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M. Flinders Petrie - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Arts and Crafts of Ancient Egypt - -Author: W. M. Flinders Petrie - -Release Date: August 18, 2016 [EBook #52830] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARTS, CRAFTS--ANCIENT EGYPT *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Adrian Mastronardi and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger">The Arts and Crafts of the Nations</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smcap">General Editor: S. H. F. CAPENNY</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger">THE ARTS AND CRAFTS<br /> -OF ANCIENT EGYPT</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig55"> - -<img src="images/fig55.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">OLD KINGDOM RELIEF</p> - -<p class="caption">55. Wood-carving of Ra-hesy</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger">THE<br /> -ARTS & CRAFTS<br /> -OF ANCIENT EGYPT</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br /> -W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE<br /> -<span class="smaller">D.C.L., F.R.S., F.B.A., ETC., PROFESSOR OF<br /> -EGYPTOLOGY IN LONDON UNIVERSITY;<br /> -AUTHOR OF “A HISTORY OF EGYPT,” ETC.</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage">CONTAINING<br /> -ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY ILLUSTRATIONS</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><i>SECOND EDITION<br /> -WITH ADDITIONAL CHAPTER</i></p> - -<p class="titlepage">T. N. FOULIS<br /> -LONDON & EDINBURGH<br /> -1910</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>First Edition, November 1909</i><br /> -<i>Second Edition, October 1910</i></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - -<h2>PREFACE</h2> - -<p>This present handbook is intended to aid in the -understanding of Egyptian art, and the illustrations -and descriptions are selected for that purpose only. -The history of the art would require a far greater -range of examples, in order to illustrate the growth -and decay of each of the great periods; whereas -here only the most striking works of each period -are shown, in order to contrast the different civilisations. -The origins and connections of the art in -each age are scarcely touched, and the technical details -are only such as are needed to see the conditions -of the art. The archaeology of the subject would -need as wide a treatment as the history, and these -subjects can only appear here incidentally.</p> - -<p>It should be noticed that the divisions of artistic -periods are often not the same as those of political -history. Politically, the history divides at the -XVIIth dynasty with the fall of the Hyksos, and -at the XXIInd dynasty with the rise of the Delta<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> -government. But artistically the changes are under -Tahutmes I, when Syrian influences broke in, and -under the XXVIth dynasty, when the classical -Greeks began to dominate the art.</p> - -<p>The effect of foreign influence in art is quite -apart from political power; it is due to rival activities -which may or may not mean a physical -domination. The reader should ponder different -cases, such as those of the spiral design of early -Europe entering Egypt, of the Syrian and Cretan -art in the XVIIIth dynasty, of the effect of Persia -upon Greece, and of Greece upon Italy (both through -Magna Graecia and the conquest of Greece), of the -effect of the Goth, Lombard, and Northman on -Europe, and of Japan on modern Europe. Some -reflection on these great artistic movements will give -a little insight as to the history of art.</p> - -<p>Regarding the illustrations, I have thought it -more useful to give details large enough to be -clearly seen, rather than to contract too much surface -into a space where it cannot well be studied. -Portions of subjects are therefore often preferred to -general views of a whole. The outlines of artistic -value, such as contours of faces or figures, are left -quite untouched, as an outline cannot be taken -seriously which is dependent on the block-maker<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> -clearing a white or black ground. This latter treatment, -unfortunately, puts out of artistic use many of -the lavishly spaced plates of the Cairo Catalogue, -where art is subjected to bibliophily. The liberal -policy of all publications and photographs of the -Cairo Museum being free of copyright, has enabled -me to use many of the excellent untouched photographs -of Brugsch Pasha and others. My best -thanks are due to Freiherr von Bissing and the -publisher of his <i>Denkmaeler Aegypt. Sculptur</i>, for -permission to use figures 39, 44, 46, 48, 62, 111, and -112 from that work. Over a third of the illustrations -here are from my own photographs not yet -published, and principally taken for this volume.</p> - -<p class="right">W. M. F. P.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p> - -<h2>PERIODS AND KINGS REFERRED TO -IN THIS VOLUME</h2> - -<table summary="List of periods, dynasties, monarchs"> - <tr> - <th>Period.</th><th>Dynasty.</th><th>Names.</th><th><span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Prehistoric.</td><td class="tdr"></td><td></td><td class="tdc">8000-5500</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="3" class="valign">Early kings.</td><td class="tdr">I.</td><td>Narmer, Mena, Zer,</td><td class="tdc">5500-5400</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td><td>Kha-sekhem,</td><td class="tdc">5000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td><td>Zeser, Senoferu,</td><td class="tdc">4900-4700</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="3" class="valign">Pyramid age: Old Kingdom.</td><td class="tdr">IV.</td><td>Khufu, Khafra, Menkaura,</td><td class="tdc">4700-4500</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td><td>Nofer-ar-ka-ra, Unas,</td><td class="tdc">4400-4200</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td><td>Pepy II,</td><td class="tdc">4100-4000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td><td class="tdr">IX.</td><td>Khety,</td><td class="tdc">3800</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="4" class="valign">Middle Kingdom.</td><td class="tdr">XI.</td><td>Antef V,</td><td class="tdc">3500</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td><td>Senusert I, Senusert II, Senusert III,</td><td class="tdc">3400-3300</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td><td>Amenemhat III,</td><td class="tdc">3300-3259</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII.</td><td>Hor,</td><td class="tdc">3200</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="7" class="valign">New Kingdom.</td><td class="tdr">XVIII.</td><td>Aahmes, Queens Aah-hotep, Aahmes,</td><td class="tdc">1587-1562</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td><td>Tahutmes I, Tahutmes II, Hatshepsut</td><td class="tdc">1541-1481</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td><td>Tahutmes III, Amenhotep II, Tahutmes IV,</td><td class="tdc">1481-1414</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td><td>Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, Tut-ankh-amen,</td><td class="tdc">1414-1344</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIX.</td><td>Sety I, Ramessu II, Merenptah,</td><td class="tdc">1326-1214</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td><td>Sety II, Tausert,</td><td class="tdc">1214-1203</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XX.</td><td>Ramessu III, IV, XII,</td><td class="tdc">1202-1129</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td><td class="tdr">XXI.</td><td>Isiemkheb,</td><td class="tdc">1050</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td><td class="tdr">XXII.</td><td>Shishak kings,</td><td class="tdc">952-749</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td><td class="tdr">XXIII.</td><td>Pedubast, Pefaabast,</td><td class="tdc">755-725</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ethiopian.</td><td class="tdr">XXV.</td><td>Amenardys, Taharqa, Tanut-amen,</td><td class="tdc">720-664</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Saite.</td><td class="tdr">XXVI.</td><td>Aahmes II,</td><td class="tdc">570-526</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td><td class="tdr">XXX.</td><td>Nekhthorheb (Nectanebo),</td><td class="tdc">378-361</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ptolemies.</td><td class="tdr"></td><td>Cleopatra Cocce,</td><td class="tdc">130-106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Romans.</td><td class="tdr"></td><td></td><td class="tdc">30-<span class="smcapuc">A.D.</span> 640</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <th class="tdr smaller">CHAP.</th><th></th><th class="tdr smaller">PAGE</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">1.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_I">THE CHARACTER OF EGYPTIAN ART</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">2.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_II">THE PERIODS AND SCHOOLS</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">3.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_III">THE STATUARY</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">4.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">THE RELIEFS</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">5.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_V">THE PAINTING AND DRAWING</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">6.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">THE ARCHITECTURE</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">7.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">THE STONE-WORKING</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">8.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">JEWELLERY</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">9.</td><td> <a href="#CHAPTER_IX">METAL WORK</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">10.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_X">GLAZED WARE AND GLASS</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">11.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">THE POTTERY</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">12.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">IVORY-WORKING</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">13.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">WOODWORK</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">14.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">PLASTER AND STUCCO</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">15.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CLOTHING</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">16.</td><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">EGYPT’S PLACE IN THE ART OF THE WORLD</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td><td><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td><td><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p> - -<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<table summary="List of illustrations" id="loi"> - <tr> - <th>Fig.</th><th>Dynasty.</th><th>Subject.</th><th>Material.</th><th>Source.</th><th>Position.</th><th>Page.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Scenery.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig1">1</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Temple below cliffs.</td><td>Limestone</td><td>Deir el Bahri</td><td>Thebes.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig1">2</a></td><td class="tdc">…</td><td>Palms and canal.</td><td>…</td><td>Illahun.</td><td>Fayum.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Periods.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig3">3</a></td><td class="tdc">Prehist.</td><td>Dog and deer.</td><td>Ivory.</td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig3">4</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Bull and enemy.</td><td>Slate.</td><td>?</td><td>Louvre.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig3">5</a></td><td class="tdc">IV</td><td>Servant of Ainofer.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Saqqareh.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig3">6</a></td><td class="tdc">XII</td><td>Senusert I.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Memphis.</td><td>Carlsberg M.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig7">7</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Servant of Kha-em-hat.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Tomb.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig7">8</a></td><td class="tdc">XIX</td><td>Sons of Ramessu II.</td><td>Sandstone.</td><td>Luqsor.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig7">9</a></td><td class="tdc">XXVI</td><td>Aahmes-si-neit-rannu.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Memphis.</td><td>Cambridge.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig7">10</a></td><td class="tdc">Ptolem.</td><td>Cleopatra Cocce.</td><td>Sandstone.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Kom Ombo.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Schools.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig11">11</a></td><td class="tdc">XIX</td><td>Ramessu II.</td><td>Black granite.</td><td>Eastern desert.</td><td>Turin.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig11">12</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Hard limestone.</td><td>Memphis.</td><td>Memphis.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig11">13</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Red granite.</td><td>Aswan.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig11">14</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Sandstone.</td><td>Nubia.</td><td>Abu Simbel.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Sculpture.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig15">15</a></td><td class="tdc">Prehist.</td><td>Female figure.</td><td>Ivory.</td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig15">16</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Naqadeh.</td><td>Oxford Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig15">17</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Male heads.</td><td>Ivory.</td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig15">18</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Lion.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig19">19</a>, <a href="#fig19">20</a></td><td class="tdc">I</td><td>Narmer? head; sculptor’s study.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig19">21</a></td><td class="tdc">I</td><td>King standing.</td><td>Ivory.</td><td>Abydos.</td><td>British Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig19">22</a></td><td class="tdc">II</td><td>Head of Kha-sekhem.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Hierakonpolis.</td><td>Oxford Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig23">23</a></td><td class="tdc">III</td><td>Head of Mertitefs.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td>Leyden Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig23">24</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Head of Nofert.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Medum.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig23">25</a></td><td class="tdc">IV</td><td>Head of Ka-aper.</td><td>Wood.</td><td>Saqqareh.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig23">26</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Female figure.</td><td>Wood.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig27">27</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Khafra.</td><td>Diorite.</td><td>Gizeh.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig27">28</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Head of Khafra.</td><td>Cast.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig29">29</a></td><td class="tdc">V</td><td>Scribe seated.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Saqqareh.</td><td>Louvre.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig29">30</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Family of Khui.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig29">31</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Ranofer.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig32">32</a></td><td class="tdc">XII</td><td>Head of Senusert I.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Lisht.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig32">33</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Senusert III.</td><td>Red granite.</td><td>Karnak.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig32">34</a></td><td class="tdc">?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Sphinx.</td><td>Black granite.</td><td>Tanis.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig32">35</a></td><td class="tdc">XII</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Amenemhat III.</td><td>Grey granite.</td><td>?</td><td>Univ. Coll., Lond.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig36">36</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> statue.</td><td>Quartzite.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig36">37</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Tahutmes III.</td><td>Basalt.</td><td>Karnak.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig36">38</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Tut-ankh-amen.</td><td>Grey granite.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig36">39</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Akhenaten.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td>Louvre.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig40">40</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Young negress.</td><td>Ebony.</td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig40">41</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Girl on tray handle.</td><td>Wood.</td><td>?</td><td>Louvre.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig40">42</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Girl playing lute.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Sedment.</td><td>Univ. Coll., Lond.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig43">43</a></td><td class="tdc">XIX</td><td>Head of Ramessu II.</td><td>Black granite.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td>Turin Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig43">44</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Bak-en-khonsu.</td><td>Hard limestone.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Munich Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig43">45</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Merenptah.</td><td>Black granite.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig43">46</a></td><td class="tdc">XXV</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Taharqa.</td><td>Black granite.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig47">47</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Amenardys.</td><td>Alabaster.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig47">48</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Mentu-em-hat.</td><td>Black granite.</td><td>Karnak.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig47">49</a></td><td class="tdc">XXX</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> man (cast).</td><td>Basalt.</td><td>Memphis.</td><td>Berlin Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig47">50</a></td><td class="tdc">Ptol.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> woman (coffin).</td><td>Wood.</td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Reliefs.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig51">51</a></td><td class="tdc">Prehist.</td><td>Hyaena and calf.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Koptos.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig51">52</a></td><td class="tdc">Prehist.</td><td>Gazelles and palms.</td><td>Slate.</td><td>?</td><td>Oxford and Louvre.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig51">53</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Group of animals.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Hierakonpolis.</td><td>Oxford Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig51">54</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Narmer and enemy.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Hierakonpolis.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig55">55</a></td><td class="tdc">III</td><td>Ra-hesy, half length.</td><td>Wood.</td><td>Saqqareh.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#fig55"><i>Front.</i></a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig56">56</a></td><td class="tdc">V</td><td>Sacrificing bull.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Ty tomb.</td><td>Saqqareh.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig56">57</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Oxherd.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Ptah-hotep tomb.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig58">58</a></td><td class="tdc">XI</td><td>Toilet of princess.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Deir el Bahri.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig58">59</a></td><td class="tdc">XII</td><td>Heads of Ptah and Senusert I.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Karnak.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig60">60</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Hatshepsut.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Deir el Bahri.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig60">61</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Servant of Kha-em-hat.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Tomb.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig60">62</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Akhenaten and queen.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td>Berlin Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig63">63</a></td><td class="tdc">XX</td><td>Bulls in marsh.</td><td>Sandstone.</td><td>Medinet, Habu.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig63">64</a></td><td class="tdc">XXVI</td><td>Youths and girls with animals.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Memphis.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Paintings.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig65">65</a></td><td class="tdc">Prehist.</td><td>Men fighting, vase.</td><td>Pottery.</td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig65">66</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Ship, vase.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig65">67</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Ship, tomb.</td><td>Fresco.</td><td>Hierakonpolis.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig65">68</a></td><td class="tdc">III</td><td>Geese walking.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Medum.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig69">69</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Pelicans and keeper.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Horemheb tomb.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig69">70</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Gleaning girls.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Menna tomb.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig69">71</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Harvesters.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Nekht tomb.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig72">72</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Pattern in stages.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Amenmes tomb.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig72">73</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Boating scene.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Menna tomb.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig72">74</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Guests and girl.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Nekht tomb.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig75">75</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Girl somersaulting.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Thebes?</td><td>Turin Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig75">76</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Young princesses.</td><td>Fresco.</td><td>Tell-el-Amarna.</td><td>Oxford Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig77">77</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Man hauling rope.</td><td>Fresco.</td><td>Amenmes tomb.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig77">78</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Four races.</td><td>Rock wall.</td><td>Rames tomb.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig77">79</a></td><td class="tdc">XIX</td><td>Man adoring.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig77">80</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Sety I offering to Osiris.</td><td>Rock pillar.</td><td>Tomb of Sety I.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Architecture.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig81">81</a></td><td class="tdc">IV</td><td>Temple of Khafra.</td><td>Red granite.</td><td>Gizeh.</td><td>…</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig81">82</a></td><td class="tdc">XX</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> Ramessu III.</td><td>Sandstone.</td><td>Medinet Habu.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig81">83</a></td><td class="tdc">Ptolem.</td><td>Temple of Ergamenes.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Dakkeh.</td><td>Nubia.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig84">84</a></td><td class="tdc">V</td><td>Palm column, Unas.</td><td>Red granite.</td><td>Saqqareh.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig84">85</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Rose lotus capital.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig84">86</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Blue lotus capital.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Abusir.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Stone working.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig87">87</a></td><td class="tdc">Pre-XVIII</td><td>Stone vases.</td><td>Various.</td><td>Various.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig88">88</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Trial piece, king’s head.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig88">89</a></td><td class="tdc">?</td><td>Figure in first outlines.</td><td>Rock-crystal.</td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig88">90</a></td><td class="tdc">Ptolem.</td><td>Lion’s head in outlines.</td><td>Limestone.</td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig88">91</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII?</td><td>Man’s head, unfinished.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Thebes.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig92">92</a></td><td class="tdc">Prehist.</td><td>Flint knives, etc.</td><td>Chert.</td><td>Naqadeh, etc.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Jewellery.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig93">93</a></td><td class="tdc">I</td><td>Bracelets, gold, turquoise.</td><td>Amethyst.</td><td>Tomb of Zer.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig93">94</a></td><td class="tdc">VI</td><td>Chain.</td><td>Gold.</td><td>Mahasnah.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig93">95</a></td><td class="tdc">”?</td><td>Seal with hawk heads.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig93">96</a></td><td class="tdc">XII</td><td>Uraeus, wire work.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig97">97</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Pectoral of Senusert II.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Dahshur.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig97">98</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> III.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig99">99</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Inlaid crown of Khnumt.</td><td>Gold and stones.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig99">100</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Floret <span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Gold and stones.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig99">101</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Granulated work.</td><td>Gold.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig102">102</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Bracelet of Aahmes.</td><td>Gold and lazuli.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig102">103</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Dagger of Aahmes.</td><td>Gold and bronze.</td><td>Thebes.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig102">104</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Axe of Aahmes.</td><td>Gold and bronze.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig105">105</a></td><td class="tdc">XIX</td><td>Pectoral of Ramessu II.</td><td>Gold and stones.</td><td>Saqqareh.</td><td>Louvre.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig105">106</a></td><td class="tdc">XX</td><td>Earrings of Ramessu XII.</td><td>Gold.</td><td>Abydos.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig105">107</a></td><td class="tdc">XXV</td><td>Statuette of Hershefi.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Ehnasya.</td><td>Boston Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig108">108</a></td><td class="tdc">XXVI?</td><td>Bowls from temple.</td><td>Silver.</td><td>Mendes.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig108">109</a></td><td class="tdc">Rom.?</td><td>Chain fastening.</td><td>Gold.</td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Metal-working.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig110">110</a></td><td class="tdc">VI</td><td>Head of prince.</td><td>Copper.</td><td>Hierakonpolis.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig110">111</a></td><td class="tdc">XXV?</td><td>Bust of Takushet.</td><td>Gold in bronze.</td><td>?</td><td>Athens Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig110">112</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> side.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig113">113</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Flask of sandal washer.</td><td>Bronze.</td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig113">114</a></td><td class="tdc">XIX</td><td>Fluted vases.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Abydos.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig113">115</a></td><td class="tdc">XXII?</td><td>Anti-splash bowl.</td><td>Silver.</td><td>Bubastis.</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Glaze and Glass.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig116">116</a></td><td class="tdc">I</td><td>Inlaid glazes of Mena.</td><td>Green and violet glaze.</td><td>Abydos.</td><td>Brit. Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig116">117</a></td><td class="tdc">XX</td><td>Lotus and grape border.</td><td>Coloured glaze.</td><td>Yehudiyeh.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig116">118</a></td><td class="tdc">XXVI</td><td>Head of Isis.</td><td>Blue glaze.</td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig116">119</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Royal fan-bearer.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig120">120</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Dragged pattern vase.</td><td>Coloured glass.</td><td>?</td><td>British Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig120">121</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig120">122</a></td><td class="tdc">Ptol.</td><td>Coloured mosaics.</td><td>Glass.</td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Ivory.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig123">123</a></td><td class="tdc">IV</td><td>Khufu.</td><td>Ivory.</td><td>Abydos.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig123">124</a></td><td class="tdc">VI?</td><td>Girl standing.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig123">125</a></td><td class="tdc">XXVI</td><td>Lotus flower.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Memphis.</td><td>Edin. Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig123">126</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Man with offerings.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Wood.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig127">127</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Bracing of chair.</td><td>Wood.</td><td>Tomb of Yuaa.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_137">137</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig127">128</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Chair of Sitamen.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig127">129</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Coffer of Amenhotep III.</td><td>Wood inlaid.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig127">130</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig127">131</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Couch of Yuaa.</td><td>Wood.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Plaster.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig132">132</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Reliefs on chariot.</td><td>Stucco on wood.</td><td>Tomb of Tahutmes.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig132">133</a></td><td class="tdc">Ptol.</td><td>Lion’s head, casting.</td><td>Plaster.</td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig132">134</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>King’s head, casting.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig135">135</a></td><td class="tdc">Roman.</td><td>Man’s head from coffin.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig135">136</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Kom el Ahmar.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig135">137</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Woman’s head from coffin.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>?</td><td>Petrie Coll.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig135">138</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Man’s head and skull.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td>Hu.</td><td>British Mus.</td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdsub" colspan="7"><i>Clothing.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig139">139</a></td><td class="tdc">XVIII</td><td>Woven patterns, Amenhotep II.</td><td>Thread.</td><td>Tomb of Tahutmes IV.</td><td>Cairo Mus.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig139">140</a></td><td class="tdc">”</td><td>Cut-out network.</td><td>Leather.</td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td><span class="ditto">”</span></td><td class="tdr">”</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> - -<h1>Arts and Crafts of Ancient Egypt</h1> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE CHARACTER OF EGYPTIAN ART</span></h2> - -<p>The art of a country, like the character of the inhabitants, -belongs to the nature of the land. The -climate, the scenery, the contrasts of each country, -all clothe the artistic impulse as diversely as they -clothe the people themselves. A burly, florid Teuton -in his furs and jewellery, and a lithe brown Indian -in his waist-cloth, would each look entirely absurd -in the other’s dress. There is no question of which -dress is intrinsically the best in the world; each is -relatively the best for its own conditions, and each -is out of place in other conditions. So it is with -art: it is the expression of thought and feeling in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -harmony with its own conditions. The only bad -art is that which is mechanical, where the impulse -to give expression has decayed, and it is reduced -to mere copying of styles and motives which do -not belong to its actual conditions. An age of copying -is the only despicable age.</p> - -<p>It is but a confusion of thought, therefore, to try -to pit the art of one country against that of another. -A Corinthian temple, a Norman church, or a -Chinese pavilion are each perfect in their own conditions; -but if the temple is of Aberdeen granite, -the church of Pacific island coral, and the pavilion -amid the Brighton downs, they are each of them -hopelessly wrong. To understand any art we must -first begin by grasping its conditions, and feeling -the contrasts, the necessities, the atmosphere, which -underlie the whole terms of expression.</p> - -<p>Now the essential conditions in Egypt are before -all, an overwhelming sunshine; next, the strongest -of contrasts between a vast sterility of desert and -the most prolific verdure of the narrow plain; and -thirdly, the illimitable level lines of the cultivation, -of the desert plateau, and of the limestone strata, -crossed by the vertical precipices on either hand -rising hundreds of feet without a break. In such -conditions the architecture of other lands would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -look weak or tawdry. But the style of Egypt never -fails in all its varieties and changes.</p> - -<p>The brilliancy of light led to adopting an architecture -of blank walls without windows. The reflected -light through open doorways was enough to -show most interiors; and for chambers far from the -outer door, a square opening about six inches each -way in the roof, or a slit along the wall a couple of -inches high, let in sufficient light. The results of -this system were, that as the walls were not divided -by structural features, they were dominated by the -scenes that were carved upon them. The wall -surface ceased to be regarded as part of a building, -and became an expansion of the papyrus or tablet. -The Egyptian belief in the magical value of representations -led to the figuring of the various parts -of the worship on the walls of the temples or tombs, -so that the divine service should be perpetually renewed -in figure; and thus what we see is not so -much a building in the ordinary sense, as an illustrated -service-book enclosing the centre of worship. -Another result of the fierce indirect light was that -which dominated sculpture. The reliefs, beautiful -as they often were, would not be distinct in the -diffuse facing light; hence strong colouring was applied -to render them clear and effective. So much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -did colouring take the lead that the finest sculptures -were often smothered in a stucco facing, laid on to -receive the colour. This almost spiteful ignoring -of the delicate craft of the sculptor is seen in the -XIIth dynasty, and was the ruling method in Ptolemaic -work.</p> - -<p>The extreme contrast between the desert and -the cultivation gave its tone to the artistic sense of -the people. On either hand, always in sight, there -rose the margin of the boundless waste without life -or verdure, the dreaded region of evil spirits and -fierce beasts, the home of the nomads that were -always ready to swoop on unprotected fields and -cattle, if they did not sit down on the borders and -eat up the country. Between these two expanses -of wilderness lay the narrow strip of richest earth, -black, wet, and fertile under the powerful sun; teeming -with the force of life, bearing the greenest of -crops, as often in the year as it could be watered. -In parts may be seen three full crops of corn or -beans raised each year beneath the palms that also -give their annual burden of fruit; fourfold does the -rich ground yield its ever-growing stream of life.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig1"> - -<p class="caption">SCENERY</p> - -<img src="images/fig1-2.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">1. The barren desert background</p> - -<p class="caption">2. The luxuriance of the plain</p> - -</div> - -<p>This exuberance amid absolute sterility is reflected -in the proportion between the minuteness -of detail and the vastness of the architecture. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -most gigantic buildings may have their surfaces -crowded with delicate sculpture and minute colouring. -What would be disproportionate elsewhere, -seems in harmony amid such natural contrasts.</p> - -<p>The strongly marked horizontal and vertical lines -of the scenery condition the style of buildings that -can be placed before such a background. As the -temples were approached, the dominant line was -the absolute level of the green plain of the Nile -valley, without a rise or slope upon it. Behind -the building the sky line was the level top of the -desert plateau, only broken by an occasional valley, -but with never a peak rising above it. And the -face of the cliffs that form the stern setting is -ruled across with level lines of strata, which rise -in a step-like background or a wall lined across as -with courses of masonry. The weathering of the -cliffs breaks up the walls of rock into vertical pillars -with deep shadows between them. In the face -of such an overwhelming rectangular framing any -architecture less massive and square than that of -Egypt would be hopelessly defeated. The pediments -of Greece, the circular arches of Rome, the -pointed arches of England, would all seem crushed -by so stern a setting. The harmony is shown -most clearly in the temple of Deir el Bahri (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> -below its cliffs which overshadow it. Let any other -kind of building be set there, and it would be an -impertinent intrusion; the long level lines of the -terraces and roofs, the vertical shadows of the -colonnades, repose in perfect harmony with the -mass of Nature around them. The Egyptian was -quite familiar with the arch: he constantly used it -in brickwork on a large scale, and he imitated its -curve in stone; yet he always hid it in his building, -and kept it away from the external forms, instinctively -knowing that it could not serve any part of -his decorative construction.</p> - -<p>These principles, which were thus imposed on the -architecture of Egypt, were doubly enforced upon -its sculpture. Not only did Nature set the framing -of plain and cliff, but her work was reflected -and reiterated by the massive walls, square pillars, -and flat architraves, amid which Egyptian sculpture -had to take its place. In such shrines it would be -disastrously incongruous to place a Victory poising -on one foot, or a dancing faun. They belong to -the peaks of Greece, divided by rushing streams, -and clothed with woods,—to a transient world of -fleeting beauty, not to a landscape and an architecture -of eternity. Egyptian art, however luxurious, -however playful it might be, was always framed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -on a tacit groundwork of its natural conditions. -Within those conditions there was scope for most -vivid portraiture, most beautiful harmony, most delicate -expression, but the Egyptian was wise enough -to know his conditions and to obey them. In that -obedience lay his greatness.</p> - -<p>The truest analysis of art—that of Tolstoy—results -in defining it as a means of communicating -emotion. It may be the emotion produced by -beauty or by loathsomeness; each expression is -equally art, though each is not equally desirable art. -The emotion may be imparted by words, by forms, -by sounds; all are equally vehicles of different kinds -of art. But without imparting an emotional perception -to the mind there is no art. The emotion -may be the highest, that of apprehending character, -and the innate meaning of mind and of Nature; or -it may be the lower form of sharing in the transient -interests and excitements of others; or the -basest form of all, that of enjoying their evil. How -does the Egyptian appear under this analysis? -What emotions can we consider were intended by -his art? How far did he succeed in imparting them -to the spectators?</p> - -<p>To understand the mind of the artist we must -look to those qualities which in their literature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -were held up as the ideals of life. Stability and -Strength were the qualities most admired, and the -name for public monuments was “firm things.” -Assuredly all mankind has looked on the works of -Egypt as giving a sense of these qualities before -all others. Closely connected is the sense of Endurance, -which was enjoined in words, and carried -into practice in the laborious work on the hardest -rocks. It was for endurance that statues were made -of diorite or granite, though they were painted with -life-like hues, so that their material was scarcely -seen. Upon these primary qualities was built a -rich and varied character, reflected in the elaborate -and beautiful sculpture which covered, but never -interfered with, the grand mass of a monument. -Truth and Justice were qualities much sought for -in life, and were expressed by the artist in the -reality of his immense blocks of stone, often more -hidden than seen, and in the fair and even bearing -of all material, without any tricks or paradoxes -of structure. In all his earlier work his monolith -columns and pillars were a protest that a structural -unit must express unity, that what supports others -must not be in itself divided. The Discipline and -Harmony which were looked on as the bond of -social life are shown by the subordination of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -whole, by the carrying out of single schemes of -decoration illustrating the use of every part of a -building on all its walls, by the balance of the proportions -of the whole so that there seems a perfect -fitness of connection through all parts. And the -happy union of vigorous Action with prudent Reserve, -which showed the wise man in the proverbs, -is the basis of those life-like scenes which cover the -walls of the tombs, but which never betray the -artist into attempting impossibilities or revealing -too much.</p> - -<p>As true art, then—that is, the expression of his -being, and the communication to others of his best -feelings and sense of things—the Egyptian work -must stand on the highest plane of reality. It would -have been a falsehood to his nature to aspire, as -a Gothic architect sometimes did, in towers and -pinnacles which crush their foundations and will -not hold together without incongruous bonds. Nor -did he wish to express the romantic sense of beauty, -in structure which may tend to exceed the limits -of stability. All that belongs to the atmosphere of -troubadours and knights errant. The Egyptian possessed -in splendid perfection the sense of Strength, -Permanence, Majesty, Harmony, and effective Action, -tempered with a sympathy and kindliness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -which cemented a vast disciplined fabric. And -these aims of life as a whole he embodied and expressed -in his art, with a force and truth which -has impressed his character on all who look on his -works. He fulfils the canon of true art as completely -as any race that has come after him.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE PERIODS AND SCHOOLS</span></h2> - -<p>Before we can understand any art the first step is -to discriminate between the different periods and -their various styles, and to observe the characteristics -of the several schools. If we consider medieval -architecture, we separate the many periods from -Saxon to Renaissance; if we turn to painting, we distinguish -many stages between Cimabue and Canaletto, -yet these variations belong but to a single -revolution of civilisation, and are comprised within -some centuries; in Egyptian art we have to deal -with seven revolutions of civilisation and thousands -of years. And not only the period, but also -the source and traditions of each local branch of -the art are to be recognised, and we discriminate -a dozen schools of painting between Rome and -Venice, each with its own style. So in Egypt we -need to learn the various schools and understand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -their differences. In this chapter we shall notice -the essential characters of each period and school -as compared together; while in the following chapters -the more technical detail of the statuary, reliefs, -and paintings will be considered.</p> - -<p>In order to grasp more readily the differences of -period and of place, there are given here eight -typical examples of different periods (<a href="#fig3">figs. 3 to 10</a>), -and four examples of different schools during one -reign (<a href="#fig11">figs. 11 to 14</a>). These may be supplemented -by reference to subsequent illustrations, but the contrasts -will be more readily seen in a simultaneous -view.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig3"> - -<p class="caption">THE PERIODS OF ART</p> - -<img src="images/fig3-6.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">3. Prehistoric</p> - -<p class="caption">4. Earliest dynastic</p> - -<p class="caption">5. Old Kingdom (IV)</p> - -<p class="caption">6. Middle Kingdom (XII)</p> - -</div> - -<p>The Prehistoric work (8000-5500 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>) shows -much more mechanical than artistic ability. The -treatment of the hardest materials was masterful; -granite and porphyry were wrought as freely as limestone -and alabaster; perfectly regular forms of vases -were cut entirely by hand without any lathe. But -with this there was a very tentative idea of animate -forms. The feet and hands were omitted, and limbs -ended only in points. The form of an outline was -not thought to imply a solid, and it needed to be -hatched over with cross lines (<a href="#fig3">fig. 3</a>) to show that it -was a continuous body. The noses of animals are -frequently shown touching, as in this instance of the -dog and addax. In short, the figures are mere symbols -of ideas, with little regard to their actual nature -and appearance. This symbolic stage of art is found -in most countries, and often with a higher sense of -form and expression than among the prehistoric -people of the Nile; there is nothing of this age in -Egypt to compare with the carvings of the cave men -of Europe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="200" height="170" alt="Examples of prehistoric work (drawing)" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early. Late.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>There is no sign of progress in art during this -time. The slate palettes, cut in the -forms of animal outlines, which were -made through the whole age, begin -with recognisable forms; and these -were degraded by copying, until at -the end their original types could -hardly be guessed. The animal figures on ivory -combs are passable in the earlier part of the age, -and disappear entirely later on. The human figures, -which are frequent in early times, are very rarely -found later. The flint working shows degeneration -long before historic times. And the pottery loses -its fine forms, regularity, and brilliant finish, and -becomes rough and coarse. In every direction it -seems that the earliest prehistoric civilisation, which -was probably connected with Libya, was superseded -by a lower race, which was probably from the East.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> - -<p>The first dynasty (5500 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>) appears to have -brought in entirely new influences. While the material -civilisation naturally went on with many of -the older elements, yet in all directions a new spirit -and moving power is seen. The conquest of the -country by a race of invaders is shown on many -carvings, most of which are probably of the three -centuries of unification, before the start of the dynastic -history of the whole country. One of the -most typical of these carvings is <a href="#fig3">fig. 4</a>, where the -king is represented as a bull trampling upon his -enemy. Other examples are given in <a href="#fig51">figs. 51 to 54</a>.</p> - -<p>The whole character of the art is changed. Instead -of the clumsy and spiritless figures of the prehistoric -people, we meet with vigorous forms full -of life and character. Perhaps one of the earliest -is the hyaena (<a href="#fig51">fig. 51</a>); the slates are rather later, -reaching down to the beginning of the first dynasty; -and the figures in the round (<a href="#fig19">19 to 22</a>) show what -a living and powerful art had suddenly sprung up -and was developed under the early kings. The -same growth is seen in the advance of glazing for -important architectural use on a large scale. And -the introduction and rapid development of hieroglyphic -writing stamps the new age as the beginning -of written history, the start of the conscious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -preservation by man of a regular record of his past -acts.</p> - -<p>This new growth of art rejoiced in its fresh found -powers. It searched for the truth, it carefully observed -anatomy, and—like a learner—it was proud -of its knowledge, and emphasised the precise place -of the muscles which it had traced out. For that -very reason it is essentially a true art, without any -of the slovenly substitutes for Nature which are -termed conventions. It had no traditions to spoil -it or hold it back: it was full of observation as the -only method for its work. It is always simple and -dignified, and shows more truth and precision than -any art of a later age.</p> - -<p>After the conscious study of Nature, the greatest -step in any art is the deliberate work for the sake -of its own beauty, and not merely because it has -to tell a story. It may be said that this is the -birth of true art; all before that merely consists of -representations for another purpose. But work for -the sake of beauty alone is art pure and simple, -and this stage was reached at the very beginning -of the history, in the beautiful carving of the palm -tree and long-necked gazelles (<a href="#fig51">fig. 52</a>).</p> - -<p>The Pyramid age (4700-4000 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>) brought in -fresh ideals. The early kings had expanded a chieftainship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -into a kingdom, without realising all the -new conditions of organization which were involved. -The great work of the early pyramid kings, Senoferu -and Khufu, was the massive organizing of -the civil service of the country, the establishment -of a social organism which resisted all the invasions -and disasters of the land, and survived in parts to -our own times. These new ideals were naturally -reflected in the art. In place of tombs such as -any great chief might have ordered, the most -gigantic pyramids were erected, buildings yet unsurpassed -in bulk and in accuracy of workmanship. -The new social order of the official world followed -in the same lines, and dozens of tombs were sculptured -in each reign, larger and more elaborate than -most of the royal sepulchres of other lands and ages. -The host of these tombs which remain constitute -a larger treasury of artistic work than there is of -any other period in the world’s history.</p> - -<p>A typical example of this new order is the figure -of a servant of a noble named Ainofer (<a href="#fig3">fig. 5</a>). The -high rounded relief, the sense of action, the delicacy -of detail and expression, all mark this new time. -The greater part of the really fine sculpture that we -possess in Egypt comes from this time. The statuary -(<a href="#fig23">figs. 23 to 31</a>), the reliefs (<a href="#fig55">figs. 55 to 57</a>), the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -painting (<a href="#fig65">fig. 68</a>), all show the noble spaciousness -and grandeur of the age. Its style is severe and -never trifles with superfluities. The smallest as well -as the largest work seems complete and inevitable, -without being constrained by any limitations of -time, or labour, or thought. For the expression of -royal energy, dignity, and equanimity the figures -of Khufu and Khafra are unsurpassed. In the vivid -expression of personal character no age has surpassed -the statues of the officials and their wives. -The style of other ages may be more scholastic, -more amusing, or more graceful, but for all that -constitutes great art no period can compare with -that of the mighty pyramid kings.</p> - -<p>All things pass away, and during the centuries -of disruption which followed the VIth dynasty the -old style ran down to an incredible coarseness and -clumsy copying. At the close of the XIth dynasty -a revival took place. Like all great developments -of art it rose with extraordinary rapidity, and within -a generation or two the new movement was fully -grown. Its characteristic was the use of very low -relief, with faint but perfectly clear outlines (see -<a href="#fig3">fig. 6</a>). It was the style of a school, and not that -of Nature. A regular course of artistic training is -described by an artist; first was taught the positions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -of figures in slow action, then the differences -of male and female figures, next mythological subjects, -and lastly, the attitudes of rapid action. This -mechanical training naturally went with elaboration -of detail. The minute lining over large masses -of hair, the carving of every bead of a necklace, -were the outcome of scholastic training. The artificial -reduction of figures in the round to a very -delicate variation of planes in low relief was according -to the same system. The whole works of the -XIIth dynasty are beautiful, reserved, and pleasing, -with a clearness and finish which appeals to a sense -of orderly perfection. They have neither the grandeur -of what went before nor the grace of what -followed them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig7"> - -<p class="caption">THE PERIODS OF ART</p> - -<img src="images/fig7-10.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">7. XVIIIth dynasty</p> - -<p class="caption">8. XIXth dynasty</p> - -<p class="caption">9. Saite (XXVI)</p> - -<p class="caption">10. Ptolemaic</p> - -</div> - -<p>The XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties are the most -popularly known age of the art. The profusion -of remains, their accessibility at Thebes, and the -more intimate style of the designs, have led to their -general acceptance as typical. This position must -not be allowed in a wider knowledge of the subject. -The whole level of art of the XVIIIth dynasty -is as much below that of the XIIth, as the style of -the XIIth is below that of the IVth dynasty. The -scholastic work of the XIIth is followed by a treatment -which is almost always conventional in the -XVIIIth; and the XIXth dynasty shows merely a -degradation of what preceded it. At the close of the -XVIIth dynasty there emerges from the turmoil of -the Hyksos barbarism a rude but lively style of -drawing, with sculpture of clumsy figures and badly-formed -hieroglyphs. Stepping into the XVIIIth -dynasty we meet with stiff and rather heavy statuettes, -the female figures, however, showing the dawn -of the seductive grace which followed. Little can -be said to have changed in ideals since the XIIth -dynasty, until the Asiatic conquests altered the -civilisation of Egypt. Thothmes I and III brought -back thousands of Syrian captives, many of whom -were selected for their beauty and their artistic -ability; their work and their influence transformed -the art, and the ideal became that of a light, graceful, -fascinating type which posed much and suggested -more.</p> - -<p>The art of character had become secondary to -the art of emotion. Vivacity and romance led the -way, and the older studies of deeper life and fine -anatomy were out of date. Fluttering ribbons and -prancing horses and galloping calves were represented -without the laborious sculpture, but merely -painted with a flowing line on the tomb walls, which -were plastered smooth over the roughest hewing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -in the rock. The cheapest road to effect was the -favourite way, and the eternal solidity and dignified -simplicity of the older ages had vanished. The -figure of an official of Kha-em-hat (<a href="#fig7">fig. 7</a>) is typical -of the best work of this age. The other examples -are shown in figs. <a href="#fig23">36-42</a>, <a href="#fig60">60-62</a>, <a href="#fig69">69-78</a>. -This new order of things culminated under Akhenaten, -when naturalism, influenced largely from -Greece, removed the older principles of Egyptian -art; and all the passing incidents of life, the domestic -affections of the king and the festivities of -his court, became the subjects of even funerary -sculptures and painting in the tombs. After that -stage there was nothing left to do but to fall back -on the old stock subjects and copy and re-copy them -worse and worse during the succeeding dynasties. -Egyptian art perishes with Akhenaten; all that -came after was a bloodless imitation.</p> - -<p>The XIXth dynasty art is fairly represented by -a figure of one of the king’s sons (<a href="#fig7">fig. 8</a>). Here -is seen the baldness of the style. The profile is -mechanical, the hair hangs in a heavy and ugly flap, -the body has no anatomy, the legs are badly drawn, -and the long streamers flying from the waist are -out of keeping. The coarse, heavy work of the -temples of Abu Simbel, or the great hall of Karnak,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -is obtrusive in spite of their grandiose conception. -In the XXth dynasty the inscriptions also -suffered by being cut very deeply, so that the signs -appeared as black shadows without any detail. The -decay was only arrested by a deliberate copying of -the style of the pyramid age.</p> - -<p>The XXVIth dynasty tried to recover the early -grandeur of sculpture by close imitation, but it is -rarely that any fragment of this work does not betray -itself by its inane treatment, bad jointing of the -limbs, and want of proportion. One of the best -examples of the more original work is the figure -of an elderly official (<a href="#fig7">fig. 9</a>). The want of detail -is hidden by the stiff robe without a fold or curve, -leaving only the head and extremities to be represented. -Another example is in <a href="#fig63">fig. 64</a>, where the -bad jointing and lack of anatomy is too evident.</p> - -<p>In the Ptolemaic time these faults are even more -apparent, when the bad copy of a copy was the ideal. -In <a href="#fig7">fig. 10</a> is seen the hopelessly wrong proportioning -of the parts, the clumsy lumps of flesh and -exaggerated muscles, which are the extreme opposite -to the over-refined flat relief of the XIIth -dynasty. The hair partakes of the same faults, -being carved as rows of lumps representing separate -curls.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p> - -<p>Portraiture, which compelled some attention to -Nature, is the latest surviving form of art. In the -XXVIth dynasty fairly good heads were occasionally -done, but often with some disproportion. The -modelled stucco heads of the Roman age are the -last stage. Some of them show a real ability and -feeling for character (<a href="#fig135">figs. 135 to 137</a>), and one -example which can be compared with the skull -proves the accuracy of the modelling (<a href="#fig135">fig. 138</a>).</p> - -<p>The various Schools of Art should now be noticed. -The styles of the different periods that we -have considered were of course obvious in all the -schools; the character of an age affected all parts of -the country. Owing to the absence of any artists’ -names, and the extreme rarity of those of architects, -it is impossible to trace the personal origin of any -works. And as we cannot say how much the artists -travelled about the country, mere locality does not -prove a conclusive test; probably for royal works -the artists went to any city according to orders. -Among private tombs we can see great differences -of style, as between Memphis, Thebes, and Aswan. -But the difficulty of exact dating makes comparison -doubtful, as we might set side by side works of -the rise and of the climax of a period. The most -satisfactory evidence about the schools is from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -statuary in different materials. When once a sculptor -was trained to the peculiarities of one stone he -would not be likely to enter on all the difficulties -of a fresh material. A man trained for years to -slicing and bruising out granite without the least -fear of a crack, would not relish hewing soft sandstones -that split, or limestone that could not be -trusted with its own weight on a finished surface. -Certainly the men who learned sculpture on the -softer materials would be helpless on the granite. -Then we know that the statues were at least dressed -into shape—if not entirely finished—at the quarries, -and hence the work in one material would continue -in the hands of one local school. It is therefore -likely that the stone workers of each material formed -an unbroken succession, probably in certain families -for the most part, and handed on their traditions -for several dynasties successively, perhaps even -throughout thousands of years. This would not be -so much the case in relief sculpture, as there the -blocks were built in and sculptured at the building, -wherever that might be.</p> - -<p>When we look for differences of treatment we -see how strongly one style of work is continued -in one material through a long period. We have -here contemporaneous examples in four different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -stones, the statues of Rameses II in black granite, -hard limestone, red granite and Nubian sandstone -(<a href="#fig11">figs. 11 to 14</a>). In all cases work in black granite -is finer than that in the other stones at the same -period. The figures of the so-called Hyksos type -(<a href="#fig32">fig. 34</a>), of the XIIIth, the XVIIIth, the XIXth -and the XXVth dynasties, and the sarcophagi of -the XVIIIth dynasty, in black granite, all show -far finer forms and finish than those in the other -materials. Of briefer use there were two other -stones which show equally fine work—diorite, which -was hardly ever sculptured except in the IVth -dynasty (<a href="#fig27">fig. 27</a>), and green basalt, used in the -XVIIIth (<a href="#fig36">fig. 37</a>). The green basalt must be put -in the highest place as regards minute handling and -freedom of curves; the fine grain and moderate hardness -were most favourable to the artist. The black -granite work comes next in quality, having fine -curves but not quite the same freedom, owing to the -coarser grain. The diorite has a beautiful grain for -work, but the hardness has influenced the detail of -recesses, and it is seldom that inner angles are as -truly worked out as in the black granite. The comparison -is perhaps hardly just, as there are no contemporary -works in these two stones. It seems -not improbable that all these hard stones were found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -in the same region, the Eastern desert, and that -they were all worked by one school. That there -was a fine technical training there in early times -is shown by the splendid bowls and vases of the -hardest rocks which were wrought in prehistoric -ages and the first dynasty. Such vases were made -in the mountain district, as the figures of a warmly-clad -race bear them in tribute to the Egyptian king -(<i>Jour. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, xxxi., pl. xix., 13-15). Thus -we may look on this black-granite school as belonging -really to the border people of the Eastern desert, -and not to the Nile plain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig11"> - -<p class="caption">RAMESSU II, BY DIFFERENT SCHOOLS</p> - -<img src="images/fig11-14.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">11. Black granite</p> - -<p class="caption">12. Hard limestone</p> - -<p class="caption">13. Red granite</p> - -<p class="caption">14. Nubian sandstone</p> - -</div> - -<p>The limestone school was expressly that of Memphis -and Middle Egypt. It is best known from the -host of private statues found in the cemetery of -Saqqareh. Work of the finest delicacy was done in -this soft and uniform material (see figs. <a href="#fig23">24</a>, <a href="#fig29">29-32</a>); -and a branch of the same school was that working -the harder limestones which were a favourite stone -in the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties in upper -Egypt, as in the colossus of Rameses II (<a href="#fig11">fig. 12</a>). -Both branches of this school excelled in the delicate -expression of physiognomy; the proportions of the -limbs and the finish of the extremities are usually -excellent. The alabaster work is a branch of this -same school, with similar proportion and finish. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -is a rare material for sculpture till the XVIIIth dynasty, -but under Amenhotep II to IV it was often -used; and it serves for one of the best works of -later time, the statue of Amenardys (<a href="#fig47">fig. 47</a>). The -quarries were in the midst of the limestone hills, -especially where the hard limestone occurs near -Tell-el-Amarna. Thus the same school dealt with -this whole group of calcareous rocks.</p> - -<p>Another very fine school was that of the quartzite -sandstone of Gebel Ahmar, near Cairo. The material -was closely limited to a single hill cemented -by hot springs; and what is now seen there is only -the immense heap of chippings left by workers of -all ages: the hill itself has almost vanished. This -material was worked in the pyramid times, but only -roughly. The XIIth dynasty kings saw its value, -and quarried it for sarcophagi and chambers, but -seldom used it for sculpture. The XVIIIth dynasty -attacked it on an enormous scale; the two -great colossi of Amenhotep III, weighing 1175 tons -each, were cut and carried up-stream 450 miles to -Thebes. Statues are found, royal and private, in -all parts of the land, and naturally this stone was -largely used at Tanis. The work is usually excellent, -almost equal to the limestone sculpture; but -it generally falls a little below that of the previous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -schools in the depth of cutting and the freedom of -work in hollows.</p> - -<p>The red granite school was at Aswan, where the -statues and obelisks are still lying unfinished in the -quarries. The artist was much hindered by the -coarse grain of the stone, which made fine work -difficult. On the obelisks this has been fairly overcome -by a great amount of emery cutting, and -sharp smooth hieroglyphs were cleanly cut. But -for statuary, even in the pyramid age the features -are coarsely worked and the detail scanty; and -when used later on a large scale, the forms are -heavy, the inner angles seldom worked out, and the -extremities thick and massive. This is seen in the -colossus of Rameses II (<a href="#fig11">fig. 13</a>), as well as in earlier -figures.</p> - -<p>The Nubian sandstone school was the least artistic. -The softness and ready splitting of the stone -prevented clean and well-finished work. Detail was -almost impossible, and it was a mistake to use a good -building stone for the wrong purpose of fine carving. -In early times this stone was never used, except -locally in its own region. The XIIth dynasty -rarely used it, but by the middle of the XVIIIth it -became general, and it was the main stone of the -XIXth dynasty in Upper Egypt. Its use, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -does not come down to Middle or Lower Egypt. -The long avenue of sphinxes at Thebes are the -most familiar sculpture in this material, and similar -figures were also placed by Amenhotep III in his -temple on the Western bank. The great colossi of -Abu Simbel are the main example of sculpture in -this stone (<a href="#fig11">fig. 14</a>). They show the defects of the -other southern school, that of red granite. The -limbs are square and heavy, the feet and hands are -flat and mechanical, and the muscles are crude -ridges. But the face is fairly rendered, as well perhaps -as was practicable in such material.</p> - -<p>We thus see that there were essential differences -between the various schools of Egyptian art, partly -due to the various peoples, but mainly resulting -from the material used by each school.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE STATUARY</span></h2> - -<p>Figures in the round are the earliest mode of modelling, -and remain the most important, as they are -less conditioned than reliefs, and give full scope to -ability and knowledge. The earliest human figures -are found in the second stage of the prehistoric age, -immediately after the white-lined pottery. They -are of ivory, limestone, slate, pottery, or of stick and -paste. Such figures did not continue to be made -after the middle of the prehistoric civilisation. The -ivory figures usually end in a mere peg below, with -wide hips and shoulders, but no arms. The eyes -are marked, though often the mouth and nose are -omitted (<a href="#fig15">fig. 15</a>). The limestone or cement figures -have the division of the legs lined out; some are -standing, as <a href="#fig15">fig. 16</a>, with tatu marks painted on -the stone; others are of the armless form, seated, -and clearly of the steatopygous Bushman type. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -slate figures are always of men, with pointed beards, -and white beads inserted for eyes. The pottery -figures are roughly modelled, but with the legs separated. -The stick and paste figures are made by -modelling a vegetable paste over a stick; the legs -are marked, sometimes arms are added, or else there -are merely shoulder stumps. In one case the head -is modelled bald, painted red, and has a black wig -modelled over it, showing that separate wigs are -as old as the prehistoric time. Some ivory tusks -are carved with a much more advanced style of -heads (<a href="#fig15">fig. 17</a>), which give the best idea that we -have of the type of the people. The animal figures -are rudely cut, but have a certain ferocious air -(<a href="#fig15">fig. 18</a>).</p> - -<p>Some much more advanced figures in ivory have -the legs and arms separate, and a passable amount -of modelling in the head and body. Though quite -of prehistoric style, they are probably influenced by -the school of highly developed ivory-work of the -Ist dynasty, and may shortly precede that time.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig15"> - -<p class="caption">PREHISTORIC</p> - -<img src="images/fig15-18.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">15, 16, 17, 18. Prehistoric figures in the round</p> - -</div> - -<p>The early dynastic age brought in entirely new -ideals. The oldest figures of this time are the colossal -statues of the god Min from Koptos. These -are of much the same work as the prehistoric human -figures, but have spirited drawings of animals incised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -on them (see <a href="#fig51">fig. 51</a>). Just before the Ist -dynasty there came a finely developed style of ivory-carving, -which is known to us by the many figures -of men and women found at Hierakonpolis. The -finest stone-work of that age is a study in limestone -of a king’s head (figs. <a href="#fig19">19</a>, <a href="#fig19">20</a>), which is so closely -like Narmer (<a href="#fig51">fig. 54</a>) that it must be just at the -beginning of the Ist dynasty. It is a sculptor’s -study of a king preparatory to making his statue, -and, as Professor A. Michaelis says, “it renders the -race-type with astounding keenness, and shows an -excellent power of observation in the exact representation -of the eyes.” The delicacy of the facial -curves should be noticed, and the entire absence -of any conventions in the modelling of the mouth -as well as the eyes. The widely prominent ears are -a characteristic of the earliest historic figures; such -a feature belongs to a hunting race who need to -catch sounds, and suggests that they always slept -on their backs. This is unlike the prehistoric folk, -who were always buried contracted and lying on -the side, as being their natural attitude; but it agrees -with the modern Egyptian, who sleeps in the mummy -posture, lying on the back.</p> - -<p>A large number of ivory figures were found at -Abydos, fully developed in style, beyond those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -of Hierakonpolis. They comprise figures of girls, -boys, dogs, apes, a bear, and many lions. They are -admirably easy in their pose, and perfectly natural -in form with a simplicity and truthfulness better -than any later work. The figure of an old king (<a href="#fig19">fig. -21</a>) was with these; notice the subtle expression -of the face, the droop of the head forward, and -the natural air. This is probably early in the Ist -dynasty.</p> - -<p>Rather later is the hard limestone head of King -Kha-sekhem, of the IInd dynasty (<a href="#fig19">fig. 22</a>). Fine -as the modelling is about the mouth, yet convention -has already crept in; the edges of the lips are sharpened, -and the extended line at the outer corner -of the eye has been introduced. We see then under -the earliest dynasties the observation of Nature free -from any artificial trammels, unconscious, simple and -dignified, on a higher plane of truthfulness and precision -than is found in later art.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig19"> - -<p class="caption">EARLIEST DYNASTIES</p> - -<img src="images/fig19-22.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">19, 20. Ist dynasty king, limestone</p> - -<p class="caption">21. Ist dynasty king, ivory</p> - -<p class="caption">22. Kha-sekhem (IInd dynasty)</p> - -</div> - -<p>In the pyramid age we will first observe the -earlier private figures (<a href="#fig23">23 to 26</a>). Queen Mertitefs -(<a href="#fig23">fig. 23</a>) was the wife of Seneferu, at the close of -the IIIrd dynasty. In her type of face, and the -treatment of it, we see an earlier race and earlier -work than that of the pyramid times. The large, -staring eyes, the mouth turning down, the natural -hair cut short and brushed straight down over the -forehead beneath the wig,—all these details disappear -after this. When we compare this with the -head of Nofert (<a href="#fig23">fig. 24</a>), who was of the next generation, -the change of type and work is at once seen. -In Nofert the eyes are admirably placed, the brow is -perfectly natural, and the modelling of the features -is irreproachable. Yet there is less absolute naturalism -than in the older work of the Ist dynasty. -The hair is evidently kept complete beneath the -wig, and is laid out smoothly over the forehead.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig23"> - -<p class="caption">OLD KINGDOM SCULPTURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig23-26.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">23. Mertitefs</p> - -<p class="caption">24. Nofert</p> - -<p class="caption">25. Ka-aper</p> - -<p class="caption">26. Unknown</p> - -</div> - -<p>The celebrated figure of Ka-aper, or the “Sheykh -el Beled,” belongs to the same period. The figure -is so well known that it need not appear here, but -the full face is less familiar (<a href="#fig23">fig. 25</a>). The mouth -and chin are perhaps the most truthful part, and -seem entirely free from convention. The eyes are -excellent in form, but affected by the technical detail -of inserting the eyeball of stone and crystal in -a copper frame. The similar eyes in the head of -Nofert are more carefully inserted, so that the frame -is not obvious. The hair is represented as closely -cut, so as to allow the wig to be put over it. We -can, however, hardly judge of this figure as it is, -stripped of the coat of coloured stucco which covered -such work. The portions of similar wooden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -figures in the temple of Abydos had all been thus -painted. Such a coat would modify the eye setting, -and leave only the dark line visible which imitated -the kohl on the eyelids.</p> - -<p>Another work of the same age is the best for the -pose of the figure (<a href="#fig23">fig. 26</a>). The vigorous, independent, -frank attitude is perhaps the finest in any portrait, -ancient or modern. The profile is of the same -type as that of Nofert, alike in the strong brow and -the form of the nose and chin; the eye is more -prominent, and the mouth less luxurious, while the -under-chin is firmer. Such differences are all in -keeping with the character, that of an active mistress -of an estate rather than an easy-going noble.</p> - -<p>We shall not find in any of the subsequent work -of the pyramid age—still less in the later ages—such -vitality and strength of individual character as -we have seen in these early portraits. With these -stands also the minute head of Khufu (<a href="#fig123">fig. 123</a>), -which we shall notice with the ivory-work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig27"> - -<p class="caption">OLD KINGDOM SCULPTURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig27-28.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">27, 28. King Khafra (IVth dynasty)</p> - -</div> - -<p>The statue of Khafra (<a href="#fig27">fig. 27</a>) carved in diorite -is one of the grandest works of Egypt. The entire -dignity and majesty shown contrast strongly with -the active air of the subordinate classes. The muscular -detail is powerful, but yet in keeping with the -serenity of the figure. The whole is best grasped -from below, as it was intended to be seen; but the -head should be studied at its own level, and the -profile, from a cast (<a href="#fig27">fig. 28</a>), shows the form as it -originally appeared when covered with a facing -which concealed the grain of the stone. The difference -of character between the calm, easy dignity -of this, and the terrible energy of Khufu (<a href="#fig123">fig. 123</a>), -should be observed. It shows how free the art is -from any mere convention of majesty. The hawk -behind the king is shown as spreading out its wings -to protect the royal head. This symbolism is ingeniously -hidden in the front view, so as not to -interfere with the effect of the whole figure as it -was intended to be seen. The figures of the Vth -and VIth dynasties have more vivacity than those -earlier, but scarcely such a real vitality. The well-known -scribe (<a href="#fig29">fig. 29</a>) is a good piece of expression, -showing the attentive, waiting air of a man who is -following dictation. The anatomy is not detailed, -and the surfaces look rather blocked out and bald -as compared with Khafra.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig29"> - -<p class="caption">OLD KINGDOM SCULPTURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig29-31.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">29. The scribe</p> - -<p class="caption">30. Wife and daughter</p> - -<p class="caption">31. Ranofer</p> - -</div> - -<p>The lower part of a group is given here (<a href="#fig29">fig. 30</a>) -for figures of the seated wife and daughter. These -show good modelling of the figure in a close-fitting -garment, and the hair is worn over the forehead -beneath the wig, as by Nofert. The figure of Ranofer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -(<a href="#fig29">fig. 31</a>) is one of the most dignified of the -portraits of officials. The pose is strong; the -muscles are well rendered, and not too full though -clear. The wig stands well off the head, and gives -a continuous outline with the figure. It is hard to -see how the whole expression could be better than -this.</p> - -<p>On looking closely at the detail of these early -statues, there is very little that can be set down as -conventional. All the features are natural, well -placed, and harmonious. The relation of the brow -to the eyes is generally true. But this point was -entirely missed in later times. In the XIIth dynasty -the eye is rather too forward; and in the XVIIIth -there is hardly a single statue that is correct, the -eyes usually projecting to the plane of the brow. -On observing even the finest figures of later times -it will be seen how purely conventional is their -treatment; the mouth and eyes are cold and mechanical, -and it is seldom that any one feature even -approaches the truth of the early art.</p> - -<p>In the XIIth dynasty the work shows the scholastic -style of deliberate accuracy, without as much -personal vitality as in earlier times. Yet it is full of -carefully observed detail, and is by no means perfunctory -like the later work.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p> - -<p>The facial surfaces are well rendered: observe -the varied treatment of the cheek below the eye -in figs. <a href="#fig32">32</a>, <a href="#fig32">33</a>, and <a href="#fig32">35</a>, which are clearly individual. -The entirely different form of the mouth in these -three is as evidently personal. Throughout Egyptian -work the eye is of two distinct types, both of -which we see here in the XIIth dynasty. In one -type (<a href="#fig32">fig. 32</a>) the upper lid rises to its highest point -near the inner side; and with this form the actual -corner, or canthus major, may end in a mere angle -or in a lachrymal fossa more or less developed, an -extreme case of the long and wide fossa being seen -in <a href="#fig32">fig. 32</a>, and in the black granite figure from Alexandria -(so-called Hyksos) in Cairo. This may be -called the gibbous form of lid, and it is the more -usual in the sculpture and on coffins. The use of -a copper frame round the inserted eye in Old Kingdom -statues makes it uncertain how far the lachrymal -fossa was intended to appear. But the statues -of a single material show a small fossa in most cases, -such as Khafra, Dadefra, the (so-called) wife of the -Sheykh, and Sebekhotep III. In later work there -is no fossa, but only an angle, as in Tahutmes III, -Amenhotep III, Amenhotep son of Hapi, and other -instances to the end of the dynasties. But a slight -fossa is shown in Akhenaten and his family, and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -Ramessu II; and, under the Ethiopians, Taharqa -and Amenardys are both shown with a long fossa.</p> - -<p>The other type of eye seen in figs. <a href="#fig32">33</a>, <a href="#fig32">35</a> may be -called the narrow eye. This seems to belong mainly -to the Middle Kingdom, and is seen in Senusert III, -Amenemhat III, Queen Nofert, and Noferhotep. -It is perhaps unknown at an earlier age; and later -it rarely occurs, but may be seen in Merenptah, and -somewhat in Mentu-em-hat and some portraits of -the XXVIth dynasty. These remarks are merely -to draw attention to a detail which is easily observed -and seldom defaced; but for drawing conclusions an -extensive study is needed of all the varieties of form -and treatment, not only of the eye, but also of the -lips, nostrils, ears, and hair. How far such detail -belonged to the subject, and how much is due to -artistic conventions, we cannot yet say; but from the -similarities of portraits of the same person it seems -probable that the details are really due to differences -of type.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig32"> - -<p class="caption">MIDDLE KINGDOM SCULPTURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig32-35.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">32. Senusert I</p> - -<p class="caption">33. Senusert III</p> - -<p class="caption">34. Foreign type</p> - -<p class="caption">35. Amenemhat III</p> - -</div> - -<p>We now have a very difficult question to state as -to the origin of the remarkable type of <a href="#fig32">fig. 34</a>. This -is one of the class of sphinxes and statues commonly -described as being of the Hyksos. Yet, as -the Hyksos kings’ names are roughly cut on the -shoulders of the sphinxes, they are clearly not the -original inscriptions; and, as clearly, these figures -are older than the Hyksos. The type is distinguished -by an extreme muscularity of the face, deeply -cut, powerful lips with strong flexures, and the -long nose, not very prominent, but broad. All these -points are much in excess of such features on any -statue of a named Egyptian king. Some similarities -may be seen in the type of Senusert III and -Amenemhat III (figs. <a href="#fig32">33</a>, <a href="#fig32">35</a>); but these latter are -much less strong and unconventional. It is probable -that some of the stock of <a href="#fig32">fig. 34</a> has gone to -form the type of figs. <a href="#fig32">33</a> and <a href="#fig32">35</a>, but it is impossible -to see in them a uniform single type. It seems most -probable that <a href="#fig32">fig. 34</a> belongs to an invading people -from Syria during the decadence of the Old Kingdom, -between the VIIth and Xth dynasties; but until -some example with an original name may be found, -it is useless to be more definite. It is noticeable -how all of the heads of this type are in black granite, -or rarely some other igneous rock; this suggests -that they were wrought by the school of the eastern -desert, and may therefore not be controlled by the -decadence of ordinary Egyptian work between the -Old and Middle Kingdoms.</p> - -<p>Whether other strange works in black granite—such -as the fish-offerers of Tanis—belong to the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -age, has been questioned. It may be noted, however, -that the sphinxes and the black granite bust from -Alexandria have a large lachrymal fossa, while the -fish-offerers have no fossa, but only an inner angle -to the eye. The so-called Hyksos figures from -Bubastis are not really of this type, but show an inheritance -of some of its characters, such as belong -to the royal family in the XIIth dynasty. Whenever -the royal portraiture of the XIIth dynasty is -fully collected and studied, it will be possible to clear -the attribution of many statues, and so to separate -those which really belong to the earlier stock.</p> - -<p>On coming to the XVIIIth dynasty a more mechanical -style prevails (<a href="#fig36">figs. 36-39</a>). This is obvious -in the formal raised band of eyebrow, and the eyes -being brought forward to the plane of the forehead. -The lips remain more natural, and are still treated -expressively. The best work of this age is the green -basalt statue of Tahutmes III in Cairo (<a href="#fig36">fig. 37</a>). It -accords closely with another figure of black granite -of the same king; but the red granite head in the -British Museum is much coarser and less expressive, -as is natural from that school of granite work. The -large nose is vouched for as a family characteristic -in the reliefs of Tahutmes II and Hatshepsut at -Deir el Bahri, which have precisely the same outline<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -of brow and nose; the under-side of the nose, -the slightly rising curve of the lips to the outer -corner, and the flatness of the facing of the lips, seem -to be individual details.</p> - -<p>The head <a href="#fig36">fig. 36</a> is of an official of Amenhotep -III, in quartzite. It has a fairly good outline of -the cheek, and well-cut lips; and it shows the more -florid and romantic turn of this age in the wavy hair -marked out with lines.</p> - -<p>Under Akhenaten (<a href="#fig36">fig. 39</a>) there came a revolution -of art, which was perhaps only a culmination of -the naturalistic tendencies that were growing during -the preceding reigns. But it was enforced and -supported by the surrounding changes in religion, -ethics, and politics which were carried out by the -humanist reformer who ruled. It was probably also -stimulated by the influence of the contemporary art -of Crete and Greece, the whole eastern Mediterranean -apparently sharing in a general movement. -We shall notice this further when considering reliefs -and painting. Of round sculpture the best figure -remaining is that of Akhenaten now in Paris (<a href="#fig36">fig. -39</a>). It has been part of a group of the king and -queen sitting together, and it shows all the characteristics -of this school in the best form. The eyes -are quite natural; the lips are emphasised by a sharp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -edge along their borders; the jaw and neck are -excellently rendered; and the ear, with its large -pierced lobe, is clearly true to life.</p> - -<p>Though the reforms of Akhenaten mostly perished -with him, yet the training of his artists is still to be -seen in the sculpture of Tut-ankh-amen (<a href="#fig36">fig. 38</a>). -This has not the professional completeness of style -seen under Tahutmes III (<a href="#fig36">fig. 37</a>), but it carries on -the less precise sentimentalism of Akhenaten (<a href="#fig36">fig. -39</a>), with much feeling for expression and beauty, -but a lack of grip and force. The brow is neglected, -the eye is feeble, the cheek is without detail, but -the lips and chin are enforced as far as possible. -The whole effect is sweet but not impressive.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig36"> - -<p class="caption">NEW KINGDOM SCULPTURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig36-39.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">36. Under Amenhotep III</p> - -<p class="caption">37. Tahutmes III</p> - -<p class="caption">38. Tut-ankh-amen</p> - -<p class="caption">39. Akhenaten</p> - -</div> - -<p>We now turn to the minor work in wood. In -the Old Kingdom, wood was frequently carved on -a large scale; of the Middle Kingdom there is the -statue of King Hor; but under the New Kingdom -the only large figures are some rather coarse funeral -statues. On the other hand, in small figures there -is a profusion of wood-carving. The wooden <i>ushabtis</i> -are often beautifully treated; the draped -figures of women are graceful and dignified, with -minute working of the hair and dress; the grotesque -figures of toilet objects are full of character; but -here our space limits us to one class, and we give -the nude figures (<a href="#fig40">figs. 40-42</a>), as such are rarely -found in other material.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig40"> - -<p class="caption">NEW KINGDOM SCULPTURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig40-42.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">40, 41, 42. Wood-carvings of girls (XVIIIth dynasty)</p> - -</div> - -<p>The little negress (<a href="#fig40">fig. 40</a>), carved in ebony, is -part of a group representing her carrying a tray, -which is supported by a monkey before her. But -these accessories are inferior, and merely hide the -figure; the edge of the tray has been slightly cut -in on the breast and thus disfigured it. The detail -of this statuette is better than any other such work; -the perfect pose of the attitude, the poise of the -head, the fulness of the muscles, the innocent gravity -of the expression, are all excellent.</p> - -<p>Other figures are carved in the handles of toilet -trays. The girl in <a href="#fig40">fig. 41</a> holding flowers and birds -is on a smaller and coarser scale than the preceding, -but is excellent in expression and in the modelling -of the trunk. The damsel playing a lute on her -boat amid the papyrus thicket (<a href="#fig40">fig. 42</a>) shows one -of the graceful adjuncts of water-parties in high life. -The length of leg is exaggerated to harmonise with -the long stems around; but the pose is skilfully -seized, the distance of the feet being needful for -balance in a little shallop, while the cling of the -thighs is maintained. There is more self-consciousness -and deliberate effect in this expression than -in that of the little girls seen before.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> - -<p>The age of decadence now begins with the Ramessides. -One fine piece arrests us in the black -granite statue of Ramessu II (<a href="#fig43">fig. 43</a>), of which an -entire view is given in <a href="#fig11">fig. 11</a>. The whole pose is -fairly good, the face looking down toward the spectator -below. The king is no longer the dignified -organiser of the Old Kingdom, with a vision far -away beyond everyday matters, but he is obviously -considering the opinion of the man in front of him. -The detail is almost equal to that of the previous -dynasty; the eye is natural, the nose rather formal, -the lips with the sharp edge even more developed -than before, and the chin and throat less modelled. -The elbow is carefully wrought, bringing out the -fold of flesh and the muscle separately, the accuracy -of which is questionable.</p> - -<p>A good example of a private sculpture is the head -of Bak-en-khonsu (<a href="#fig43">fig. 44</a>). The eye is only slightly -indicated, leaning to the conventional blocking out -seen in figs. <a href="#fig88">91</a> and <a href="#fig135">137</a>. The profile is good, and -the lips are less exaggerated than in the royal statues. -The artist could give all his attention to the -face alone, as the figure is entirely hidden in an -almost cubic block, which represents the man seated -with knees drawn up before the chest.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig43"> - -<p class="caption">NEW KINGDOM SCULPTURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig43-46.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">43. Ramessu II</p> - -<p class="caption">44. Bak-en-khonsu</p> - -<p class="caption">45. Merenptah</p> - -<p class="caption">46. Taharqa</p> - -</div> - -<p>The head of Merenptah (<a href="#fig43">fig. 45</a>) shows him as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -inheriting and imitating his father’s face and attitude. -The style is cold and formal; the eyes are -so forward as to be even beyond the plane of the -forehead, and scarcely capped by the brow. But -the nose and lips are natural and free of the forcing -which is seen rather earlier. There is no attempt -at any delicacy of facial curves, and the chin and -throat are masked by the official beard. As this is -in gray granite, and was executed as the <i>ka</i> statue -of the king’s personal temple, it may be taken as -the best that could be done at that time.</p> - -<p>A different feeling comes in with the massive -individual portrait of Taharqa (<a href="#fig43">fig. 46</a>). The facial -muscles are strongly marked, but the mouth is singularly -unformed, and is exactly the opposite of that -in the strong type of <a href="#fig32">fig. 34</a>. The eyes are of the -gibbous form, with a long slot of lachrymal fossa, -which is also shown in the kindred figure of Queen -Amenardys (<a href="#fig47">fig. 47</a>). The style is not akin to any -other Egyptian work, and it seems as if an entirely -different physiognomy had challenged the sculptor -and made him drop his usual treatment and -study Nature afresh.</p> - -<p>The alabaster statue of Amenardys (<a href="#fig47">fig. 47</a>) is -disproportioned as a whole, though parts are good -separately. It has just the faults due to an imitator<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -who does not trust to observation. The head -is too large, the jointing is weak. Each of the -features is fairly well rendered; and within the -limits of later mannerism there is no forcing or -exaggeration.</p> - -<p>The portrait of Mentu-em-hat (<a href="#fig47">fig. 48</a>) belongs to -the same style as that of Taharqa, and both are in -black granite. The eyes seem too small, but this -is rather due to the depth and massiveness of the -jaws, which overweight the face. The apparent disproportion -in the low forehead is only due to the -photograph being taken too close and low down. -The height above the eyes is really equal to that -down to the upper edge of the chin. The facial -curves are carefully observed, and we can well credit -this with being a true portrait of the capable governor -of Thebes who continued in office under Taharqa -and Tanut-amen, and who repaired the devastations -of the Assyrian invasion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig47"> - -<p class="caption">LATE SCULPTURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig47-50.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">47. Amenardys</p> - -<p class="caption">48. Mentu-em-hat</p> - -<p class="caption">49. Basalt head</p> - -<p class="caption">50. Wooden head</p> - -</div> - -<p>A head broken from a statue, found at Memphis -(<a href="#fig47">fig. 49</a>), is remarkable for the deep and searching -modelling. The bony structure, the facial muscles, -and the surface folds are all scrupulously observed. -The artist’s triumph is shown in the harmony and -the living character which he has infused into his -laborious precision. Very rarely can a man rise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -superior to such a rigorous training. The character -of work is scarcely Egyptian; it belongs rather to -the same school as the republican Roman portraits, -but is earlier than those, as it has more precision of -detail.</p> - -<p>Lastly, we have one of the best examples of Greek -influence in Egypt shown by the wood-carving of -a coffin (<a href="#fig47">fig. 50</a>). The long narrow face shaded by -thick wavy hair is Greek in feeling, while the feather -head-dress is old Egyptian. Unfortunately, the -decay of the wood has broken the surface, but it -still remains an impressive example of Egyptian -influence on art which is mainly Greek.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE RELIEFS</span></h2> - -<p>In reliefs the representation of Nature is complicated -by the inevitable use of some conventions, -and some kind of perspective, to reduce solid objects -to a plane delineation. It follows that for the -study of naturalistic art they are inferior to statuary, -though they give rise to a whole system of artistic -conventions which are of interest in themselves. -It appears that among most races drawings precede -reliefs, and hence relief must be looked on as -developed drawing, and not as trammelled statuary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig51"> - -<p class="caption">EARLIEST RELIEFS</p> - -<img src="images/fig51-54.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">51. Hyaena and bull</p> - -<p class="caption">52. Gazelles and palm</p> - -<p class="caption">53. Group of animals</p> - -<p class="caption">54. King Narmer</p> - -</div> - -<p>The oldest reliefs are those of the prehistoric -ivory carvings (see <a href="#fig3">fig. 3</a>), in which we see maintained -the pictorial convention of crossing lines to -substantiate the outline of a solid body, although -the body was now expressed by the relief. A large -quantity of ivory reliefs showing rows of animals -were found at Hierakonpolis, belonging to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -earliest historic times. Of the same class are the -reliefs upon the primitive figures from Koptos (<a href="#fig51">fig. -51</a>). These comprise the elephant, stag’s head, and -swordfish, as well as the hyaena and ox. The design -is spirited, and seizes the characteristics of the -animals; while hills are conventionally shown by -lumps under each foot. The method of work is by -bruising out the surface with a pointed stone pick -around the outline, and so lowering the surrounding -ground (here shaded), while the body of the -animal remains of the original face of the stone.</p> - -<p>The next stage is that of the astonishing slate -reliefs. The purely artistic motive is seen in the -group of two long-necked gazelles with a palm-tree -(<a href="#fig51">fig. 52</a>). The detail of the forms of the joints and -the general pose of the animals is excellent, and -the feeling for the graceful, slender outline and -smooth surfaces is enforced by the rugged palm -stem placed between the gazelles. The love of the -strange and wild elements is seen in the rout of -animals, real and mythical, in <a href="#fig51">fig. 53</a>, which shows -the lion, giraffe, wild ox, and many kinds of deer, -well known to the early artists.</p> - -<p>The figure of King Narmer (<a href="#fig51">fig. 54</a>) is the historical -point in these slate carvings. As it is more -advanced in style than any of the others, it shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -that they all belong to the age just before the Ist -dynasty, about 5500 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> Here the pose and jointing -are excellent, and the muscles are proclaimed -by the artist as the results of his observation. The -later Egyptian canon is observed that a straight line -should pass through the middle of the head, middle -of the trunk, point of the backward knee, and middle -between the heels: only, as the king is here leaning -forward in action, the line is not vertical as it -is in later standing figures. The facial characters -of the king and his foe are well distinguished; altogether -five different types of race are shown on -these early carvings. The surface of the slate has -been worked down with a metal scraper, shown by -the parallel grooves in the face.</p> - -<p>On reaching the beginning of the pyramid age -the finest work is seen in the three wooden panels -of Ra-hesy (<a href="#fig55">fig. 55</a>, <i>frontispiece</i>). The anatomy is -full, though not so excessive as in the earlier work. -The facial curves are carefully rendered, and the -mouth is excellently formed. The eye is of course -placed in front view, as it always was by Egyptians. -The whole figure has an air of stark vigour, which -is fitting to a high official who managed a dozen -different offices.</p> - -<p>The multitude of the mastaba tomb-chapels of -the pyramid age contain so many thousands of -scenes, illustrating every act of life of men and -animals, that it is impossible to give any view of -their variety. Here we can only give two scenes -illustrating composition. In <a href="#fig56">fig. 56</a> is a group of -men dragging down an ox for sacrifice. The arrangement -of the lines is clear, each figure stands -out separately, the action is vigorous and simple. -Another scene of an ox-herd (<a href="#fig56">fig. 57</a>) shows quiet -motion, with the unusual turning of the head. This -might be thought unnatural, but exactly the same -twist of the body may be seen among Egyptians -now. This style of relief deteriorated in the VIth -dynasty, and then continuously decayed until the -middle of the XIth dynasty, by which time it has -reached a most degraded state.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig56"> - -<p class="caption">OLD KINGDOM RELIEFS</p> - -<img src="images/fig56-57.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">56. The sacrifice</p> - -<p class="caption">57. The ox-herd</p> - -</div> - -<p>Suddenly, in the middle of the XIth dynasty, -a new style of careful elaboration begins to appear, -a true archaic germ of a new school. This rapidly -grew, until at the later part of that dynasty there is -a stiff and over-elaborate style, which is well shown -in the figure of the princess Kauat having her hair -curled (<a href="#fig58">fig. 58</a>). The eyes of all the figures are gibbous, -with a moderate fossa; the lips have usually -a sharp edge, though sometimes merely rounded; -and there is the beginning of facial modelling.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the XIIth dynasty the surface modelling became -elaborate, most delicate gradations being -wrought with faint outlines, as seen in the Memphite -head, <a href="#fig3">fig. 6</a>. A bold high relief and simpler -treatment was followed by the Theban school, as -in <a href="#fig58">fig. 59</a> of the god Ptah and Senusert I embracing. -The use of sunk relief, as <a href="#fig58">fig. 58</a>, was as early -as the IVth dynasty, though most of the tomb sculptures -are in high relief. Sunk relief became commoner -in the Middle Kingdom, and almost universal -in the New Kingdom. It saved a large amount -of labour, and it protected the sculptures from injury; -but it is so forcible a convention that it is -never so pleasing as the raised work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig58"> - -<p class="caption">MIDDLE KINGDOM RELIEFS</p> - -<img src="images/fig58-59.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">58. Toilet of princess</p> - -<p class="caption">59. Senusert I and Ptah</p> - -</div> - -<p>The XVIIIth dynasty opens with another revival -of art, but yet it never reached the levels of -the earlier ages. The profusion of reliefs of Thebes -and other great sites has made the style of the -XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties the most familiar -to us, but its inferiority to that of the previous periods -is more obvious the more it is studied. The -sculptures of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri are celebrated, -yet the detail in <a href="#fig60">fig. 60</a> is not rich. There -is scarcely any modelling of face or muscles, mere -flat surfaces sufficing; there is but little expression -in the features; and the whole effect is flat and -tame. More character appears under Amenhotep -III (<a href="#fig60">fig. 61</a>), though even here there is none of the -muscular detail which was constantly shown in early -work. The features smile gracefully without any -real expression, and the trivial details of dress are -worked out to give a picturesque elaboration. The -taste for mere prettiness and graceful personalities -ruled more and more as the XVIIIth dynasty -developed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig60"> - -<p class="caption">NEW KINGDOM RELIEFS</p> - -<img src="images/fig60-62.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">60. Hatshepsut</p> - -<p class="caption">61. Servant of Kha-em-hat</p> - -<p class="caption">62. Akhenaten and queen</p> - -</div> - -<p>At last this taste, stimulated by the influence of -the Greek art and its love of expressing motion, -broke all bounds in the movement under Akhenaten. -The example in <a href="#fig60">fig. 62</a> gives the essence of Atenism. -The natural but ungainly attitudes, the flourishing -ribands, the heavy collars and kilt, the ungraceful -realism of the figures, the loss of all expression and -detail of structure,—all these show the death of a -permanent art in the fever of novelty and vociferation.</p> - -<p>This ferment being passed, the Egyptian went -back on his older style; but it had lost its life, it -could only be copied. The exquisite smoothness -and finish of the good work of Sety I at Abydos -is entirely lifeless and destitute of observation. It -has no anatomical detail, but was made by well-constructed -human machines who could not express an -emotion which they did not feel.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> - -<p>The historical scenes of the great sculptures of -Karnak are full of interest, but almost destitute of -art. Some parts of the work of Ramessu III at -Medinet Habu show more observation, such as -the hunting scene, <a href="#fig63">fig. 63</a>. The wild bulls are well -studied, and the marsh-plants with feathery tops -show a real appreciation of natural growth and -beauty.</p> - -<p>Under the XXVIth dynasty came the deliberate -imitation of the work of the Old Kingdom. In -a few cases this is passably done, and even some -invention may be seen. But in general there is only -a lifeless imitation of various parts clumsily put together. -One of the best pieces of such art is the -procession of youths and maids carrying animals -and farm produce (<a href="#fig63">fig. 64</a>). The forms are true, -there is none of the later exaggeration (as in <a href="#fig7">fig. -10</a>), and there is a loving touch in the details, -especially of the animals, which belongs to the true -artist. Observe how the girls carry the flowers and -the birds, while the boys take the heavy loads of -papyrus stems and a calf and a basket of flour. -Such work is the last flicker of Egyptian art in -reliefs, and nothing later claims our notice.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig63"> - -<p class="caption">LATE RELIEFS</p> - -<img src="images/fig63-64.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">63. Bulls in marshes</p> - -<p class="caption">64. Bearers of offerings</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE PAINTING AND DRAWING</span></h2> - -<p>Painting is certainly the earliest art of Egypt; -but, being more perishable than sculpture, many -periods of it are hardly represented at present. A -very early prehistoric vase, painted with white slip -on the red ground, shows the crude figures of two -men fighting (<a href="#fig65">fig. 65</a>). Other such vases have plants -and other objects painted. From the middle of the -prehistoric age, belonging to the second civilisation, -are the light-brown vases painted in red, with figures -of ships and people (<a href="#fig65">fig. 66</a>), plants, and imitations -of stone and wicker patterns. The joints are -fairly correct in the men and animals, though deficient -in the woman with raised arms. But the whole -air is very crude as compared with the roughest -efforts of the dynastic race. Another painting rather -later in the prehistoric age is the ship from a tomb -fresco (<a href="#fig65">fig. 67</a>). The arms of the woman are more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -correctly drawn as straight, but the men are worse -posed than in the earlier work. The idea of the -figures seen above the ships, but entirely detached -from them, may be that they are seen on the opposite -bank of a narrow river, beyond the ships.</p> - -<p>The advanced painting of the early pyramid -times is shown by the geese (<a href="#fig65">fig. 68</a>), stalking along -in a meadow amid tufts of herbage. The air of grave -self-sufficiency is admirably caught, and this small -piece of a great wall-scene at Medum is deservedly -admired. Of the Middle Kingdom there is no fine -example remaining.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig65"> - -<p class="caption">EARLIEST PAINTING</p> - -<img src="images/fig65-68.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">65. First age of prehistoric painting</p> - -<p class="caption">66. Second age</p> - -<p class="caption">67. Ship on wall-painting</p> - -<p class="caption">68. Geese of Medum</p> - -</div> - -<p>The great age of painting was the XVIIIth and -XIXth dynasties. The sculpturing of tombs was -then abandoned in favour of the cheaper paint; and -the taste of the age for graceful and light treatment -found its best scope in the use of the brush. Here -we have a group of pelicans (<a href="#fig69">fig. 69</a>) with an old -herdsman and baskets of eggs. Next (<a href="#fig69">fig. 70</a>) is a -harvest scene. Two men are carrying a load of the -ears of corn in a net. Behind are the stalks of straw -after the ears have been cut. Two girls who were -gleaning have stopped to quarrel over the corn; one -has seized a wrist of the other, and the two free hands -have each taken a grip of the other one’s hair. -To the right, under a sycamore fig-tree, one boy -is asleep, while another plays on a long reed pipe, -with a water-skin hung over his head. In the lower -line a girl with a thorn in her foot is stretching it -out to be examined by another girl. Further, a lad -is stripping the heads of millet by dragging them -through a fixed fork. The whole scene is full of -incident, and the drawing of the figures in unusual -action is excellent. The curious dress of the men -is a linen waist-cloth, with a net of slit leather-work -to take the wear, and a solid piece of leather left in -the middle of it for sitting on, as in <a href="#fig139">fig. 140</a>. Such -slit leather-work is dealt with in the last chapter.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig69"> - -<p class="caption">NEW KINGDOM PAINTING</p> - -<img src="images/fig69-71.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">69. Pelicans and keeper</p> - -<p class="caption">70, 71. Harvest scenes</p> - -</div> - -<p>A third scene (<a href="#fig69">fig. 71</a>) is in the harvest field; -the ears have been put into a net, and to press them -down a stick is passed through a hole on one edge, -while a man has hooked his arm over the stick, and -jumped up so as to bring his weight with a jerk to -press the stick down; with his other hand he holds -the end of a cord tied to the net, so as to be ready to -secure the stick when pressed down and prevent it -springing up again. The spirit shown in this action -is very good, and it is perhaps the only figure given -in the act of jumping. On the left is a young woman, -one of the daughters, behind the owner of the tomb; -on the right is a gleaning girl, stopping in the tall -corn to drink, with her basket set on the ground.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p> - -<p>On the next plate a portion of a ceiling pattern -(<a href="#fig72">fig. 72</a>) shows how such designs were drawn. The -rhombic lines were done first, then the dark groundwork, -leaving white discs, and lastly these were filled -up with the spirals. The whole was copied from -<i>appliqué</i> leather-work, with lines of stitching.</p> - -<p>A boating scene (<a href="#fig72">fig. 73</a>) shows the beautifully -bold, clean lines of the drawing, for which in this -case there does not seem to have been any preliminary -sketch of position. The crouching girl picking -a lotus bud from the water is very unusual. The -drawing of wavy water-lines, with lotus flowers, is -the general convention, and the figures of fish and -birds are often seen.</p> - -<p>A scene at a party (<a href="#fig72">fig. 74</a>) shows the guests -seated on the ground holding lotus flowers, while a -serving-girl stretches forward to arrange the earrings -of one of the guests.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig72"> - -<p class="caption">NEW KINGDOM PAINTING</p> - -<img src="images/fig72-74.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">72. Ceiling</p> - -<p class="caption">73. Boating scene</p> - -<p class="caption">74. A party</p> - -</div> - -<p>Painting received a great stimulus under Akhenaten: -the new movement suited the brush much -better than the chisel. The two figures of the princesses -(<a href="#fig75">fig. 76</a>) show possibilities which were not -then fully carried out. The conventional attitudes -are dropped, and the actual positions of two little -girls are carefully copied. The elder is seated on a -cushion, with the knees drawn up, and resting one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -arm on the knee, while with the other hand she -pushes up her little sister’s chin. The younger has -none of this self-possession, but is propping herself -up with one arm, while she clings to her elder’s -shoulder with the other. The drawing is free and -true, within the usual conventions of perspective. -Further, the colouring has shade on the backs of the -figures, and a high light on the thigh of the younger -daughter. Such shade does not appear in Greek -art till a thousand years later. The pattern in front -is the border of the carpet on which the queen was -seated, her foot and drapery appearing above.</p> - -<p>A surprising drawing which belongs to the same -school of observation is the tumbler (<a href="#fig75">fig. 75</a>). Here -an acrobatic position is so skilfully drawn as to -suggest its truth and to avoid any impossibility. -The form of each part is admirable; and if we trace -it piece by piece into an upright position, the resulting -figure is correctly proportioned, except in the -length of the arms. In reality such an attitude requires -the hands to rest on the finger-tips where the -wrist now is drawn. As a drawing of a violent attitude -this is a marvellous work, not only for the -directness and perfection of the line, but also for the -complete lightness and swing of the whole figure.</p> - -<p>Another good piece of action is the man (<a href="#fig77">fig. 77</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -who is standing on a boat’s cabin hauling in a rope. -The dead-weight of the body is well thrown back; -and as the base is small, one leg is kept in reserve -behind so as to recover any slip. The dead pull, -with both feet planted together and the whole body -rigidly leaning back, is often drawn in the early -fishing scenes; but such an attitude would be unsafe -when standing on the top of a narrow cabin.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig75"> - -<p class="caption">NEW KINGDOM PAINTING</p> - -<img src="images/fig75-76.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">75. Girl somersaulting</p> - -<p class="caption">76. The young princesses</p> - -</div> - -<p>We now turn to outline drawing, in which the -Egyptians always had a grand facility. There is -no instance, even in degraded times, of an outline -made as in modern work by little tentative touches -feeling the way. If they made a mistake, they at -least “sinned splendidly.” The long free strokes, -always taking the whole length of a bone at once, -and often going down a whole figure without raising -the hand—even, true, without a quiver or hesitation—shame -most modern outlines. The group of -heads (<a href="#fig77">fig. 78</a>) shows well the amount of character -given by a simple outline. The furthest is a negro, -the next a Syrian, the third an Abyssinian, the last -a Libyan. The type of each is shown with zest and -energy, and the line-work could not be improved.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig77"> - -<p class="caption">NEW KINGDOM DRAWING</p> - -<img src="images/fig77-80.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">77. The boatman hauling</p> - -<p class="caption">78. The four races</p> - -<p class="caption">79. Sketched tablet</p> - -<p class="caption">80. Tomb decoration</p> - -</div> - -<p>In <a href="#fig77">fig. 79</a> is a very rough sketch for a little tablet -of adoration. It shows the faint outlines in red -which were laid in first to space out the figure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -Such were used in nearly all cases as a preliminary -guide; but they were freely improved on in the final -black drawing, as here the whole base has been -lowered. This also shows the sketch-forms of hieroglyphic -writing.</p> - -<p>The final work for a royal tomb is seen in <a href="#fig77">fig. 80</a>, -Sety I offering to Osiris. We can here admire the -perfect freedom and exactitude of the handling, -although this was only intended as a guide to the -sculptor, and was not to be finally visible.</p> - -<p>A large branch of drawing which we have not -space to illustrate here is that of the papyri and -hieroglyphs. The papyri show the clear, fine outlines -in the good examples. In later times, rough -as the work may be, the feeling for expression never -deserts the artist. The hieroglyphs form a great -study by themselves. The sources of the signs, the -various treatment of them, the minute details introduced, -are all full of interest. The great result was -that the Egyptian had a writing which, though -cumbrous, was a continual pleasure to see, and -which adorned the artistic monuments on which it -was placed.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE ARCHITECTURE</span></h2> - -<p>Strange to say, Egyptian architecture has never -yet been systematically studied; we know nothing -of its proportions and variations.</p> - -<p>The earliest constructions were of brick, or of -palm-sticks interwoven. From the necessary forms -of these all the details of the stone architecture have -been copied. A parallel is seen in Greece, where the -architecture was an exact transcription of a wooden -building, the triglyphs, mutules, and guttae being -the beam-ends, tie-boards, and pegs formerly belonging -to woodwork.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/i_062.jpg" width="250" height="125" alt="A brick wall with concave bed (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<p>For the greater security of the corners of brick -buildings, the Egyptians -tilted the courses up at each -end, thus building in a concave -bed, with faces sloping -inwards. This slope was -copied in the stone-work, and is seen on the outsides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -of all Egyptian buildings (see <a href="#fig81">fig. 83</a>). The inside -faces are always vertical, and this serves to distinguish -the meaning of small portions of wall in -excavations.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_063a.jpg" width="150" height="200" alt="Palm-stick structure (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;"> -<img src="images/i_063b.jpg" width="120" height="200" alt="Cavetto cornice (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<p>Slight structures were made of palm-sticks, set -upright, and lashed to a cross stick -near the top, with other palm-sticks -interwoven to stiffen the face, and -the whole plastered with mud. -Such construction is made now in -Egypt, and is seen in the earliest -figures of shrines. At the top the -ends of the palm-sticks nod over, and form a fence -to keep out intruders. This row of tops is the -origin of the stone cavetto cornice, which always -stands free above the level of the roof. -At the corners the structure of palm-stick -was strengthened by a bundle of -sticks or reeds lashed round, and put as -a buffer to prevent a blow breaking in -the edge. This became the roll with -lashing pattern which is seen down the edges of -the stone buildings, and also beneath the cavetto -cornice where it is copied from the line of sticks -below the loose tops (see <a href="#fig81">fig. 83</a>).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="Papyrus stems and resulting wall ornament (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<p>Another form of construction was with papyrus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -stems. These had a loose, wiry head like an <i>Equisetum</i> -or mare’s tail. When used for a cabin on a -boat, the roofing stems were put through the loose -head, which was tied above and below to hold them. -Hence the row of heads became copied as an ornament -along the tops of walls, and continued in use -thus down to the latest times.</p> - -<p>The use of the arch was familiar from early times. -Even before the pyramid-builders small arches of -bricks were made. They were the general mode of -roofing in the XIIth dynasty, when we see them -drawn and imitated in stone. From the XIXth -dynasty there remain the great arched store-rooms -of the Ramesseum. Being of dried mud brick, -which is far more easily crushed than stone or burnt -brick, the circular form was not suitable, as the apex -would yield by crushing. A more or less parabolic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -form was therefore used, so as to give a sharper -curve at the top. To protect these arches from the -weather, they were laid four courses thick, with a -deep layer of sand and gravel over the top, to absorb -any rain as a sponge.</p> - -<p>Arches were usually built without any centring; -and to this day the Egyptian similarly builds arches -and domes of any size without centring or support. -Each ring of arch is laid on a sloping bed, so that -the thin arch bricks on edge will stick in place by -the mud-mortar until the ring is completed. The -same construction is started in each corner of a -room until the arching meets in a circle, when the -dome is carried round ring on ring, increasing the -dip toward the top. The successive coats of an -arch are often bedded on opposite slopes, so that -the rings cross each other.</p> - -<p>The outer form of a temple was always a blank -wall on all sides, as at Edfu, which preserves its -circuit wall complete. Usually the outer wall has -been removed for building (<a href="#fig81">fig. 83</a>), and the inner -courts with columns are exposed. In further ruin all -the walls of squared blocks are gone, and only a -group of pillars is left on the site.</p> - -<p>A typical building of the early age is the temple -of red granite built by Khafra at Gizeh (<a href="#fig81">fig. 81</a>).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -The pillars are 41 inches square, and there are -sixteen of them in the two halls. The work is perfectly -plain; not a trace of ornament is to be seen -in this or other temples of the IIIrd-IVth dynasties. -Only on the outside was there a panelling, like that -on the brick buildings and stone sarcophagi of this -age. The masonry of this temple is much less -exact than that of the early pyramids. The whole -effect of it is grand and severe, with the noble -breadth which belongs to the early times.</p> - -<p>The tower front of the temple at Medinet Habu -(<a href="#fig81">fig. 82</a>) is one of the few façades that is preserved. -It was copied from the Syrian fortresses, and shows -how the Asiatic influences had entered Egypt during -the three centuries from about 1500 to 1200 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig81"> - -<p class="caption">ARCHITECTURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig81-83.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">81. Granite temple</p> - -<p class="caption">82. Medinet Habu</p> - -<p class="caption">83. Dakkeh</p> - -</div> - -<p>The most complete view of a whole temple is -that of Dakkeh (<a href="#fig81">fig. 83</a>). The girdle wall has been -destroyed, thus exposing the components of the -temple clearly. At the left is the great pylon, the -gateway through the girdle wall. This led to the -portico, which was the front of the house of the god, -like the porticoes to human houses. Behind this a -cross passage, of which the door is seen at the side, -passed in front of the shrine and its ante-chamber. -This was one of the most perfect small temples, -but it has been much destroyed in recent years.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig84"> - -<p class="caption">EARLIEST FORMS OF COLUMN</p> - -<img src="images/fig84-86.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">84. Palm capital</p> - -<p class="caption">85. Rose lotus</p> - -<p class="caption">86. Blue lotus</p> - -</div> - -<p>The massive square pillars of the granite temple -gave place before long to more ornamental forms. -The principal types are the palm and lotus in the -Vth dynasty, and later the papyrus. The palm -capital is shown on the granite columns of Unas -(<a href="#fig84">fig. 84</a>). It was probably derived from a bundle -of palm-sticks bound together and plastered with -mud to stiffen them, like the bundles of maize-stalks -which are still used for columns. Around the -top of it some of the loose ends of the palm-sticks -were left with the leaves to form a head.</p> - -<p>The lotus capital appears likewise as a shaft decorated -with buds around it (<a href="#fig84">fig. 85</a>). In this case -the buds are the short, thick ones of the rose lotus, -with flowers of the blue lotus put in the intervals -under the abacus. But the lotus bud soon became -treated as a solid support, and in the capital of the -blue lotus (<a href="#fig84">fig. 86</a>) the whole is formed of four lotus -buds. The bands of the tie were always strongly -marked, however changed the capital might become -in later time. The papyrus column belongs mainly -to the XIXth dynasty, as in the great hall of Karnak. -It was the most incongruous of all, as a single -gigantic head of loose filaments was represented as -supporting the whole weight.</p> - -<p>Plain polygonal shafts were also common. Some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -octagonal ones occur in the Vth dynasty. In the -XIIth dynasty they are sixteen-sided, keeping -the four main faces flat and slightly hollowing the -others. This was continued in the earlier part of -the XVIIIth dynasty, but after that the polygonal -form almost disappears.</p> - -<p>Here we can only touch on some of the artistic -elements; the architecture as a whole is beyond -the scope of so small a volume.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE STONE-WORKING</span></h2> - -<p>We here begin to deal with the more technical -rather than the purely artistic view—the crafts as -well as the arts. Connected with the last chapter -is the study of the materials and methods used for -the architecture.</p> - -<p>Limestone was the main material of the land, the -Eocene cliffs fencing in the Nile valley along four -hundred miles. The two finest kinds are the Mokattam -stone opposite the pyramids, which is perfectly -uniform and free from splitting or flaws; and -the hard silicified stone occurring at Tell el Amarna -and elsewhere. The next commonest material was -soft sandstone from Silsileh, used generally after -the middle of the XVIIIth dynasty, especially in -the Thebaid. The less usual stones are the red -granite of Aswan, which was used from the Ist -dynasty onwards; the quartzite sandstone of Gebel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -Ahmar near Cairo, begun on a large scale by the -XIIth dynasty; basalt from Khankah and other -eruptions, used in the IVth and XIXth dynasties; -alabaster from the quarries near Tell el Amarna; -and diorite, used by the pyramid builders only.</p> - -<p>The quarrying of the limestone was usually by -large galleries run into the best strata. Blocks of -two or three feet in size were cut out by picking a -trench wide enough for the arm to pass downward -around the block, and then inward below it, until -it could be cracked away from the bed. The blocks -were thus cut out in regular rows, from top to -bottom of the gallery face. The same method is -still kept up in the open-air quarry at Helwan. For -larger blocks a trench eighteen inches wide, in which -the workman could pass, was cut around the block. -In the sandstone quarries the same mode of cutting -was followed, only the quarry was open to the sky. -So carefully was inferior stone rejected, that instead -of following cracks in the rock, a wall of stone was -left on each side of a crack; and such walls, each -containing a fissure, divide the quarry to its whole -depth.</p> - -<p>The granite was first obtained from loose water-worn -blocks at the Cataract, a great advantage of -such a source being that any cracks are made visible.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -Later it was quarried in the bed; a large mass -still in the quarry has been trimmed and marked -across to be cut up for shrines or sarcophagi. The -early mode of fissuring was by cutting a groove -and jumping holes through the thickness of the -stone, to determine the direction of the fissure. -Probably the active force was dried wood driven in -and wetted, as there is no trace of bruising by -metal wedges on the sides of the groove. In later -times, instead of holes, mere pockets were sunk -rather deeper in the groove to hold the splitting -agent.</p> - -<p>For cutting passages or chambers in rock, the -method was to make a rough drift-way, then finish a -true plane for the roof, next mark an axis upon the -roof plane, trim the sides true to the distance from a -plumb bob held at the axis, and finally smooth the -floor to a uniform distance from the roof. In a rock -chamber the roof was finished first, and a shaft was -sunk to the intended depth of the chamber to mark -it out.</p> - -<p>The surfaces of rock and of dressed stones were -picked smooth by a short adze, with cuts crossing -in all directions. The edges of a stone were first -dressed true, and then the space between was referred -to the edges. To do this, two offset sticks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -with a string stretched between the tops of them -were stood on the edges, and a third offset was used -to test the depth to the face, so as to see how much -was to be cut away. For larger stones, a diagonal -draft-line was cut true as well as the edge drafts, so -as to avoid any twist. The face was finally tested -with a portable plane smeared with red ochre, and -wherever that left a touch of red, the stone was -cut down; this was continued until the red touched -at intervals of not more than an inch. This was the -quality of face for joints; but it was further smoothed -by grinding on outer finished surfaces. The rough -hewing of rock tombs was generally done with mauls -of silicified limestone, which is found as nodules left -on the surface.</p> - -<p>The granite and hard stones were also sawn, and -cut with tubular drills. The saws were blades of -copper, which carried the hard cutting points. The -cutting material was sand for working the softer -stones, and emery for harder rocks. As far back as -prehistoric times, blocks of emery were used for -grinding beads, and even a plummet and a vase were -cut out of emery rock (now in University College). -There can be no doubt, therefore, of emery being -known and used.</p> - -<p>The difficult question is whether the cutting material<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -was used as loose powder, or was set in the -metal tool as separate teeth. An actual example was -found at the prehistoric Greek palace of Tiryns. -The hard limestone there has been sawn, and I -found a broken bit of the saw left in a cut. The -copper blade had rusted away to green carbonate; -and with it were some little blocks of emery about -a sixteenth of an inch long, rectangular, and quite -capable of being set, but far too large to act as a -loose powder with a plain blade. On the Egyptian -examples there are long grooves in the faces of the -cuts of both saws and drills; and grooves may be -made by working a loose powder. But, further, the -groove certainly seems to run spirally round a core, -which would show that it was cut by a single point; -and where quartz and softer felspar are cut through -the groove floor runs on one level, and as the felspar -is worn down by general rubbing, the quartz is -actually cut through to a greater depth than the -softer felspar. This shows that a fixed cutting point -ploughed the groove, and not a loose powder. Also, -the hieroglyphs on diorite bowls are ploughed out -with a single cut of a fixed point, only one hundred -and fiftieth of an inch wide, so it is certain that fixed -cutting points were used for hand-graving. There -is no doubt that sawing and grinding with loose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -powder was the general method, but the use of fixed -stones seems clearly shown by the instances above.</p> - -<p>The large hieroglyphs on hard stones were cut -by copper blades fed with emery, and sawn along -the outline by hand; the block between the cuts -was broken out, and the floor of the sign was hammer-dressed, -and finally ground down with emery. -Hammer-dressing was largely used in all ages on -the hard stones; the blows crushed the stone to -powder, and the stunning of the surface was often -not quite removed by grinding, and shows as white -spots. The hammer was usually of black hornstone, -a tough amorphous quartz rock.</p> - -<p>The methods of placing the stones in the building -have been often debated. The foundations were -usually laid on a bed of clean sand, and this enabled -the whole course to be accurately adjusted -level to begin with. For temples, it seems most -likely that the interior was filled with earth as the -building advanced; and thus the walls, drums, and -architraves could be as easily dealt with as on the -lowest course. This plan is successfully used at -Karnak in present repairs. But where stones needed -to be raised for a pyramid or a pylon, some staging -was required. Remains of a massive brick slope -still stand against each face of the unfinished pylons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> -at Karnak. This, however, is only the general mass -of the staging, and the actual steps for the stones -must have been of stone, as brick would crumble to -powder if any lifting work was done directly upon it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="200" height="250" alt="Cradle of wood for moving blocks (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<p>For short blocks a cradle of wood was used, of -which many models have been found in foundation -deposits along with model tools. On tilting this to -one end, and putting a wedge beneath it, it could be -rocked up the slope, and so gradually raised, first to -one end and then to the other. For large blocks, -the actual lifting was probably done by rocking up. -If a beam be supported by two piles near the middle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -a small force will tilt it up clear of one pile; on -raising that pile the beam may be tilted the other -way, and the lower pile raised in its turn. Thus -rocking from pile to pile, a beam can be quickly -raised till it is high enough to be moved on to the -next step. It was probably thus that the fifty-six -granite beams, weighing over fifty tons each, were -raised in the pyramid of Khufu.</p> - -<p>The obelisks were transported on great barges, -as shown in the sculptures. The method of raising -such stones is partly explained by an account of setting -up colossi of Ramessu IV. A causeway of earth -was made sloping up for a length of a quarter of a -mile; it was ninety-five feet wide, and one hundred -and three feet high on the slope, probably about -sixty or seventy feet vertically, as the slopes were -held up steeply with facings of timber and brushwood. -The purpose of this evidently was to raise -the great block by sliding on its side up the slope, -and then to tilt it upright by gravity over the head -of the slope. How the mass would be turned we -have nothing to show, but probably the simplest -way, by gradually removing earth, would be followed. -By next ramming earth beneath the obelisk as it lay -on a slope, it would be quite practicable to force it -forward into an upright position.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> - -<p>After a building was finished the sculpturing of -its walls had to be executed. For this, a long training -of sculptors was needful, and the art schools -filled an important part in education. The simplest -subjects of outlines in limestone were a first step, -the sign <i>neb</i> requiring a straight and a curved line -only. After the geometric forms came studies of -heads and of hands. In <a href="#fig88">fig. 88</a> we see how, after -a fair control of the graver had been attained, there -was still much to be learned in detail and harmony -before the artist could be trusted to decorate a -temple.</p> - -<p>Statuary also needed a long training. The work -was first marked out in profile of the front and -sides, and then cut along these outlines, as in the -rock-crystal figure (<a href="#fig88">fig. 89</a>), where the outlines at -right angles have been cut, but the corners are yet -unrounded. In the block for the head of a lion (<a href="#fig88">fig. -90</a>) the various planes have been already cut for -the face, before attempting any rounding. The limestone -head (<a href="#fig88">fig. 91</a>) shows a further stage, where -the general rounding is done, but the details of the -lips, ears, eyes, and eyebrows are yet left in the -block. All of these stages needed incessant practice, -and years must have been spent in training in the -schools before final work was undertaken.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig87"> - -<p class="caption">STONE VASES</p> - -<img src="images/fig87.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">87. A-H. Prehistoric</p> - -<p class="caption">J. VIth dynasty</p> - -<p class="caption">K. XIIth dynasty</p> - -<p class="caption">L, M. XVIIIth dynasty</p> - -</div> - -<p>Turning now to stone-work on a smaller scale, -the hardest materials were wrought for vases in -the prehistoric age. In the first civilisation, basalt, -syenite, and porphyry were in use as well as the -softer stones, alabaster and limestone. The later -civilisation brought in slate, coloured limestone, -serpentine, and lastly diorite, which continued to be -the favourite stone into the pyramid age. The main -differences of form are shown in <a href="#fig87">fig. 87</a>. The earlier -type of vase is the standing form F, with a foot, and -no piercing for suspension. The later prehistoric -age brought in the suspended stone as well as pottery -vases. The main types were A, B, D, E, G, -H, and lastly C, cut out of coloured marbles, of -syenite, and of basalt. All of these vases were cut -entirely by hand without any turning, or even any -circular grinding, on the outside. The polish lines -cross diagonally on the curved sides, and the slight -irregularities of form, though imperceptible to the -eye, can be felt by rotation in the fingers. The -greatest triumph of this stone-work is the vase from -Hierakonpolis in black and white syenite, of the type -A, E, two feet across and sixteen inches high, which -is highly polished, and hollowed out so thin that it -can be lifted by one finger, though if solid it would -weigh four hundred pounds. The interior of these -vases was ground out with stone grinders fed with -emery, and in softer stones cut out by crescent-shaped -flint drills.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig88"> - -<p class="caption">METHODS OF SCULPTURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig88-91.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">88. Trial piece of learner</p> - -<p class="caption">89. Rough drafting</p> - -<p class="caption">90. Lion’s head drafted</p> - -<p class="caption">91. Head nearly finished</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p> - -<p>The historic times show a continual decline in the -quality of the stone used. In the Ist dynasty the -hard stones decreased, and the softer slate and -alabaster were more common. In the pyramid age -only diorite continued in use among the hard materials, -and that but rarely compared to soft stones; -while in the XIIth and XVIIIth dynasties, beyond -an occasional vase of obsidian or serpentine, nothing -is seen but the soft alabaster. The form J belongs -to the VIth dynasty. K is a type which descends -from the Ist dynasty, but in this form wide at the -top belongs to the XIIth, after which it disappears. -L and M are of the XVIIIth dynasty.</p> - -<p>Amulets of fine stone were used from prehistoric -days onwards. Of the early ones, the bull’s head is -the commonest, made of carnelian, haematite, or -glazed quartz. The fly is made of slate, lazuli, and -serpentine in prehistoric times, and of gold in historic -jewellery. The hawk is found of glazed quartz -and limestone, the serpent of lazuli and limestone; -the crocodile, the frog, the claw, the spear-head are -all found in prehistoric use. In the Old Kingdom, -small amulets of carnelian or ivory were usual; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -forms are the hand, the fist, the eye, lion, jackal-head, -frog, and bee. In the Middle Kingdom the -more usual material was silver or electrum. The -New Kingdom used amulets but little; the great -profusion comes from the mummies of the Saite -time, when dozens may be found on one body. The -great variety of forms and materials would require -a volume to explain them.</p> - -<p>Beads were used from prehistoric times. The hard -stones were cut then—quartz, amethyst, agate, carnelian, -turquoise, lazuli, haematite, serpentine, as -well as glazes on quartz and on paste. Glazed -pottery beads became the more usual in historic -times; glass beads were made from the XVIIIth -dynasty onward, and hardly any other material was -used in Roman times. There are hundreds of varieties -known, and an accurate knowledge of their -dates is essential in excavating.</p> - -<p>Flint was worked to the highest perfection in the -prehistoric age, and continued in use till Roman -times. Strictly, it is chert rather than flint, as the -beds in which it is found are of Eocene limestone. -But in general appearance and nature they are -closely the equivalent of the chalk with flints in -England, only harder. The prehistoric forms are -shown in <a href="#fig92">fig. 92</a>. They exceed the flint-work of all -other countries in the regularity of the flaking, the -thinness of the weapon, and the minute serration -of the edges. At present such work is entirely a -lost art, and we cannot imagine the methods or the -skill required to produce such results. Besides the -weapons, flint armlets were made, chipped out of -a solid block, yet no thicker than a straw. These -were ground with emery finally to smooth them for -wearing. Flint was commonly used down to the -XIIth dynasty for knives, but all the dynastic working -is far inferior to the earlier. In the XVIIIth -dynasty, and later, sickle teeth were still made of -flint; and flakes were chipped and used in abundance -at some centres in the Roman period.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig92"> - -<p class="caption">FLINT-WORKING</p> - -<img src="images/fig92.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">92. Knives and lances of the best prehistoric work</p> - -</div> - -<p>Before leaving the stone-working we may note -the accuracy of work, as this is better seen here than -in any other subject. The highest pitch of accuracy -on a large scale was reached under Khufu in the -IVth dynasty; his pyramid had an error of less than -·6 of an inch on its side of 9069 inches, or 1 in -15,000; and its corners were square to 12″. A -change of temperature during a day would make -larger errors than this in a measuring-rod. The -accuracy of levelling, and of finish of the stones, is -on a par with this; joints over six feet long are -straight to a hundredth of an inch. The pyramid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -of Khafra has three times this error, varying 1·5 -inch on 8475, and 33″ of angle. That of Menkaura -is worse, being on an average 3 inches out on -4154, and 1′ 50″ of angle. At Dahshur the errors -are 3·7 on 7459 inches base, and 1·1 on 2065, with -angular errors of 4′ and 10′. In smaller work, a -beautiful example is the granite sarcophagus of -Senusert II, which is ground flat on the sides with -a matt face like ground glass, and only has about -a two-hundredth of an inch error of flatness and -parallelism of the sides. The later ages, so far as we -know, have left nothing that can be compared with -the accuracy of the early dynasties.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">JEWELLERY</span></h2> - -<p>Native gold is, in all countries, one of the earliest -materials for manufactured ornaments, and it appears -to have been much used in prehistoric Egypt. -Though gold is not now sought in or near Egypt, -we must remember that it is found in the stream -deposits of most countries, and its absence from -the Mediterranean lands now is only due to the -ancient workers having exhausted the supply. The -immediate sources of the metal were in Nubia and -Asia Minor. The Asiatic gold was certainly used -in the first dynasty, as it is marked by having a -variable amount of silver alloy, about a sixth; but -looking at the African influence on Egypt it is -probable that Nubia was the first source, though -whether gold (<i>nūb</i>) was called from the country -(<i>nūb</i>), or the reverse, is uncertain.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_084.jpg" width="150" height="70" alt="Collar of beads / hieroglyph for gold (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<p>So general was the use of gold for necklaces,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -that the picture of a collar of beads became the -hieroglyph for gold. Strings of minute -gold beads were worn on the ankles in -prehistoric times (8000-5000 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>). Larger beads -were economically made by beating out a thin tube, -and then drawing down the ends over a core of limestone. -A thin gold finger ring has been found, and -a flat pendant with punched dots. But most of the -prehistoric gold is seen on the lips of stone vases, -overlaying the handles of vases, and forming the -wire loops for carrying them. Similarly it was used -for covering the handles of flint knives; a sheet -of gold was fitted over the flint, embossed with figures -of women, animals, twisted snakes, a boat, -etc. But the use of thin gold leaf which adheres -to its base, is not found until the pyramid times. -At the close of the prehistoric period we meet with -a gold cylinder seal engraved with signs. When -we remember that it is very rarely that an unplundered -grave is discovered, the quantity of gold -objects found show that the metal must have been -generally used in the ages when commerce developed, -before writing was known.</p> - -<p>On reaching the historic times we obtain a good -view of the production and variety of jewellery, -in the four bracelets of the Queen of Zer, early in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -the first dynasty, 5400 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> These bracelets (<a href="#fig93">fig. 93</a>) -show how each separate piece was made to fit its -own place in a complete design, and that the later -custom of merely stringing ready-made beads was -not then followed.</p> - -<p>The bracelet of hawks has the gold blocks alternating -with turquoise. The hawks on the gold -pieces are all equal, but the sizes of the blocks vary -in the height. This is due to their being all cast in -the same mould, which was filled to varying amounts. -The surfaces were hammered and chiselled, but not -either ground or filed. The order of the hawks was -marked by numbering them with cross cuts on the -base; these cuts are directly across for the blocks on -one half, and diagonally across for the other half.</p> - -<p>The bracelet with spiral beads has the gold spiral -formed of a hammered gold wire, thicker at the -middle, where it forms the barrel of the beads. This -form is imitated in the three dark lazuli beads down -the middle. The triple gold balls, on either side -of those, are each beaten hollow and drawn into a -thread-hole left at each end; so perfectly wrought -are they that only in one instance does the slightest -ruck of metal remain. To join the three balls together -they were soldered, but without leaving the -least excess or difference of colour.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the lowest bracelet the hour-glass-shaped beads -are of gold, with one of amethyst between each -pair. The gold is doubtless cast, being solid. None -of these are pierced, but they were secured by tying -round a groove at the middle of each bead. -There was also a fourth bracelet with a ball and -loop fastening which shows the skill in soldering. -The ball is beaten hollow, leaving about a quarter -of it open; inside it a hook of gold wire is soldered -in without leaving the smallest trace of solder visible. -The band round the wrist was formed of very -thick black hair plaited with gold wire, which was -hammered to exactly the same thickness. We see -from these bracelets that casting, chiselling, and -soldering were perfectly understood at the beginning -of the monarchy.</p> - -<p>Of about the Ist dynasty there are also copies -of spiral shells made by pressing gold foil, perhaps -over shells. These were threaded as a necklace, -imitating the shell necklaces of earlier ages.</p> - -<p>On coming to the VIth dynasty (4000 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>) we -see gold chains (<a href="#fig93">fig. 94</a>) made of rings, each folded -into a double loop and put through the next; these -may be called loop-in-loop chain. Gold seals (<a href="#fig93">fig. -95</a>) are also found, probably made by foreigners and -worn as buttons, like many similar stone buttons.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig93"> - -<p class="caption">JEWELLERY</p> - -<img src="images/fig93-96.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">93. Bracelets (Ist dynasty)</p> - -<p class="caption">94. Chain (VIth dynasty)</p> - -<p class="caption">95. Gold seal (VIth dynasty?)</p> - -<p class="caption">96. Gold uraeus (XIIth dynasty)</p> - -</div> - -<p>The XIIth dynasty has left us some magnificent -groups of jewellery, which were found at Dahshur. -The general effect of this work is graceful and sincere -in design and pure in colour. There is no -glitter and pomp about it, but it has the highest -beauty of careful harmony and perfect finish. The -tints of the carnelian, turquoise, and lazuli which -are used have been precisely chosen for their clear -strength of colour, while the Egyptian system of -putting a line of gold between two bright colours -prevents any dazzling or clashing. The charm of -this jewellery lies in the calm, fresh, cool colouring -with the unhesitating perfection of the work, which -seems to ignore all difficulty or compromise.</p> - -<p>Three pectoral ornaments made in successive -reigns are each formed of an open-work gold plate, -engraved on one side and inlaid with coloured stones -on the other. The engraved sides of two are here -given (figs. <a href="#fig97">97</a>, <a href="#fig97">98</a>), as they are better suited for illustration. -The earlier pectoral, bearing the names -of Senusert II, is by far the better in design. The -scheme of the whole is grasped at once, and rests -the eye; there is repose and dignity in it. Although -clear open spaces are left, the parts are sufficiently -connected for strength.</p> - -<p>The second pectoral, of Senusert III, is too complex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -for a single piece of jewellery for the breast. -The heavy mass of the vulture at the top over-weights -the design; the head-dress of the royal -sphinxes is too tall; and the combination of four -captives between the eight legs of the sphinxes, or -twenty-four limbs in action, is far too complex and -distracting. But in the detail we must admire the -expression of the captives; and also the skill with -which the parts are united, especially where the -frail length of the tails is held in by the extra lotus -flowers.</p> - -<p>The third pectoral, of Amenemhat III, is the -least successful in design. It is made too large -in order to take in whole figures of the king fighting; -the action is violent; and, not content with -four figures, the outlines are lost in a maze of emblems -which fill all the space around, so that nothing -is clear or restful to the eye. The earliest -pectoral was evidently designed to be seen at a -respectful distance on royalty in movement. To -see the last design the queen would need to be -closely stared at, in order to make out the cumbrous -historical document on her breast.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig97"> - -<p class="caption">JEWELLERY</p> - -<img src="images/fig97-98.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">97, 98. Chased gold pectoral ornaments (XIIth dynasty)</p> - -</div> - -<p>Two crowns of gold and inlaid stones belonged -also to the princesses. The floret crown (<a href="#fig99">fig. 100</a>) -is perhaps the most charmingly graceful head-dress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -ever seen; the fine wavy threads of gold harmonised -with the hair, and the delicate little flowers -and berries seem scattered with the wild grace of -Nature. Each floret is held by two wires crossing -in an eye behind it, and each pair of berries has -likewise an eye in which the wires cross. The florets -are not stamped, but each gold socket is made -by hand for the four inserted stones. The berries -are of lazuli. In no instance, however small, was -the polishing of the stone done in its cloison; it -was always finished before setting.</p> - -<p>The upper crown (<a href="#fig99">fig. 99</a>) is less unusual. The -motive is the old one seen on the head-dress of -Nofert (<a href="#fig23">fig. 24</a>); but the flowers have become conventionalised. -The band form is broken by the upright -flowers rising from each rosette; and in front -there was an aigrette of gold with flowers formed -of coloured stones.</p> - -<p>Turning now to the technical details, some small -gold lions were cast, but not all from a single -mould. They seem to have been modelled in wax, -and after forming the mould around the model the -wax was melted out, and the metal run in. This -method, known as <i>cire perdue</i>, was usual in later -periods. The details are slightly chiselled upon the -gold.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p> - -<p>Moulding by pressure was used in making cowry -beads and tie beads, which were impressed in stout -foil, aided by burnishing on to the model so as to -tool the detail.</p> - -<p>Soldering was done most delicately for the side -joints of the hollow cowry beads; it was also used -on a large scale for the dozens of delicate ribs of -gold which were fixed to the back plates for the -cloison work of the pectorals. To attach this multitude -of minute ribs exactly in place shows most -practised work, for they could not be treated separately, -being so close together.</p> - -<p>Wire was made in large quantity for the floret -crown. This wire was all cut in strips, and pieces -soldered together to form a length. The same -method was later used by the Jews: “they did beat -the gold into thin plates and cut it into wires” -(Ex. xxxix. 3). Drawn wire has not been found in -any ancient work. A favourite style of work for -figures of gods and sacred animals in this age was -a mixture of wirework and sheet metal; such amulets -and sacred animals are usually half an inch -high: the example of the sacred cobra here shown -(<a href="#fig93">fig. 96</a>) is by far the finest known.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig99"> - -<p class="caption">JEWELLERY</p> - -<img src="images/fig99-101.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">99, 100. Crowns of gold inlaid with stones</p> - -<p class="caption">101. Granulated gold work (all XIIth dynasty)</p> - -</div> - -<p>A new decoration which first appears in this age -is that of granulated work (<a href="#fig99">fig. 101</a>). Here it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> -seen on a case in a zigzag pattern, and on two pendants. -Another example is a pattern of small rhombs -on the bezel of a ring. The granules are 5 × 5 in -each rhomb, and eight rhombs on the bezel, or forty -granules in about six-tenths of an inch; allowing -for spaces, the granules must be an eightieth of -an inch wide. This kind of work is found also later -on in Egypt, but it may not be native; in Etruria it -was the national type of jewellery about three thousand -years after this.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_091.jpg" width="150" height="70" alt="Necklace fastener (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<p>The mode of fastening the necklaces was by -grooved pieces. One of the gold cowries, or lion’s -heads, or ties which formed the necklace, was made -in two halves with dovetail groove and -tongue fitting into each other along the -whole length of the piece. The tongue ran up -against a butt end when the halves coincided.</p> - -<p>When we reach the XVIIIth dynasty we see in -the jewellery of Queen Aah-hotep (1570 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>) much -the same system of work as in the XIIth dynasty. -The whole style is less substantial, exact, and dignified; -both in design and execution it is at all -points inferior to the previous work. One new art -appears, the plaiting of gold wire chains, in what is -now commonly called Trichinopoly pattern. This -method was continued down to Roman times.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Aah-hotep-Aahmes bracelet (<a href="#fig102">fig. 102</a>) is a -broad band of metal, with the figures in raised gold -on a dark blue ground. At first it looks as if enamelled, -as the ground runs in the small intervals -between the gold; but it is really a surface formed -of pieces of dark lazuli, cut approximately to the -forms and patched around with a dark blue paste to -match it. Two other bracelets (or perhaps anklets) -are formed of minute beads of stones and gold -threaded on parallel wires, forming a band about -1½ inches wide. The pattern seems an imitation -of plaiting, as each colour forms a half square divided -diagonally. The necklace of large gold flies -is heavy, and lacks the grace of earlier times. The -axe of Aahmes (<a href="#fig102">fig. 104</a>) is beautifully inlaid with -gold, bearing the king’s names, the figures of the -king smiting an enemy, and the gryphon-sphinx -of the god Mentu. The dagger (<a href="#fig102">fig. 103</a>) has more -of the Mykenaean Greek style in the inlaying of -the blade, with figures of a lion chasing a bull, and -four grasshoppers. The four heads which form -the pommel are unlike any other Egyptian design; -but the squares divided diagonally on the handle -are like the patterns of the bead anklets, and are -probably of Egyptian source.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig102"> - -<p class="caption">JEWELLERY</p> - -<img src="images/fig102-104.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">102. Bracelet</p> - -<p class="caption">103. Dagger (both parts)</p> - -<p class="caption">104. Axe</p> - -<p class="caption">(all of King Aahmes, XVIIIth dynasty)</p> - -</div> - -<p>Of the XIXth dynasty there is the Serapeum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -jewellery, found with the Apis burials. The pectoral -of Ramessu II (<a href="#fig105">fig. 105</a>) is of good design; -the wings of the vulture are boldly spread in wide -curves, and the king’s name is simple, without titles, -and well placed. The border band is heavy, and -the colouring is rich. It is a creditable work, but -entirely missing the grace and sense of perfection -of the best work from Dahshur.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_093a.jpg" width="150" height="55" alt="Collar fasteners (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_093b.jpg" width="150" height="55" alt="Patterned end of a wire bracelet (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<p>The gold bracelets with name of Ramessu II -found at Bubastis, are of inferior work, probably for -one of his fifty-nine daughters. The name is only -impressed on stout foil, which is set in a framework -of the bracelet, but the surfaces are ornamented -with gold granular work, showing that such was -commonly used. There is a pair of collar -fasteners, clumsily made by filing the bent -gold and working thread-holes in the cut; there -are thirty-six thread-holes, so the collar must have -been a very wide one. The fastening -by two halves sliding together is made -by two wires soldered in to form the dovetail. In -this same group are thick wire bracelets of -silver, with a coarse hatched pattern on the -ends; also many plain silver earrings, such -as were worn by the common people of this time.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/i_093c.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="Earring (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<p>Slightly later is the jewellery of Sety II and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -Tausert from the Kings’ Tombs. Here are also -solid wire bangles, but of gold. And square wire -bangles have the thin tail of each end of the bar -twisted round the stem on the other side, a fastening -also commonly found on finger-rings, of this -age and rather earlier. Some clumsy little open-work -beads are made by rough circles of gold wire -soldered together; a wide equatorial circle is joined -to a small polar circle at each end by six small -circles touching. Flowers are made by stamping -the petals out of foil; there are ten petals to each, -and four of them are stamped with the king’s name. -Some monstrous earrings overloaded with ornament -belong to the end of the Ramessides (<a href="#fig105">fig. 106</a>).</p> - -<p>Base gold was much used at the close of the -XVIIIth dynasty, and many of the finger-rings of -that age almost verge into copper. But stones -were used for inlay work until the later Ramessides, -and glass or paste does not become usual till -up to 1000 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> Enamel fused upon metal is not -known until Roman times.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig105"> - -<p class="caption">JEWELLERY</p> - -<img src="images/fig105-107.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">105. Pectoral of Ramessu II</p> - -<p class="caption">106. Earrings of Ramessu XII</p> - -<p class="caption">107. Gold statuette (XXVth dynasty)</p> - -</div> - -<p>In the VIIIth century <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> gold working was well -maintained, as seen (<a href="#fig105">fig. 107</a>) in the statuette made -by the local king Pafaabast. The modelling of the -limbs is exact, the pose is free, and it shows the -maintenance of a good tradition. About a century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -later there is fine cloison work on the gold birds of -the Hawara amulets, as minute as any of earlier -times.</p> - -<p>A free use of gold-work comes in with the wealth -of the Ptolemaic age, especially for bracelets and -chains. A usual type of bracelet, in gold or silver, -was with busts of Serapis and Isis on the two ends -of a strip, which were turned up at right angles to -the circle. These are generally of coarse work. -Plain bangles, bracelets with the two tails of a bar -twisted each round the other, coiled wire bracelets -which were elastic, and hingeing bracelets, are all -found in use at this age. Much Greek influence is -seen in the patterns, both now and in the Roman -period. The bangle bracelets were often made -hollow, both for lightness and economy of metal. -Cheaper styles were of thin gold foil worked over -a core of plaster; the decoration of cross lines on -such shows that they are probably Roman. The -chains of Ptolemaic and Roman age (<a href="#fig108">fig. 109</a>) are -simple, but of pleasing style.</p> - -<p>In Coptic times bracelets of various forms were -made, mostly of silver and baser metal; but they are -all plain and tasteless. Large earrings were made -with a big hoop and a bunch of small pendants, or -an open-work metal bead. Necklets of silver were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> -usual, with the tails of the strip wound round each -other, so as to slide open for passing over the head.</p> - -<p>Gold was also used largely for gilding both metals -and wood. The gold leaf was often about a 5000th -of an inch thick, weighing one grain to the square -inch. Thus a pound’s weight of gold would cover -about six feet square; and the gilding of doors and -of the caps of obelisks as described is not at all unlikely.</p> - -<p>Silver was known to the Egyptians later than -gold, as it is called “white gold”; and it was scarcer -than gold in the early ages. Of the prehistoric time -there is a cap of a jar, and a small spoon with twisted -handle. A few silver amulets are known in the -XIIth dynasty. In the XVIIIth dynasty silver -became commoner, as the source in northern Syria -which supplied the Hittites became accessible. The -silver dishes of this age are rather thick, and not -finely beaten. One bowl, probably of Ramesside -date from Bubastis, has the brim turned inward like -a modern anti-splash basin (<a href="#fig113">fig. 115</a>). It seems to -have been made by spinning the metal, as thin vessels -are now wrought.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig108"> - -<p class="caption">JEWELLERY</p> - -<img src="images/fig108-109.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">108. Silver bowls</p> - -<p class="caption">109. Roman gold chain</p> - -</div> - -<p>The most elaborate style of silver work is that of -the bowls from Mendes (<a href="#fig108">fig. 108</a>). These are entirely -made by hammer work, and no moulds or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -matrices were used for the forms. But the finish -of the surfaces is so fine that no trace of hammer -or polishing is left. The design is derived from the -fluted vases and bowls of the XVIIIth dynasty; the -fluting was made deeper and stronger, and it was -suppressed below, as it interfered with the using of -the bowl, while round the sides it remained as deep -bosses. The detail was all put in by the graving -tool, the sinking round the central rosette, the hollows -in the petals, and the outlines of the petals. -There is no sign of punch-work. The number of -ribs is, curiously, indivisible, being 18, 26, 28, and 30; -these show that it was not divided either by triangles, -hexagons, or repeated halving. Probably a -suitable size of rib was designed, and then repeated -an even number of times; and the divisions not being -truly radial, show that eye-design was followed -rather than geometrical scaling.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br /> -<span class="smaller">METAL WORK</span></h2> - -<p>Here we shall deal with the useful metals, apart -from the ornamental work of jewellery previously -described. Copper was worked from the beginning -of the prehistoric civilisation. In one of the earliest -graves a little copper pin was found, used to fasten -over the shoulders the goat-skin, which was worn -before the weaving of linen. Not long after, a small -chisel appears, then an adze and harpoon, then -needles, and larger sizes of tools come at the close -of the prehistoric age. All of this copper was shaped -by hammering. Polished stone hammers were used, -and the work was so exquisitely regular that a polished -surface still remains on an adze, which shows -no trace of the method of manufacture; certainly it -was not ground. The mode of hammering is shown -in some early historical sculptures; a stone hammer -was held in the palm of the right hand, which was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -swung overhead, and brought down on the metal. -How such work could be done without hurting the -hand by concussion is not clear to us. It is strange -that down to Greek times the Egyptians never used -a long handle to a hammer.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/i_099.jpg" width="100" height="133" alt="Ewer (drawing)" /> -</div> - -<p>In the beginning of the kingdom, copper ewers -and basins were made; these are known from the -sculpture of Narmer, and examples are found -in the royal tombs. They were skilfully hammered -out, with cast spouts inserted. The -main example of early copper-work is the life-size -statue of King Pepy, and the smaller figure of his -son (<a href="#fig110">fig. 110</a>). The trunk and limbs are of hammered -copper, riveted together; the face, hands, -and feet are cast doubtless by <i>cire perdue</i>. The -ease and truth of the whole figure shows that there -must have been long practice in the artistic working -of copper; yet no traces of such figures are found -earlier, nor for over a thousand years later, and -we may thus realise how scattered are the points -we have, in the view of the art as a whole.</p> - -<p>The IXth dynasty has left a coarse example of -cast copper tooled with a graver, the brazier of -Khety, now in Paris. Of the XIIth dynasty there -is not much copper work, except for tools. The -moulds for casting tools were found at Kahun.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -They were open moulds, cut out of a thick piece of -pottery, and lined smooth with fine clay and ash.</p> - -<p>Down to this age copper was used with only small -amounts of hardening mixture; after this, bronze of -copper and tin came into general use. The earlier -copper of the Ist dynasty usually contains one per -cent. of bismuth, and later than that one or two per -cent. of arsenic, and is “underpoled,” in modern -terms, that is, a good deal of unreduced oxide of -copper is left in the metal. Both of these mixtures -harden it; and by strong hammering it is made still -harder. Copper so treated at present can be made -as hard as mild steel. Thus the metal was fit for the -wood-cutting tools, and for the chisels used for cutting -limestone. The harder stones were worked -with emery.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The earlier source of copper was Sinai, where there yet remain -thousands of tons of copper slag in the Wady Nasb. In the XVIIIth -dynasty and onwards, Cyprus—the Kupros island of copper—came -into regular connection with Egypt, and probably supplied most of -the metal.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig110"> - -<p class="caption">METAL STATUARY</p> - -<img src="images/fig110-112.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">110. Merenra (VIth dynasty)</p> - -<p class="caption">111, 112. Takushet (XXVth dynasty)</p> - -</div> - -<p>Bronze has been found in one case as far back as -the IIIrd dynasty, but this was only a chance alloy. -It began to be regularly used in the XVIIIth dynasty, -1600 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>; and the source of the tin for it is -a point of interest in early trade. Cornwall and the -Malay States are the only modern sources of -importance; but probably other surface sources have -been exhausted, as in the case of gold deposits. -Now bronze is found in Central Europe about as -early as in Egypt, and it is unlikely to have been -imported there from Egypt, or to have been traded -there as soon as it would be to a great state like -Egypt. The presumption would be that it originated -about Central Europe. As a district in Saxony -is known as Zinnwald, and crystallised oxide of tin -is still brought from there and from Bohemia, it is -very likely that there may have been stream tin deposits -capable of supplying Europe and Egypt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig113"> - -<p class="caption">METAL VASES</p> - -<img src="images/fig113-115.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">113. Bronze pouring vase</p> - -<p class="caption">114. Bronze fluted vase</p> - -<p class="caption">115. Silver anti-splash bowl</p> - -</div> - -<p>In the XVIIIth dynasty bronze vessels were -wrought very skilfully by hammer-work. The flask -(<a href="#fig113">fig. 113</a>) for washing the sandals of Amen, inscribed -with the owner’s name and titles, is 9 inches high -and has a body 4 inches across; it has been hammered -on anvils introduced through the neck, which -is only 1¼ inches wide. By the weight of it (7 ounces) -it cannot average more than ⅟₄₀th inch in thickness. -A general mode of stiffening the thin metal vases -was by fluting the surface (<a href="#fig113">fig. 114</a>), a method also -used in prehistoric Greece.</p> - -<p>The casting of bronze was generally done by -the <i>cire perdue</i> method. A core of blackened sand -is usually found in the casting. This was probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -sand mixed with a little organic matter; as it is -never reddened, probably no clay or mud was used. -Over the core the wax was modelled, and the traces -of the modelling tool can be seen clearly on unfinished -bronzes. On an ibis there was a rolled -pellet of wax put between the beak and the breast, -so as to induce the flow of the metal along the -beak; this would be easily cut away in finishing. -An example of a kneeling figure shows the legs -completely modelled before putting the pleated dress -over them, and then the whole was cast. How the -core was fixed within the outer mould is a difficult -question. On the many unfinished bronzes that I -have examined I have never found a definite connection -above the base, but only casual blowholes. Yet -the metal was often run as thin as ⅟₅₀th so that -a shift of the core by as little as ⅟₁₀₀th inch would -throw the casting out, and make a flaw. How -the core was retained so firmly in position against -the flotation of the melted metal is not clear. No -metal bars were put through the core to steady it, -as Cellini did in his large castings. A system was -used of stiffening bronze-work by casting it over -iron rods; by the free use of iron, this must be of -the Greek period. Solid bronze castings come into -use in Ptolemaic and Roman work.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p> - -<p>A favourite decoration of copper-work in later -times, from about 700 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>, was by inlaying lines -of gold or silver in it. This is a common system -in India now, where it is known as <i>Keft</i> work; the -name suggests that it was introduced from Egypt, -where Keft was the starting-point of the Indian -trade route from the Nile. One of the finest examples -of this is the statue in the Athens Museum -(figs. <a href="#fig110">111</a>, <a href="#fig110">112</a>); another is the hawk-head and collar -with the name of Aahmes II in the British Museum. -The lines were first chiselled or punched -in the copper, and then the gold was beaten into the -grooves.</p> - -<p>No instance of using soft solder to copper or -bronze is known till Roman times.</p> - -<p>Lead is found in the prehistoric times in the -form of small figures and little objects; it was probably -brought from Syria. It next appears as a -rather common metal in the XVIIIth dynasty, when -net-sinkers were generally made by bending a piece -of sheet lead round the edge lines of the net, much -as at the present day. In the filling of bronze weights -it is found both in the XVIIIth and XXVIth dynasties. -And an alloy of copper and lead—now -known as pot-metal—was commonly used for statuettes -in Greek and Roman times. In Coptic times<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -pewter bowls and ladles were made; the bowls are -apparently formed by spinning.</p> - -<p>Tin is first known in a piece of bronze rod from -Medum, of the IIIrd dynasty. But this was only -a freak, and bronze did not come into use till about -1600 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>, probably introduced from Hungary, as -we have noticed. At about 1400 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> there is a -finger-ring of pure tin, known by its crackling when -bent. The metal is, however, scarcely known separate -otherwise.</p> - -<p>Antimony occurs in the form of beads about 800 -<span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>; as it was familiar to the Assyrians also, it may -have been traded from them.</p> - -<p>Iron working is an important subject in the history -of culture, and the appearances of this metal -in Egypt are curiously sporadic. The notion, often -suggested, that it might rust away and disappear, -is absurd; nothing is more permanent and noticeable -than iron rust. The early examples are: (1) -a piece of sheet iron said to be found between the -stones of Khufu’s pyramid; (2) a lump of iron found -wrapped up with copper axes of the VIth dynasty -form, and placed at the corresponding level in the -foundations of the Abydos temples; this is absolutely -certain and not open to any doubt; (3) iron -ferules said to be found in the masonry of a pyramid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -at Dahshur; (4) an iron falchion said to be found -beneath the base of a statue of Ramessu II. The -certainty about the second example—which was -found by trained workmen, levelled at the time, -and is stuck together with tools of known date—prevents -our needing to hesitate about accepting -the less precise authentication of the other examples.</p> - -<p>Yet iron continued so scarce until about 800 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> -that we find then a thin iron knife with a handle -of bronze cast on it as being the cheaper metal. -The explanation of this intermittent use of iron lies -in an observation of Professor Ridgeway’s, that all -the sites of native iron in the world are where carboniferous -strata and ironstone have been heated -by eruptions of basalt, and thus produced iron by -natural reduction of the ore. Exactly this combination -is found in Sinai. Carboniferous sandstone has -beds of pure black haematite with it, and a thick -flow of basalt has extended over the country. Probably, -therefore, occasional pockets of native iron -were found there by the Egyptians at long intervals, -and thus the use of it was intermittent.</p> - -<p>The artificial production of iron seems to have -been known earliest in Assyria; it probably arose -among the Chalybes at the head of the Euphrates, -from whom the Greek name of the metal was derived.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -Large quantities of iron and steel tools have -been found in the Assyrian ruins, but were neglected -by excavators. A set of armourer’s tools was found -at Thebes with a copper helmet of Assyrian form, -and therefore probably left by the expedition under -Asshur-bani-pal in 666 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> These tools comprise -flat chisels, mortise chisels, saws, a punch, a rasp, a -file, a twist scoop, and two centre-bits. The forms -of most of these tools have already attained to the -modern types; but the file is only slight and irregular, -and the centre-bits are only fit for hard wood. -The edges of these tools are of steel, probably produced -by case-hardening the iron.</p> - -<p>We next find iron tools brought in by the Greeks -at Naukratis. Chisels, flat and mortise, with both -tang and socket handles, borers and axe-heads, -were all familiar to the Greek before the Egyptian -adopted them. One instance of an iron adze of -Egyptian type is known, but otherwise it is not -till Coptic times that we find a free use of iron for -knives, chisels, flesh-hooks, hoes, pruning hooks, -and other tools, probably due to Roman influence. -To go further in this subject would lead into the -general history of tools, which is beyond our scope -here.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br /> -<span class="smaller">GLAZED WARE</span></h2> - -<p>The use of glazing begins far back in the prehistoric -age, some thousands of years before any examples -of glass are known. Glaze is found on a quartz base -as early as on a pottery base; and it seems probable -that it was invented from finding quartz pebbles -fluxed by wood ashes in a hot fire. Hence glazing -on quartz was the starting-point, and glazing on -artificial wares was a later stage. Amulets of quartz -rock are found covered with a coat of blue-green -glaze; a model boat was made of quartz rock in -sections, glazed over, and united by gold bands; -and a large sphinx of quartz, about eighteen inches -long, has evidently been glazed. The fusion of -glaze on the stone partly dissolves the surface; and -even after the glaze has been lost its effect can be -seen by the surface having the appearance of water-worn -marble or sugar candy. This system of glazing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -on quartz was continued in historic times; clear -crystal beads flashed over with a rich blue glaze -are found in the XIIth dynasty; and large blocks -were glazed in the XVIIIth dynasty.</p> - -<p>The use of a pottery ware for covering with glaze -begins with beads of blue and green in the prehistoric -necklaces. The pottery base for glazing is -never a clay in Egypt, but always a porous body -of finely-ground silica, either sand or quartz rock. -This was slightly bound together, but the whole -strength of the object was in the soaking of glaze -on the outer surface.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig116"> - -<p class="caption">GLAZES</p> - -<img src="images/fig116-119.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">116. Two-colour glaze of Mena</p> - -<p class="caption">117. Lotus border (XXth dynasty)</p> - -<p class="caption">118. Head of Isis</p> - -<p class="caption">119. Royal fan-bearer</p> - -</div> - -<p>An astonishing development of glazed ware came -at the beginning of the monarchy. A piece of a -vase (<a href="#fig116">fig. 116</a>) with the name of Mena, the first -king of Egypt, is of green glazed pottery, and it is -surprising to find the royal name inlaid in a second -coloured glaze, which has probably been violet, -though now decomposed. Thus two-colour glazing -in designs was used as early as 5500 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> And at -this date glazing was not only a fine art, it was -used on a large scale for the lining of rooms. Tiles -have been found about a foot long, stoutly made, -with dovetails on the back, and holes through them -edgeways in order to tie them back to the wall with -copper wire. They are glazed all over with hard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> -blue-green glaze. The front is ribbed in imitation -of reedwork, and they probably were copied from -reed mats used to line the walls. Part of a tile has -large hieroglyphs inlaid in colour, showing that decorative -inscriptions were set up. Rather later, at -the beginning of the IIIrd dynasty, there is the -doorway of glazed tiles of King Zeser, with his -name and titles in various colours; this doorway, -now in Berlin, belonged to a room in the Step pyramid -entirely lined with glazed tile.</p> - -<p>Smaller objects were also made in glaze. A -tablet of the first dynasty bears a relief of the figure -and titles of an aboriginal chief, apparently made -to be left as a memorial of his visit to temples—a -sort of visiting card,—as it was found in the temple -of Abydos. Figures of women and animals were -found with it, and glazed toggles to be used in -place of buttons on garments. Very little glazing -has been preserved to us from the pyramid age; -there are small tablets with the name of King Pepy -(4100 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>) in relief, but roughly done.</p> - -<p>The general colour of the early glaze is greenish-blue -or blue-green, never distinctly of either colour. -Such appears from the prehistoric age to the pyramid -time. The glaze is full, and was not heated -long enough to soak into the body. It often has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -pit-holes in it, and does not seem to have been -very fluid. In the VIth dynasty a second colour -appears, a dark indigo blue; this is on a scarab of -Merenra, and on small toilet vases of the period. -Some earlier scarabs are probably of the age of -the IVth, and even of the IIIrd dynasty; these -have a clear brilliant blue glaze, thin and well -fused.</p> - -<p>In the XIIth dynasty the glaze is thin and hard. -On ring-stands and vases it is often dry and of a -greyish green. A rich clear blue glaze was also -used, and is best seen on scarabs and on the favourite -figures of hippopotami, which were only made -in this period. The designs and inscriptions in the -glaze were of a fine black, apparently coloured with -manganese.</p> - -<p>The XVIIIth dynasty was the great age of the -development of glazing. It began with so close a -continuance of the style of the XIIth dynasty that -it is hard to discriminate one from the other. Down -to the time of Tahutmes III the small pieces and -beads with blue colour are as those of the previous -age; but the large bowls are of a brighter blue and -rather a wetter glaze. At the beginning of the -dynasty there is also a dark green glaze used upon -schist, mostly seen on the elaborately carved kohl<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -pots. Under Amenhotep II was made the largest -piece of glazing that is known from Egypt, now in -South Kensington Museum. This was a great <i>uas</i> -sceptre made as an offering, the stem of which is -five feet long. This length was built up of separate -sections of body ware, made each about nine inches -long, so as to have sufficient firmness; after they -were each baked they were then united with a slip -paste of the same ware, and finally fired with a -single flow of glaze over the whole five-feet length. -The head was made separately. The special difficulty -of firing such large pieces is to maintain a -uniform heat over the whole, and to avoid any -reducing flame from the fuel, which would discolour -the glaze, and produce lustre ware. The heating -must also be brief, so as to avoid the glaze running -down, or soaking into the porous body and leaving -it dry.</p> - -<p>Under Amenhotep III and IV the art of glazing -reached its most brilliant development, both in -its colours and in the variety of its applications. -Beside the previously used shades of blue and -green we meet with purple-blue, violet, a brilliant -apple-green, bright chrome-yellow, lemon-yellow, -crimson-red, brown-red, and milk-white. Besides -the previous uses of glaze for bowls and vases, beads<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -and scarabs, we now meet with a great variety of -pendants and ornaments for necklaces, more than -two hundred and fifty forms of which are known -from the objects and the moulds; also flat emblems -and name plaques, with stitch holes or loops at the -edge, for stitching on to the muslin dresses then -worn. The private person thus wore the king’s -name on his arm, and the king wore the titles of -the sun-god to whom he was devoted. The effect of -the white muslin dresses with dazzling blue plaques -and natural coloured daisies and other flowers scattered -over them, must have been very striking. -Another use of glaze was for architectural inlaying -(<a href="#fig116">fig. 117</a>). The capitals of great columns were inlaid -all over with stripes of red and blue along the -palm leaf design, separated into small squares by -gilt bands between. The whole capital was thus -copied on a vast scale from cloison jewellery. Another -use of glaze was for inlaying coloured hieroglyphs -in the white limestone walls. This system -was carried on in a simpler way into the next -dynasty, where a great quantity of cartouches of -Sety II are known; and in the walls of the temple -of Luqsor are rows of holes of corresponding size, -from which they have probably been taken. A -favourite form of glazed ware in the XVIIIth and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -XIXth dynasties is that of the graceful lotus flower -cup.</p> - -<p>In the XIXth dynasty there is much less variety -of glazing; but we meet with the rise of a new industry -which was to eclipse all the others in its output. -Sety I had many glazed figures of <i>ushabtis</i> of -blue colour inscribed in black, or of glazed steatite, -in his tomb. Under Ramessu II they became usual -for private persons, and for a thousand years later -they were made in enormous numbers, usually four -hundred being buried in any wealthy tomb. The -Ramesside <i>ushabtis</i> are usually green with black inscriptions, -rarely white with purple. In the XXIst -dynasty they are of very intense blue with purple-black -inscriptions, and very roughly made, deteriorating -throughout the dynasty. In the XXIInd and -XXIIIrd dynasties they are small, and usually -green and black. In the XXVth they are mere red -pottery dipped in blue wash, or little slips of mud -were substituted. The XXVIth dynasty started -a different class of very large figures, up to ten -inches high, beautifully modelled, with incised inscriptions, -back pillar, and beard, always of green -glaze; and these deteriorated to Ptolemaic times, -excepting that there are some splendid blue ones -of Nectanebo, and smaller ones of bright colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -with ink inscriptions of private persons of his -time.</p> - -<p>About the XXVIth dynasty, glazed figures of the -gods were made for popular use, and by about 300 -<span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> they appear in vast numbers, very roughly -moulded. Some of the earlier pieces are very beautifully -modelled, and glazed so exactly that the hollows -are not at all filled up. A head of Isis (<a href="#fig116">fig. 118</a>), -and a half-length figure of a fan-bearer (<a href="#fig116">fig. 119</a>) -are perhaps the finest pieces of such work. The -latter figure is remarkable for the vigour of the -muscles and the overbearing official dignity of the -expression.</p> - -<p>Great numbers of amulets were also made to be -buried with the mummies or worn by the living. -The earlier examples are fairly modelled, of apple-green -tint; in Persian times they are sharp and dry -in form and of an olive-grey colour, but they became -very roughly and coarsely moulded in Ptolemaic -times. There are some interesting modelled -heads of this age, covered with blue or green glaze, -such as a Ptolemaic queen, and a woman wearing a -face veil. Vases of Greek and Roman styles were -also common. A delicate thin ware with Assyrianesque -figures, in white on a slightly sunk blue -ground, was made in the Persian time and continued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -into the Ptolemaic age. Large blocks for legs of -furniture, and stands, were also made now. The -characteristic colours are of a dark Prussian blue -bordering on violet, and an apple-green.</p> - -<p>In the Roman age there is an entirely new style. -The body of the vase is of a purple-black colour, -with a wreath of bright green leaves around it. -Such continued almost to Coptic times. The bulk -of the Roman glaze is of coarse forms, and bright -Prussian blue in tint. The vases have animals in -relief, apparently under Persian influence. The flat -trays with straight sides are copies of the silver -dishes of the time. The old style of glazing continued -down to Arab times; a steatite amulet, in -the cutting, and colour of the glaze, might well have -been of the Shishak age, but for the Arabic inscription -upon it. And at the present day some creditable -imitations of ancient glazing are made for -fraudulent trade at Thebes.</p> - -<p>Turning to the more technical matters, the body -of the ware is always a porous, friable, siliceous -paste; in some cases so soft that it can be rubbed -away from the broken surfaces by the finger. The -unglazed beads and figures occasionally found can -hardly be handled without breaking. This paste -was moulded roughly into form, and when dry it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -was graved with a point to give the detail. If it -broke in the fingers a good figure would be stuck -together again with a scrap of the paste before glazing. -Large objects were made in sections, dried and -baked, and then joined up with some of the same -paste, and re-baked before covering with glaze. In -the XXVIth dynasty there is a beautiful hard stoneware, -apparently made by mixing some glaze with -the body, enough to fuse it together into a solid mass -throughout. The surface of these works is always -very fine and smooth, without any face glaze, but -only the compact polished body. The usual colour -is apple-green, but violet is sometimes found in the -early examples of the XVIIIth dynasty.</p> - -<p>The colours were rarely anything beyond shades -of green and blue. These were produced by compounds -of copper; the blue is especially free from -iron, which even in traces produces a green tint. -The blue if exposed to damp fades white; the -green changes to brown, owing to the decomposition -of green silicate of iron and the production of -brown oxide of iron. This decomposition may go -on beneath an unbroken polished face of glaze, -changing the glaze to brown. The shades of blue -and green were all experimentally produced in modern -times by Dr Russell, F.R.S., who succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -in exactly copying the purple blue, full blue, light -blue and French blue, and the green-blues and full -greens in more than a hundred tints. The method -was indicated by the half-baked pans of colour -found at Tell-el-Amarna. Quartz rock pebbles had -been collected, and served for the floor of the glazing -furnaces. After many heatings which cracked -them they were pounded into fine chips. These -were mixed with lime and potash and some carbonate -of copper. The mixture was roasted in pans, -and the exact shade depended on the degree of -roasting. The mass was half fused and became -pasty; it was then kneaded and toasted gradually, -sampling the colour until the exact tint was reached. -A porous mass of frit of uniform colour results. -This was then ground up in water, and made -into a blue or green paint, which was either used -with a flux to glaze objects in a furnace, or was -used with gum or white of egg as a wet paint for -frescoes.</p> - -<p>The ovens were small, about two or three feet -across; cylindrical pots were set upside down and -a fire lighted between them, and the pans of colour -rested on the bottom edges of the pots. In Roman -times the glazing furnaces were about eight feet -square and deep, with an open arch to windward<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -half way up. The vases and dishes were stacked -in the furnace upon cylinder pots, and the successive -dishes in the piles were kept apart by cones -of pottery nearly an inch high. The failure of a -furnace-load has revealed the system; by too long -heating the glaze soaked through the porous body, -and it all settled down and partly fell to pieces.</p> - -<p>The other colours used were: for the red a body -mixed with haematite and covered with a transparent -glaze; bright yellow, the composition of -which is unknown; violet in various depths, from -a faint tinge on the white lotus petals to a deep -strong colour, probably made by copper blue and -one of the purples; purple in various strengths from -a rich bright tint upon white to a black purple for -designs upon blue, all produced by manganese; -occasionally purple-blue made with cobalt; dead -white, which was doubtless produced by tin as at -present.</p> - -<p>Before leaving the subject of glazing we may -notice the system of moulding pendants and figures -in red pottery moulds, of all sizes from a quarter -of an inch to three or four inches across. A great -variety of these is found at Tell-el-Amarna of the -XVIIIth dynasty, and at Memphis of later periods. -They sometimes contain the remains of the siliceous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -paste with which they were choked when they were -thrown away. At Naukratis hundreds were found -for making scarabs for the Greek trade. The moulded -objects were covered with glazing wash, and -put into the furnace. Beads were commonly made -on a thread, dried, and the thread burnt out; they -were then dipped in glaze-wash, and fired. In early -times small beads were rolled between the thumb -and finger on the thread, producing a long tapering -form like a grain of corn.</p> - -<h3>GLASS</h3> - -<p>There has been much misunderstanding about -the age of glass in Egypt. Figures of smiths blowing -a fire with reeds tipped with clay have been -quoted as figures blowing glass, though no blown -glass is known in Egypt before Roman times. A -cylinder of glass of King Pepy has been quoted; -but this is really of clear iceland-spar or selenite -lined with coloured paste. A panther’s head with -the name of Antef V has been called glass, but it -is really of blue paste. Various pieces of inlaid -stone jewellery have been mistaken for glass, but -none such is known till late times.</p> - -<p>There does not seem to have been any working -of glassy material by itself, apart from a base of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -stone or pottery, until after 1600 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> The earliest -dated pieces are an eye of blue glass imitating turquoise, -with the name of Amenhotep I (1550 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>), -and a piece of a glass vase with an inlaid name of -Tahutmes III. Beads of this age are plain black -with a white spot on opposite sides; black and white -glass cups probably belong to the same date. The -variety of colours quickly increased, and by the time -of Amenhotep III and IV, about 1400 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>, there -were violet, deep Prussian blue, light blue, green, -yellow, orange, red (rare), clear white, milky white, -and black.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig120"> - -<p class="caption">GLASS</p> - -<img src="images/fig120-122.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">120, 121. Vases (XVIIIth dynasty)</p> - -<p class="caption">122. Mosaic (late)</p> - -</div> - -<p>The designs were entirely ruled by the method -of manufacture. The glass was never cast, but was -worked as a pasty mass, and all the decoration was -made by inlaying threads of glass drawn out to -various thicknesses. The actual production of the -glass we deal with below. The patterns on a vase -or bead were produced by winding threads around -the body, and then dragging the surface at regular -intervals (figs. <a href="#fig120">120</a>, <a href="#fig120">121</a>). If dragged always in one -direction, it made a series of loops or U pattern; if -dragged alternately each way it made an ogee pattern. -Around the neck and foot a thick thread was -often put on, with a thin thread spirally round it, -usually white with black spiral. The forms of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -vases are those usual in other materials at this period, -such as <a href="images/i_121a.jpg"><img class="inline" src="images/i_121a.jpg" alt="three different shapes of vase (drawing)" /></a>. This same method was followed -in the glass found at Cumae near -Naples, dating from about 700 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> It is distinguished -from the Egyptian fabric by a duller surface -and duller colouring, and a common form unknown -before is <a href="images/i_121b.jpg"><img class="inline" src="images/i_121b.jpg" alt="this shape of vase (drawing)" /></a>. This later glass is usually -mixed with the earlier in museums, and occasionally -it is difficult to distinguish it; but both the -forms and the colour leave very little doubt as to -the age.</p> - -<p>This system of winding threads of glass was -usual for beads also. A mere chip of a glass bead -can be distinguished, whether Egyptian or Roman, -by the direction of the streaks and bubbles in it. -The early glass is all wound, with lines running -around; the Roman glass is all drawn out and -nicked off, with lines running along; the medieval -and modern Venetian beads are again wound, and -some of the recent ones closely imitate Egyptian -dragged patterns, but can be distinguished by the -opacity of most of the colours.</p> - -<p>The XVIIIth dynasty workers also cut and engraved -glass, though but rarely. They sometimes -produced a clear glass entirely free of colouring, even -in a thickness of half an inch. About the XXIIIrd<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -dynasty (750 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>) a clear, greenish Prussian blue -glass was usual for beads, and continued to Persian -times for scarabs (500 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>). Rather later, about -400-200 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>, there appears a large development of -opaque glass figures of hieroglyphs, cut and polished, -to inlay in wooden caskets and coffins. Opaque -red and blue to imitate jasper and lazuli were the -most usual colours. Figures of the four genii of the -dead and other usual amulets were commonly made -by pressing the glass into moulds while heated. A -favourite colouring for such was a deep, clear, true -blue, backed with opaque white to show up the colour.</p> - -<p>About the later Ptolemaic time and through the -Roman age the main work in glass is that of minute -mosaics (<a href="#fig120">fig. 122</a>). They were built up with -glass rods, heated until they half fused together, -and then drawn out so as to produce a great length -of much reduced section. Thus patterns of extreme -delicacy were produced; and one single piece of -construction could be cut across into a hundred -slices, each repeating the whole design. The patterns -are sometimes purely Egyptian, as <i>ankh</i> and -<i>uas</i> alternately, but more usually Roman, such as -heads and flower patterns. Such mosaics were -mounted in jewellery, or, on a coarser scale, set in -large designs for caskets and temple furniture.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> - -<p>The characteristic of Roman times is the use of -blown glass. The cups, bottles, and vases were -nearly all blown, often with threads woven around, -dabs attached and impressed, or patterns stamped -while soft. The feet of cups were modelled into -form while pasty, the tool marks showing plainly -upon them. Ornamental stamps were pressed on -soft lumps put on the sides of vases. Such stamps -became used for official marks, and in early Arab -times they registered the substance for which the -glass measure was intended, also the amount of -the capacity, and the maker’s name in many cases. -Another main development of Byzantine and Arab -glass was for weights, usually to test gold and silver -coins, but also for larger amounts up to a pound. -These weights bear the stamps of the Byzantine -epochs in a few cases, but are found by the hundred -of the VIIIth to Xth centuries, and by the thousand -of the Xth to XIth centuries, dying out at the early -crusading age.</p> - -<p>We now turn to the purely technical side, to describe -the process of manufacture in the time of -Amenhotep IV, about 1370 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>, when it is best -known to us, from the remains of the factory at Tell-el-Amarna. -A clear glass could be produced, which -was usually not quite colourless, but sufficiently so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -to take up various colours. It was free of lead and -borates, and consisted of pure silica from crushed -quartz pebbles, and alkali doubtless from wood -ashes. It was fused in pans of earthenware. This -glass was coloured by dissolving the blue or green -frit in it, or mixing other opaque colours. Samples -were taken out by pincers to test the colour at different -stages. The whole mass was fairly fused, and -then left to get cold in the earthen pan, which was -about four or five inches across, and held half an inch -to an inch deep of the glass. When cold the pan -was chipped away, the frothy top of the glass was -chipped off, and lumps of pure glass were obtained -free from sediment and scum. A lump of glass thus -purified was heated to a pasty state, and patted into -a cylindrical form, then rolled under a bar of metal, -which was run diagonally across it, until it was reduced -to a rod about the size of a lead pencil, or -rather less. Such a rod was then heated, and drawn -out into “cane” about ⅛ inch thick. Every vase -was built up from such cane.</p> - -<p>For making a vase a copper mandril was taken, -slightly tapering, of the size of the interior of the -neck. Upon the end of this was built a body of -soft siliceous paste, tied up in rag, and baked upon -it, of the size of the interior of the intended vase.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -The marks of the string and cloth can still be seen -inside the vases. On this body of powdery material -glass cane was wound hot until it was uniformly -coated. It was re-heated by sticking the end of -the mandril into the oven as often as needful; glass -threads of various colours were wound round it; -and the whole was rolled to and fro so as to bed in -the threads and make a smooth surface. A brim, a -foot, and handles were attached. Finally, on cooling, -the copper mandril contracted, and could be taken -out of the neck, the soft paste could be rubbed out -of the interior, and the vase was finished. The -final face is always a fused surface, and was never -ground or polished.</p> - -<p>A similar mode was followed for the glass beads. -The thread of glass was wound upon a hot copper -wire of the size of the hole required; and after piling -on enough, and completing the pattern of colour -the wire contracted in cooling and could be withdrawn. -The little point where the thread of glass -broke off can be seen at each end of the beads.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE POTTERY</span></h2> - -<p>The varieties of pottery are so extensive that from -the prehistoric age alone a thousand are figured, and -the later ages give at least thrice that number. We -cannot attempt to give even an outline of a subject -which alone would far outrun this volume. A single -most typical form of each main period is here shown, -to illustrate the entirely different ideas which prevailed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig"> - -<img src="images/i_127.jpg" width="400" height="370" alt="Typical forms of each period (drawing): Pre. I V XII XVIII XIX XXVI Ro." /> - -</div> - -<p><i>Forms.</i>—In the prehistoric age many of the forms -have no marked brim. The bowls, conical cups, and -jars simply end at a plain edge, like this marked Pre. -Brims were more usual in the later prehistoric age. -A great variety of fancy forms appeared—double -vases, square bottles, fish, birds, or women were -modelled; and as the whole pottery was handmade, -such were no more difficult to make than circular -forms. On coming to the Ist dynasty the forms were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -more clumsy, such as that marked I; and some of -the earlier forms were continued in a very degraded -state. The main feature is the class of very large -jars, two to three feet high, which were used for storing -food and drink. This class rapidly deteriorated -and became almost extinct by the IIIrd dynasty. -In the pyramid age some neatly-made pottery is -found; thin sharp-brimmed bowls were usual, and -the form marked V, with a sharply pointed base, -was peculiar to this time. By the XIIth dynasty the -globular or drop-shaped pot was the prevalent type, -and varies in size from a couple of inches to a couple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> -of feet. Drinking-cups of a hemispherical form, -very thin, without any brim, are also of this age. -The XVIIIth dynasty was begun with long graceful -forms, such as XVIII; and later some beautiful -long-necked vases are found. All of these forms -rapidly degraded in the XIXth dynasty, and ugly -small handles come into use, probably influenced by -Greek design. In the XXVIth dynasty, lids with -knob handles became common, and accordingly the -brim disappeared, and a plain edge was used which -could be easily capped. The large jars of this age -are of Greek origin. During the Ptolemaic time -debasement went on; and the most ugly, smug, -commonplace forms belong to the Roman age. -They are mostly ribbed, as in this marked Ro. The -big amphorae begin with ribbing in the latter part -of the second century, in broad fluting curves. These -became narrower and sharper, until in the sixth and -seventh centuries the ribbing had become almost -a mere combed pattern around the jar. The jars -also decreased in size, were thicker, softer, and -coarser, until the type vanished with the Arab -times.</p> - -<p><i>Decoration.</i>—The earliest painting on prehistoric -vases was of white slip, in line patterns, copied from -basket-work, and rarely in figures, such as <a href="#fig65">fig. 65</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -This white paint was put over a bright red facing -of haematite; and such red and white pottery is still -made with closely similar patterns by the mountain -tribes of Algeria, where the style seems never to -have died out. The black tops of the early red vases -we shall deal with under Materials. The later prehistoric -painting was in dull red on a buff body, such -as <a href="#fig65">fig. 66</a>. In the pyramid age there was only a -polished red haematite facing, and in the XIIth -dynasty even this was not used. About the XVIIth -dynasty a fine red polish was common, which ceased -early in the XVIIIth dynasty; white on the brims, -or dabbed in finger-spots over the inside of saucers, -was also of the XVIIth dynasty. Black or red edges -to pottery next appeared, and by Tahutmes III -there was a style of narrow black and red stripes alternating. -The use of blue paint, of copper frit, -began under Amenhotep II, but it was not usual -until Amenhotep III, and it was common until the -close of the XIXth dynasty, though much flatter -and poorer than at first. After this there was no -decoration on pottery until the late Roman time. -About the age of Constantine a hard, fine pottery -came into use, with a thin red wash on it, and often -of a pale salmon colour throughout. When the -southern tribes pushed down into Egypt, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -brown and red patterns which were usual in Nubia -were carried with the invaders, and such painting -was the main influence in the painted Coptic -pottery.</p> - -<p><i>Materials.</i>—The prehistoric pottery of the earlier -period is all of a soft body, faced with red haematite. -As the pots were usually baked mouth downward, -the brim was covered with the ashes; and these not -being burnt through, reduced the red peroxide of -iron to the black magnetic sesqui-oxide, such as is -familiar to us in the black scale on sheet steel. The -interior of the pots is likewise black, owing to the reducing -gases from the ashes below; rarely the heat -after the combustion has lasted long enough for the -oxygen to pass through the pottery, and so redden -the inside. Open dishes were also haematite-faced -inside, and the iron is reduced to a brilliant mirror-like -coat of black all over. The reason of the polish -being smoother on the black than on the red parts -is that carbonyl gas—which is the result of imperfect -combustion—is a solvent of magnetic oxide of -iron, and so dissolves and re-composes the surface -facing. On once understanding the chemistry of -this, it is needless to discuss the old idea that smoke -blackened this pottery. Smoke—or fine carbon dust—could -not possibly penetrate through close-grained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -pottery, and the black extends all through the mass, -naturally owing to the action of reducing gases to -which the pottery is quite pervious. There may -perhaps be some other kinds of black pottery influenced -by smoke; but it is far more probable that -all black pottery is due to black oxide of iron produced -by imperfect combustion, which is accompanied -by smoke.</p> - -<p>In the later prehistoric age the pottery has a hard -reddish buff body with white specks. In the pyramid -period a smooth soft brown body is usual. Hard -drab pottery also appears in the Vth and VIth dynasties. -In the XIIth dynasty the common soft -brown body is general, and extends to the XVIIIth. -By the middle of the XVIIIth dynasty a hard drab -ware with white specks and faced with a drab polish -is very characteristic, and continues into the XIXth. -Thence onward the brown body reasserts itself, with -some inferior greenish drab ware about the XXIInd -dynasty. Greek clays appear during the XXVIth, -but probably all imported from Greece. Soft red -pottery belongs to the Ptolemaic age. But the old -soft brown rules in the Roman time, being at its -worst in the early Coptic. The thin hard ware of -the Constantine age is apparently not native, and -may be due either to Nubian or Roman influence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> - -<p><i>Modelling.</i>—A constant use of pottery for modelling -should be mentioned, although we cannot illustrate -such a large subject here, as it is only subsidiary -to stone-work in each age. In the prehistoric time -rude figures are often found, both of men and women. -Little is known of pottery modelling in the Old and -Middle Kingdoms. Rough figures of cows are -placed upon the brims of bowls about the XIth and -XIIth dynasties. In the XVIIIth-XXVth dynasties -a large use of roughly modelled <i>ushabti</i> figures -of servants prevailed. But it is rarely that the other -modelling is apart from foreign influence. A class -of exquisitely formed figure-bottles, of women and -animals, was made of fine foreign clay, probably by -Greeks, at this age. Also rude solid figures of -men and horses extend from this time onwards. The -great age of pottery figures begins with the modelled -heads of foreigners from the foreign quarter of -Memphis, certainly due to Greek admixture. These -are admirably done, and each hand-modelled singly. -They begin about 500 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span>, and by about 300 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> -moulded figures come into use. At first these are -solid, but from about 200 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> down to 300 <span class="smcapuc">A.D.</span> they -are moulded hollow, being made of a front and back -half united. The enormous number of these figures, -and of figure-lamps made similarly, is very familiar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -from the Roman period. It is remarkable what -good work is shown in some figures even as late as -250 <span class="smcapuc">A.D.</span> The late dating of the figures and the -varieties of the lamps are illustrated in <i>Roman -Ehnasya</i> from my own excavations.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br /> -<span class="smaller">IVORY-WORKING</span></h2> - -<p>In prehistoric times ivory was much used, doubtless -owing to the elephant being still abundant in -southern Egypt. The natural form of the tusk was -often left, and the surface worked in low relief; -but the earlier work was on small pieces, as in figs. -<a href="#fig3">3</a>, <a href="#fig15">15</a>, <a href="#fig15">17</a>. Not only elephant ivory was used, but -also that of the hippopotamus. At the beginning -of the Ist dynasty ivory was largely used for statuettes -and carvings. One of the best examples of -this school is the figure of the aged king (<a href="#fig19">fig. 21</a>). -Many other carvings of girls, boys, apes, lions and -dogs were found with this at Abydos. At Hierakonpolis -a great mass of ivories was found in a -trench six feet long, and many of them have been -preserved. They are figures of men and women, -carved tusks, wands, and cylinders. In the tomb of -Mena’s queen at Naqadeh were ivory lions and -dogs, and such were also found in the tomb of King<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -Zer at Abydos, used for gaming pieces. All of -this early ivory-work is vigorous, and has the character -and spirit of the early art.</p> - -<p>The finest work known in ivory is the portrait of -Khufu, the builder of the great pyramid (<a href="#fig123">fig. 123</a>). -It is here much magnified, as the face is only a -quarter of an inch high. Yet in this minute space -one of the most striking portraits has been given. -The far-seeing determination, the energy and will -expressed in this compass, would animate a life-size -figure; indeed, it would be hard in the illustration -to distinguish it from a work on a large scale. -The correct position of the ear should be noted, as -it is always put too high up in later sculpture. -Quite apart from the marvellous minuteness of the -work, we must estimate this as one of the finest -character-sculptures that remain to us.</p> - -<p>A piece of open work, of a girl standing, is probably -of the Old Kingdom (<a href="#fig123">fig. 124</a>). It is not of -the style of hair or treatment of the Middle or New -Kingdom; and in the Saitic age, when the older -style was copied, the work is worse in pose and -much more detailed and punctilious. There are -some beautiful pieces of architectural models in -ivory, from the inlaying of a casket, and, also, a -figure of the Vth dynasty.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p> - -<p>Of the Middle Kingdom an ivory baboon is perhaps -the finest work; it has disappeared from the -museum when at Bulak, and its place is unknown. -A broken figure of a boy carrying a calf shows -great truth and spirit. Ivory was also used for -lion-head draughtsmen in the XVIIIth dynasty, -but there are no fine works of that time.</p> - -<p>Of the XXVIth dynasty two fine pieces have -been found at Memphis, a lotus flower (<a href="#fig123">fig. 125</a>) and -a man bearing offerings (<a href="#fig123">fig. 126</a>). These had been -applied to the sides of caskets or other small woodwork. -The figure of the man is but a stiff and -coarse copy of the Old Kingdom work, lacking the -truth and freedom of the early time.</p> - -<p>There does not seem to have been any distinctive -school of ivory-work in Egypt. The methods -and nature of the objects are just what might have -been done in stone or in wood at the same period. -There is no sign of a special development due -to the material, as there is in the Chinese ivory-carving.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig123"> - -<p class="caption">IVORY</p> - -<img src="images/fig123-126.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">123. King Khufu</p> - -<p class="caption">124. Girl, Old Kingdom</p> - -<p class="caption">125. Lotus (XXVIth dynasty)</p> - -<p class="caption">126. Bearer of offerings</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">WOODWORK</span></h2> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig127"> - -<p class="caption">FURNITURE</p> - -<img src="images/fig127-131.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">127, 128, 129, 130, 131. Chair, caskets, and bed of Amenhotep III</p> - -</div> - -<p>Wood was by no means so rare in early times as -it is now in Egypt. Floyer has shown how much -the desert has been stripped by the introduction of -the tree-feeding camel. We see in the royal tombs -of the Ist dynasty a large use of wood. The -funeral chamber sunk in the ground was entirely -built of massive beams and planks. The area of -this room was 900 square feet in the largest tomb, -varying down to 300 in the lesser. The framing -of the floor, the supports, and the roof beams were -about 10 × 7 inches in section and up to 21 feet in -length. The planking of the floor still remains -2 to 2½ inches thick; and probably that of the roof -was equal to it, as it had to bear about three feet -of sand over it. The great scale of this timber work -agrees with the “royal axe-man” being one of the -high officials; before stone came into use, this title<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -was the equivalent of chief architect. Such a free -use of wood shows that the elaborate framing of -façades, which is represented as a usual pattern in -early stone-work, was actually copied from wooden -mansions, just as the Greek architecture was an -elaborate copy of woodwork. At the close of the -IIIrd dynasty we have a glimpse of the large use -of wood for shipbuilding, when Senoferu built in -one year sixty ships, and imported forty ships of -cedar. The great gates of the temple enclosures -and palaces must also have been massive works; -the outer and inner pylon at Karnak had gates -fifteen feet wide on either side, and over sixty feet -high.</p> - -<p>The wooden coffins of the Old Kingdom are -heavy boxes with sides two to three inches thick. -They are fastened together by bolts of wood; and -such wooden pegs are run diagonally in different -directions so as to prevent the parts being separated. -Coffins hollowed out of a single block, to fit the outline -of the mummy, were also used in all the earlier -periods. In late times such forms were built up of -boards.</p> - -<p>For securing the joints of furniture from racking, -two correct systems were used. For chairs, angle-pieces -were cut from wood with bent grain, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -fitted on inside the angles. There must have been -a constant demand for such bent pieces, and probably -they were grown into shape. In other cases -forms of wood have been found which had clearly -been grown for many years into the shape required. -The angle-pieces can be seen under the front of -the seat in <a href="#fig127">fig. 128</a>. Another system for stands -was to put in diagonal bars, as in <a href="#fig127">fig. 130</a>. Sometimes -merely the stiffness of deep panelling was -trusted, as in <a href="#fig127">fig. 129</a>. For the backs of chairs an -excellent triangular stay was made, as in <a href="#fig127">fig. 127</a>.</p> - -<p>The light and skilful forms of the woodwork are -well shown in the furniture (<a href="#fig127">figs. 127-131</a>) from the -tomb of Yuaa and Thuiu, the parents of Queen -Thyi, in the XVIIIth dynasty. The reliefs on the -chair are carved in wood and gilded. The decoration -on the casket (<a href="#fig127">fig. 129</a>) is of blue glazed hieroglyphs -and inlays.</p> - -<p>Wood was also much used for statuettes. The -ebony negress and other figures (<a href="#fig40">figs. 40-42</a>) show it -on a small scale; larger figures were also made, such -as several in the Turin Museum, and some of life-size, -but the latter are coarser in work, as the figure -of Sety I in the British Museum. A fine figure -almost life-size remains from the XIIIth dynasty, -King Hor, in the Cairo Museum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p> - -<p>A system of inlaying coloured stones, glazes or -glass, in wood as a basis, is found as early as the -Vth dynasty, in the model vases of Nofer-ar-ka-ra. -In the XVIIIth dynasty this method of decoration -is seen on the gigantic mummy-cases of the -Queens Aah-hotep and Aahmes, which were inlaid, -probably with lazuli. The inlay was so valuable -that soon after it was all prised out with the corner -of an adze, and blue paint substituted for it. In the -XXIIIrd dynasty decorative figures were wrought -in wood, with the whole detail in inlay, as in the -group of Pedubast. And in the Greek period large -wooden coffins were encrusted with inlay of coloured -glass, and the sides of wooden shrines were similarly -the basis for brilliant polychrome adornment.</p> - -<p>Regarding the methods of woodworking, certainly -the axe was the primitive tool, as shown by -the royal architect being designated by the axe. In -the scenes of the pyramid age we find the saw about -three feet long worked with both hands, the mallet -and chisel for cutting mortise-holes, and the adze -in constant use for shaping and for smoothing wood. -To this day the small adze is a favourite tool of the -Egyptian carpenter and boat-builder. For smoothing -down the caulking inside a boat, heavy pounders -of stone were used, held by a handle worked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -out on each side of the block. Drills were also -commonly used both on wood and stone, worked -by a bow. The subject of tools and their variations -is a very wide one, which cannot be entered -upon here.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br /> -<span class="smaller">PLASTER AND STUCCO</span></h2> - -<p>In the masonry of the pyramids, plaster is constantly -used, both to fill joints as a bedding, and to -level up hollows in a face. The plaster used is a -mixture of ordinary lime and plaster of Paris, the -carbonate and sulphate of lime. How it was introduced -into the joints of the pyramid casing is a mystery. -The blocks at the base weigh sixteen tons, so -that no free sliding to reduce the joint-filling could -be done; yet the vertical joint, five feet high and -seven feet long, is filled with a film of plaster only -a fiftieth of an inch thick. The joints of the masonry -in the passages and chambers are all filled -with plaster, though so close as to be almost imperceptible. -In the core masonry a coarse plaster -was poured between the stones and filled into hollows. -The flaws and defects in the faces of stones -were freely filled with plaster, which was coloured -to match the stone. In rock tombs plaster was used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -to fill up cracks and hollows; and it often remains -in perfect condition while the rock around has -decayed.</p> - -<p>Plaster was also used on the brick walls, which -were faced with a hard coat about a tenth to a sixteenth -of an inch thick, upon which paintings were -executed. By the XVIIIth dynasty this became -a mere whitewash over the mud-facing of the wall. -In the roughly-hewn rock tombs of that age at -Thebes, the jagged surfaces were smoothed by a -coat of plaster, often two or three inches thick in -the hollows. A strange use of stucco was for a -thin coat over sculpture, as a basis for colouring. -Such a coat was even laid over statuary. In all -ages this hid to some extent the full detail of the -sculptor’s work in reliefs. In the XIIth dynasty the -finest lines were hidden by it; and on coming down -to the Ptolemaic times the plasterer ignored all the -sculpture below, filling the figures with a smooth -daub of plaster on which the painter drew what he -liked. It seems strange why the sculptors should -have continued to put fine work and detail on to a -surface where they were going to be at once ignored. -It suggests a rigid bureaucracy in which the sculpture -had to be passed by one man, and the painting -by another, without any collaboration.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p> - -<p>Stucco was used for independent modelling, as -in Italy. It was laid on a flat canvas base, stretched -over wood, and the whole relief was in the stucco. -The chariot of Tahutmes IV is one of the main -examples of such work, of which a small portion -is shown in <a href="#fig132">fig. 132</a>. The relief is low and smooth, -and full of detail; there is none of the sketchy -rough tooling, as seen in Roman stucco reliefs. -Minute details of dress and hair are all tooled in, -and supply some of the best studies of Syrian robes. -The varying patterns on the shields of different -branches of Syrians, the feathering of the arrows, -the shape of the daggers, and the flowers of the -papyrus and lotus of north and south, are all most -precisely rendered. It would be hard to find any -point in which more details could be introduced.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig132"> - -<p class="caption">PLASTER</p> - -<img src="images/fig132-134.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">132. Stucco relief modelling (XVIIIth dynasty)</p> - -<p class="caption">133, 134. Plaster castings for studies</p> - -</div> - -<p>Plaster was also used for casting in moulds, and -for making moulds. The death mask of Akhenaten -shows how such castings were produced in the -XVIIIth dynasty, from a single mould without any -undercutting, to serve the purpose of the sculptor -as a model. Of later examples of such castings we -have here a lion’s head and a king’s head (figs. <a href="#fig132">133</a>, -<a href="#fig132">134</a>). They were probably made to be supplied as -school copies to the workshops where the sculptors -were trained. Plaster moulds are very common at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -Memphis, and it is said they were even used for -casting bronze work. This is very doubtful, as -plaster is reduced to powder at 260° C., while moulds -for bronze casting must be heated to 1500° to 1800° -C.; they are more probably for casting pewter. -Plaster moulds were also used for moulding pottery -lamps. The oiling of plaster was done on painted -plaster statuettes, so as to make them waterproof. -They can still be scrubbed in water without disturbing -the colour.</p> - -<p>The most artistic use of plaster was for the modelled -heads, which were placed on mummy cases -in Roman times. Though most such works were -rather crude, some are found which show real ability -of portraiture. In <a href="#fig135">fig. 135</a> we have a sympathetic -study of the face of a young man. The lips are -beautifully true, the modelling of the cheek is quite -natural, the nose and brow well formed; only the -eyes have been left blank, and marked afterwards -with colour. The head, <a href="#fig135">fig. 136</a>, is evidently a careful -study, giving the cautious, cold expression of -the man. Another face (<a href="#fig135">fig. 137</a>) is subtle, and full -of feeling: the faint smile on the lips, the gracious -contour of the cheek, the wavy hair, give a memory -in death of a real personality. The only jarring -feature is the square brow, copied from an unfortunate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -convention in Greek art. The eyes are here -again left blank; but they seem to have been intended -to be open, by the slight ridge of the raised -lid. Was there a convention of regarding the dead -as incapable of seeing, though seen by memory? -How far these modelled heads were portraits is -answered in a curious way by <a href="#fig135">fig. 138</a>. The light -outline there is that of the plaster modelling, the -dark outline within it is the skull from the interior -of the coffin. It will be seen how exactly they -agree; there is a thin skin over the forehead, then -a fleshy part to the brow. Along the bridge of the -nose the model closely follows the bone; below the -nose the angle of meeting of the jaws exactly agrees, -leaving a uniform thickness of lips; and lastly, the -fleshy fulness of the chin is seen projecting. This -agreement is one which the artist could never have -expected to be thus tested, and therefore gives us -the more confidence in his skill.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig135"> - -<p class="caption">PLASTER</p> - -<img src="images/fig135-138.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">135, 136, 137. Modelled heads</p> - -<p class="caption">138. Modelled head and skull</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV<br /> -<span class="smaller">CLOTHING</span></h2> - -<p>Though leather hides, with the hair on, are found -over bodies in the earliest graves, yet linen cloth -was introduced early in the prehistoric times, and -is frequently found wrapped around the bodies.</p> - -<p>On reaching the first dynasty the weaving is seen -to be very fine and regular, though we only have -some of the stuff used for mummy wrappings, from -the tomb of King Zer. The threads are very uniform, -and there are 160 to the inch in the warp and -120 in the woof. Modern fine cambric has 140 -threads to the inch, so it was quite equalled by hand -work at the beginning of Egyptian history. A -group of a dozen different cloths on one mummy of -the XVIIth dynasty show 138 x 40 and 128 x 56 -as the finest, and 21 x 15 as the coarsest mesh. The -greatest disproportion of the threads is 138 to 40, -or 3½ to 1, and the least is 70 to 62, or 9 to 8; it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -recognised as a principle of Egyptian weaving that -the woof was not beaten up as closely as the lay of -the warp. Unfortunately we have scarcely any cloth -except mummy wrappings, and it is not to be expected -that the finest work would be thus used.</p> - -<p>The size of the looms was considerable. The -cloths on the mummy just named are up to five feet -wide; and one edge has been torn off that amount, -so it was originally more. The pieces are up to sixty -feet long, and yet not complete. The looms were -horizontal on the ground for coarse work, such as -mats; but fine work was done on a vertical loom, -and from the ease of displacing threads in tapestry -the warp threads were separately weighted and not -fastened to a beam. Loom weights of baked clay -or of limestone are common.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="fig139"> - -<p class="caption">CLOTHING</p> - -<img src="images/fig139-140.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">139. Coloured tapestry (XVIIIth dynasty)</p> - -<p class="caption">140. Cut leather net</p> - -</div> - -<p>A few pieces of woven tapestry have been found -in the tomb of Tahutmes IV, and part of one is -given here full size in <a href="#fig139">fig. 139</a>. The colours used -are red, blue, green, yellow, brown and grey. The -coloured threads pass to and fro over the space -assigned to them, thus entirely parting the warp -threads from the neighbouring ones, so that a slit -is left along the vertical margins of the colours. This -was remedied by stitching; but the same weakness -is seen in the Roman and Coptic woven tapestries.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -These are known from the pagan period, as there -are many mythological subjects; but the greater -part belong to the Christian and Mohammedan ages.</p> - -<p>The Roman and Coptic tapestries are placed -upon garments as derivatives from darning, or from -patches put on the garments to prevent them wearing -through. The positions are broad stripes over the -shoulders where any object would rest when carried, -circular patches on the breasts and on the knees. -On referring to the hundreds of figures in Roman -dress from the third to fifth centuries (in Garucci, -<i>Vetri ornati di figure in oro</i>), embroideries or tapestries -are unusual in Italy. A dozen robes with scrolls -or foliage patterns are shown, but only three with -knee patches, and one of those (xxxi, 1) is a female -servant holding an Egyptian fan, probably therefore -an Egyptian slave. It seems, then, that this -system of circular patches on the wearing parts is -not Roman but Egyptian. Beside the woven tapestries, -which are nearly all in purple, embroidery was -done with the needle in white thread on the purple -ground.</p> - -<p>Leatherwork was of importance in Egypt in all -ages. The two principal arts in it were the appliqué -work in colours, and the cutting of network. The -great example of the appliqué work is the funeral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -tent of Queen Isiemkheb, about 1000 <span class="smcapuc">B.C.</span> It was -eight feet long and seven feet wide, with sides over -five feet high. Six vultures are outspread along the -top, and the sides have a long inscription. The -whole of the figures and signs are cut out in -variously coloured leather, and stitched on to the -crimson leather ground. This work we can trace -in the style of earlier decorations, back to the head -fillet of Nofert, <a href="#fig23">fig. 24</a>. It is also continued down -to the present day in the appliqué work in coloured -stuffs on the inside of Egyptian tents.</p> - -<p>The cutting of leather nets was an art of great -skill. Rows of slits were cut, breaking joint one -with other, so that a piece of leather could be drawn -out sideways into a wide net. One of the most -delicate of such nets is partly shown in <a href="#fig139">fig. 140</a>. -The square patch left in the middle of the net was -for the wear of sitting on when the net was put -over the linen waist cloth. Such nets over the cloth -are shown in the figures of the harvesters, <a href="#fig69">fig. 70</a>, -with the slit network and the square patch. To cut -the leather in such extremely fine threads must -have required great skill and care; and not only is -the leather slit, but considerable slips have been -removed so as to produce an open net close up to -the edge band of solid leather; on some edges an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -inch or two is cut away to form one side of the -rhombic opening.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In many directions we have now traced the outlines -of the artistic skill of the Egyptians, but only -outlines, which point incessantly to the wide spaces -that need to be filled in by further detail. Much of -that has yet to be discovered, but much is ready to -hand whensoever a careful observer may choose to -devote attention to any of the branches of art or -technical work which we have so briefly noticed. -In every direction a complete collecting of materials -and an adequate publication of them would bring -a full reward in results.</p> - -<p>The powerful technical skill of Egyptian art, its -good sense of limitations, and its true feeling for -harmony and expression, will always make it of the -first importance to the countries of the West with -which it was so early and so long connected.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI<br /> -<span class="smaller">EGYPT’S PLACE IN THE ART OF THE WORLD</span></h2> - -<p>In the opening chapter we have considered the point -of view from which the art of Egypt—like that of -every other country—must be approached. The -physical conditions which surround man will necessarily -control his expression of thought and his perception -of beauty. Forms and designs growing out -of the conditions of one land will be inappropriate -in another land, and lose most, or all, of their value -if transported to different surroundings. Hence it -is futile to attempt to contrast the art of one country -directly with that of another. We might as well compare -the beauty of a tropical garden with that of an alpine -forest. The only ground of comparison is that of -expressing the character and emotions of the artists; -and that art which conveys the mental state of the -people most readily is the most perfect art. This -criticism leaves aside altogether the moral question<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -of our appreciation of the people themselves; that -does not belong to art but to ethics. And before we -can begin to judge of that, we must know their surroundings, -and the position in which they were conditioned -in the world.</p> - -<p>Our consideration here is with the art. When we -look over the varied artistic expression of different -races, we see that each people has seized some one -excellence, growing out of its conditions, and adapted -to its feelings and utilities. We can admire each -excellence in turn, and see that in each of these -qualities no other people has reached the same perfection. -We must recognise that artistic expression -is not only shown in sculpture and painting, but in -literature, mechanical design, and the amenities and -adaptation of the social organism.</p> - -<p>In Egypt, as we have noticed, the ruling principles -of the art are durability, strength, and dignity, and -such were the features of the national character. In -vain do we look in any other country for as great an -expression of any of these principles. And, with the -single exception of Greece, it was also supreme in -precision of work. Its work was the true expression -of character, and in perfect harmony with the -nature of the country.</p> - -<p>In Crete, so far as we can yet see, the pre-eminent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -facilities were the expression of motion, and the development -of decorative form, and especially colour, -upon pottery. Classical art never attained to the -skill shown by the prehistoric art in these directions.</p> - -<p>In Assyria, figure and animal sculpture stood very -high in the best period; and the free adaptation of -this to the purposes of life, as we see in the great -development of friezes on the palace walls, was the -distinguishing feature. No people seem to have -lived amidst their art more than the Assyrians.</p> - -<p>In classical Greece, the supremacy in vital sculpture -and architectural proportion has so filled the -attention of the modern world that the higher -achievement of surrounding nations in other directions -has been largely overlooked. In each of the -special qualities that we note in other peoples the -Greeks were their inferiors.</p> - -<p>Rome was largely dominated by other races in -its development; but in the art of civilisation and -raising subject peoples, in the shaping of life and -rule of law, it stood far above any ancient nation. -In this—as in the arts elsewhere—we must look -at its best period, when the impartiality and probity -of its administrators brought all Greece under their -sway.</p> - -<p>The Celtic and Northern arts stood first in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -rhythm of intricate decoration, and the subtlety of -the curves; the ideal may not appeal to us, but no -other region has ever produced such perfect and -complex design.</p> - -<p>In Medieval Europe, though sculpture scarcely -reached the vitality of classical work, yet in expression -it stood as high as in any school of art; and in -the architecture the sense of expansion and aspiration—the -spiritual aspect—reaches a higher level -than man has touched elsewhere.</p> - -<p>In Italy, the expression of art in painting was its -great achievement, in harmony with the character -of grace seen in other lines of Italian production.</p> - -<p>The Persian and Mesopotamian civilisation triumphed -in its glorious use of coloured glaze decoration, -which has been carried westward to Syria and -Rhodes, and still continues in the vast domes of -coloured tiles in Spain.</p> - -<p>In Arab art we meet the exquisite calm of geometrical -design with various angles, which cannot -be analysed at a glance like a Roman pavement: -they arrest the eye to linger over them, to seek how -they arise, and what they mean.</p> - -<p>Further east, it is difficult for us to enter sufficiently -into the fundamental feelings of the races, to -enable us to value their art truly. But we can at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -least feel the grand sense of profusion when looking -at the mountainous structures of the immense topes -and pagodas of India, peopled with innumerable -figures on countless stages. To the minds which -produce and live amongst such forms, all other work -must seem poor and bare. In Chinese art we can -admire the fine adaptation and the sense of minute -perfection in the articles before us, the dignity and -reserve shown; and, in the literature, even a stranger -to the land can feel the intimate harmony with Nature, -and the mystic sense of mood in the mountains and -trees and lakes around. Hardly any other poetry -that we know touches the spirit of life so essentially.</p> - -<p>The facile Japanese may well claim an unsurpassed -skill and deftness in the painting of Nature, -and a power to grasp the greatest amount of reality -with the least means. Their perception of Nature -in its strange and mysterious moods, which they -show by the brush, is almost as penetrating as in -the literature of China. Their exquisite sense of -fitness, and of taste for beauty of workmanship, only -makes us begin to realise the clumsiness of our own -cast-iron performances.</p> - -<p>To wander so far from Egypt may seem needless; -and it would be so if the essentials of other arts were -more familiar in English works. We have read<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> -lately of an alleged “tyranny of the Nile”; but the -real tyranny over English minds for a century past -has been the “tyranny of the Hellene.” The -one side of art in sculpture has obscured all others; -and the English mind has, with its usual idolatry, -made the standard of Greece its sole measure. We -need to see that a dozen national arts have each -been supreme over the others in some one aspect. -Then we shall see how meaningless it is to contrast -the excellence of one national art with another. -Each country has to confess that it has only fully -expressed one aspect out of many in the immense -range of human life.</p> - -<p>Now we can begin to see the real meaning of the -so-called limitations of Egyptian art. Every people -has had its limitations likewise, fitting it to its conditions; -and if we look at them all impartially, and -not by the standard of any one of them, we shall see -that the deficiencies and limitations of most races -are of much the same extent. If the Egyptian had -tried to render not only character, but emotion also, -he would have been defying his true conditions, as -much as if we put a dado of Persian glazed tiles on -the Parthenon. To refer this artistic perception to -the uniformity of the Nile, is about as true as if we -attributed any deficiencies in German art or literature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -to the prevalence of cold and snow, which is a -far greater tyranny than the inundation. Every -physical circumstance is a factor in human work, -but none of them singly dominates it. There is no -point in calling the Egyptian childish in his abilities, -as every other nation has been equally childish -in some other respects—the Roman in his abject -submission to omens, the Greek in playing with -words, the Assyrian in his inaccuracy, the Arab in -his drawing. In short, there is no essential difference -in the capacity for showing national life and -feeling by the art of each country; and in the facility -and truth of expression Egypt stands in the first -rank of those lands where Art has exhibited the -character of man.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<ul> -<li class="ifrst">Aah-hotep jewellery, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aahmes I, jewellery, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">II, inlaid hawk-head, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aahmes-si neit-rannu (<a href="#fig7">fig. 9</a>), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Abu Simbel, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Accuracy of work, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ainofer servant, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), art of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sculpture, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">relief, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">death mask, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alabaster sculpture, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">vases, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amenardys, statue of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amenemhat, III, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amenhotep, I, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">II, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">III, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> -<li class="isub2">official of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">IV, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amethyst beads, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amulets of stone, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of glaze, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Animals, real and mythical, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antef V, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antimony used, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arab art, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arch avoided externally, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">known early, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">form of brick, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">built without centring, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Architecture, <a href="#Page_62">62-68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="armlets">Armlets of flint, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#bangles">Bangles</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Art belongs to country, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">absent from copying, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">conditions in Egypt, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Art dominated by strong light, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">accepted strong contrasts, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ruled by level and vertical lines, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">analysis by Tolstoy, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">expression of character, <a href="#Page_7">7-10</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">truth of Egyptian, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">greatest under pyramid kings, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">rapidity of development, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">decay of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of character and of emotion, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of different peoples, <a href="#Page_153">153-156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Asiatic conquests influence art, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Assyria, art of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aswan, school of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Axe of Aahmes, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Baboon, ivory, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bak-en-khonsu, head of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="bangles">Bangles, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#bracelets">Bracelets</a>, <a href="#armlets">Armlets</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Basalt, green, sculpture in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">black, for building, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Basalt, used for vases, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beads, materials of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">gold, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> -<li class="isub2">open-work, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">glazed, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">glass, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>Bee amulet, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blue, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">paint on vases, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="bracelets">Bracelets of Zer, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of Aah-hotep, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of Ramessu II, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">silver, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">gold, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Coptic, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brick building, sloping inward, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bronze, use of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Building transport, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bull hunt, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bull trampling on enemy, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bull’s head amulet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bushman type, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Button seals, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Canon of drawing figures, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Capitals, early forms of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Captives, influence on art, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Casting of gold, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of bronze, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in plaster, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ceiling pattern, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Celtic art, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chains, patterns of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Character in art, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chinese art, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Civil service, organizing, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Claw amulet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cleopatra Cocce (Ptolemaic), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cloison inlaying, <a href="#Page_87">87-89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cobalt colour of glaze, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colossi, raising of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">weight of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colours, making of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Columns, palm, lotus, polygonal, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Comparative art, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conditions of Egyptian art, <a href="#Page_2">2-5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conquest of Egypt by artistic race, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Constantine, pottery of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Contrasts of desert and cultivation, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conventions absent in early art, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Copper, colours from, <a href="#Page_116">116-118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Copper work, <a href="#Page_98">98-100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coptic pottery, painted, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tapestry, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Copying, a degradation, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cornice, origin of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crete, art of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crocodile amulet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crowns of XIIth Dynasty, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cumaean glass, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Daggers of Aahmes, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Degradation of art, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Deir el Bahri, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Desert, contrasts of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">art in Eastern, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Detail, treatment of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diorite, sculpture in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Divisions, political and artistic, <a href="#Page_v">v</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drawing, <a href="#Page_58">58-61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dressing stone faces, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drills, tubular, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">flint, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dynastic new art, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dynasty I, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84-86</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">II, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">IV, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">V, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">VI, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">XI, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>XII, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">XVIII, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">XIX, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92-94</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">XX, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">XXIII, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">XXVI, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Ptolemaic, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Earrings, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Coptic, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Embroidery, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Emery, used for cutting, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Emotional art, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Enamel, Roman, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eye amulet, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eyes inserted in copper frames, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">relation to brow, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">gibbous and narrow, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">not detailed, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fan bearer, figure of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Figures, canon of drawing, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">modelled in pottery, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fish offerers, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fist amulet, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flask of bronze, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flint drills, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">working, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Floret crown, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fluted metal vases, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fly amulet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foil, impressed, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foreign influences on art, <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foundations, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frog amulet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Furnaces for glazing, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Furniture, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gates of temples, immense, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gazelles of palm, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geese of Medum, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gilding, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Girl somersaulting, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glass, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">earliest, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">black and white, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">varied colours, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">patterns on, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">forms of vases, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beads, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">engraved, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">mosaic, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">blown, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">weights, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">manufacture of, <a href="#Page_123">123-125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glazed ware, <a href="#Page_107">107-119</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">two-coloured, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tiles, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tablets, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">colours of, <a href="#Page_109">109-115</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">pendants, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">architectural, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ushabtis, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">figures, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">late, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">body, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">stone ware, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">decomposition of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">manufacture of frit, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">moulded, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">inlay in wood, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glazing on quartz, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">on pottery, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gleaners, paintings of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gold, sources of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>leaf, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gold casting, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">wire, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">soldering, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">base, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">over plaster, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Granite, black, school of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">red, school of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">temple, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">quarrying, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sawn, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Granulated work, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greek art, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">influence in Egypt, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">pottery figures, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hammer dressing of stone, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hand amulet, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hand work on stone vases, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harvest scenes, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hatshepsut, sculpture of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hawk amulet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">protecting king, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heads modelled in plaster, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Helwan quarries, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hieroglyphs, cutting of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hor, statue of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hyaena and bull relief, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hyksos type, so-called, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Indian art, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inlaid metal, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iron, rare appearances of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sources of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tools, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cores for bronze, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isiemkheb, tent of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isis, head of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Italy, art of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ivory carving, prehistoric, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Ist dynasty, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">IVth dynasty, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">XIIth dynasty, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">XXVIth dynasty, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jackal head amulet, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Japanese art, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jewellery, <a href="#Page_83">83-97</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ka-aper, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kauat, princess, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Keft inlaying, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kha-em-hat, tomb of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Khafra, statue of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">accuracy of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Khaker ornament, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kha-sekhem, head of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Khety, copper brazier of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Khufu, organizing by, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">figure of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">accuracy of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Koptos, colossi from, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lazuli beads, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">inlaying, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lead used, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leather the earliest clothing, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">appliqué work, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">slit network, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lifting of stones, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Light, conditions of strong, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Limitations of national arts, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Limestone sculpture, school of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> -<li class="isub2">earliest, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">working in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Linen, fineness of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lines level and vertical in Egypt, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lion, figures of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">amulet, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>Literature compared with art, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Looms, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lotus capitals, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">flower, ivory, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Manganese colour of glaze, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mastaba tomb-chapels, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Materials of sculpture, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medieval European art, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medinet Habu temple, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Memphis, head from, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mendes bowls, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Menkaura, accuracy of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mentu-em-hat, head of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Merenptah, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mertitefs, queen, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Middle kingdom style, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">statuary, <a href="#Page_36">36-40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Min, statues of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Modelling in pottery, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mosaics of glass, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moulding by pressure, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moulds for casting copper, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">for glazed ware, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of plaster, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mykenaean style of inlays, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Narmer, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">National arts, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Naturalism of early art, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">later, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Necklace fastening, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#fig108">fig. 109</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Necklets of silver, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Negress statuette, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Kingdom, <a href="#Page_18">18-20</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">statuary, <a href="#Page_40">40-45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nofert, head of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nubian sandstone, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Obelisks, raising of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">transport of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Observation in early art, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Organization, system of social, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ovens for glazing, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oxherd, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ox, sacrifice of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pafaabast statuette, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Painting on tombs, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">earliest, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in New Kingdom, <a href="#Page_56">56-60</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">light and shade, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palettes of slate, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palm capital, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">scenery, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palm-stick construction, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Papyrus structures, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">capital, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pectorals of Senusert II, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Senusert III, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Amenemhat III, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Ramessu II, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pedubast, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pelicans, painting of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pepy, copper statue of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Periods of art, <a href="#Page_11">11-21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Persian glazing, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pewter, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plaited wire chains, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Planes for testing faces, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plaster, <a href="#Page_142">142-146</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in masonry, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">coating statues, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1" id="plaster-modelling">modelling, <a href="#Page_144">144-146</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">castings, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">moulds, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">heads, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">oiled, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Political divisions different from artistic, <a href="#Page_v">v</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porphyry used for vases, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>Portraiture, late, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pot metal, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pottery, <a href="#Page_126">126-133</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">forms, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">decoration, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">materials, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pottery, modelling, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prehistoric character of art, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">statuary, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">reliefs, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">painting, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">stone vases, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">amulets, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Princesses, fresco, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ptolemaic art, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pyramid age, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sculpture, <a href="#Page_32">32-36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pyramids, accuracy of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Qualities of Egyptians, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quarrying, modes of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quartzite sandstone school, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Races, types of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ra-hesy, panel of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#fig55"><i>frontispiece</i></a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rameses II, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">III, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">XII, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ramesseum arches, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ranofer, statue of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reliefs, quality of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">oldest, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">pyramid age, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Middle Kingdom, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">New Kingdom, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">late, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sunk, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rock cutting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roll at corner of building, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rome, art of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sacrifice of ox, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandstone, Nubian, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">quartzite, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sawing of hard stones, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scaffolding of brick, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scenery, influence of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scenes dominate wall surfaces, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schools of art, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scribe, figure of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sculptors, training of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sculpture dominated by architecture and conditions, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seals of gold, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Senoferu, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Senusert I, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">II, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">III, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Serapeum pectoral, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sety I, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">II, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shells of gold, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sheykh el Beled statue, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ship, painting of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">building, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shrines of palm sticks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silsileh sandstone, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silver, early, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">historic, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">bowls, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slate palettes, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sleep, position in, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Social organization, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soldering, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spear-head amulet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spinning metal bowls, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Statuary, painted, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">local art, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">earliest, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">pyramid age, <a href="#Page_32">32-36</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Middle Kingdom, <a href="#Page_36">36-40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>New Kingdom, <a href="#Page_40">40-45</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">late, <a href="#Page_45">45-47</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">outlined and cut, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Steatopygous type, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Steel tools, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stone buildings copied from brick, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">copied from wooden, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stone vases, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stones, moving of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stucco on wood statues, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> <a href="#plaster-modelling">Plaster, modelling</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Study in limestone, earliest, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Syenite used for vases, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Syrian influence, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Taharqa, head of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tahutmes I, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">II, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">III, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">IV, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#fig139">fig. 139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Takushet inlaid statue, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tapestry, woven, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">use of, on clothing, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tausert, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Temple, circuit wall, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of Khafra, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of Medinet Habu, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of Dakkeh, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tin, sources of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">used, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tiryns, stone-sawing at, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Toilet tray figures, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tolstoy’s analysis of art, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tombs, early sculptured, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">later painted, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tools of modern types, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torus roll, origin of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Training of artists, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trichinopoly pattern chains, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tubular drills, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turin statue of Ramessu II, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turquoise beads, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tut-ankh-amen, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ushabtis of glazed ware, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of pottery, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vases of bronze, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of glass, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of pottery, <a href="#Page_127">127-133</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of stone, prehistoric, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub2">from Eastern desert, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wall surfaces dominated by scenes, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wax used for modelling, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Weaving, fineness of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wigs, prehistoric, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">put on over hair, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wire, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">amulets, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">plaited chains, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wooden statues stuccoed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sculpture, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Woodwork, <a href="#Page_137">137-141</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">early, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">shipbuilding, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">doors, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">coffins, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">furniture, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">statuettes, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">inlaid, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">methods, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Writing, start of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Youths’ and maids’ procession, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zer, bracelet of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">linen of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeser, glazed tiles of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">PUBLICATIONS ON SUBJECTS OF THIS VOLUME</h2> - -<p class="center">By Prof. <span class="smcap">Petrie</span> <i>where not otherwise stated</i></p> - -<table summary="Bibliography"> - <tr> - <td>General.</td><td>Bissing, <i>Denkmaeler Aegypt. Sculptur</i>; Capart, -<i>Recueil de Monuments</i>. <i>Decorative Art in -Egypt</i>; <i>Racial Portraits</i>; <i>Student’s History, I, II, III</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Prehistoric.</td><td>Capart, <i>Primitive Art in Egypt</i>. <i>Naqada, Diospolis</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>I-II Dynasty.</td><td><i>Royal Tombs, I, II</i>; <i>Abydos, I, II</i>; Quibell, -<i>Hierakonpolis, I, II</i>; <i>Koptos</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>III</td><td><i>Medum.</i> Garstang, <i>Mahasna</i> (E.R.A.).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>IV</td><td><i>Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>V</td><td><i>Deshasheh.</i> Murray, <i>Saqqara Mastabas</i>. (E.R.A.); -Davies, <i>Mastaba of Ptah-hetep</i>; Weigall, <i>Die Mastaba des Gem ni kai</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>VI-XI</td><td><i>Dendereh.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>XI</td><td>Naville, <i>Deir el Bahari, XI dynasty</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>XII</td><td><i>Kahun.</i> <i>Illahun.</i> <i>Memphis, II</i> (E.R.A.); Newberry, -<i>Beni Hasan</i>. Houses in <i>Gizeh and Rifeh</i> (E.R.A.).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>XVIII</td><td><i>Qurneh</i> (E.R.A.); Naville, <i>Deir el Bahari, I-VI</i>. -<i>Researches in Sinai</i>; <i>Tell el Amarna</i>; Davies, -<i>Rock Tombs of El Amarna.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>XIX</td><td>Caulfield, <i>Temple of the Kings</i> (E.R.A.); Murray, -<i>The Osireion</i> (E.R.A.); <i>Six Temples at Thebes</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>XXVI</td><td><i>Tanis, Nebesheh, and Defenneh</i>; <i>Naukratis</i>. -Greek terra-cotta heads in <i>Memphis I</i> (E.R.A.).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ptolemaic</td><td><i>Athribis.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Roman</td><td>Portraits in <i>Hawara</i>; <i>Kahun</i>; terra-cottas in -<i>Roman Ehnasya</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td><td>Popular small volumes: <i>Ten Years’ Digging</i>, 6s.; -<i>Egyptian Tales</i>, i, ii, 3s. 6d.; <i>Religion and -Conscience</i>, 2s. 6d.; <i>Methods and Aims in Archaeology</i>, -6s.; <i>Religion of Ancient Egypt</i>, 1s.; -<i>Personal Religion in Egypt before Christianity</i>, -2s. 6d.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>E.R.A.</td><td>Publications of Egyptian Research Account.</td> - </tr> -</table> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arts and Crafts of Ancient Egypt, by -W. M. Flinders Petrie - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARTS, CRAFTS--ANCIENT EGYPT *** - -***** This file should be named 52830-h.htm or 52830-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/8/3/52830/ - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Adrian Mastronardi and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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