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diff --git a/old/52835-0.txt b/old/52835-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a169363..0000000 --- a/old/52835-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3303 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art of Lead Burning, by C. H. Fay - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Art of Lead Burning - A practical treatise explaining the apparatus and processes. - -Author: C. H. Fay - -Release Date: August 18, 2016 [EBook #52835] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ART OF LEAD BURNING *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - The Art of Lead Burning - - _A PRACTICAL TREATISE EXPLAINING THE APPARATUS AND PROCESSES._ - _52 ILLUSTRATIONS._ - - - By C. H. FAY - - Reprinted from - _The Metal Worker, Plumber and Steam Fitter_. - - PUBLISHED BY - DAVID WILLIAMS COMPANY, - 232-238 William St., New York, - 1905. - - - - - Copyrighted, 1905. - - By - - David Williams Company. - - - - - PREFACE. - - -The mystery which has always surrounded the work of the lead burner, -like that of all other handicrafts outside of ordinary occupations, -dissolves under the light of a full knowledge of the causes and effects -that have a bearing upon it. While different works have treated on lead -burning, it is the object of this special treatise to explain fully in -detail every part of the apparatus and fixtures in common use, as well -as their application, so that the careful reader may understand and -acquire the art of lead burning by observing scrupulously the rules laid -down and devoting sufficient time to practice to master it. This -instruction, given by text and illustration, is only presented after the -dangerous power of hydrogen gas when misused is thoroughly impressed on -the reader. It would be well for all who hope to become lead burners to -devote several evenings, with an interval between, to a thorough study -of the chapters on hydrogen gas and its properties before taking any -further steps. To those who have not had previous experience with -chemicals and gases this preliminary study is indispensable for their -own safety, for the successful operation of the apparatus and to insure -satisfactory work. When fully familiar with the properties of hydrogen -gas and the necessity of being careful when it is used little difficulty -will be experienced in acquiring a full knowledge of the apparatus and -fixtures. The art of burning the lead can only be acquired by practice, -and either quickly or slowly, as the operator may be quick and skillful -in acquiring any handicraft. In addition to describing what has been -common practice for many years, the treatise contains a description of a -new machine and burner which has only recently become available to lead -burners. It also describes the method of lead burning with the use of -illuminating gas and a soldering flux. A chapter is devoted to soft -soldering and Britannia metal work, which is largely used in the -equipment of bars and restaurants, the various joints being more easily -made with a blow pipe than by any other method. As the workman who hopes -to profit by reading this book can by a little negligence make a great -deal of trouble for himself and others, caution and great care are -advised whenever he is at work. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER. PAGE. - - I. Introduction 9 - - II. The Apparatus 15 - - III. Hydrogen Gas 18 - - IV. The Construction of the Generator 26 - - V. Making the Gas to Burn the Generator 39 - - VI. Connecting the Apparatus 55 - - VII. Charging the Generator 64 - - VIII. The Flame and Its Management 73 - - IX. The Different Kinds of Seams 80 - - X. Pipe Seams 100 - - XI. Acid Chamber Work 108 - - XII. Special Hydrogen Apparatus and Burner 119 - - XIII. Soft Soldering with the Mouth Blow Pipe 127 - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - INTRODUCTION. - - -In compiling a treatise on the subject of lead burning too much stress -cannot be laid upon the fact that the greatest care must be taken to -observe the smallest details and to follow carefully every suggestion in -regard to safety. I am aware of the responsibility resting upon me in -placing this article into hundreds of hands, comparatively ignorant of -the danger involved in handling so much hydrogen, without thoroughly -instructing them in detail as to its use. I may be excused, therefore, -if, for that reason, some of the explanations are so simple as to seem -ridiculous; but my aim is to present to the trade a treatise that can be -relied upon to be free from theory that has not been thoroughly tried -and tested, so that the beginner can be sure that, if he follows -directions as printed, nothing but satisfaction to him can result. - - - Study the Chapter on Hydrogen Gas. - -I cannot too strongly recommend that the beginner study the chapter on -hydrogen gas until the main points are memorized and clearly understood. -The experiments should be performed and the result carefully noted for -future reference before attempting to use the generator. It is time well -spent to master the technical parts thoroughly before attempting the -mechanical part. Then when a man takes up the mechanical he will do so -with an intelligent understanding of what he is doing, and any little -trouble which may then arise can be quickly overcome. - -Another thing to be observed is to avoid nervousness. A nervous person -cannot do this work with any degree of satisfaction, as it requires a -cool head and a steady hand and a vast amount of patience to burn the -upright and inverted seams. - - - Lead Burning Explained. - -Lead burning is the process of fusing two pieces of lead together -without the use of solder. The process consists in melting the edges -together, a drop at a time, and when done with hydrogen gas and the blow -pipe is called the “autogenous process.” Lead can be fused with gasoline -or illuminating gas by the use of the compound blow pipe; but, as -ordinary gases give an oxidizing flame and require a flux, it is not -considered a practical method. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 1.—Lead Burning Apparatus._ -] - -Lead is used extensively in lining tanks made to contain pickle dips, -hot cyanide solution, storage batteries, acid tanks for manufacturing -jewelry and water closet tanks, as water in many cases contains large -quantities of lime and other deposits which rapidly destroy the solder -used on copper linings. Tanks used for the above purposes must be lined -with lead and the seams burned, as acids attack the tin in solders and -destroy them. The demand for the work is rapidly increasing where it is -introduced. I have demonstrated to many manufacturers that this is the -cheapest method known, as it gives a permanent solution of the problem -how to keep a chemical tank tight. - - - Method of Making Lead Lined Tanks. - -The most common method resorted to in many large factories is to make -the tanks out of very heavy cypress lumber, free from any knots or -blemishes. The joints are carefully dovetailed and fitted together, and -long bolts are used to draw the joints and keep them from leaking. -Usually it takes from three to four days to complete one small tank, -only to have it leak in a few months; whereas the same tank can be built -in a few hours of any cheap lumber, and then, when it is lined with lead -of a proper thickness and the seams burned it will usually last for an -indefinite period, thereby saving floors and, many times, costly plating -solutions. - -The most common argument put forth by manufacturers is that the bottoms -of lead lined tanks are soon cut out, owing to dropping sharp pieces of -metal into them. This difficulty can be best overcome by placing a -slatted bottom of wood in the tank, holding the same in place with -strips of sheet lead, one end of which has been previously burned to the -bottom of the tank. These strips are to be brought up through the slats -and then bent over the top of them. This will keep the wood from -floating, and is the only practical way to do it, as the false bottoms -soon decay, and can be easily removed and replaced by simply bending -back the strips of lead. - - - General Remarks. - -Soft solder, as referred to here, means solder that melts at a -temperature of 300 degrees or less, and is so called because of the low -heat required to fuse the solder. It is used almost exclusively on the -quick melting metals and compositions, such as block tin pipes and -Britannia metal. It is also used by pattern makers in soldering white -metal, as it requires but very little heat to sweat it through heavy -articles. It should not be used to join any pipes which convey hot water -or other hot liquids, as it is readily acted upon and destroyed. (The -composition of these solders is explained in a special chapter.) - -The chapters on blow pipe work, also on bar work, will alone turn many -dollars into the pockets of the plumbers who have courage and ambition -to acquire this line of work. Many times small leaks occur in difficult -places that can be readily repaired by the use of the blow pipe and a -common candle. - -The lining of bars with Britannia metal is coming more and more into -general practice, and it usually requires a specialist in this line to -do the work. The soldering of this metal with a blow pipe and an alcohol -torch is an easy matter, and is described in a special chapter. - -There is no reason why this work should not be done by a plumber, -particularly in small cities and towns, and to aid such as have not had -the opportunity to familiarize themselves with such work I append such -diagrams as may seem useful and necessary. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - THE APPARATUS. - - -The apparatus used for lead burning is illustrated in Fig. 1. It -consists of a gas generator, A; an air holder, B, and pump, C; mixing -fork, _e_, and necessary cocks, _f_ and _g_; combined scrubbing cup and -fire trap, _h_; blow pipe and tips, _i_. - -The generator consists of an acid chamber, _j_, and a gas chamber, _k_. -These are connected with an acid supply pipe, _l_, which conducts the -acid from the acid chamber to the gas chamber, and also serves as a -balance pipe. - -This feature makes the generator automatic in its action, for as soon as -the gas in the gas chamber gets up sufficient pressure, the acid in the -gas chamber _k_ is driven slowly back through the acid supply pipe _l_ -and up into the acid chamber _j_, where it is held until gas is used. -When the acid descends and submerges the zinc more gas is generated, -replacing that which has been used. This form of generator will never -blow acid like the floating generator. - -The requirements of a hydrogen generator for lead burning are that it -should be safe, economical and automatic in its action. It must be so -constructed that it will generate gas enough to keep the supply -constant, and deliver it at sufficient pressure to keep the flame -steady. It must also be provided with a combination fire trap and -scrubbing cup. This will prevent the explosion of the generator by -firing the gas in the hose. This trap must be partly filled with a -solution of blue vitriol to act as a precipitation cup. (This is treated -under the head of “Scrubbing Cup.”) - -The chief danger with an apparatus of this sort is its liability to -accident by the careless use of the gas, and, as a mixture of hydrogen -and air is very explosive, great care must be taken to exhaust all the -air in the generator and tubes before attempting to light the gas at the -blow pipe. The only way to make sure that the air is exhausted is to -test the gas, as described under the head of “The Flame and Its -Management.” - - - A Few Cautions. - -It is a very sensible idea to keep spectators away from the generator, -as they are very apt to strike matches or tread on the tubes, in spite -of warnings to be cautious, for if there should be a leak, even so -slight as to be hardly detected, it would cause a violent explosion, and -as hydrogen is both odorless and colorless, this could easily happen -without being noticed. This is probably the origin of the apparent -secrecy with which a lead burner usually surrounds himself. - -If an explosion should occur in the tubes and they should catch fire, -the operator must have presence of mind enough to reach the gas cock on -the generator and close it. If gas explodes in the generator, all that -can be done is to dodge the flying pieces and make a new generator. If -such an incident should occur and vitriol should spatter on the person -doing the work, or his assistant, a solution of bicarbonate of soda or -common washing soda should be at once applied to the wounds. If that -cannot be procured, grease or oil of some kind should be used without -delay, rubbing it on the spots where the acid burns, and this will -neutralize the acid and so prevent it doing further damage. There should -be no trouble of this sort in the hands of a careful workman. The -watchword should be, “Test the gas before using.” If this is done, -explosions will never occur. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - HYDROGEN GAS. - - -This element was discovered by Cavendish in 1766, and was called by him -inflammable air. The name hydrogen is derived from two Greek words, one -signifying “water” and the other “to generate,” on account of its -forming water when burnt. It occurs in its free state in the bases of -volcanoes, and by the aid of the spectroscope has been detected in the -sun and stars. It chiefly exists in combination with oxygen as water, -and is an important constituent of all vegetable and animal substances. - -Hydrogen is obtained by the decomposition of water in various ways. On a -large scale, nearly pure hydrogen may be prepared by passing steam over -charcoal, or coke, heated to a dull redness. If the temperature be kept -sufficiently low hydrogen and carbon dioxide will be the sole products, -and the latter may be removed by causing it to traverse a vessel filled -with slaked lime, but if the temperature be allowed to rise too high, or -an excess of air be admitted, carbon monoxide is also produced, and -cannot be removed from the mixture. - -Pure hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, transparent and tasteless gas, -and has never been liquefied. It is very slightly soluble in water. It -is the lightest of all known bodies and is not poisonous, although it -cannot support life, and if mixed with a certain proportion of oxygen it -can be breathed for a considerable length of time without inconvenience. -It is highly inflammable, and burns in the air with an almost colorless, -nonluminous flame, forming water. A burning taper is extinguished when -plunged into hydrogen, and all bodies which burn in the air are -incapable of burning in hydrogen. - -Hydrogen does not spontaneously enter into reaction with any of the -elements, although it has a powerful affinity for several of them. Thus, -when hydrogen and oxygen are mixed nothing occurs, but if a lighted -splint is introduced a violent explosion ensues, water being produced. -Similarly chlorine and hydrogen are without action upon each other in -the dark, but if the mixture is exposed to a bright light, or if heated -by the passage of an electric spark, the gases are at once combined with -explosive violence, forming hydrochloric acid. - -Hydrogen is usually prepared by the action of zinc or iron on a solution -of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. All metals which decompose water when -heated readily furnish hydrogen, on treatment with hydrochloric or -sulphuric acid. Many other metals enter more or less readily (although -none so readily) into reaction with these acids. Also, many other acids -than sulphuric or hydrochloric acids may be used, but none acts so -quickly. In all cases the action consists of the displacement of the -hydrogen of the acid by the metal employed, and if the acid is not one -which can enter into reaction with the displaced hydrogen, the latter is -also evolved as gas. - -If pure gas is required it is necessary to employ pure zinc or iron, as -the impurities in the ordinary metal communicate an extremely -disagreeable odor to the gas. - -The pure gas is not absolutely essential for lead burning, and owing to -their being much cheaper, and also on account of their increased -quickness of action, the commercial qualities of sulphuric acid and zinc -are employed in the generator described. - -The commercial zinc is known as spelter and is sold in pigs or blocks, -which are easily broken into fragments, like stove coal, with a heavy -hammer. The commercial sulphuric acid is known as oil of vitriol and is -sold by the pound. The acid cannot be employed in its pure state, but -must be reduced with water in the proportion of one part of acid to -seven parts of warm water. They must be mixed by adding the acid slowly -to the water; never the water to the acid. The combination of acid and -water enters at once into reaction and always generates heat, and the -result of adding water to acid would be small explosions. There would be -danger of the acid flying on one's clothes or into the eyes. The mixture -should never be stronger than six parts of water to one of acid. - -The beginner will observe from the above that the generator cannot be -crowded by making the acid solution strong. Hydrogen is a peculiar gas -and also a dangerous one for one ignorant of its peculiarities to -experiment with, and in order to thoroughly understand it the following -experiments should be demonstrated, which can be done with little -expense. The beginner should note the result of each experiment as -demonstrated, and carefully commit the same to memory for future -reference. - - - Experiment 1. - -_Test for Hydrogen._—Fill a small jar or wide mouthed bottle with -hydrogen. This is done by first filling the bottle with water, inserting -the end of the tube from the hydrogen generator, having first exhausted -the air in the tube, then quickly inverting the bottle and placing the -neck, Fig. 2, in a pan of water (A); the water will stay in the bottle. -Now turn on the hydrogen. The gas, being lighter than water, will rise -to the top of the bottle (B), drive out the water, and replace it with -pure hydrogen, which should be free from air. Remove the bottle from the -pan of water, keeping it inverted. Thrust a lighted splint into the -bottle. The gas will light and burn at the mouth of the bottle. If the -splint is thrust far into the bottle it will go out. Drops of water -collect in the bottle. Burning is a union with oxygen; therefore, the -burning of the hydrogen shows that it has an affinity for oxygen. The -splint goes out because the hydrogen does not support combustion. _If no -air is allowed to get into it the gas cannot burn or explode._ - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 2.—Experiment No. 1._ -] - - - Experiment 2. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 3.—Experiment No. 2._ -] - -_Proving That Hydrogen is Lighter Than Air._—Bring an inverted bottle of -hydrogen close to an empty bottle, also inverted, Fig. 2. Gradually tip -the bottle containing hydrogen (A) until it is brought to an upright -position beneath the empty bottle. Test the bottles for hydrogen. The -hydrogen will be found in the bottle (B) that was at first empty, -proving that _hydrogen is lighter than air_, as it has risen in the -empty bottle, displacing the air that was in it. If the bottle of -hydrogen is left in an upright position without a cover for a few -moments the gas will entirely disappear. - - - Experiment 3. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 4.—Experiment No. 3._ -] - -_The Effect of Mixing Hydrogen and Air._—Half fill a bottle with water -and invert it in a pan of water, Fig. 3, leaving the upper half filled -with air. Displace the air in the bottle with hydrogen, then thrust a -lighted splint into the bottle, and the gas will light with an -explosion. When the bottle was half filled with water the other half was -air. The hydrogen took the place of the water, so that the bottle -contained equal quantities of hydrogen and air. When the hydrogen was -lighted it combined with the oxygen in the air. The union of the two -gases caused the explosion, proving that the combined gases are very -explosive. - - - Experiment 4. - -_To Make Hydrogen From Water._—Drop a piece of potassium into a little -water and cover it. The potassium floats on the water and soon burns. -Potassium acts vigorously on cold water, setting free hydrogen, and -unites with parts of it to form “caustic potash.” - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE GENERATOR. - - -The construction of the generator is the first step in the mechanical -part of the business, and to simplify this a complete set of reference -drawings has been constructed and is herewith given. The assembling of -the parts should be clear, with the assistance of the perspective -drawing of the completed apparatus, and any mechanic of ordinary ability -should be able to construct this generator without any trouble. The -following bill of material should first be purchased: - - One ⅞-inch whitewood board 10 inches wide and 8 feet 6 inches long. - - One ½-inch whitewood board 12 inches wide and 4 feet 6 inches long. - - One piece of 6-pound sheet lead 3 feet wide and 6 feet 6 inches - long. - - Three ⅛-inch female hose end gas cocks. - - One piece of ⅛-inch brass tubing 2 feet long. - - One foot of ¼-inch lead pipe. - - One 4-inch charging screw. - - One 1¼-inch cleaning screw. - - - Making the Charging and Cleaning Screws. - -These goods can be readily purchased from dealers, with the exception of -the charging and cleaning screws. They can be made in any brass foundry. -The only difference between the charging and cleaning screws is the -size. The charging screw, Fig. 5, should be at least 4 inches in -diameter, or large enough to pass the hand through, while the cleaning -screw should be 1¼ inches in diameter, or large enough to pass over a -1-inch pipe. A piece of sheet lead is fitted into the cover, as shown at -_a_, to protect the metal from the acid. Soft putty is used for a -packing, as shown in Fig. 5. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 5.—The Charging Screw._ -] - -The best, although a more expensive, charging screw is shown in Fig. 6. -As will be seen from the cut, it consists of a base, _k_; cover, _d_; -clamp, _e_, and screw, _f_. The base is simply a plain iron or brass -ring, 4 inches in diameter, ⅛ inch thick and 1 inch high. The bottom is -to be faced smooth, while the top is recessed 3-16 inch deep to receive -the sheet lead and packing of putty, as at _a_. Two nubs, _b_ and _b_, -are cast on opposite sides, as shown, to act as grips for the clamp _c_. -These nubs are ¾ inch long and project out from the body of the base ¼ -inch, and are made sufficiently strong to stand the strain of the screw. -The cover _d_ is made of the same material as the base, the center being -raised, as shown, to give it strength. Cast directly in the center and -on the top is the nub _e_, ⅝ inch high and ⅝ inch in diameter. This is -drilled to receive the ⅜-inch screw _f_. A groove 1-16 inch wide and -1-16 inch deep is cut all around the bottom of the screw, as shown at -_i_. A hole is then drilled through the side of the nub _e_, and in line -with the slot _i_. A pin can then be driven through the hole and will -pass through the slot _i_, making a swivel joint that will connect the -cover and screw together. The screw _f_ is made of ⅜-inch round iron -sufficiently long to give an action of about 1 inch. The top at _n_ is -filed square to receive a wheel such as is used on a common gate valve. -A long thread should then be cut on this screw. The clamp _c_ is made a -half circle in shape, so as to clear the cover with ease. It should be ¾ -inch wide, flat on the under side, while the top side should have a rib -cast on it to prevent springing. The top at _g_ should be reinforced -with metal and made heavy enough to stand drilling and tapping to -receive the screw _f_. A wood pattern can be made for these parts, and -they can then be molded in any brass or iron foundry. In making the -patterns they should be cut down as much as possible, so as to make the -finished article as light as is consistent with the strength required. -The same directions will answer for the cleaning screw. The hole to -receive the sheet lead over the cleaning screw should not be over 1½ -inches in diameter, and the rest of the screw should be made in -proportion to this hole. The advantage of this screw over others is that -it does not wrench the sheet lead in making it up, and, owing to its -construction, it is always sure to make a tight joint without straining -the generator. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 6.—The Best Charging Screw._ -] - - - Building the Frame. - -The frame can be made of galvanized iron, but wood is much superior, as -it retains the heat generated in the gas chamber much better. To make -the frame take the ⅞-inch board and cut off two pieces, 10 inches -square, A and B in Fig. 8; 5 inches from one side and 2 inches from the -back of one of these pieces bore a 1½-inch hole, C, and countersink it. -This is for the acid supply pipe to pass through. These pieces are -intended for shelves upon which to rest the acid and gas chambers. Cut -the remaining board into two pieces 38 inches long. Lay these two boards -together. Five inches from the side and 3 inches from the bottom bore a -1½-inch hole, _d_. Then saw out a V-shaped piece, Fig. 7. This will form -the legs of the generator. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 7.—Making the Acid Chamber._ -] - -Take a square, and 12 inches from the top of these boards draw the lines -_e_ and _e_. Twenty-two inches below these lines draw the lines _f_ and -_f_. These lines represent the tops of the shelves. The shelves should -be nailed or screwed into place. The shelf B should be placed on the -top, keeping the hole C to the back. Take the ½-inch board and cut two -pieces to measure 12 × 13 inches and two pieces 11 × 12 inches. These -form the sides of the acid and gas chambers. The two 12 × 13 inch boards -form the sides of the acid chamber and the 11 × 12 inch boards the sides -of the gas chamber. - -Directly in the center and 1¾ inches from the bottom of one of the 11 × -12 inch boards bore a 1½-inch hole. The remaining piece should be sawed -out, leaving a hole at _g_. This is so that the board can be removed in -case of a leak without disturbing the cleaning screw. These pieces -should be fitted to their places with round head screws, and if properly -done will form an acid chamber which will measure 10 × 10 × 12 inches, -and the gas chamber will measure 10 × 10 × 10 inches. The acid chamber -must be larger than the gas chamber, to allow the full charge of acid to -be used without overflowing. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 8.—Making the Shelves and the Perforated Bottom._ -] - -Now fit the sheet lead. Six-pound is plenty heavy for this generator and -will last a lifetime. Cut it as shown in Fig. 8, A and B. Form the lead -so that the seams when finished will come on the outside, as in case of -a leak in a seam it can then be easily repaired by removing one of the -boards. The projecting edges of lead should be dressed over the edges of -the top to protect the wood from the acid, but do not fasten them, as -the tanks will have to be removed and the seams burned. - -Now cut the piece of lead C to form the top of the gas chamber. None is -needed for the acid chamber, as it must be left open so that no -resistance will be offered to the action of the gas on the acid. Five -inches from the side and 2 inches from the back of this piece cut a -hole, _d_, Fig. 8, 1¼ inches in diameter, and dress it up with the -bending iron to 1½ inches in diameter, taking care to preserve the -thickness of the metal. This is for the acid supply pipe to pass -through. - -Three inches from the side and 3 inches from the front cut a ⅛-inch -hole, _e_. This is the gas outlet. Three and one-half inches from the -opposite side and 4 inches from the front cut the hole _f_, 2¾ inches in -diameter. Dress this up and over the flange of the charging screw _a_, -Fig. 6. This may seem a difficult thing to do, but lead must be worked -slowly. Heating the lead while dressing it will help wonderfully. If it -is not possible to make a good job in this manner, then cut the hole 4 -inches in diameter and burn in a collar sufficiently big to dress over -and cover the flange of the screw. This is to prevent acid from coming -into contact with the screw and destroying it. Treat the cleaning screw -in the same manner. The location of this screw is in the center and as -close as possible to the bottom of the gas chamber, as shown in Fig. 8 -at _j_. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 8½.—Showing the Perforated Spelter Shelf in Place in the - Generator._ -] - -It is necessary to have a false perforated bottom in the gas chamber to -rest the zinc upon and also to keep it above the solution. To make and -support this bottom take a piece of sheet lead 14 inches square, as -shown in Fig. 8, and form it in the shape of a pan, which will drop -easily into the gas chamber _k_, Fig. 8½. A piece of 1½ or 2 inch lead -pipe, 2 inches long, _n_, should be burned on the center of the false -bottom, to prevent the center from sagging with the weight of zinc. Then -punch the bottom O, Fig. 8, full of ¼-inch holes. A 1½-inch hole, _y_, -should also be cut in line with the holes for the acid supply pipe. - -Remove the tanks and burn the seams. Place the tanks back in place. Then -take a piece of the ⅛-inch brass pipe, 1½ inches long. Cut a thread on -one end, tin the other end, and burn it to the top of the gas chamber at -_e_; also the collar for the charging screw. Then place the perforated -bottom in the gas chamber, taking care to keep the holes for the acid -supply pipe in line. Do not make any mistake in putting in this bottom. -Its use is to act as a shelf to hold the zinc, and if put in properly it -will hold the zinc about 2 inches above the real bottom. The top of the -gas chamber _c_ should then be burned in. Now by measuring find the -exact length of the acid supply pipe, Fig. 7, _i_. This pipe should -extend from the bottom of the acid chamber _o_ to the bottom of the gas -chamber _p_, as shown in Fig. 7. From one end of this pipe several -V-shaped pieces should be cut, _p_, about 1 inch deep. - -This is one of the most particular parts of the apparatus, as this is -where the automatic action comes in, and great care must be taken in -cutting these holes not to have any of them come closer to the -perforated bottom than 1 inch. If this were not observed the acid would -be constantly in contact with the zinc, and would rapidly get up -pressure of gas sufficient to blow acid out of the upper tank, and the -extra gas would escape through the acid supply pipe in blows. In fact, -it would make the generator useless. This is the trouble with the French -apparatus. The acid, having no place to expand in, is constantly coming -into contact with the zinc, and unless the gas is being used as fast as -generated it will blow acid out of the acid holder, making a bad mess, -besides being very wasteful. - -Now flange the other end of this pipe to fit the countersunk bottom of -the acid chamber. Place the pipe in position and burn it to the bottom -of the acid chamber and to the top of the gas chamber _n_, Fig. 7. One -of the ⅛-inch gas cocks should be screwed on the brass nipple on top of -the gas chamber. This will complete the gas generator. It will make a -better job if the back of the generator be boarded tight and a door made -to fit the space between the bottom of the acid chamber and the top of -the gas chamber in front. It is very convenient to have it fixed in this -manner, as in shipping it from one point to another the tubes and other -incidentals can be placed in the space so made and shipped with safety. -There is no objection to the acid and gas chambers being made in the -shape of cylinders, instead of square, if so desired, but if made -circular they should be made to fit the frame tightly to prevent jarring -and eventually breaking the seams. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - MAKING THE GAS TO BURN THE GENERATOR. - - -In towns supplied with illuminating gas it is a comparatively simple -operation to burn the lead lining for the generator, but for the -convenience of those who cannot obtain gas it is necessary to give some -method by which the generator can be burned. The method described will -answer for illuminating gas as well as for gasoline. - -To generate gas from gasoline is a simple operation. To do this, take a -common 1-gallon oil can, remove the top of can screw and punch a ¼-inch -hole in the center of it. Then make a tube of tin that will pass through -this hole, sufficiently long to extend half way to the bottom and -project 2 inches outside of can screw, and solder this tube in place. -This projecting tube is for the purpose of connecting to the air holder. -Remove the spout of the can and replace it with one to which the hose -can be connected. Now fill the can two-thirds full of gasoline, but not -full enough to cover the gas outlet, else it would be likely to force -gasoline out instead of gas. - -After this is done, screw the can screw in place, the long end of the -tube extending into the gasoline, as shown in _j_, Fig. 9. A hose -connection is now to be made with an air holder. As it is necessary to -have an air holder both for this process and the hydrogen gas process, -methods will be described for making air holders which can be used for -either. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 9.—Gas Apparatus for Burning the Generator._ -] - - - Air Holders. - -Different lead burners have different views on this subject. Some prefer -the bellows, with a contained air holder; some the air holder built like -a gasometer, while others use an air holder similar to the generator in -construction. These all have their advantages. For my part, I own and -use all three. - -The advantage of the bellows is that it can be easily transported and -does the work perfectly, but it requires constant pumping, which soon -tires the helper, and for that reason could not be used on jobs -requiring more than four or five hours' labor. - -The gasometer style of air holder is the easiest to use, if one does not -employ a helper and has a large amount of work to do. The pressure can -be regulated to suit the work by placing one or more weights upon it -until the desired pressure is obtained. It does not require pumping up -more than three or four times a day, which is its principal virtue. It -is a perfect shop apparatus. Its disadvantage is that it requires a -large quantity of water to fill it, which is not always available, and -when full it is so heavy that it requires a truck to move it around. - -By far the best air holder is the one shown as part of the apparatus in -Fig. 9, and illustrated separately in Fig. 10. This only requires a few -pails of water to fill it, and the exact pressure of the gas can be had -by building it the same hight as the hydrogen gas generator. It does not -require constant pumping, and I recommend this air holder for general -use, as possessing more advantages, with less trouble, than any other -air holder in use. However, all three will be described, and the -beginner can make the one most suited to the material available. - - - Air Holder No. 1. - -The beginner will notice in Fig. 10 that this air holder is so -constructed that it gets its air pressure direct from the head of water, -and also that this pressure can be varied by making the connecting piece -of pipe longer or shorter, as may be desired. Of course, the pressure -will vary slightly as the water descends into the air chamber, but not -enough to make it objectionable, as it will be the helper's duty to -watch the water line and renew pumping as often as the water falls below -a certain point. - -To make this holder, a tank, _a_, Fig. 10, 12 inches high and 18 inches -in diameter, should be constructed of galvanized sheet iron. On this -tank double seam a flat bottom. The top must be raised slightly, as -shown, to give it strength. This can be done with the raising hammer, or -it can be done by making the circle for the top ¾ inch larger than the -bottom, then making a cut to the center. It can then be drawn together -and riveted in any desired pitch. A hole must be punched in the center -of this top large enough to receive a 1-inch galvanized pipe, _b_. Six -inches apart and 2 inches from the edge punch two holes, _c_ and _d_, -large enough to receive pieces of ⅜-inch galvanized pipe. This top -should then be fitted and placed on the body of the tank. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 10.—Air Holder No. 1._ -] - -Take a piece of 1-inch galvanized pipe, _e_, sufficiently long to touch -the bottom and projecting 1 inch out of the top of the tank, cut a -thread on the projecting end and drill the other end full of ¼-inch -holes, _f_, to the hight of 1 inch, to allow the water to flow freely. -This pipe rests on the bottom of the lower tank and carries the weight -of the upper tank. Solder this pipe in place. Then take two ⅜-inch -nipples, 1 inch long, and solder them into their places, and on these -nipples screw two ⅜-inch hose end gas cocks, _c_ and _d_. One of these -cocks is for the purpose of connecting to the air pump, and the other to -the mixing cock. As close as possible to the bottom of the tank solder -in a ½-inch coupling, _g_. Into this coupling screw a plug. This is for -the purpose of draining the tank when out of use. - -Now make another tank, _h_, 19 inches in diameter and 11 inches deep, -the top to be left open and wired with a heavy wire. Double seam a flat -bottom on this tank. Directly in the center of this bottom punch a hole -large enough to receive a 1-inch coupling. Then cut a 1-inch coupling in -half and solder it into this hole, putting the thread side down and -leaving it as near flush with the outside of the tank as possible, so -that if it is desired to move the air holder to and from a job it can be -taken apart and the lower tank nested in the upper tank, making a -compact bundle and reducing the danger of damage by careless handling. - -To connect these tanks, all that is required is a piece of 1-inch iron -pipe, _h_, 12 inches long, with a coupling on one end. To operate this -air holder, close the two air cocks on the lower, or air, tank; then -fill the upper tank nearly full of water, taking care not to put too -much in it, or it will overflow the lower tank and get into the tubes, -and if this happens the tubes will have to be removed and hung up to -dry, or drops of water will be blown into the blow pipe and extinguish -the flame. It is then ready for use. The air in the air chamber is -compressed by the weight of the water in the upper tank, and if the -water line is at the same hight as the acid line in the hydrogen gas -generator the pressure of air must be the same as the pressure of gas. -As air is used the water descends through the pipe and will gradually -fill the lower chamber. It can then be forced back into the water -chamber by attaching the air pump to the cock _h_ in Fig. 9, or _d_ in -Fig. 10, without disturbing the gas or in any way interfering with the -operator. To connect with the cock _h_ in Fig. 9 it is only necessary to -disconnect one line of hose and connect the pump; then close the other -cock and work the pump until air bubbles up in the upper tank; then shut -the cock, remove the pump and connect the hose to the gasoline can, open -the cocks and the apparatus is ready for use. - - - Air Holder No. 2. - -To make the air holder shown in Fig. 11, take a sheet of No. 26 gauge -galvanized iron 30 inches wide. Make it into a cylinder 26 inches in -diameter, double seam a flat bottom on it, and wire the top with ¼-inch -iron rod, which will make it stiff enough to withstand the pressure of -water. Close to the bottom and 3 inches apart punch two holes, _a_ and -_b_, large enough to receive ⅜-inch galvanized pipe couplings. Solder -these couplings in place. - -On the inside of this tank and into these couplings screw two pieces of -⅜-inch pipe 4 inches long with elbows pointing straight up. Into these -elbows screw two pieces of ⅜-inch pipe long enough to come flush with -the top of the tank F. On the outside of the tank and into the ⅜-inch -couplings screw two ⅜-inch nipples 2 inches long, and on these nipples -screw two ⅜-inch hose end gas cocks. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 11.—Air Holder No. 2._ -] - -Now, with the same sized sheet iron, make another tank 2 inches smaller -in diameter than the first tank. This should have a flat bottom, and be -wired as previously described. Then take four strips of sheet iron 30 -inches long and 2 inches wide, and form each into V shape lengthwise. -Lay off the circumference of this tank in four equal spaces. One side of -the V-shaped pieces should then be soldered on at each space. The other -side should be left loose to allow for adjustment. These pieces form the -guides to the upper tank and prevent it from tipping sideways and -binding. Two of the guides are shown in the illustration, Fig. 11. - -The lower tank should now be filled about one-third full of water. The -upper tank should then be inverted and placed in it. The air pump must -then be connected to one of the ⅜-inch cocks with a short piece of hose, -and the air should be pumped into it until the upper tank rises to its -highest level. - -The pressure in this form of air holder must be regulated by weights, -and to secure 1 pound of pressure it is necessary to place weights equal -to 1 pound for every inch in area contained in the opening in the upper -tank. Two drop handles, such as are used on heavy milk cans, should be -riveted and soldered on the sides of the tank to facilitate moving it -about. - - - Air Holder No. 3. - -Fig. 12 is a cut of a bellows with a contained air holder. It is not -practical to try to make this article, as it can be purchased from any -plumbing supply house and is not expensive. It is used principally by -dentists, but it is also used in laboratories to supply air to the -compound blow pipe. It consists of a small bellows held from the floor -on iron legs, with a spring inside the bellows to hold them open, and -has a rubber bag fastened to the under side to hold a small supply of -air. The rubber bag is incased in a string net to prevent it from -becoming inflated too much and bursting. This bag serves to equalize the -pressure. The size known as No. 10 A will supply 75 cubic feet per hour -at a pressure of 1½ pounds to the square inch, which is sufficient for -lead as heavy as 24 pounds. For the light weight leads the pressure can -be reduced by pumping lightly and not filling the bag more than half -full. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 12.—Air Holder No. 3, Combined with Bellows._ -] - -Any of the three described air blast arrangements will answer the -purpose, so it is immaterial which is used, and it is left to the -discretion of the beginner to obtain whichever is the most convenient. - - - The Blow Pipe. - -Next comes the blow pipe. The only practical compound blow pipe on the -market is shown in Fig. 13, and is known as Walmsley's. This is a -modification of the Bunsen burner, and consists of a bent blow pipe with -the air tube in the center, as shown in Fig. 14. It is a perfect working -blow pipe in every respect, and I should advise every one interested in -the work to purchase one. For while seams cannot be burned with it in -any other position than horizontal, it will be found useful in -lengthening traps or lead bends, for which purpose it is well adapted -and can be put into instant use, thereby saving its cost many times over -in wiping solders. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 13.—The Walmsley Compound Blow Pipe._ -] - - - Burning with Illuminating Gas. - -With illuminating gas it is only necessary to connect the gas jet to the -compound blow pipe with the hose and regulate the supply of gas with the -gas cock. The air inlet is then connected to the air holder, or air may -be supplied with the mouth, but good results are not obtained with the -mouth, as only a good blow pipe solderer can keep up the blast -necessary. To burn the seams use the same flux and follow directions -given for gasoline gas. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 14.—Sectional View of Walmsley's Blow Pipe._ -] - - - Making the Gasoline Gas for Burning the Generator. - -With a piece of ¼-inch hose connect the top of the can C, Fig. 9, with -the air holder D, then connect the spout or gas outlet _e_ of the can to -the gas end _f_ of the compound blow pipe. The air outlet _g_ of the -compound blow pipe should then be connected to the remaining cock _h_, -in the air holder. If the bellows is used, it will be necessary to -connect the air with ¼-inch tee, _m_, in which three short nipples have -previously been screwed. - -The apparatus is now ready for use. Gasoline being really a liquid gas, -it takes its first opportunity to assume its natural shape. The natural -way to convert gasoline into gas is by simple evaporation. So taking -advantage of this fact, the action will be thus: By forcing air into and -through a body of gasoline sufficient of the gasoline is taken up to -form a dense vapor, which will light and burn at the jet, similar to -illuminating gas. With the admixture of air in the compound blow pipe, -it gives a flame of very intense heat. But, in common with illuminating -gas, it is so rich in carbon that it gives an oxidizing flame, and makes -it necessary to use a flux, which should be Yager's soldering salts -mixed as per the directions on the bottle. If this is difficult to -procure, a good substitute can be made by mixing equal parts of powdered -borax and sal ammoniac in a little water. - -To operate this device the air should be turned on the gasoline and -lighted at the jet. The air should then be admitted gradually until the -flame is brought to the proper size and condition, indicated by its -being blue and pointed. If too much gas is admitted the flame will be -yellow and will blacken the work by depositing a coat of soot on it. If -too much air is admitted the flame will be ragged and noisy, and the -temperature will be too low to heat the metal. The flame is at its best -heat when it burns with a pale blue color which does not show any yellow -streaks. - -Before attempting to burn the generator the beginner should practice on -pieces of sheet lead. It is next to impossible to burn seams in any -other position than horizontal with this flame, as it rapidly oxidizes -the lead, and in spite of all precaution the lead will become -unmanageable in upright seams, so that the beginner would waste time in -practicing on seams in any other position than horizontal. If directions -have been followed in cutting the lead for the generator the seams will -occur only in that position. - -To burn the generator the seams should be shaved clean, both on the -under and upper sides, for a distance of ⅛ inch, making a seam ¼ inch -wide, taking care to have the lead seams lie close to each other, for, -if they do not, this flame will cause the edges of the lead to spread -away from each other and leave a hole that is difficult to patch. - -Now apply the flux with a small brush. When the flame is in working -order bring it quickly to bear on the end of the seam nearest you to be -burned. When it starts to fuse draw the flame as quickly away, always -drawing it to one side, and from the upper to the lower sheet. The -melted drop will follow the flame and unite with the melted drop on the -lower sheet. - -It is necessary to have the shave hook near at hand, so that, in case of -oxidizing when fusing, the melted drop can be broken up and allowed to -flow in place. - -With a little practice and patience the generator can be burned all -right in this manner. This gas is perfectly safe and can be handled with -impunity. This method would, of course, be impracticable to use on a job -of any size, but I have used it several times where nothing else could -be obtained, and have always had very good success with it. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - CONNECTING THE APPARATUS. - - -We now assume that the generator is charged and the rest of the -apparatus is finished and ready for use, so we will proceed to connect -it up ready for a trial. - -About 30 feet of ¼-inch heavy rubber tubing should be procured. This -hose should be heavy enough to allow of its being pulled around without -kinking and shutting off the supply of gas. A piece of this hose 5 feet -long should be slipped on the gas cock M on the generator, shown in Fig. -1, and then slipped over the gas inlet tube of the scrubbing cup _n_. -One must be sure that this is connected to the gas inlet tube, which is -the tube that dips under the water in the scrubbing cup. - -With another 5-foot piece of hose connect the gas outlet of scrubbing -cup _o_ to the right hand cock on the mixing fork _f_. Always connect -the gas on the same side so as to avoid confusion of cocks. Then with a -10-foot piece of hose connect the air cock on the air holder _p_ or -bellows to the remaining cock on the mixing fork _g_. An 8-foot piece -should be connected from the gas outlet on mixing fork _e_ to the blow -pipe _i_. - -These tubes must fit tight to prevent any possible leak of gas, and if -they do not they should be tightened on with pieces of wire. The -remaining piece of hose can be used to connect the air pump C to the air -inlet cock _s_ on the air holder, but if the bellows are used this will -not be needed. - -Now place in the scrubbing cup a half dozen pieces of blue vitriol, or -copperas, as it is commonly called. Then pour in clear water until it -flows out of the trap screw _z_. This screw can be made tight by using -for packing a piece of wicking which has been saturated with tallow. -After preparing the apparatus as above, refer to the cut of the complete -apparatus and compare the connections on the cut with those made from -the above directions, to make positive that they are right. If they -agree, the apparatus is now ready for use. - - - Testing the Apparatus. - -It is necessary to test the generator for leaks, as a small blow hole -may sometimes be left in some of the seams or the cocks or cleaning -screws become defective. - -To do this, first close the gas cock on the top of the gas chamber and -make up the cleaning and charging screws, which must be set on a bed of -soft putty. Then fill the acid chamber full of hot water, first -measuring the water so as to ascertain just how much solution is -required in proportion to the amount of water, as it takes the same -quantity at all times. Allow it to stand for a few moments, then mark -the water line with a pencil or nail, when it should be left standing -for an hour. The water should stay at the mark indicated for an -indefinite time. If it sinks during this test it shows that there is a -leak in the generator and it must be located and repaired. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 15.—Mixing Fork._ -] - -To locate the leak the gas cock should be opened and the water allowed -to run into the gas chamber. If this does not show the leak, force the -water back into the acid chamber, which is done by attaching the air -pump to the gas cock. Then taking a piece of soap and making a stiff -lather, daub it over the cocks and cleaning and charging screw. When the -leak is found the escaping air will cause bubbles to be blown. If the -leak does not become apparent after the above process, the side boards -of the generator should be taken off and the operation repeated on the -seams. - -Under no circumstances must the apparatus be left until there is -absolutely no doubt as to its being perfectly tight, as a slight leak -would be likely to cause a disastrous explosion and injure or probably -blind the operator. Flying vitriol is not a very pleasant thing to get -in one's eyes. - -The apparatus should be frequently tested in this manner: Before drawing -off the water it is desirable to learn what amount of gas pressure there -will be when the generator is charged, so that the pressure of air and -gas can be equalized. The mathematical rule for this is to multiply the -head in feet by 0.434, and the result will be the pressure in pounds; or -an approximate way of determining the pressure is to allow ½ pound -pressure for every foot of head. For example: The hight of liquid in the -generator measured from the bottom of the acid supply pipe to the top of -the water or acid line, when at its highest level, would be 3 feet. -Allowing ½ pound for every foot in hight would give a pressure of 1½ -pounds, which is slightly in excess of the mathematical rule, which is 3 -× 0.434 = 1.302, or 1 pound 4 ounces, but to be accurate it is well to -attach a mercury gauge to the gas cock. Note the hight of the column of -mercury. Then attach the gauge to the blast apparatus, and if the -floating air holder is used, sufficient weight must be put on the top of -air holder to raise the column of mercury to a point not quite as high -as is indicated by the generator. These weights can then be weighed and -a similar weight made of lead to correspond, which can be kept for -permanent use. If the bellows are used, the size specified should be -obtained, and the pressure will be all right for this size generator -without further trouble. If the air holder indicated by Fig. 8 is used, -all that is necessary is to make the hights of the water line in both -generator and air holder equal, and the pressure must be the same. - -[Illustration] - - _Fig. 16._ _Fig. 17._ - - _Mixing Forks._ - -The reason that the air pressure should not be heavier than the gas -pressure is that if the air were the stronger there would be danger of -the air working back into the gas tube and causing an explosion in the -tubes; consequently it is well to note this point carefully. Many lead -burners will say that the pressure of air is of no consequence, and all -that is required is a sufficient supply; but my experience and -experiments have convinced me that when the pressures of air and gas are -nearly equal the best results are obtained. - - - The Mixing Fork and Blow Pipe. - -The mixing fork and blow pipe can be made in any plumbing shop and -should be made of the smallest size pipe available. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 18.—Blow Pipe and Tip._ -] - -To make the mixing fork, purchase two ⅛-inch female hose end gas cocks -and 2 feet of ⅛-inch iron pipe size brass tubing. Take a piece of the -tubing 12 inches long, cut a regular iron pipe thread on each end, then -bend it over a mandrel stake or a piece of 4-inch soil pipe into a half -circle, as shown in Fig. 15, so that the ends will come about 4 inches -apart. In the center of this piece drill a ⅛-inch hole, _a_. Then cut -from the remaining piece of tubing a piece 3 inches long. Solder, or, -better yet, have this piece brazed on to the bent piece at _a_, taking -care that no solder can run in and partially stop the hole _a_. Then -screw the two ⅛-inch gas cocks on the ends _b_ and _c_. This will -complete the mixing fork; or this fork can be made by bending a piece of -pipe at an angle, as shown in Fig. 16; then cut another piece equal in -length to the bent piece from the angle _e_ to the end. One end of this -piece must be filed to fit the piece _d_. A hole can then be drilled at -_e_. Threads must be cut on these ends, after which they can be brazed -together. Or a good fork can be had by using a special casting. This -casting is used for and is known as a beer switch, and can be purchased -of any dealer in bar supplies, Fig. 17. The same pattern and size of -cocks can be used for this fork as previously described. Neither of -these mixing forks has any advantage over the other, but three styles -are given, as possibly one may be easier to make than the other. Iron -pipe may be used instead of brass if desired. - -To make the blow pipe, take the remaining piece of tubing and cut a -thread on one end. As the other end slips into the hose, it does not -need a thread. The thread end must then be bent at right angles to the -tubing, as _c_, Fig. 16. This can be done by boring a hole in a block of -hard wood just large enough for the tubing to enter, and 1½ inches deep. -Trim off the sharp edge of this hole so as not to kink the pipe in -bending. The end of the tube can then be inserted in this hole and bent -to the desired shape, as shown. This completes the blow pipes with the -exception of the tips, of which you should have three sizes, drilled as -follows: One for heavy lead, 3-32; one for medium weight, 2-32, and one -for very light sheets, 1-32. These tips are made of small pieces of cast -or turned brass, preferably with a milled shoulder, so as to facilitate -removing with the fingers. Probably the easiest way to get these tips is -to make a pattern out of wood and have several of them cast. They can -then be drilled and tapped to any desired size, or they can be cut from -a round bar of brass or copper, filed or turned to a point, then drilled -and tapped. The dimensions and particulars can be had from B in Fig. 18 -without further description being necessary. A common blow pipe, such as -is used with the alcohol torch, can be used for practicing on light -sheets. But the beginner is advised to procure the blow pipe and a set -of tips described in Fig. 18 before attempting to burn any heavy lead. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - CHARGING THE GENERATOR. - - -After making sure that the generator is perfectly tight we will proceed -to charge it. After removing the 4-inch charging screw take 15 pounds of -commercial spelter, which has been broken up with a hammer into pieces -about 2 inches square, and place this in the gas chamber, distributing -it as evenly as possible over the perforated bottom. This is done so -that the zinc will expose all the surface possible to the action of the -acid, and must be observed in order to obtain the best results. Do not -put any pieces of spelter into the generator that are small enough to -drop through the perforated bottom, for if they do they will be likely -to generate gas, which will give overpressure and blow gas out through -the acid chamber. This can do no harm unless close to a light, but it is -very annoying to have acid blown all over the generator. The charging -and cleaning screws must be screwed up tight. After closing the gas cock -on the generator take the quantity of water (less one-seventh) that was -found to be necessary when testing the apparatus, and pour this into the -acid chamber. - -Mark the water line and watch it for a few moments to make sure that -everything is tight. Then take of sulphuric acid a quantity equal to -one-seventh of the water used, and pour that into the water in the acid -chamber. It will diffuse itself through the water and thoroughly mix. -Experience has taught me that acid mixed in any proportion stronger than -seven parts of water to one part of acid does not act as quickly as when -mixed in the proportion mentioned. The reason for this is that the -strong acid simply coats the zinc with a deposit or scum of sulphate of -zinc, which is soluble in water, but is not soluble in acid. Therefore, -if the acid is diluted with water to the above mentioned proportion the -water readily dissolves the sulphate and allows the acid to act freely -on the zinc. - -This sulphate falls to the bottom of the gas chamber and if allowed to -accumulate causes the clogging mentioned later. The beginner will -observe from the explanation that the generator cannot be crowded by -making the solution strong. It sometimes occurs that the vitriol seems -to be stronger than usual, and then again the reverse is also true. Good -vitriol should be almost as thick as cutting oil, and will work very -quickly. Care must be taken in pouring it into the generator to prevent -spattering. This is best avoided by having a quart measure made of lead -for this purpose. It should also be borne in mind that the _acid should -always be added to the water_, never the water to the acid, as this -mixture always generates heat, and the result would be similar to adding -water to hot lead. - - - Automatic Action of the Generator. - -The generator works best while hot. The gas cock on the generator should -now be opened and the mixture allowed to flow into the gas chamber until -it spurts out of the gas cock, which must then be closed. By this action -all the air in the gas chamber is expelled, leaving it free to generate -pure gas at once. This is a sure method of exhausting the air in the gas -chamber. The acid then attacks the zinc, causing it to decompose the -water and free the hydrogen contained in the acid. - -This gas, by reason of its lightness, will rise to the surface of the -acid, and as pressure increases it will force the acid back up through -the acid supply pipe into the acid chamber, until the acid falls below -the perforated bottom. When the acid and zinc cease to come in contact -with each other the generation of gas stops until gas is used, which -relieves the pressure; then more acid descends, and as it comes in -contact with the zinc more gas is generated, replacing that which has -been used. This action makes the generator automatic, unless clogging -with sulphate of zinc takes place. This may happen at any time if the -apparatus is not cleaned after each day's use. - - - Cleaning the Generator. - -To clean the generator in this case attach the air pump to the gas cock -on the generator and force the acid up into the acid chamber by pumping -air slowly into the gas chamber until the acid rises to the proper hight -in the acid chamber, where it can be held by forcing a long wooden plug -into the acid supply pipe. The pumping must cease when the acid rises to -the proper level, or the excess pressure of air will work up through the -supply pipe and cause a blow of acid. - -The charging screw can then be removed and the zinc taken out and washed -in hot water. Remove the clean out screw and run one or two pails of hot -water through the gas chamber. This will remove the deposits of sulphate -paste. The zinc can then be replaced, the screws tightened and the acid -released again. Be sure and exhaust the air in the gas chamber, as -previously described, by letting the air spurt out of the gas cock -before connecting it to the scrubbing cup. Care must be taken not to -have any lights near the generator when blowing out this mixture of gas -and air, as it is very explosive. - -The apparatus will never clog if cleaned after each day's work, which -should always be done. The tubes should be removed and hung up over -night to dry. The acid, if not spent, can be dipped out of the acid -chamber and placed in jugs. The generator can then be carried to a drain -and filled with hot water, which should be allowed to flow out through -the cleaning screw. This will clean the zinc and wash out all the -sulphate deposit. The screws may then be tightened and the apparatus -left ready for the next day's use. - - - Fire Trap and Scrubbing Cup. - -One of the most essential parts of a lead burning apparatus is a -reliable fire trap and scrubbing cup. This trap reduces to a minimum the -danger from explosion caused by neglecting to free the gas from air. Its -use as a scrubbing cup is also of infinite value. - -The action of the vitriol on the zinc produces a violent ebullition, and -a small quantity of the acid is carried in the form of spray from the -generator to the tubes, and, unless caught and removed, will frequently -get into the blow pipe tip and extinguish the flame, making it necessary -to remove the hose and hang it up to drain and dry, which oftentimes -causes waste of time and annoyance. - -Almost all spelter or zinc contains more or less arsenic in a metallic -state. It is also found in sulphuric acid. This arsenic is released from -the acid or zinc as they decompose and is carried by the force of the -volume of gas to the blow pipe tip, where, owing to it being necessary -for the operator to get his eyes close to the flames in order to see the -reducing flame, this poisonous gas will be breathed into the lungs and -oftentimes cause a fatal illness. This fact has been disputed by many, -who say that it is impossible for the unit of lightness—_i. e._, -hydrogen gas—to pick up and carry a heavy metal such as arsenic. Arsenic -does not form a chemical combination with hydrogen, having a very slight -affinity for it, but is carried to the blow pipe solely by the force of -the volume of gas. - -To prove the above assertion we will refer to Professor Marsh, who -demonstrated the ability of hydrogen to carry arsenic in the following -manner: If a solution containing arsenic be added to a solution of -sulphuric acid and zinc, the resulting hydrogen will, upon ignition, -deposit a ring of metallic arsenic upon any cold surface that the flame -be directed upon. (Professor Marsh's experiment.) - -It will be seen from the above that it is imperative that the operator -use a scrubbing cup and see that it is properly filled with a solution -of blue vitriol. The ordinary impurities of hydrogen generated in this -manner are sulphur and carbon, which should be removed if possible. - -The actual use of the scrubbing cup is to catch the above mentioned -spray and precipitate to some extent all other impurities contained in -the gas, and produce gas sufficiently pure for lead burning. - - - Directions for Making the Cup. - -To make this cup take a piece of 4-inch lead pipe 7 inches long (an -ordinary piece of 4-inch lead soil pipe will do); flange out one end and -burn in a flat bottom. Three inches from the bottom, and in the side of -this 4-inch pipe, burn in a trap screw, _a_, Fig. 19, a screw taken from -an old lead trap being just the thing. This is to regulate the hight of -the solution in the cup. Now make a top by taking a piece of lead and -raising it about ¾ inch; punch two holes in this top, _b_ and _c_, large -enough to let a ⅜-inch lead pipe pass through; flange out the top of the -cup and fit and burn this top in place. Take two pieces of ⅜-inch lead -pipe, one to be 3 inches long and the other to be 10 inches long, and -with the dresser draw one end of each to nearly a point, so that the -hose can be slipped on tight. The long piece _c_ should now be slipped -through one of the holes in the top of the cup, holding it ½ inch from -the bottom _d_ and burning it in. This is the gas inlet and should be -marked as such. The short piece is then placed in the remaining hole and -burnt in place. The action will be thus: The gas entering the gas inlet -pipe is caused to pass through a solution of blue vitriol 2½ inches -deep, when the acid is caught and the gas is scrubbed and rendered as -nearly pure as possible. It then enters the outlet pipe and is ready for -use. If the directions have been followed the cup will resemble the -illustration Fig. 17. No trouble will be experienced with this cup. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 19.—Fire Trap and Scrubbing Cup._ -] - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - THE FLAME AND ITS MANAGEMENT. - - -Before attempting to light the gas the operator must be sure that all -the air is exhausted from the tubes. Otherwise the flame will go back -and explode in the tubes or fire trap. To be sure of this the beginner -must test the gas. A handy test tube can be made by capping one end of a -piece of ½-inch pipe, which should be about 6 inches long. To test the -gas, first open wide the gas cock M on the generator, Fig. 1. Then open -the gas cock _f_ on the mixing fork and let the gas displace the air in -the tubes, which it will do in about one minute. Then invert the test -tube, Fig. 20, and hold it over the blow pipe tip for a moment until the -gas has displaced the air in the tube. Then quickly place your thumb -over the opening of the test tube, which will keep the gas from -escaping. Close the gas cock _f_ on the mixing fork, then take the test -tube to one side away from the generator, still keeping it inverted, and -bring it close to a lighted match or candle. It will light with a pop, -and if it is free from air it will burn quietly down in the tube until -the gas is exhausted. Continue to test the gas in this manner until it -burns as described, when it may be safely lit at the jet without fear of -its burning back. This precaution is necessary only after opening the -generator for some purpose. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 20.—Method of Testing Gas._ -] - - - Regulating Volume and Pressure. - -This generator evolves gas under a greater pressure than can be used on -most work, and for this reason the flame will at first be long, noisy -and unsteady, as shown in A, Fig. 21, but, as there are two cocks, the -volume and pressure can be regulated to the requirements of the work at -hand. Now, to note the peculiarities of this flame, we will close the -gas cock _f_ on the mixing fork until the flame is about 3 inches long. -It will be of a pale reddish color and will burn steadily. The inner -flame is not as yet very well defined. Then open the air cock _g_ -slowly, and when sufficient air has been admitted the flame will be seen -to shoot out suddenly and then shorten to about 1¾ or 2 inches in -length. It will be smooth, compact, and will have the appearance of -darting rapidly. If the correct quantity of air has been admitted the -inner flame, as shown in B, Fig. 21, will then be plainly seen, and its -apex, which is the point of greatest heat, will be blue. This inner -flame is known as the nonoxidizing flame, and is the flame with which -the fusing is done. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 21.—Flames Under Different Pressures._ -] - -The outer flame will change to a bluish color. Its temperature is low, -and its effect on the lead is to coat the metal with a heavy blue oxide, -under which the lead runs but does not unite. To demonstrate this, bring -the point of the inner or nonoxidizing flame to bear on a piece of sheet -lead. It will fuse bright and clean and will have a circle of gray oxide -around it. Then quickly remove the flame and the spot will remain -bright. Now, again bring the flame to bear on the same piece of lead, -keeping the point of the inner flame at least ¾ inch away from the lead. -It will melt and flow together, but will be covered with a coat of gray -oxide and the union will not be perfect. Slowly withdraw the flame, and -before the flame is entirely removed the spot will be heavily coated -with a thick blue oxide, under which the lead will not unite. C, in Fig. -21, shows the appearance of the flame when too much air has been -admitted and it is on the point of going out from lack of gas. - -The proper way to use the gas is to open wide the gas cock M on the -generator, and do any regulating of the flame with the gas cock _f_ on -the mixing fork. These cocks should have pieces of heavy wire brazed or -soldered lengthwise of the handles, Fig. 16, _h_ and _i_, so as to form -lever handles. This will allow the gas and air cocks to be closed or -opened by gently tapping the levers _h_ and _i_, which is the only way -that a slight variation can be had, for if you try to regulate them with -the finger you will constantly open or close them too much, and the -result is that in adding air too much is always admitted, which will -blow out the flame, making it necessary to turn off the air and light -the jet again, and many times this operation will have to be repeated -before the flame is correctly adjusted. - -It must be remembered to always turn on and light the gas before -admitting any air, and when through with the flame the air must be -turned off first, then the gas. If this operation is reversed an -explosive mixture of gas and air would form in the tube and would spoil -the tube, if nothing worse. - - - Study the Flame Well. - -The beginner should study the flame until perfectly familiar with the -color and form of the proper flame. One of the greatest troubles that -the beginner will have with the blow pipe is the inability to regulate -the flame to the requirements of the work. For instance: A flame that -would work nicely on 12-pound sheets would burn holes in 4-pound sheets -before you had time to touch the lead with the inner flame. For that -reason three different sizes of tips should be used. On a 2-pound sheet -the smallest, or 1-32, tip should be used, and the flame before reducing -should not be longer than ¾ inch, and when reduced the inner flame can -hardly be distinguished, but you can easily tell when it touches the -lead by the metal fusing bright. If it is desired to fuse 12-pound -sheets the 2-32-inch tip should be substituted, and it would be found -necessary to have the jet of gas about 3 inches long, which, when -reduced, would be about 2 inches long and would show the inner flame -very distinctly. - -The only way to determine the size of the flame necessary is by -experimenting with it. It will also come with experience. The flame -should be reduced to a size that will not melt the lead as soon as it -touches it. Rather, it should be in such condition that the lead would -have to be heated first and let the fusing come gradually. In that way -it can be determined just what sized drop is required, and also plenty -of time is allowed to place it just where it is wanted—particularly on -upright seams and _imperatively_ on inverted seams. - -It is not necessary to be so particular on horizontal seams, as on seams -in that position you are assisted by gravity. The lead drop that is -melted from the upper lap cannot do otherwise than unite with the under -lap. It must be remembered that in starting a seam you have cold lead to -fuse, and after the first drop is started the lead in its vicinity will -be heated almost to the melting point, and you will probably be -surprised to see the lead run at the approach of the flame for the next -application. - - - Do Not Hurry. - -The point to be taught here is that you must not attempt to hurry this -work or holes will surely be burned in the sheets, which oftentimes -makes difficult work to patch. The old adage, “haste makes waste,” can -well be applied to lead burning. Sufficient time must be allowed for one -drop to set before attempting to place the next drop. Time spent on -practicing at the bench is time well spent, as many little details that -cannot be brought to the beginner's attention here will be learned in -that way and stored in his mind for future application. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SEAMS. - - -There are two kinds of seams proper, viz.: The butt seam and the lap -seam. The butt seam is used principally for joining horizontal waste -pipes and in lengthening traps, or for any purpose where it is desired -not to have the point of junction show. This form of seam can be burned -clear through—that is, the lead can be heated until fusion takes place -nearly through the entire sheet. It is generally necessary to add lead -to the seam if it is desired to make the seam as strong as the sheet it -joins, unless the article to be burned is of such a size as to be -possible to allow of its being burned on both sides, which makes the -strongest of seams. The lead for the butt seams is prepared by rasping -the edges of the lead sheet to be joined straight and true, Fig. 22, so -that when the edges of the lead are brought together they will fit close -its entire length. The edges are then shaved for a distance of ⅛ inch -each side of the edge, making a seam ¼ inch wide. On stock heavier than -12-pound sheets the edge should be shaved off, making a deep V-shaped -groove, and the seams must be made by adding lead. This allows the -fusion to take place nearly through the sheet. The butt seam is the -simplest form to burn, no matter in what position it is placed. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 22.—Rasping the Edges of the Lead Sheet Straight and True._ -] - -The lap seam is the seam commonly used, and as between the butt seam and -the lap seam the latter is generally to be preferred. As it is not -necessary to cut and trim the edges true, it dispenses with any -additions of lead, except at rare intervals; it leaves the left hand -free to handle the shave hook, and the lap can be dressed to fit any -uneven spots. It also makes the next best seam to through fusing. By lap -seaming a tank can be lined in about half the time required to butt seam -the same article, which is an important item to the customer. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 23.—Burning a Lap Seam._ -] - -The lead for this form of seam is prepared, as its name indicates, by -lapping one sheet ½ to ¾ inch over the other sheet. The under edges are -to be shaved clean, as also the upper edge. The lead required to make -the seam is melted from the upper lap and is fused on the lower sheet. -There is no reason why the lead at the point of juncture cannot be made -as thick as the original lead. This is the point aimed at in practicing, -and the only accurate way to determine the relative strength of the -seams is to cut squarely across a finished seam, then bend the beam -slightly. The thickness can then be noted. A cross section of a perfect -lap seam is shown at _a_ in Fig. 23. The beginner should practice the -different seams until the thickness of the joint can be told by the -looks of the lead. A few days' diligent practice at the bench will soon -train the eye to note any imperfection that may arise. - -The different seams will be taken up serially. A description of how the -seams are prepared and the several positions of the blow pipe, as well -as the little difficulties that may arise, is the extent of the -instruction that can be given. The rest must come with practice and the -application of a little common sense. There is no royal road to this -business; but practice, and practice hard, is the only way to -satisfactorily master the blow pipe and flame, and in practicing -remember that all this work has been done before, and can be easily done -again, _and by you_. Do not get discouraged by failure to make a perfect -seam at the first application, but stick to it for a short time and it -will be found to be a most fascinating pastime, for which the persistent -student will eventually be well repaid. - - - Flat Butt Seam. - -For practicing I would recommend the beginner to use pieces of sheet -lead about 12 inches long, as strips of that length are much easier to -prepare. The edges are straightened with a fine rasp which is held -lengthwise of and parallel to the edge to be trued, in the manner shown -in Fig. 22. The rasp must be used lightly, or it will be apt to tear the -lead and so leave it in worse condition than before using it. The edge -should then be gone over with the shave hook and cleaned. Then shave the -top surface a distance of ⅛ inch each way from the edge, which will make -a seam ¼ inch wide when finished. Then butt the edges together and -secure the sheets firmly to a board with a few tacks. The extra lead -that is necessary to add to make a butt joint full must be obtained from -a strip of lead, which should be about ⅛ inch square and _shaved clean_. - -After regulating the flame to the proper size and shape the burning -should be begun at the end of the seam nearest the operator. With the -point of the inner flame melt off a drop from the lead strip and have it -fall squarely on the seam just slightly in advance of the point of -fusion. Follow it up with the flame, placing the point of the inner -flame directly over the edges of the seam, which is almost under the -lead drop. As soon as fusion commences on the lead seam the melted drop -will flow to the bright spot and immediately unite with it. The flame -must then be quickly removed and the drop be allowed to set. - -In order to avoid any misunderstanding regarding the time required for -the lead drop to set I would say that the drop will cool immediately -upon the flame being removed from contact with it. It is not necessary -to wait for any specified time, but if the flame is allowed to play -constantly on the sheet it is apt to get overheated, and when in that -condition it takes very little heat to set the lead running like water. -To avoid this the flame should be lifted clear of the seam for an -instant after each drop has been fused into place. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 24.—Burning a Flat Butt Seam._ -] - -These remarks apply to all seams that are made by the blow pipe process -and should be noted, as this particular point will not be referred to -again. Now melt off another drop and let it fall as before, only it -should lap on the previous drop about one-half its diameter. Secure it -to the seam as before. This operation should be repeated until the seam -is completed, and if the seam is correctly done a section will appear as -_a_ in Fig. 24. This form of flat seam should be practiced until -perfectly familiar with the blow pipe flame and until the beginner can -approach the lead with the flame without burning holes through it, which -will probably be the first thing to happen. - - - Upright Butt Seam. - -The upright butt seam is seldom used on large work, as it is a difficult -matter to make an upright butt seam that will stand the test, as, if a -finished seam is cut into short pieces, an examination of the severed -ends will show many weak places that were previously thought to be very -strong. The reason of this is that the heat necessary to fuse through -the lead will cause the lead to run from the seam and leave a hole. - -The sheets for practice are prepared as described for flat butt seams, -and must be securely tacked to a board which can be supported in an -upright position. The burning is begun at the bottom of the seam. The -flame must be shortened considerably, as the fusing must take place -somewhat slower than in flat seams, as in upright or inverted seams the -attraction of gravity remains to be overcome, and the operator must have -plenty of time between the commencement of brightening and the actual -fusing to drive the melting drop to the exact position desired. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 25.—Burning an Upright Butt Seam._ -] - -The blow pipe is held so that the flame strikes the seam squarely and at -about a right angle with the sheet, as shown in Fig. 25. When fusion -starts the flame should be drawn quickly to one side, and if the lead is -at the proper temperature the melted drop will follow the point of -flame, and as it comes in contact with the adjoining edge it will -properly unite. It is not necessary to add lead to these seams oftener -than at intervals of 5 or 6 inches, or as often as the lead shows signs -of weakening, when it may be added by holding the lead strip against the -lead sheet and slightly above the flame. The melted drop will unite with -the sheet and can then be driven to any desired position. This seam will -show the characteristic beads, but they will lie nearly level with the -lead sheets, and if a scratch cloth be rubbed over the seam all traces -of the position of the seam will be removed. - -To make a really strong seam it must be gone over with the flame at -least twice, as after fusion of the edges takes place the flame can be -used quite strong without fear of the lead running from the seam. Do not -leave this seam until you are satisfied that it is nearly perfect. It is -good practice, and every hour spent only makes the mastery of the next -seam come so much more quickly. - - - Horizontal Butt Seam. - -This form of seam cannot be used to any advantage on general work, but, -like seams in other positions, it cannot always be avoided. The practice -sheets are prepared and tacked securely to the board, as previously -described, and are then placed in the position shown in Fig. 26. The -position of the blow pipe is as shown at _a_. The flame should strike -the sheet nearly square. The edge of the upper sheet should be heated -first, and as it brightens the flame should be directed onto the edge of -the lower sheet. If properly done, fusion will at once take place. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 26.—Burning a Horizontal Butt Seam._ -] - -The object sought is to get a light fusion between the two sheets before -attempting to burn the lead clear through the seam. If this is not done, -the lead will run from the upper sheet and cause holes, or at least will -seriously weaken the upper sheet, as shown in cross section at _b_. -After fusion is once obtained it is a simple matter to go over the seam -a second time, which can then be fused clear through without much danger -of burning holes through the sheet. Lead can be added in the same manner -as in upright seams if necessary. - - - Inverted Butt Seam. - -This seam is used extensively in joining waste pipes which conduct the -acid from tanks to the drain. These pipes are usually in a horizontal -position and the seams must be burned in place. The most difficult part -of the seam is in starting it. When fusion has once taken place the -balance of the seam is easy. The seam is prepared the same as described -for other butt seams. Care must be taken to have the edges butt close. -The board can then be supported in the required position by any -convenient device. - -The blow pipe flame must be made as short as possible and still melt the -lead. The point of the inner flame is then placed squarely on the seam. -Both edges must be heated at once. If the edges begin to brighten and do -not show an inclination to fuse, the flame should be drawn quickly to -one side, and the melted drop will follow the point of flame and unite -with the adjoining edge. This seam, in common with the other butt seams, -should be gone over the second time to assure a perfect seam. It is -difficult work to add lead to the flat inverted seam. When necessary to -do so, however, it can be added by burning the end of the lead strip to -the seam. The strip is then melted off, leaving a drop of lead affixed -to the seam, which can then be drawn to the required spot with the -flame. - -The characteristic inverted seam shows pits upon examination of the -reverse side of the sheets. These are caused by overheating. The -operator will often be surprised at the inverted butt seam showing a -remarkable fullness. This is accounted for upon the examination above -referred to. The lead, upon the application of the heat, runs from the -upper or back side of the sheet and forms a very full seam. For that -reason the inverted butt seams always appear stronger than they really -are. See inverted lap seam, Fig. 27. - - - Lap Seams. - -The lap seams are the seams commonly used on all classes of work. When -the beginner becomes proficient with the blow pipe no trouble will be -experienced in making lap seams that will show when cut a joint equal in -thickness to the sheets that are joined. The lead sheets for the flat -lap seam are prepared by shaving clean the exposed edge; also, shave the -sheets where they touch each other. The upper edges can then be shaved -for a distance of ⅛ inch each side of the lap, which will make the -finished seam ¾ inch wide, as shown at _a_ in Fig. 23. The sheets should -be lapped ½ to ¾ inch, according to the weight of the stock. It is very -evident that light weights would not require as large a lap as would -heavier sheets, as the object of lapping the sheets is to leave the -sheets practically as one piece, and the lead, to accomplish this -object, is to be melted from the upper sheet. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 27.—Burning an Inverted Lap Seam._ -] - -From the foregoing it will be seen why a 12-pound sheet requires a -½-inch lap, while a 24-pound sheet would require a ¾-inch lap. The -flame, when regulated to the work, is brought to bear squarely on the -edge of the upper sheet, slanting slightly in the direction of the lower -sheet, as shown. When the edge has brightened almost to the fusing point -the blow pipe should be drawn quickly to one side and from the upper -sheet to the lower sheet. If the metal is sufficiently hot the melted -drop will follow the point of the flame and instantly fuse with the -lower sheet, and if properly done the seam will resemble _b_ in Fig. 23. -This process is repeated, advancing about ⅛ to ¼ inch each time. Do not -attempt to fuse a large surface at a time. Experts cannot do such a -thing satisfactorily, so why should a beginner try to? Rather, try to -fuse small surfaces quickly and strongly, as better work and more of it -can be accomplished in that manner. - - - Horizontal Lap Seams. - -This seam is prepared precisely as described for flat lap seams. The -strips can be fastened to a board with a few tacks. The strips can then -be supported in the position shown in Fig. 28. The burning is commenced, -as before, at the side nearest the operator. The flame must be made as -short as is consistent with the weight of the stock. It will be found to -the beginner's advantage to have fusion take place slowly. The point of -the inner flame is brought to bear on the outer edge of the lapped sheet -and at an angle of 45 degrees. Both sheets should begin to brighten at -about the same time. The melted drop must be driven against the back -sheet by the force of the jet of flame, and if the sheets are clean -fusion will take place quickly. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 28.—Burning a Horizontal Lap Seam._ -] - -The drops or beads of lead will appear very small on this form of seam, -owing to that great obstacle, gravity, which causes the drop when melted -to flow downward and so swell the seam. The drops, in common with other -forms of lap seams, should be made short, letting each drop overlap the -previous drop as much as possible. Great care must be taken not to -weaken the seam, as shown at _a_. The beginner should strive to get the -seams so that when cut into small sections each section will resemble -the result shown at _b_. - - - Upright Lap Seams. - -Prepare the sheets as for flat lap seams, fastening the sheets securely -to a board, as previously described. The burning should be begun at the -lowest point of the seam. After regulating the flame, the point of the -inner flame is applied to the edge of the outer sheet slightly above the -point decided upon as the starting point, and at an angle of about 30 -degrees, as shown at _a_ in Fig. 29. As the drop begins to melt it will -have a tendency to flow downward. By a quick turn of the wrist the flame -must then be directed against the back sheet and slightly under the -melting drop. - -The under sheet should brighten at once, and the force of the flame, -being partially directed against the melted drop, tends to force it -against the bright spot on the back sheet, with which it instantly -unites. The flame must then be withdrawn for an instant, to give the -fused drop time to set. The operation must be repeated until the seam is -finished. Using ordinary language, it may be said that the drop is cut -from the upper sheet, carried slightly downward and then stuck against -the back sheet by the force of the flame. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 29.—Burning an Upright Lap Seam._ -] - -This seam is the one most used, and the beginner should practice it -diligently. After mastering it in the position shown in the cut, the -board should be fastened to the floor and the beginner should practice -burning the upright seam from above the work. This position occurs many -times in lining tanks, and the beginner who conquers the upright seam in -that position can consider himself sufficiently proficient to attend to -any job of lead burning that may arise. The beads of lead will appear -more compact and regular than in the flat seam, and if properly done -will upon cutting the sample show a very strong joint. - - - Inverted Lap Seam. - -This seam should be attempted only after becoming very proficient with -the blow pipe and flame, after which it becomes as easy to burn as in -any other position. In order to get the range of the seam the sheets -should be arranged in the position shown in Fig. 27. The burning is -begun on the upright seam, and continued up and over the curved portion -and on to the inverted seam. The graduation from the upright seam to the -inverted seam is simple and gradual, and is hardly noticeable. - -After accomplishing the inverted seam in this manner, strips of lead -should be prepared and fastened to the board as described for upright -seams. The board should be supported in an inverted position at a -convenient hight over the operator's head. The flame should be shortened -as much as possible. The burning may be started at any convenient point -and continue in each direction. The point of the inner flame is applied -to the seam at a slight angle, as _a_. The object is to obtain a fusion -between the back sheet and the upper edge of the lap. When this is -accomplished fusion proceeds easily. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 30.—Burning an Inverted Corner Seam._ -] - -The hardest part of this seam is in starting it, and when once started, -with a little patience and care, the balance of the seam can be fused -without any trouble. Fig. 30 shows an exercise which the beginner should -practice after having conquered Fig. 27, as it teaches the making of an -inverted corner seam. Of course, this position seldom occurs in small -work, but if the burning of it is once accomplished it will give the -operator considerable confidence in his own ability. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - PIPE SEAMS. - - - The Butt Seam on Round Pipe. - -Pipes that are placed in a horizontal position are usually butt seamed, -as a stronger seam can be made in that manner. This form of seam is also -used in lengthening traps, bends, etc. To prepare a round pipe for butt -seaming, the ends of the pipe should first be made perfectly round by -inserting a drift plug and dressing the lead up close to it. The ends of -the pipe should be rasped true and then shaved clean. Also shave the -pipe for a distance of ⅛ inch each side of the edge. A piece of stiff -writing paper should then be rolled up the size of the pipe and inserted -in the ends. This paper will prevent any lead from running into the pipe -and leaving rough edges, as these afterward form an obstruction. - -The burning should be commenced at the under side of the pipe, Fig. 31, -and proceed both ways from the starting point and finish at the top. If -the beginner has successfully overcome the difficulties of the seams -preceding this he will find no trouble in making a strong and -workmanlike seam on this pipe. Pipes are seldom used heavier than the -grade known as D for this class of work, and for that reason it is -seldom necessary to add lead to these seams. But if a hole should be -burned in the pipe on the under side, lead should be added to the top -side of the pipe and then made to follow the flame to the desired spot. -This will be found a quicker and more certain method than attempting to -add lead directly to the hole. A properly burned pipe should show the -full thickness of the pipe when cut with a saw. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 31.—Burning a Butt Seam on Round Pipe._ -] - - - Through Seam on Round Pipe. - -Where heavy pipe that is to be used under pressure is to be joined it -must be burned through to provide strength, and the ends prepared in the -same way as just described, but the ends must also be trimmed off all -the way around with a slight bevel reaching from the outside almost to -the inside bore of the pipe. The bevel must stop so as to allow a narrow -square butt end on each pipe. Then when a piece of paper has been placed -on the inside to prevent lead running into the pipe, the two ends when -butted will present a V-shaped groove, as shown in Fig. 32, reaching all -around the pipe. The burning is commenced at the bottom, as shown in -Fig. 31, and the two ends securely united. The groove is then filled by -burning on additional lead from a thin cleaned strip until the groove is -filled and the pipe made as heavy and strong at this point as anywhere -on its entire length. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 32.—Joint Prepared for Through Burning._ -] - - - The Lap Seam on Round Pipe. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 33.—Preparing for a Lap Seam._ -] - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 34.—Burning a Lap Seam on Round Pipe._ -] - -This seam is used almost exclusively on pipe in a vertical position, and -is similar to the horizontal lap seam. The pipe is prepared by spreading -the lower piece of pipe with a drift plug one size larger than the size -of the pipe used. The end of the pipe intended to enter this socket is -rasped to a bevel edge, as shown at _a_, Fig. 33. This end is then -shaved clean, as is also the inside of the socket. The pipe is then -placed into the socket, which is then dressed up tight against the -inserted pipe, as shown in Fig. 34. The exposed edge is then cleaned and -burned, as described for horizontal lap seams. - - - The Tee Joint on Round Pipe. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 35.—Making a Tee Joint on Round Pipe._ -] - -With a pair of compasses set the diameter of the pipe that it is desired -to insert, and strike a circle on the pipe which is to receive the tee. -With a tap borer, or any other device, cut out a circle of lead, leaving -about ¼ inch to turn up. Then draw this remaining lead up by means of a -bending iron and a heavy piece of iron, such as a chisel, as shown at B -in Fig. 35, until the hole is large enough to receive the piece intended -for it, the end of which should be beveled with a fine rasp, as shown at -_a_. The lead should then be dressed back against the pipe, after which -remove the piece and shave clean, and proceed to burn as described for -the lap seam on round pipe, and as shown in Fig. 36. Care must be taken -in dressing up the lead flange to dress it slowly so as to avoid -weakening the lead. - - - Lining Tanks. - -The lining of chemical tanks being the principal work of the chemical -plumber, a description of how this work is done will probably be of some -use to the beginner. In preparing lead sheets for a tank the sheets -should be cut so as to give the most seams on the bottom, because of the -greater ease in making them. In large tanks I find it convenient to put -the bottom in first, cutting it to make an easy fit, and then the sides -are put in. These are cut to allow ¾-inch lap on the bottom. - -The lead sheets are laid on the floor, or some other smooth place, which -has previously been swept clean, and then dressed out smooth. This can -best be done by using the wooden dresser to take out the large wrinkles -and then smoothing with a lead flap. This flap is simply a piece of -sheet lead about 3 inches wide and 12 inches long, one end of which is -drawn into a roll to fit the hand. Then mark the laps and bend them to -the desired position. The under side of the lap should be shaved clean, -as also the lead under the lap, to facilitate fusion. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 36.—Burning in the Tee Joint._ -] - -If the tank is over 18 inches high the lead must be fastened to the -sides with bullseyes. These are made by countersinking places in the -sides of the tank. The lead is then dressed into these holes and it is -held in place with large headed brass screws, which are covered by -burning over the heads. Lead for the purpose is taken from lead strips. -The building up process is resorted to in covering these screw heads. - -The lead should be arranged so as to avoid corner seams as much as -possible, as it is quite a difficult job to get the proper thickness of -lead in such seams. No rule can be given for cutting lead to fit a tank, -as tanks are of such a variety of sizes and shapes, and the lead is of -so many widths, that the mechanic must study how to cut the stock -without waste and have as few seams as possible. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - ACID CHAMBER WORK. - - -It is not my intention to give an elaborate description of how acids are -made or to attempt to describe all of the different fittings employed in -that work, because while all plants are similar in construction no two -are alike. For that reason I will confine myself to the methods employed -in handling lead in large quantities, as the lead used in this work -ranges in weight from 18 to 24 pounds to the foot and is therefore very -heavy to handle. These chambers are known as condensing chambers, and -their use is to catch and condense a mixture of sulphur and steam which -is blown into them through a large lead pipe. For that reason they are -usually built out of doors, and sometimes have a sort of temporary roof -built over them. Consequently in repairing they are easily gotten at, -which, by the way, is seldom necessary. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 37.—Method of Framing Chamber._ -] - -To begin with, the sheet lead should be purchased of such a width as to -make as few seams as possible. The bottom of the chamber for this lead -to lie upon should be made of 2-inch cypress plank, the same to be -tongued and grooved as for floors, and should be planed down, if -necessary, so that it will present a perfectly smooth surface for the -lead to rest upon, for if there are any uneven spots that is where the -lead will eventually crack. The frame work for the sides should also be -put in place before the lead work is started, or at least enough of it -to prevent dirt and other stuff from bothering the burner. One end of -the chamber, however, should be left open, so as to enable the workmen -to bring in the lead or other material. The sides should not be closed -up, but should be framed, as shown in Fig. 37, so as to allow the lead -to be securely fastened to the frame work, which should be made of heavy -stock, depending, of course, upon the depth and size of chamber, as they -are in all sizes, from 10 feet to 60 feet long and longer. - -After seeing that this part of the work is all right, begin to place the -bottom in position. This lead should be cut large enough to allow of its -being turned up about 2 inches all around for tight tanks. The sides are -not burned to the bottoms of some chambers, but the bottom lead is -turned up different hights, depending upon how deep it is required to -carry the acid in the chamber, which is from 4 to 10 inches or deeper. -The studding should be notched out to allow the turned up lead to face -with the face of the studding, otherwise there would be a bend in the -side lead where it overlaps the sides of the bottom. The flat seams in -the bottom should be butted together, so as to give a perfectly smooth -surface, which will allow all the acid to be drawn off. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 38.—Chipping Knife._ -] - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 39.—(A) Strap Split and Bent in Alternate Directions. (B) Bevel - End of Strap._ -] - -It is rather a difficult task for some men to cut heavy lead straight. -This is easily accomplished by first marking a chalk line on the lead -where it is desired to cut it off; then, taking the hammer and chipping -knife, as shown in Fig. 38, dip the blade of the knife in water, lay the -blade square on the line and strike the back of the blade lightly with -the hammer. Mark the sheet the whole length in this manner. Then go over -it again and repeat the operation, making sure that the knife is held -straight. The blade of the knife must be kept wet or it will stick in -the lead and cause it to glance off sideways. After it is cut any uneven -spots can be planed off smooth with a small smoothing plane, set so as -to take off a very light chip. The lead should now be placed in position -and dressed smoothly by using a piece of pine, or other soft board, as a -dresser. This must be laid on any uneven spots and then pounded down -smooth with a heavy wooden mallet, after which the seams should be -shaved and burned at once; or if the seams are short and it is desired -to put in enough work one day to keep the burner busy the next, strips -of paper 6 inches wide should be pasted over the seams to keep the dust -out. Only the edges of the paper should be pasted, so that when ready to -burn all that will be necessary is to take hold of one end of the paper -and strip it off, leaving the seam clean and free from dust and paste -and ready to shave and burn. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 40.—Roll of Lead in Position._ -] - -After the bottom is finished the sides must be put in, in such a manner -as to have as few seams in an upright position as possible, as it saves -considerable time to burn them when horizontal. On small chambers or -tanks not over 10 feet deep the carpenter should make a staging wide -enough to receive two sheets of lead and as long as the tank is deep. -The bottom of the chamber should then be covered with boards, so as to -prevent damage to the lead. The staging is then brought in and set up on -horses, and the sheets of lead are cut off and laid on the staging. The -seams are lapped, shaved and burned, after which the lead tacks or -straps are cut and burned on, to support the lead when in position. - -There are different ways of putting on these straps. For side lead I use -strips of the lead itself about 3 inches wide and long enough to lap -well onto the studding. My way is to split this strip about ½ inch deep -and bend the ends in alternate directions. The edges are then cut off, -as shown at A, Fig. 39, after which they are burned in place. These -straps should be spaced not more than 15 inches apart, and should be -placed in such a manner as to come on the upper side of the studding. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 41.—Clamp and Method of Applying._ -] - -Another method of putting on these tacks, and one which is most commonly -practiced, is to trim the end of the strip of lead as shown at B, Fig. -39. The strip is laid flat on the lead sheet, with the bevel end down, -and is then burned onto the sheet in that position, after which it is -bent over the studding and nailed. The exponents of this method claim -that a better job is done in that manner, as there is always a lifting -pull on the strap. I claim for the first method that there is more -strength in the lead seam, and that as the edge of the studding comes -directly under the strap it acts as a sort of shelf for the strap and -thereby becomes a strong brace. But it is probably only a matter of -habit, as they hold all right either way. - -Now, after having the seams burned and the straps in place, the lead -must be put in position. This can be accomplished by any arrangement of -block and tackles, but if the chamber be very large it will be found to -be a saving of time and labor to rig up a derrick. This is not such an -expensive thing to do, as a carpenter is always on hand and most likely -all the material needed is already on the ground. This derrick should be -constructed with a swinging boom, so that it can be raised, lowered or -swung into any desired position. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 42.—Showing Staging in Position._ -] - -Now to raise the side lead into position: The derrick is hooked onto the -hook or rope that is on the upper end of the staging. It can then be -easily raised in position. If the tank be very deep, or if it should be -too narrow to follow this method, the sheet lead should be rolled up on -a piece of 2, 3 or 4 inch iron pipe, depending upon the weight of the -lead. This pipe should be long enough to project at least 6 inches from -both ends of the roll. Two timbers, long enough to cross the frame work, -should be obtained. About 18 inches from one end of each timber a notch -should be cut to prevent the pipe from rolling. These timbers must now -be placed across the frame work just over the place that is intended for -the lead. The whole roll can now be raised with the derrick and the ends -of the pipe placed in the notches. The lead can then be pulled down, -similar to pulling down a window shade, after which the tacks can be -burned on in place. This is shown at _a_, Fig. 40. Or if there be room -enough the piece of lead can be cut from the roll, dressed smooth and -have the tacks burned on while on the floor. The upper end of the lead -can then be rolled over and nailed to a piece of timber 2 × 6 inches or -heavier, and the derrick hooked onto this and raised in position. This -is the easiest method where there is room to do it. These are a few of -the methods used, but there are numerous other ways. - -To place the top lead in position requires a staging, which can be built -as follows: Enough hooks should be made to properly support the staging, -shown at A, Fig. 41. Two timbers should be laid across the top of the -chamber, far enough apart to allow two strips of lead to be placed in -position at once. The hooks are now hooked over these timbers, while two -pieces of 3 × 3 or 4 × 4 are placed in the other end of the hook. Planks -are now laid over these timbers and the screws set up until the tops of -the planks come just level with the top of the lead—not higher, or else -they will prevent the joist from being placed in position. - -The lead can now be cut off on the ground and hoisted up to the top, -where it becomes an easy matter to place it in position. The lead tacks -can now also be cut and burned on. They should be cut sufficiently long -to allow them to lap over the top of the joist, as shown at _a_, Fig. -42, where they should be nailed with large headed nails. It will be -noticed that the tacks are doubled up on the top lead and that they are -not set opposite each other. The joist can now be set and the tacks -nailed on, after which ropes can be tied onto the projecting ends of the -4 × 4 timbers and the whole staging be lowered to the floor at once. -This operation can be repeated until the whole top is on. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 43.—Lead Headed Nail._ -] - -It will be necessary to leave small holes between the lead seams at -intervals for the hooks to pass through. However, these can be burned -over at any time, and where the ends of the top should overlap the end -of the chamber the lead can be left turned up until the staging is -removed, after which it can be turned over and burned. The hooks are -made of ⅝ round iron and have a long thread cut on one end, so as to -allow for adjustment. The details are shown in Fig. 41. There are also -numerous fittings used in connection with these condensing chambers, but -they are all easily made and are too simple to take up space here in -explanation. Should it be necessary to use nails for any purpose on the -inside of the chamber, the heads should be dipped into a pot of melted -lead that has not quite set until the adhering ball of lead is about ½ -inch in diameter, as shown in Fig. 43. These nails can be driven in -place and the lead burned to the sheet lead, which will prevent -corrosion. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - SPECIAL HYDROGEN APPARATUS AND BURNER. - - -The articles on the universal method of lead burning having been -completed, I desire to call attention to a new method and a new -generator recently patented and put on the market by the Kirkwood & Herr -Hydrogen Machine Company, 3129 South State street, Chicago, Ill. It is -called the Kirkwood generator and a general view of it is given in Fig. -44. This generator is a radical departure from the old style generator, -as used for the purpose of lead burning, inasmuch as it dispenses with -the air blast and consequently with the mixing fork and tubes. The air -required to reduce the hydrogen gas to a working condition is obtained -by absorbing the air at the mouth of the burner. - -The new generator differs also in the amount of pressure used on the -gas. With the old style generator, previously described, a pressure of -1½ to 2 pounds is used, whereas the Kirkwood generator is used under a -pressure varying from 8 to 30 pounds. At the higher pressure the maker -claims the best results are obtained. The generator is made in a size -that enables the operator to take it to a job on a street car or train, -and that while containing the full charge of acid and zinc, as it weighs -when charged about 50 pounds. This is a very important advantage over -the old style machine. - - - Construction of the Generator. - -The generator is constructed, so to speak, just the reverse of the old -style generator, inasmuch as the lower chamber contains the charge of -acid, while the zinc is placed in the upper chamber. The generator shown -in the sectional view, Fig. 45, is cylindrical in shape, 9 inches in -diameter and 30 inches high. A horizontal partition, to which is burned -a pipe long enough to reach to a point about 1 inch above the bottom of -the acid chamber, is burned into the cylinder at a point a little above -the middle of the cylinder, making the acid chamber larger than the gas -chamber. This arrangement allows the back pressure of gas to force the -acid down into the acid chamber, compressing the air in the acid chamber -without permitting any gas to find its way into the acid chamber and -thus preventing a waste of gas. In this horizontal partition and over -the pendent pipe a number of ¼-inch holes are drilled or punched. This -enables the acid to pass freely into the gas chamber, and prevents any -small particles of zinc from falling into the acid chamber, which would -generate gas in the chamber. Connected to the top of this acid chamber -is a small pipe which runs up through the gas chamber and terminates -above it, as shown. This pipe has an air inlet valve, or small hose end -gas cock, connected into the side of the pipe, to which the hose from -the force pump is attached when supplying air to the acid chamber to -force from the acid chamber to the gas chamber in order to start the -generation of gas. A safety or blow off valve is also attached to this -pipe at the top, and is set to an ordinary working pressure of 15 -pounds, or to any pressure desired. If gas is being generated faster -than is required it gets up a pressure in excess of 15 pounds. Then the -safety valve opens and allows the air in the acid chamber to escape -until the gas goes down to the desired pressure again. This obviously -allows a portion of the acid to return to the acid chamber, and later, -as the acid becomes weaker, the air in this chamber will have to be -renewed by the admission of a little more air. - -[Illustration] - - _Fig. 44.—General View._ _Fig. 45.—Sectional View._ - - _The Kirkwood Lead Burning Machine._ - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 46.—The Kirkwood Lead Burner._ -] - -A large charging screw is placed directly in the top of the gas chamber. -Into this is screwed a tee and short nipple, or it may be a special -fitting made for that purpose. On this tee or special fitting a pressure -gauge is screwed, and a float valve is attached on the branch. Into the -gas chamber or as close to the partition as possible an angle valve is -placed. - - - To Operate. - -To charge the apparatus the safety valve is removed and the amount of -the charge of acidulated water having been previously ascertained, the -charge is poured into the acid chamber through the air pipe. The charge -of spelter or zinc is placed in the gas chamber through the charging -screw on top of the gas chamber. The pump is now attached to the air -inlet cock with a short hose, and a few strokes of the pump will force -the acid up into the gas chamber until the zinc is completely submerged. -The generation of gas will begin at once. - -The cock on the burner is then closed until the necessary working -pressure is obtained, when it is ready for use. The pressure of gas can -be regulated by setting the safety valve to blow off at a greater or -less pressure, as desired. The use of the float valve is to prevent acid -from being forced out of the gas chamber and into the tube. If this -happens, the valve floats up and instantly closes the outlet, in which -condition the valve remains until sufficient gas is generated to force -the acid back into the acid chamber. When first charging the machine, -acid should be forced up into the gas chamber until this valve closes, -as that will force all of the air contained in the gas chamber out -through the tube, leaving only pure gas in the generator. When the acid -is spent it is easily removed from the generator by attaching the pump -to the air inlet cock and forcing the acid up into the gas chamber. The -angle valve is then opened, when the spent acid can be drawn off into a -pail or other receptacle. This will not drain the acid chamber -absolutely dry, but practically so. - -When the operator ceases work, as for dinner or for any purpose, all -that is necessary is to open the air inlet cock and detach the hose from -the gas outlet. The acid will return by gravity to the acid chamber when -generation ceases. When the operator is ready to resume work a few -strokes of the pump will start generation again. - - - The Burner. - -The burner, shown in Fig. 46, which is the most important part of the -apparatus, is also constructed on a principle not heretofore used on a -lead burning apparatus. It consists of a small tube, to one end of which -is screwed a small cock, similar to a pet cock. To the other end, at a -convenient angle, is brazed the burner proper. This consists of a needle -point valve. The needle point, being about ½ inch long, is arranged so -that the point can pass through the gas outlet about 1-16 inch. This -seems to spread the flame in such a manner that it absorbs sufficient -air to reduce the flame. It can be regulated by drawing the needle in or -out, as the work requires. There is also a tube arranged to act as a -by-pass or subflame. By opening the valve on this by-pass a pilot or -subflame is maintained, which does away with the annoyance of having the -flame pop out or become extinguished, as it is instantly ignited again -by the subflame. In operating, the flame is held at such a distance from -the work as experience will teach to be proper, or until the lead starts -to melt. It should fuse with that well-known and instantly recognized -bright appearance which indicates the nonoxidizing flame. - -Any one who is used to handling the blow pipe can easily familiarize -himself with this blow pipe. The maker claims that 2 quarts of vitriol -will serve to operate the apparatus for a day of 8 hours on lead as -heavy as 12-pound. I have no doubt that it will do even more than the -makers claim for it. The apparatus is made in three sizes, adapted for -different classes of work. After the experience I have had with it, I -feel sure that any beginner can use this apparatus safely if he uses -ordinary judgment and care in handling a gas apparatus that needs common -sense treatment. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - SOFT SOLDERING WITH THE MOUTH BLOW PIPE. - - -The common blow pipe is a simple little tool that is used in connection -with an alcohol torch for soldering the finest and most delicate pieces -of jewelry, and constitutes the sole method of soldering used by -Britannia workers and jewelers, and the fact that such a varied -assortment of articles are soldered by the blow pipe process leads one -to surmise that it can be used to advantage on coarser work. Though it -is a familiar tool to gas fitters, plumbers as a rule are ignorant of -its use, and it is hard work to find one who ever saw a blow pipe used -on lead work. It is an easy matter to become proficient in its use, and -the trick of keeping up a steady blast, and breathing regularly at the -same time, is soon learned, and, when once acquired, stays with you -always. This trick consists of making a bellows of your cheeks and using -your tongue as a valve to close the entrance to the throat, leaving the -passage from the nostrils to the lungs clear for breathing purposes. The -only things necessary to purchase for practice are a common bent blow -pipe, which can be had for about 15 cents, and a common candle. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 47.—Position of Candle and Blow Pipe._ -] - -To operate: The candle should be lighted, and when it burns well and -freely the tip of the blow pipe should be brought close to the flame and -slightly above the wick, _a_, Fig. 45. Then blow lightly through the -blow pipe, and a pointed clear blue flame from 1 to 2 inches long, which -will burn paper or char wood at a distance of 6 or 8 inches from the -flame, will be the result. The flame is hottest and best when it shows a -perfect cone-shaped blaze, and is obtained by a very moderate blast. The -variation of the blaze can be noted by commencing to blow very lightly -and increasing the pressure gradually. The flame will then show all -stages from a smoky flame to a long blaze that cannot be concentrated on -any small surface. The little sharp tip is where the hydrogen burns, and -is the hottest part of the flame, being the part that is used for -soldering. - -Now, having noted these peculiarities, and knowing the perfect flame by -sight, we will proceed to acquire the steady blast. The blow pipe should -be held between the lips, which will form a tight packing around it, and -must not come in contact with the teeth. The cheeks are then inflated, -which will have a tendency to throw the tongue back to the throat and -prevent the air in the mouth from blowing out through the nose. Now, by -contracting the cheeks, and throwing the tongue slowly forward, the air -will be forced through the blow pipe. This action is assisted when -exhaling air by the pressure of the lungs, but when inhaling air the -muscular contraction of the cheeks is depended upon entirely for the -blast. - -The ability to keep up a steady blast is merely a trick, or knack, and -is learned with a few hours' practice; when learned, the length of time -that the blast can be kept up depends solely upon the strength of the -muscles of the cheeks of the operator. If these did not tire, the blast -could be kept up for an indefinite time. Having learned to keep up the -steady blast and get a perfect flame, the beginner will want to practice -soldering. The blow pipe method of soldering has for its range of work -everything that can be soldered, from Britannia metal to platinum, but -the only metals that are used by the plumbers are tin and lead and their -several compositions, so we will confine ourselves to the study of those -metals. - - - Kinds of Solder Used. - -In soldering any metal the solder should be so proportioned that it will -melt many degrees lower in temperature than the metal to be soldered. -Otherwise it would be quite probable that holes would be burned in the -work before the solder would melt. There are exceptions to this rule, -however; for example, lead burning, where one piece of lead is fused to -another. As also with Britannia metal, it can be, and is, soldered with -its own material, but it would be likely to have holes burned in it -occasionally, and to avoid this a solder mixed for that purpose should -be prepared. Two receipts are given here for quick melting solders that -are suitable for this work. The first is preferred, but the second will -answer the purpose. - -Solder No. 1: Procure 4 ounces of pure lead, 4 ounces of pure tin, and 2 -ounces of bismuth. The lead should be melted first and thoroughly -stirred and cleaned. It should then be allowed to cool to the melting -temperature of the tin, which should then be added. Lastly add the -bismuth. The whole should then be stirred and poured into a suitable -mold into very thin strips, about the size of a No. 8 wire, making -strips of solder that can be rolled up and carried in the pocket. - -Solder No. 2: This solder is composed of two parts of tin and one part -of lead. These should be mixed as described above. To have success in -making solders several points must be observed. The metal melting at the -highest temperature should be melted first, which must then be allowed -to drop to the melting temperature of the next metal to be added, and -when ready to pour into molds the mixture must be stirred, as the -specific gravity of the several metals differs considerably, and unless -constant stirring is resorted to the mixture will partially separate -upon cooling, and the result is an irregular solder that will not do the -work. - - - Practicing the Blowing. - -Now, for practice, take two pieces of ¼-inch lead tubing and prepare -them as for a cup joint, by spreading one end with the bending iron and -rasping the other end to fit the cup, as shown in _a_, Fig. 33. Support -them as you best can in an upright position. Flux the joint with rosin. -Then take the solder in the left hand, set the lighted candle at the -right hight and distance from the joint, as shown at B, Fig. 47, which -leaves the right hand free to manage the blow pipe. Then heat the joint -with the flame, and, as it gets hot, touch the joint with the solder, -and when it reaches the melting temperature of the solder a drop of it -will detach itself and flow clear around the joint, making a smooth, -clean joint that is stronger than the pipe itself. - -Joints made in this manner present a handsome and workmanlike appearance -to the mechanical eye. Practice diligently on the lead pipe until you -have become so proficient that you can flow the solder all through the -joint without withdrawing the flame. Then procure some ⅜-inch block tin -pipe, and, when that can be soldered perfectly, the beginner can -consider himself sufficiently proficient to practice on flat seams on -Britannia metal. - - - Soldering Britannia Metal. - -For working Britannia metal the candle cannot be used, as the dripping -grease will cover the work and seriously interfere with the flowing -solder. The beginner must provide himself with an alcohol or kerosene -torch. A good form of torch, manufactured and sold for electricians' -use, is shown in Fig. 48. The alcohol gives a clean flame, but by -comparison is somewhat expensive. The kerosene gives a flame that can be -concentrated on a small surface with fully as much heat, and if care is -taken to allow only the blue flame to touch the work, it is fully as -clean and cheaper. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 48.—Alcohol or Kerosene Torch._ -] - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 49.—A Specially Constructed Torch._ -] - -The burning kerosene torch gives off a dirty smell and smoke, which -makes it disagreeable to handle, but this is a case of take your choice, -and it is left to the beginner to use either, as they will both do the -work satisfactorily. It is also necessary, in doing this work, to have -the blow pipe attached to the torch and connected to the mouth with a -piece of very small rubber tube. This will leave one hand free to apply -the flux and hold the solder. The flame can also be quickly placed in -any position or directed to any portion of the work without allowing the -work to cool. The alcohol torch for this work should be so constructed -that it can be held in a horizontal or inverted position without -spilling the contents of the torch. - -The handiest, as also the cheapest, torch to make is the one shown in -Fig. 49. It consists of a can 3 inches high made in the shape of a -frustum of a scalene cone. The tube B should be ¼ inch in diameter, and -must run parallel with the flaring side and extend half way to the -bottom of the can, as _e_. Then, when the torch is tipped to solder -horizontal work, the alcohol will flow into the space _a_, leaving the -alcohol to supply the wick to be drawn up by capillary attraction. This -tube is made of ¼-inch brass tubing, bent to form an angle with the can, -as shown. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 50.—Using the Torch on a Flat Seam._ -] - -A screw and cap with a seat, such as is used on brass lamps, is -obtained, and a hole punched in the cap _c_ just large enough to receive -the tube B. The screw is soldered into the opening of the can at D. The -wick, which is formed of many strands of candle wicking rolled tightly -together, is pulled through the tube by means of a wire hook, and left -sufficiently long to lie in the space _a_, so that it will always lie in -the alcohol. This tube is placed through the hole at D, and allowed to -project about ¾ inch outside of the can. Wicking is then wound around -the tube and forced into the socket formed in the screw D. The cap is -then slipped over the tube at _c_, and screwed down tight on the -wicking, which will make a tight joint at D, and will hold the tube -firmly in place. - -When necessary to fill the torch the tube can easily be removed and the -torch filled. A separate filling screw can be used if desired. Even with -this form of torch an excess of alcohol will occasionally get into the -wick when used in a horizontal position and increase the size of the -blaze. But when this happens the torch can be brought to an upright -position for a moment, which will drain the wick and bring the blaze to -its proper size. - -The blow pipe for this torch is made from a piece of very small copper -or brass tubing. The end intended for the tip should be bent to the -angle required, as shown at _f_, Fig. 49. It should be fastened to the -torch by means of a clamp, _g_, soldered to the flaring side of the -torch. This clamp should be so arranged that the blow pipe can be -adjusted to the requirements of the blaze. This clamp consists of a -short piece of brass. A hole is drilled in one end to allow the blow -pipe to pass through, while the other end is filed to fit the bevel of -the can to which it is soldered. The blow pipe can be held in position -with a wedge, or a hole can be drilled and tapped and a small screw -inserted which will hold the blow pipe firmly in place. The tip of the -blow pipe should not be larger than 1-32 inch. The rubber tube can then -be attached to the projecting end of the blow pipe at _h_, which is then -ready for use. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 51.—Cutting Metal for a Butler's Pantry Sink._ -] - -Owing to the Britannia metal melting at such a low temperature, it would -be well for the beginner to practice on pieces of 2-pound sheet lead. -Seams on this class of work are made by butting the edges of the metal, -as these seams are not supposed to show. The seams are prepared by -truing the edges and then beveling the edges with the shave hook so that -when brought together a V-shaped groove is formed. This is then fluxed -with a small amount of powdered rosin. A drop of the quick melting -solder is then melted from the strip and allowed to drop on the seam. -The flame is then applied to the sheets, and as the solder flows the -flame must be kept slightly in advance of it, Fig. 50. Care must be -taken to heat the sheets only enough to cause the solder to flow. -Otherwise the seam will not appear full. The beginner should experience -no trouble in soldering these lead seams, and when perfect control of -the torch and flame is had, pieces of Britannia metal should be -substituted for the lead. These seams are prepared and fluxed just as -for lead. - -Britannia metal is fast becoming the favorite lining for splash and drip -boards on butler's pantry sinks, as also for lining the work benches in -saloons. It is soft enough to allow the most delicate china to be laid -on it without danger of chipping, and is also very easy to keep clean. -It takes a high polish and always looks well. The method of cutting the -metal for a butler's pantry sink is shown in Fig. 51, the dotted lines -showing the actual dimensions of the article to be covered, while the -full lines show the laps required to cover the edges of the board. This -metal is harder than lead, and will not dress smooth with the dresser. -Any uneven spots must be pressed down with a hot flatiron. The method of -turning the edges is shown at _a_. The bending iron is heated and rubbed -over the edge, gradually turning the edges until they are at their -proper position. The iron must be constantly heated to insure the best -results, and if properly done no wrinkles will appear. A lined work -bench is also shown in Fig. 52, which shows the method of putting in the -bar washer. The sheet metal must be cut and fitted to its place and all -the seams possible should be soldered before placing the metal in -position. The edges should be tacked on the under side of the work, when -practicable, with copper tacks. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 52.—A Lined Work Bench, with Bar Washer._ -] - -Sooner or later the blow pipe solderer will be called upon to make -repairs on Britannia metal, and will be surprised to find that it will -be impossible to solder the metal, owing to the excess of moisture under -it. The best way to overcome this, which is practically the only trouble -that occurs, is to cut out a small square patch. The edge can be cleaned -and a patch of new metal carefully fitted into the hole. When ready to -begin soldering, a piece of blotting paper should be inserted between -the patch and board. This paper will absorb all the moisture and allow -the seam to be neatly soldered. The man who makes himself familiar with -the blow pipe and torch soon finds himself in a different class from the -ordinary everyday mechanic, and if mechanical ability be accompanied -with sobriety and stability, the possessor will always command a good -steady income. - - THE END. - - - - - INDEX. - - - Acid Chamber, Framing, 109 - - Acid Chamber Work, 108 - - Acid, How Applied, 66 - - Acids, 20 - - Action of Generator, 66 - - Addition of Acid, 66 - - Air and Gas, Regulating Volume and Pressure, 74 - - Air Holder, 40 - - Air Pressure, 58 - - Alcohol Torch and Blow Pipe, 133 - - Apparatus for Lead Burning, 15 - - Arsenic, Poisonous Flame, 69 - - Arsenic Released from Acid on Zinc, 69 - - - Bellows Air Holder, 49 - - Blow Pipe, 50, 62 - - Blow Pipe, Kirkwood, 122 - - Blow Pipe, Mouth, 127 - - Blow Pipe Practice with Candle, 128 - - Blow Pipe, Walmsley Compound, 50 - - Blue Vitriol or Copperas, 56 - - Bottom for Generator, 35 - - Britannia Metal for Repairing, 140 - - Britannia Metal Soft Soldering, 132 - - Britannia Metal Work, 14, 31, 32 - - Britannia Metal Work with Torch and Blow Pipe, 132 - - Burner, Kirkwood Lead, 119 - - Burner Tips, 62 - - Burns and Their Treatment, 17 - - - Candle Blow Pipe Practice, 128 - - Care of Apparatus, 68 - - Cautions, 16 - - Charging and Cleaning Screws, 26 - - Charging Generator, 64 - - Chemical Tanks, How Lined, 105 - - Chipping Knife for Lead, 110 - - Cleaning Generator, 67 - - Colors of Flame, 76 - - Connecting Apparatus, 55 - - Cup, Scrubbing, 56, 68 - - Cup, Scrubbing, How Made, 70 - - Cutting Heavy Lead Straight, 110 - - - Explosions, What to Do When They Occur, 17 - - - Fire Trap, 56, 68 - - Flame Management, 73 - - Flame Under Different Pressures, 74 - - Flat Butt Seam, 83 - - Framing Acid Chamber, 109 - - - Gas from Gasoline, How Generated, 39, 51 - - Gas Pressure, 58 - - Gasometer Air Holder, 46 - - Generator, Charging, 64 - - Generator, Cleaning, 67 - - Generator Construction, 26 - - Generator Frame, 30 - - Generator Materials, 30 - - Generator Pipe, How Fitted, 37 - - Generator Seams, How Burned, 36 - - - Horizontal Butt Seam, 88 - - Horizontal Lap Seam, 93 - - Hydrogen and Air, Effect of Mixing, 24 - - Hydrogen Apparatus, Special, 119 - - Hydrogen from Water, How Made, 25 - - Hydrogen Gas and Its Properties, 18 - - Hydrogen Gas, How Made, 20 - - Hydrogen Proved Lighter Than Air, 23 - - - Illuminating Gas Burning, 51 - - Inverted Butt Seam, 90 - - Inverted Corner Seam, 98 - - Inverted Lap Seam, 92 - - - Joint for Through Burning, 102 - - - Kirkwood Blow Pipe, 122 - - Kirkwood Lead Burner, 119 - - Knife for Cutting Lead, 110 - - - Lap Seam, 82 - - Lead Burning Explained, 10 - - Lead Headed Nail, 117 - - Lead Sheets for Tank, 105 - - Lining Chemical Tanks, 105 - - - Mixing Fork, 55, 57, 59 - - Mouth Blow Pipe, 127 - - - Nail, Lead Headed, 117 - - - Pipe Seams, 100 - - Pressure for Working Gas and Air, 58 - - - Repairing with Britannia Metal, 140 - - Round Pipe Butt Seam, 100 - - Round Pipe Lap Seam, 103 - - Round Pipe, Tee Joint, 104 - - - Scrubbing Cup, 56, 68 - - Scrubbing Cup, How Made, 70 - - Seam, Butt, on Round Pipe, 100 - - Seam, Flat Butt, 83 - - Seam, Horizontal Butt, 88 - - Seam, Horizontal Lap, 93 - - Seam, Inverted Butt, 90 - - Seam, Inverted Corner, 98 - - Seam, Inverted Lap, 92 - - Seam, Lap, 82 - - Seam, Lap, on Round Pipe, 103 - - Seam, Through, on Round Pipe, 101 - - Seam, Upright Lap, 95 - - Seam, Upright Butt, 86 - - Seams, Different Kinds of, 80 - - Seams, How Prepared, 80 - - Seams, Pipe, 100 - - Sink, Bar and Washer, 138 - - Sink, Butlers' Pantry, 137 - - Soft Solder, 13, 130 - - Soft Solder Formulæ, 131 - - Solder, Soft, 13, 130 - - Special Hydrogen Apparatus, 119 - - Staging for Acid Tank, 115 - - Straps for Tank Lining, 111 - - - Tanks, How Made, 12 - - Tee Joint on Round Pipe, 104 - - Test for Hydrogen, 21 - - Testing Apparatus, 56 - - Through Burning, Joint, 102 - - Through Seam on Round Pipe, 101 - - Tips, Burner, 62 - - Tips, Sizes of, 78 - - Torch, Alcohol and Blow Pipe, 133 - - Trap, Fire, 56, 68 - - - Upright Butt Seam, 86 - - Upright Lap Seam, 95 - - - Vitriol, 56 - - Vitriol Action on Zinc, 69 - - - Walmsley Compound Blow Pipe, 50 - - Water Pressure Air Holder, 42 - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected typographical errors. - 2. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - 3. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art of Lead Burning, by C. H. 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