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diff --git a/old/52825-h/52825-h.htm b/old/52825-h/52825-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index b7a9186..0000000 --- a/old/52825-h/52825-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8126 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - Petroleum, by Albert Lidgett. -- a Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - -a { - text-decoration: none} - -.i4 { - padding-left: 2em} - -.i8 { - padding-left: 4em} - -#coverpage { - text-align: center; - max-width: 600px; - margin: 2em auto} - -body { - padding: 4px; - margin: auto 10%} - -p { - text-align: justify} - -.x-small { - font-weight: normal; - font-size: x-small} - -.small { - font-weight: normal; - font-size: small} - -.medium { - font-weight: normal; - font-size: medium} - -.large { - font-size: large} - -.x-large { - font-size: x-large} - -h1, h2 { - page-break-before: always} - -h1, h2, h3 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both} - -.ph1 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: xx-large} - -.ph2 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: x-large; - margin: 2em auto 1em auto} - -p.author { - text-align: right; - margin: auto 5%} - -.hang { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2em} - -ul {list-style-type: none} - -.index { - list-style: none} - -.ifrst { - font-weight: bold; - margin: 2em auto auto auto} - -.indx { - font-weight: bold; - margin-left: 0em; - padding-left: 3em; - text-indent: -3em} - -/* Tables */ -.table { - display: table; - margin: 1em auto} - -.tcell { - text-align: left; - padding-left: 1em; - padding-right: 1em; - display: table-cell} - -.tcell p { - margin: auto 0.5em} - -.trow { - display: table-row} - -table { - margin: 2em auto} - -div.block_border { - display: table; - max-width: 600px; - padding-left: 2em; - padding-right: 2em; - margin: 2em auto; - border: #004200 double 5px} - -td.i4 { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 4.5em; - padding-right: 0.5em} - -td { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2.5em; - padding-right: 0.5em} - -.tdr { - text-align: right} - -.bb { - border-bottom: #004200 double 5px} - -.bt { - border-top: #004200 solid 2px} - -.bbox { - border-collapse: collapse; - border: #004200 solid 2px} - -.bbox td { - border-collapse: collapse; - border: #004200 solid 1px} - -.bbox th { - padding-top: 1em; - border-collapse: collapse; - border: #004200 solid 1px;} -/* End Tables */ - -.copy { - font-size: small; - text-align: center} - -.smcap { - font-variant: small-caps;} - -.caption { - text-align: center} - -/* Images */ -img { - border: none; - max-width: 100%} - -.figcenter { - margin: 2em auto; - text-align: center} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - color: #004200; - position: absolute; - right: 5px; - font-weight: normal; - font-size: small; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - border: #004200 double 4px; - color: black; - margin: 2em auto; - padding: 1em} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Petroleum, by Albert Lidgett - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Petroleum - -Author: Albert Lidgett - -Release Date: August 16, 2016 [EBook #52825] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PETROLEUM *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div id="coverpage"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="block_border"> -<p class="ph1"> -The Wallsend Slipway & Engineering Company, Ltd.<br /> - -<span class="x-large">WALLSEND-ON-TYNE</span><br /> - -<span class="large">MARINE ENGINE & BOILER BUILDERS & SHIP REPAIRERS</span><br /> - -<span class="medium"><i>Manufacturers of Installations for</i></span><br /> - -<span class="x-large">BURNING LIQUID FUEL</span><br /> - -<span class="table"> -<img src="images/i_f01.jpg" alt="" /><br /> -<span class="small">Installation mounted on a Tray</span><br /> -</span> - -<span class="medium table"><b>Horse Power</b> of Boilers for which Installations<br /> -have been supplied by the Company exceeds<br /> -<b>3,000,000 h.p.</b></span> - -<span class="medium table"> - <span class="trow"> - <span class="tcell">Head Office and Works—</span> - <span class="tcell">WALLSEND-ON-TYNE</span> - </span> - <span class="trow"> - <span class="tcell">Telegraphic Address—</span> - <span class="tcell">“WALL,” NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE</span> - </span> - <span class="trow"> - <span class="tcell">London Office—</span> - <span class="tcell">30 GREAT ST. HELENS. E C. 3</span> - </span> -</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="block_border"> -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_f02.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="ph1">ANGLO-MEXICAN -PETROLEUM CO., LTD.</p> - -<p class="table">Exporters and marketers of the -products of the Mexican Eagle -Oil Co., Ltd., including Mexican -Fuel Oil and Diesel Oil, Mexphalte, -Fluxphalte, Mexican -Eagle Bitumen, Lubricants, Gas -Oil, Kerosene and Motor Spirit.</p> - -<p class="ph1">EAGLE OIL TRANSPORT -COMPANY, LIMITED.</p> - -<p class="table">Owners of the fleet of modern -Oil Tank Steamers engaged in the -transport of the above products.</p> - -<p class="ph1">BOWRING PETROLEUM -COMPANY, LIMITED.</p> - -<p class="table">Marketing Agents in the United -Kingdom for Mex Motor Spirit -and Kerosene, etc.<br /></p> - -<p class="figcenter"> -<i>Head Offices</i>:<br /> -16. FINSBURY CIRCUS.<br /> -—LONDON. E.C. 2—<br /> -<br /> -<i>Telephone:<br /> -LONDON WALL 1200 (Twenty Lines)</i><br /> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="block_border"> -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_f03.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Oil Well Supply Co</p> - -<p class="table"><i>Oil and “OILWELL” have grown up together. -The oldest and largest manufacturers of well -drilling tools.</i></p> -</div> - -<img class="table" src="images/deco.png" alt="" /> -<p class="table">DRILLING PLANT of every description<br /> -<br />PUMPING OUTFITS for every service<br /> -<br />PIPE-LINES and STORAGE TANKS</p> -<img class="table" src="images/deco.png" alt="" /> -<p class="table"><small>TRADE</small> <span class="x-large">“OILWELL”</span> <small>MARK</small></p> -<p class="table">Dashwood House,<br /> -LONDON, E.C. 2</p> -</div> - -<div class="block_border"> -<p class="ph1">ANGLO-AMERICAN OIL -COMPANY LIMITED</p> - -<p class="table"><i>Importers, Refiners and Distributors</i></p> - -<p><b><i>REFINED PETROLEUM OILS</i></b></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang">WHITE ROSE (Water White), ROYAL -DAYLIGHT and</p> - -<p class="hang">CROWN DIAMOND—for Household use.</p> - -<p class="hang">ANGLO’S VAPORISING OIL—for Oil -Engines, Agricultural Tractors, etc.</p></blockquote> - -<p><b><i>MOTOR SPIRIT</i></b></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang">PRATT’S AVIATION—Refined to super-excellence -for Aeroplanes and Motor Cars.</p> - -<p class="hang">PRATT’S PERFECTION—for all classes of -Motor Cars.</p> - -<p class="hang">TAXIBUS—for Commercial Vehicles.</p> - -<p class="hang">ANGLO’S BENZOL—for Motor Cars and -Commercial Vehicles.</p> - -<p class="hang">ANGLO’S VICTORY SPIRIT—a perfect -Petrol-Benzol blend.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="hang">FUEL OIL—for Diesel Engines, Furnaces, Ships’ -Bunkers, etc.</p> - -<p class="hang">GAS OIL—for Gas-making.</p> - -<p class="hang">LUBRICATING OILS AND GREASES, -PARAFFIN WAX AND SCALE.</p> - -<p class="hang">NUJOL—Finest Medicinal Oil.</p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Head Office</span>:<br /> -<span class="smcap">36 Queen Anne’s Gate, Westminster, S.W. 1</span><br /> - -<span class="copy"><i>Branches and Depots throughout the United Kingdom.</i></span></p> -</div> - -<p class="ph1"> -<span class="large"><i>The Largest Makers of</i></span><br /> - -OIL <span class="large">STORAGE</span> TANKS<br /> - -<span class="medium"><i>Tanks of Any Size Supplied and Erected Anywhere.</i></span><br /> - -<img class="table" src="images/i_f05.jpg" alt="" /> -<span style="display: none;"><i>WHESSOE<br /> -FOUNDRY <span class="large">CO., LTD.,</span></i><br /> -DARLINGTON, ENGLAND<br /> -Established 1790]</span> - -<span class="x-large">PETROLEUM REFINERY PLANTS</span><br /> - -<span class="medium table"> - <span class="trow"> - <span class="tcell">Telegrams—</span> - <span class="tcell i4">London Office:—</span> - </span> - <span class="trow"> - <span class="tcell i8">“WHESSOE, LONDON.”</span> - <span class="tcell tdr">106 CANNON STREET,</span> - </span> - <span class="trow"> - <span class="tcell i8">“WHESSOE, DARLINGTON.”</span> - <span class="tcell tdr">E.C.4</span> - </span> -</span> -</p> - -<div id="frontispiece" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_f07.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ENGLAND’S FIRST OIL WELL IN DERBYSHIRE</p> - -<p class="table">(Drilled under Government authority and brought into -production in June, 1919)</p> - -<p class="author copy"> -<i>Frontispiece</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">i</span></p> -</div> - -<h1> -<span class="x-large"><i>PITMAN’S COMMON COMMODITIES<br /> -AND INDUSTRIES</i></span><br /> - -PETROLEUM<br /> - -<span class="small">BY</span><br /> - -<span class="x-large">ALBERT LIDGETT</span><br /> - -<span class="medium table">EDITOR OF THE “PETROLEUM TIMES”<br /> -LATE EDITOR OF THE “PETROLEUM REVIEW”</span><br /> - -<span class="medium table"><span class="smcap">London</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1 Amen Corner, E.C.4</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bath, Melbourne and New York</span></span><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">ii</span> - -<span class="copy table"> -<span class="smcap">Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman<br /> -& Sons, Ltd., London, Bath,<br /> -Melbourne and New York</span></span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">iii</span></h1> - -<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> - -<p>Although numerous volumes have been written upon -petroleum, and some very educational works on this -important subject are to be found in technological -literature, it is strange that prior to the appearance of -this little book, it has been impossible to turn to any -publication which deals with this Common Commodity -of Commerce in a popular manner.</p> - -<p>Of a truth, we to-day live in an age of Oil, for the products -of petroleum are inseparable from our daily life. -Refined petroleum breathes the breath of power to the -internal combustion engine which claims a realm of its -own on land and sea, in the air, and under ocean waters; -it also gives artificial light to countless millions in all -corners of the world under a variety of circumstances -and dissimilar conditions, while the wheels of -industry unceasingly revolve consequent upon oil -lubrication.</p> - -<p>And in no sphere of commercial and industrial activity -has greater progress been made during the past few -decades than in regard to the multiplication in the uses -of the products of petroleum. The avenues for advantageous -consumption are constantly increasing, and -this to such an extent that the production of -crude petroleum—enormous though this is—has been -outstripped by the demands for the refined product.</p> - -<p>In the following pages I have striven to deal with the -chief phases of the petroleum industry in a manner -which, I have reason to believe, will be acceptable to -the general reader, and the fact that the volume is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span> -written in language free from technicalities, will, I -trust, render it particularly interesting to those who -would know something of that immense class of -commercial products covered by the name “Petroleum.”</p> - -<p class="author"> -<span class="smcap">Albert Lidgett.</span></p> - -<p class="smcap">Royal Automobile Club,<br /> -<span class="i4">Pall Mall,</span><br /> -<span class="i8">London, S.W.1.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p> - -<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> - -<table> - <tr class="small"> - <td>CHAP.</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><a href="#PREFACE">PREFACE</a></td> - <td class="tdr">iii</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_I">PETROLEUM AND ITS ORIGIN</a></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_II">THE OIL-FIELDS OF THE WORLD</a></td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_III">HOW PETROLEUM IS PRODUCED</a></td> - <td class="tdr">41</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM</a></td> - <td class="tdr">51</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_V">TRANSPORT BY LAND AND SEA</a></td> - <td class="tdr">63</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">PETROLEUM AS FUEL</a></td> - <td class="tdr">76</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">PETROLEUM AS A LIGHTING AGENT</a></td> - <td class="tdr">89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES</a></td> - <td class="tdr">95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">PETROLEUM IN ENGLAND</a></td> - <td class="tdr">104</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_X">PETROLEUM IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE</a></td> - <td class="tdr">114</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">PETROLEUM’S PART IN THE GREAT WAR</a></td> - <td class="tdr">123</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">THE SCOTTISH SHALE-OIL INDUSTRY</a></td> - <td class="tdr">132</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">A FEW NOTABLE PETROLEUM ENTERPRISES</a></td> - <td class="tdr">148</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIV.</td> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">STATISTICAL</a></td> - <td class="tdr">158</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td> - <td class="tdr">165</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></p> - -<div class="block_border"> -<p class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_f13.jpg" alt="" /> -</p> - -<p class="table">Taken from an actual photo of a trip spear with -mechanic alongside for comparison of size. This -is for 21 inch O.D. drive pipe. We have facilities -for producing the heaviest tools required.</p> - -<p class="ph2">The OIL WELL ENGINEERING CO., LTD.</p> - -<p class="copy"><i>Works</i>:</p> - -<h3>CHEADLE HEATH, STOCKPORT</h3> - -<p class="table">The largest Manufacturers of Oil Well Drilling -Plant and oil Well Supplies in the British Empire -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<table> - <tr> - <td colspan="3" class="tdr x-small">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#frontispiece">ENGLAND’S FIRST OIL WELL</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><i>Frontispiece</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#THE_GLEN_POOL">THE GLEN POOL</a></td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#GEOLOGICAL_SECTION_SHOWING_OIL_SANDS">GEOLOGICAL SECTION SHOWING OIL SANDS</a></td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#A_GUSHER_UNDER_CONTROL">A GUSHER UNDER CONTROL</a></td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#DERRICK_OF_AN_AMERICAN_OIL_WELL">DERRICK OF AN AMERICAN OIL WELL</a></td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#ROUMANIAN_HAND_DUG_WELLS">ROUMANIAN HAND-DUG WELLS</a></td> - <td class="tdr">27</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#BUSTENARI_THE_ROUMANIAN_OIL_REGION">BUSTENARI—THE ROUMANIAN OIL REGION</a></td> - <td class="tdr">31</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#EARLY_BURMESE_OIL_PRODUCTION_METHODS">EARLY BURMESE OIL PRODUCTION METHODS</a></td> - <td class="tdr">34</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#EARLY_JAPANESE_DRILLING_METHOD">EARLY JAPANESE DRILLING METHOD</a></td> - <td class="tdr">35</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#VIEW_IN_THE_GALICIAN_FIELDS">VIEW IN THE GALICIAN FIELDS</a></td> - <td class="tdr">37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#OILWELL_HEAVY_ROTARY_OUTFIT">“OILWELL” HEAVY ROTARY OUTFIT</a></td> - <td class="tdr">47</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#PRIMITIVE_METHOD_OF_TRANSPORT">PRIMITIVE METHOD OF TRANSPORT</a></td> - <td class="tdr">65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#OIL_PIPE_LINE_CONNECTIONS">OIL PIPE-LINE CONNECTIONS</a></td> - <td class="tdr">67</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#A_MAMMOTH_TANKER">A MAMMOTH TANKER</a></td> - <td class="tdr">73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#TAKING_OIL_FUEL_ABOARD">TAKING OIL FUEL ABOARD</a></td> - <td class="tdr">81</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#LIQUID_FUEL_BURNERS">LIQUID FUEL BURNERS</a></td> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#OIL_FUEL_FOR_MARINE_PURPOSES">OIL FUEL FOR MARINE PURPOSES</a></td> - <td class="tdr">85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#THE_SCARAB_OIL_BURNER">THE “SCARAB” OIL BURNER</a></td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#AN_OIL_COOKER">AN OIL COOKER</a></td> - <td class="tdr">93</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#VICKERS_NEW_ENGINE_FRONT_VIEW">VICKERS’ NEW ENGINE (FRONT VIEW)</a></td> - <td class="tdr">99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#VICKERS_NEW_ENGINE_REAR_VIEW">VICKERS’ NEW ENGINE (REAR VIEW)</a></td> - <td class="tdr">99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#HIGH_DUTY_ENGINE_FOR_LIGHT_CRAFT">HIGH DUTY ENGINE FOR LIGHT CRAFT</a></td> - <td class="tdr">101</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#LOW_DUTY_MARINE_ENGINE">LOW DUTY MARINE ENGINE</a></td> - <td class="tdr">101</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#THE_PUMPHERSTON_OIL_SHALE_WORKS">THE PUMPHERSTON OIL SHALE WORKS</a></td> - <td class="tdr">138</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#SOME_BURMAH_PRODUCERS">SOME BURMAH PRODUCERS</a></td> - <td class="tdr">154</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span></p> - -<div class="block_border"> -<p class="ph1">THE<br /> - -PETROLEUM TIMES</p> - -<p class="table"> - <span class="trow"> - <span class="tcell tdr">PUBLISHED WEEKLY</span> - <span class="tcell tdr">PRICE 6d.</span> - </span> -</p> - -<p class="ph2">The International<br /> - -Petroleum Journal</p> - -<p>“The Petroleum Times” is Edited by -<span class="smcap">Albert Lidgett</span> and is the most influential -and widely circulated petroleum -journal printed in the United Kingdom.</p> - -<p><i>The fact that you are reading this advertisement -suggests that it has some interest -to you. Then write for a specimen copy -which will gladly be sent.</i></p> - -<p class="copy"><i>Editorial and Publishing Offices</i>:</p> - -<p class="ph2">BROAD STREET PLACE,<br /> -LONDON, E.C.2 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> -</div> - -<p class="ph1">PETROLEUM</p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br /> - -<span class="medium">PETROLEUM AND ITS ORIGIN</span></h2> - -<p>In dealing with the question of petroleum and its -origin, the subject can well be defined under two -headings: one, the origin of the word “petroleum”; -the other, the origin of the mineral itself. As to the -former, this is a matter of historical interest; of the -latter, the question is still in doubt—and the doubt -becomes even the more doubtful, the more the question -is debated.</p> - -<p>Let us, therefore, take first the word “petroleum” -as we know it to-day. It covers a multitude of products -derived from the refining of crude oil, though the word -does not suggest any of them. It is quite a generic -term, and in a general way represents the whole of -that ever-increasing family of hydrocarbons—the refined -products of crude oil. There is no doubt that it derives -its name from the Latin <i>petra oleum</i>, which, literally, -is rock oil, and equivalents of the name are found in -all languages. Even in modern practice we use the -word, though not in a specific sense, while our own -Government usually refers to “petroleum oil,” which, -of course, involves tautology. Crude petroleum is -known throughout the oil-fields of the world as denoting -the crude oil coming from the wells: then we have -petroleum spirit, otherwise the lightest form of refined -oil; we have petroleum distillate, designating an -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -illuminating oil; but, “petroleum oil” is, it is to be -regretted, generally used as suggesting some form of -petroleum product.</p> - -<p>Though the petroleum industry—in its commercial -sense—only goes back some sixty years, the use of -petroleum can be traced to Biblical times, for was it -not the great Prophet Elisha who told the widow to -“Go, sell the oil and pay thy debts and live”?</p> - -<p>Job also speaks of the rock which poured him out -rivers of oil; in Maccabees we find that the priests hid -the fire which they took from the altar in a deep pit -without water; while Nehemiah called the liquid which -burst into flame and kindled a great fire by the name -“Nephthar, which is as much as to say, a cleansing; -but many call it Nephai.” And so, in many parts of -the Old as well as in the New Testament, oil is clearly -referred to, and, in Biblical times, as much later, was -looked upon as a sacred fire.</p> - -<p>Many ancient authors make extensive reference to oil, -prominent among them being Herodotus, who described -the methods adopted at the pits of Kirab for the raising -of the oil, which liquid “gives off a very strong -odour.”</p> - -<p>Petroleum, as known in Biblical times, and as so -widely known to-day, occurs in greater or less quantity -throughout the world, and it is found in the whole range -of strata of the earth’s crust, from the Laurentian rocks -to the most recent members of the Quaternary period, -though it is found in commercial quantities almost -wholly in the comparatively old Devonian and Carboniferous -formations on the one hand or in the various -divisions of the comparatively young Tertiary rocks on -the other.</p> - -<p>The problem of the origin of petroleum has been the -subject of considerable scientific controversy for many -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -years. Not a few of the leading scientists hold to the -theory that petroleum is derived from metallic carbides -lying far beneath the porous strata in which the oil -is stored by Nature, and that even at the present time -the process is in operation. This idea, which may be -termed the inorganic theory of petroleum origin, was -considered to have received substantial support when -it was found that the action of water on the carbides of -certain metals resulted in the liberation of hydrocarbons.</p> - -<p>The view that petroleum is of organic origin is to-day -almost universally accepted, although there is no general -agreement either as to whether petroleum is derived -from vegetable or animal matter, or as to the forms of -life that provided for its genesis. In certain places in -the world—notably on the eastern side of the Caspian -Sea and also near the Mediterranean—there is some -conversion of organic matter into petroleum actually -to be seen to-day. It is not difficult, as the late Sir -Boverton Redwood, Bart., pointed out in an address -before the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1918, -to account for the formation of adequate deposits of -the necessary material. In the comparatively deep -and quiescent water along the margin of the land in -past ages, there would be abundant opportunity for the -deposition not only of the remains of marine animals and -plants, but also of vegetable matter brought down to -the coast by the water courses, and the changes which -the earth has undergone would result in the burial of -these substances under sedimentary mineral matter, -the deposits thus formed being ultimately, as the result -of further alterations in the earth’s surface, frequently -found occupying positions far removed from the sea, -and sometimes beneath immense thicknesses of -subsequent deposits.</p> - -<p>That vegetable matter may be the source of certain -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -petroleums is an opinion that has found increasing -evidence to support it. There are two kinds of vegetable -matter which are possible, terrestrial and aquatic, and -in the deltaic conditions that characterize so many -oil-fields, either could be equally well appealed to as a -source of accumulation. The extensive coal and lignite -deposits in many geological periods bear eloquent -testimony to the presence of carbonaceous matter far -in excess of that required to provide proved supplies -of petroleum. Every important coal-field demonstrates -the fact that vegetable matter can be partially converted -into bituminous compounds or hydrocarbons by natural -processes. Marsh gases often occur in great quantities -in faulted zones in the coal measures, though the -bituminous substances found in coal are not true -bitumens that dissolve in the usual solvents, while -the tars derived from the destructive distillation of -coal in no way resemble natural petroleums or the -products of oil-shale distillation.</p> - -<p>In spite, however, of the outstanding differences -between petroleum, oil-shales and coal, I might here -point out in favour of the vegetable theory of origin, -that actual petroleum and true bitumens have been -found in some coals, though in small quantities, while -solid paraffins have been extracted by means of pyridine -and chloroform. Again, low temperature distillations -have yielded petroleum hydrocarbons, all of which -appear to indicate that even when coal was the overwhelming -product, at certain times and places the -conditions were merging into those which could yield -petroleum. There is no doubt that each of the various -views expressed as to the organic origin of petroleum -contains elements of truth, and it is reasonable to -assume that a substance so varied in its physical and -chemical properties as petroleum has not in all cases -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -been created under precisely the same conditions, or -from an exactly similar source.</p> - -<p>Summing up the whole question of origin, however, -the balance of opinion points to its being the result of -organic action, and that the petroleum which we now -find in the Palaeozoic and Tertiary rocks is substantially -of the same geological age as the rocks themselves.</p> - -<p>Volumes of technological literature have been written -upon this complex question of petroleum origin, and -though these may be of intense interest to the student -of geology, the brief references which I have already -given to the question are sufficient for the purpose of -this little publication.</p> - -<p>The geographical distribution of petroleum throughout -the two hemispheres is no less wide than the geological. -The deposits mainly occur along well-defined lines, often -associated with the mountain ranges. This is chiefly -due to the formation, in the elevatory process, of minor -folds which have arrested and collected the oil in richly -productive belts. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br /> - -<span class="medium">THE OIL-FIELDS OF THE WORLD</span></h2> - -<p>Ever since petroleum and its products entered the -realm of commercial commodities, there has been a -ceaseless search throughout the two hemispheres for -crude oil, and to-day there are comparatively few -countries in the world where the presence of petroleum -has not been proved. The ever-expanding uses of -petroleum, which in their train have called for a continually -increasing demand for crude oil, have given -an impetus to the search for commercially productive -oil-fields, which, in mining history, has no parallel. -On the one hand, we have those important oil-producing -regions which embrace enormous regions of the United -States, Mexico, Russia, Roumania, the Dutch Indies, -India, and Galicia; on the other, we find comparatively -recent enterprise which is bringing into prominence the -newer oil-producing regions of Egypt, Trinidad, Canada, -the Argentine, Algeria, and various parts of Australia -and Japan, though in several of these latter mentioned -countries, the production of petroleum has been -carried on by private means for not only many years, -but even for centuries.</p> - -<p>It naturally follows that, with the constant withdrawal -of large supplies of crude oil from Mother Earth, Nature’s -stores must be growing less, and it is not surprising, therefore, -to hear, with persistent regularity, alarming rumours -of the coming dearth of crude oil. Experts have devoted -considerable time and thought in an endeavour to -arrive at a conclusion as to the length of time it will -take for the withdrawal of practically the whole of the -crude oil from the known deposits in the more developed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -fields: their conclusions, however, are widely different, -for while some assert that in the United States, for -instance, the known fields will cease to be commercially -productive within forty years, others there are who -declare that centuries must elapse before the question -of a failing supply need call for serious consideration.</p> - -<p>But there is one point which must not be overlooked -in this connection, and that is the fact that, while thus -far very few thoroughly developed oil-fields have shown -signs of permanent decay, there are numerous others -which, while having already furnished conclusive proof -of their productivity, have, for the most part, been -but slightly developed. Each passing year registers -the incoming of fresh oil-producing areas, while numerous -regions in practically every part of the world, giving -much promise of the success of ultimate oil developments, -are as yet virgin territory.</p> - -<p>The cry of possible shortage of supply was, fortunately, -made at the opportune moment: it was a word of -warning, and was taken to heart especially by those -associated with the development of the older producing -oil-fields. In these fields—whether we look to America -or Russia—there has always been considerable waste -of crude oil, mostly in regard to furnishing power for -oil-field operations, while the natural gases which exude -from the wells themselves, and to which reference is -made in another chapter, have, in times past, been -allowed to pass uncontrolled into the atmosphere. -To-day, however, we see conservation in every direction—thanks -to the application of scientific and engineering -knowledge, combined with the exercise of care—and -there is no doubt that this new factor will tend in a -greater degree than may at first be imagined toward -the preservation of Nature’s stores of crude oil for -unlimited time. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span></p> - -<p>With these few general remarks, let us proceed to -briefly survey the principal oil-fields of the world, -leaving those which are in the process of development -or exploitation to later consideration.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The United States.</span>—In no other country has such -continuous progress been recorded in connection with -the production of petroleum as in the case of the United -States. Quite recently, the U.S. Geological Survey -estimated that there are no less than 9,000 square miles -of oil-bearing territory in the States, yet the petroleum -industry was not commercially established until the -early sixties of the last century. It was in Pennsylvania -that the industry had its birth, and the troubles which -beset Drake, the pioneer, have filled many pages of -early oil literature. His first well, which produced -quite a modest yield of crude oil, was at Titusville, Pa., -which spot soon became a thriving town. And as -Pennsylvania was the scene of the early successes, it -also became the pivot round which the petroleum -industry of the States prospered for many years. Until -1885, the Pennsylvanian fields furnished over 98 per -cent. of the production of crude oil: then a gradual -decline set in, until, at the present time, Pennsylvanian -regions do not produce 10 per cent. of the oil output -of the United States. No sooner had the petroleum -industry been firmly established in Pennsylvania than -an active search was made for the precious fluid in -various parts of the States, and one by one new oil -regions were opened up, but it is interesting to recall -the fact that, even in the first developed oil-producing -region, no district has been entirely abandoned as -exhausted of oil, for to-day wells are being pumped -quite close to Drake’s first well and the scene of the -birth of the American petroleum industry. In the -zenith of its prosperity, the Pennsylvanian field produced -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> -nearly 5,000,000 tons of crude oil per annum, but to-day -the output has fallen off nearly 40 per cent.</p> - -<p>When it is mentioned that the output of crude -petroleum from the various fields of the United States -last year was over 40,000,000 tons, the magnitude of -America’s oil industry will at once be apparent. The -regions known as the Mid-Continent fields—and which -embrace the extensive oil-producing regions of Kansas -and Oklahoma—are responsible for a very large portion -of this output. Each field has its various “pools,” -the most famous of this part, perhaps, being the Cushing -pool, which came into prominence but a few years ago. -Toward the end of 1914, it was estimated that the daily -output of Cushing was 35,000 tons of crude oil. Cushing, -like all other prolific oil districts, has many interesting -stories associated with its rapid rise as an oil-producing -centre, and there are instances on record where, in the -course of a few days, land values have increased tenfold.</p> - -<p>The rise of the Californian fields, too, is an example -of the rapidity with which oil regions can be developed. -California’s output in 1919 was, roughly, 120,000,000 -barrels of crude oil, or over 14,000,000 tons. It possesses -nearly 900 square miles of oil-lands, and though at -one time a great difficulty was experienced in disposing -of the crude oil production, since it was of a somewhat -low grade, the position has now been reversed, and the -consumption of petroleum products is greater than the -supply. With the improvement of the methods of -drilling, and the debut of the rotary system, it has been -possible not only to drill to much greater depths, but -to considerably reduce the time requisite for drilling a -well to the oil sands. Californian records for quick -drilling with the rotary machine show that wells have -been got down to the producing sands, in some fields -nearly 4,000 feet below the surface, within one month. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -This deep drilling policy, which is now much in vogue -among Californian oil operators, has proved the existence -at the greater depth of larger volume of oil of far better -quality than that met with in the shallow strata, and -it is to the discovery and consequent development of -the deeper oil horizons that much of California’s recent -advance is due.</p> - -<p>Though but of small significance, the oil-wells in -Summerland, Cal., call for mention for the reason that -these are drilled in the sea at quite a distance from the -coast. The encroachment of sea-water to the wells -themselves is prevented by the continuance of the tubes -in the wells to a height above the level of high-water -mark, the produced oil being piped to the mainland.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that a wonderful future awaits -California in regard to its oil export trade. The Far -East is largely drawing upon the State for crude oil for -treatment in the Far Eastern refineries: the oil-burning -vessels of the Pacific rely upon Californian fuel oil for -their supplies, while the opening of the Panama Canal, -and the establishment of oil storage depots there, has -brought California within easy transport distance of -the European markets. During the past few years -several cargoes of Californian refined oil have, in fact, -come upon the English market.</p> - -<p>The oil-fields of Texas have, perhaps, witnessed more -“boom” periods than any other oil regions of the -States. The Gulf coastal fields which embrace Texas -and Louisiana, came into prominence some seventeen -years ago, and they were not long in recording an output -of over 5,000,000 tons in a single twelve months. The -prolific districts of Spindle Top, Sour Lake, Humble, etc., -attracted rapid attention, and the speculator in oil -lands became immensely rich. But these boom periods -cannot be said to be of much real value to the oil -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -industry, for they are always followed by times of -depression, when fortunes are lost almost as quickly -as they have been made. To-day, the Gulf coast fields -have settled down to a period of steady expansion; -systematic development is taking place in every field, -and, as in California, the policy of deep drilling has -been eminently successful.</p> - -<div id="THE_GLEN_POOL" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p011.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE GLEN POOL—ONE OF AMERICA’S OIL PRODUCING CENTRES</p> -</div> - -<p>Space forbids my entering into details respecting the -more recently developed or partially exploited fields of -America, but it is safe to say that there is scarcely a -single State that does not hold out hope for profitable -oil development: this is evidenced by the large amounts -of new capital which are to-day finding employment in -regions which are only commencing their oil-field -history.</p> - -<p>There is no other oil-producing country in the world -where the petroleum industry has reached such a highly -organized state as in the United States. Each producing -field is connected by means of underground pipe-lines -with the trunk pipe-line system, by which it is possible -to pump oil from the most distant fields direct to the -Atlantic seaboard. Some of the principal lines are -hundreds of miles in length. In another chapter I deal -with this wonderful system of oil transportation: it is, -therefore, unnecessary here to more than mention it -<i>en passant</i>. The oil-refining branch of the American -petroleum industry is also particularly well organized -and up to date, but with this subject, too, I deal at -length elsewhere.</p> - -<div id="GEOLOGICAL_SECTION_SHOWING_OIL_SANDS" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p013.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A TYPICAL GEOLOGICAL SECTION SHOWING THE OIL -SANDS</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mexico.</span>—The oil-fields of Mexico can claim to have -leapt into prominence at a far more rapid rate than any -other oil-field of importance in the world. Their -development has been phenomenal, and from being -practically unknown sixteen years ago, they now rank -as the third largest producing regions, coming but next -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -to the United States and Russia. My object in dealing -with the Mexican fields prior to referring to the Russian -petroleum industry is that they may be said to form an -integral part of the fields of the New Continent, and, -from many points of view, are linked up with the -petroleum industry of the United States. Indeed, there -are several authorities who are now urging that it -is to Mexico that the United States Government must -look if it is to be in a position to furnish the major -portion of the petroleum products required for the -markets of the world. Another reason for my dealing -with Mexico at the moment is that, when development -operations are carried a little further, and when ocean -transport facilities are available for adequately dealing -with the flood of Mexican petroleum, there is not the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -slightest doubt that Mexico will rank as the second -largest country of petroleum production. Its annual -output of crude oil is, approximately, 8,000,000 tons, -but even this figure in no way represents the productivity -of its prolific oil-producing regions, for according -to the official statement of the Mexican Government the -production in 1918 represented only 10 per cent. of that -possible. The Mexican wells have no parallel in the -world, large as have been some of the oil-fountains in -Russia.</p> - -<p>It will be of great interest here to refer briefly to -these, and though it would be impossible to detail all -those Mexican wells which have ranked quite outside -the limits of ordinary producers, I will touch only upon -two of these remarkable oil gushers. They both were -drilled on the properties owned by the well-known -English firm of Pearsons, the operating company being -the “Aguila” (Mexican Eagle) Company. It was in 1906 -when the Company commenced active drilling operations -in Northern Vera Cruz, and though these were very -successful from the start, it was two years later that -the famous “Dos Bocas” well came in. A heavy gas -pressure developed when the rotary drill was down just -over 1,800 feet, and in a few minutes the internal -pressure manifested itself by bursting the wire-wrapped -hose connected with the drilling apparatus. The oil -then commenced to come to the surface in an immense -stream, and in twenty minutes the well was beyond -control. Fissures began to appear in the ground at -considerable distance from the well, and through these -came oil and gas. One of these fissures opened directly -under the boilers, and though the fires had been drawn, -the gas ignited. The position was well-nigh hopeless -from the start, the well itself was throwing out an -8-inch column of oil hundreds of feet in the air. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -force of the volume of oil below ground flung the heavy -English drill pipe out of the well, and soon it became -impossible to approach within 300 feet of the “mad -gusher.” The flames of fire are said to have reached -1,000 feet in height, and inasmuch as all ground round -the well had fallen into the cavity caused, they were -over 50 feet in diameter. And for 58 days did this -gusher burn with all the fury imaginable, its glare -being seen far out at sea. Anything approaching an -approximate production of oil from this well will never -be made: it can safely be recorded, however, that its -mad flow of oil ran into many millions of barrels, and -it is placed on record that nearly 2,000,000 tons of solid -earth were carried away by the force of the oil from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -the well’s mouth, for a crater of nearly 120,000 square -metres was formed round the well.</p> - -<div id="A_GUSHER_UNDER_CONTROL" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p015.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A GUSHER OF THE MEXICAN EAGLE CO. UNDER -CONTROL—A DOME BUILT OVER THE MOUTH</p> -</div> - -<p>Toward the end of 1910 another surprise was in -store for those in charge of drilling operations for the -Company, for it was then that the world famous -“Protero del Llano” gusher came in. This well ranks -as one of the largest, if not the largest, ever associated -with the petroleum industry. Its estimated daily flow -was over 125,000 barrels, and within three months -the well had produced over 8,000,000 barrels of crude -oil.</p> - -<p>During November, 1919, a new field at Naranjos was -developed by the Mexican Eagle Co., and the first three -wells to come into production, commenced to yield -over 30,000 tons daily.</p> - -<p>It says much for the enterprise of the Pearson (Lord -Cowdray) interests that they have been able to build -up such a remarkable business in Mexico’s oil industry -in so comparatively a short space of time. The production -of crude oil, as everyone knows, is but the first -link in a long chain of commercial oil operations. -To-day, the Mexican Eagle Oil Company owns considerably -over 250 miles of pipe-line (mostly of 8-inch -capacity), possess several miniature railways, and on -the fields of production has bulk oil storage accommodation -for several million barrels of crude oil. It has -also two large refineries—one at Minatitlan and another -at Tampico, which together are capable of handling -over 5,000 tons (about 35,000 barrels) of crude oil -daily, and turning the same into a complete range of -high-grade products—motor spirit, illuminating oils, -lubricants, fuel oil, paraffin wax, and an asphalt for -road-making.</p> - -<p>An interesting equipment of this Company in Mexico -is that of its sea-loading pipe-lines at Tuxpam. Here, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -the water inside the bar is too shallow to allow the -gigantic bulk oil-carriers of the Company’s associated -concern—the Eagle Oil Transport Company, Ltd.—to -come alongside and load. Pipe-lines have accordingly -been laid on the bed of the sea reaching out to a loading -terminal a mile and a half out at sea. Here, the pipe-lines -are connected with the steamers by means of -flexible hose, and three or four tank vessels can be -loaded simultaneously from the storage tanks on shore. -In one recent twelve months alone over 200 oil tankers -were so loaded in this way, and on the average, each -was loaded and dispatched within 2½ days, for the -pipe-line facilities permit of 10,000 tons of oil being -pumped into the vessel’s tanks every 24 hours.</p> - -<div id="DERRICK_OF_AN_AMERICAN_OIL_WELL" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p017.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">INSIDE THE DERRICK OF AN AMERICAN OIL WELL</p> -</div> - -<p>There are several large amalgamations of capital -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -interested in the development of the Mexican fields—American -and English, while, prior to the war, the -Germans had anxious eyes upon this growing industry, -and even formulated plans whereby German interests -would be largely represented in its future.</p> - -<p>While on the subject of the Mexican fields, might I -say that no other oil-producing regions have, in the -short space of time during which developments have -taken place, exercised such an influence upon the -international oil situation as has Mexico. This may be -traced to the fact that Mexican oil is an admirable -liquid fuel, and as such is now in regular use the world -over. The vast consuming centres in the South -American Continent have seen that, whereas coal is -very dear, it is possible to secure almost unlimited -supplies of Mexican fuel oil almost at their own doors, -while overseas, consequent upon the advent of the -fuel oil age, Mexican fuel oil is playing a most important -part, and to-day is in great demand for the mercantile -fleet.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Russia.</span>—Long before the commercial value of -petroleum and its products was established, Baku—the -present centre of the Russian petroleum industry—had -become famous for its “Eternal Fires,” and it -was to that place the Parsees made pilgrimages -for over 1,000 years; in fact, centuries before the -Russians occupied the Caucasus, the tribes of Persia -eagerly sought the oils of Baku for their curative -qualities.</p> - -<p>The Russian oil-fields have an output of, approximately, -10,000,000 tons annually, or, roughly, 15 per -cent. of the world’s total production of crude oil. -Since the time when the petroleum industry was placed -upon a commercial footing, the Russian fields have -produced 230,000,000 tons of petroleum. Enormous -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -though this quantity is, it has been more than doubled -by the United States.</p> - -<p>The oil-fields of Baku have gained a distinction for -the reason that numerous individual wells have given -forth a flood of crude oil which has, with very few -exceptions, been unknown in other petroliferous regions. -The Baku fields proper embrace the districts of Balakhany, -Saboontchi, Romany, and Bibi Eibat: the first -three districts stand on a plateau but a few miles from -Baku, while Bibi Eibat is located quite near the Caspian -Sea, on a bay from which the field takes its name. -One remarkable feature of these fields—as showing -their prolific oil content—is that the four main oil-producing -districts in Baku have an area of less than -4,000 acres. It is in this locality that the Russian -petroleum industry, having had its birth, became -centred, and though it is known that there are several -really promising oil areas in this south-western part of -the Caucasus, the fact that the lands belong to the State -has been a sufficient stumbling-block to development -in the past.</p> - -<p>Apart from the Baku fields, the most highly developed -oil-field of importance in Russia is that of Grosny, which -is situated on the northern slopes of the Caucasian -range and connected with the Vladicaucas railway by -a branch line. The Grosny field, however, has only -been developed during the past fifteen years in what -may be called a commercial sense, but its operated area -is almost double that of Baku. It has greatly suffered -owing to the inadequacy of transport facilities, but in -1919 a project was drafted to build a pipe-line to the -Black Sea.</p> - -<p>It is not a feature of this little publication that -minor regions shall be all enumerated, and thus I may -be forgiven if I refer but to one of the several new -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -districts which have recently attracted the attention -of both oil operators and speculators. I refer to the -Maikop fields, which prominently came before the -British investing public in 1910, and which were directly -responsible for the oil boom of that year. A few -months before, a very prolific spouter of oil had been -struck in Maikop, which was then quite an agricultural -centre, and enormous excitement followed. Land was -quickly taken over at ever-increasing prices, and the -boom, for which English capital was largely responsible, -lasted for several months. There have been many -opinions put forward by supposed experts in oil geology -for and against the Maikop oil region, but the kindest -thing of all that can be said for the district is that, -while there was really no justification for the remarkable -Maikop oil boom of 1910, there was certainly no reason -why public opinion should so rapidly change in regard -to its potentialities. I have every reason to believe -that some day Maikop will justify the optimistic opinions -held for it during the boom, but in the eyes of the -English investor the region bears the stamp of fraud, -for the simple reason that so many have invested their -savings in it, and have been doomed to acute -disappointment.</p> - -<p>Some millions of English money went into Maikop -oil enterprises during that ill-fated oil boom, but a -very small percentage of this went to really prove -the contents of the lower strata. The fact that the -ground was simply “scratched” and condemned -because it did not respond with oil fountains, cannot in -the slightest affect the ultimate career of the Maikop -oil region, the presence of oil in which has been known -even from ancient times. Looking back upon that -Maikop oil boom, one cannot but express surprise at -our gullibility generally: we stake our faith and our -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -capital upon what at the best is a sheer gamble, and we -seem content if we find that anything approaching -20 per cent. of the money subscribed actually goes -into the serious development of the scheme which we -fancied. There are a few who grow suddenly rich upon -the spoils of such oil booms—I know some of these -personally, and to me it has always been a source of -keen regret that the State does not exercise something -of a rigid control over these publicly invested funds. -I cannot here refrain, while on the subject of the Maikop -oil boom, just making a remark as to the overrated -value which the public generally attach to the reports -of many gentlemen looked upon as oil experts. Some -remarkable stories are associated with the locking up -(and loss) of English moneys in the Maikop boom, but -the strangest I know is of a Russian who came to -England when the boom was at its height, for the -purpose of selling a number of Maikop oil claims. -There were many prospective buyers, but it was necessary -to possess a report from some supposed “oil -expert.” To save time, the seller of the claims drafted -what he considered quite an alluring statement, and -the next day the report, couched in the same language, -bore the “expert’s” signature. And the “wheeze” -worked.</p> - -<p>But to return to the main subject. Prior to 1870, -the crude petroleum in the Baku district, as well as -in the minor fields of Russia, was obtained from surface -pits, dug by hand, and rarely more than 50 feet deep, -and the production was carried away from the mouth -of the shaft in leathern bottles. The general arrangements -were on the most primitive lines, but, nevertheless, -the industry—such as it was then—thrived. Even to-day -in several fields in Russia we see the survival of the -hand-dug wells, but they are steadily becoming a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -feature of a page of oil-field history which is almost -filled.</p> - -<p>It was in 1873 that Robert Nobel went to Baku, and -to his enterprise and technical genius a great deal of -the subsequent rapid development of the Russian -industry is due. Boring by steam power was introduced, -and the deeper oil horizons were reached, but, owing -to the depth at which the strata became commercially -productive, it was necessary to commence the well with -a starting diameter of 36-40 inches, so as to ensure the -requisite depth being obtained with a workable size of -baler—for the Baku crude oils are “baled” from the -wells. Upon the question of baling wells, I shall have -something to say in another chapter.</p> - -<p>Under the improved conditions which were introduced -in methods of boring and operating the oil-wells, the -industry steadily expanded, the general awakening of -boring enterprise being best reflected in the number -of oil-wells in operation in subsequent years. For -instance, in 1893, the Baku fields could boast of but -458 bore-holes; in 1898, the number had increased to -1,107; in 1903, it was about 2,000; while in 1911, there -were over 3,000 bore-holes in the Baku fields. There -has been a steady decline in the number of these bore-holes -since 1914 due in some part, I assume, to the -difficulties of securing the requisite materials for new -boring, combined with the enormous increase in the -cost of the same. The drilling of the wells in Russia is -a very expensive item, for they cost from anything over -£10,000 up to £15,000, and usually take a couple of -years to drill. But when they are down to the producing -strata and commence production, it can be taken -for granted that they will continue, providing ordinary -care is taken of the well itself, for many years to -profitably produce. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span></p> - -<p>The Russian petroleum industry is in the hands of -a large number of operating firms, the majority of -which work quite independently of each other, and -these independent firms are responsible for more than -one-half of the total output. The other production of -the crude oil, representing certainly over 40 per cent., is -in the hands of combines representing the large and -middle-class firms, prominent among which we get the -firm of Messrs. Nobel Brothers, the “Shell” group, -and the General Russian Corporation.</p> - -<p>The refining of the crude oil is carried out in Baku, -the portion of the town in which this operation takes -place being known as Blacktown. It does not belie -its name either. At one time these refineries, or at -least many of them, were erected in the centre of the -town of Baku, or near it, and made it almost uninhabitable -by their smoke, smell, and refuse, the latter flowing -into the streets and the harbour. A special district -was therefore selected, to which all had to remove, and -it is this portion of the town which forms “Blacktown” -to-day.</p> - -<p>One of the great difficulties of the Russian refining -industry in its commencement was due to the fact that -sulphuric acid, so absolute a necessity in petroleum -refining, had to be brought from Europe at great -expense, but in 1883, Messrs. Nobel built a factory for -its production on the spot from Caucasian pyrites, -mined in the neighbourhood of Alexandropol. Other -factories for the same purpose and for the regeneration -of the acids have since that time been established.</p> - -<p>As in other great industries, so in regard to the -methods by which the Russian crude oil is transported -and to-day handled, great strides forward have been -made since the early days. Then the whole of the -prevailing conditions were primitive: crude oil, for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -instance, was carried from the Baku wells to the refineries -in skins and barrels loaded on carts or camels. Messrs. -Nobel Brothers were the first to lay a pipe-line to their -factory, but later on pipes were laid between the -refineries and the harbour, these obvious improvements -meeting with fierce resistance on the part of the workpeople. -The transport of the refined products from -Baku to the consumers was equally difficult. There -was then no railway from Baku to Tiflis, and the only -way to the Black Sea was thus effectively shut off. -On the other hand, the navigation of the Volga was only -possible during six months of the year, while the -monopoly of water transport on the Caspian Sea -imposed high rates on all Baku petroleum products.</p> - -<p>Improvements were again due to the enterprise of -Messrs. Nobel Brothers, who built the first cistern -waggons for transporting oil on the railways, instead -of using the old wooden barrels, which were far from -satisfactory. In order, too, to open an outlet on the -Black Sea, the same firm, in 1889, constructed a pipe-line -from Mikhailovo to Kvirili, over the Suram mountains. -Now, of course, we have the great pipe-line -running from Baku to Batoum, a distance of nearly -560 miles, and which is responsible for the transport of -the quantities of Russian oil exported.</p> - -<p>But the Russian petroleum industry has always -existed more or less under a cloud. The old regime of -Government did not attempt to foster and encourage -the industry from which it received so much yearly in -royalties, for it must be recollected that the Russian -State was the chief gainer by the exploitation of the -Baku oil lands, owing to the prevalence of the system -of royalties. It seemed to be content to leave the -industry to its fate, so long as it received therefrom so -substantial a sum in royalties, etc. Instances are on -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -record where operating firms pay the Government -40 per cent., or even more, of their crude oil production -as royalties—payment for the privilege of taking the -oil from the ground. Such conditions have been relentlessly -imposed, and it is not surprising to find that, -operating under this burden of expense, numerous firms -find it quite out of the question to earn profits for their -shareholders. Several English enterprises come into -this category, but the fault is not of their seeking; it is, -however, to be regretted, for once an equitable system -of payments is arranged, the Russian petroleum industry -will expand in a healthy manner, and become a much -greater source of revenue to the State than it is at -present.</p> - -<p>But, apart from the troubles which have to be faced -by the Baku oil producers, and which we may call -Governmental, the relation between the employers and -workpeople is far from being friendly. To-day, of -course, it is worse than it was under the old regime of -the Tzar, and then it was bad enough. The oil-field -workman in Russia is the incarnation of all that is -unsatisfactory. He works when he thinks he will, he -labours under grievances, many of which are purely -imaginary, and then he ventilates his spite upon his -masters. The pages of history tell of many a conflict -between capital and labour in the Baku oil-fields, with -the consequent burning of all that would take fire on -the fields, and the damaging of the producing wells -by the workpeople. Instances are placed on record -where, in a single night, dozens of productive oil-wells, -which have taken years to bring into production, have -been irreparably damaged by these oil-field workers. -Their life, admitted, is nothing to write books upon, -and their environments are in some cases of the worst -description, rendered no better by the natural aptitude -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> -of the people themselves. But their views upon labour -are of the most Utopian imaginable. During recent -years, there has been a sort of combination between -these operatives, whose socialistic tendencies run high, -and less than two years ago they collectively put before -the managers of the oil-fields the conditions under which -they would in future work. There were nearly 100 -different claims detailed, and a few of these are worthy -of mention, as showing the appreciation of fairness -which is instilled in the mind of the Russian oil-field -worker. In the first place, a 50 per cent. increase in -wages was desired, this to be retrospective. Holidays -had to be paid for by the masters, and when the worker -went on strike he had to receive his full pay from the -master until such strike was settled. Then the workmen -had to be represented on the board of management -of the companies, their houses had to be improved by -the masters, free railway and tramway accommodation -had to be provided, etc. Generally, the demands put -forward were distinctly arbitrary, though in many cases -very humorous.</p> - -<p>Recent events in the conduct of affairs in Russia do -not suggest that great improvements may be expected -in the near future, either in regard to the attitude of -the Government toward the Russian petroleum industry, -or to the attitude of the workers to those responsible -for oil-field operations. Even before the European War, -the Russian petroleum industry was rather on the -decline. The only hope that can be expressed at this -juncture is that when Russia possesses a stable government, -and the country enters upon a period of peaceful -progress, the Mining Department will take care that -Russia takes its proper position as one of the most -important oil-producing countries in the world. But -before this comes about, there will have to be a complete -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -revision of the Government’s policy respecting oil -royalties. The destruction, however, wrought in Baku -towards the end of 1918 will take several years to make -good.</p> - -<div id="ROUMANIAN_HAND_DUG_WELLS" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p027.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ROUMANIA: A FEW OF THE HAND DUG WELLS IN BUSTENARI</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Roumania.</span>—During comparatively recent time, -Roumania has come prominently forward as one of -the large petroleum-producing countries of the world, -and its yearly output of crude oil, according to latest -returns, is about 11,000,000 barrels, or, say, 1,600,000 -tons. The production of petroleum in the country, -however, has been proceeding for centuries, for, in the -seventeenth century, the peasants were in the habit of -digging wells by hand and selling the crude oil for -medicinal purposes, the greasing of cart-wheels, as well -as for lighting. There are many places in Roumania -which are named from petroleum, a fact which points -to the existence of the industry long before the present-day -methods of extraction were thought of. Several -hundreds of these hand-dug wells still exist round the -fringe of the Transylvanian and Carpathian Alps, and -though many of them have now fallen into decay, there -are numerous others from which a payable quantity -of petroleum is extracted by primitive methods.</p> - -<p>The hand-dug wells in Roumania are highly interesting -relics of a period which is now relegated to the past, -though so long as the Roumanian petroleum industry -exists, so long will the old hand-dug wells be associated -with it. These wells are about 5 feet in diameter, and -are sunk through alternate layers of clay, schisty clay, -sandy clay, sandstone, and petroliferous sand to the -more shallow oil horizons. They are dug by workmen -who descend dressed with the minimum of clothing, -usually saturated with oil, and wearing a tin hat to -protect the head from falling stones, etc. The sides of -the wells are lined with impermeable clay, which is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -protected by wicker-work. The man is lowered by a -rope, air being supplied to him by means of bellows. -At some places the rotary fan was employed more -recently, but somehow it frequently happened that it -was operated in the wrong direction, and the unfortunate -digger was asphyxiated. These old wells have a depth -of about 450 feet, and though their yield of oil is not -considerable, it has for many years been a paying -proposition to those engaged in this primitive method -of petroleum production. The excavated earth, when -digging these wells, was brought to the surface in -buckets, lowered and raised by means of either manual -labour or horse traction. When the first oil source -was reached and the extraction of the crude oil commenced, -this was accomplished by means of the use of -wooden buckets or leather skins, one being lowered -empty while the other was raised full. By this means -it was possible to raise as much as 20 tons of the oil -per day—quite a considerable amount, considering the -primitive means adopted.</p> - -<p>Mechanical developments throughout the Roumanian -oil-fields on a more or less serious scale began about -1898, as the result of the introduction of foreign capital, -and, from that time to the present, the history of the -Roumanian petroleum industry has been one steady -period of continued expansion. Various systems of -drilling have been introduced into the work of developing -old fields or opening up new centres, but in regard to -these I shall deal at length in another chapter. The -advent of the rotary method of drilling, however, -opened up a new era for expansion in 1912, and since -that time Roumania has made more marked progress -than at any time previously.</p> - -<p>The Roumanian oil-fields, as at present defined, cover -a region roughly 20 miles in width, and extend to a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> -length of between 300 and 400 miles, with, of course, -numerous breaks. Of the numerous petroliferous regions -in Roumania, those of Campina-Bustenari, Gura-Ocnitza, -Moreni, and Baicoi-Tzintea among them -provide about 95 per cent. of the total production, -and, with the one exception of the Moreni field, all -have been previously exploited by hand-dug wells.</p> - -<p>The prosperity of the Roumanian industry has been -directly the result of the influx of foreign capital, and -the majority of the 550,000,000 francs employed in it, -is mostly made up of British, American, and German -capital. The principal English Company in the fields -is the Roumanian Consolidated Oil-fields, Ltd., which -concern, with its capital of one and three-quarter -millions sterling, represents an amalgamation of many -small companies.</p> - -<p>Space forbids my referring at length to the momentous -happenings in the Roumanian fields towards the end -of 1916, but they will ever form one of the most interesting—and -at the same time the most tragic—incidents -associated with Roumania’s petroleum industry. At -that time, the German armies were pushing their way -toward Roumania, and, in fact, having crossed the -border, were marching on for possession not merely of -territorial gains, but in order to secure themselves of -large quantities of petroleum products by capturing the -prolific oil-fields of the country. It was at that critical -time that the British Government sent out its Military -Mission, headed by Colonel (now Sir) John Norton -Griffiths, completely to destroy all that was valuable in -connection with the oil-fields, the refineries, and the -installations. One night the Mission arrived at the -offices of the Roumanian Consolidated Oil-fields, Ltd., -and made its plan of campaign clear. There was -nothing to be done but to fall in with it, and the following -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -morning practically everything was destroyed, or -rather, a start was made to destroy it. And the destruction -was carried out in a complete manner, for not only -one, but several concerns which had been steadily built -up to perfection as the result of many years of careful -and systematic expansion, were all wiped out, excepting -in name. The oil-wells were plugged beyond all hope -of repair, the refineries were dismantled, machinery -broken, pipe-line connections damaged, and both crude -and refined oil stocks burned. It was the most tragic -proceeding ever recorded in oil-field history, but it -was necessary, and not carried out one day too soon, -for the incoming armies were dangerously near.</p> - -<div id="BUSTENARI_THE_ROUMANIAN_OIL_REGION" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p031.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">BUSTENARI—ROUMANIA’S FAMOUS OIL REGION</p> -</div> - -<p>The Germans lost no time in making good a great -deal of the damage to the fields, and at the time of -the armistice it was stated that the crude oil output -of Roumania was up to 80 per cent. of its pre-war -level.</p> - -<p>Now that the various allied interests are again -operating in the Roumanian fields, considerable expansion -of the country’s petroleum industry is being -planned, though the pre-war German interests therein -are now taken over by the Allies.</p> - -<p>During the past decade Roumania has necessarily -catered for the export trade, for the volume of crude -oil produced has been far beyond its requirements. -The great petroleum storage port of Constantza has -been made the centre for this export business, and the -completion of a trunk pipe-line from the Roumanian -refineries to the port was one of the most recent enterprises -undertaken by the Roumanian Government prior -to the war. During the period when Roumania was -under German control its terminal point was so changed -that the line ran to a spot which rendered the transport -of petroleum to Germany a matter of ease. Now, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -however, Germany’s plans have been frustrated, and -Roumania’s great pipe-line will have its terminal point -at Constantza, where all kinds of petroleum products -can be pumped direct to the oil tankers.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Dutch Indies.</span>—The growth of the petroleum -industry in the Dutch Indies has been surprisingly -rapid, and this growth synchronizes with the advent -of the “Shell” Company into the Far Eastern fields. -It is stated that there are many hundreds of square miles -of territory in the East Indian Islands which can be -remuneratively developed; at the moment, however, -though but the fringe of exploitation has been touched, -the production has been amazing. Eighteen years ago, -it was placed at 300,000 tons of crude oil; last year it -nearly reached 2,000,000 tons. In Sumatra several -companies successfully operated for many years, but -most of them eventually became merged with the -Royal Dutch Company, whose interests now are also -those of the “Shell” Company. As to Borneo, the -“Shell” Company commenced active developments in -1900, or thereabouts, for it had acquired an area of -approximately 460 square miles. The fields rapidly -responded to the drill, and the crude oil production rose -by leaps and bounds. The crude was of a high-grade -character, and for a long time it taxed the energies of -those responsible for the good conduct of the concern, -as to exactly what should be done with some of the -refined products. As a matter of fact, some thousands -of tons were burned, for at that time there was little -or no demand for motor spirit. I well remember when -the Company’s Chairman—Sir Marcus Samuel—faced -the shareholders in 1900 and explained that if only the -Company could realize 6d. per gallon for its motor spirit, -what handsome profits would accrue. But events have -marched quickly since those days. The motor-car has -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -come to stay, and what seemed a useless product of the -Far Eastern oils in the early days of development, is -now one of the chief sources of revenue. The advent -of the heavier motor spirits has also been of great -benefit to the Borneo petroleum industry, for the public -has grown accustomed to recognize that it is not specific -gravity which counts in the quality of motor spirit, but -the closeness of the boiling points of its constituent -fractions. To-day, the Far Eastern fields supply -enormous quantities of refined products to the consuming -markets of the Eastern hemisphere, and so long -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -as the supplying centres continue their present productivity, -there need be no talk of approaching famine, -for, if necessary—providing facilities permitted—these -regions could materially increase their present output -of petroleum products.</p> - -<div id="EARLY_BURMESE_OIL_PRODUCTION_METHODS" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p034.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">OIL PRODUCTION IN THE EARLY DAYS OF THE -INDUSTRY IN BURMAH</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">India</span> also ranks to-day as a very important petroleum -producing region, the fields of Upper Burmah—in which -the Burmah Oil Company operates—being responsible -for practically the whole production. In another part -of this little publication, I deal briefly with this Company’s -operations, so, for the moment, it is sufficient -to mention that, though to-day they produce large -quantities of petroleum, there are several new districts -which show much promise of new production. For -many years the Upper Burmah fields were exploited by -means of very shallow wells: it was only when the -deeper strata were reached that the potentialities of the -region became fully manifest.</p> - -<div id="EARLY_JAPANESE_DRILLING_METHOD" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p035.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">AN OLD JAPANESE WAY OF OPERATING THE WELLS -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Japan</span>, as an oil-producing country, affords food for -an interesting story, for it was here that very early -attempts were made to develop production. Even in -the seventh century, the Emperor was presented with -“burning water” with which the Palace was lighted. -The crude oil was collected from pools, or, alternately, -wells were dug by hand, the process of extraction being -very picturesque, if very primitive. To-day, Echigo is -the centre of the industry, for which the introduction of -European methods of drilling have worked wonders -in regard to progress. The Celestials consume large -quantities of petroleum, especially for lighting purposes, -and in spite of the now considerable yields from the -wells, a gigantic trade is regularly done in imported oils, -especially those of American origin, for which there is -a most up-to-date organization for distribution. The -statement that American petroleum products find their -way to every quarter of the globe is strangely exemplified -in Japan (as also in China), where the ubiquitous tin -container for petroleum can be seen in the most isolated -parts.</p> - -<div id="VIEW_IN_THE_GALICIAN_FIELDS" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p037.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE GALICIAN FIELDS, SHOWING DAMAGE DONE BY THE RUSSIAN ARMIES -WHEN RETREATING IN 1916</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Galicia.</span>—Since the commencement of the period -when petroleum and its products assumed a degree of -industrial importance, the Galician oil regions have -attracted considerable attention. The area of the oil-fields -extends over a length of 200 miles, and in width -varies from 40 to 60 miles, and though in this territory -several fields of considerable note have for many years -been systematically developed, there is enormous scope -for future operations. Its annual output of crude oil, -which nearly reached 1,900,000 tons in 1909, is in itself -suggestive of the extensive manner in which the oil-producing -fields have been developed during late years. -The oil-field history of Galicia is particularly interesting, -for the oil seepages round Boryslaw have been exploited -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -for very many years. Long before the introduction of -the drilling methods of modern times, the shallow oil -sources in the Galician fields were tapped by means of -the hand-dug wells, but it was only when the first drilled -well was sunk in 1862 that the real value of the Galician -ozokerite, which abounds in many places in the oil-fields, -was appreciated by the operators. This ozokerite is -one of the most valuable of bitumens, and though found -in several countries, is nowhere met with in such large -quantities as in Galicia. The ozokerite there fills the -fissures in the much disturbed <i>cpaly</i>, and evidently -originates from a natural process of concentration. The -mines are operated by modern machinery, and the -industry in Galicia has reached a stage of great importance, -some thousands of tons of the mineral being yearly -raised. The material is refined, and the resulting wax -serves numerous commercial purposes, the refining -taking place in the Austro-Hungarian refineries. Considerable -quantities of the raw material are exported -to Germany and Russia, while the refined products are -well known on the export markets. About seven years -ago, serious water trouble materially reduced the production -of the Galician oil-wells (for when the water -courses are not properly shut off, water may encroach -and cause the loss of the producing well), but the -trouble was to some extent surmounted by the taking of -greater care in cementing the wells. The introduction -and consequent popularity of the modern drilling -methods which were introduced by Mr. W. H. Margarvey -in 1882 permitted the testing of the deeper horizons of -the Galician fields, and to-day wells are by no means -uncommon with depths up to and sometimes exceeding -4,000 feet. The Boryslaw-Tustanowice district still -continues to be the centre of the crude oil production, -but several new oil areas with great promise have -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -been opened up during the past six years. Naturally, -the European War has retarded development work -considerably, and the Galician fields have on more -than one occasion been the scene of battle. At one -time in 1915 they passed over to the Russians, but when -the Russian retreat occurred later from Lemberg, -considerable damage was done to the fields in order to -prevent their being of immediate use to the enemy. -The wells were seriously damaged, and the State refinery -at Drohobitz was partially dismantled, while immense -reserves of refined oil stocks were burned.</p> - -<p>The Galician oil industry has for years attracted the -attention of foreign capitalists, for the highly remunerative -nature of petroleum exploitation is generally -appreciated. Prior to the European war German -capital was very largely interested in the Galician -industry, and the majority of Allied companies had -Germans as their local representatives, but all this -is now changed, and in the future Allied capital -will be considerably increased. The Premier Company -is the largest English concern in the Galician -fields.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Germany</span> has made great endeavours in the past to -institute a petroleum industry of its own, but no great -success has been recorded, for while it does possess -several oil-producing areas, these are only small fields, -with a very limited yield of heavy petroleums. The -wells, though producing for many years steadily, do -not give forth those large quantities of petroleum so -characteristic of the best wells in other petroleum-producing -fields, and flowing wells are indeed very rare. -Germany, therefore, has to look to imported petroleum -for its large demands.</p> - -<p>In a succeeding chapter I refer at length to those oil -regions which come within the limits of a chapter, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -“Petroleum in the British Empire”: there is no need -at the moment to make reference to them here.</p> - -<p>Space does not permit my even briefly touching upon -the many other oil regions of the world which are now -being successfully operated; it is certain, however, as -time goes on that their number will be materially -increased. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br /> - -<span class="medium">HOW PETROLEUM IS PRODUCED</span></h2> - -<p>Time was when the engineering aspect of the production -of petroleum was practically non-existent. The ancients, -and even those of the last century, were content to -resort to the most primitive means for winning petroleum -from the earth. Shallow wells were sunk or dug by -hand, the eventual securing of the oil being carried -out by lowering primitive receptacles (generally leather -bottles) into the hole. It was a period long before the -advent of the Oil Age, and the methods employed were -clearly in keeping with the mode of life of that day. -In practically every oil-producing field of the world—though -in this respect the United States is almost an -exception—the history records the fact that for many -years the extraction of oil from the ground was confined -to the use of the primitive methods which held sway in -those days—those associated with the operations of the -hand-dug wells. In the Far East, notably in Japan, we -find the first serious attempts to obtain and utilize -petroleum, for as far back as <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 615, there were shallow -wells in existence, from which the “burning water,” -as it was called, was collected. In Roumania and -Russia, too, the earlier attempts to create a petroleum -industry were confined to these methods.</p> - -<p>It was only when the demand for petroleum became -large and consistently increased with the opening up -of new fields, that we find other and more practical -methods were introduced for winning larger quantities of -the oil from the earth. To-day, in every branch of -the industry associated with petroleum—whether it be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -in producing the crude oil, in transporting it, or in -refining Nature’s product into those numerous commodities -which are part and parcel of everyday life—the -engineering aspect is one of very great importance. -In fact, throughout the petroleum industry, engineering -science is the Alpha and Omega. By its means we are -now able to carefully study the nature of the ground at -depths of 6,000 feet, and to extract from the deep lying -strata a wealth of minerals; we are able, too, to transport -thousands of tons of crude oil daily across thousands of -miles of continent, while is it not the direct result of -engineering science which allows over 15,000 tons of -petroleum products to be carried across the oceans of -the world in one vessel with the same ease that one -would take a rowing boat from one side of a lake to -another?</p> - -<p>Great, however, as have been the degrees of progress -recorded in connection with drilling for petroleum, the -old methods, generally speaking, and which date back -to the days of early China, are still largely copied in all -pole and percussion systems of drilling, and though -steam has replaced manual labour (and electricity now -bids fair to replace steam), the operating principles -to-day are the same as then. The only exception, of -course, is the advent and growing popularity of the -rotary method of drilling, to which interesting phase of -the subject I will briefly refer later.</p> - -<p>The old Eastern method of drilling has obviously -been the forerunner of the Canadian, standard, and -other systems of to-day, the wire rope replacing the -use of poles. In oil-field work, the principal types of -percussion drills used are known (1) as the Pennsylvanian -cable, (2) the Canadian pole, and (3) the Russian free-fall -system, and though from time to time many attempts -have been made to introduce modifications of these, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> -the vast majority have been unsuccessful in their -operation.</p> - -<p>The Pennsylvanian cable system was used for drilling -the earliest oil-wells in the United States, and doubtless -took its name from the fact that it was so largely used -in that oil region. As may also be gathered from the -name, the principal feature in this system is the cable -by which the tools are suspended and connected to the -walking beam. There is no doubt that this system of -drilling, which has been so universally used in the -oil-fields, gives most satisfactory results. When first -introduced in Pennsylvania, the cable system of drilling -was particularly simple, and did remarkably good work, -for the reason that the strata usually encountered was -of such a nature that it did not cave, and, as a result, -the well-pipe was only lowered when the full depth of -that string had been drilled. The drilling bits were -seldom more than 4 inches thick. In order to give a -rotary motion to the bit, the continuous twisting of the -cable to and fro was necessary; but when in other fields, -where deeper strata had to be explored, the cable -system was introduced, the semi-sandy nature of the -strata called for wells of larger diameter with correspondingly -larger drilling bits. As a consequence of -the additional weight of the drilling bit, it was found -that the swing of the tools was sufficient to give them a -rotating movement for the drilling of a circular hole. -In regions where caving-in of the walls of the wells was -liable to occur, the string of pipe had to closely follow -the tools, which, with the old Pennsylvanian type of rig, -meant frequent winding of the cable from the bull -wheel, so as to allow of the well pipes being handled.</p> - -<p>In order to prevent the waste of time which these -operations occasioned, the calf wheel was added, by -means of which the pipe could be lowered into the hole -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -without the removal of the drilling cable. This cable -almost invariably was of the Manila character, and in -many instances this rope is retained to-day, though wire -ropes have been introduced frequently.</p> - -<p>The Canadian pole system, which is largely in use in -oil-field operations, is, like the first-mentioned method -of drilling, of the percussion type, the chief essential -difference being that, instead of a cable connecting the -tools to the surface, poles are used. In former times, -these poles were of ash-wood, but with the extended -use of the system, iron rods took their place. The -introduction of these iron rods was a distinct advantage, -for they could be welded to whatever lengths are -required, whereas the wooden poles, which were seldom -more than 20 feet long, had to be spliced for practical -work. The rig used with the Canadian system is not -so powerful as that for the Pennsylvanian method, but -the one great advantage of the Canadian system is -that, for the drilling of shallow oil-wells, it could be -operated by men of less experience. The success which -has attended the operation of the pole system lies in -the fact that although drilling by its means is very -slow—for seldom is 250 feet per month exceeded—it is -one of the best methods of drilling through complicated -strata, and, in the hands of conscientious men, does -highly satisfactory work. It might be of interest to -very briefly refer to the operations of the system when -a well is being drilled. The rig (that is, the superstructure -above ground) is quite a simple framing, -70 or more feet high, with a base of about 20 feet. -The power is usually derived from a steam engine, with -the usual means for operating the gear from the derrick; -fuel found locally, natural gas, or other form of heating -agent used. One shaft and two spools running in -bearings transmit the various motions desired, the drive -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> -being taken up by a pulley attached to the main shaft. -On this shaft are keyed two band pulleys, which communicate -by belting with two spools running immediately -overhead in the upper part of the framework. -Fastened to one extremity of the main shaft is a disc -crank, which, through the medium of a connecting rod, -transmits an oscillating movement to an overhead -pivoted walking beam. In all systems of percussion -drilling, the drilling bit is raised and then dropped a -distance of several feet, the result being that the strata -to be drilled are steadily pounded away. As the ground -is pulverized by the percussion tools, the debris has to -be cleared away so as to enable the drill to fall freely -and to deliver clean blows to the unbroken strata, and -this work is performed by appliances known as bailers -and sand pumps. There is no need for me to go into -the numerous technical details regarding this or any -other system of drilling, for my only desire is to give a -general impression as to the usual methods adopted for -the winning of petroleum.</p> - -<p>I will therefore pass on to deal briefly with the -Russian free-fall system so much in vogue in the Russian -fields. Incidentally, I may here say that when drilling -for oil in Russia, one has to recollect several features -which are not common to the development of other -oil-fields. Bearing in mind the great depth to which -wells have to be sunk to reach the prolific oil horizons -in the majority of the fields in Russia, which necessitates -starting the well with a very large diameter—frequently -30 inches—it will be easily appreciated that the loss of -a hole in the course of drilling is a very expensive affair. -The Russian free-fall system of boring necessitates -patient and hard manual labour. It is, as its name -implies, of the percussion type, and is, in fact, a modified -pole-tool system which well suits the local conditions. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -The clumsy drilling tools have a practically free drop, -being picked up when the walking beam is at its lowest -point, and released at the top of the stroke. When -released, the tools naturally force their way downwards -in the strata, and are released only with difficulty, -although in a measure this difficulty is minimized on -account of the fact that the under-reaming (slightly -enlarging the diameter of the hole) is done simultaneously -with the drilling.</p> - -<p>After a Russian well has been started by means of -a slip-hook suspended from a haulage rope, and a depth -of some 30 feet obtained, the free-fall is added to the -string of tools. This free-fall is composed of two -separate parts—the rod and the body—and these are -held together by means of a wedge working in vertical -slots cut in the sides of the body. In operating the -free-fall, the handles, fixed to the temper screw, are -held by the driller. On the downward stroke these are -pushed forward from right to left, but as soon as the -downward stroke is completed, they are quickly pulled -backwards. The steel wedge enters the recess and the -tools are carried to the top of the stroke, where, by a -quick forward jerk, the wedge is thrown clear of the -recess, and the tools drop freely, the momentum of the -string of tools driving the drilling bit deeper into the -hole. After several feet of the hole are drilled, the -tools have to be withdrawn in order to allow the pulverized -mass of debris to be cleared away, while, owing -to the caving nature of the strata, it is necessary to -case the well as drilling proceeds.</p> - -<p>As I have said, the system is very cumbersome, but, -in the hands of experienced men, it does its work well, -if but slowly. There are many cases on record where, -when the well has assumed a considerable depth, it -has been completely spoiled by the carelessness of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -operators, but, more often than not, this has been -deliberate, for the Caucasian oil-field worker has many -grievances, admittedly more or less imaginary.</p> - -<div id="OILWELL_HEAVY_ROTARY_OUTFIT" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p047.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ILLUSTRATION OF THE “OILWELL” HEAVY ROTARY OUTFIT, -SHOWING RING AND WEDGE (ON LEFT-HAND SIDE OF -FOREGROUND) TO GRIP THE CASING</p> -</div> - -<p>During recent years, the rotary method of drilling -has been successfully adopted, and it is in regard to -this revolutionary method of speedy drilling that I -will now touch upon. The rotary method of drilling -made its début in Texas some fourteen years ago, and -since then it is not any exaggeration to say that nearly -20,000 wells for oil have been drilled with the system, -which has found popularity in all the oil-fields of the -world. Its main operation is simplicity itself: a rigid -stem of heavy pipe rotates a fish-tail drilling bit at the -bottom of the hole, cutting and stirring up the formation -to be drilled. It cuts its way through the underground -formations, much in the same way as a screw when -rotated forces its way through wood. It is the essence -of speed in drilling, for, unlike the necessary principles -to be adopted in the percussion methods of drilling, the -rotary drill does not have to be lifted from the hole for -the purposes of clearing. The pulverized strata are -continuously washed from the hole by a stream of -water reaching the bottom of the drill. Very frequently, -a pressure-fed mud is used, and this serves a double -purpose, for in its return to the surface it tends to -plaster the walls of the well. The mud emerges in -streams of high velocity from the two apertures in the -drilling bit (for in its downward course it is carried -through the drilling pipe or stem), but naturally loses -this velocity considerably in its return to the surface. -It is, however, very easy to detect the kind of stratum -being drilled through from the returned cuttings, these -reaching the surface but a few minutes after the drilling -bit has entered the formation.</p> - -<p>From time to time various grievances have been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -ventilated against this improved system of boring for -petroleum, but to-day its adoption is world-wide, and -by its use wells which, with the old-fashioned method -of drilling would take many months if not two or three -years, are now got down to the producing horizons in -but a few weeks. It is, in fact, solely due to the ever-increasing -use of the rotary drill that the universally -increased demands for petroleum products have been -met by an ever-increasing production of the crude oil.</p> - -<p>Leaving the question of drilling methods, I cannot -fail to mention the interesting fact that in oil-field -operations progress is now being recorded in another -direction, and that is by the increasing utilization of -electrical power in the place of steam. At the time of -writing, it is safe to say that fully 60 per cent. of the -power requirements on the oil-fields is provided for by -steam plants, with their attendant waste. Oil and gas -engines, with their greater efficiency, may claim to be -operated to an extent of 35 per cent., while not more -than 5 per cent. of the requirements are satisfied by -the use of electric motors. There is no doubt that -prejudice has had a deal to do with the very minimized -use of electrical power on the oil-fields in the past, -but this is being gradually swept aside, and, in the next -few years, I have no doubt that both electrical manufacturers -and the petroleum industry generally will -materially benefit from the use of this cheap and very -economical form of power. In the past, many disastrous -oil-field conflagrations have been due solely to the use -of open-fired engines in close proximity to the wells, -but with the use of electrical energy this fire danger -will be rapidly removed.</p> - -<p>Before closing this chapter, I would say a word or -two with respect to the bringing into the producing -stage of the oil-wells when once they have been drilled. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> -In the early history of oil-held developments, it was not -infrequent to find the crude oil ejected from the well by -natural pressure, but to-day it is the exception to find -those oil-fountains which have made the early history -of the Russian oil-fields so famous. In many of the -fields, explosives are used to promote the flow of oil, -and when the well “comes in” to production, the -ordinary methods of bailing or pumping are resorted -to. Compressed air is also used for bringing about and -sustaining production. The quantity of air and the -periods of admission naturally vary with the diameters -of the wells, the amount of gas present, the level of the -liquid, etc., which latter also determines the pressure -of air necessary.</p> - -<p>The natural exhaustion of oil-wells can obviously -have no remedy, but areas conveying that impression -can often be revived by methods, the study of which -is being carefully continued. As I write, I find that -the officials of the United States Bureau of Mines, who -have been studying this question of exhaustion, have -arrived at the conclusion that from 20 to as much as -90 per cent. of the crude oil remains in the strata tapped -by the well, even when it is abandoned as no longer -capable of profitable production. This conclusion opens -up what may prove some day to be a most interesting -chapter in oil-field history. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<span class="medium">THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM</span></h2> - -<p>Inasmuch as the aim of this little volume is to interest -other than those who are directly associated with the -petroleum industry, I shall endeavour in this chapter -to refer to the refining of petroleum in a manner which -shall be readily understood by the reader, and shall, -wherever possible, refrain from entering into those highly -technical matters which do not lend themselves to -popular expression.</p> - -<p>The refining of crude oil as it is produced from the -earth, consists in the classification of its various hydrocarbons -by means of fractional distillation, into the -various products which so largely enter into our commercial -and domestic life of to-day. The refined -products, in the order in which they are received by -distillation, are: motor spirit, illuminating oils, solar -oils, lubricating oils, fuel oils, residuum, etc.—the first -mentioned being the lightest and the last the heaviest -in specific gravity.</p> - -<p>Almost simultaneously with the discovery of petroleum, -there sprung up the first attempts to refine Nature’s -product, and though these early experiments were of a -most primitive character, they doubtless served their -purpose admirably. In this respect, probably the most -primitive oil refinery in the world was built near the -Tigris, in Mesopotamia.</p> - -<p>Crude petroleum varies in its character, for while -certain crudes are pale in colour and almost transparent, -others are almost black and viscid. Some, indeed, -would appear to have undergone a course of refining -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -by Nature itself, for in some fields the crude oil will -freely burn in lamps without any refining treatment: in -the vast majority of cases, however, the crude oil, as -withdrawn from the producing wells, represents a liquid -somewhat like molten tar.</p> - -<p>The chemical composition of petroleum consists -essentially of carbon and hydrogen, together with -oxygen and varying amounts of nitrogen and sulphur. -The crude from Pennsylvania—and this is the finest -crude in the United States—consists chiefly of a large -number of hydrocarbons of the paraffin series, whilst -in the Russian petroleums, the predominant constituents -are naphthenes or polymethylenes. Then the -crude petroleum of the Dutch Indies and Burmah is of -a different character from that found elsewhere, for in it -aromatic hydrocarbons are largely present. The various -series of hydrocarbons found in crude oils—the paraffins -and naphthenes—readily lend themselves to conversion -into other compounds of carbon and hydrogen by -dissociation, and this conversion produces compounds -of higher volatility, such as motor spirits, etc. When -the compounds of hydrogen and carbon are submitted -to distillation, certain chemical changes occur, as the -result of which other series of hydrocarbons are formed, -and, though it is not my intention here to dive into -this comparatively new realm of chemical investigation, -it is interesting to mention that, by carrying the treatment -of the compounds still further, it is possible to -obtain aromatic hydrocarbons, including trinitrotoluene -(generally known as the explosive T.N.T.), in addition -to various dye products.</p> - -<p>In the earlier methods of refining, the stills usually -consisted of a vertical cylinder in which the charge of -crude oil was distilled almost to dryness, but this -method was completely revolutionized many years ago, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -especially in the United States, by the introduction -and immediate success of a principle known as the -“cracking” process, and by the separation of the -distillation into two portions, one for the removal of -the more volatile constituents in the crude oil (such as -motor spirit) and the other for the treatment of the -heavier products.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p053.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM BY FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION<br /> -<a href="images/i_p053-large.jpg">Click here for larger image</a></p> -</div> - -<p>I will first deal with the method of refining known as -the “straight” process, or the process which does not -involve “cracking.” At one time, the refiner had to -consider the saleability of his refined products before -he commenced to refine them, but to-day, with the -perfect system which prevails for the handling of huge -quantities of refined products, and the transporting of -them to the most distant markets, the one desire of the -refiner is, naturally, to secure from his treatment of the -crude oil, as many refined products as possible, always -keeping an eye on the production of the largest quantities -of the higher priced products than upon those -which are of low value.</p> - -<p>The process of refining to be applied to any particular -oil naturally depends upon its composition as shown by -analysis. It may be that the crude oil to be treated, -apart from containing a small percentage of distillates -with a low boiling point (motor spirit), is principally -made up of residues of little value except as fuel, or, -on the other hand, it may be that the crude oil is of -high quality and contains all possible products. In the -former case, the process of distillation is brief, and the -plant inexpensive, as compared with the lengthy process -of full refining necessitated in the latter case.</p> - -<p>The refining operations consist of three distinct -branches: (1) the distillation, (2) the extracting of -paraffin and refining, and (3) the chemical treatment. -When only a small percentage of the low boiling fractions -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> -has to be removed from the crude oil, the process is -known as “topping,” and a convenient form of apparatus -for the purpose is the tower still. This consists of a -vertical cylinder fitted with perforated plates resting at -intervals on pipes through which superheated steam -travels. The pipes serve the double purpose of conveying -the steam to its inlet and of heating the oil to be -distilled. The steam, on entering the cylinder, ascends, -meeting the crude oil, as it descends from plate to plate -in a regulated stream, and carrying with it to the outlet -the light fractions which the operation is intended to -remove.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p055.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM OBTAINED BY THE -“CRACKING” PROCESS<br /> -<a href="images/i_p055-large.jpg">Click here for larger image</a></p> -</div> - -<p>A few years ago, a Californian chemist invented an -improvement of the principles of maximum heating -and evaporating surfaces. His name was Trumble, and -the process is known as the Trumble process. The -crude oil is heated to the desired temperature in pipes -or retorts set in a primary furnace, the hot gases of -combustion from which are utilized to heat the distillation -chamber proper. Entering the vertical cylinder -at the top, the oil is spread over and through perforated -plates falling on a cone-shaped plate to divert the -continuous stream of oil to the sides of the still, down -which it flows in a thin film. Other conical plates, -arranged at intervals underneath, maintain the flow in -the desired channel until it reaches the outlet at the -bottom. When 60 or 70 per cent. (comprising the motor -spirit series, the kerosenes, and perhaps the intermediate -fractions) are to be removed, it is common practice to -distil the crude oil in a series of stills, cylindrical in -shape, connected continuously. The best-known system -is that patented 35 years ago by Mr. Henderson, of the -Broxburn Oil Company, Ltd., for the distillation of -shale oil, and since adopted by many refiners of petroleum. -In this system, the crude oil flows from a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> -charging tank by gravity through a pre-heater, heated -by the passage, from the second or other still, of distillates -of suitable temperature, and thence into the -first still. Here it is raised to distillation temperature, -and the specific gravity of the distillate therefrom fixed. -The feed of the crude oil is constant, the residue formed -in the still passing through a connection at the bottom -into the second still in the series, at the top, and led -from back to front so that the inlet and outlet shall be -as far apart as possible. It is here raised to a higher -temperature, yielding a distillate of higher specific -gravity, the residue passing on to the next still, and so on -through the series of stills until it reaches the point -where all the motor spirit (or benzine, as it is -called), kerosene, and the intermediate distillates are -removed.</p> - -<p>The distillates obtained from the refining of the crude -are usually purified by treatment successively with -sulphuric acid and solution of caustic soda, this process -of chemical treatment being necessary before the -products are fit for the market.</p> - -<p>The “cracking” process of distillation briefly consists -in distilling the oils at a temperature higher than the -normal boiling points of the constituents it is desired to -decompose, and, in practice, the result is that the -heavier oils are turned into lighter hydrocarbons of -lower boiling points: thus the yield of the more valuable -of the refined products is materially increased. The -“cracking” process, which very largely obtains to-day, -was quite accidentally discovered by a small refiner -in America many years ago. The man in charge of -the still left it with the intention of returning very -shortly. He was, however, absent for several hours, -and to his dismay found that; as the result of his neglect -in attending to the still, a very light coloured distillate -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> -of much lower density than that which it was usual to -obtain, was issuing from the condenser.</p> - -<p>Upon investigation, it was found that a portion of -the distillate had condensed upon the upper part of -the still, which was cooler, and had dropped back into -the still, where the temperature was sufficient to produce -products of a lower boiling point—certainly a distinct -improvement. As may be imagined, this “cracking” -process does not commence until the lighter products of -distillation have been removed, and is now so popular -because by its use a greater yield can be obtained of -those more valuable products for which there is an -ever-increasing demand.</p> - -<p>It is unnecessary here to enter into those various -improvements which have been introduced from time -to time, all of which have as their aim the production of -larger quantities of refined oils, and it would likewise be -invidious to enumerate even the more popular scientists -to whose energies much of the resulting progress has -been due, for the simple reason that it has ever been -the aim of the petroleum chemist to turn his abilities -in the direction indicated.</p> - -<p>As may be imagined, the industry of petroleum refining -has had to adapt itself to the altered conditions of to-day. -For instance, prior to the advent of the internal combustion -engine, which now is responsible for such a wide -application of motor spirit, the demand for this, the -lightest product of petroleum distillation, was non-existent. -Consequently, when such spirit was produced, -there was no market for it, and its production represented -sheer loss to the refiners. Both in the Far East -and in Russia, we have examples of the enormous loss -which accrued to the refiners by reason of there being -no market for this highly inflammable product. In the -Far Eastern fields, in particular, this loss was very -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> -heavy, for in the earlier days of its operations, the -“Shell” Company had to remove thousands of tons of -this now valuable motor spirit from its refineries and -burn it in the open fields. The successful introduction -of the internal combustion engine, however, completely -changed the aspect of petroleum refining, and the desire -became general, not to see how little motor spirit could -be produced, but to perfect methods by which the yield -of the benzene series of hydrocarbons should be as large -as possible. Even to-day progress is still being recorded -in this direction, and each American refiner is vying -with his neighbour as to how far that output of gasoline, -as it is there called, can be increased.</p> - -<p>Many and varied are the means which have been -resorted to for this purpose, but most of them have -reference to improvements in the processes for refining -the crude oil. One, however, is worthy of being mentioned -in this little treatise, inasmuch as it deals with -quite another aspect of the problem of increased motor -spirit supply.</p> - -<p>As I have mentioned in another chapter, enormous -quantities of natural gas exude from the oil-wells, and -this in the past has been for the most part allowed to -go to waste in the air, causing an ever-present danger -to oil-field operations on account of its liability to -ignite. Being heavier than the air itself, for it is -impregnated with oil gases, it remains for long periods -in the lower air strata, and, consequently, not infrequently, -has been the direct cause of great oil-field fires. -This gas—casing-head gas, as it is termed—comes from -the oil-wells between the casing and the tubing, and, in -the case of numerous wells, the flow is remarkable, some -wells giving forth 300,000 cubic feet of gas every 24 -hours, and the only useful purpose that this vapour has -served until recent years has been to light several towns -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -situated comparatively near to the oil-producing fields. -The great volume of the gas, however, has been allowed -to go to waste.</p> - -<p>But experiments have proved that the gas is capable -of condensation into motor spirit, and the general yield -of such spirit may be taken as fully 2 gallons per 1,000 -cubic feet of natural gas treated. What wonderful -possibilities lie in the direction of the conversion of -this vapour into motor spirit! The oil-producers in -the United States have not been slow to appreciate this, -and to-day there are hundreds of plants in the United -States which have been erected solely to condense these -oil-well gas vapours. Some of these plants are dealing -with as much as 3,000,000 cubic feet of gas a day. -The most recent official returns available from the -United States show that the production of gasoline -(motor spirit) from this process of oil gas condensation -is, approximately, 150,000,000 gallons per annum, and -even this substantial figure is being steadily increased.</p> - -<p>There is also another phase of the oil-refining industry -which, during recent years, has materially altered. I -refer to the production of solar oil during distillation. -It is an apt saying that we can scarcely look to any -section of our commercial or domestic life without being -confronted with the fact that oil products play some -part therein: there are few, however, who, without -reflection, would agree that when they light their gas -they are dependent upon petroleum for much of the -light the gas gives. It is, nevertheless, a fact, as I will -proceed to show.</p> - -<p>Many years ago, the oil refiners in Baku were confronted -with a problem which appeared for some time -to be insurmountable. After the distillation of their -kerosene, or illuminating oil, and before they could -commence to take off the lubricating oil fractions, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -there was an intermediary product which, while being -of no use for lamp oil, did not possess the necessary -constituents of viscosity to make it acceptable as a -lubricant. It was a fairly decent volume of something -for which there was no market at the time.</p> - -<p>Experiments were made, and with these the name of -Dr. Paul Dvorkovitz will ever be associated, and it was -found that by the passage of a current of gas over the -surface of this intermediate product, the gas caught up -as it were a richness which materially increased the -lighting power of the gas. To cut a long, but highly -interesting, story short, this solar or gas oil was subsequently -introduced by Dr. Dvorkovitz to England for -gas enrichment purposes, and the extent of its employment -to-day may be judged from the fact that the -United Kingdom regularly imports between 60,000,000 -and 70,000,000 gallons per annum for the enrichment -of the coal gas which finds useful employment in practically -every home throughout the land. As is known, -the gas companies have to produce gas of a certain -lighting quality, and it is in the upholding of the lighting -strength of the gas that solar oil to-day plays so important -a part. At first, the oil came almost exclusively -from Russia, but now the competition from the United -States has secured for our American friends the vast -bulk of the trade, which, as I have shown, has reached -enormous proportions.</p> - -<p>Solar oil is also largely utilized for the production of -refined perfumery oils, which are quite colourless and -inodorous, while the finest quality is used in pharmacy -and known as <i>paraffinum liquidum</i>, and is in much -demand, but in this connection it is the Russian -petroleums that have gained distinction. It was held -for many years that such tasteless and colourless oils -could not be produced from the United States -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -petroleums, but from the commencement of the European -War, and the consequent closure of Russia’s export -port, whereby all overseas trade in Russian petroleums -was held up, much progress was made in the -manufacture of tasteless medicinal petroleums in the -United States, such articles having now become popular -throughout the world.</p> - -<p>One of the most important discoveries made during -recent years has been the finding of large quantities of -toluol in petroleum. This article is necessary for the -manufacture of high explosives. In Borneo heavy -petroleum, toluol exists to a very large extent, and it -was its discovery and consequent use by the allies—thanks -to the offer made to the Governments by Sir -Marcus Samuel, Bart.—that almost unlimited quantities -of high explosives were manufactured.</p> - -<p>Vaseline is another useful commodity which is derived -from the refining of crude petroleum, and this article -is turned out of the American refineries as well as -those of Russia and Galicia, in large quantities, but, -beyond mentioning this fact, no useful purpose would here -be served by relating the various processes employed.</p> - -<p>With reference to the methods generally adopted in -the refining of the products from the distillation of the -Scottish oil shales, these are briefly dealt with in the -chapter devoted to the Scottish oil industry.</p> - -<p>It is safe to say that the past two or three decades -have witnessed marked progress in perfecting the -methods by which crude petroleums are refined into -the innumerable common commodities of commerce, -and it is doubtful whether in any branch of chemical -research there has been such concerted energy shown -as in regard to the refining of mineral oils. Signs, -however, are not wanting to show that the zenith of -this progress has by no means been reached. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br /> - -<span class="medium">TRANSPORT BY LAND AND SEA</span></h2> - -<p>The remarkably perfect methods by which petroleum -and its products are transported by land and sea -before they reach the consumer may not at first sight -appear to be anything but commonplace, but a moment’s -reflection will be sufficient to suggest that a vast and -complete organization must be required in order that -petroleum may be brought from practically the ends of -the earth to the consumer in the most remote village -in the British Isles. But it is the demands of necessity -that have been responsible for the building up of this -vast organization of transportation which represents, in -the United States alone, the investment of many millions -of pounds sterling.</p> - -<p>Taking first the methods of oil transportation by land, -in no other oil-producing country do we find such an -elaborate system for dealing with enormous quantities -of petroleum as in America, for it is safe to say that at -least 500,000 barrels of crude oil have to be dealt with -daily at the present time.</p> - -<p>Going back to the time when petroleum first became -a commercial commodity—when the first wells in Oil -Creek commenced to open up a period of new prosperity -for the United States—these wells were situated so close -to the water that their product could easily be loaded -into canoes and barges, and floated down the Alleghany -river. In the dry season, the flow was insufficient to -float the craft, and then some hundreds of the boats, -carrying each from 50 to 1,000 barrels, would be -assembled in a mill-pond near the wells, and the water -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -impounded while the loading was in progress. Then the -gates would be opened, and the fleet, carried on the -flood of rushing water, would be hurried down the -river in charge of pilots. The fleet of creek and river -boats engaged in this novel work at one time numbered -2,000.</p> - -<p>But, as the production of oil increased, and new -districts were successfully tapped, it became obvious -that some different method of handling the crude oil -would have to be adopted. The inland wells could not -get rid of their production, and it is not surprising to -find that at one time—about 1862—crude oil prices at -the well fell to 10 cents per barrel. A system of horse -haulage was initiated, and in time thousands of animals -were required to haul the oil from the inland wells to -shipping points. The waggon train of the oil country -in the pre-pipe-line days at its maximum consisted of -6,000 two-horse teams and waggons, and a traveller in -the oil region in those early sixties could not lose sight -of an endless train of waggons each laden with from -five to seven barrels. The roads were almost bottomless, -and the teamsters tore down fences and drove -where they liked. These men, always of the roving, -picturesque type, would earn anything from 10 to 25 -dollars per day, spending the most part in revelry on -the Saturday night.</p> - -<p>It was at this time that a Bill was introduced into -the States legislature authorizing the construction of a -pipe-line from Oil Creek to a spot known as Kittanning, -but the opposition of 4,000 teamsters defeated the Bill -and the first effort to organize an oil pipe-line company. -The modest beginning of the present-day system of oil -transportation on land by pipe-line was due to the -enterprise of a Jerseyman named Hutchings, who laid -a 2-inch pipe from some wells to the Humbolt refinery. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -The teamsters, foreseeing the possibilities of this innovation, -proceeded to tear up the line, and warned the -oil-producers not to adopt these new methods of oil -transportation.</p> - -<p>But Hutchings was undismayed, for he laid a second -line, this being composed of cast-iron joints caulked -with lead. Although this was impracticable, the -teamsters again wrought vengeance on the proposition, -and completely destroyed it. Hutchings still persisted -in his efforts, but died—disappointed and penniless—a -genius living a little before his time.</p> - -<div id="PRIMITIVE_METHOD_OF_TRANSPORT" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p065.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A PRIMITIVE METHOD OF TRANSPORTING OIL</p> -</div> - -<p>At the end of 1865, a Henry Harley commenced the -laying of a pipe-line to the terminus of the Oil Creek -railroad, but teamsters cut the pipes, burned the -collecting tanks, and retarded the work in every possible -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -way. Armed guards eventually came on the scene, the -mob was quelled and dispersed, and the line completed. -It was of 2-inch diameter, and laid to handle 800 barrels -of oil daily: this was the first successful and profitable -pipe-line on record for the handling of oil.</p> - -<p>From this time, the number of pipe-lines have multiplied, -until to-day there are thousands of them scattered -throughout every oil-producing field of America. The -first long main transportation line for oil was laid in -1880 from Butler County to Cleveland, a distance of -over 100 miles, and immediately after its completion, -trunk lines were commenced from the Bradford oil -region to the Atlantic seaboard. The popularity of -this new method of oil transportation may be judged -from the fact that within three years from the completion -of these first propositions, the National Transit -Company possessed over 3,000 miles of oil pipe-lines, -and had iron tank storage for 35,000,000 barrels of -crude oil.</p> - -<p>Then a few master minds came to the front, and -loyally supported by Mr. John D. Rockefeller, of -Standard Oil fame, they undertook the herculean -task of practically girdling the States with a system of -oil pipe-lines that has no parallel anywhere. They -eliminated the jaded horses, oil-boats, wooden tankage, -and slow freights, tedious methods, and questionable -practices of handling petroleum, and substituted therefor -the stem pump, the iron conduit, the steel tank storage, -and systematic and businesslike methods which soon -commanded the confidence and respect of all oil-producers. -They extended their pipe-lines to practically -every producing well and established a transportation -system which serves the industry to-day as -no other on earth is served. The advantages of the -modern pipe-line to the oil-producer are obvious. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> -A pipe-line connection to a producer’s tank ensures -prompt service and a cash market for his product at -all times. The small line connected with his tank -conveys the crude oil therefrom, either by gravity or -by means of a pump, into a receiving tank of the -gathering or field lines of the pipe-line system, from -which it is pumped into the main trunk pipe-lines to -the refineries.</p> - -<div id="OIL_PIPE_LINE_CONNECTIONS" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p067.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">OIL PIPE-LINE CONNECTIONS IN THE AMERICAN FIELDS</p> -</div> - -<p>The system by which the producer can have payment -for his oil at any time, for he is credited with its value -when it once enters the pipe-line, is the perfection of -simplicity, accuracy, and efficiency. The pipe-line of -which the gathering or field lines are composed varies -in diameter from 2 to 8 inches, the joints of which are -screw threaded. The main trunk lines are from 6 to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> -10 inches in diameter, and pumping stations, supplied -with powerful plant driven by steam or internal combustion -engines of the Diesel type, are located at suitable -points of the line. According to the nature of the crude -oils to be passed through the pipe-line must the erection -of pumping houses be governed: for instance, in handling -the heavy Californian or Mexican crudes, the pumping -stations have to be much nearer each other than when -a lighter crude oil is transported. Some of the heavier -oils have, in fact, to be heated before they enter the -pipes at all.</p> - -<p>As already mentioned, the total oil transported to-day -by the American pipe-line system exceeds half a million -barrels daily. The lines themselves—all laid, of course, -below ground—are so unobtrusive and do their work -so quietly and unseen, that they attract no attention, -and yet they are vastly important to not only the -business of the States, but to those myriads of consumers -abroad.</p> - -<p>It is, in fact, impossible to over-estimate the importance -of this up-to-date system of oil transportation in -the United States as it exists to-day. To show the -impossibility of conducting the present-day American -petroleum industry without the use of pipe-lines, let -me give a few facts. The large oil-tank cars, which -are not unusual sights on our railways, hold, at the -maximum, about 25 tons of oil. Excluding California -altogether from these illustrations, the half-a-million -barrels of oil which are transported daily in the States -by pipe-lines would fill over 2,500 tank cars. Taking -25 cars to make up a freight train, it would require -fully 100 trains daily to transport the oil that now goes -by pipe-line, and inasmuch as it is estimated that the -oil on the average is transported overland (or, rather, -under-land) 1,000 miles, it would require, approximately, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -200,000 railroad tank cars to do the daily work in -connection with the transport of oil in the United States -east of the Rocky Mountains, for the average movement -of tank cars is 30 miles daily, and all empty cars must -be returned. No less than 8,000 railroad engines -would be required to do this work, which, on the face -of it, is a railway impossibility.</p> - -<p>I am afraid I have devoted more space to the question -of pipe-line transport in the States than the confines of -this little work warrants, but the subject is one of -great interest to all who would know the magnitude of -the organization which is comprised in the limits of -the petroleum industry.</p> - -<p>The United States, however, is but one of the large -oil-producing countries where the pipe-line system for -the land transport of oil has become the backbone of -transport. In Russia, for instance, the fields of production -are situated hundreds of miles from the exporting -ports, and, following upon the principles which obtain -in the United States, the pipe-line system had, perforce, -to be adopted. In this respect, however, Russia -has still a great deal to learn from our Western friends, -and the conservative policy which permeated the Russian -Empire as a whole has precluded the making of much -headway.</p> - -<p>The Russian oil-fields—those of Baku and Grosny—are -situated at great distance from the coast, and the -necessity of connecting both fields with the export port -of Batoum, on the Black Sea, has frequently been put -forward as a project offering the one solution of the -difficulties attending the retention of a large export oil -trade. The Grosny pipe-line is still a scheme for future -solution, but that affecting Baku has been solved by -the laying of a pipe-line from Baku to Batoum. This -line, which is approximately 650 miles long, runs -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -direct between the two oil centres and, assuming it -operates 24 hours in the day, has a capacity of transporting -over 3,000 tons of oil daily. Inasmuch as the -Russian oil refineries are at Baku, the line is used solely -for the transportation of the refined products. The -line itself is laid alongside the railway line of the Transcaucasian -Railway, at a depth of 4 feet, but many strange -stories are related as to the tapping of it at various -points, and a lucrative trade being done in the oil so -caught.</p> - -<p>When normal conditions return to Russia and the -petroleum industry rights itself, Russian petroleum -products will again come on the international markets, -and in this respect the Grozny oil will be able to secure -an outlet via Novorossisk.</p> - -<p>Roumania can also boast of a main trunk pipe-line -for refined products from the inland refineries direct to -the port of Constantza. This important project, which -has been carried out practically by the Government -itself, was just about ready for service when the -European War broke out: it has, therefore, had little -time in which to display its practical use to the -petroleum industry at large. When one recollects -that Roumania’s future, so far as the petroleum industry -is concerned, lies in the direction of the building up of -its already established export trade in petroleum -products, the necessity for such a trunk pipe-line to -the seaboard has been obvious for many years. Unlike -the case of the United States, there are no interesting -events to recall which delayed the advent of this new -form of land oil transportation. There is only one oil -pipe-line of any considerable length in the United -Kingdom and this runs across Scotland from Old Kilpatrick -(on the west) to Grangemouth (on the east coast), -its terminal being in close proximity to the naval base at -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -Rosyth. The line, which is 36 miles long, was laid to -circumvent the activity of enemy submarines, but was -only completed in November, 1918, after the conclusion -of the European hostilities.</p> - -<p>The one other important oil-pipe-line which calls for -mention is that connecting the oil-fields of Persia with -the coast. In this scheme, the British Government is -heavily interested, and, though there has been much -criticism of its action, there is no doubt that, in due -time, the Persian fields will play an important part in -the supply of petroleum products to England, and, in -that connection, the Persian pipe-line must naturally -prominently figure, since, without it, there would be -numerous difficulties to be contended with in getting -the oil to the coast.</p> - -<p>The carrying of large quantities of petroleum products -over the seas of the world is a subject which has taxed -the minds of experts quite as much as that of land -transport. For many years it was the rule to ship -petroleum products overseas in the ordinary barrels -(approximately, 42 gallons each) to the consuming -countries. It was a costly business, for, apart from -the initial cost of the barrels themselves, they took up -a very considerable space on the vessels, which was not -proportionate with the quantity of oils carried. Leakage -also played a very important rôle in this ocean transport, -and, generally, the principle left much to be desired. -The <i>Atlantic</i> was doubtless the first vessel designed to -carry petroleum in bulk from America, but records -show that some years previously—in 1863—a Mr. -Henry Duncan, of Kent, sent the first oil-carrying -vessel to Europe. The vessel, however, never completed -her voyage, for she was lost in the Gulf of St. -Lawrence, just as she was starting on her trip across -the Atlantic. The <i>Charles</i>—quite a small vessel—also -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -played a part in the early days of bulk oil transport -across the Atlantic, for this steamer was, I believe, the -first to employ iron tanks for the bulk transport of -petroleum. After these first few attempts to convey -petroleum in bulk from continent to continent, tank -vessels steadily wiped the barrel-carrying boats off -the seas. It was found that not only did oils carried -in bulk take up but one-half the space of those in -barrels, but the cost of the oak-staved barrels themselves -(usually 5s. each) was obviated. At first, sailing -ships were adopted to meet the newer requirements, -but later, vessels propelled by steam were introduced.</p> - -<p>At first the shipbuilders had nothing to guide them -in the shape of practical experience of bulk oil carriers, -but, from small things, a great ocean trade in bulk -petroleum products soon grew. It is interesting to -note the enterprise which English shipbuilders displayed -in this new method of handling petroleum for ocean -transport, for during at least two decades the vast -bulk of construction of oil carriers took place in English -shipbuilding yards. The opening of the Far Eastern -fields of production led to the construction of a large -number of oil tankers—each of increasing size—for -Messrs. M. Samuel and Company, and these were named -after various shells. The fleet of “Shell” tankers to-day -ranks as one of the finest in the world, and forms the -connecting link between the prolific oil-producing -properties of the “Shell” Transport and Trading -Company, Ltd., in the Far East, and the demand for -petroleum products in this and other countries, the -vessels themselves being owned by the Anglo-Saxon -Petroleum Company, Ltd., one of the influential owning -interests in the wide ramifications of the “Shell” -Company.</p> - -<p>For several years the oil tanker <i>Narragansett</i>, owned -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> -by the Anglo-American Oil Company, Ltd. (London), -held claim to being the largest bulk oil carrier in the -world, for the good ship had a capacity of nearly -11,000 tons of products. The size of this vessel may -be judged from the fact that she had a length between -perpendiculars of over 510 feet, with a 63 feet beam, -while her moulded depth was 42 feet. This vessel, which -marked a distinct step forward in oil tanker construction, -belonged to Lloyd’s A1 three-deck class. The Anglo-American -Oil Company has shown its belief in oil fuel -for ocean power purposes by contracting for internal -combustion-engined tankers, and the first of this class -was launched in November, 1919.</p> - -<div id="A_MAMMOTH_TANKER" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p073.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ONE OF THE MAMMOTH TANKERS OF THE EAGLE -OIL COMPANY’S FLEET</p> -</div> - -<p>It was left to the enterprise of the Eagle Oil Transport -Company—that important concern associated with Lord -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -Cowdray’s immense oil organization for handling -Mexican petroleum products—to make what will ever -go down as the most bold policy of increasing the size -of oil tankers by 50 per cent. upon all predecessors. -Some six years ago, just when the Mexican fields were -commencing to pour forth their flood of oil for the -world’s requirements, the Eagle Oil Transport Company -included in its programme of activities the building of -an immense fleet of oil tankers, and it was decided that -a number of these should each have a capacity of -15,000 tons of petroleum products. There were many -who asserted that the limit to the size of oil tankers -had been reached, but, undaunted, the Company went -forth with their policy. It was a bold stroke, yet a -successful one, for not only have the vessels proved to -be very practical, but they have taught a lesson in -economy of ocean transport which has been seriously -taken to heart by practically all engaged in ocean oil -transport.</p> - -<p>I had the honour of being one of the invited guests -at the launch of the first of these gigantic oil carriers, -and of subsequently experiencing a trip in the mammoth -floating “tank.” The vessel behaved admirably at -sea, and in a chat with the designer, I recollect asking -if there were any reason to believe that the limit in -size had been reached. The reply was pointed: “So -long as we can have loading and discharging berths large -enough to enable such large vessels to be manipulated, -we can easily go beyond the present size.” Events -have proved that the policy adopted by the Eagle Oil -Transport Company was justifiable, for already a new -oil tanker, the <i>San Florentino</i>, has been built, having -a capacity of over 18,000 tons.</p> - -<p>Before leaving this interesting subject of ocean oil -transportation, I should like to emphasize the distinct -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -step forward which is marked by these latest oil tankers. -To-day, we have entered the era when oil fuel has -passed its experimental stages and become one -of the greatest boons to those associated with the -navigation of the seas. The ease with which oil fuel -is handled is remarkable, for vessels of the largest -size—that is, those using oil instead of coal for power -purposes—could replenish their stores within a few -hours at any oil port. In the transport of petroleum -by the modern tankers, the taking on board of a full -cargo is accomplished in about a single day, thanks to -the most improved means of pumping oil from the shore -tanks through flexible pipes. The great oil tankers -trading between this and other countries and Mexico, -load up off the Mexican coast by means of a submarine -pipe-line, and, reckoning but fourteen return trips per -annum, it will easily be apparent what immense stores -of petroleum can with ease be brought to the centres of -consumption. Compare this with the primitive methods -of transport in barrels, and it will be readily seen with -what rapidity the hands of progress have moved during -comparatively recent years.</p> - -<p>The vast majority of oil tankers to-day, true to their -calling, derive their power from oil, for they burn it -under their furnaces, and, therefore, are not liable to -those tedious delays so inseparable from the use of -coal, and should severe storms beset their passage in -Mid-Atlantic, then a little oil pumped overboard will -quell the most turbulent sea and permit a safe passage -onward.</p> - -<p>It is evident, however, that the motor-engined oil -tanker will be the order of the future, for already -vessels are being built which utilize oil fuel internally—a -much more economical process than burning it under -boilers. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br /> - -<span class="medium">PETROLEUM AS FUEL</span></h2> - -<p>So much has been written of late as to the use of petroleum -as fuel for the purposes of steam-raising, that the -reader is bound to be more or less <i>au fait</i> with the -subject. It is, of course, one of vast importance, and -during the next decade is certain to receive far more -consideration than it has hitherto done, owing to the -general desire that our coal wealth shall be conserved -as much as possible. Given the one allowance that oil -fuel can be procured at anything approaching a reasonable -figure—and there is no reason why, in normal -times, this reasonable price should not be prevalent -all over the world—then petroleum offers many advantages -over its older competitor, coal. The ease with -which large quantities can be handled, the simple -method of operating anything which is fired by petroleum -as fuel, and the fact that its heat-giving units are -far higher than those of coal, will ever be the chief -factors governing its popularity.</p> - -<p>Many years ago, fuel oil made its serious début, but -at that time the supply of the product was very -uncertain, and, consequently, progress in passing from -the old to the new form of power-raising was slow. -To-day, however, matters have materially changed. -The crude oil output has been immeasurably increased, -and many fields whose production of crude oil is -essentially suited for fuel purposes have been opened -up. In this respect, the oil-fields of Mexico have no -parallel, and it is recorded that, once these fields are -provided with adequate storage and transport facilities, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -they can easily supply the whole of the fuel oil necessary -for the world, and at the same time have immense -quantities to spare.</p> - -<p>But, though the subject of petroleum as fuel has -aroused much attention for some years, there is still -an erroneous idea prevailing as to what really is fuel oil. -A word or two on this question will, therefore, not be -without interest. Fuel oil is that portion of crude oil -which is incapable of giving off by the process of ordinary -distillation those lighter products of petroleum known -as motor spirit, illuminating oils, or lubricants. It is, -in a word, the residue of distillation which is unsuitable -for refining purposes. It represents a black, tarry -liquid, and is, of course, minus those fractions that go -to produce the refined products. Many there are who -refer to crude oil as fuel oil, but this is a misnomer, -though crude oil, in many instances, is utilized for the -purposes of fuel. In this chapter, however, when I -speak of fuel oil, I am referring not to the crude oil as -it comes from the ground (and which has a comparatively -low flash) but to the article of commerce, the -residue of distillation, which is the real article—fuel oil.</p> - -<p>The headway which fuel oil has made during the -past few years has been remarkable, though it is safe -to say that its general use is still in its infancy. In no -matter what capacity it has been tried as a heating or -steam-raising agent, it has proved itself capable of -withstanding most successfully the most stringent tests, -and has convinced all who have given the question -serious consideration that it holds numerous advantages -over coal, yet has no drawbacks. Perhaps the most -recent impetus which has been given to the use of -fuel oil is that following the introduction of it, and now -its general adoption, throughout the units composing -the British Navy. On land, however, it has for some -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -years achieved marked distinction. Especially is this -the case in regard to its use on locomotives, the United -States railways alone consuming last year over 6,000,000 -tons of fuel oil. In the realms of industry, fuel oil, too, -is claiming the attention of those large industrial -establishments, and to-day is largely used for creating -intense heats, such as are necessary in hardening, -annealing, melting and smelting, rivet heating, glass-melting, -etc.</p> - -<p>Let me first of all refer to the use of oil fuel for -marine purposes. Fifteen years ago, its use was very -strongly advocated by Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart., for -marine purposes, and he approached the British Government -in an endeavour to get it taken up. Matters -moved very slowly, but eventually oil fuel was adopted, -and Admiral Sir William Pakenham asserts that it was -due to the unceasing efforts of Sir Marcus Samuel -that the Admiralty vessels constructed during the war -were oil burners. The largest of this new class of -vessels is the <i>Queen Elizabeth</i>. Oil fuel is now largely -used in place of coal on our great liners, vessels like -the <i>Aquatania</i> and <i>Olympic</i> having gone over to its -general use.</p> - -<p>There are, of course, many reasons which have -commended fuel oil to the experts as a substitute -for coal. In the first place, inasmuch as one ton of -fuel oil is equal to more than one-and-a-half tons of coal, -the radius of action of units fitted for utilizing fuel oil -is increased over 50 per cent.—I speak from the point -of view of bunker weight. Again, one ton of oil occupies -considerably less space than an equivalent weight of -coal, while this advantage can be materially increased—as -is now the usual practice—by carrying the fuel oil -in double-bottom tanks. Then the bunkering question -is one of vital moment. Fuel oil can be taken on board -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -under far cleaner conditions, and at a greatly accelerated -rate, than would be possible with coal. There is no -arduous manual labour required. Once the hose connections -have been made, the fuel oil is pumped on -board at the rate of hundreds of tons an hour, and a -few hours suffice to re-fuel our largest battleship. But -it is when bunkering at sea is required that fuel oil -further emphasizes its immense advantages. This -question was some years ago one of the problems of -naval strategy: to-day it is regularly carried out in -the simplest possible fashion, hose connections to a -standing-by oil tanker being all that is required.</p> - -<p>Another advantage of fuel oil is that materially -increased speed can rapidly be attained, for, with fuel -oil fired furnaces, the ship’s boilers can be forced to -nearly 50 per cent. above normal rating without that -great strain on the personnel which would be essential -in burning coal under forced draught. Then there is -the great saving of labour effected when burning fuel -oil, the stokehold staffs being reduced by quite 90 per -cent. The fuel oil is automatically fed to the furnaces -and mechanically fired, the maximum heat of the oil -burners being attained within a few minutes of starting. -But the absence of smoke when the battleship is proceeding -at full speed is, perhaps, one of the most important -advantages which the use of fuel oil gives to the -units of the fleets employing it. The emission of dense -volumes of smoke, which are ever present on a coal-fired -vessel, is quite absent when fuel oil is used, and this -advantage is twofold, for not only does it prevent the -giving away of the location of the battleship, but it -also renders its own gun-fire more efficient.</p> - -<p>The advantages attendant upon the use of fuel oil -for naval vessels are, in the main, also strikingly -apparent when oil is adopted for the mercantile marine. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -It is many years ago since the oil tankers of the -“Shell” Transport and Trading Company, Ltd., -commenced to do the voyage regularly from the Far -East to this country and back without an intermediate -port of call. To-day, practically every oil tanker -afloat burns fuel oil. But, of recent date, fuel oil has -reached wider application by reason of its being adopted -on many cargo and passenger vessels, and, had the -European War not considerably hampered ordinary -shipbuilding construction, we should have seen ere this -a number of the largest vessels crossing the Atlantic -exclusively running on oil. In fact, arrangements have -been made whereby many of our Transatlantic lines -will operate exclusively on fuel oil, which will be taken -on board in the United States.</p> - -<div id="TAKING_OIL_FUEL_ABOARD" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p081.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">TAKING OIL FUEL SUPPLIES ON BOARD</p> -</div> - -<p>My friend, Mr. J. J. Kermode, of Liverpool—the -well-known fuel oil expert—has taken the most prominent -part in calling general attention to the immense -superiority of fuel oil over coal, and it is due to this -gentleman’s untiring energies that not only does our -Navy to-day use fuel oil to such an extent, but that -those responsible for ocean passenger transport have -taken the matter up so seriously. There are three -general headings under which fuel oil use will affect -transport costs. They are as follow: (<i>a</i>) by increased -passenger or cargo capacity, (<i>b</i>) by increased speed, -and (<i>c</i>) by a great reduction in running costs. As to -the increased capacity, I have already shown that fuel -oil can be stored in considerably less space than coal, -and the simplicity of both bunkering fuel oil, and using -it on vessels, has also been touched upon. With reference -to the increased speed which vessels utilizing fuel -oil can attain over those running on coal, I have a -concrete example in front of me. Two sister ships of -the Eagle Oil Transport Company—the <i>San Dunstano</i> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -and the <i>San Eduardo</i>—each of 9,000 tons deadweight -capacity, are fitted to burn coal and fuel oil respectively. -Upon a trip carried out under careful observation, the -weight of fuel consumed worked out as two to three in -favour of fuel oil, while the indicated horse-power -developed showed an 18 per cent. improvement in the -case of the oil-fired vessel. But the striking fact of -the comparison is that the <i>San Eduardo</i> made the round -voyage to Mexico—out and home—eight days quicker -than the other, this additional speed being solely due -to the fact that with fuel oil it was possible to maintain -consistent speed throughout the voyage—an impossible -matter when coal is consumed. If space permitted, -I could enumerate many cases where the results in -favour of fuel oil are even more strikingly apparent, but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -I will content myself by briefly referring to calculations -made by Mr. Kermode, based upon voyages of our -largest liners: they are sufficiently interesting and -suggestive to record here. On an average, says Mr. -Kermode, to maintain a speed of 25 knots, 5,500 tons -of coal are consumed upon the voyage between Liverpool -and New York by one of the mammoth liners; or 11,000 -tons for the round trip. Some 3,300 tons of fuel oil—which -could be stored if necessary (and as will frequently -be done in the future) in the double bottom of the -vessel—would, by automatic stoking, do even more -work than 5,500 tons of coal. Calculating the daily -consumption of 600 tons of coal now used for 24 hours, -this represents about 2,000 tons less fuel on a five days’ -trip, land to land run, or 4,000 tons less, out and home. -The utilizing of the vacant space thus saved for merchandise -would bring in a very handsome income. Of the -312 firemen and trimmers now employed for a coal-fired -liner, 285 might be dispensed with, and occupation -found for them under healthier conditions ashore, say -in handling the additional cargo which would be carried. -The saved accommodation in this respect could be -allotted to third-class passengers, of whom at least -another 250 could be carried. Our mammoth liners -are fitted with 192 furnaces in order to produce 68,000 -horse-power (as was the case of the <i>Mauretania</i> and the -<i>Lusitania</i>), and, on the assumption that thirty-two -fires are cleaned every watch, 10,000 indicated horse-power -is lost every four hours through burning down -and cleaning, a quite unnecessary operation with fuel -oil. Figures such as these show the startling possibilities -of fuel oil for marine purposes.</p> - -<div id="LIQUID_FUEL_BURNERS" class="figcenter"> -<h3>TYPICAL LIQUID FUEL BURNERS</h3> -<img src="images/i_p083a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE KERMODE STEAM BURNER</p> - -<img src="images/i_p083b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">KERMODE’S AIR JET BURNER</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>In the steam burner, the oil enters through B, the valve G giving it a whirling -motion. The steam goes round the cone A. <i>F</i> is the air cone, the amount -of air being adjusted by the openings D by means of a perforated strap E. -In the air jet burner the oil enters at A. The previously heated air enters -at the branches B and C, and as the air passes C it meets the oil as it passes -the control valve operated by E.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>But it is on land, as well as on sea, that we find fuel -oil rapidly making headway, for, as far back as 1889, -hundreds of the Russian locomotives went over to the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -burning of a petroleum residue. This was the first -practical application of fuel oil for railway haulage. -To-day, nearly 50,000,000 barrels of fuel oil are consumed -annually by the various railroads in the United States, -and, according to the official figures I have of the total -mileage of fuel oil for the past twelve months, the -United States oil-burning locomotives did journeys -aggregating over 145,000,000 miles. Mr. Hall, of the -American International Railway Fuel Association, is -responsible for the statement that, owing to the fact -that the steaming capacity of the engines is materially -increased, a locomotive running on fuel oil can haul a -load of considerably greater tonnage and at a much -increased speed than would be possible with a coal-fired -engine. Many Continental railways use fuel oil rather -than coal; the Roumanian and Austrian State Railways, -the Western Railway of France, the Paris and Orleans -Railway, being a few of the principal.</p> - -<p>So far as England is concerned, the use of fuel oil -has not made great headway, for the reason that, while -on the one hand, the majority of our great railway -systems pass through the coal-producing fields, there -has, on the other hand, until recently been an absence -of organization for the supply of fuel oil. The Great -Eastern Railway many years ago successfully ran -oil-fired locomotives.</p> - -<p>It is evident that oil fuel will be increasingly used -in the future for locomotive purposes, and at the -time of writing—December, 1919—the L. and N.W. -Railway are carrying out experiments on express -engines, with a view to being able to some extent to -discard coal.</p> - -<p>In our industrial life of to-day there are a vast number -of instances where fuel oil is rapidly displacing coal: -the oil-fired furnace has been brought to a stage of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -perfection, and is being extensively and increasingly -employed both in this country and abroad in regard to -metallurgical and industrial processes. Without going -into detail respecting the numerous spheres in which -the new fuel finds profitable employment it is safe to say -that these are being extended every year.</p> - -<div id="OIL_FUEL_FOR_MARINE_PURPOSES" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p085.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">OIL FUEL FOR MARINE PURPOSES</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Arrangement of heaters, filters and pumps for burning oil fuel for marine -purposes. The installation is that of the Wallsend-Howden pressure system.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>A wealth of inventive effort has been bestowed in the -perfection of the burners employed to consume fuel oil. -Leaving aside for the moment the principles governing -the use of oil in the internal combustion engines of the -Diesel or semi-Diesel type, fuel oil used for the production -of power is introduced into the furnace in the -form of a spray, this being accomplished by atomizing -the oil in its passage through a specially designed -burner. Of these burners, there are numerous makes -upon the market, each of which possesses its own -characteristics and advantages. The one feature common -to all fuel oil burners is the arrangement for -atomizing the oil fuel into a fine spray, so that each -particle of fuel shall receive sufficient oxygen to ensure -its complete combustion. Theoretically, it requires -about 14 lb. of air to effect the combustion of 1 lb. of -oil, and on the thorough combustion of the fuel oil -depends the efficiency of the furnace. There are three -distinct methods by which the atomization is brought -about, and each of these means possesses its advantages -and limitations. By one method, the fuel oil is atomized -by the use of steam; by the second method, compressed -air is used; while a third system—that of applying -pressure to the oil supply itself—is sometimes adopted. -Steam is the method usually employed for stationary -boilers and locomotives, for it is the simplest to manipulate, -and does not call for the employment of auxiliary -apparatus in the shape of air compressors or oil pumps, -but most industrial oil furnaces work on compressed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -air, which gives exceptionally good results. There is -no doubt that, with the use of compressed air, say -admitted at a pressure of 80 lb., a saving in fuel oil is -shown over using steam at similar pressure, but the -cost of the compressing plant, which must be taken -into consideration, is sufficient to wipe out the greater -part of this advantage.</p> - -<div id="THE_SCARAB_OIL_BURNER" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p087.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE “SCARAB” OIL BURNER</p> -</div> - -<p>With respect to the use of the fuel oil direct under -pressure, this system generally involves the heating of -the fuel oil, as well as its filtration, the fuel being -supplied under pressure by means of pumps. The -system is extensively employed at the present time on -marine boilers operating with forced or induced draught, -and, in this connection, the Wallsend system stands -pre-eminent.</p> - -<p>Since writing the first edition of this little volume -considerable advance has been made in connection -with the use of oil fuel for general power-raising purposes, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -and much of this expansion has been consequent upon -the introduction of a new burner—the “Scarab”—which -is here illustrated. It is the invention of Lieut.-Col. -Macdonald, and is the outcome of the war. When -the Lieut.-Colonel was on service in Mesopotamia, he -recognized the possibilities of oil fuel, for while wood -and coal were being transported from India at great -cost, oil was running to waste on the neighbouring fields -of the Anglo Persian Oil Company. The Lieut.-Colonel -therefore introduced a method of cooking by -oil fuel, and immediately on his return to England he -carried out experiments which led to the introduction -of the “Scarab” burner. It is a simple contrivance, -and is practically fool-proof, since there are really no -parts to get out of order. The oil fuel flows through -a tube by gravity, while another tube carries air compressed -to about 10 lbs. pressure. The oil and air meet -some inches distant from the mouth of the burner, -and the combustion of the fuel, which is turned into a -finely atomised spray, is complete. Experiments have -been made with the burner for domestic purposes, and -it has been adopted already in several London hotels -for cooking purposes, though its general application is -practically unlimited. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br /> - -<span class="medium">PETROLEUM AS A LIGHTING AND COOKING AGENT</span></h2> - -<p>From times immemorial, petroleum has been utilized -as a lighting agent. Fifteen hundred years ago we -have records of its use in the Far Eastern countries, -and in the seventh century one of the Emperors of -Japan ordered that his temples should be illuminated -by the sacred oil light. And from that long distant -date to the present times, petroleum has played a not -insignificant part in the provision of artificial light -throughout the world. For centuries, petroleum, as -a means of artificial light, had the field to itself, and, -though the Ancients consumed large quantities for -lighting purposes, the apparatus used for burning the -oil were of a most primitive type, giving results which -to-day would be considered far from satisfactory.</p> - -<p>About the middle of the last century, when the -petroleum industry was making steady advance in -several European countries, and a little later, when the -United States entered upon its era of oil progress, there -was marked development in the use of oil for lighting -purposes. The more modern oil lamp was introduced, -and it is worthy of record that in one year alone over -fifty patents were taken out in the United States for -oil lamp improvements. The Germans, too, were not -behind in this respect; in fact, it is very largely due to -the numerous German improvements that the general -governing principles of present-day oil lamps became -so popular.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that the ordinary oil lamp has -often been, and still is, unjustifiably condemned for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -certain defects which are not inherent in it. It necessarily -demands attention if it is to give a satisfactory -light, but, unfortunately, this attention is not adequately -bestowed upon it, and complaints are the result. I have -frequently argued that, just as it is possible with inattention -to make the most improved pattern of oil lamp -operate unsatisfactorily, so is it possible, with a little -care and common sense, to get a really good and -satisfactory light from the cheapest oil lamp obtainable.</p> - -<p>In days gone by, the quality of the oil was, in many -cases, unsuitable for burning in the ordinary lamps; -its lighting power was very inferior, and it gave off a -distinctly unpleasant smell. To-day, however, the -illuminating oil sold throughout the world is a first-class -article, and its flash-point has been so raised that it -can be used freely without there being any suggestion -of its lack of safety. One still hears of the “dangerous” -paraffin lamp, but, to all intents and purposes, whatever -danger was attendant upon the use of oil lamps has -long ago departed, though, of course, care must always -be exercised, a remark which naturally applies to -every illuminant. It is not within my province to give -a series of hints to the ordinary user of illuminating oil, -but it is well to draw attention to a point which is -frequently overlooked: that is, to see that lamps should -be kept well filled. It has been established that the -light from an oil lamp is greatly affected by the quantity -of oil in the reservoir. An increase of 20 per cent. can -be secured in the illuminating power of the lamp if only -the oil is kept to a good level in the container. This is -due to the assistance given to the capillary action of -the wick by the higher level.</p> - -<p>The advent of gas, and, at a later period, electric -current, for illuminating purposes has, to an extent, -restricted the use of oil as an illuminant, yet the reader -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> -will be surprised to learn that at least 2,000,000 oil -lamps are nightly lighted throughout Great Britain. -The inhabitants of the majority of our villages have -to fall back upon oil lamps after nightfall, and even in -remote spots where enterprising gas companies have -laid gas mains large numbers still keep faith with oil, -no doubt by reason of its cheapness in normal times.</p> - -<p>The greatest improvement made in regard to oil -lighting has been in connection with the introduction -of the incandescent mantle. As a result of this innovation, -several elaborate designs of lamps have been placed -on the market, and to-day oil is frequently used in large -residences in preference to the more modern illuminants. -This is due, without doubt, to the fact that oil light is -particularly soft, and, while giving a great illuminating -power when consumed under the best conditions, lacks -that dazzling brilliancy which causes injury to the eyes.</p> - -<p>One of the earliest methods of utilizing petroleum -under an incandescent mantle was the Kitson system, -according to which illuminating oil is compressed to -about 50 lb. per square inch in a suitable vessel, forced -through a soft brass tube of very small bore into a -heating chamber, and, subsequently, through a needle -orifice to a Bunsen burner. The Kitson system, which -has found many adherents in the United Kingdom and -abroad, is particularly adapted for lighthouse illumination, -and in such cases where large units are essential. -It is interesting to record the fact that for some time -one of London’s main West-end thoroughfares was -illuminated by incandescent oil lamps, and, though they -are now superseded, no tangible reason was given as -to why these highly economical means of illumination -were ever removed.</p> - -<p>Space forbids my referring to the various designs of -oil lamps on the English market to-day: they may be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -counted by their hundreds, while still a larger number -of those which have either been unsuccessful or have -found no sale may be found in the records of the -Patent Office.</p> - -<p>During comparatively recent times, devices have -been brought forward whereby remarkably good results -have been achieved by the use of gaseous vapour for -portable lamps. In these cases, motor spirit is vapourized -and used under an incandescent mantle. The -best known of these lamps is the “Petrolite.” In this -lamp, a porous stone is impregnated with suitable -hydrocarbons—motor spirit—and a current of air is -introduced, the necessary draught being provided by -the use of a fairly long chimney. The great advantage -of the “Petrolite” lamp is that of its perfect safety, -for if by any chance the lamp becomes overturned and -the chimney displaced or broken, the draught ceases, -and with it, the generation of the inflammable vapour; -the lamp, therefore, immediately going out.</p> - -<p>But while this method of utilizing motor spirit for -illuminating purposes has been adopted to a very large -extent by means of portable lamps, a greater field has -been developed both in this and other countries in -connection with the domestic and industrial use of -petrol air-gas for lighting purposes. These apparatus -in the main possess but slight differences. The essential -principle of each is that motor spirit is carburetted and -then, in the form of an oil gas, conducted through -pipes in the same manner as coal gas is burned, to the -rooms in which it is required. The carburetted air-gas -is automatically produced, and the small cost at which -these automatic plants can be supplied has rendered -this system of lighting deservedly popular. Its great -economy also is an important point, for 1 gallon of -motor spirit will yield almost 30 cubic feet of vapour. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -This vapour, in order to form a lighting agent, is mixed -to the extent of over 98 per cent. air and less than -2 per cent. petrol vapour, so that 1 gallon of motor -spirit will produce, approximately, 1,500 cubic feet of -air-gas. The plants, which are usually worked by a -small hot-air engine (or, alternately, by the use of -weights), supply only the demand created, and their -control is automatic perfection.</p> - -<div id="AN_OIL_COOKER" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p093.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE ANGLO-AMERICAN OIL COMPANY’S OIL COOKER</p> -</div> - -<p>To-day, petroleum plays quite an important part in -heating arrangements, and several stoves are upon the -market which burn the ordinary illuminating oil. The -prettily designed heating stoves of the “Perfection” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -or “Reform” make are largely in use, the efficacy and -economy of these being responsible for their popularity. -Various makes of oil cookers are also in large demand. -These range from the small variety like the “Primus” -stove, which burns illuminating oil under pressure, to -the oil cooking stoves of the Anglo-American Oil -Company, Ltd., which are quite competent to meet the -requirements of practically any household. These -latter stoves consume illuminating oil by means of the -circular wick arrangement, and are in several sizes, one -of the best being that containing three lighters. Two -of these are under the oven, and one at the end can be -used for boiling purposes. Speaking from several -years’ experience of these stoves, I can say that they are -truly perfection. They are very economical, are easily -cleaned, and when in full operation give off not the -slightest odour. The oven is more readily heated than -with the coal gas apparatus, and the properly diffused -heat cooks all kinds of food most readily and perfectly. -The illustration of the stove given on the preceding -page will afford the reader a good idea of the apparatus, -which deserves to be even more popular than it is at -present. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br /> - -<span class="medium">INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES</span></h2> - -<p>In no other sphere of employment has petroleum made -such rapid strides during the past two or three decades -as those recorded in connection with its use in internal -combustion engines, and one of the most interesting -features of modern mechanical engineering is their -development. The advent and immediate popularity -of this kind of engine has been responsible for some of -the most remarkable conquests of mankind over the -forces of Nature, for it has brought into being the -automobile, the aeroplane, the dirigible airship, and -a host of other inventions. It has also been responsible -for quite a new departure in ocean transport, for -experiments have proved that the largest vessels can -be very economically operated by means of the internal -combustion engine.</p> - -<p>It might, by way of introduction, be well to explain -for the benefit of the uninitiated, the meaning of the -term “Internal combustion engine.” As most of my -readers are well aware, the steam, or, rather, to be -exact, the highly heated water vapour which drives -the steam engine, is supplied from boilers which are -heated by the burning of coal, oil fuel, or, sometimes, -gas, and such engines might, therefore, be called -“external combustion engines,” since the fuel is -consumed in apparatus external to the engine proper. -Such a term, however, is not in use amongst engineers, -and might raise a superior sort of smile if used in -their presence. It will be readily seen from the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> -foregoing that a great deal of weight and apparatus of -some complication is required before the water vapour -which drives the steam engine can even be provided.</p> - -<p>In the case of the internal combustion engine, the -fuel (motor spirit or the heavier oils) is introduced -directly into the engine and there vapourized and -mixed with air so as to form an explosive mixture, so -that all boilers, with the necessarily complicated -systems of piping, etc., are done away with. It needs -no imagination to understand the enormous saving of -weight and space resulting from this elimination of -the boiler, and of the room which it would occupy.</p> - -<p>The latter-day demands for the provision of lighter -and yet lighter, as well as space-saving propelling -machinery for submarines, airships, aeroplanes, motor-cars, -etc., especially during the war, have enormously -stimulated the development of the engine which consumes -its own fuel, and which is known as the internal -combustion engine. A very wide field has thus been -opened out for the exercise of the engineer’s ingenuity, -and he has availed himself to the full of the opportunities -thus created, never failing to rise to the occasion when -fresh demands have been made upon him.</p> - -<p>In these circumstances, it is not at all surprising to -find that numerous firms have given considerable -attention to the manufacture of the internal combustion -class of engine, and many varieties, for a multiplicity of -purposes, are upon the market. The limits of space -effectively prevent my detailing the list of even the -largest manufacturers; I will therefore content myself -by referring to but one firm—Messrs. Vickers, Ltd.—who -are now the largest manufacturers in the Kingdom. -This progressive firm has grappled with the internal -combustion engine problem from the earliest stages -of the petrol engine to the latest forms of the heavy -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -oil engine and its remarkable developments, and a large -section of their establishment at Barrow-in-Furness is, -and has long been, set aside exclusively for the design -and manufacture of the heavy oil internal combustion -engine. A very large staff of expert engineers has -been selected for the work, while experiments with a -view to improvements being effected in details are -continually being conducted in the establishment. The -result is that the development of this engine at the -Barrow works has been attended with the highest -success, a fact which is not widely known to the general -public.</p> - -<p>I take it as a great compliment that permission has -been given me in this book to refer somewhat in detail -to the achievements of Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., in this -respect, for, hitherto, publicity in connection with this -section of the firm’s operations has been strictly withheld. -One of the latest and, it might well be said, the -most important developments in connection with -Messrs. Vickers’ activities, is the Vickers patent system -of fuel injection, which enables an engine of the Diesel -type (that is, using heavy oil) to be successfully run -without the use of an air compressor for injecting the -fuel into the engine. Before the introduction of this -system, an air compressor, with its attendant complication -and weight, had to be used for the introduction of -the fuel into the engine. The elimination of this compressor -has resulted in considerable economy in weight, -space, and attendance, which, it will readily be seen, -is a step in the right direction, whilst the efficiency of -the engine has also been improved. The disadvantages -attendant upon the use of the air compressor were early -comprehended by Messrs. Vickers, and they have -spared no efforts (nor expense) in developing the system -which has led to its elimination. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span></p> - -<p>The reader will require no knowledge of the subject -to understand that the question of fuel consumption is -one of the highest importance in any engine system, -and, in regard to this point, Messrs. Vickers have made -a special study, with the result that whilst the ordinary -consumption in a Diesel engine with air compressor -is ·41 lb. brake horse-power an hour (or 184 grammes -<i>par force de cheval</i>), that firm have been able to reach -the low figure of ·376 lbs. B.H.P. an hour (or ·170 -grammes <i>par force de cheval</i>).</p> - -<p>As one might expect, Messrs. Vickers, in bringing -their engine to its present state of perfection, have, -perforce, had a varied experience with fuel oils—and -a considerable one, too,—for they have experimented -with oils from all the well-known producing fields, and -find that, under their system, practically any fuel oil -which can be made to flow may be utilized in their -engines—a fact which, in its importance, speaks for -itself. The physical properties of the oils used by them -have, naturally, differed very considerably. For instance, -specific gravities have varied from ·810 to ·950 flash -points from 100° Fahr., to upwards of 250° Fahr., whilst -the viscosities, which the lay mind might well be excused -for thinking of as “degrees of stickiness,” have varied -from that of the ordinary kerosene (illuminating oil) -to the thick asphaltic fuel oil which comes from Mexico. -Readers may judge from this of the painstaking and -difficult experiments that have been carried out in the -Barrow works.</p> - -<p>The advantages derivable from the use of the Vickers -system could not, obviously, be withheld from general -use, and the firm have upwards of twenty licensees now -manufacturing internal combustion engines under their -designs. This fact, though not familiar to “the man -in the street,” is known in the manufacturing world. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span></p> - -<div id="VICKERS_NEW_ENGINE_FRONT_VIEW" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p099a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">900 B.H.P. LOW DUTY VICKERS ENGINE FOR OIL -TANK VESSELS</p> -</div> - -<div id="VICKERS_NEW_ENGINE_REAR_VIEW" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p099b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">BACK VIEW OF ENGINE -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Already a very large number of their engines have -been constructed, the approximate brake horse-power -produced by same being upwards of 337,600. These -engines are of various sizes, ranging from 200 to 2,000 -horse-power. The cylinders vary in diameter from -10 to 29 inches, and are arranged to work in groups to -suit the power required, and may be either two-stroke -or four-stroke cycle. The high temperatures set up in -starting the engine are sufficient to ignite the fuel, the -introduction of which in a finely-divided condition has -been the object of so many experiments at Barrow; and -so successful in this direction have Messrs. Vickers been -that they are now able to deal satisfactorily, by careful -adjustments of the engine to suit the various fuels, -with the most troublesome oils.</p> - -<p>As already referred to, the elimination of the air -compressor constitutes the chief improvement embodied -in the Vickers type of engine, seeing that the greatest -worry which the Diesel engineer has had to encounter -has been this very compressor. Needless to remark, -therefore, this feature alone strongly recommends the -new system to the experienced man. Further, the -power required to drive the compressor above-mentioned -is considerable, so that economy is not one of the least -results due to its absence.</p> - -<p>The principal advantages that can be claimed for the -Vickers engine may be summarized as under—</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>1. Safety in working. (Many accidents have been -due to the use of the air compressor.)</p> - -<p>2. Weight is saved.</p> - -<p>3. Space is saved.</p> - -<p>4. Lower air compression in the cylinders for -ignition, and economy in air for starting the engine.</p> - -<p>5. Reduction in first costs; and</p> - -<p>6. Reduction in upkeep expenses.</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span></p> - -<div id="HIGH_DUTY_ENGINE_FOR_LIGHT_CRAFT" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p101a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">900 B.H.P. HIGH DUTY REVERSING ENGINE FOR -LIGHT CRAFT</p> -</div> - -<div id="LOW_DUTY_MARINE_ENGINE" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p101b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">1,250 B.H.P. LOW DUTY VICKERS MARINE ENGINE -FOR OIL TANK VESSEL -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span></p> -</div> - -<p>With regard to (4), the low compression claimed is -rather interesting, as Messrs. Vickers have successfully -demonstrated that, although a high compression temperature -is necessary in the ordinary Diesel engine with -the usual air spraying compressor, a much lower degree -suffices for their mechanical injection system, whilst -there is a greater certainty of ignition of the fuel on its -first introduction, even with the existence of lower -compression in the cylinder. The reason of this is that -the spraying air used in the ordinary Diesel is usually -compressed to about 60 atmospheres (900 lb. per square -inch). What happens when air spraying is practised -is this. When the cold air carrying the very high -pressure above mentioned enters the cylinder, it necessarily -expands, owing to the lower temperature already -existent there, and such expansion chills the whole -mixture, frequently preventing ignition on the first -introduction of the fuel.</p> - -<p>Under the Vickers system of mechanical fuel injection, -there is, of course, no introduction of very highly -compressed air, and, consequently, first ignition is -rendered easier. From this, it will at once be seen that -an oil possessing a high flash point can be more easily -burned in the Vickers engine than in the ordinary -Diesel, with the necessary adjunct of an air compressor. -Provision is also made (should the type of fuel used -require it) for a higher temperature of compression, and -such oils are, therefore, much more easily dealt with -than in the ordinary Diesel engine.</p> - -<p>From what I have already said, it will be evident to -the reader that it is only a question of time for air -spraying, with its attendant use of the compressor, to -become a thing of the past.</p> - -<p>The mechanism involved by the adoption of the new -system of fuel injection developed by Messrs. Vickers -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -is exceptionally simple. It consists of a small fuel -pump, such as is ordinarily used for pumping fuel, a -reservoir or accumulator of novel form to retain the -charge, and a valve with a special nozzle to admit the -fuel in the form of a fine spray into the cylinder. The -accumulator, I may here mention, is merely a tube, -flattened slightly on the sides, and of sufficient length, -when the oil is forced into it, to enable it to yield and -store up a charge of fuel at the required high pressure, -as explained in the next paragraph.</p> - -<p>The principal feature of the system (and the secret -of its great success) is the very high pressure at which -the oil is injected into the cylinder. This pressure is -kept up at about 4,000 lb. the square inch, so that the -oil fuel, when it enters the cylinder and encounters the -hot compressed air therein, is in the form of a very finely -atomized mist, a conjunction of circumstances most -favourable for ignition. As in all great inventions, the -simplicity of the arrangement is not the least of its merits.</p> - -<p>This somewhat rough, yet brief, outline will suffice -to explain the astonishing success of the Vickers heavy -oil engine, but, if the whole history of these (and other) -noteworthy experiments could be written, a highly -interesting story would be produced, showing indomitable -perseverance in the face of discouragement, difficulty, -and very heavy expense.</p> - -<p>I have avoided touching upon the ordinary kerosene -engines, for I imagine they are too well known to need -more than passing reference here; nor have I gone into -the details concerning the advent of the ordinary -Diesel engine, which was a German invention.</p> - -<p>I have preferred rather to deal with a British invention -which is already revolutionizing oil engine construction -generally, and which, obviously, has limitless fields -open to it. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br /> - -<span class="medium">PETROLEUM IN ENGLAND</span></h2> - -<p>There will be no chapter in this little treatise which -will be more carefully perused than the present one, for -the subject is of direct interest to every reader, whether -actually associated with the search for oil or not. -To-day, as I have already mentioned in another chapter, -this country is dependent for practically the whole of -its petroleum requirements upon foreign oil-producing -countries, and though ample evidence is forthcoming to -suggest that there are possibilities of obtaining liquid -oil in England—in fact, many years ago this was -actually obtained in not inconsiderable quantities—it -is very strange that only recently have serious efforts -been made in the direction of systematic search for the -valuable liquid.</p> - -<p>That large quantities of petroleum can be produced -in this country is agreed by all who have given the -subject more than passing thought; the question is, -by what means shall this production be brought about. -While it is problematical as to the amount of commercial -success which will attend the present search -for liquid oil, though those who are most competent -to judge believe that large stores of liquid oil will be -found, it is already certain that there are vast possibilities -in England for the production of petroleum -from the treatment of the bituminous shales which -freely abound in many parts.</p> - -<p>It will be seen, therefore, that the subject really -divides itself under two heads, and it is with the first -of these—that of the possibilities of finding liquid oil -reserves in commercial quantity in this country—that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -I will now proceed to deal. For this purpose, it is -better that we divide the country into three zones—western, -middle, and eastern. The western zone will -include the whole of England between the third meridian -of West Longitude and the Irish Sea, the Bristol Channel, -and the North Atlantic. It will be bounded on the north -by a line running near Whitehaven to the mouth of -the River Tees, and having the English Channel as its -southern boundary. In this zone, the most northern -occurrence of petroleum is found at Whitehaven, -Cumberland, and the next is found on the Lancashire -coast. Other indications are to be found in Denbighshire -and in the northern part of the South Wales coalfield.</p> - -<p>The occurrences of petroleum in what may be described -as the middle zone are far more important and numerous -than those of the western zone. They are important -in the physical conditions to which they are subordinate, -and in their greater productiveness. They are more -numerous, and their geological position is more in direct -relationship with later dynamical alterations in the -rock structures. In this zone occurs the most important -occurrence which has so far been recorded—I refer to that -at Alfreton, in Derbyshire—for it was from this natural -flow of petroleum over 70 years ago that Dr. Young, -the founder of the Scottish shale oil industry, manufactured -paraffin wax. Near Chesterfield is also unmistakable -evidence of the presence of liquid oil at depth, for -considerable quantities have flowed from the workings -at the Southgate Colliery. In this middle zone, too, -are the occurrences of petroleum found near Wigan and -West Leigh, while flows of oil are recorded from several -spots round Barnsley and Ilkeston. The petroleum -find at Kelham, near Newark, some few years ago, is -important for the reason that the drill in this case, at -a depth of somewhere about 2,400 feet, struck true -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> -petroliferous sands, underlain by dark, waxy shales. -The oil rock has been proved to consist of loose, coarsely -grained sand, having all the features of strata in which -petroleum is ordinarily met with. The great value of -this boring is that it has demonstrated the fact, so long -doubted by many of the best geological authorities in -Great Britain, that all the geological conditions, dynamical -as well as historical, are present in this locality for -the formation and subsequent retention of liquid petroleum, -and that, as Dr. William Forbes-Leslie puts it, -despite all contention to the contrary, a true oil-field -exists in England.</p> - -<p>So far as I am aware, however, North Staffordshire -alone, among all the places in England, has the distinction -of so far having produced liquid petroleum in -sufficient quantity for refining purposes. It was in -1874 that oil was discovered in a seam of coal in one of -the pits of the Mear Hay Collieries, Longton, and a -contract was ultimately made with a Mr. William -Walker, Senr., of Hanley, who erected plant at Cobridge -for the purpose of refining the oil. I am indebted to -Mr. Walker for the following facts, though in a general -way I have full corroboration for them, for it was -within a couple of miles from the collieries that I was -born and spent my earlier days. The seam of coal -wherein the oil was discovered was one of the deeper -seams, and by no means one of the best in the district. -At that time, the flow produced more than 5 tons of -crude oil per week, and inasmuch as England then was -not inundated with American petroleums, great possibilities -were seen in the discovery. But almost before -the refining of the crude had settled down to be a -commercial undertaking, the plans of operation were -upset, for a serious explosion occurred at the colliery, -which rendered necessary the closing of the pit. Twelve -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> -months later, however, they were re-opened, and after -the re-sinking had proceeded awhile, the oil was found -far up the shaft, and in due course the shaft was cleared -and the mines re-opened. Refining operations were -resumed and continued for a year or two, when the -pits had to be closed on account of the shafts shrinking.</p> - -<p>However, in the course of a number of years, petroleum -appeared in another colliery less than a mile from the -Mear Hay Colliery, and again Mr. Walker secured the -contract for the whole of the output. The quantity of -crude oil found was several tons weekly, and a large -stock had accumulated when Mr. Walker’s attention -was drawn to this new find. This time, the supply -continued for a longer period, and then again the seam -of coal in which the deposit occurred had to be abandoned. -Thus, while the resources of this part of the -Charnian axis have not been properly tested—for, in -the opinion of the colliery owners, it is not possible -profitably to work coal and oil at the same time—there -is ample evidence to suggest that, in the not distant -future, there may be most interesting oil developments -in this part of North Staffordshire.</p> - -<p>The eastern zone of the country doubtless furnishes -the most interesting petroleum occurrences in England. -Here, the interest does not so much depend upon the -number of escapes, as upon the promising geological -conditions subserving the production and possible -retention of petroleum. According to the investigations -of Dr. W. Forbes-Leslie, F.R.G.S., whose valuable contribution -on the subject of the occurrence of petroleum -in England forms one of the most important papers ever -read before the Institution of Petroleum Technologists, -the northern line of oil occurrences runs from Filey, -north-westerly, the principal finds being located at -Filey, Pickering, and Kirby Moorside. Oil, too, has -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -been found at Brigg, in Lincolnshire, at Market-Rasen, -Haugmont, and Donnington-on-Bain. The line of oil -occurrences starts at King’s Lynn, on the Wash, and -runs south-westwards as far as Cottenham, in Cambridgeshire, -the principal occurrences being at King’s Lynn, -Downham, Littleport, and Ely. The information -obtained by the bore-hole at Kelham, to which I have -already referred, is a factor of great value when taken -into consideration and applied to an analytical review -of the petroleum seepages in England. It is a positive -proof that a true oil-bearing stratum underlies the -surface rocks, at any rate, in one part of the British Isles, -and, when it is considered in relation with the surface -position of the oil escapes on the eastern flank of the -Pennine Chain, it suggests a possible connection between -those underground sources of oil and those surface -escapes which are scattered, seemingly at such random, -along the Pennines.</p> - -<p>The attempts which were made but a few years ago -to develop the possibilities of the Heathfield district of -Sussex, with a view to obtaining commercial quantities -of natural gas, were also prompted with the idea of -maybe striking deposits of liquid petroleum, though it -is doubtful, both from a geological point of view, and -from the nature of the natural gas which is there in -abundance, whether liquid oil will be met with in that -part of the country. What has been established, -however, is the fact that large quantities of natural gas -are to be found in this delightful part of rural Sussex, -and it is a great pity that the necessary enterprise has -not been forthcoming to permit of a really serious -development. Some years ago, I motored an American -oil-man over the gas-fields of Heathfield, and he assured -me that, if such evidences were found in the States, -there would immediately be a great boom, and finance -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -would freely flow in to stimulate development. But -not so with Heathfield, for the opinion is freely held -that this field is too near our midst for real speculative -enterprise. Remove it to the wilds of Russia, and -British finance would appreciate the immense potentialities -which to-day lie dormant. For those readers who -are, perhaps, not conversant with the history of the -Heathfield gas developments it is well to record the -fact that attention to these deposits was drawn years -ago, when a well was being drilled for water on the -property of the Brighton and South Coast Railway, -near the present station. Strong smells of gas prevented -working for some time, and as these increased it was -decided that the better course would be to suspend -drilling operations. The tubes of the well were partially -drawn out, and the well sides caved in, yet the gas -pressure increased. The well was abandoned as a -water well, but pipes were attached to the cap at the -mouth, and a steady pressure of gas was emitted. It -was decided that, inasmuch as the gas burned with a -pure flame, the station should be lighted with it. That -was over twenty years ago, and to-day the well is still -producing, and the station is still lighted with the -natural gas, which needs no refining. Not only so, -but a well-appointed hotel close by utilizes the gas for -lighting and cooking.</p> - -<p>A project was set on foot for sinking further wells -and piping the gas to the southern coast resorts for -general use, but lack of capital prevented progress -being made, and so, to-day, Heathfield, like many other -centres in the country, awaits the attention of the -carefully-directed drill to open up its underground wealth.</p> - -<p>In August, 1917, the feeling in many parts of the -country that the Government should take some action -in order to develop these latent resources became so -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> -strong that a Bill was introduced into Parliament with -this object in view. No attempt was made to progress -with it until the following October, when a financial -resolution was rejected by the House of Commons on -the question of royalties. An amendment was adopted -against the payment of royalties to the owners of -surface lands who had made no attempt to obtain -liquid oil, and who, as a matter of fact, did not know -that it was there. Two months later the Petroleum -(Production) Bill was dropped.</p> - -<p>In March, 1918, however, a most encouraging turn -of events occurred, for Lord Cowdray, head of the -great firm of Messrs. S. Pearson & Son, and associated -with those influential interests in oil represented by the -Mexican Eagle Oil Company, the Eagle Oil Transport -Company, and the Anglo-Mexican Petroleum Company, -made offers to the Government which were couched in -the following terms—</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) For the period of the war to place at the disposal -of the Government, free of all cost, the services of his -firm and geological staff for the purpose of exploration -and development.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) If the Government did not wish to risk public -money on what had to be deemed a speculative enterprise, -Messrs. S. Pearson & Son were prepared to drill, -at their own risk and expense as licensees, subject to -certain areas being reserved to them. The offer committed -the firm to an expenditure of, possibly, £500,000.</p> - -<p>The public spirited offer of Lord Cowdray was most -thankfully accepted by the Government and, with a -minimum of delay, drilling sites were marked out for -the commencement of active operations.</p> - -<p>Lord Cowdray’s geological staff particularly favoured -the neighbourhood in Derbyshire, near to which Young -made his first discoveries of oil, and Chesterfield was -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> -selected as headquarters for the new oil developments. -The first oil well to be drilled in this country was commenced -in September, 1918, at Hardstoft, near Pilsley, -on the Great Central main line between Sheffield and -Nottingham, and on Tuesday, 18th October, the inauguration -of England’s oil industry took place there in -the presence of many oil notabilities. American drilling -machinery of the percussion type was installed and, in -view of the great depth to which it was expected the -drill would have to proceed before encountering commercial -quantities of oil, the well was commenced with -a diameter of 18 inches.</p> - -<p>A depth of just over 3,000 ft. had been reached at -the commencement of June, 1919, at which depth oil -production started. The well was put on the pump -and began its steady yield of a good grade crude oil, -the production being about fifty barrels per week. -Up to the time of writing (December, 1919) the well is -maintaining its yield.</p> - -<p>Other wells have been sunk in the Chesterfield area -at Ironville, Heath, Renishaw, Brimington, Ridgeway -and in North Staffordshire and Scotland, but so far the -success met with is not promising, though it is quite -possible that commercial oil may be encountered.</p> - -<p>Private enterprise has also commenced the sinking -of a well at Kelham, Nottinghamshire, near a site -where, many years ago, small quantities of oil were -found in an experimental coal bore. Here, however, -no definite result has been attained. The Company—The -Oilfields of England, Ltd.—is operating under a -drilling license from the Government under which -the Government may take over the properties on a -valuation should commercial oil be found.</p> - -<p>Let us now briefly turn to the other aspect of the -question of the production of petroleum in England—that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -is, of producing oils from the treatment of the bituminous -shales. There are several sources from which -petroleum can be obtained in this country by distillation, -and these are: (1) oil-shales, (2) coal, (3) cannel coals and -torbanites, (4) blackband ironstones, (5) lignite, and -(6) peat.</p> - -<p>Though in the past the oil shales of England have not -been recognized as possessing great potential value, -comparatively recent discoveries have proved that at -home we have enormous deposits of oil shales of remarkable -richness. These are, so far as at present proved, -situate in Norfolk and at short distance from King’s -Lynn. Dr. Forbes Leslie, F.R.G.S., has for many -years carried out a number of tests as to the quality and -quantity of the shales in the Norfolk field, and as a -result of his work it has been proved that upwards of -twenty miles square, there is an area in Norfolk underlaid -with rich oil-shales. From a geological point of -view the shales are remarkable, for they uniformly lie -within 300 ft. of the surface, several of the seams being -but a few feet below ground. Their prolific nature -may be judged from the fact that in sinking test wells -to depths of 300 ft. in various parts of the field, over -150 ft. of this oil shale has been drilled through, and it is -thus established beyond all possible doubt that at home -we have all the materials at hand for a huge home -production of oil.</p> - -<p>The whole of the field has been secured by English -Oilfields, Ltd., a company which, by reason of the -influential interest behind it, is bound to be strikingly -successful in its future developments in Norfolk.</p> - -<p>The crude oil content of the shales is surprisingly -great, for these shales yield approximately 60 gallons -of oil per ton, or considerably more than double as much -as the Midlothian shales. Dr. Forbes Leslie asserts -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> -that there is already proved over 2,000,000,000 tons of -shale on the properties in Norfolk, and after having -carefully inspected the whole of the fields on many -occasions, I think Dr. Leslie’s statement may be taken -as very conservative, for after all it is only a question -of a simple sum of calculation which allows one to arrive -at the figures above quoted.</p> - -<p>Commercial developments have already been commenced -on the Norfolk fields, and it is safe to assume -that they will become of enormous National importance, -since the production of home oil supplies is to-day -considered of vast National interest.</p> - -<p>The other shales—such as the Kimmeridge shales of -Dorset and Sussex—are not being worked commercially -in spite of strenuous efforts, and there remains much to -be done before a steady supply of petroleum can be -counted upon from these sources. Of the other possible -sources of supply, coal yields too little, and at the -same time is considered too valuable to be utilized on a -general scale; lignites are not yet opened for development -on a sufficient scale; and peat has proved troublesome -and expensive to treat owing to the difficulty of -eliminating the water. This, therefore, leaves cannel -coals, torbanites, and blackband ironstones, which are -closely associated and, in numerous cases, easily obtainable. -Cannel coal, I should explain, differs from the -ordinarily known coal on account of its being less -carbonized; it contains many fragments and particles -of vegetable matter still showing their natural forms, -though flattened by pressure. The percentage of -hydrogen to carbon is higher in a cannel coal than in -the bituminous coal, the percentage of inorganic matter -is usually higher also, and the fracture and general -appearance serve to distinguish this variety of -carbonaceous deposit. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br /> - -<span class="medium">PETROLEUM IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE</span></h2> - -<p>The desire that the British Empire should be self-supporting -in every possible way has been the predominating -idea of our statesmen for many years: it is -to be regretted, however, that such little progress has -been recorded in the direction of the achievement of -a practical result. This remark applies to many -commodities, yet to none more so than to petroleum and -its products. To-day, as much as at any preceding -time, the Empire is dependent upon foreign sources -of supply for the vast bulk of its petroleum products. -It is true that in the United Kingdom there is a growing -production of oil from the shale-fields of Scotland, but -this total represents but a fraction of the large quantities -of products which are annually required to meet the -ever-increasing demands in commercial and domestic -circles.</p> - -<p>At the outbreak of the European War, it was forcibly -brought home to us as a nation that we were in a -position regarding our petroleum supplies of absolute -dependence upon other countries. The refined products -were an essential part of the war, for without them it -would have been impossible to have continued for -almost a single day, and yet, practically every gallon -used had to be transported thousands of miles, and -from a country which at that time was neutral. To -make matters even worse, the Continental sources of -supply from which we had been previously drawing -large quantities of petroleum were closed to export, -for, through the Dardanelles, the Roumanian and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -Russian export ports were effectively shut off from the -outside world.</p> - -<p>Fortunately for Great Britain, the United States -came forward with the offer of all the petroleum products -required for the successful prosecution of the war, and -we owe to the United States alone all success which -has been the natural result of possessing ample requirements -of petroleum products both on sea and land.</p> - -<p>The fact, nevertheless, stands out tragically prominent -that we as a nation have not developed our own -oil resources in a manner we ought to have done, although -everyone conversant with the oil business has been for -years advocating the giving of serious attention to this -important subject. To-day, speculative drilling for -petroleum is proceeding in England, and it is to be -hoped that some success will be ultimately recorded, -but, inasmuch as I dealt with the question of Petroleum -in England in the previous chapter, I will at the moment -pass over this very interesting phase of the problem, -and briefly look at the subject from an Empire point -of view. Under the British Flag, we already have, -or control, some excellent oil-fields in Burmah, Persia, -Egypt, Trinidad, and Assam, and each producing -steadily increasing quantities of crude oil. The Burmah -fields have achieved fame mainly owing to the very -large profits made by the chief operating company—the -Burmah Oil Company, Ltd., whose head offices are -at Glasgow. These have of recent years been developed -upon most up-to-date lines, and the producing limits -of the territory greatly extended, until now the annual -crude oil production is upwards of 1,000,000 tons. -The fields of Persia are very prolific, and their control -to-day is in the hands of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, -Ltd., an influential concern largely controlled by the -British Government, by reason of the investment of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> -large sums of public moneys a few years ago. The -development of the Persian fields is more or less in its -initial stages, and though huge quantities of oil have -already been produced therefrom, the limits of the -presumably oil-bearing areas have by no means been -defined. In order to facilitate the export of Persian -oil, a pipe-line has been laid from the fields to Abadan, -on the Persian Gulf, and a programme has already -been laid down under which large quantities of -Persian petroleum products will come upon the English -markets.</p> - -<p>The Egyptian oil-fields have lately witnessed developments -upon an important scale, thanks to the enterprise -of the Anglo-Egyptian Oil-fields, Ltd., a concern closely -allied with the “Shell” Combination, and having as -its Chairman, Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart. Commercial -supplies of crude oil have been found at several points -near the coast of the Gulf of Suez, and a large refinery -has been built for the refining of the oil. Down to 1914, -the only oil finds of importance had been at Gemsah, -where a number of oil gushers were struck, but the -field there proved to be one of most irregular formation, -and none of the wells gave anything like a permanent -yield. Fortunately, in that year a field was discovered -at Hurgada, the formation of which was found to be -singularly regular, and the yield of which has steadily -increased until, at the time of writing, the production -of crude oil in it is over 15,000 tons per month. That -additional wells have not been sunk and the field further -increased has been primarily due to the difficulties of -obtaining the necessary plant under war conditions. -Some very large wells have already been brought in, -but, so far, the petroleum industry in Egypt is quite -in its infancy. It is quite obvious, however, that in -the next few years the production of petroleum in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -Egypt will be increasingly large, and the developments -are bound to have a significant bearing upon the -oil situation generally.</p> - -<p>The same remarks equally apply to the Trinidad -fields, where the anticipations of those associated with -the pioneer oil operations have been more than fulfilled. -Some prolific fields have been opened up, and the -production to-day is such that an export trade of -considerable magnitude can be maintained. Developments -upon the Island were impeded by the total -absence of roads in the oil districts, and much pioneer -work had to be undertaken before it was possible to -commence the serious exploitation of the fields themselves. -The crude oil of Trinidad is of both the light -and the heavy grades, the former showing remarkable -percentages of motor spirit, while the latter is used -not only as fuel oil but also for the treatment of roads -so as to render them dustless. It is in Trinidad that -there is the famous pitch lake, from which for many -years large quantities of asphalt have been removed -and exported for a variety of purposes. Trinidad -asphalt, in fact, is well known all over the world. The -potentialities of the Island are rapidly being appreciated, -for its geographical position is such that would make -it a practical base for the “oiling” of the great ocean-going -vessels which are rapidly passing over from coal -to fuel oil burning.</p> - -<p>While on the subject of oil-fields which are under -the British Flag, mention must be made of Canada, -whose oil industry has been developed for many years. -The principal producing fields are in Ontario, and the -town of Petrolia is the centre of the petroleum interests. -But the wells are not of the prolific class, and almost -without exception show a very poor return for operating. -Many of them are sunk only to the shallow strata, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -their operation would certainly be profitless were not a -system employed by which quite a number of small -producing wells are pumped by central power. From -time to time, Canada has experienced various oil booms, -one of the most recent being that which occurred in -Calgary, in 1914. A well showed a small production of -high-grade oils, and immediately the country for miles -round became the centre of an oil fever, which gradually -died down when a number of unsuccessful developments -took place. To-day, the output of the Canadian fields -is steadily declining, and all efforts to stimulate the -production have so far failed. Even a Government -bounty of 1½ cents a gallon of oil produced has failed -to encourage an increase in output, and it is evident that, -unless new fields are opened out, the future offers little hope.</p> - -<p>The total production of petroleum to-day by the -oil-fields developed in the British Empire represents -but about 2 per cent. of the world’s total petroleum -output: it is therefore clear that, if we intend to secure -our oil supplies in the future from territory under the -British Flag, large supplementary sources of supply -must be found. It is doubtful whether any additional -liquid oil regions will be found to produce oil in commercial -quantity, for, though several attempts have -been made in various parts with this end in view, they -have not achieved success, and numerous instances -might be quoted where the employment of British -capital in an endeavour to bring about this much desired -result has met with failure.</p> - -<p>The question then arises: Is it possible to augment considerably -Empire-produced oils from other means of -development? In this direction, the future is full of -promise, for, though Nature has not given the Empire -freely of liquid oil-producing fields, there are immense -areas of oil-bearing shales at home and in our Dominions -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -overseas which can, without great difficulty, be turned -into most useful account. It is well known that great -deposits of retortable material exist within the Empire’s -bounds, and many of these deposits are exceedingly -rich. At the moment, however, scarcely any have -been exploited, and none adequately developed. From -time to time, many samples of oil-bearing shales from -various parts of the Empire have been sent to this -country for analysis, and these have usually been put -through Scottish retorts with varying results.</p> - -<p>But the unsatisfactory analyses have not been due -to the qualities of the shale or torbanite examined, but -to the methods by which the distillations were carried -out. The well-known consulting oil engineer—Mr. E. H. -Cunningham-Craig—made a special point of this in a -most interesting article which recently appeared in one -of the Empire magazines, and he pointed out that the -reasons for the unsatisfactory conclusions arrived at -were very simple and obvious. The Scottish retorts -are designed to deal effectually with highly inspissated -and, as a rule, not very rich, oil-shales. The recovery -of the maximum amount of sulphate of ammonia is a -desideratum; a sufficient supply of incondensable gases -to fire the retort must be produced; while the recovery -of the lighter fractions (motor spirit) of the material -treated was not an object of the first consideration. -For these purposes, says Mr. Cunningham-Craig, large -and high vertical retorts are used, the temperature of -distillation is comparatively high, superheated steam -is blown into the retorts, and a fairly complete extraction -of volatile matter is achieved. But to apply such -methods to a very rich and fresh torbanite—such as -the richer shales of New South Wales—is absurd, -involving many practical difficulties and not giving the -most remunerative results. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p> - -<p>Similarly, the rich oil-shales of New Brunswick -(Canada), though more nearly allied to the Scottish -shales, differ from them both chemically and physically -to such an extent as to require different treatment. -Let me now briefly refer to the deposits which are -known in the Dominions and Colonies that give promise -of yielding oil in commercial quantities by destructive -distillation. I will first take the shales of Canada, -for though, as I have pointed out, the Dominion’s -production of liquid oil is steadily decreasing, there -are numerous deposits of shales which only await -careful exploitation and development in order to -render Canada a petroleum-producing country of considerable -magnitude. The oil-shales of New Brunswick -have been known for many years, yet only a fraction -of the area has been yet prospected. Experiments -with the shales have shown that they are capable of -producing nearly 50 gallons of crude oil the ton of -shale treated, while ammonium sulphate has been -produced at the remarkable proportion of 77 lb. a -ton. Albert County is one of the best shale-fields, and -it is here that a Government scheme has now been -promulgated. The shales of Nova Scotia are likewise -to be commercially developed, but so far no serious -attempt has been proposed to deal with the enormous -areas in Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, and -other already known regions of Canadian oil-shales.</p> - -<p>Australia can boast of very large areas of shales: -some deposits have been operated for several years, -but others are still awaiting development. From a -variety of causes, however, the shale-oil industry of -Australia has never been set upon a profitable footing. -The Commonwealth Oil Corporation some years ago set -out to accomplish much, but the only thing which it -seemed to do with energy was to sail to destruction. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> -Its failure cannot be said to have been due to any -absence of the material it set out to treat for petroleum, -for at every turn enormous quantities were opened up. -It would appear that the immensity of the possibilities -which awaited its operations was one of the prime -reasons for its premature decay, while there is no doubt -that the system it employed was by no means the best -for treating the shales. A more simple and less expensive -method of retorting the shales would doubtless -ensure successful working. In Queensland, Tasmania, -and New Zealand the presence of these shales has been -proved over extensive areas, and though for the most -part they have so far been neglected, there is reason to -hope that, in the not distant future, the advantage to -be derived from their commercial exploitation will be -the more widely appreciated. A most lucrative industry -could be built up by the Commonwealth of Australia -by the distillation of the torbanites there, and though, -perhaps, it is too much to expect that an export trade -in petroleum products could be built up, there is no -doubt whatever that the large requirements for petroleum -products in the Dominion could easily be met by -the production from home sources.</p> - -<p>The possibilities of developing a shale industry in -Africa are not particularly promising, though they are -by no means out of the range of probability. In the -coal series in the Transvaal, beds of what are known -as “oil-shales” are encountered in several localities -The seams generally are thin, and in some cases -unworkable, but the material is very rich, and has -proved capable of yielding high percentages of crude -oil.</p> - -<p>In Sarawak (British North Borneo) the “Shell” -Company is carrying out most important and highly -successful developments, which are bound to have -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -far-reaching and gratifying results in regard to -developments under the British Flag.</p> - -<p>As I have shown, the problem of Imperial oil supply -would be far on its way to solution by the development -of the various shales in the British Empire, and the pity -is that a more progressive policy has not been adopted -in regard thereto long before the subject became of -such pressing importance. Each of our Colonies—like -the Mother Country—is a large consumer of petroleum -products, and each is also totally dependent upon -imported supplies, yet within the borders of each are -to be found large deposits of the necessary crude -material. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br /> - -<span class="medium">PETROLEUM’S PART IN THE GREAT WAR</span></h2> - -<p>A perusal of the preceding chapters of this little work -will have made it clear to the reader that petroleum -and its products play a most important part to-day in -the life of nations: if, however, one would be impressed -with the immensely significant rôle which petroleum -products have played in the conduct of the great -European War, a brief reference to the subject will -amply suffice. From the commencement of the Titanic -struggle in 1914, it became obvious to those who were -most competent to judge that, if victory was to be on -the side of the Allies, it was imperative that they -should possess sufficient reserves of petroleum products -for all purposes, for it was evident then that activity -would not be limited to armies on the land, but that -the air and the sea would also become battle-grounds -whereon the destinies of nations would in part be -decided.</p> - -<p>Germany, too, saw this; before the war it had been -practically dependent upon regular supplies from the -United States as well as from Roumania, but the bulk -of its requirements came from the former mentioned -country. With its States’ oil shipments cut off, it -turned its attention to securing at least part of its -stocks from the neutral North-Western European -countries, which, in their turn, were likewise dependent -upon America. The ruse worked for some time, and -the unsuspecting American exporters shipped cargoes -to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden with little idea that -the bulk of these were ultimately to find their way into -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -Germany. It was only when the figures were published -in the States as to the abnormally large quantities of -petroleum products that had been sent to the European -neutral countries that, to the thinking mind, it became -obvious something was wrong.</p> - -<p>I can modestly claim to have called the attention of -the British Government to this underhand proceeding -early in 1915, when I not only gave them details of -cargoes which had been delivered to various North-Western -European ports <i>en route</i> to Germany, but also -managed to secure the names of vessels all laden with -such supplies, which at that time were crossing the -Atlantic. Mr. Winston Churchill, to his credit be it -said, acted without delay, and within a few days, as -the vessels passed the North of Scotland, they were -stopped, and—well, to cut a long story short, this -country got the petroleum products which, in accordance -with the original plan, would have gone to Germany. -Some time afterwards there came a voice of protest -from one or two interested persons in those neutral -countries, for they declared that not a single barrel of -petroleum had gone over to Germany, but evidence was -soon forthcoming to show how well Germany’s ruse -had worked for some months, and a prosecution in one -of those countries made against an importing firm, for -actually sending petroleum supplies into Germany, -effectively closed the protest from those who would -have liked the enemy’s desires to have been undisturbed.</p> - -<p>There is not the slightest doubt that Germany at -that time was in dire straits for sufficient petroleum -products for its military purposes: had the war been -somewhat delayed in its commencement, she would -have been far better prepared, for, under the auspices -of the Government, there had been laid down an -elaborate programme for the importation and distribution -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -of Roumanian petroleum products throughout Germany. -As it was, the country was unprepared, and, though -in other directions every possible precaution had -been taken to carry through an elaborate military -programme of offence, the prospective dearth of sufficient -supplies of petroleum products necessitated the enforcing -of the most stringent regulations with regard to the -uses of all petroleum products, excepting for military -purposes.</p> - -<p>The taking of the Galician fields from the Central -Armies by Russia gave a serious set-back to Germany’s -military plans, and it was only when the Russians had -to withdraw from Lemberg that the enemy was able -to count upon sufficient supplies to meet his military -requirements. To an extent, he was even then doomed -to disappointment, for, when his armies arrived on the -Galician fields, they found that practically the whole -of the petroleum reserves had been destroyed, and a -large number of the prolific producing wells more or -less permanently damaged. Nor, to my mind, was -the advance into Roumania prompted by the idea of -territorial gains so much as to secure control of the -country’s oil-fields. Here, again, Germany’s desires -were in part thwarted, for the efforts of the British -Military Mission, to which I refer elsewhere, had been -eminently successful.</p> - -<p>From that time onward, however, Germany’s supplies -of petroleum products were secured, and that she -turned them to account was a matter of common -knowledge. Germany, naturally, greatly valued the -acquisition of the Roumanian oil-fields, and it must be -to its people a great disappointment that the whole -of these immensely prolific regions for oil production -are now permanently removed from the nation’s -grasp. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span></p> - -<p>Unfortunately, the British Government did not -seriously appreciate the importance of petroleum -products in war as well as peace until the war cloud -of 1914 was about to burst. It had taken no notice -of the suggestions made from time to time that in our -own country there might be vast petroleum reserves -awaiting development, and it had not even shown any -encouragement to the Scottish shale-oil industry. All -that it had done, and even this was on the eve of war, -was to invest over £2,000,000 in the Anglo-Persian -Oil Company, Ltd., for the development of the Persian -oil-fields, so that the Navy could secure ample supplies -of fuel oil. But here, however, there were difficulties -ahead, for the Persian fields are in the interior of the -country and have to rely upon pipe-lines to bring the -supplies to the coast.</p> - -<p>Everything, therefore, depended upon the security -of the pipe-line, and the idea which was in the minds -of many who opposed the scheme as to the possibility -of supplies being cut off by the activities of the insurgents, -was by no means a mistaken one; the pipe-line was, -in fact, partially destroyed, and the transport of fuel -oil held up for a long time.</p> - -<p>As a nation, we have all along had to depend upon -imported petroleum products, and, inasmuch as our -supplies could be drawn at will from a variety of producing -countries, the idea that we might at one time -find ourselves cut off from supply does not appear to -have occurred to many. No sooner had the war started, -however, than we found, owing to the closing of the -Dardanelles, that both Russia and Roumania could -no longer attend to our requirements, while the Far -East, owing to the great ocean journey necessitated to -this country (and the quickest way lay through the -Mediterranean) could not maintain regular shipments -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> -with us. It is fortunate that we found the United -States willing, and from the start very desirous, to -do all that was possible to help us out of a difficulty; -while Mexico, with its wealth of British oil interests, -catered in every way for the meeting of the enormous -demands we made upon its resources.</p> - -<p>To say that petroleum products have played a highly-important -part in the conduct of the war is but to -under-estimate facts. The importance of their part -has been equal to that of the supply of guns and shells, -and, when the statement was made in the House of -Commons in 1917 that adequate supplies of petroleum -were quite as essential as men and munitions, petroleum’s -part was then not over-stated. Rather would -I say it was on the contrary, for, had there been at -any time a dearth of any classification of petroleum -products, then the vast naval and army organization, -both on and across the water, would immediately have -lost its balance, and our great fighting units would -automatically have become useless. Just think of it for -a moment.</p> - -<p>To-day, our great naval fighters—take the <i>Queen -Elizabeth</i>, for instance—rely upon fuel oil for purposes -of power, while our second and third line units must -also have it, for, whether it be fuel oil or the lighter -products of the oil refinery—I refer to motor spirit—it -matters not, so far as supply is concerned. The whole -of our winged fleets in the air must, of necessity, be -useless unless they can regularly draw large quantities -of motor spirit, and the volume they consume, even on -a single trip, would surprise many, though it is not -possible here to enter into figures.</p> - -<p>At first sight one might be inclined to think that, -apart from petroleum products being a very useful -adjunct to the organization of battles on land, their -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> -use is not of a very real nature, but, if we pause for -one moment, our first impressions are disillusioned.</p> - -<p>It was my privilege at the end of 1917, thanks to the -kindness of the British Foreign Office, to pay a visit -to the fronts of France and Flanders, and there to have -an opportunity of seeing the part which petroleum -products did actually play. The immensity of this -importance cannot be easily grasped, nor easily described. -We all know the remarkable progress which had been -made in regard to the extension of the railway systems -throughout the zones of battle, but it will surprise many -to learn that it was when the rail-heads had been reached, -and between there and the real battle front, that motor -spirit had the realm of transport to itself. Tens of -thousands of heavy motor vehicles took up the work -of transport when it left the railway, and it was this service -that was required to see not only that our millions -of men daily received their food, but each and every -sort of ammunition also. But it was not even when the -front line of battle was reached that motor spirit had -finished its work. Those great machines of war—the -tanks—had to remain stationary if they were not fed by -large supplies of spirit, while petroleum, too, took a -primary position in the making of the liquid fire which -now and again we heard of as causing such havoc to -Fritz. But, at its best, the railway was somewhat -slow at the Front, no doubt owing to the enormous -congestion which was inseparable from the reign of a -state of war. Consequently, whole fleets of motor -vehicles were employed day and night in a ceaseless -stream of traffic, from the coastal ports right up to -the zone of battle. Without divulging secrets, it is -safe to say that that branch of the service alone -demanded millions of gallons of motor spirit weekly.</p> - -<p>Both after as well as before battle, the products of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> -petroleum were essential, for, when the Red Cross -vehicles took up their humane work of transporting the -wounded heroes of the fight, those, too, called for -innumerable quantities of motor spirit. And when -darkness had fallen the oil lamp came into general use. -It was to be found wherever there was a vestige of life -in those zones of battle: the soldiers in their, at times, -lonely dug-outs, used oil for cooking as well as for light, -and all vehicular traffic was guided from disaster along -the roads by the use of oil, which also offered the only -source of artificial light in the Red Cross vehicles. What -an immense organization it was which depended for its -ceaseless activities upon the products of petroleum!</p> - -<p>One day, while at General Headquarters, I expressed -a desire to see the methods by which all that world of -activity secured its necessary supplies of petroleum -products regularly, when once they had arrived in -France in bulk. A few days later, I was, accordingly, -allowed to visit the immense central depot at Calais, -at which all the petroleum products required for use -in the organization of transport were dealt with. It is -safe to say that at no centre in the world did there -exist such an extensive petroleum depot, nor anywhere -else was there an organization upon whose perfect -working so much depended. Though motor spirit necessarily -occupied the first position of importance, practically -the whole range of products was dealt with. The -motor spirit was received in bulk, but at the depot had -to be measured into the familiar 2-gallon can (which -was made on the spot) and sent up country in special -trains each day. Specially coloured tins denoted the -best quality of the spirit, and it was that which was -reserved for the numerous aerodromes in France and -Flanders. The magnitude of that branch of the depot -might be guessed when I state that at the time of my -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -visit considerably over 2,000,000 2-gallon petrol tins -were being either stored or filled for up country dispatch.</p> - -<p>All kinds of lubricants were also essential for the purposes -of war, for even motor spirit itself would be of -little use for the internal combustion engines, if the -engines could not secure their regular supplies of -lubricating oils. These, too, had to be dispatched -with remarkable regularity to every section of the -battle zones, whilst, as I have suggested earlier, the -daily requirements of war necessitated the distribution -of illuminating oil in large quantities.</p> - -<p>But no reference to petroleum’s part in the great -European war would be complete were it not to include -mention of the way in which supplies of toluol assisted -in securing victory to the Allies. Toluol, as is known, -is necessary for the production of high explosives, and -in the early stages of the great conflict, the output of -high explosives was considerably restricted by the -absence of sufficient quantities of this necessary explosive -primary.</p> - -<p>It was at that time that a discovery of the utmost -importance was made, for, as the result of investigations -carried out at the Cambridge University, it was found -that the heavy petroleums of Borneo contained large -percentages of toluol.</p> - -<p>Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart., the Chairman (and the -founder) of the Shell Transport and Trading Company, -Ltd., lost no time in apprising the British Government -of the discovery, for it is in the Borneo oils that the -Shell Company and its allied concerns are chiefly -interested.</p> - -<p>The offer for the delivery of these immense quantities -of toluol was eagerly accepted by the British and -Allied Governments, and from that time onward, the -supply of high explosives was practically unlimited. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span></p> - -<p>The French and Italian Governments have asserted -that, but for this specific offer of toluol, the manufacture -of high explosives would have had to remain so -limited, that it would have been impossible to bring -about an Allied Victory in 1918. Their thanks were -publicly extended to the Shell Company at the conclusion -of hostilities, and Mr. H. W. Deterding and the -Asiatic Petroleum Company were specially thanked, -while as far back as 1915, Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart., -received the thanks of the British Government for his -invaluable war services. It was only after the firing -of the guns had ceased on all Fronts, that it was permissible -to record in what a remarkable manner these -services were rendered.</p> - -<p>The exigencies of space have prevented my dealing, -excepting in the most brief manner, with this interesting -subject: I only hope I have succeeded in showing that, -in times of war, as well as in those of peace, petroleum -products occupy the position of first importance. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br /> - -<span class="medium">THE SCOTTISH SHALE-OIL INDUSTRY</span></h2> - -<p>In view of the great interest which is now being centred -in the production of petroleum in the British Isles—thus -making this country to a large extent less dependent -upon foreign sources of supply—the Shale-oil Industry -of Scotland is assuming a new importance, for the -reason that it is in the direction of the development of -new oil-shale areas in several parts of the country that -experts look with a great amount of confidence.</p> - -<p>It is specially interesting, therefore, to deal at some -length with the growth of the industry, the methods -by which the oil shales are operated, and the prospects -for its extension.</p> - -<p>The name of Dr. James Young, of Renfrewshire, will -ever be associated with the commercial exploitation of -the oil-bearing shales in the Midlothians, for it was -due to his enterprise that the Scottish shale-oil industry -really owed its birth and much of its later development. -It was while Young was managing a chemical works at -Liverpool that his attention was drawn to small flows -of oil which came from a coal seam at Alfreton, in -Derbyshire. This was in 1847, and after experimenting -with the liquid, Young succeeded in extracting therefrom -on a commercial scale both a light burning oil -and a lubricant, as well as wax. When the supply -became exhausted, Dr. Young had an idea to imitate -the natural processes by which he believed the oil had -been formed. The outcome of this was the well-known -Young patent for obtaining paraffin oil and other -products from bituminous coals at slow distillation. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span></p> - -<p>The Young process was utilized with much success -in the United States until such time as it became -unprofitable owing to the largely increasing production -in America of liquid oils obtained direct from the earth. -It was about this time that a bituminous mineral -known as Boghead coal, and existing in the Midlothians, -was discovered, and from this Young secured upwards -of 100 gallons of oil from each ton treated, but soon this -mineral was, in a practical sense, exhausted, and so the -bituminous shales, now known as oil-shales, came in -for attention. Before passing away from Dr. Young’s -services in connection with the establishment of the -Scottish shale-oil industry, it should be mentioned that -he figures very largely in more than one of the earlier -Scottish shale concerns. He founded the Bathgate Oil -Company, which, in the zenith of its operations, treated -1,000 tons of shale daily, this Company being later -merged into the Young’s Paraffin Light and Mineral -Oil Company, Ltd., one of the large Scottish shale-oil -undertakings and well known throughout the world -to-day.</p> - -<p>The Scottish shale-oil fields, as exploited to-day, cover -a belt of territory which is about 6 miles broad and -stretches from Dalmeny and Abercorn, on the Firth of -Forth, southwards across the fertile tract between the -River Almond and the Bathgate Hills to the moorland -district of Cobbinshaw and Tarbrax. Throughout this -region there are various important mining centres, such -as Broxburn, Uphall, East Calder, Mid-Calder, West -Calder, and Addiwell; and in connection with the -shale-oil industry, upwards of 25,000 persons now find -regular employment.</p> - -<p>The shale measures on which the shale-oil industry -depends, form part of the calciferous sandstone series of -Mid and West Lothian and the southern coast of Fife. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> -The carboniferous system of Scotland may be arranged -in descending order in four divisions, as under—</p> - -<p>4. Coal measures, comprising red sandstone, shales, -and marls with no workable coals, underlaid by white -and grey sandstones and shales with numerous valuable -coal seams and ironstones.</p> - -<p>3. Millstone grit, consisting of coarse sandstones, with -beds of fireclay, a few thin coals, ironstones, and thin -limestones.</p> - -<p>2. Carboniferous limestone series, embracing three -subdivisions, the highest of which contains three or -more limestones with thick beds of sandstone and some -coals, the middle includes several valuable seams of coal -and ironstone, and the lowest is characterized by several -beds of marine limestone with sandstone, shales, some -coals, and ironstones.</p> - -<p>1. Calciferous sandstone series, forming two subdivisions. -The upper is known as the oil-shale group, -and is over 3,000 feet in thickness, and contains, in its -highest part, beds of coal, usually of inferior quality, -and, farther down, about six main seams of oil-shale, -inter-stratified with beds of sandstone, shale, fire-clay, -marl, and estuarine limestones.</p> - -<p>Although the calciferous sandstone series is well -developed in other parts of Scotland, it has not hitherto -yielded any oil-shale of economic importance beyond the -limits of West Lothian, Mid Lothian, and Fife. Thin -seams of oil-shale do occur in various places in the -counties of Haddington and Berwick, but, generally -speaking, the quantity is not sufficient to be practically -worked.</p> - -<p>A word or two as to the oil-shales themselves. The -shales, as known in the Lothians, are fine black or -brownish clay shales, with certain special features which -enable them to be easily distinguished in the field. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> -Miners draw a distinction between “plain” and “curly” -shale, the former variety being flat and smooth, and the -latter contorted or “curled,” and polished or glossy on -the squeezed faces. In internal structure, oil-shale is -minutely laminated, which is apparent in the “spent” -shale after distillation, when it is thrown out in fragments, -composed of extremely thin sheets like the -leaves of a book.</p> - -<p>Before touching upon the methods employed in -mining the shale and the treatment it receives during -distillation, it is interesting to note that the industry in -Scotland has passed through many vicissitudes since its -establishment. At that time, the American oil industry -was but in its infancy, and the production in the States -was utilized mainly on the American markets. Consequently, -there was a great demand for the Scottish oils -in this country, and in 1870 there were no fewer than -ninety small oil-works in the Lothians, the majority -of which were operating the shales. It was about this -time that the American illuminating oil came over to -this country, and a very sorry blow was dealt the -Scottish industry. So disastrous was the resulting -competition between the Scottish products on the one -hand, and the American and Russian petroleums on -the other, that one by one the Scottish companies -closed down, and, after less than eight years of competition, -the number of operating companies had fallen -to twenty-six. The decay continued until the number -of active concerns in the Scottish shale-oil industry -could be counted on one’s fingers.</p> - -<p>The industry exists to-day simply as a result of the -great improvements which have been made in the -retorting of the shale, by which larger quantities of -products are produced—including ammonia. It is thus -able to withstand foreign competition. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p> - -<p>To-day, it is estimated that nearly 4,000,000 tons of -the Scottish shales are treated every twelve months -by the several operating oil companies. The most -important of these concerns—the Pumpherston Oil -Company—has been regularly operating since 1883, and, -inasmuch as it deals with by far the largest quantities -of shale treated, a brief account of its operations will -be of advantage in enabling the reader to understand -the methods by which a total of nearly 400,000 tons of -oil are produced each year in Scotland.</p> - -<p>The operations of the Pumpherston Oil Company are -upon a scale of considerable magnitude, for the Company’s -works comprise the crude oil plant, the sulphate -of ammonia plant, oil and wax refineries, etc. The -Seafield and Deans works, 7 and 4 miles distant respectively, -possess only crude-oil and sulphate-producing -plants, the refining plants being confined to Pumpherston. -The Company’s works cover 100 acres, while the shale -fields extend over many thousands of acres in and -around the district of Pumpherston.</p> - -<p>As has already been mentioned, the shale fields so -far operated lie, in the main, in the Lothians, and, as -one motors by road from Edinburgh to Glasgow, the -shale country is passed through. Before the commercial -development of a shale field, trial borings are -sunk, now more generally by means of a diamond -bore, for by its revolving action a solid core is obtained -which readily shows the character and inclination of -the strata passed through. When a seam of shale has -been found by boring operations, and the exact -position and depth of outcrop determined, it is necessary, -before sinking a mine, to put down a trial shaft -for the purpose of making sure as to the true gradient -at which the shale is lying, and the thickness as well -as the quality of the same. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span></p> - -<p>In the shales in the Pumpherston district there are -five distinct seams, dipping from 29 degrees to 38 -degrees, and the mine is driven in the middle seam, -the other seams being entered by level cross-cut mines -driven from one to another. Each of these seams -is worked separately, the cross-cut shown in the sketch -serving the purposes of communication and transit. -In some cases, where the inclination of the shales is at -a different angle, it is necessary to sink a vertical shaft, -and this method is applied to the series known as the -Mid-Calder.</p> - -<p>The usual dimensions of the inclined shaft are a width -of from 10 to 12 feet, and the height is from 6 to 8 feet. -If the sides of the shaft prove to be of a soft nature, -as is generally the case with the shale at the crop, -walls are run up and the roof is supported by larch -crowns, but, where the shale is hard and the roof good, -then the less costly method of timbering is adopted.</p> - -<p>The supports to the roof in many cases are fixed -“centre” fashion, dividing the shaft into two unequal -parts. The smaller division has generally a width of -just over 3 feet, and is used for haulage ropes and water -pipes, while the larger division is utilized for winding. -During the progress of sinking, levels are broken away -in the seam at regular distances, and driven so as to -get communication with, and drive headings to form, -the outer mine. These headings are driven in the same -direction as the sinking mine to the levels above, until -they connect with the outer mine or shaft. The outer -mine is then used for winding the shale up to the -surface, and the other is kept for sinking purposes, -and by this means winding and sinking can go on -simultaneously.</p> - -<div id="THE_PUMPHERSTON_OIL_SHALE_WORKS" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p138.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">GENERAL VIEW OF THE PUMPHERSTON WORKS</p> -</div> - -<p>The seams of shale in the Midlothian fields vary -generally from 4 to 10 feet in thickness, say 7 feet as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -an average, and, on the whole, they are comparatively -free from ribs of unproductive rock. With a thickness -of 7 feet, experience has shown that the method best -adapted for the efficient working of the shale is “stoop -and room,” but in the case of two seams of shale, -separated by a bed of foreign material of sufficient -thickness for packing, the long wall method proves the -more suitable. The “stoop and room” method, -however, is more generally used throughout the Scottish -shale district than any other, its chief characteristics -being the (1) “whole” or first working, and (2) the -broken or second working. The whole working consists -of a series of excavations made in the shale, whereby it -is divided into rectangular blocks or pillars. These -excavations are called rooms, one set being driven at -right angles to the dip of the shale and at regular -distances from one another, and commonly called -“levels”; another set, driven to the rise of these levels -and at right angles to them, being usually known as -“ends” or “upsets.” The latter are broken off the -levels at regular intervals and driven upwards to meet -the levels above.</p> - -<p>The shale miner holes as far as he can reach—probably -three or more feet—and brings down the shale by blasting, -the process being repeated until he penetrates a -distance of from 9 to 12 feet from the face at road-head. -The shale, being loosened from its natural bed, is then -placed in “hutches,” which are taken to the bottom -of the shaft by either horse or chain haulage (much as -with coal), and then the journey to the mouth is commenced. -Before leaving the question of shale mining, -it should be explained that the shale miner is subject to -dangers much as his colleague in the coal-pit, but the -volume of gases found in the shale seams is not so -great as in the coal measures. These, however, are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> -of an explosive nature, the most common being -fire-damp.</p> - -<p>Once above ground, the shale is conveyed to breaking -machines by endless wire-rope haulage. Passing through -the machines, it is broken into suitable sizes for distillation, -and drops into hopper-shaped hutches. These -hutches have a capacity of about a ton, and each in -turn is conveyed to the top of the retorts on an inclined -scaffold by an endless chain. The shale then falls by -the operation of a lever into a hopper or magazine -communicating directly with the retorts, one hopper -with a storage capacity of 24 hours’ supply of shale -being connected to each retort of the Pumpherston -Company.</p> - -<p>This Company’s retorts—they are patented—are in -use at the various works of the Pumpherston Company, -and are an interesting feature to visitors. The shale is -fed by gravitation into cylindrical-shaped retorts, and -built vertically in ovens of four, each oven having four -chambers. The upper portion is of cast-iron, 11 feet -long by 2 feet in diameter at the top, and slightly -enlarged toward the bottom. Heat is applied externally -from the incondensable gases obtained from the -distillation of the shale, and this heat is made to circulate -round the retort. In the case of the poorer qualities of -the shale, however, the heat is assisted by producer-gas. -The heating gas enters near the bottom portion of the -retort, which is of fire-brick, along with a certain quantity -of air, and a high temperature—from 1,200°F. to -1,600°F.—is maintained, in this portion converting the -nitrogen of the shale into ammonia, which is preserved -by a continuous supply of steam delivered at a slight -pressure at the bottom of the hopper.</p> - -<p>The oil gases are distilled from the shale in the cast-iron -portion of the retort at a temperature of about -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> -900° F., and, along with the ammonia gas, are drawn -off by the exhausters through a branch pipe at the -top of the retort, through the atmospheric condensers, -from which the condensed liquid oil and water containing -ammonia flow into a small separator tank. It is here -that, owing to their different specific gravities—for one -is lighter than the other—they assume different levels, -and are thus drawn off into separate tanks. The gases -then pass through ammonia scrubbers, in which they -are washed for ammonia, and then through the naphtha -scrubbers, where the lighter gases, which could not be -caught in the atmospheric condensers, are washed with -oil and a good quality of light oil or naphtha is recovered. -The incondensable portion passing from these scrubbers -is burned in the retorts as previously mentioned. With -a shale of average yield, the retort can be heated by -these incondensable gases from the distillation, and a -surplus obtained for burning under steam boilers.</p> - -<p>What is doubtless a very unique feature of the -Pumpherston retort is the mechanical arrangement for -withdrawing the spent shale continuously, and thus -keeping the whole mass inside the retorts in constant -movement. Below each pair of retorts is fixed a hopper -made of cast-iron, and fixed to girders supported on -the brick piers or columns between the ovens. At the -top of each hopper, and immediately underneath the -bottom of the retorts, is fixed a cast-iron disc or table, -with a space left between its edge and the sides of the -hopper. The whole mass of shale in the retort rests -upon the table, the space permitting some to pass over -the edge. Through the centre of the table a steel -spindle projects, on the upper end of which is fixed a -curved arm, and this, when rotated, pushes some of the -shale off, causing it to fall over the edge of the table -into the hopper below. The shaft carrying the curved -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> -arm passes through a stuffing-box on the hopper, and -has a ratchet and lever fitted to the lower end, actuated -by a rod of T-iron which is made to travel horizontally, -and is driven by a small electric motor. The motion -is comparatively slow, the arm making but one revolution -in about 20 minutes, but the action is most satisfactory, -the through-put of shale being regulated at will.</p> - -<p>The ammonia water got from the atmospheric condensers -is pumped through a heater, in which it is -raised in temperature by the waste water flowing from -the still, and passes into the top of the still, which is -circular in shape, about 30 feet high, and has a series of -cast-iron shelves or trays fixed horizontally every -2 feet or thereabouts from the top to near the bottom. -Steam is put into the bottom of the still at a pressure -of 40 lb., and passes to the top through a series of -conical arrangements on the shelves carrying with it -the volatile ammonia, while the water, after traversing -the whole area of each tray, passes out into a concrete -tank containing a cast-iron worm, which is the heater -already referred to, for the ammonia water on its way -to the still. During its progress from the top to the -bottom of the still, the water is diverted into a chamber -containing milk of lime, setting free the fixed ammonia -which cannot be got by steaming.</p> - -<p>The steam and ammonia gas liberated in the still -pass over into a large lead-lined tub or saturator, and -bubbles through holes in a lead worm placed round -the circumference at the bottom of the vessel. Sulphuric -acid is at the same time run into the saturator, and, at -a certain temperature, sulphate of ammonia is formed. -The sulphate falls into a well, formed in the centre of -the bottom of the vessel, in which are placed two steam -ejectors, and these blow it out along with some liquor. -This mixture is delivered into hutches having perforated -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> -bottoms, through which the ammonia liquor drains off, -the solid sulphate being left in the hutch. This is now -run by an overhead railway to the drying or storage -stalls, and from these it is packed up and dispatched -to the market. The exhaust steam and waste gases -from the saturator are passed into the retorts, and -utilized for the formation of ammonia from the shale, -while the spent water is pumped to the spent shale bing, -and thoroughly filtered before being allowed to escape -from the works.</p> - -<p>For dealing with the weak acid water recovered from -the refinery, the Pumpherston plant consists of lead-lined -tubs or crackers, into which a quantity of the -acid water is run, and saturated with ammonia gas -until it is near the salting point, when it gravitates into -settling vessels in order to separate any tar carried over -with the acid water. The clear liquid is then drawn -into the saturator, where it is quickly converted into -sulphate and blown out in the manner already -described.</p> - -<p>So up to date is the whole of the system governing -the treatment of the shales and the resulting products, -that the pumping of water from the mines, the haulage -of the shale to the refineries, as well as driving of -machinery in the works, is performed by electric power, -the exhaust steam from the engines driving the generators, -as in the case of the sulphate of ammonia exhaust, -being sent to the retorts for use in the production of -ammonia.</p> - -<p>The process of refining the crude oil obtained from -the shale into the various products is somewhat complicated -and perplexing to those unassociated with the -industry on account of the many distillations and -treatments which have to be carried out before a good -marketable article is produced. The following outline, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -however, will give a fair idea of the process adopted -throughout Scotland.</p> - -<p>The crude oil is delivered at the refinery into large -tanks, which are placed at a sufficient height to feed -the stills by gravitation. The crude oil is allowed to -settle for twelve or more hours at a temperature sufficiently -high to separate any water that may have -passed the test at the retorts, and after this water has -been run off, the oil is fed into the centre boiler of a -battery of oil boilers. The lightest fraction of the -oil—ultimately motor spirit and illuminating oils—is -distilled off the feeding boiler and condensed in a coil -of cast-iron pipes immersed in water in a tank, cold -water being continuously run into the tank, while -heated water is run off. The boilers on each side of -the feed vessel receive their oil by a pipe connecting -with the bottom of the latter, and they also distil over -the lighter portion of oil with which they have been fed, -the heavier portions passing on to a third boiler, where -the process of distillation is repeated.</p> - -<p>The oil now left is delivered into a cast-iron pot-still, -in which it is ultimately distilled to dryness, the residue -left in the still forming oil coke, which is valuable as a -fuel on account of its high percentage of fixed carbon -and low yield of ash. Steam is admitted to the still -in large quantities at all distillations. The various -stages of distillation are carried through in almost -identically the same manner as that of crude oil, and, -therefore, need not be described in detail.</p> - -<p>The treatment or washing of the oil to remove the -impurities that cannot be eliminated by distillation, -consists in stirring the oil by compressed air for a given -time in an iron vessel, with a fixed quantity of sulphuric -acid, allowing it to settle, and running off the heavy -mixture of tar and acid which separates. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> -acid-treated oil is then run into another similar vessel, -treated with a solution of caustic soda, settles, and the -soda tar which separates is run off. The acid tars are -steamed and washed, the resulting acid water being -sent to the sulphate of ammonia house for the manufacture -of sulphate of ammonia, whilst the tar is mixed -with that from the soda treatments and burned under -the stills as liquid oil. As there is more than sufficient -of this tar to distil all the oil at the various stages, -the distillation is carried out without cost for fuel, -excepting that necessary for steam-raising purposes.</p> - -<p>A portion of the oil distilled at the second distillation, -or green oil stage, is sent from the stills to the paraffin -sheds to be cooled and the scale extracted, this eventually -being made into paraffin wax. Stored in tanks until -brought down to atmospheric temperature, the oil is -pumped into the inner chamber of a cooler, which -consists of a series of four vessels having inner and outer -compartments. At the same time, anhydrous ammonia -is forced into the outer compartment or jacket, and -absorbs heat from the cooler, freezing the oil in the -inner jacket into a pasty mixture of liquid oil and solid -crystals of wax.</p> - -<p>This mixture is then pumped into filter-presses, -where a portion of the oil flows away through the cloth, -while the wax is left behind in solid cakes, still containing -a quantity of oil. These cakes are delivered by conveyors -to the back of the hydraulic presses, where they -are wrapped in cloth and placed on shelves between -iron frames in the presses, most of the remaining oils -being thus squeezed out. The material obtained from -the hydraulic presses is known to the trade as paraffin -scale, and as it is discoloured by the small quantity of -oil which cannot be removed by pressing, a process of -sweating by steaming in large brick compartments is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> -adopted, in order to remove the oil. The scale, consequent -upon the removal of the oil therefrom, becomes -whiter and of higher melting point, and after further -treatment is finally passed through filter paper and run -into moulding trays. When cooled, this product is -known as paraffin wax, of which there are many grades. -One cannot enter into the technical arrangements -involved, for obvious reasons, the chief one of which is -that these cannot interest the reader; but sufficient has -already been written in this chapter to suggest to the -reader the perfection which has now been reached in -the treatment of the shales of the Midlothians.</p> - -<p>As to the future, it is full of promise. There is no -doubt that for many years to come the full force of -foreign competition, as it has existed in previous times, -will not be felt. There is a free field for Scottish -enterprise in connection with the distillation of its -oil-bearing shales. Nor is the region for development -limited to its present area. Reports point to the fact -that much area of commercial ground exists, not only -on the eastern side of Scotland, but also in the north -and north-west, while it is already an open secret that -those responsible for the conduct of Government -operations are viewing with favour even the liquid -extraction of oil from certain areas not far distant from -the zone of the present operations. The Scottish -shale-oil industry has, so far, managed to defy competition -from abroad to an extent which is reflected in the -balance sheets of the several operating companies, -whose yearly dividends have been from 50 per cent. -downward during recent years.</p> - -<p>One thing is certain, and that is, the Government is -well aware that there are great possibilities associated -with the shale-oil industry of Scotland, and it is not only -watching developments with direct interest, but is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> -doing all in its power to foster the industry, and by all -means possible encourage the exploitation of areas so -far not commercially developed. At some future date -there is a great possibility that the present area for -developments will be largely extended, and as this is -written, there is much evidence forthcoming to suggest -that this commercial development of new lands will -not long be delayed. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br /> - -<span class="medium">A FEW NOTABLE PETROLEUM ENTERPRISES</span></h2> - -<p>No brief survey of the petroleum industry would be -complete were reference not made to a few of those -remarkable commercial undertakings in various parts -of the world whose interests are not only closely -associated with it, but to whose energies has been due -much of the expansion that has been witnessed in every -direction during the past few decades. It is safe to -assert that, had it not been that the petroleum industry -has, in its various industrial and commercial aspects -attracted the attention of some of the finest financial -and business houses in the world, the wonderful progress -which has been recorded would, for the most part, have -been impossible.</p> - -<p>The first place must of necessity be given to that -much maligned amalgamation of capital, the Standard -Oil Company of New Jersey, which was formed as far -back as 36 years ago by Mr. John D. Rockefeller and -his associates for the primary purpose of developments -in the petroleum industry of the United States. At -that time, the petroleum production of America had -become quite a factor in commerce, but it was, obviously, -in want of a guiding hand which could not only place -it upon a basis of solidity, but which would tend to -remove much of that gambling element which had -become almost part and parcel of all developments. -The Company, at the head of which were several gentlemen -who had already made themselves famous in the -land of oil, launched out in several directions, and, -through the numerous subsidiary concerns which it -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> -soon created, it owned very extensive oil-bearing -properties in practically every oil-field of the States, -while it built quite a network of pipe-lines for the -conveyance of the oil from the fields to the refineries, -and from the refineries to seaboard. It erected and -equipped oil refineries, and, so as to provide the much-needed -foreign markets for American petroleum products, -it built its fleet of oil tankers; and, lastly, opened depots -for the distribution of American petroleum products -all the world over.</p> - -<p>At one time, the ultimate success of its vast operations -was open to question, and many there were who predicted -that one day it would ignominiously pass on to -the list of oil failures. Indeed, it nearly came to this -on one or two occasions, and it was only owing to the -remarkable perseverance of those at the head of the -Company’s affairs that prevented headlong disaster. -The Standard Oil Company soon became an integral -part of the petroleum industry of the United States, -with which it grew up and steadily assumed a position -of world-wide importance, though one which was not -unassailable. Its ultimate success was the chief cause -for the multiplication of its critics, and volumes have -been written of its wrong-doings by writers whose -knowledge of the petroleum industry was mostly based -upon wilful ignorance of facts. Consequent upon a -decision of the United States Supreme Court some -seven years ago, which held that the Company was -violating the Anti-Trust Law of 1890, the Standard had -to rid itself of its various subsidiary companies (over -thirty in number), but it still controls almost a similar -number of concerns to-day which are actively engaged -in the production of crude oil and natural gas. It also -owns several of the largest refineries in the States, while -its fleet of oil tankers will, when present building is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> -completed, be considerably over 300,000 tonnage. Its -capital is $100,000,000, and during the last twelve years -it has paid in dividends over 400 per cent., in addition -to an additional cash distribution of 40 per cent.</p> - -<p>The Standard Oil Company of New York is another -immense concern which, with a capital of $75,000,000, -has its headquarters in the Standard’s palatial building -at 26 Broadway, New York, and interested principally -in the refining industry, its facilities permitting of -20,000 barrels of crude oil being treated daily. Another -very prominent company is the Standard Oil Company -of California, with its capital of $100,000,000. This -Company not only produces its crude oil, but refines it, -and engages in the export business. Its refinery at -Point Richmond, California, is reported to be the -largest in the world, for it can treat 65,000 barrels of -crude oil daily. Its fleet of tankers and barges for the -export trade is capable of carrying at one trip over -100,000 tons of products, and, for the purposes of its -land transport, it possesses pipe-lines over 1,000 miles -long.</p> - -<p>The second place of importance in regard to the -petroleum enterprises of international influence must -be given to the “Shell” Transport and Trading -Company, Ltd., whose headquarters are in London, -with that well-known oil pioneer, Sir Marcus Samuel, -Bart., as its Chairman. Formed just over twenty years -ago for dealing primarily as a transporter of petroleum -products in the Far East, the “Shell” has steadily -and continuously extended the sphere of its operations, -until the result of a carefully thought out policy is seen -in its activities in almost every oil-field of the world. -Just over ten years ago, the Company made an amalgamation -with the Royal Dutch Petroleum Company, -or, to give it its correct name, the Koninklijke -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> -Nederlandsche Maatschappij tot exploitatie van petroleum-bronnen -in Nederlandsch Indie (whose capital is -£12,500,000), and by reason of so doing it materially -increased its international position and importance. -The “Shell”—Royal Dutch Combine to-day has a -controlling interest in some of the largest operating -companies in Russia, Roumania, California, Mexico, -Venezuela, and other oil regions, one of its most recent -extensions being in its advent into the petroleum -industry of Trinidad. The “Shell” Company has a -record for successful industrial expansion which is -achieved by few companies in the world of commerce: -its capital is now £15,000,000, and in dividends it has -distributed over 300 per cent. Among the “Shell” -Company’s associated concerns, that of the Anglo-Saxon -Petroleum Company, Ltd., which is responsible -for the ocean transportation of the petroleum products -of the Combine, takes first place, with its capital of -£8,000,000; while the Asiatic Petroleum Company, Ltd. -(capital, £2,000,000), ranks but second. The recent -fusion of the interests of Lord Cowdray with those -of the “Shell,” for the latter has acquired the control of -the great Mexican interests associated with the Pearson -company, is another instance of how the “Shell” Company -has trod the road of progress and expansion.</p> - -<p>The sudden rise to fame of the oil-fields of Mexico -gave birth to what may safely be referred to as one of -the most enterprising amalgamations of capital in the -long list of concerns associated with the petroleum -industry, and it is gratifying to note that this enterprise -was solely due to the well-known firm of Messrs. S. -Pearson & Sons. Lord Cowdray, as the head, was -not slow to recognize the vast opportunities which -awaited the development of the Mexican fields, and the -formation of the Mexican Eagle Oil Company, in 1908, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> -with a capital of now $60,000,000 (Mexican), or about -£6,125,000 sterling, was the initial result of his efforts. -It was just about this time that the serious fuel oil era -opened, both in this country and others, and it was -evident that, for the purpose of adequately distributing -the products of Mexican oil (and these include the -whole range of refined oils, as well as fuel oil), there was -room for the operations of a large and influential -company. The Anglo-Mexican Petroleum Company, -Ltd., was accordingly formed, with Lord Cowdray’s -son (the Hon. B. C. Pearson) as Chairman, and a capital -of £2,000,000, to deal with the importation and distribution -of Mexican petroleum products on the English -market.</p> - -<p>As already stated, the control of this Company has -now passed under the “Shell,” and its future expansion -is assured, both at home and abroad.</p> - -<p>The Mexican products are transported from Mexico -to this country, as well as many others, by the large -fleet of Eagle oil tankers, the property of the Eagle Oil -Transport Company, Ltd., which admirably managed -concern of £3,000,000 capital is also presided over by -the Hon. B. C. Pearson. The Eagle Company possesses -the largest oil tankers afloat, many of them carrying -over 15,000 tons of bulk oil, though others to be built -are to be considerably larger; an 18,000 ton tanker is, -indeed, already in commission.</p> - -<p>Another highly important enterprise in the world of -petroleum is that of the Burmah Oil Company, Ltd., -which, as its name suggests, is occupied with the -petroleum industry in Burmah, and catering for the -almost unlimited needs of the Far East in regard to -refined petroleum products. It controls enormous acres -of oil-bearing territory held under lease from the Burmah -Government, possesses extensive refineries at Rangoon, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -and has quite a fleet of oil tankers. Its capital is -three and a half millions sterling, and its consistent -success may be judged from the fact that it has paid -over 400 per cent. in dividends. Of comparatively -recent date, the Burmah Oil Company has turned its -attention to other fields, particularly to Trinidad, but -it is in connection with the development and subsequent -operations of the fields of Burmah that the Company -is chiefly concerned.</p> - -<p>The Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Ltd., which is -closely allied to the Burmah Oil Company (capital, -£6,000,000) by reason of its large interest therein, has -come into prominence during recent years, owing mainly -to its agreement with the British Government, in which -the latter has invested over £4,000,000 of the public -moneys in the enterprise. The Company acquired its -petroliferous concessions from several interests, including -the Burmah Oil Company and the late Lord Strathcona, -which had been granted to them by the Persian Government. -When I mention that the Company’s concessions -cover an area of, approximately, half a million square -miles, and on which petroleum has been found in -quantity on the majority of the small areas already -examined, the significance of the enterprise will be -somewhat appreciated. There is no doubt that the -company’s success is doubly assured, and, from this -point of view, the investment of the public moneys in -the undertaking has been sound finance, especially -when one considers the important part which petroleum -products under British control must hereafter play. -As a matter of fact, the proposition is a well-paying -one to-day, and it is asserted that the Government’s -interest is already worth no less than £20,000,000. Persia -as an oil-producing country will occupy a very prominent -place. The Company has immense petroleum-producing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -fields: it has its pipe-line to seaboard, and its refineries, -situate on the Persian Gulf. It has possibilities without -end, and it is rapidly availing itself of them. The -Company also now owns the entire capital of three -formerly German-owned concerns in London—the -British Petroleum Company, Ltd., the Homelight Oil -Company, Ltd., and the Petroleum Steamship Company, -Ltd. Consequent upon these acquisitions, the -Anglo-Persian Company, Ltd., is making arrangements -to enter the English market as distributors of Persian -petroleum. The question of transport need not here -be considered, for the Anglo-Persian Oil Company owns the -entire capital of the British Tanker Co., Ltd. The Company -thus has the producing and refining possibilities: -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> -the acquired concern of the Tanker Company, -together with that of the Petroleum Steamship Co., -will suffice to bring its products to the English market, -while the large distributing organizations of the British -Petroleum Company and the Homelight Oil Company, -owning depots all over the country, will offer easy -facilities for the distribution of the petroleum products -imported. My argument all along has been that the -advent of the British Government into this enterprise—I -will not call it a speculation, though at one time it -looked like it—places all that private enterprise, which -in the past has brought all the products of petroleum -to our own doors at a reasonable and competitive price, -at absolute discount. Ever since the petroleum industry -assumed proportions of international magnitude, and -we became more or less (I should have said more than -less) dependent upon our necessities being met by -petroleum and its products, private enterprise has -always kept us well supplied. But the Anglo-Persian -Oil Company has made immense headway since the -Government took an interest in its operations, and its -appearance on the English market as a refiner of -Persian crude oil and a distributor of the products -thereof, is but a reflection of the prolific nature of the -vast fields in Persia which it possesses. It has decided -upon having its first English oil refinery near Swansea, -and it is reported that this will be in operation before -the end of 1920. It has also secured the control of -the Scottish shale oil refineries which will be used for -the treatment of Persian crude oil when occasion -warrants.</p> - -<div id="SOME_BURMAH_PRODUCERS" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_p154.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A FEW OF THE BURMAH COMPANY’S PROLIFIC -PRODUCERS</p> -</div> - -<p>One might go on to interminable length in briefly -referring to the great concerns whose operations have -been responsible for the expansion of the world’s -petroleum industry to its present magnitude, but the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -exigencies of space prevent this. The brief list of -companies already referred to represents an amalgamation -of capital to the extent of nearly £120,000,000 -sterling, though this cannot be considered as representing -more than one-half the total world’s investments -in petroleum enterprises.</p> - -<p>So far, I have not touched with the magnitude of -the petroleum companies operating in the distributing -oil trade of England, though, to some extent, this may -be gathered from the references to such companies as -the “Shell,” the Anglo-Mexican Petroleum Company, -etc.</p> - -<p>Practically the first company of any magnitude to -distribute petroleum products in this country was the -Anglo-American Oil Co., Ltd., which has actively -engaged in this branch of commerce for the past thirty -years. It imported and dealt in American oils long -before the advent of the companies before mentioned, -and, to-day, is certainly one of the largest—if not the -largest—company so engaged. Its name is known in -every hamlet in the country: its tank cars are seen on -every railway, and its depots are to be found in every -centre throughout the length and breadth of the land. -Its name is legion. Its capital is £3,000,000, and it is -to the Anglo-American Oil Company that, throughout -the clatter of European War, the credit is due for having -supplied us with those almost unlimited quantities of -petroleum products so necessary both on sea and land, -for it is the largest importer in the Kingdom. As its -name implies, the “Anglo” deals mostly in American -petroleum products: it was at one time the importing -concern of the Standard Oil Company, but to-day it -purchases broadcast in an endeavour—and a very -successful one, too—to supply the British consumer with -all the petroleum products he requires. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span></p> - -<p>The present chapter deals, I feel, most inadequately -with the general question of concerns whose interests -are directly allied with that of petroleum; in fact, it -was not my desire to give an encyclopaedia of the -thousands of companies so engaged, but, rather, to -suggest the names of a few which have secured world-wide -distinction. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br /> - -<span class="medium">STATISTICAL</span></h2> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The World’s Output of Petroleum</span></h3> - -<p>The world’s total production of crude oil for 1917, and -for the period of years 1857 to 1917, is given in the -following table. The details are given in barrels, which, -divided by seven, will give the output in tons.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Production.</span><br />1917.</th> - <th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Total Production.</span><br />1857-1917.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th><i>Barrels of<br />42 Gallons</i></th> - <th><i>P.C. of<br />Total.</i></th> - <th><i>Barrels of<br />42 Gallons</i></th> - <th><i>P.C. of<br />Total.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Country.</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>United States</td> - <td class="tdr">*335,315,601</td> - <td class="tdr">66·98</td> - <td class="tdr">4,252,644,003</td> - <td class="tdr">60·89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Russia</td> - <td class="tdr">#69,000,000</td> - <td class="tdr">13·78</td> - <td class="tdr">1,832,583,017</td> - <td class="tdr">26·24</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mexico</td> - <td class="tdr">55,292,770</td> - <td class="tdr">11·04</td> - <td class="tdr">222,082,472</td> - <td class="tdr">3·18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Dutch East Indies</td> - <td class="tdr">¶12,928,955</td> - <td class="tdr">2·58</td> - <td class="tdr">175,103,267</td> - <td class="tdr">2·51</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>India</td> - <td class="tdr">#8,500,000</td> - <td class="tdr">1·70</td> - <td class="tdr">98,583,522</td> - <td class="tdr">2·41</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Galicia</td> - <td class="tdr">5,965,447</td> - <td class="tdr">1·19</td> - <td class="tdr">148,459,653</td> - <td class="tdr">2·13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Japan and Formosa</td> - <td class="tdr">2,898,654</td> - <td class="tdr">0·58</td> - <td class="tdr">36,065,454</td> - <td class="tdr">0·52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Roumania</td> - <td class="tdr">2,681,870</td> - <td class="tdr">0·54</td> - <td class="tdr">142,992,465</td> - <td class="tdr">2·05</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Peru</td> - <td class="tdr">2,533,417</td> - <td class="tdr">0·51</td> - <td class="tdr">21,878,285</td> - <td class="tdr">0·31</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Trinidad</td> - <td class="tdr">1,599,455</td> - <td class="tdr">0·32</td> - <td class="tdr">5,418,885</td> - <td class="tdr">0·08</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Argentina</td> - <td class="tdr">1,144,737</td> - <td class="tdr">0·23</td> - <td class="tdr">3,047,858</td> - <td class="tdr">0·04</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Egypt</td> - <td class="tdr">1,008,750</td> - <td class="tdr">0·20</td> - <td class="tdr">2,768,686</td> - <td class="tdr">0·04</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Germany</td> - <td class="tdr">995,764</td> - <td class="tdr">0·20</td> - <td class="tdr">15,952,861</td> - <td class="tdr">2·30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Canada</td> - <td class="tdr">205,332</td> - <td class="tdr">0·04</td> - <td class="tdr">24,112,529</td> - <td class="tdr">3·50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Italy</td> - <td class="tdr">50,334}</td> - <td class="tdr" rowspan="2">0·11</td> - <td class="tdr">947,289</td> - <td class="tdr">0·01</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Other countries</td> - <td class="tdr">#§530,000}</td> - <td class="tdr">927,000</td> - <td class="tdr">0·01</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="i4">Total</td> - <td class="tdr bb bt">500,651,086l</td> - <td class="tdr bb bt">100·00l</td> - <td class="tdr bb bt">6,983,567,246l</td> - <td class="tdr bb bt">100·00</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class="table"> -* Quantity marketed.<br /> -# Estimated.<br /> -¶ Includes British Borneo.<br /> -#§ Includes 19,167 barrels produced in Cuba.<br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span></p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Petroleum Import Trade of the United Kingdom</span></h3> - -<p>The imports of petroleum products into the United Kingdom for the past seven years are given -in the following table. Those for 1917 are only approximate quantities inasmuch as, toward the -end of the year, the Custom House authorities decided for the time being not to compile such -statistics for general use. The figures in every case are given in gallons—</p> - -<table class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th class="smcap">Oils.</th> - <th>1912.</th> - <th>1913.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Crude)</td> - <td class="tdr">12,742</td> - <td class="tdr">1,108,900</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (lamp)</td> - <td class="tdr">146,030,093</td> - <td class="tdr">157,141,241</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (lubricating)</td> - <td class="tdr">69,327,061</td> - <td class="tdr">67,962,493</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Gas Oil)</td> - <td class="tdr">73,273,526</td> - <td class="tdr">65,949,677</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Fuel Oil)</td> - <td class="tdr">48,135,845</td> - <td class="tdr">95,062,187</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Other prdcts)</td> - <td class="tdr">963,856</td> - <td class="tdr">24,178</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Motor Spirit</td> - <td class="tdr">79,590,155</td> - <td class="tdr">100,858,017</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="smcap">Oils.</th> - <th>1914.</th> - <th>1915.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Crude)</td> - <td class="tdr">15,105,588</td> - <td class="tdr">——</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (lamp)</td> - <td class="tdr">150,131,233</td> - <td class="tdr">141,424,353</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (lubricating)</td> - <td class="tdr">66,646,512</td> - <td class="tdr">69,974,170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Gas Oil)</td> - <td class="tdr">83,105,346</td> - <td class="tdr">88,089,202</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Fuel Oil)</td> - <td class="tdr">212,675,855</td> - <td class="tdr">27,288,850</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Other prdcts)</td> - <td class="tdr">17,942</td> - <td class="tdr">705,353</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Motor Spirit</td> - <td class="tdr">119,030,155</td> - <td class="tdr">146,334,702</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="smcap">Oils.</th> - <th>1916.</th> - <th>1917.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Crude)</td> - <td class="tdr">——</td> - <td class="tdr">——</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (lamp)</td> - <td class="tdr">126,840,494</td> - <td class="tdr">127,958,665</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (lubricating)</td> - <td class="tdr">80,443,694</td> - <td class="tdr">87,779,737</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Gas Oil)</td> - <td class="tdr">57,160,493</td> - <td class="tdr">31,303,820</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Fuel Oil)</td> - <td class="tdr">22,646,669</td> - <td class="tdr">440,582,168</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Other prdcts)</td> - <td class="tdr">1,728,092</td> - <td class="tdr">——</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Motor Spirit</td> - <td class="tdr">163,965,834</td> - <td class="tdr">139,270,181</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="smcap">Oils.</th> - <th>1918.</th> - <th>1919.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Crude)</td> - <td class="tdr">——</td> - <td class="tdr">7,577,549</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (lamp)</td> - <td class="tdr">148,021,234</td> - <td class="tdr">153,371,858</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (lubricating)</td> - <td class="tdr">102,273,841</td> - <td class="tdr">65,832,998</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Gas Oil)</td> - <td class="tdr">38,835,460</td> - <td class="tdr">30,033,002</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Fuel Oil)</td> - <td class="tdr">842,405,536</td> - <td class="tdr">265,405,203</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum (Other prdcts)</td> - <td class="tdr">——</td> - <td class="tdr">——</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Motor Spirit</td> - <td class="tdr">192,959,054</td> - <td class="tdr">200,332,648</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span></p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">America’s Crude Oil Production During -the Past Fifty Years</span></h3> - -<p>The output of crude petroleum in the oil-fields of -America during the past fifty years has been as under, -the figures being given in barrels of 42 gallons (usually -reckoned at seven to the ton)—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th><i>Year.</i></th> - <th><i>Barrels.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1869</td> - <td class="tdr">4,215,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1870</td> - <td class="tdr">5,260,745</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1871</td> - <td class="tdr">5,205,234</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1872</td> - <td class="tdr">6,293,194</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1873</td> - <td class="tdr">9,893,786</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1874</td> - <td class="tdr">10,926,945</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1875</td> - <td class="tdr">8,787,514</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1876</td> - <td class="tdr">9,132,669</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1877</td> - <td class="tdr">13,350,363</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1878</td> - <td class="tdr">15,396,868</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1879</td> - <td class="tdr">19,914,146</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1880</td> - <td class="tdr">26,286,123</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1881</td> - <td class="tdr">27,661,238</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1882</td> - <td class="tdr">30,349,897</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1883</td> - <td class="tdr">23,449,633</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1884</td> - <td class="tdr">24,218,438</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1885</td> - <td class="tdr">21,858,785</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1886</td> - <td class="tdr">28,064,841</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1887</td> - <td class="tdr">28,283,483</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1888</td> - <td class="tdr">27,612,025</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1889</td> - <td class="tdr">35,163,513</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1890</td> - <td class="tdr">45,823,572</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1891</td> - <td class="tdr">54,292,655</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1892</td> - <td class="tdr">50,514,657</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1893</td> - <td class="tdr">48,431,066</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1894</td> - <td class="tdr">49,344,516</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1895</td> - <td class="tdr">52,892,276</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1896</td> - <td class="tdr">60,960,361</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1897</td> - <td class="tdr">60,475,516</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1898</td> - <td class="tdr">55,364,233</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1899</td> - <td class="tdr">57,070,850</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1900</td> - <td class="tdr">63,620,529</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">69,389,194</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">88,766,916</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">100,461,337</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">117,080,960</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">134,717,580</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1906</td> - <td class="tdr">126,493,936</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1907</td> - <td class="tdr">166,095,335</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1908</td> - <td class="tdr">178,527,355</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1909</td> - <td class="tdr">183,170,874</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1910</td> - <td class="tdr">209,557,248</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1911</td> - <td class="tdr">220,449,391</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1912</td> - <td class="tdr">222,935,044</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1913</td> - <td class="tdr">248,446,230</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1914</td> - <td class="tdr">265,762,535</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1915</td> - <td class="tdr">281,104,104</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1916</td> - <td class="tdr">300,767,158</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1917</td> - <td class="tdr">335,315,601</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1918</td> - <td class="tdr">360,000,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Roumania’s Crude Oil Production During -the Past Fifty Years</span></h3> - -<p>Roumania’s crude oil production for the past fifty -years is given in the following table in barrels of 42 -gallons (seven to the ton). The officially recorded -output goes back as far as 1857, when the twelve -months’ yield was just under 2,000 barrels. During -1861, the production passed the 10,000 barrel mark for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> -the first time, and six years later reached 50,000 barrels -for the year. The figures are as under—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th><i>Year.</i></th> - <th><i>Barrels.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1868</td> - <td class="tdr">55,369</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1869</td> - <td class="tdr">58,533</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1870</td> - <td class="tdr">83,765</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1871</td> - <td class="tdr">90,030</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1872</td> - <td class="tdr">91,251</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1873</td> - <td class="tdr">104,036</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1874</td> - <td class="tdr">103,177</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1875</td> - <td class="tdr">108,569</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1876</td> - <td class="tdr">111,314</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1877</td> - <td class="tdr">108,599</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1878</td> - <td class="tdr">109,300</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1879</td> - <td class="tdr">110,007</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1880</td> - <td class="tdr">114,321</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1881</td> - <td class="tdr">121,511</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1882</td> - <td class="tdr">136,610</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1883</td> - <td class="tdr">139,486</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1884</td> - <td class="tdr">210,667</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1885</td> - <td class="tdr">193,411</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1886</td> - <td class="tdr">168,606</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1887</td> - <td class="tdr">181,907</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1888</td> - <td class="tdr">218,576</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1889</td> - <td class="tdr">297,666</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1890</td> - <td class="tdr">383,227</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1891</td> - <td class="tdr">488,201</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1892</td> - <td class="tdr">593,175</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1893</td> - <td class="tdr">535,655</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1894</td> - <td class="tdr">507,255</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1895</td> - <td class="tdr">575,200</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1896</td> - <td class="tdr">543,348</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1897</td> - <td class="tdr">570,886</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1898</td> - <td class="tdr">776,238</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1899</td> - <td class="tdr">1,425,777</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1900</td> - <td class="tdr">1,628,535</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">1,678,320</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">2,059,935</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">2,763,117</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">3,599,026</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">4,420,987</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1906</td> - <td class="tdr">6,378,184</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1907</td> - <td class="tdr">8,118,207</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1908</td> - <td class="tdr">8,252,157</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1909</td> - <td class="tdr">9,327,278</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1910</td> - <td class="tdr">9,723,806</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1911</td> - <td class="tdr">11,107,450</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1912</td> - <td class="tdr">12,976,232</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1913</td> - <td class="tdr">13,554,768</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1914</td> - <td class="tdr">12,826,578</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1915</td> - <td class="tdr">12,029,913</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1916</td> - <td class="tdr">10,298,208</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1917</td> - <td class="tdr">2,681,870</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Mexico’s Remarkable Progress in Crude -Oil Production</span></h3> - -<p>Fourteen years ago, the crude petroleum production -in the oil-fields of Mexico was officially recorded for -the first time. Its remarkable progress since that time -will be seen from the following table, the figures being -in barrels of 42 gallons—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th><i>Year.</i></th> - <th><i>Barrels.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">220,653</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">320,379</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1906</td> - <td class="tdr">1,097,264</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1907</td> - <td class="tdr">1,717,690</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1908</td> - <td class="tdr">3,481,610</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1909</td> - <td class="tdr">2,488,742</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1910</td> - <td class="tdr">3,332,807</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1911</td> - <td class="tdr">14,051,643</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1912</td> - <td class="tdr">16,558,215</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1913</td> - <td class="tdr">25,902,439</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1914</td> - <td class="tdr">21,188,427</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1915</td> - <td class="tdr">32,910,508</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1916</td> - <td class="tdr">39,817,402</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1917</td> - <td class="tdr">55,292,770</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1918</td> - <td class="tdr">64,605,422</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span></p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Galician Crude Oil Production</span></h3> - -<p>The output of crude petroleum in the Galician fields -during the past thirty years is given herewith—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th><i>Year.</i></th> - <th><i>Barrels.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1888</td> - <td class="tdr">466,537</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1889</td> - <td class="tdr">515,268</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1890</td> - <td class="tdr">659,012</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1891</td> - <td class="tdr">630,730</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1892</td> - <td class="tdr">646,220</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1893</td> - <td class="tdr">692,669</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1894</td> - <td class="tdr">949,146</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1895</td> - <td class="tdr">1,452,999</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1896</td> - <td class="tdr">2,443,080</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1897</td> - <td class="tdr">2,226,368</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1898</td> - <td class="tdr">2,376,108</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1899</td> - <td class="tdr">2,313,047</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1900</td> - <td class="tdr">2,346,505</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">3,251,544</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">4,142,159</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">5,234,475</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">5,947,383</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">5,765,317</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1906</td> - <td class="tdr">5,467,967</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1907</td> - <td class="tdr">8,455,841</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1908</td> - <td class="tdr">12,612,295</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1909</td> - <td class="tdr">14,932,799</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1910</td> - <td class="tdr">12,673,688</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1911</td> - <td class="tdr">10,519,270</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1912</td> - <td class="tdr">8,535,174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1913</td> - <td class="tdr">7,818,130</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1914</td> - <td class="tdr">5,033,350</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1915</td> - <td class="tdr">4,158,899</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1916</td> - <td class="tdr">6,461,706</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1917</td> - <td class="tdr">5,965,447</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1918</td> - <td class="tdr">4,341,050</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Germany’s Crude Oil Production</span></h3> - -<p>Official figures were first recorded of Germany’s crude -oil production in 1880, when the total output for the -twelve months was about 9,000 barrels. For the past -thirty years, the yearly output has been as under—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th><i>Year.</i></th> - <th><i>Barrels.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1888</td> - <td class="tdr">84,782</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1889</td> - <td class="tdr">68,217</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1890</td> - <td class="tdr">108,296</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1891</td> - <td class="tdr">108,929</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1892</td> - <td class="tdr">101,404</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1893</td> - <td class="tdr">99,390</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1894</td> - <td class="tdr">122,564</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1895</td> - <td class="tdr">121,277</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1896</td> - <td class="tdr">145,061</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1897</td> - <td class="tdr">165,745</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1898</td> - <td class="tdr">183,427</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1899</td> - <td class="tdr">192,232</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1900</td> - <td class="tdr">358,297</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">313,630</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">353,674</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr">445,818</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">637,431</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">560,963</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1906</td> - <td class="tdr">578,610</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1907</td> - <td class="tdr">756,631</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1908</td> - <td class="tdr">1,009,278</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1909</td> - <td class="tdr">1,018,837</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1910</td> - <td class="tdr">1,032,522</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1911</td> - <td class="tdr">1,017,045</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1912</td> - <td class="tdr">1,031,050</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1913</td> - <td class="tdr">1,002,700</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1914</td> - <td class="tdr">936,400</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1915</td> - <td class="tdr">960,430</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1916</td> - <td class="tdr">948,320</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1917</td> - <td class="tdr">995,764</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1918</td> - <td class="tdr">820,310</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span></p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Exports of Petroleum Products from the -United States</span></h3> - -<p>The following table gives the total export movement -of petroleum products from the United States from -the year 1865, when American petroleum products -commenced to have an international overseas market—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th><i>Year.</i></th> - <th><i>Gallons.</i></th> - <th><i>Value in<br />Dollars.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1918</td> - <td class="tdr">2,714,430,452</td> - <td class="tdr">344,290,444</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1917</td> - <td class="tdr">2,596,900,000</td> - <td class="tdr">253,021,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1916</td> - <td class="tdr">2,607,482,000</td> - <td class="tdr">201,721,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1915</td> - <td class="tdr">2,328,725,000</td> - <td class="tdr">142,941,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1914</td> - <td class="tdr">2,240,033,000</td> - <td class="tdr">139,900,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1913</td> - <td class="tdr">2,136,465,000</td> - <td class="tdr">149,316,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1912</td> - <td class="tdr">1,883,479,000</td> - <td class="tdr">124,210,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1911</td> - <td class="tdr">1,768,731,000</td> - <td class="tdr">105,922,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1910</td> - <td class="tdr">1,546,067,000</td> - <td class="tdr">99,090,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1909</td> - <td class="tdr">1,561,671,000</td> - <td class="tdr">105,999,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1908</td> - <td class="tdr">1,443,537,000</td> - <td class="tdr">104,116,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1907</td> - <td class="tdr">1,257,430,000</td> - <td class="tdr">84,855,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1906</td> - <td class="tdr">1,257,949,000</td> - <td class="tdr">84,041,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1905</td> - <td class="tdr">1,123,334,000</td> - <td class="tdr">79,793,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1904</td> - <td class="tdr">984,424,000</td> - <td class="tdr">79,060,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1903</td> - <td class="tdr"> 941,699,000</td> - <td class="tdr">67,253,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1902</td> - <td class="tdr">1,106,208,000</td> - <td class="tdr">72,302,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1901</td> - <td class="tdr">1,034,643,000</td> - <td class="tdr">71,112,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1900</td> - <td class="tdr">967,252,000</td> - <td class="tdr">75,611,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1899</td> - <td class="tdr">999,713,000</td> - <td class="tdr">56,273,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1898</td> - <td class="tdr">1,034,249,000</td> - <td class="tdr">56,125,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1897</td> - <td class="tdr">973,514,000</td> - <td class="tdr">62,635,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1896</td> - <td class="tdr">890,458,000</td> - <td class="tdr">62,383,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1895</td> - <td class="tdr">884,502,000</td> - <td class="tdr">46,660,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1894</td> - <td class="tdr">908,252,000</td> - <td class="tdr">41,499,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1893</td> - <td class="tdr">904,337,000</td> - <td class="tdr">42,142,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1892</td> - <td class="tdr">715,471,000</td> - <td class="tdr">44,805,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1891</td> - <td class="tdr">710,124,000</td> - <td class="tdr">52,026,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1890</td> - <td class="tdr">664,491,000</td> - <td class="tdr">51,403,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1889</td> - <td class="tdr">616,195,000</td> - <td class="tdr">49,913,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1888</td> - <td class="tdr">578,351,000</td> - <td class="tdr">47,042,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1887</td> - <td class="tdr">592,803,000</td> - <td class="tdr">46,824,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1886</td> - <td class="tdr">577,628,000</td> - <td class="tdr">50,199,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1885</td> - <td class="tdr">574,628,000</td> - <td class="tdr">50,257,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1884</td> - <td class="tdr">513,660,000</td> - <td class="tdr">47,103,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1883</td> - <td class="tdr">505,931,000</td> - <td class="tdr">44,913,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1882</td> - <td class="tdr">559,954,000</td> - <td class="tdr">51,232,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1881</td> - <td class="tdr">397,660,000</td> - <td class="tdr">40,315,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1880</td> - <td class="tdr">423,964,000</td> - <td class="tdr">36,208,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1879</td> - <td class="tdr">378,310,000</td> - <td class="tdr">40,305,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1878</td> - <td class="tdr">338,841,000</td> - <td class="tdr">46,574,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1877</td> - <td class="tdr">309,198,000</td> - <td class="tdr">61,789,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1876</td> - <td class="tdr">243,660,000</td> - <td class="tdr">32,915,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1875</td> - <td class="tdr">221,955,000</td> - <td class="tdr">30,078,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1874</td> - <td class="tdr">247,806,000</td> - <td class="tdr">41,245,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1873</td> - <td class="tdr">187,815,000</td> - <td class="tdr">42,050,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1872</td> - <td class="tdr">145,171,000</td> - <td class="tdr">34,058,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1871</td> - <td class="tdr">149,892,000</td> - <td class="tdr">36,894,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1870</td> - <td class="tdr">113,735,000</td> - <td class="tdr">32,668,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1869</td> - <td class="tdr">100,636,000</td> - <td class="tdr">31,127,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1868</td> - <td class="tdr">79,456,000</td> - <td class="tdr">21,810,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1867</td> - <td class="tdr">70,255,000</td> - <td class="tdr">24,407,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1866</td> - <td class="tdr">50,987,000</td> - <td class="tdr">24,830,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1865</td> - <td class="tdr">25,496,000</td> - <td class="tdr">16,563,000</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span></p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Russia’s Crude Oil Production During the -Past Fifty Years</span></h3> - -<p>The output of crude petroleum in the Russian oil-fields -during the past fifty years is given in the following -table. For the purpose of comparison, the figures are -given in barrels of 42 gallons, rather than in poods -(62 to the ton) which is the usual manner of recording -Russian quantities. The figures are as under—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th><i>Year.</i></th> - <th><i>Barrels.</i></th> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1869</td> - <td>202,308</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1870</td> - <td>204,618</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1871</td> - <td>165,129</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1872</td> - <td>184,391</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1873</td> - <td>474,379</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1874</td> - <td>583,751</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1875</td> - <td>697,364</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1876</td> - <td>1,320,528</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1877</td> - <td>1,800,720</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1878</td> - <td>2,400,960</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1879</td> - <td>2,761,104</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1880</td> - <td>3,001,200</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1881</td> - <td>3,601,441</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1882</td> - <td>4,537,815</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1883</td> - <td>6,002,401</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1884</td> - <td>10,804,577</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1885</td> - <td>13,924,596</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1886</td> - <td>18,006,407</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1887</td> - <td>18,367,781</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1888</td> - <td>23,048,787</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1889</td> - <td>24,609,407</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1890</td> - <td>28,691,218</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1891</td> - <td>34,573,181</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1892</td> - <td>35,774,504</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1893</td> - <td>40,456,519</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1894</td> - <td>36,375,428</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1895</td> - <td>46,140,174</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1896</td> - <td>47,220,633</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1897</td> - <td>54,399,568</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1898</td> - <td>61,609,357</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1899</td> - <td>65,954,968</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1900</td> - <td>75,779,417</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1901</td> - <td>85,168,556</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1902</td> - <td>80,540,044</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1903</td> - <td>75,591,256</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1904</td> - <td>78,536,655</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1905</td> - <td>54,960,270</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1906</td> - <td>58,897,311</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1907</td> - <td>61,850,734</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1908</td> - <td>62,186,447</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1909</td> - <td>65,970,250</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1910</td> - <td>70,336,574</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1911</td> - <td>66,183,691</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1912</td> - <td>68,019,208</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1913</td> - <td>62,834,356</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1914</td> - <td>67,020,522</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1915</td> - <td>68,548,062</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1916</td> - <td>72,801,110</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>1917</td> - <td>69,000,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span></p> - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">Advantages of liquid fuel, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="indx">A few notable petroleum enterprises, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li class="indx">American petroleum exports, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> -<li class="indx">America’s crude oil production, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="indx">America, the petroleum industry in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="indx">Anglo-American Oil Company, Ltd., the, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="indx">Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Ltd., the, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Baku-Batoum pipe-line, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -<li class="indx">Baku, boring operations in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li class="indx">——, the oil-fields of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> -<li class="indx">British Empire, petroleum in, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li class="indx">Burmah Oil Company, Ltd., the, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="indx">——, the oil fields of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">California petroleum industry, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> -<li class="indx">Canada, petroleum in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li class="indx">Chemical composition of petroleum, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="indx">Cooking by means of oil, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Distillation of Scottish oil shales, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li class="indx">Drilling methods for oil, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> -<li class="indx">Dutch Indies, petroleum in the, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Egyptian oil-fields, the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> -<li class="indx">Empire oil, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li class="indx">England, petroleum in, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li class="indx">England’s petroleum trade, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Famous oil companies, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li class="indx">Fifty years’ American production, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— —— Russian production, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Galicia’s crude oil production, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="indx">Galicia, the oil-fields of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -<li class="indx">Germany’s attempts at oil production, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— march on Roumania, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— output of crude oil, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hand-dug wells in Roumania, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> -<li class="indx">Heathfield, natural gas in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> -<li class="indx">How petroleum is produced, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— —— is refined, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— the Scottish shales are operated, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Internal combustion engines, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Japan, petroleum in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Liquid fuel in the Navy, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="indx">Lord Cowdray’s enterprise in England, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— —— —— Mexico, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Maikop oil boom, the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="indx">Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., new engines of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="indx">Methods of drilling wells, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li class="indx">Mexico’s crude oil production, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— petroleum industry, <a href="#Page_12">12</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ocean oil transport facilities, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="indx">Oil fuel advantages, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="indx">Origin of petroleum, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Petroleum as fuel, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— in England, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— in historical times, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> -<li class="indx">Petroleum’s part in the Great War, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li class="indx">Petroleum, the production of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> -<li class="indx">——, the refining of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> -<li class="indx">——, the world’s output of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Remarkable oil wells in Mexico, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> -<li class="indx">Rotary system of drilling, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="indx">Roumania, petroleum industry of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> -<li class="indx">Roumania’s crude oil production, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="indx">Russia, petroleum industry of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="indx">Russia’s crude oil production, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Scottish oil pipe-line, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— shale-oil industry, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li class="indx">“Shell” Company and the Dutch Indies, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> -<li class="indx">—— Transport and Trading Co., the, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> -<li class="indx">Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart., and toluol supplies, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> -<li class="indx">Solar oil for gas enrichment purposes, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li class="indx">Staffordshire, petroleum in, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Texas, the oil-fields of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> -<li class="indx">Toluol from Borneo petroleum, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> -<li class="indx">Transport of petroleum, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li class="indx">Trinidad, progress in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vicker’s oil engines, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li></ul> - -<p class="caption">THE END</p> - -<p class="table copy"><i>Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England</i></p> - - -<div class="transnote"> - -<h3>Transcriber's Note:</h3> - -<p>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Petroleum, by Albert Lidgett - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PETROLEUM *** - -***** This file should be named 52825-h.htm or 52825-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/8/2/52825/ - -Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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