the texture of the clay is
-rather coarse, and they are rarely well baked. The favourite ornaments
-are bands of parallel lines encircling the vessel, or vertical and
-zigzags, sometimes arranged in small bands, and sometimes on a larger
-scale covering half the elevation of the urn; and in this latter case
-the spaces are filled up with small circles and crosses, and other
-marks, stamped or painted in white. Other ornaments are met with, some
-of which are evidently unskilful attempts at imitating the well-known
-egg-and-tongue and other ornaments of the Roman Samian ware, which,
-from the specimens, and even fragments, found in their graves, appear
-to have been much admired and valued by the Anglo-Saxons. But a still
-more characteristic peculiarity of the pottery of the Anglo-Saxon
-burial urns consists in raised knobs or bosses, arranged symmetrically
-round them, and sometimes forming a sort of ribs, while in the ruder
-examples they become mere round lumps, or even present only a slight
-swelling of the surface of the vessel.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 327.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 328.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 329.]
-
-“That these vessels belong to the early Anglo-Saxon period is proved
-beyond any doubt by the various objects, such as arms, personal
-ornaments, etc., which are found with them, and they present evident
-imitations both of Roman forms and of Roman ornamentation. But one of
-these urns has been found accompanied with remarkable circumstances,
-which not only show its relative date, but illustrate a fact in
-the ethnological history of this early period. Among the Faussett
-collection of Anglo-Saxon antiquities is an urn which Bryan Faussett
-appears to have obtained from North Elmham, in Norfolk, and which
-contained the bones of a child. It is represented in the accompanying
-engraving (fig. 327), and will be seen at once to be perfectly
-identical in character with the East Anglian sepulchral urns. But
-Mr. Roach Smith, in examining the various objects in the Faussett
-collection, preparatory to his edition of Bryan Faussett’s ‘_Inventorum
-Sepulchrale_,’ discovered on one side of this urn a Roman sepulchral
-inscription, which is easily read as follows:--
-
- D. M. ‘To the gods of the shades.
- LAELIAE To Lælia
- RVFINAE Rufina.
- VIXIT·A·XIII She lived thirteen years,
- M·III·D·VI. three months, and six days.’
-
-To this Roman girl, with a purely Roman name, belonged, no doubt,
-the few bones which were found in the Anglo-Saxon burial urn when
-Bryan Faussett received it, and this circumstance illustrates several
-important as well as interesting questions relating to our early
-history. It proves, in the first place, what no judicious historian
-now doubts, that the Roman population remained in the island after
-the withdrawal of the Roman power, and mixed with the Anglo-Saxon
-conquerors; that they continued to retain for some time at least
-their old manners and language, and even their Paganism and their
-burial ceremonies, for this is the purely Roman form of sepulchral
-inscriptions; and that, with their own ceremonies, they buried in the
-common cemetery of the new Anglo-Saxon possessors of the land, for this
-urn was found in an Anglo-Saxon burial ground. This last circumstance
-had already been suspected by antiquaries, for traces of Roman
-interment in the well-known Roman leaden coffins had been found in the
-Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Ozingell, in the Isle of Thanet; and other
-similar discoveries have, I believe, been made elsewhere. The fact of
-this Roman inscription on an Anglo-Saxon burial urn, found immediately
-in the district of the Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, which have produced so
-many of these East Anglian urns, proves further that these urns belong
-to a period following immediately upon the close of what we call the
-Roman period.”
-
-The sepulchral vases found in the district of the middle Angles vary
-but slightly in form from the East Anglian burial urns. An example
-is given in fig. 328, from Chestersovers, in Warwickshire, where it
-was found with an iron sword, a spear-head, and other articles of
-Anglo-Saxon character.
-
-“If we had not abundant proofs of the Anglo-Saxon character of this
-pottery at home,” continues Mr. Wright, “we should find sufficient
-evidences of it among the remains of the kindred tribes on the
-Continent, the old Germans, or Alemanni, and the Franks. Some years
-ago an early cemetery, belonging to the Germans, or Alemanni, who then
-occupied the banks of the Upper Rhine, was discovered near a hamlet
-called Selzen, on the northern bank of that river, not far above
-Mayence, and the rather numerous objects found in it are, I believe,
-preserved in the Mayence Museum. They were communicated to the public
-by the brothers Lindenschmit, in a well-illustrated volume published
-in 1848, under the title ‘_Das Germanische Todtenlager bei Selzen in
-der Provinz Reinhessen_.’ When this book appeared in England, our
-antiquaries were astonished to find in the objects discovered in the
-Alemannic cemeteries of the country bordering on the Rhine a character
-entirely identical with that of their own Anglo-Saxon antiquities,
-by which the close affinity of the two races was strikingly
-illustrated. More recently, the subject has been further illustrated
-in the description by Ludwig Lindenschmit of the collection of the
-national antiquities in the Ducal Museum of Hohenzollern, and in
-other publications. About the same time with the first labours of the
-Lindenschmits, a French antiquary, Dr. Rigollot, was calling attention
-in France to similar discoveries in the cemeteries which the Teutonic
-invaders of Picardy had left behind them, and in which he recognized
-the same character as that displayed by the similar remains of the
-Anglo-Saxons in our island. Similar discoveries have been made in
-Burgundy and in Switzerland, the ancient country of the Helvetii; and
-it is hardly necessary here to do more than mention the great and
-valuable researches carried on by the Abbé Cochet among the Frankish
-graves in Normandy. It has thus become an established fact that the
-varied remains of the tribes, all of Teutonic descent, who settled on
-the borders of the Roman empire along the whole extent of the country
-from Great Britain to Switzerland, present the same character and bear
-a close resemblance.”
-
-A few figures will be sufficient to illustrate this resemblance as far
-as regards the pottery, and these are here given, in which figs. 330
-and 332 are Alemannic vases from the cemetery of Selzen. It will be
-seen that they resemble exactly in form those East Anglian urns we have
-given in our plate, and the same ornamentation is also found among our
-Anglo-Saxon pottery. These urns are described as being usually made of
-the clay of the neighbourhood, in most cases turned on a lathe, but
-many of them imperfectly baked. They are found in graves where the body
-had not undergone cremation, and were used for containing articles of
-a miscellaneous description. In one grave, at the feet of the skeleton
-of a gigantic warrior, was found one of these urns, containing two
-bronze fibulæ, a comb, a number of beads, a pair of shears, flints and
-steel, and a bronze ring. Fig. 334 is an urn procured at Cologne, and
-is slate-coloured, with an ornament of circular stamps.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 330.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 331.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 332.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 333.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 334.]
-
-Figs. 331 and 333 are Frankish urns obtained by the Abbé Cochet from
-Londinières in Normandy, and show at a glance the identity of the
-Frankish pottery with the Germanic as well as with the Anglo-Saxon.
-The first of these is surrounded with a row of the well-known bosses,
-which are equally characteristic of the three divisions of this
-Teutonic pottery, Anglo-Saxon, Frankish, and Alemannic. Above these
-bosses is an ornament identical with that of the East Anglian urn with
-the sepulchral inscription, given on fig. 327. The urn represented
-in fig. 331 has an ornament which is evidently an imitation of the
-egg-and-tongue ornament so common on the Roman pottery. The Abbé
-Cochet collected in the course of his excavations in Normandy several
-hundreds of these Frankish urns, which all present the same general
-character.
-
-The next four examples are earthen vessels found in the lacustrine
-habitations of Switzerland, of which so much has been written during
-the last few years. Figs. 335, 336, and 337, are taken from the plates
-illustrative of the communications of Dr. Ferdinand Keller to the
-_Transactions_ of the Antiquarian Society of Zurich, and fig. 338,
-also from the Zurich _Transactions_, and found in a Pfahlbau, near
-Allensbach on the Untersee, on the borders of Switzerland and Germany.
-A single glance will show a great similarity of form with those of the
-Anglo-Saxons from our own country.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 339.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 340.]
-
-The following engravings will exhibit a striking variety of cinerary
-urns of the Anglo-Saxon period, from the Mercian cemetery at King’s
-Newton. Fig. 339 is six and a quarter inches in height. It is
-ornamented with encircling bands or lines and impressed ornaments.
-In the upper band is a series of small circular indentations, with
-a dot in the centre of each, and in the lower band are three rows of
-dots. Between these bands is a series of indented crosses, which may
-be described as in some degree approaching to crosses _patée_ in form.
-At the bottom are also small square indentations, with diagonal lines.
-Fig. 342 is seven inches in height. It is ornamented with encircling
-lines, the central band bearing a double row of dots; the band at the
-bottom of the neck a series of small indented quatre-foil flowers; and
-the lower one a series of square indentations with diagonal lines.
-Fig. 341 is one of the most elaborately ornamented urns which has ever
-been discovered.[51] The remainder of the examples vary from these
-and from each other, in point both of form and decoration. Some of
-these have herring-bone lines, others simple punctures, and others,
-again, encircling lines only. The marked features of the pottery of
-this period is the frequency of small punctured or impressed ornaments,
-which are introduced along with the lines or bands, with very good
-effect. These ornaments were evidently produced by the end of a stick,
-cut and notched across in different directions, so as to produce
-crosses and other patterns, and by twisted slips of metal, etc. In the
-annexed woodcut I have endeavoured to show two of the notched stick
-“punches,” such as I have reason to believe were used for pressing into
-the soft clay, and also two of the impressed patterns produced by it.
-
-[Illustration: Figs. 335 to 338.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 341.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 342.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 343.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 344.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 345.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 346.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 347.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 348.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 349.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 350.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 351.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 352.]
-
-Other varieties of pottery found in the Anglo-Saxon graves are a
-species of cup, and upright vessels, one of which is shown on fig. 327.
-Fragments of pitchers have also occasionally been found, as also have
-portions of coarse dishes. In the Kentish graves, most of the pottery
-is of the Roman period, and consists of Samian pateræ and other vessels
-of that manufacture; and cups, etc., of the Upchurch and Castor wares,
-etc.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XIII.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Glass
- Vessels--Drinking-glasses--Tumblers--Ale-glasses--Beads--Necklaces
- --Ear-rings--Coins,
- etc.
-
-
-The glass vessels found in the grave-mounds of the Anglo-Saxon period
-are principally drinking-cups of different forms, and decanter-shaped
-vessels, which are closely analogous in shape to our common glass
-toilet water-bottles. The Anglo-Saxons are supposed by most writers
-to have derived their knowledge of the art of glass-making from
-their Roman predecessors, but of this more proof is wanting. So very
-different in most of its characteristics is the Saxon glass from
-the Roman, that it is difficult to believe that the one is but an
-imitation of the other. The forms are in many instances similar to
-those found in Frankish graves, and it is certain that the art was
-practised simultaneously in the Saxon period in Germany, France, and
-our own country. The drinking-cups of glass were formed either rounded
-or pointed at the bottom, so that they could not stand, and thus when
-filled the liquor was obliged to be drunk off before the cup could
-be set down inverted on the table. From this circumstance our modern
-name for drinking-glasses--_tumblers_--takes its origin, although not
-now in the original sense, our present “tumblers” being particularly
-safe and firm when set on the table, and not necessitating the whole
-of the contents being quaffed at once. Figs. 353 and 354 exhibit two
-drinking-glasses of this kind, the first of which is ribbed. They
-are from the Kentish graves. Fig. 355 is a glass cup from Cow-Low,
-Derbyshire, found by the late Mr. Bateman, and which, from the care
-which had been taken in enclosing it in a wooden box, must have been
-no little prized by the deceased lady. The cup, of thick green glass,
-a bone comb, some small instruments of iron, a piece of perforated
-bone, and a necklace with pendant ornaments, with other articles, were
-found enclosed in a box, or casket, made of ash wood, half an inch in
-thickness, with two hinges and a small lock, which had, when placed in
-the grave, been carefully wrapped in woollen cloth. The interment was
-in many respects a highly interesting one. A cup of similar form is
-shown on fig. 358, and other examples of glasses are shown on the same
-group.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 353.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 354.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 355.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 356.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 357.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 358.]
-
-These examples, it will be seen, must have been held in the open palms
-of the hand, as is seen so frequently represented in illuminations,
-and must have been emptied of their contents before being returned,
-inverted, to the board.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 359.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 360.]
-
-Another form, figs. 356 and 357, is the long ale-glass, the shape of
-which is probably derived from the drinking-horns which were in use.
-They, and other of the Saxon glasses, were often ornamented with a
-raised thread or band on their outer surface, arranged either spirally
-or otherwise. In _Beowulf_ these glasses are spoken of--
-
- Þeᵹn nẏꞇꞇe beheolꝺ
- ꞅe þeon hanꝺa bœꞃ
- hꞃoꝺen ealo-ƿæᵹe.
-
- “The Thane observed his office,
- he that in his hand bare
- the twisted ale-cup.”
-
-This form of glass is well illustrated in the next engraving, fig. 359,
-from a MS. of the twelfth century. In it the cup-bearer holds the glass
-in one hand and the jug in the other, from which he has just filled it.
-As an accompaniment to this I give another engraving, which shows the
-cellarer with the barrels and two large earthenware pitchers, which,
-it will be observed, are ornamented in precisely the same manner as
-some of the urns I have engraved. Another excellent example of the
-use of these glasses at a banquet is shown on fig. 361, where a mixed
-company of males and females are seated at a banquet, and pledging each
-other in them. It is from the Cottonian MSS. in the British Museum.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 361.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 362.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 363.]
-
-The next two figures (362 and 363) show two of the decanter-shaped
-vessels to which I have alluded, and figs. 364, 365, and 366 again
-exhibit a different variety--one in which the ornament is formed of a
-number of what may almost be called handles--hollow protuberances, or
-claws, attached at the upper and lower ends. Many specimens of these
-curious glasses have been found in graves in different districts.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 365.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 364.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 366.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 367.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 368.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 369.]
-
-Among the most profuse of Anglo-Saxon remains are the beads and
-necklaces of glass, of amber, and of other materials, many of which
-are of extreme beauty. The greater part of the beads which are found
-are composed of glass, transparent and opaque; variegated clays of
-different colours; and of amber. Less frequently beads of amethystine
-quartz, of crystal, and of other rare natural substances are found.
-Sometimes the beads are formed singly, and at other times they are
-in couplets or triplets. Beads of metal--gold and silver--and of
-stones set in the same precious metals, have also been exhumed. Beads
-mounted on rings, or, more properly speaking, threaded on rings,
-are of not unfrequent occurrence, and appear, in many instances, to
-have been intended for the ears. The three engravings (figs. 367,
-368, and 369) will serve as examples of beads. The first, engraved
-full size, is of glass, and is ornamented with red, white, and yellow
-waves. The other two are of clay, with yellow stripes. They are from
-Sibertswold. The beads from the Kentish barrows are perhaps the most
-extensive in number, as well as the most varied in form, material, and
-ornamentation, of any. The next illustration (fig. 370) shows a series
-of twenty-seven beads, which formed the necklace of an Anglo-Saxon
-lady, whose grave was opened by Mr. Bateman at Wyaston. In this barrow,
-which was thirty-three feet in diameter, and four feet high in the
-centre, were discovered the remains of a human skeleton, consisting
-merely of the enamel crowns of the teeth, which, though themselves but
-scanty mementoes of female loveliness, were accompanied by several
-articles indicating that the deceased was not unaccustomed to add
-the ornaments of dress to the charms of nature. These comprise a
-handsome necklace of twenty-seven beads, a silver finger-ring, silver
-ear-rings, and a circular brooch or fibula. Five of the beads are of
-amber, carefully rounded into a globular shape, the largest an inch
-diameter; the remaining twenty-two (two of which are broken) are mostly
-small, and made of porcelain or opaque glass, very prettily variegated
-with blue, yellow, or red, on a white or red ground. The finger-ring
-is made of thick silver wire, twisted into an ornamental knot at the
-junction of the ends. The ear-rings are too slight and fragmentary for
-description. The fibula is a circular ring, ribbed on the front, an
-inch and a half diameter, composed of a doubtful substance. The remains
-of the teeth show the person to have been rather youthful, and afford
-another instance of the extreme decay of the skeleton usual in Saxon
-deposits in this part of the country, whilst those which we have reason
-to reckon centuries more ancient are mostly well preserved. Rings of
-silver, with cylindrical, or globular, or flattened beads attached, are
-of common occurrence in the Kentish and other graves. Of pendants I
-shall speak a little later on.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 370.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 371.]
-
-Coins have only occasionally been discovered with Anglo-Saxon
-interments, and these have, in most instances, been of the preceding
-Roman period. Byzantine, Frankish, and Merovingian coins have likewise
-been found in the graves. Coins, to which loops are attached, so as to
-be worn as personal ornaments, are also found.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XIV.
-
- Anglo-Saxon
- Period--Arms--Swords--Knives--Spears--Shields--Umbones of
- Shields--Buckles--Helmets--Benty-Grange Tumulus--The Sacred
- Boar--Grave at Barlaston--Enamelled Discs and pendant
- Ornaments, etc.--Horse Shoes.
-
-
-The arms of the Anglo-Saxons, so far as is known from the contents of
-their graves, consisted of swords, spears, knives, shields, daggers,
-etc., and occasionally with the men, besides these things, are found
-remains of helmets, ornaments from horse-trappings, buckles, axes, and
-many other articles.
-
-The swords are straight-bladed, usually double-edged, with hilts of
-metal or wood. The scabbards were sometimes of wood, sometimes of
-leather, and sometimes again of bronze, and are often elaborately
-ornamented at the chape. The sword here engraved (fig. 372) was found
-in a barrow at Tissington, in Derbyshire. It had originally been
-enclosed in a wooden scabbard or sheath, which had apparently been
-covered with leather, and mounted with ornamented silver. Most of this
-ornamentation was decayed and lost, but sufficient remained to show
-that the sword had been of no ordinary beauty and value, and must have
-belonged to some person of note. The traces of silver ornamentation at
-the head are indicated on the engraving. The chape, which is simply
-rounded, is of silver, and the rivets still remain, as do also those by
-which the leather was attached to the wood. The sword is thirty-four
-inches in length, and two inches and a half in breadth. Across its
-upper part lay a small fragment of the shield, and near it, spread
-about, were a few pieces of iron, some of which, when joined together,
-proved to be a spear-head of the usual form of the period. It had
-doubtless been broken and disturbed at the time when the bones were
-dispersed by the planting of the trees.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 372.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 373.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 374.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 375.]
-
-A remarkably fine sword (fig. 373) was found in 1868 at Grimsthorpe.
-It is of iron, and remains encased in its bronze scabbard in a more
-perfect state than usual. The extreme length of the sword and scabbard,
-from pommel to chape, is thirty-one inches; the length of the scabbard
-from guard to point of chape, twenty-four inches. The breadth at the
-mouth is one inch and seven-eighths. The guard is of bronze, and is
-engraved on fig. 374. The scabbard is formed of thin plate bronze, and
-has an encircling band of the same material to hold the upper points
-of the chape to its sides. The length of the chape from the band is
-six inches and a half. The chape, which is exquisitely formed, is
-engraved on fig. 375, and will be seen to be of unusual beauty. It is
-in a remarkably perfect condition, and, being formed of bronze (the
-scabbards of the period to which it belongs being usually of wood
-with metal chape and fittings), is of great rarity and interest. The
-chape had been set with six small, and one large, stones, as will be
-seen by the engraving. Some of these, which were probably garnets,
-were remaining. They had been affixed to their places by small rivets
-passing through their centres. A series of fifteen examples of
-Anglo-Saxon swords (figs. 376 to 390) from illuminated MSS., etc., are
-here given for purposes of comparison. Some of these will be found to
-be of precisely similar form to those already given, and others, again,
-have trefoiled pommels.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 376.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 377.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 378.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 379.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 380.]
-
-[Illustration: Figs. 381 to 390.]
-
-A good figure of a swordsman, with sword and shield, is also given on
-the next figure (fig. 391).
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 391.]
-
-Swords with ornamental pommels and hilts are of rare occurrence, but
-examples occur in the Faussett and other collections. Probably those
-with ornamented hilts would also have their chapes correspondingly
-ornamented. In _Beowulf_ occur these lines:--
-
- “When he did off from himself
- his iron coat of mail,
- the helmet from his head,
- gave his ornamented sword,
- the costliest of irons,
- to his servant.”
-
-And again:--
-
- anꝺ þa hilꞇ ꞅomoꝺ
- ꞅince páᵹe.
-
- (“And with it the hilt
- variegated with treasure.”)
-
-A remarkable hilt, bearing an inscription in Runic characters, was
-found at Ash, in Kent. It is of silver. On one side is the Runic
-inscription engraved in the metal, on the other a zigzag and other
-ornaments. A hilt of this kind must undoubtedly have been the one so
-graphically described in _Beowulf_, where a sword, inscribed with the
-name of its first owner and with other matters of extreme interest, is
-“looked upon” and pondered over. The passage is thus:--
-
- “He looked upon the hilt,
- the old legacy,
- on which was written the origin
- of the ancient contest;
- after the flood slew,
- the pouring ocean,
- the race of giants;
- daringly they behaved;
- that was a strange race
- to the eternal Lord,
- therefore to them their last reward
- through floods of water
- the ruler gave.
- So was on the surface
- of the bright gold
- with Runic letters
- rightly marked,
- set and said,
- for whom that sword,
- the costliest of irons,
- was first made,
- with twisted hilt and variegated like a snake.”
-
-The runes on the hilt first spoken of and engraved would doubtless, if
-properly translated, tell as pleasant and as interesting a story as the
-one narrated by Beowulf.
-
-[Illustration: Figs. 392 to 396.]
-
-The knife or dagger (the _seax_), which is of iron, is of different
-forms. The most usual shapes are given on figs. 392 to 396. The larger
-were used for war purposes, the smaller for domestic purposes--the
-Saxon carrying his own knife with him for his food, attached to his
-belt, both at home and to the banquets of his friends. The _seax_, as a
-weapon, is frequently alluded to in _Beowulf_: thus, when _Beowulf_ and
-the Mother of Grendal, the fiend, were struggling together:--
-
- “She beset then the hall-guest,
- and drew her _seax_,
- broad, brown-edged.”
-
-And in another part, when Beowulf was fighting with the dragon, after
-having broken his sword in the contest, he
-
- “Drew his deadly _seax_,
- bitter and battle-sharp,
- that he on his birnie[52] bore.”
-
-Spear and javelin heads are of frequent occurrence; they are of iron,
-and, although varying considerably, both in size and shape, they all
-bear a strong and marked resemblance to each other, and have sockets.
-Their “peculiarity is a longitudinal slit in the socket which received
-the wooden handle or staff, and which, after being fixed, was closed
-with iron rings, string-braided, and rivets.”[53] Examples are given
-in figs. 333 to 403, and again on fig. 404. In interments the spear
-usually lies by the right side of the skeleton, where the position of
-the shaft may be traced by a line of decayed wood; at the bottom a
-metal ferule or ring is sometimes found. The axe is usually of the form
-here shown, and is of iron. It will be seen how closely some of these
-resemble the forms found depicted by Anglo-Saxon artists in the MSS. of
-the period, a selection from which is here given.
-
-[Illustration: Figs. 397 to 403.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 404.]
-
-The shield appears to have been made of wood, and to have been circular
-in form. It was frequently covered with leather, and sometimes with
-thin sheets of bronze. The boss or umbone was of various forms and
-sizes, as will be shortly shown. The wood of which the shield was
-composed appears from Beowulf to have been that of the linden tree:--
-
- “He seized his shield,
- the yellow linden-wood.”
-
-The shield was often called a “war-board;” and we learn that Beowulf,
-when he was preparing to encounter the fire-dragon, knowing that a
-wooden shield would be no proof against fire, ordered one “all of iron”
-to be made for him:--
-
- “Then commanded he to be made for him
- the refuge of warriors,
- _all of iron,_
- the lord of eorls,
- a wondrous _war-board_;
- he knew right well
- that him forest wood
- might not help,
- linden-wood against fire.”
-
-One of the most remarkable remains of shields which has been brought
-to light is the one at Grimsthorpe,[54] where, on the breast of the
-skeleton, lay a mass of decayed wood, a quantity of ferruginous
-dust--probably the remains of the handle and inside fittings of the
-shield--and remains of decomposed leather. On these lay two thin plates
-of bronze, and the umbone or boss of the same metal, which had formed
-the outer covering of the “war-board.” These two plates and the umbone
-are engraved on fig. 405. The discs or plates of bronze are little
-thicker than ordinary writing-paper. They each measure twelve and a
-half inches from point to point, and are three and three quarter inches
-in width in the middle. They have a raised border of curious design
-around their outer edge, and they have been, like the boss, attached
-to the shield by pins or rivets. The boss is of very unusual form, and
-has been attached to the shield by rivets or pins; it is ornamented
-with engraved lines. From this curious discovery it would appear that
-this warrior of the Yorkshire Wolds bore a shield formed of wood and
-covered with leather; that it was faced with plates of bronze, and had
-a bronze umbone; and that the handle, and probably the strengthening
-bars, on the inner side were of iron.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 405.]
-
-Many handles of iron, belonging to shields, have been found in the
-Kentish and other barrows. The shield, in interments, was usually
-placed flat on the centre of the body, as shown on fig. 325.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 406.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 407.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 408.]
-
-The umbone or boss of the shield was, as I have said, of various
-forms. The most usual shapes are, perhaps, those here given from
-Kentish graves (figs. 406 and 407), and fig. 408, from Tissington,
-where it was found along with the sword before described (fig. 372).
-This extremely interesting relic, which is among the largest ever
-found, measures nine inches in height. It is, of course, of iron, and
-is of the same type as one found at Sibertswold, which is engraved in
-the “_Inventorum Sepulchrale_.” The texture of cloth in which it had
-been enfolded when placed by the body of the hero by whom it was borne,
-is distinctly traceable on several parts of its surface. The umbone,
-as it lay, was surrounded with the wood, in a complete state of decay,
-which had once formed the shield; and small fragments of corroded
-iron, which were doubtless a part of the mountings of the shield, were
-scattered about.
-
-Of the form of the Anglo-Saxon shield and its umbone, a tolerably good
-idea may be formed by the series of examples here given (figs. 409 to
-416), from the illuminated MSS. of the period.
-
-[Illustration: Figs. 409 to 416.]
-
-Of Saxon armour the remains yielded to us by the graves are few and
-far between. Buckles, such as probably fastened the belt or girdle to
-which the knife, the sword, etc., were suspended, and others which
-have doubtless belonged to some portions of the dress, are the most
-abundant. They are of varied form, some being of particularly elegant
-design, partaking of the character of the fibulæ of the period. Twelve
-examples from the Kentish graves are given on figs. 417 to 428.
-
-Helmets, or head coverings, in a fragmentary state, have on some few
-occasions been found. The most remarkable discovery of this kind which
-has been made is the one which was found by my friend, the late Mr.
-Bateman, at Benty Grange,[55] in Derbyshire, in the year 1848. The
-account of this discovery is so full of interest, and so curious, that
-I give it in Mr. Bateman’s own words. He says:--
-
-“It was our good fortune to open a barrow which afforded a more
-instructive collection of relics than has ever been discovered in the
-county, and which are not surpassed in interest by any remains hitherto
-recovered from any Anglo-Saxon burying-place in the kingdom.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 417.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 418.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 419.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 420.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 421.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 422.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 423.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 424.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 425.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 426.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 427.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 428.]
-
-“The barrow, which is on a farm called Benty Grange, a high and bleak
-situation to the right of the road from Ashbourn to Buxton, near the
-eighth milestone from the latter place, is of inconsiderable elevation,
-perhaps not more than two feet at the highest point, but is spread over
-a pretty large area, and is surrounded by a small fosse or trench.
-About the centre, and upon the natural soil, had been laid the only
-body the barrow ever contained, of which not a vestige besides the hair
-could be distinguished. Near the place which, from the presence of
-hair, was judged to have been the situation of the head, was a curious
-assemblage of ornaments, which, from the peculiarly indurated nature
-of the earth, it was impossible to remove with any degree of success.
-The most remarkable are the silver edging and ornaments of a leathern
-cup, about three inches in diameter at the mouth, which was decorated
-by four wheel-shaped ornaments and two crosses of thin silver, affixed
-by pins of the same metal, clenched inside (fig. 429). The other
-articles found in the same situation consist of personal ornaments,
-the chief of which are two circular enamels upon copper 1¾ diameter,
-in narrow silver frames, and a third, which was so far decomposed as
-to be irrecoverable (see group, fig. 430); they are enamelled with a
-yellow interlaced dracontine pattern, intermingled with that peculiar
-scroll design, visible on the same class of ornaments figured in
-‘Vestiges,’ p. 25, and used in several MSS. of the seventh century, for
-the purpose of decorating the initial letters. The principle of this
-design consists of three spiral lines springing from a common centre,
-and each involution forming an additional centre, for an extension
-of the pattern, which may be adapted to fill spaces of almost any
-form. Mr. Westwood has shown in a most able paper in the 40th No.
-of the Journal of the Archæological Institute, that this style of
-ornamentation is peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon and Irish artists of the
-period before stated. The pattern was first cut in the metal, threads
-of it being left to show the design, by which means cells were formed,
-in which the enamel was placed before fusion, the whole being then
-polished became what is known as _champ-levé_ enamel. There were also
-with these enamels a knot of very fine wire, and a quantity of thin
-bone, variously ornamented with lozenges, etc., which were mostly too
-much decayed to bear removal; they appeared to have been attached to
-some garment of silk, as the glossy fibre of such a fabric was very
-perceptible when they were first uncovered, though it shortly vanished
-when exposed to the air. Proceeding westward from the head for about
-six feet, we arrived at a large mass of oxydized iron, which being
-removed with the utmost care, and having been since repaired where
-unavoidably broken, now presents a mass of chainwork, and the frame of
-a helmet. The latter consists of a skeleton formed of iron bands (fig.
-431) radiating from the crown of the head, and riveted to a circle of
-the same metal which encompassed the brow: from the impression on the
-metal it is evident that the outside was covered with plates of horn
-disposed diagonally so as to produce a herring-bone pattern; the ends
-of these plates were secured beneath with strips of horn corresponding
-with the iron framework, and attached to it by ornamental rivets of
-silver at intervals of about an inch and a half from each other. On
-the bottom of the front rib, which projects so as to form a nasal, is
-a small silver cross, slightly ornamented round the edges by a beaded
-moulding; and on the crown of the helmet is an elliptical bronze plate
-supporting the figure of an animal carved in iron, with bronze eyes,
-now much corroded, but perfectly distinct as the representation of
-a hog. There are, too, many fragments, some more or less ornamented
-with silver, which have been riveted to some part of the helmet in a
-manner not to be explained or even understood; there are also some
-small buckles of iron, which probably served to fasten it upon the
-head. Amongst the chainwork is a very curious six-pronged instrument
-of iron, in shape much like an ordinary hay-fork, with the difference
-of the tang, which in the latter is driven into the shaft, being in
-this instrument flattened and doubled over so as to form a small loop,
-apparently convenient for suspension; whether it belonged to the
-helmet or the corselet, next to be described, is uncertain. The iron
-chainwork already named consists of a large number of links of two
-kinds, attached to each other by small rings, half an inch in diameter;
-one kind are flat and lozenge-shaped, about an inch and a half long;
-the others are all of one kind, but of different lengths, varying from
-four to ten inches. They are simply lengths of square rod iron with
-perforated ends, through which pass the rings connecting them with the
-diamond-shaped links; they all show the impression of cloth over a
-considerable part of the surface, and it is, therefore, no improbable
-conjecture that they would originally constitute a kind of quilted
-cuirass, by being sewn up within, or upon, a doublet of strong cloth.
-The peculiarly indurated and corrosive nature of the soil in this
-barrow is a point of some interest, and it will not be out of place to
-state that such has generally been the case in tumuli in Derbyshire,
-where the more important Saxon burials have taken place, whilst the
-more ancient Celtic interments are generally found in good condition,
-owing to there having been no special preparation of the earth, which
-in these cases has undergone a mixing or tempering with some corrosive
-liquid, the result of which is the presence of thin ochrey veins in the
-earth, and the decomposition of nearly the whole of the human remains.
-The following extract from Professor Worsaae’s ‘Antiquities of Denmark’
-illustrates the helmet, which is the only example of the kind hitherto
-discovered, either in this country or on the Continent:--
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 429.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 430.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 431.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 432.]
-
-“‘The helmets of the ancient Scandinavians, which were furnished with
-crests, usually in the form of animals, were probably in most cases
-only the skins of the heads of animals, drawn over a framework of wood
-or leather, as the coat of mail was usually of strong quilted linen, or
-thick woven cloth.’”
-
-To this the translator of the English edition appends the important
-information, that “the animal generally represented was the boar; and
-it is to this custom that reference is made in _Beowulf_, where the
-poet speaks of the boar of gold, the boar hard as iron.”
-
- “Sƿẏn eal ᵹẏlꝺen,
- Eoꝼeꞃ Iꞃen-heꞃꝺ.”
-
-Nor are allusions to this custom of wearing the figure of a boar--not
-in honour of the animal, but of Freya, to whom it was sacred--confined
-to Beowulf; they are to be found in the _Edda_ and in the _Sagas_;
-while Tacitus, in his work, “De Moribus Germanorum”, distinctly refers
-to the same usage and its religious intention, as propitiating the
-protection of their goddess in battle. As a further illustration, not
-only of the helmet, but also of the chainwork, the following extracts
-from Beowulf are transcribed from Mr. C. R. Smith’s “Collectanea
-Antiqua,” vol. ii., p. 240:--
-
- eoꝼeꞃ-líc ꞅción “They seemed a boar’s form
- oꞃ-oꝼeꞃ hleoꞃ bæꞃon; to bear over their cheeks;
- ᵹe-hꞃoꝺen ᵹolꝺe, twisted with gold,
- ꝼáh anꝺ ꝼýꞃ-heaꞃꝺ, variegated and hardened in the fire,
- ꝼeꞃh ƿeaꞃꝺe heólꝺ. this kept the guard of life:
-
- I. 604.
-
- be-ꝼonᵹen ꝼꞃeá-ƿꞃáꞅnum, Surrounded with lordly chains,
- ꞅƿa híne ꝼẏꞃn ꝺaᵹum even as in days of yore
- ƿoꞃhꞇe ƿæpna ꞅmið, the weapon smith had wrought it,
- ƿunꝺꞃum ꞇeóꝺe, had wondrously furnished it, [swine,
- be-ꞅeꞇꞇe ꞅƿín-lícum, had set it round with the shapes of
- ꝥ hine ꞅẏðan nó that never afterwards
- bꞃonꝺ né beaꝺo-mecaꞅ brand or war-knife
- bíꞇan ne meahꞇon: might have power to bite it:
-
- I. 2901
-
- æꞇ þæm áꝺe ƿæꞅ At the pile was
- eþ-ᵹe-ꞅýne easy to be seen
- ꞅƿáꞇ-ꝼah ꞅẏꞃce, the mail shirt covered with gore,
- ꞅƿýn eal-ᵹẏlꝺen, the hog of gold,
- eoꝼeꞃ íꞃen heaꞃꝺ: the boar hard as iron:
-
- I. 2213.
-
- Heꞇ ðá in-beꞃan Then commanded he to bring in
- eaꝼoꞃ-heáꝼod-ꞅeᵹn, the boar, an ornament to the head,
- heaþo-ꞅꞇeapne helm, the helmet lofty in war,
- heꞃe-bẏꞃnan, the grey mail coat,
- ᵹuð-ꞅƿeoꞃꝺ ᵹeáꞇo-líc: the ready battle sword.”
-
- I. 4299.
-
-It will be noticed in these extracts that “mail coat” or “mail shirt”
-is twice mentioned, as well as the “helmet lofty in war.” Thus
-the passages in a remarkable degree illustrate this extraordinary
-discovery, which embraced a coat of mail along with the helmet and
-other objects. The coat appears to have consisted of a mass of
-chainwork, the links of which were attached to each other by small
-rings.
-
-Fragments of another helmet were the following year found in another
-barrow in the same neighbourhood, at Newhaven, along with other objects
-of interest. The barrow had, however, at some previous time been
-grievously mutilated. Of this barrow Mr. Bateman says: “We opened a
-mutilated mound of earth in a field near Newhaven House, called the
-Low, two-thirds of which had been removed, and the remainder more
-or less disturbed, so that nothing was found in its original state,
-which is much to be regretted, as the contents appear to be late in
-date, and different in character from anything we have before found in
-tumuli. The mound itself, being constructed of tempered earth, bore
-some analogy to the grave-hill of the Saxon Thegn, opened at Benty
-Grange about a year before, and, like it, was without human remains, if
-we except a few fragments of calcined bone, which are too minute to be
-certainly assigned either to a human or animal subject. The articles
-found comprise many small pieces of thin iron straps or bands, more or
-less overlaid with bronze, which are by no means unlike the framework
-of the helmet found at Benty Grange. There is also a boss of thin
-bronze, three inches diameter, pierced with three holes for attachment
-to the dress, (?) and divided by raised concentric circles, between
-which the metal is ornamented with a dotted chevron pattern, in the
-angles of which are small roses punched by a die. Another object in
-bronze is a small round vessel or box of thick cast metal, surrounded
-by six vertical ribs, and having two perforated ears, serving probably
-better to secure the lid and suspend the box. Although it measures less
-than an inch in height, and less than two in diameter, it weighs full
-3½ ounces. A similar box, with the lid, on which is a cross formed of
-annulets, found with Roman remains at Lincoln, is engraved at page
-30 of the Lincoln Book of the Archæological Institute, where it is
-called a pyx. Two others, discovered at Lewes, are engraved in the
-‘Archæologia,’ vol. xxxi., page 437, one of which has the lid bearing
-a cross precisely similar to the Lincoln example, whence it is certain
-that they must be assigned to a Christian period, probably not long
-previous to the extinction of the Saxon monarchy. The last object there
-is occasion to describe is an iron ferrule or hoop, an inch and a half
-in diameter, one edge of which is turned inwards, so as to prevent
-its slipping up the shaft on which it has been fixed. We also found
-some shapeless pieces of melted glass, which, from their variegated
-appearance, might be the product of fused beads; and observed many
-pieces of charred wood throughout the mound, which may possibly not
-have been of a sepulchral character.”
-
-Another helmet, or defensive cap, was found some years ago at
-Leckhampton Hill, in Gloucestershire, the ribs of which bear a striking
-analogy to the one here described.
-
-A remarkable discovery, which included portions of what is very
-plausibly considered to be a helmet, was also, a few years ago, made on
-the estate of Mr. Francis Wedgwood, at Barlaston, in Staffordshire. The
-particulars of this I now for the first time make public. The grave,
-which was seven feet in length by two feet in width, was cut in the
-solid red-sandstone rock. It was about fifteen inches in depth at the
-deepest part, which was at the south-east corner, and died out with the
-slope of the hill towards the north-west, and the earth which covered
-it (which had probably been tempered in the usual manner) was only a
-few inches in thickness. It was on the slope of the hill. At the upper
-or northerly end of the grave a basin-like cavity, two or three inches
-in depth, was cut in the floor of rock (see A in the plan, fig. 433).
-In this hollow, which had evidently been intended for the helmeted
-head of the deceased to rest in, was found the remains of what I have
-alluded to as justly considered to be remains of a bronze helmet. The
-skeleton had, as is so frequently the case in Anglo-Saxon interments,
-entirely disappeared, but on its right side lay the sword (B), and on
-the left a knife (C).
-
-The fragments in the cavity consisted of several pieces of curved
-bronze, highly ornamented, which had probably, with other plain curved
-pieces, formed the framework of the helmet; some thin plates of bronze;
-a flat ring of bronze, beautifully ornamented (fig. 434), which is
-conjectured to have been the top of the framework of the helmet; and
-three enamelled discs, of a similar character to what have been
-elsewhere found, with hooks for suspension, or attachment to leather
-or other substance. One of these is engraved, of its real size, on the
-next illustration (fig. 435). The centre is of enamel mosaic work,
-ground down level with the metal, as in the old Chinese enamels.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 433.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 434.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 435.]
-
-The inference to be drawn from this curious discovery is, that the
-grave was that of a Saxon of high rank, who had been buried in his full
-dress, and that the cavity had been specially cut out in the floor of
-the rock grave to admit of the helmet being worn as when he was living.
-No remains of a shield were noticed, nor were any other remains found
-in the locality, which was carefully dug over for the purpose.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 436.]
-
-Enamelled discs, or pendants, such as I have just spoken of (see fig.
-435), have been occasionally found in other localities, as will have
-been noticed in the course of the last few pages. The use of these
-curious objects is very obscure, and I am not aware that any very
-particular attention has been paid to them. Portions of these were
-found in the Benty Grange barrow (fig. 430), along with the Saxon
-helmet. A very perfect example was found in a barrow on Middleton Moor,
-Derbyshire, in 1788,[56] where it was found lying near the shoulder. In
-the same barrow was a portion of another enamelled ornament, the iron
-umbone of a shield, and a thin vessel of bronze--described as like a
-shallow basin--which probably formed a portion of a helmet. These two
-interesting relics are here engraved (figs. 436 and 437). The first
-of these will be seen to bear a striking resemblance to the Barlaston
-example (fig. 435), and the second, in form, to be very similar to the
-next example (fig. 438), from the museum of the Royal Irish Academy.
-Some precisely similar objects--similar in design and in size to figs.
-435 and 436--were found at Chesterton. Of the four of these objects
-there found, two are precisely alike, and had hooks for suspension in
-the same manner as is shown on fig. 435; the other two have no hooks,
-and are of a different pattern of enamelling. Other examples have been
-brought to light in different localities, but these will be sufficient
-for my present purpose.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 437.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 438.]
-
-It is, of course, very difficult to come to any conclusion, in the
-present state of our knowledge of Anglo-Saxon history, as to the
-original uses of these and other objects. That these enamelled and
-handled discs were intended for suspension by their hooks there can
-be but little doubt, and it seems not improbable that they might
-serve as pendants to the helmet; the two with hooks possibly hanging
-as ear-guards or coverings, and the others being attached by pins or
-rivets to, perhaps, the front and back of the circle. It is hoped
-that ultimately the use of these curious relics may be correctly
-ascertained. In the barrow at Grimthorpe, already referred to, a disc
-of somewhat similar character, of thin metal, was found. It had been
-attached by three pins or rivets, the holes for which remained. It was
-not enamelled, but decorated with raised ornaments. It is engraved of
-its full size on fig. 439.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 439.]
-
-A singular plate of cast and chased bronze, strongly gilt, and set with
-garnets, found in Northamptonshire, and now in the Bateman museum, is
-engraved in the “Reliquary,” vol. i. It has at the back, besides a
-central projection, four pierced projections for attachment to leather
-or other substance, and four “swivel” projections, if they may be so
-termed, on its edges, to which other matters have been attached by
-rivets, which are still remaining.
-
-Enamelling and goldsmiths’ work were evidently arts in which the
-Anglo-Saxon artificers excelled; some of the rings and fibulæ, and
-other relics, being of extreme elegance and richness, and of great
-beauty in design.
-
-Having spoken of the arms, helmets, etc., found in Anglo-Saxon
-graves, it will be well before proceeding to describe the personal
-ornaments, to note that horse-shoes are occasionally met with in
-interments, showing that the horse was, in some instances, buried
-with its rider. Having given, on fig. 324, the form of a horse-shoe
-of the Romano-British period, I now engrave examples of those of the
-Anglo-Saxon times. Figs. 440 and 441 are two shoes from a Saxon grave
-in Berkshire.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 440.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 441.]
-
-They will be seen to be of a very different form to those of the
-preceding era. One has calkins, but the other is without, and both are
-even on the outer edge, not “bulged,” as those of Roman times are.
-In illustration of this matter, I am enabled, through the courtesy
-of my friend Mr. Fleming, to give the accompanying engraving from
-his admirable work on “Horse-shoes and Horse-shoeing,” to which I
-would direct the attention of all who are interested in this branch
-of archæological inquiry. The engraving represents the contents of
-a grave-mound excavated at Selzen, on the Rhine, by Lindenschmidt,
-in which, along with the skeleton of the warrior, were the skull and
-other remains of his horse, with portions of horse-shoes, as well as
-some urns of good character, and of close resemblance to those of our
-Anglo-Saxon period. Tumuli containing the remains of horses are of
-unfrequent occurrence in England, and therefore this example becomes
-interesting as an illustration for comparison.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 442.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XV.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Fibulæ--Enamelled circular Fibulæ--Gold
- Fibulæ--Pendant Cross--Cruciform Fibulæ--Penannular
- Fibulæ--Irish and English examples--Pendant Ornaments, etc.
-
-
-The fibulæ of the Anglo-Saxon period are the most remarkable, perhaps,
-of any of the products of the grave-mounds of that people. They are
-of extreme interest, not merely from their design and the excellence
-of their workmanship, or from their various forms and styles of
-ornamentation, but because by their varieties the different races to
-which they belonged can, in great measure, be determined.
-
-The more beautiful and elaborate, and at the same time the richest
-in effect, of these various forms of fibulæ are those of circular
-form, which, although found in various parts of the kingdom, are more
-abundant in the barrows of Kent than elsewhere. The finest of these
-ever discovered was found in 1771, “near the neck, or rather more
-towards the right shoulder,” of the female skeleton in a grave six feet
-deep, ten feet long, and eight feet wide, on Kingston Down, along with
-some small silver fibulæ, a golden amulet, some small hinges, a chain,
-some bronze vessels, pottery, and a variety of other articles. This
-fibula, here engraved (fig. 443), which is quite unique, “stands at the
-head of a class by no means extensive, characterized by being formed of
-separate plates of metal, enclosed by a band round the edges. The shell
-of this extraordinary brooch is entirely of gold. The upper surface is
-divided into no less than seven compartments, subdivided into cells of
-various forms. Those of the first and fifth are semi-circles, with a
-peculiar graduated figure, somewhat resembling the steps or base of a
-cross, which also occurs in all the compartments, and in four circles,
-placed cross-wise with triangles. The cells within this step-like
-figure and the triangular are filled with turquoises; the remaining
-cells of the various compartments with garnets, laid upon gold-foil,
-except the sixth, which forms an umbo, and bosses in the circle, which
-are composed apparently of mother-of-pearl. The second and fourth
-compartments contain vermicular gold chain-work, neatly milled and
-attached to the ground of the plate. The reverse of the fibula is also
-richly decorated.”
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 443.]
-
-The vertical hinge of the acus is ornamented with a cross set with
-stones, and with filigree work round its base. The clasp which receives
-the point of the acus is formed to represent a serpent’s head, the
-eyes and nostrils of which, and the bending of the neck, are marked in
-filigree. This precious jewel was secured by a loop which admitted of
-its being sewn upon the dress.
-
-Another remarkably fine example, found on the breast of a female
-skeleton in Berkshire, is now in the Ashmolean museum. It measures two
-inches and seven-eighths in diameter. The base is formed of a thin
-plate of silver, above which, resting apparently on a bed of paste, is
-a plate of copper, to which is affixed a frame-work of the same metal,
-giving the outline of the pattern. The four divisions of the exterior
-circle were originally filled with paste, on which were laid thin
-laminæ of gold, ornamented with an interlaced pattern in gold wire of
-two sizes, delicately milled or notched, resembling rope-work. Of these
-compartments one is now vacant. This wire ornament was pressed into the
-gold plate beneath, and there are no traces of any other means than
-pressure having been used to fix it. The four smaller circles and that
-in the centre are ornamented with bosses of a white substance, either
-ivory or bone, but the material is so much decomposed it is difficult
-to say which; these bosses are attached to the copper plate beneath
-by iron pins. The entire face of the fibula was originally set with
-small pieces of garnet-coloured glass laid upon hatched gold-foil. The
-upper and lower plates of this ornament are bound together by a band of
-copper gilt, slightly grooved. The acus is lost.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 444.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 445.]
-
-The magnificent circular fibula of gold here engraved (fig. 444) was
-discovered some years ago in a barrow on Winster Moor, in Derbyshire.
-It was formed of gold filigree work, which was mounted on a silver
-plate. It was set with stones or paste on chequered gold-foil, and
-measured two inches in diameter. Along with this fibula were found the
-following interesting articles: a cross of pure gold, ornamented, like
-the fibula, with filigree work, and having a garnet cut in facets set
-in its centre (fig. 445); a silver armlet; two glass vessels, and a
-number of beads. These and some other articles were all found by the
-sides of two cinerary urns.
-
-Many of the circular fibulæ are, of course, of a much smaller and less
-elaborate character than those here given. They all, however, bear,
-exclusive of the fact of their being found along with other evidences
-of the period to which they belong, characteristics which cannot well
-be mistaken.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 446.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 447.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 448.]
-
-These circular fibulæ appear to have been worn by the Anglo-Saxon
-ladies on the breast or, occasionally, shoulder. They were probably,
-therefore, used for fastening the dress on the bosom, as is so often
-seen in illuminated MSS. and on tombs of a later period.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 449.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 450.]
-
-Another extensive class of Anglo-Saxon fibulæ are what are usually
-called, though not very satisfactorily, cruciform, or cross-shaped.
-Fibulæ of this class are, perhaps, most abundant in the midland and
-south-eastern counties, but they are of very rare occurrence in Kent.
-They would appear, therefore, to have appertained mostly to the Angles,
-who were the inhabitants of Mercia, East Anglia, and Northumbria. They
-are sometimes of silver, but usually of bronze, and are variously
-ornamented with interlaced work, heads, and borders of various designs.
-Their form will be best understood from the accompanying engravings,
-which exhibit some of the most usual varieties. They are from
-Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire, and
-will serve as typical examples of this class of brooch.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 451.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 452.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 453.]
-
-Another totally distinct kind of fibula, or brooch, which is
-considered to be peculiarly of Irish type, but which, nevertheless, is
-occasionally met with in England, remains to be noticed. I allude, of
-course, to brooches of the penannular form,[57] the general type of
-which will be understood by the engravings given on figs. 453, 454, and
-455, which are all Irish examples of more or less decorative character.
-The originals are in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy, as are also
-many other exquisite specimens of these interesting examples of early
-art.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 454.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 455.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 456.]
-
-The one next figured (fig. 456) was discovered in Westmoreland, and
-described and engraved in the _Archæological Journal_, vol. ix. page
-90. This beautiful fibula I here engrave of a reduced size. The ring,
-it will be seen, moves freely round the upper half of the brooch, the
-lower or flat part of which is divided so as to allow of the passage
-of the acus through it. “It is set with flat bosses, five on either
-side. Each of these flat dilated parts of this curious ornament appears
-to proceed from the jaws of a monstrous head, imperfectly simulating
-that of a serpent or dragon; and between the jaw is introduced the
-intertwined triplet, or _triquetra_, the same ornament which is found
-on the sculptured cross at Kirk Michael, Isle of Man, and on some Saxon
-coins.” This example is of silver. With it was found a silver armlet--a
-simple twisted bar of decreasing thickness towards the extremities,
-which are hooked. The dimensions of the fibula are, length of acus,
-eleven inches; greatest diameter of circular part, five inches; width
-of the dilated part, two inches; weight, 8 oz. 8 dwt.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 457.]
-
-By far the finest example found in England is the one next figured
-(fig. 457). It was found in 1862, near the picturesque village of
-Bonsall, in the High Peak of Derbyshire. It is of bronze, and is
-here engraved of its full size. The ring measures three inches and
-seven-eighths in its greatest diameter, and the acus, which is not
-engraved of its full length, is six inches and three-quarters long.
-
-It has originally been set with amber or paste, and has been richly
-gilt and enamelled. The interlaced ornaments are most exquisitely and
-elaborately formed, and are of great variety, and the heads of animals
-are of excellent and characteristic form. The head of the acus, or
-pin, is large and beautifully ornamented, and, like the ring, has been
-set with studs. The pin itself, as will be seen by the accompanying
-engraving (fig. 458), is flattened and made thin at its upper end, and
-bent so as to allow of the free passage of the ring through it, and is
-riveted on to the ornamented plate in front.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 458.]
-
-It is remarkable that, in this fibula, the ring, which, like other
-examples of this form of brooch, has been made to play freely for half
-its circumference through the acus, has been riveted to the head of
-the pin in the position shown in the engraving. That it has been much
-worn in this position--_across_ the breast or shoulder--is evident from
-the ring being much worn where the pin has pressed against it when
-clasped. I believe this is the only example on record in which the
-pin has been _fixed_ to the side of the ring, and this was certainly
-not the original intention of the maker of the brooch, but was done
-subsequently. This will be seen by the engraving of the profile of the
-head of the acus, on fig. 458. On one or two examples of penannular
-brooches, inscriptions in Ogham characters have been found, and it
-is highly interesting to be able to add that, on the back of the
-Derbyshire example, faint traces of Oghams still remain.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 459.]
-
-Another brooch, of silver, found in England, though different in form
-from the expanded examples just given, and although of later date, is
-nevertheless of the same construction. It is engraved of a reduced
-size on fig. 459. “The acus has been broken off. There appears to have
-been a third knob, now lost, which should correspond with the knob B,
-the acus passing between the two. The upper knob A is very loose, and
-moves freely around the ring. The knob B turns, but much less freely,
-and does not pass over C, having merely a lateral motion of one-fourth
-of an inch.” The diameter of the widest part is nearly five and a half
-inches; the globular ornaments measure one and a quarter inches in
-diameter. The under side of each of the balls is flat, and is engraved
-with ornaments, as shown on the engraving. This brooch belongs to Mr.
-C. Carus Wilson, and closely resembles some of the Irish examples.
-
-Of the mode of wearing penannular brooches, the late Mr. Fairholt
-says: “By the sumptuary laws of the ancient Irish, the size of these
-brooches, or fibulæ, were regulated according to the rank of the
-wearer. The highest price of a _silver_ bodkin for a king or an
-_ollamh_, which, according to Vallancy, was _thirty_ heifers, when made
-of refined silver; the lowest value attached to them being the worth
-of three heifers. From this it may be inferred, that the rank of the
-wearer might always be guessed at from the fibulæ he wore.” The rank
-of the wearers of the “Tara Brooch”--the most famous of all the Irish
-brooches at present known--and of the Derbyshire example, must, judging
-from their large size and truly exquisite workmanship, have been high.
-
-The extreme rarity of brooches of this form in England, leads one,
-naturally, to the conclusion that they were not much worn by the
-inhabitants of this country, and that, therefore, they can hardly
-be considered to belong to the nationality, if I may so speak, of
-the Anglo-Saxons. Nevertheless, examples having been here found in
-close proximity to undoubted Anglo-Saxon remains, and the style of
-ornamentation being strictly in keeping with much belonging to that
-period, there can be no doubt that they must be included amongst our
-Anglo-Saxon antiquities.
-
-Some of the most beautiful objects, along with the fibulæ, which
-the graves of the Anglo-Saxons yield, are the pendant ornaments of
-various kinds which were worn by that race of people. The objects of
-this class are extremely varied; but their beauty, like those of the
-richly studded and gilt fibulæ, and the enamelled studs and bosses,
-cannot well be understood without the aid of coloured illustrations. Of
-these a set of exquisite pendants were found along with several other
-interesting objects, in a barrow on Brassington Moor, by Mr. Bateman.
-Eleven of these pendants are large and brilliantly coloured garnets
-beautifully set in pure gold, two are entirely of gold, and the third,
-also of gold, is of spiral wire. Two beads, one of green glass, the
-other of white and blue glass, were also found.
-
-Gold drops of a similar character to those just described have been
-frequently found in the Kentish graves, as have also one or two crosses
-very similar to the one engraved on a previous page (fig. 445).
-Circular pendants of gold and other materials, decorated with enamelled
-or raised interlaced and other ornaments, or set with garnets and other
-stones, are also found. Among the most interesting of this class of
-pendant ornaments are coins to which loops have been attached. Examples
-have been found in Kent and elsewhere, and show that the fashion to
-some extent indulged in at the present day of wearing coins attached to
-watch chains, etc., is at least of Anglo-Saxon origin.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XVI.
-
- Anglo-Saxon Period--Buckets--Drinking-cups of wood--Bronze
- Bowls--Bronze Boxes--Combs--Tweezers--Châtelaines--Girdle
- Ornaments--Keys--Hair-pins--Counters, or Draughtmen, and
- Dice--Querns--Triturating Stones, etc.--Conclusion.
-
-
-Buckets, so called, and very appropriately, from their close
-resemblance in form to our modern vessels bearing that name, are
-occasionally found in Anglo-Saxon graves. They are small wooden vessels
-bound round with hoops or rims of bronze, more or less ornamented,
-and have a handle of the same metal arched over their tops. Of course
-in every case the wooden staves of which they were composed, and
-which were of ash, are decomposed, the hoops, handle, and mountings
-alone remaining. They vary very much in size; one from Bourne Park
-had the lower hoop twelve inches in diameter, and the upper one ten
-inches, and the whole height appears to have been about a foot; the
-handle was hooked at its ends exactly the same as in our present
-buckets, and fitted into loops on the sides; it had three looped
-bronze feet to stand upon. Other examples only measure four or five
-inches in diameter. The example here engraved (fig. 460) was found in
-Northamptonshire, along with other remains. It is composed of three
-encircling hoops of bronze, and has its handle and attachments also of
-the same metal.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 460.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 461.]
-
-The next example (fig. 461) is from Fairford, in Gloucestershire, and
-is three inches in height, and four inches in diameter. The hoops
-and mountings are of bronze. Another example, which I give for the
-purpose of comparison, is from Envermeu, in Normandy (fig. 462). Of the
-use of these utensils nothing certain, of course, is known, but it is
-conjectured they were used for bringing in mead, ale, or wine, to fill
-the drinking-cups--the objection to this as a general rule being their
-very small size. “The Anglo-Saxon translation of the Book of Judges
-(vii. 20) rendered _hydrias confregissent_, by ‘ꞇo-bꞃœcon pa bucaꞅ,’
-_i.e._ ‘they broke the buckets.’ A common name for this vessel, which
-was properly called _buc_, was _œscen_, signifying literally a vessel
-made of ash, the favourite wood of the Anglo-Saxons.”
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 462.]
-
-Drinking-cups were sometimes of wood. Of these, two examples are here
-given. The first of these has a rim of brass, the second a like rim
-attached by overlapping bands. It has also a number of small bands of
-the same metal riveted on to mend cracks in the wood. They were found
-in a barrow on Sibertswold Down, in Kent.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 463.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 464.]
-
-Bowls of bronze are occasionally also found. Some of these are plain,
-others enamelled or otherwise ornamented, and others, again, gilt.
-Many of them appear from their form to have been of Roman origin.
-Some remarkably fine examples have been yielded by the graves of Kent
-and other districts. The one here engraved (fig. 465) was found at
-Over-Haddon, in Derbyshire, along with the remains of a circular
-enamelled disc of the kind described on a previous page, and other
-relics. The bowl was seven inches in diameter, and had originally two
-handles. They are supposed to have been used for placing hot meats
-in, on the table. They range in size from four or five to twelve or
-fourteen inches in diameter.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 465.]
-
-Small boxes of bronze are occasionally found, and are of different
-forms. Some are plain upright boxes with lids, just intended to hold
-sewing materials--in fact, the work-boxes of the Saxon ladies--and
-others are rather large, and have been intended to contain the
-comb, etc.: they are, therefore, a kind of dressing-cases. The box
-engraved on fig. 466 was found along with other Saxon remains near
-Church Sterndale. The grave, which was cut in the rock, contained a
-skeleton of a woman; the lower bones were fairly preserved, but of
-the upper parts there were but few remains, the enamel crowns of the
-teeth being in the best condition. “At the left hip was a small iron
-knife four inches long, and where the right shoulder had been was
-an assemblage of curious articles, the most important of which was
-a small bronze box or canister, with a lid to slide on, measuring
-altogether two inches high, and the same in diameter. When found, it
-was much crushed, but still retained, inside, remains of thread, and
-bore on the outside impressions of linen cloth. Close to it were two
-bronze pins or broken needles, and a mass of corroded iron, some of
-which has been wire chainwork connected with a small bronze ornament
-with five perforations, plated with silver, and engraved with a cable
-pattern, near which were two iron implements of larger size, the whole
-comprising the girdle and châtelaine, with appendages, of a Saxon lady.
-Many pieces of hazel stick were found in contact with these relics,
-which were probably the remains of a basket in which they were placed
-at the funeral. All the iron shows impressions of woven fabrics, three
-varieties being distinguishable; namely, coarse and fine linen, and
-coarse flannel or woollen cloth. The box is very faintly ornamented by
-lozenges, produced by the intersection of oblique lines scratched in
-the metal.”
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 466.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 467.]
-
-The next engraving shows a bronze box of quite a different character,
-found with Anglo-Saxon remains at Newhaven. It is two inches in
-diameter, but very thick. It has six vertical ribs and two bars for
-attachment of the lid.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 468.]
-
-Needles and pins are frequently met with. The two shown on fig. 466
-will, however, be sufficient to call attention to these minute objects.
-
-Combs of the Anglo-Saxon period differ but little from those of the
-Romans, or indeed from those of the present day. They were, both Roman
-and Saxon, sometimes toothed on one side and sometimes on both sides,
-and were made alike of wood, of metal, of bone, and of ivory. Boxwood
-appears to have been so much used for the manufacture of combs as to
-have occasionally given its own name to them. Thus Martial says:--
-
- “Quid faciet nullos hic inventura capillos,
- Multifido buxus quæ tibi dente datur?”
-
-Wooden combs have naturally for the most part perished, but fragments
-have occasionally been found. Combs, both of bronze and iron, of the
-Roman period, have also been discovered. The greater part, however,
-both of that and of the Saxon period, which have been exhumed, are of
-bone and ivory. A good example of the single-edged or “backed” comb is
-given on fig. 469; they varied much in ornamentation. The next (fig.
-470) is toothed on both its edges, and has guards or covers to fit on
-the teeth, in the same manner as common pocket-combs of the present
-day. The next is a comb with a handle, which was dredged up out of the
-river Thames. The period is somewhat uncertain, but I give it for the
-purpose of comparison, as I do also the three next figures, the first
-of which is from the mummy graves at Arica, the second a modern wooden
-comb from the same district, and the third an Indian scalp-comb. Combs
-from Rangoon, in the Burmese empire, and from China, are also very
-curiously illustrative of those of early races found in our own country.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 469.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 470.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 471.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 472.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 473.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 474.]
-
-Mirrors such as are found in Roman graves are occasionally, but very
-rarely, met with; they were, of course, articles for the toilet. Shears
-or scissors of iron, some of which are of precisely the same form as
-our modern sheep-shears, and others of the shape of scissors of the
-present day, are of not unfrequent occurrence. Tweezers, too, are
-occasionally met with. The usual form is shown on fig. 475. They are of
-bronze, and were, it is said, used for pulling out superfluous hairs
-from the body. They with the scissors were frequently worn attached to
-the girdle, along with other instruments, of which I shall now say a
-few words.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 475.]
-
-Châtelaines, or girdle-hangers, are among the most interesting of
-discoveries in the graves of Saxon females. They consist of a bunch
-of small implements of various kinds--keys, tweezers, scissors,
-tooth-picks, ear-picks, nail-cleaners, etc., and ornaments of one kind
-or other--hung on a chain, which being attached to the girdle hung down
-by the side to the thigh, or, in some instances, evidently as low as
-the knee. The various instruments are of silver, bronze, or iron, and
-are generally, the iron especially, corroded into an almost shapeless
-mass. The silver and bronze being more endurable, the instruments of
-these metals are better preserved. The example here given (fig. 476)
-is from one of the Kentish graves. Of some of the articles found the
-use is unknown, but most can be easily identified. A bunch of what is
-supposed to be three latch-keys is given on fig. 477, and on the next
-figure, 478, two curious objects, the use of which has probably been to
-hang small instruments on, to attach them to the girdle. For the same
-use, probably, are the curious and somewhat puzzling objects which are
-occasionally met with, and are here shown on fig. 479. They are found
-in pairs, attached at the top, and vary much in the pattern of the
-lower extremities. Probably the girdle passed through the upper part,
-and keys and other objects would be hung on the lower ends. Each side
-of the one here engraved is six and a half inches in length. A large
-variety of girdle ornaments have been found in different districts.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 476.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 477.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 478.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 479.]
-
-Hair-pins are of various forms and lengths. They are generally of
-bronze, but sometimes of bone. They are sometimes plain, but at
-others highly ornamented, occasionally being richly enamelled. Fig.
-480 is of unique form, and has three flat pendants of bronze attached
-to its head by a ring. Besides hair-pins, numbers of metal pins for
-domestic purposes are met with.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 480.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 481.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 482.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 483.]
-
-Of locks and keys, scales and weights, and many other articles, it will
-not be necessary to speak at further length than simply to note that
-they are sometimes found in Saxon graves. Bells--small hand-bells--too,
-are found in the graves of women. They are of bronze or iron, and of
-the rectangular form so characteristic of Saxon bells of larger size.
-
-One of the most curious set of objects which the Saxon graves of
-Derbyshire have produced is a set of twenty-eight bone counters, or
-draughtmen, some of which are shown on the following engraving (fig.
-484) where they are represented of their full size. They were found by
-Mr. Bateman in a barrow near Cold Eaton, along with an interment of
-burnt bones, some fragments of iron, and portions of two bone combs.
-The draughtmen, as they are supposed to be, and the combs, had been
-burnt with the body. The following is Mr. Bateman’s account of this
-curious discovery:--
-
-“The barrow was about twenty yards across, with a central elevation
-of eighteen inches, and was entirely composed of earth. The original
-deposit was placed in a circular hole, eighteen inches in diameter,
-sunk about six inches in the stony surface of the land on which the
-barrow was raised, so that the entire depth from the top of the latter
-was two feet. The interment consisted of a quantity of calcined human
-bones, which lay upon a thin layer of earth at the bottom of the hole,
-as compactly as if they had at first been deposited within a shallow
-basket or similar perishable vessel. Upon them lay some fragments of
-iron, part of two bone combs, and twenty-eight convex objects of bone,
-like button-moulds.
-
-“The pieces of iron have been attached to some article of perishable
-material; the largest fragment has a good-sized loop, as if for
-suspension. One of the combs has been much like the small-tooth comb
-used in our nurseries, and is ornamented by small annulets cut in the
-bone; the other is of more elaborate make, having teeth on each side
-as the former, but being strengthened by a rib up the middle of both
-sides, covered with a finely cut herring-bone pattern, and attached by
-iron rivets.
-
-“The twenty-eight bone objects (of which nine are engraved on fig.
-484) consist of flattened hemispherical pieces, mostly with dots on
-the convex side; in some, dots within annulets. They vary from half an
-inch to an inch in diameter, and have generally eight, nine, or ten
-dots each; but these are disposed so irregularly that it would be
-difficult to count them off-hand, which leads to the conclusion that
-these counters would not be employed for playing any game dependent
-upon numbers, like dominoes or dice, but that they were more probably
-used for a game analogous to draughts. This is most likely to be the
-fact, as draughtmen have occasionally been found in Scandinavian
-grave-mounds; and we must assign this interment to the Saxons, whose
-customs were in many respects identical. All the articles found in this
-barrow have undergone the process of combustion, along with the human
-remains.”
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 484.]
-
-In Yorkshire, some years ago, a stone, marked in small squares like a
-draught-board, was found at Scambridge.[58] In a grave at Gilton, in
-Kent, two small dice, here engraved of their full size (fig. 485), were
-found. They were formed of ivory or bone.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 485.]
-
-Querns, or hand-mills, for grinding corn, have on many occasions been
-found in or about Anglo-Saxon interments. The one engraved on the next
-figure (fig. 486) was found in a Saxon grave in the grounds of Miss
-Worsley, at Winster, along with many other interesting relics. One half
-of the quern had been burnt along with the body, as had also many of
-the stones which formed the mound.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 486.]
-
-The next (fig. 487) is from Kings Newton, the same locality referred to
-under the head of Anglo-Saxon pottery. Portions of stones which have
-evidently formed triturating stones, or grinders, are occasionally
-found in the grave-mounds of different periods. These have doubtless
-been of the same general character with the two here engraved for
-comparison (figs. 488 and 489). Similar stones are found in Ireland.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 487.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 488.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 489.]
-
-Besides the objects here spoken of, a large variety of interesting
-remains of a miscellaneous character are found in the Saxon graves,
-but which, however interesting they may be, do not require in my
-present work to be specially noted.
-
- * * * * *
-
-I have endeavoured in the foregoing pages to give, in as brief a form
-as was consistent with a clear description of the objects, a faithful
-picture of the endless stores of treasures which the grave-mounds
-of our earliest forefathers open out to us, and to point out, with
-the aid of illustrations, the characteristics of each of the three
-great divisions, so as to enable my readers correctly to appropriate
-any remains which may come under their notice. I have purposely,
-and studiously, avoided theory and conjecture as far as was at all
-possible; contenting myself rather with bringing forward facts, which
-observations, personal or otherwise, into the grave-mounds and their
-contents have established, than speculating upon matters which can have
-no real bearing upon the subject.
-
-It is said that “there is nothing new under the sun.” The researches
-which have been made into the grave-mounds of the three great
-periods--the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon--tend
-immeasurably to show the approximate truth of this adage, and my
-readers, from the foregoing pages, will be able to judge pretty
-correctly how many of our so-called _modern_ inventions and appliances
-were common to, and in use by, our predecessors of “centuries and tens
-of centuries” of years gone by.
-
-
-
-
-INDEX.
-
-
- Abney Moor, 75
- Abury, 71
- Adzes, 109, et seq.
- Aldborough, 145
- Ale Glasses, 229, et seq.
- Allemanic Pottery, 221
- Amber Beads, 134
- Anglo-Saxon Armour, 252, et seq.
- Anglo-Saxon Arms, 236 to 264
- Anglo-Saxon Banquet, 231
- Anglo-Saxon Buckets, 280 to 282
- Anglo-Saxon Cellarer, 230
- Anglo-Saxon Coins, 235
- Anglo-Saxon Cup-bearer, 230
- Anglo-Saxon Fibulæ, 267 to 279
- Anglo-Saxon Glass, 228 to 235
- Anglo-Saxon Horse shoes, 264
- Anglo-Saxon Interments, 202 to 213
- Anglo-Saxon Interments in Celtic Barrows, 13
- Anglo-Saxon MSS., 230, 239, 240, 282
- Anglo-Saxon Period, 202 to 298
- Anglo-Saxon Personal Ornaments, 233 to 235
- Anglo-Saxon Poem of Beowulf, 206, et seq., 241, 255, 256
- Anglo-Saxon Population, 202, et seq.
- Anglo-Saxon Pottery, 214 to 227
- Animal Bones, 23, 39
- Arbor-Low, 3, 71, 82, 4, 50, 71, 82, 117
- Arica, 287
- Armlets, 196, 27
- Armour, 248, et seq., 253, 254
- Arrow-heads, Bronze, 193
- Arrow-heads, Flint, 115, et seq.
- Artis, 152, et seq.
- Ash, 241
- Ashborne, 250
- Ashbury, 67
- Avisford, 147
- Axe-heads, 109, et seq.
-
-
- Balidon Moor, 87
- Ballynageerah, 62
- Banquet, 230
- Barlaston, 258 to 263
- Barrows, distribution of, 1
- Barrows, Elliptical, 6
- Barrows, Long, 5
- Barrows, meaning of, 4
- Barrows, (see Grave-mounds)
- Barrows, Twin, 5
- Bartlow, 142, 147, 185
- Basin, Stone, 60
- Baslow, 4, 33
- Bateman, T., 12, 24, 115, 123, 209, 233, 250, 256, 263, 279, 293
- Bath, 149
- Battley, 162
- Beads, Amber, 234
- Beads, Clay, 233
- Beads, Glass, 186, 187
- Beads, Jet, 123, et seq., 233 to 235
- Bells, 292
- Benty Grange, 211, 250, et seq., 257, 261
- Beowulf, 206, et seq., 230, 240, 241, 255, 256
- Berkshire, 67
- Berriew, 80
- Bishopstoke, 144
- Blake-Low, 4
- Blind-Low, 4
- Boar-Low, 4
- Boar, Sacred, 253 to 257
- Bone Implements, 42, 48, 124 to 128
- Bonsall, 275
- Borther-Low, 4
- Bottles-Low, 4
- Boulders, 33
- Bourne Park, 280
- Bowls, 283, 284
- Boxes, Bronze, 257, 284, 285, 286
- Boyne, 57
- Brassington Moor, 74
- Brennanstown, 63
- Brier Low, 3
- Briggs, J. J., 225
- Bronze Bowls, 283, 284
- Bronze Box, 257, 284, 285, 286
- Bronze Celts, 25, 128 to 131
- Bronze Daggers, 48, 130, 131, 132
- Bronze Pins, 35
- Brooch (see Fibulæ)
- Broseley, 165, 168
- Broughton, 35
- Brown-Low, 4
- Buckets, 280, 281, 282
- Buckles, 248, 249, 250
- Burnt Bones, 31 to 43
- Buxton, 3, 122, 123, 250
-
-
- Caerleon, 149
- Calais Wold, 116, 120, 124
- Caldon-Low, 4
- Cal-Low, 4
- Calver-Low, 4
- Cambridgeshire, 35, 289
- Carvoran, 148
- Casking-Low, 4
- Castleford, 196
- Castor 164
- Castor Potter’s Kiln, 152
- Castor Pottery, 152 to 162
- Cellarer, 230
- Celtic or Ancient British Period, 6 to 133
- Celtic Bone Articles, 123 to 126
- Celtic Bronze Celts, 128 to 132
- Celtic Bronze Daggers, 132, 133
- Celtic Chambered Tumuli, 50 to 71
- Celtic Coins, 132, 133
- Celtic Cromlechs, 27, 50 to 71
- Celtic Flint Implements, 114 to 121
- Celtic Gold Articles, 132
- Celtic Interments, 6 to 49
- Celtic Jet Articles, 122 to 125
- Celtic Pottery, 83 to 107
- Celtic Stone Circles, 10, 71 to 82
- Celtic Stone Implements, 108 to 114
- Celts, Bronze, 128 to 131
- Celts, Flint, 122
- Celts, Stone, 109, 110, 111
- Cemeteries, Roman, 134, et seq.
- Cemeteries, Kingston, 212
- Cemeteries, Kings Newton, 212, 222, et seq.
- Cemeteries, Saxon, 212, et seq.
- Chain-work, 254
- Chambers, Sepulchral, 146
- Chambered Tumuli, 55 to 71
- Chambers of Stone, 27, 50, 55 to 71, 146, et seq.
- Channel Islands, 63
- Châtelaines, 289
- Chatham, 160, 162
- Chelmorton-Low, 4
- Chester, 147
- Chesters, 149
- Chestersovers, 219
- Chesterton, 262
- Chest, Stone, 143, et seq.
- Chisels, 109
- Chun Cromlech, 53
- Church Sterndale, 284
- Cinerary Urns, Anglo-Saxon, 214, et seq.
- Cinerary Urns, Celtic, 31, 34, 84 to 95
- Cinerary Urns, Frankish, 221
- Cinerary Urns, Romano-British, 161, et seq.
- Circles of Stone, 10, 71 to 82
- Circles of (see Stone Circles)
- Cist, Stone, 11, et seq., 36
- Clay Coffins, 145
- Cloth, Burial in, 35
- Cloth, Interment in, 35, 45
- Cloth, Woollen Garment, 45, 46
- Cochét, 221
- Cock-Low, 4
- Coffins, Clay, 145.
- Coffins, Lead, 144
- Coffins, Stone, 143
- Coffins, Tile, 147
- Coffins, Wood, 143
- Coins, Ancient British, 133
- Coins, Roman, 32, 55, 136, 141, 187, 188
- Coins, Saxon, 235
- Colchester, 143, 144, 146, 147, 157, 159, 185, 201
- Colchester, Vase, 159
- Cold Eaton, 293
- Combs, 201, 286, 287, 288, 293
- Contracted Positions, 11, et seq.
- Cop-Low, 4
- Cornwall, 2, 51, 75
- Counters, 292 to 295
- Cow Dale, 123
- Cow-Low, 4, 228
- Craike Hill, 43
- Cremation, Interments by, 11, 31, 134, et seq., 202, et seq.
- Cromlech, Ballynageerah, 62
- Cromlech, Brennanstown, 63
- Cromlech, Chun, 53, 54
- Cromlech, De Tus, 27
- Cromlech, Drumloghan, 61
- Cromlech, Gaulstown, 62
- Cromlech, Gib Hill, 43
- Cromlech, Glencullen, 63
- Cromlech, Howth, 63
- Cromlech, Kells, 61
- Cromlech, Kilternan, 63
- Cromlech, Kits Coty House, 53
- Cromlech, Knockeen, 61
- Cromlech, Knock Mary, 63
- Cromlech, L’Ancresse, 63
- Cromlech, Lanyon, 51, 52
- Cromlech, Minning-Low, 54, 55
- Cromlech, Molfra, 54
- Cromlech, Monasterboise, 61
- Cromlech, Mount Brown, 63
- Cromlech, Mount Venus, 63
- Cromlech, Plas Newydd, 54, 55
- Cromlech, Rathkenny, 63
- Cromlech, Shandanagh, 63
- Cromlech, Zennor, 54
- Cronkstone-Low, 4
- Cross, 253, 269
- Cup-bearer, 239
-
-
- Daggers, Bronze, 130, 131, 132
- Daggers, Flint, 117, et seq.
- Daggers, Iron, 242, 243
- Danish interments, 44 to 50
- Darley Dale, 92, 94
- Dars-Low, 4
- Dartmoor, 75
- Darwen, 90
- Davis, Dr., 16, 22
- Derbyshire Barrows, 2, 3, 4, 16, et seq.
- Devonshire, 75
- Dewlish, 7
- Dice, 294, 295
- Discs, enamelled, etc., 260 to 264
- Dominoes, 294
- Dorsetshire Barrows, 2, 3, 7, 47, 91
- Double interments, 25, 29, 30
- Dove Dale, 128
- Dow-Low, 4
- Dowth, 59, 61, 66
- Drake-Low, 4
- Draughtboard, 294
- Draughtmen, 292, 293, 294
- Draughts, Game, 292, 293, 294
- Drinking Cup, 43, 44, 100 to 104, 251, 282, 283
- Druidical Circles, 10, 71 to 82
- Durobrivian Pottery, 152 to 162
-
-
- Earl Stemdale, 3
- Ear-picks, 289
- East-Low Hill, 146
- East-Moor, 75
- Elk-Low, 4, 72
- Ely, 107
- Enamelled Discs, etc., 260 to 264
- Enamels, 251, 266, 267, et seq.
- Enamels, Chinese, 260
- Enamels, Roman, 196
- Enamels, Saxon, 260 to 264
- End-Low, 4
- Envermeu, 282
- Extended positions, 11, et seq.
-
-
- Fairford, 280
- Fairholt, F.W., 278
- Farlow, 4
- Faussett Collection, 217
- Fibulæ, Anglo-Saxon, 266 to 279
- Fibulæ, Roman, 193 to 196
- Fimber, 43, 44, 97, 124
- Flax Dale, 33, 71
- Fleming, G., 264
- “Flint-Jack,” 115
- Flint Acutely Angled, 119
- Flint Barbed Arrow-heads, 115, 116
- Flint Celts, 122, 123
- Flint Dagger-blades, 117, 118
- Flint Flakes, 121
- Flint Implements, 115 to 123
- Flint Leaf-shaped, 119
- Flint Notched, 118, 120
- Flint Thumb, 122
- Flint Various, 121, 122
- Food Vessels, 44, 95 to 100
- Foo Low, 4
- Fowse-Low, 4
- Fox-Low, 4
- Frankish Pottery, 221
- Froggatt Edge, 75
-
-
- Galley-Low, 4
- Garment, Woollen, 45
- Gaulstown, 62
- Germany, 160
- Gib-Low, 4
- Gilton, 295
- Girdle-hangers, 289, 290, 291
- Girdle-Ornaments, 290, 291
- Glass, Ale, 229, 230, 232
- Glass, Beads, 185, 231 to 235
- Glass, Bowls, 186, 228, 229
- Glass, Decanters (?) 231
- Glass, Lachrymatories, 186
- Glass, Roman, 145, 185 to 188
- Glass, Saxon, 228 to 235
- Glass, Sepulchral Vessels, 185
- Glass, Tumblers, 229
- Glencullen, 63
- Gloucester, 201
- Gloucestershire, 70
- Gold Articles, 132, 133, 266 to 279
- Gold Drops, 279
- Gold Torques, 133, 196 to 199
- Gospel Hillock, 104, 121, 123, 124
- Grave-mounds, Anglo-Saxon, 202 to 298
- Grave-mounds, Celtic, 6 to 132
- Grave-mounds, Construction of, 6, et seq., 33, 38, 134 to 143, 202
- to 213
- Grave-mounds, Danish (?) 44 to 50
- Grave-mounds, Distribution of, 2
- Grave-mounds, Romano-British, 134 to 201
- Great-Low, 4
- Green-Low, 4, 114, 115
- Grimthorpe, 238, 245, 246, 263
- Grinders (see Querns)
- Grind-Low, 4, 100
- Gris-Low, 4
- Gristhorpe, 44
- Grub-Low, 4
- Gruter, 135
- Guernsey, 27
- Gunthorpe, 116, 120
-
-
- Haddon, 141
- Hair-pins, 290, 292
- Hammer-head, 42, 109, et seq.
- Hampshire, 143, 149
- Hand-mills, 295, 296
- Hard-Low, 4
- Har-Low, 4
- Hartington, 3
- Hartle Moor, 74
- Hatchet, 109, 113
- Hathersage Moor, 75
- Hawks-Low, 4
- Hay Top, 100
- Helmets, 248, et seq.
- Herns-Low, 4
- High-Low, 4
- High-Needham, 3
- Hitter Hill, 6, et seq., 16, 98
- Hob Hurst’s House, 33
- Hog’s Bones, 23
- Horning-Low, 4
- Horse-shoes, 201, 264, 265
- Horsley, 114
- Houe, meaning of, 4
- Howth, 63
- Huck-Low, 4
-
-
- Immolation of Infants, 106
- Immolation of Slaves, 106
- Immolation of Wives, 91, 106
- Incense Cups, 84, 104 to 107
- Inscriptions, Sepulchral, 135, 148, 149, 150
- Interment by Cremation, 11, 31, 134, et seq., 202, et seq.
- Interment by Inhumation, 11 to 49, 134, et seq.
- Interment in Cloth, 35, 45, 46
- Interment in Skin, 35
- Interment in Tree-Coffins, 44 to 50
- Interment in Pit, 43
- Inverted Urns, 33, 34
- Ireland, 28, 63, 113
-
-
- Javelins, 243, 244
- Jet, 25, 44, 123 to 126
- Jet, Necklaces, 44, 123, 124, 125
- Jet, Pendants, 124, 126
- Jet, Ring, 126
- Jet, Studs, 123, 124, 126
- Jutland, 46
-
-
- Kells, 28
- Kens-Low, 4
- Kent, 53
- Keys, 201, 289, 292
- Kilkenny, 63
- Kilternan, 63
- Kingsholme, 144
- Kingston, 212, 215, 266, 267
- Kings Newton, 212, 214 to 227, 295
- Kirk Michael, 274
- Kit’s Coty House, 53
- Kneeling position, 11, et seq.
- Knives, 193, 242, 243
- Knock-Low, 4
- Knok Mary, 63
- Knot-Low, 4
-
-
- Lady-Low, 4
- Laidman’s-Low, 4
- Lake Dwellings, 45
- Lamp, 201
- Lancashire, 90
- Lapwing Hill, 209
- Lark’s-Low, 4
- Lead Coffins, 144, 145
- Lead Ore, 31
- Lead Pigs of, 32
- Lead Smelting, 32
- Lean-Low, 4
- Leckhampton, 258
- Lewes, 257
- Liffs-Low, 4, 42
- Lillebonne, 177
- Lincoln, 257
- Lincolnshire, 35
- Lindenschmidt, 219, 265
- Little Chester, 142, 168, 169, 190
- Locks, 201, 292
- Lollius, 135
- Lomber-Low, 4
- Londinières, 221
- London, 135, 142, 143, 144, 148, 171, 175, et seq.
- Long Low, 36
- Lord’s Down, 7
- Low, meaning of, 4
- Low, (see Grave-mounds)
- Lowsey-Low, 4
- Lukis, Capt. 123
- Lukis, F. C., 27
-
-
- Mail, Coat of, 255, 256
- Mauls, 109, et seq.
- Mayence, 219
- May-Low, 4
- Medway, 160
- Mick-Low, 4
- Mickleover, 114
- Middleton, 3, 33, 41, 123, 261
- Minning-Low, 54, 141
- Mirrors, 199, 290
- Modelling Tools, 124
- Money-Low, 4
- Monsal Dale, 28, 86, 98
- Mortimer, 43, 44, 97, 124
- Moot-Low, 4, 127, 128
- Mount Brown, 63
- Mount Venus, 63
- Musden-Low, 4
- Mutti-Low Hill, 35
-
-
- Nail-cleaners, 289
- Necklace, Glass, 187, 232, et seq.
- Necklace, Jet, 44, 123 to 126
- Necklace, Jet, and Bone, 124
- Needham-Low, 4
- Needwood, 198
- Nen, 152
- Nether-Low, 4
- New Forest, 149, 165
- New Grange, 61, 66
- Newhaven, 3, 256
- Normandy, 174
- North Elmham, 217
- Northumberland, 46, 148
- Nowth, 59
-
-
- Ochre, 43
- Off-Low, 4
- Oghams, 61, 277
- Otterham Creek, 162
- Over Haddon, 284
- Oxfordshire, 164
- Ox-Low, 4
- Ozengall, 144, 211
-
-
- Painstor-Low, 4
- Palstaves, 128
- Paradis, 27
- Parcelly Hay, 3, 25, 26
- Pars-Low, 4
- Parwich, 141
- Peg-Low, 4
- Pendants, Bone, 125, 126
- Pendants, Enamelled, etc., 260 to 264
- Pendants, Gold, 279
- Pendants, Jet, 124 to 126
- Penannular Brooch (see Fibulæ)
- Phœnix Park, 63
- Pigtor-Low, 4
- Pike-Low, 4
- Pinch-Low, 4
- Pins, Hair, 290, 292
- Pit Interments, 43, 44
- Plymouth, 192, 193, 199
- Pottery, Amphoræ, 171, 172
- Pottery, Anglo-Saxon, 214 to 227
- Pottery, Celtic, 83 to 108
- Pottery, Domestic Vessels, etc., 170 to 174
- Pottery, Drinking Cups, Celtic, 100 to 104
- Pottery, Durobrivian or Castor, 151, 152 to 162
- Pottery, Food Vessels, Celtic, 95 to 100
- Pottery, Frankish, 214 to 227
- Pottery, Hampshire, 151, 165, 166
- Pottery, Handled Cups, Celtic, 107
- Pottery, “Incense Cups,” Celtic, 104 to 107
- Potters’ Kilns, 152, 154, 183
- Potters’ Marks, 176, 177, 178
- Potters’ Mortaria, 172, 173
- Potters’ Punches, 227
- Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Celtic, 31, 34, 84 to 95
- Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Roman, 156 et seq.
- Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Saxon, 215 to 227
- Potters’ Stamps, 177, 227
- Potters’ Unguentaria, 171 to 174
- Potters, Manufacture of, 84, 152 to 184, 227
- Potters, Romano-British, 151 to 184
- Potters, Salopian, 151, 164, 165
- Potters, Samian, 151, 157 to 184
- Potters, Upchurch, 151, 162, 163, 164
- Potters, Yorkshire, 151, 166
-
-
- Queen-Low, 4
- Querns, 295, 296 (see also Grinders and Triturating Stones)
-
-
- Rains-Low, 4
- Rangoon, 287
- Rats’ Bones, 16, 87, 90
- Ravens-Low, 4
- Red Ochre, 43
- Repton, 213
- Ribden-Low, 4
- Rick-Low, 4
- Rigollot, 220
- Ringham-Low, 4, 116, 119, 120
- Rings, 235
- Rings, Jet, 124, 126
- Rochester, 147
- Rocky-Low, 4
- Rollrich, 71
- Rolly-Low, 4, 34
- Roman Arms, etc., 190, et seq.
- Roman Cemeteries, 134, et seq.
- Roman Coins, 55, 141, 187, 188
- Roman Coins, as payment for passage over Styx, 136, 141
- Roman Glass 184 to 188
- Roman Personal Ornaments, 193, et seq.
- Roman Population, 134, et seq.
- Roman Pottery, 151 to 184
- Romano-British Period, 134 to 201
- Rouge, 43
- Round-Low, 4, 32
- Roundway Hill, 16, 100
- Rusden-Low, 4
- Runes, 241
-
-
- Sacrifice of Infants, 106
- Sacrifice of Slaves, 106
- Sacrifice of Wives, 91, 106
- Saint-Low, 4
- Salona, 147
- Salopian Pottery, 164, 165
- Samian Ware, 175 to 184
- Sancreed, 76
- Sarcophagus, 143, et seq.
- Scales and Weights, 292
- Scambridge, 294, 295
- Scarborough, 47
- Scissors, 289
- Scrapers of Flint, 121
- Seax, 240, et seq.
- Selzen, 219
- Selzen, 265
- Sepulchral remains, Anglo-Saxon, 202 to 298
- Sepulchral remains, Celtic, 1 to 133
- Sepulchral remains, Frankish, 221
- Sepulchral remains, Danish, 44 to 50
- Sepulchral remains, Romano-British, 134 to 201
- Sepulchral Chambers, 146
- Sepulchral Glass, 185
- Sepulchral Inscriptions, 135, 148, et seq., 217
- Sepulchral Urns (see Cinerary Urns)
- Shandanagh, 63
- Shears, 289
- Shields, 243 to 248
- Shields, Umbones of, 246, 247, 261
- Shields, from MSS., 248
- Shuttlestone-Low, 24, 130
- Sibertswold, 247, 282
- Sitting-Low, 4
- Sitting position, 11, et seq.
- Skeleton, positions of, 11, et seq.
- Skins, interment in, 24, 35
- Skull, Hitter Hill, 21
- Skull, distributions of, 22
- Skull, Long-Low, 39
- Skull, Gristhorpe, 47
- Sliper-Low, 5
- Smerrill Moor, 12
- Smith, C. R., 160, 164, 204, 216, 255
- Southfleet, 144
- Spear-heads, 190, 192, 243, 244
- Spindle-whorls, 114
- Staden-Low, 4
- Staffordshire Barrows, 4, 86, 89, 92, 96
- Stan-Low, 4
- Stanshope, 132
- Stanton Moor, 73
- Sterndale, 33, 284
- Stone Chambers, 27, 50, 55 to 71, 146, et seq.
- Stone Circles, 10, 27, 34, 71 to 82
- Stone Circles, Abney Moor, 75
- Stone Circles, Abury, 71
- Stone Circles, Arbor-Low, 3, 71, 82
- Stone Circles, Berriew, 80
- Stone Circles, Boscawen-Un, 80
- Stone Circles, Brassington Moor, 74
- Stone Circles, Channel Islands, 78
- Stone Circles, Cornish, 75
- Stone Circles, Dartmoor, 75
- Stone Circles, East Moor, 75
- Stone Circles, Elk-Low, 72
- Stone Circles, Eyam Moor, 74
- Stone Circles, Flax Dale, 71
- Stone Circles, formation of, 71
- Stone Circles, Froggatt Edge, 75
- Stone Circles, Haitle Moor, 74
- Stone Circles, Hathersage Moor, 75
- Stone Circles, Isle of Man, 76, 78
- Stone Circles, Mule Hill, 78
- Stone Circles, “Nine Ladies,” 73, 74
- Stone Circles, Penmeanmaur, 80, 81
- Stone Circles, Rollrich, 71
- Stone Circles, Sancreed, 76
- Stone Circles, Stanton Moor, 73, 74
- Stone Circles, Stonehenge, 71
- Stone Circles, Trewavas, Head, 76
- Stone Cists, 11, 17, et seq., 33, 36, et seq., 143, et seq.
- Stone Coffins, 143, 144, et seq.
- Stone Implements of, 109, et seq.
- Stone, 92
- Stoney Littleton, 67
- Stonehenge, 71
- Stowborough, 47
- Strigils, 201
- Studs, Bone, 122,126
- Studs, Jet, 124, 126
- Sussex, 146
- Suttee, 91
- Sutton Brow, 92
- Swinscoe, 22
- Swiss Lake Villages, 45
- Swords, Roman, 190, 191
- Swords Saxon, 236 to 242
- Swords from MSS., 239, 240
- Swordsman, 240
-
-
- Taddington, 67, 69
- Tara Brooch, 278
- Thirkel-Low, 4
- Thirsk, 92
- Thoo-Low, 4, 5
- Three-Lows, 5
- Thumb Flints, 121
- Tile Tombs, 147, 148
- Tissington, 13, 211, 236, 247
- Toothpicks, 289
- Torques, 133, 196 to 199
- Totmans-Low, 4
- Tree-Coffins, 44, 45, 50
- Trentham, 89, 96
- Triturating Stones, 114, 295, 296
- (see also “Querns”)
- Tump, meaning of, 4
- Tumuli, Chambered, 55 to 71
- (see Grave-mounds)
- Tumulus, Etruscan, 55
- Twin-Barrows, 37, 78, 79
- Tweezers, 201, 289
-
-
- Uley, 70
- Umbones of Shields, 246, 247, 261
- Upchurch, 162, et seq.
- Upchurch, Pottery, 162 to 164
- Upright position, 11, et seq.
- Uriconium, 137, (see also Wroxeter)
-
-
- Vale, 27
- Vole, Water, 16, 89, 90
-
-
- Ward-Low, 5, 34
- Warry-Low, 5
- Water Rat, 16, 89, 90
- Water Vole, 16, 89, 90
- Wath, 47
- Wedgwood, F., 258
- Weights, 292
- Wellbeloved, 163
- Wellow, 67
- West Lodge, 157
- Westwood, 253
- Wetton, 193
- Whetstones, 114
- White-Low, 5
- Willoughby, 113
- Wilson, C. C., 278
- Wiltshire Barrows, 2, 16, 100
- Winster, 3, 111, 211, 268, 269, 295, 296
- Withery-Low, 5
- Woolaton, 109
- Woollen Cloth, 45
- Wool-Low, 5
- Worsaae, 255
- Worsley, Miss, 295
- Wright, T., 135, 151, et seq., 176, et seq., 216
- Wroxeter, 137, 141, 147, 162 to 165
- Wyaston, 210, 233
- Wye, 28
- Wykeham, 98
-
-
- Yarns-Low, 5
- York, 142, 143, 144, et seq.
- Yorkshire Barrows, 2, 5, 7, 25, 35, 44, 47, 97, 164
- Yorkshire Pottery, 151
- Youlgreave, 33
-
-
-Watson & Hazell, Printers, London and Aylesbury.
-
-
-
-
-Dedicated to the Right Hon. LORD LYTTON.
-
-_In One handsome Volume, Foolscap 4to., cloth gilt, price 25s_.
-
-WOMANKIND
-
-IN WESTERN EUROPE,
-
-from the Earliest Ages to the Seventeenth Century.
-
-=By THOMAS WRIGHT, M.A., F.S.A.=
-
-Illustrated with numerous Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings.
-
- * * * * *
-
-
-“It is something more than a drawing-room ornament. It is an elaborate
-and careful summary of all that one of our most learned antiquaries,
-after years of pleasant labour, on a very pleasant subject, has been
-able to learn as to the condition of women from the earliest times.
-It is beautifully illustrated, both in colours--mainly from ancient
-illuminations--and also by a profusion of woodcuts, portraying the
-various fashions by which successive ages of our history have been
-marked.”--_The Times_.
-
-
-“We should be at a loss to find words of excessive praise for the
-learning, judgment, and delicate art with which the author has
-gathered, arranged, and presented the multifarious materials of
-a fascinating narrative, that would be told effectively by the
-embellishments of the book, even if the illustrations were not
-accompanied with words of explanatory text.”--_Athenæum_.
-
-
-“This is much more than a pretty illustrated book. It is a repertory
-of antiquarian literature on the costume, social habits, domestic
-pursuits, and position of the sex, and the illustrations are from
-all sorts of recondite sources--MS. illuminations of the Romances,
-Psalters, and Chronicles. It reflects great credit on the writer, whose
-vast stores of information and research have been, in this instance,
-well employed. The volume is quite an encyclopædia on a special
-subject.”--_Saturday Review_.
-
-
-“As a work of art, no less than of literary elucidation, this book is
-perfect in all its parts, and most honourable to its publishers....
-The letterpress enhances the value of the work itself a hundredfold,
-as might have been expected from so well known and learned an
-antiquarian as Mr. Wright, whose participation in so choice a work
-makes it in every respect worthy of a place in every public and
-well-selected library, where art and literature are alike patronized
-and admired.”--_Bell’s Weekly Messenger_.
-
-
-“We cannot justly class Mr. Wright’s ‘Womankind’ amongst the ephemeral
-books of the season; yet it is admirably suited to answer the purpose
-of a gift-book--and much more; and it would be unfair to leave it
-until its less solid neighbours had been cleared out of hand. The
-high antiquarian renown of the author would alone guarantee that
-we should have no frivolous, superficial dissertation on the mere
-outward phenomena of ‘femininity’ in past times--no mere sentimental
-declamation in favour of woman’s advancement to a social place which
-she never before claimed. On the contrary, we have a faithful,
-unshrinking, photographically minute account of the relations between
-women and men, and of female manners, dress, social duties, and
-position, literary achievements, and participation in public life, from
-the date at which authentic history takes cognizance of the condition
-of the European nations.... Mr. Wright’s ‘Womankind’--like the ideal of
-the gentle sex--is fitted, not for the festive season alone, but for
-every time.”--_Daily Telegraph._
-
-
-“The author’s name, on whatever subject he writes, is a guarantee for
-thorough scholarship, solid information, lucid exposition, and careful
-delineation; and in this work all these qualities are conspicuous. Mr.
-Wright believes, and with good reason, ‘that a history of the female
-sex, in that particular division of mankind to which we ourselves
-belong, would not be unacceptable to the general reader.’ Such a
-history he has here produced, and in doing so, has left nothing to
-be desired.... In every sense this is a splendid book, for which we
-heartily thank Mr. Wright.”--_Illustrated Times._
-
-
-“Never has history been made more charming than in this excellent
-volume. Whatever page is opened, some pleasant little narrative,
-historic or romantic; some sketch of the womankind of Chaucer’s days,
-or of the heroines of the Romaunt of the Rose; some striking pictures
-of Anglo-Saxon life, or some quaint costumes, or ever-changing
-fashions, constantly attract, and interest, and inform.”--_Birmingham
-Daily Post._
-
-
-“To the general public, the appearance of such a work is a surprise,
-the more agreeable because, while it is the work of an accomplished
-scholar, who has nowhere deviated from the scholar’s path to win
-ephemeral applause, it nevertheless appeals to universal sympathies,
-and so abounds in attractions as to demand to be regarded as
-emphatically _the_ book of the season.”--_Gardeners’ Magazine._
-
-
-“Externally and internally it is absolutely splendid, the binding and
-illustrations being a perfect marvel of beauty and richness. But in
-the interest of its subject, as well as in its mode of treatment, Mr.
-Wright’s present work will command the respect and praise of the man
-of letters and the philosopher, quite as much as it is sure to enlist
-the sympathies and extort the admiration of a less exacting class of
-readers. The book is beautifully written, the style being at once
-chaste and ornate.”--_Eddowes’s Shrewsbury Journal._
-
-
-“It is one of the most interesting, instructive, and valuable books
-of the nineteenth century. At this particular period of the agitation
-of woman’s rights, we may say in truth that this book is a treasury
-of knowledge to the historian, the politician, the moral philosopher,
-and the reformer; while, at the same time, in its romantic incidents
-illustrative of social life in different ages of Western Europe, it
-surpasses in interest the most skilful and attractive fictions of the
-day.”--_New York Morning Herald._
-
-
-GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.
-
-
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[1] Of this stone circle, one of the next in importance to Stonehenge,
-an account will be given in a future chapter.
-
-[2] This remarkable barrow was excavated by Mr. Warne, and a fully
-detailed account given by him in his valuable work, the “Celtic
-Antiquities of Dorset,” from which the illustration is taken.
-
-[3] See Crania Britannica, one of the most valuable ethnological works
-ever issued.
-
-[4] It will be well to bear in mind that when “rats’ bones” are
-mentioned, it must be understood that they are the bones, not of the
-common rat, but of the water-vole or water-rat. They are very abundant
-in Derbyshire barrows, and, indeed, are so frequently found in them,
-that their presence in a mound is considered to be a certain indication
-of the presence of human remains. “The barrows of Derbyshire, a hilly,
-almost mountainous, county, abounding with beautiful brooks and rills,
-inhabited by the water-vole, were made use of for its _hybernacula_,
-or winter retreats, into which it stored its provisions, and where it
-passed its time during the cold and frosty season. It is a rodent,
-or gnawer, or vegetable eater, and, as I have described elsewhere,
-has a set of grinding-teeth of the utmost beauty, and fitted most
-admirably for the food on which it lives. The part of the matter which
-is curious to the antiquary is, that the bones in Derbyshire barrows
-are frequently perceived to have been gnawed by the scalpri-form
-incisors of these animals. I have endeavoured to explain, in the
-note referred to, that all the rodents amuse themselves, or possibly
-preserve their teeth in a naturally useful state, and themselves in
-health, by gnawing any object that comes in their way. This is well
-known to every boy who keeps rabbits. I remember, some years ago,
-seeing a very fine black squirrel in the house of a workman in this
-town, which had been sent him by his son from Canada. It was found that
-it was impossible to keep this animal in any wooden house. He would
-gnaw a road out of the strongest wooden cage that could be made for
-him, in a few hours. In consequence, his owner made him a _tin cage_,
-in which he was kept securely. In confirmation of what I have said
-respecting the water-voles, vegetable feeders, gnawing the bones of the
-ancient Britons in barrows, I may refer to Linnæus’s most interesting
-_Tour in Lapland_. When in Lycksele, Lapland, June 1, he describes the
-_Kodda_, or hut of the Laplander, and incidentally remarks, “Everywhere
-around the huts I observed horns of the reindeer lying neglected, and
-it is remarkable that they were gnawed, and sometimes half devoured,
-by squirrels.”--I. 127. That is, if anything were truly devoured, it
-was the antlers, not the bodies. “The bones of the _Arvicola_, or
-water-vole, were found in the exploration of the colossal tumulus of
-Fontenay de Marmion, which was one of the galleried tumuli, opened in
-1829, near Caen in Normandy. It belonged to the primeval period of the
-ancient Gauls.--Mem. de la Soc. des Antiq. de Normandie, 1831-3, p.
-282.”--_Dr. Davis._
-
-[5] See Note on the Distortions which present themselves in the crania
-of the Ancient Britons, by J. Barnard Davis, M.D., in the “Natural
-History Review” for July, 1862, page 290.
-
-[6] The elliptical form was evidently, in this case, the result of
-accident. The original mound had been circular, but the elongated form
-had been the consequence of successive interments.
-
-[7] Plate II., Decade 1.
-
-[8] Journal of the British Archæological Association, vol. i, p. 25.
-
-[9] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 78.
-
-[10] There are in Derbyshire lead mines worked at the present day which
-were worked, at all events, in the Romano-British period. Roman coins,
-fibulæ, and other remains are occasionally found in them.
-
-[11] “Ten Years’ Diggings.”
-
-[12] Although I am describing the position in which the urns have been
-placed, it must not for a moment be supposed that they are often found
-in a perfect state, or in the position in which they have originally
-been placed. On the contrary, the urns are usually very much crushed,
-and not unfrequently, from pressure of the superincumbent mass of
-stones and earth, are found on their sides, and crushed flat.
-
-[13] This skull has been most skilfully figured in “Crania Britannica,”
-where it is carefully described and compared with other examples by Dr.
-Davis, who gives an admirable account of the discoveries at Long-Low,
-and of the characteristics of the different crania found there. Of the
-skull here shown Dr. Davis says it is “remarkably regular, narrow,
-and long; of good shape, medium thickness, and presenting few of the
-harsh peculiarities of the ancient British race; on the contrary, there
-is about it an air of slenderness and refinement. In some features
-it assimilates to the modern English cranium, although decidedly
-narrow, whilst its genuine and remote antiquity is determined by
-unquestioned evidence. It belongs, in an eminent degree, to the class
-of dolichocephalic skulls, and is the cranium of a man of about forty
-years of age.”
-
-[14] Described in the “Reliquary,” vol. ix.
-
-[15] For a full account of this discovery see the “Reliquary,” vol. vi.
-page 1.
-
-[16] This woollen cloth must be regarded as a _woven_ texture, but
-whether it were woven in so artificial a machine as a loom may be
-questioned. A great variety of contrivances have been used for weaving,
-_i.e._, crossing alternately threads passed in opposite directions,
-the warp and the woof, by what are called _savage_ races. Still it is
-not at all improbable that a people so advanced in pastoral habits,
-possessed some machine for weaving, bearing a relation to a primitive
-loom. Both warp and woof are composed, as might be expected, of a
-simply spun thread of one strand. Perforated stones are found in
-British and Danish barrows, and perforated pieces of earthenware in the
-Swiss Lake villages, even of the stone period, which are regarded as
-spindle-whorls.
-
-[17] It is worthy of remark, that this noble mound, with its very early
-interments, has been made a place of sepulture in more recent times,
-many Roman coins and remains of that period having been found there.
-
-[18] These immense monoliths have originally, it is estimated, been
-upwards of thirty in number, and to have been placed probably ten
-yards apart. The largest remaining stone stands between eight and nine
-feet above the ground, and is seventeen feet in circumference. It is
-estimated to weigh upwards of seven tons. Several of the stones have
-entirely disappeared, of others fragments remain scattered about.
-
-[19] For an excellent notice of this and other remains, the reader is
-referred to Mr. W. F. Wakeman’s “Handbook of Irish Antiquities,”--the
-best and most compact little work on the subject which has been issued,
-and one which will be found extremely useful to the archæological
-student--to which I am indebted for some of the accompanying engravings.
-
-[20] For the loan of these seven engravings I am indebted to the
-Council of the “Historical and Archæological Association of Ireland,”
-(formerly the “Kilkenny and South-east of Ireland Archæological
-Society,”) in whose journal--one of the most valuable of antiquarian
-publications--they have appeared. This Association is one of the most
-useful that has ever been established, and deserves the best support,
-not only of Irish, but of English antiquaries.
-
-[21] F. C. Lukis.
-
-[22] Vol. i. p. 142.
-
-[23] T. Wright.
-
-[24] “Archæological Journal,” vol xi., p. 315.
-
-[25] For articles upon this subject see the “Reliquary, Quarterly
-Archæological Journal and Review,” vol. ii., pages 61 to 70; and Mr.
-Bateman’s “Ten Years’ Diggings,” page 279.
-
-[26] This barrow has been admirably described in that magnificent work,
-“CRANIA BRITANNICA,”--a work which every ethnologist and antiquary
-ought to possess, and which contains far more information than any
-other book extant. The following extract from the work explains the
-section:--
-
-“Above this cist a cairn of fragments of sandstone had been raised
-most likely before interments by cremation were practised on the spot.
-The dark horizontal line of our woodcut indicates the situation of a
-stratum of burnt earth traversing the barrow at this height. Funereal
-rites, by incineration, had evidently been celebrated on this surface;
-which was scattered over with a thin layer of wood-charcoal. In the
-centre of the barrow, and resting upon this carbonaceous deposit,
-stood a fine urn of dark British pottery, 11 inches high, and 9 at its
-greatest diameter at the top; not in the more commonly inverted, but
-in an upright position. It is ornamented in the usual style of lineal
-impressions, most probably made by a twisted thong of untanned leather,
-with rows of lines, alternately upright and horizontal, around the
-upper division; and in the middle the lines are varied into the zigzag,
-having distinct _crosses_ and other impressions in the intervals. It
-contained calcined bones in a clean state, and mingled with them a
-portion of the jaw of some animal; bones of the water-vole (_Arvicola
-amphibius_, Desmar.), so common in the Derbyshire barrows; a bone
-pin, 4 inches in length, and finely pointed; and a flint arrow-head;
-all calcined. The urn was closed by a large flat stone, the two ends
-of which rested upon side walls, so as to protect the deposit, and
-secure it from superincumbent pressure. Did this urn contain the
-inconsiderable yet sacred remains of one whose devotion in life the
-distinguished dead below had oft experienced--one who held life itself
-subordinate to his fate? The fearful conjecture seems not by any means
-improbable.
-
-“Interred in the soil above this portion of the barrow, and lying
-amongst loose stones, the remains of four other skeletons occurred,
-placed in the primitive flexed position. One of these had apparently
-been disturbed at no long period subsequent to interment, and the bones
-laid in order before they had become decayed--a practice adopted by
-some uncivilized people in more modern times.
-
-“This barrow of the British period presents unquestionable evidences
-of very primeval times, and contained the relics of a true aboriginal
-inhabitant of these islands, piously laid in his last resting-place
-with great care, but in all rude simplicity. It is rich in instruction,
-and marked by precise phases of information. It shows almost certainly
-the contemporaneous adoption of inhumation and cremation--the latter,
-perhaps, yielding to the first a short precedency; or possibly, in this
-instance, a rite of the nature of a “Suttee,” and subordinate to the
-former.”
-
-[27] Warne’s “Celtic Tumuli of Dorsetshire.”
-
-[28] _Celt_, from _Celtis_, a chisel.
-
-[29] This is one of the largest examples which have been found. It is
-in my own collection, having been most kindly presented to me by the
-Hon. and Rev. C. Willoughby.
-
-[30] For a lengthened description and classification of the various
-forms of stone implements, the reader is referred to a new work, “The
-Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,” by that able antiquary,
-Mr. John Evans, the author of the admirable volume on “Ancient British
-Coins,” by which his name is so well known.
-
-[31] For a memoir, with portrait, of this remarkable character, and an
-account of his doings, see the _Reliquary_, vol, viii., p. 65, _et seq._
-
-[32] “Ten Years’ Diggings.”
-
-[33] _Reliquary_ for October, 1861.
-
-[34] “Nec habet quem porrigat ore trientem.”--JUVENAL.
-
-[35] The skull of one of these, an excellent typical example of a Roman
-in the very prime of life, is engraved in “Crania Britannica,” pl. 30.
-
-[36] See example in the York museum.
-
-[37] “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. iii., p. 45.
-
-[38] “Proceedings of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society;”
-Wellbeloved’s “Eburacum;” “Crania Britannica,” etc.
-
-[39] Now in the Bateman Museum.
-
-[40] See the _Reliquary_, vol. iv., p. 185.
-
-[41] In the _Intellectual Observer_.
-
-[42] See Mr. Roach Smith’s interesting account of this vase in the
-“Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. iv., pp. 82-89.
-
-[43] Wright.
-
-[44] Thomas Wright.
-
-[45] Wright.
-
-[46] For an interesting account of these potteries, see Wise’s “New
-Forest.”
-
-[47] For a detailed account of all the different pot-works and their
-productions, see my “Ceramic Art in England.”
-
-[48] C. R. Smith.
-
-[49] Shields.
-
-[50] Armour.
-
-[51] A detailed account of this discovery will be found, from the pens
-of Mr. Briggs, the Editor, and others, in the “Reliquary,” vol. ix.
-
-[52] Coat of mail.
-
-[53] C. R. Smith.
-
-[54] See the “Reliquary Quarterly Archæological Journal and Review,”
-vol. ix. p. 180.
-
-[55] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 28.
-
-[56] “Vestiges,” p. 24.
-
-[57] For a more extended and fully illustrated account of penannular
-brooches, the reader is referred to the “Reliquary,” vol. iii.
-
-[58] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 231.
-
-
-
-
- * * * * * *
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber's note:
-
-Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.
-
-One instance of unpaired double quotation marks in the original
-was not corrrected.
-
-
-
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