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diff --git a/old/52825-0.txt b/old/52825-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8180476..0000000 --- a/old/52825-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5480 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Petroleum, by Albert Lidgett - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Petroleum - -Author: Albert Lidgett - -Release Date: August 16, 2016 [EBook #52825] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PETROLEUM *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Transcriber's Note: - -Bold text delimited by equal signs, italics by underscores.] - - - - - The Wallsend Slipway & Engineering - - WALLSEND-ON-TYNE Company, Ltd. - - MARINE ENGINE & BOILER BUILDERS & SHIP REPAIRERS - - - _Manufacturers of Installations for_ - - BURNING LIQUID FUEL - - -[Illustration: Installation mounted on a Tray] - - -=Horse Power= of Boilers for which Installations have been supplied by -the Company exceeds =3,000,000 h.p.= - - - Head Office and Works-- WALLSEND-ON-TYNE - Telegraphic Address-- “WALL,” NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE - London Office-- 30 GREAT ST. HELENS. E C. 3 - - - - -[Illustration] - -ANGLO-MEXICAN PETROLEUM CO., LTD. - - Exporters and marketers of the products of the Mexican Eagle - Oil Co., Ltd., including Mexican Fuel Oil and Diesel Oil, - Mexphalte, Fluxphalte, Mexican Eagle Bitumen, Lubricants, Gas - Oil, Kerosene and Motor Spirit. - -EAGLE OIL TRANSPORT COMPANY, LIMITED. - - Owners of the fleet of modern Oil Tank Steamers engaged in the - transport of the above products. - -BOWRING PETROLEUM COMPANY, LIMITED. - - Marketing Agents in the United Kingdom for Mex Motor Spirit and - Kerosene, etc. - - _Head Offices_: - 16. FINSBURY CIRCUS. - --LONDON. E.C. 2-- - - _Telephone: - LONDON WALL 1200 (Twenty Lines)_ - - - - -[Illustration: Oil Well Supply Co] - -_Oil and “OILWELL” have grown up together. The oldest and largest -manufacturers of well drilling tools._ - - -DRILLING PLANT of every description - -PUMPING OUTFITS for every service - -PIPE-LINES and STORAGE TANKS - -[Illustration] - -TRADE “OILWELL” MARK - -Dashwood House, LONDON, E.C. 2 - - - - -ANGLO-AMERICAN OIL COMPANY LIMITED - - -_Importers, Refiners and Distributors_ - - -=_REFINED PETROLEUM OILS_= - - WHITE ROSE (Water White), ROYAL DAYLIGHT and - - CROWN DIAMOND--for Household use. - - ANGLO’S VAPORISING OIL--for Oil Engines, Agricultural Tractors, - etc. - - -=_MOTOR SPIRIT_= - - PRATT’S AVIATION--Refined to super-excellence for Aeroplanes - and Motor Cars. - - PRATT’S PERFECTION--for all classes of Motor Cars. - - TAXIBUS--for Commercial Vehicles. - - ANGLO’S BENZOL--for Motor Cars and Commercial Vehicles. - - ANGLO’S VICTORY SPIRIT--a perfect Petrol-Benzol blend. - -FUEL OIL--for Diesel Engines, Furnaces, Ships’ Bunkers, etc. - -GAS OIL--for Gas-making. - -LUBRICATING OILS AND GREASES, PARAFFIN WAX AND SCALE. - -NUJOL--Finest Medicinal Oil. - - -HEAD OFFICE: - -36 QUEEN ANNE’S GATE, WESTMINSTER, S.W.1 - -_Branches and Depots throughout the United Kingdom._ - - - - -_The Largest Makers of_ - -OIL STORAGE TANKS - -_Tanks of Any Size Supplied and Erected Anywhere._ - - -[Illustration: _WHESSOE FOUNDRY CO., LTD.,_ - -DARLINGTON, ENGLAND - -Established 1790] - - -PETROLEUM REFINERY PLANTS - - -Telegrams-- - - “WHESSOE, LONDON.” “WHESSOE, DARLINGTON.” - -London Office:-- - - 106 CANNON STREET, E.C.4 - -[Illustration: ENGLAND’S FIRST OIL WELL IN DERBYSHIRE - -(Drilled under Government authority and brought into production in -June, 1919) - - _Frontispiece_] - - - - - PITMAN’S COMMON COMMODITIES - AND INDUSTRIES - - - PETROLEUM - - BY - - ALBERT LIDGETT - - EDITOR OF THE “PETROLEUM TIMES” - LATE EDITOR OF THE “PETROLEUM REVIEW” - - - LONDON - - SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, E.C.4 - BATH, MELBOURNE AND NEW YORK - - - - - PRINTED BY SIR ISAAC PITMAN - & SONS, LTD., LONDON, BATH, - MELBOURNE AND NEW YORK - - - - -PREFACE - - -Although numerous volumes have been written upon petroleum, and some -very educational works on this important subject are to be found in -technological literature, it is strange that prior to the appearance -of this little book, it has been impossible to turn to any publication -which deals with this Common Commodity of Commerce in a popular manner. - -Of a truth, we to-day live in an age of Oil, for the products of -petroleum are inseparable from our daily life. Refined petroleum -breathes the breath of power to the internal combustion engine which -claims a realm of its own on land and sea, in the air, and under ocean -waters; it also gives artificial light to countless millions in all -corners of the world under a variety of circumstances and dissimilar -conditions, while the wheels of industry unceasingly revolve consequent -upon oil lubrication. - -And in no sphere of commercial and industrial activity has greater -progress been made during the past few decades than in regard to the -multiplication in the uses of the products of petroleum. The avenues -for advantageous consumption are constantly increasing, and this to -such an extent that the production of crude petroleum--enormous though -this is--has been outstripped by the demands for the refined product. - -In the following pages I have striven to deal with the chief phases of -the petroleum industry in a manner which, I have reason to believe, -will be acceptable to the general reader, and the fact that the volume -is written in language free from technicalities, will, I trust, render -it particularly interesting to those who would know something of that -immense class of commercial products covered by the name “Petroleum.” - - ALBERT LIDGETT. - - ROYAL AUTOMOBILE CLUB, - PALL MALL, - LONDON, S.W.1. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAP. PAGE - - PREFACE iii - I. PETROLEUM AND ITS ORIGIN 1 - II. THE OIL-FIELDS OF THE WORLD 6 - III. HOW PETROLEUM IS PRODUCED 41 - IV. THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM 51 - V. TRANSPORT BY LAND AND SEA 63 - VI. PETROLEUM AS FUEL 76 - VII. PETROLEUM AS A LIGHTING AGENT 89 - VIII. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 95 - IX. PETROLEUM IN ENGLAND 104 - X. PETROLEUM IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 114 - XI. PETROLEUM’S PART IN THE GREAT WAR 123 - XII. THE SCOTTISH SHALE-OIL INDUSTRY 132 - XIII. A FEW NOTABLE PETROLEUM ENTERPRISES 148 - XIV. STATISTICAL 158 - INDEX 165 - - - - -[Illustration: - - Taken from an actual photo of a trip spear with mechanic - alongside for comparison of size. This is for 21 inch O.D. - drive pipe. We have facilities for producing the heaviest tools - required.] - - -The OIL WELL ENGINEERING CO., LTD. - -_Works_: - -CHEADLE HEATH, STOCKPORT - -The largest Manufacturers of Oil Well Drilling Plant and oil Well -Supplies in the British Empire - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - ENGLAND’S FIRST OIL WELL _Frontispiece_ - THE GLEN POOL 11 - GEOLOGICAL SECTION SHOWING OIL SANDS 13 - A GUSHER UNDER CONTROL 15 - DERRICK OF AN AMERICAN OIL WELL 17 - ROUMANIAN HAND-DUG WELLS 27 - BUSTENARI--THE ROUMANIAN OIL REGION 31 - EARLY BURMESE OIL PRODUCTION METHODS 34 - EARLY JAPANESE DRILLING METHOD 35 - VIEW IN THE GALICIAN FIELDS 37 - “OILWELL” HEAVY ROTARY OUTFIT 47 - PRIMITIVE METHOD OF TRANSPORT 65 - OIL PIPE-LINE CONNECTIONS 67 - A MAMMOTH TANKER 73 - TAKING OIL FUEL ABOARD 81 - LIQUID FUEL BURNERS 83 - OIL FUEL FOR MARINE PURPOSES 85 - THE “SCARAB” OIL BURNER 87 - AN OIL COOKER 93 - VICKERS’ NEW ENGINE (FRONT VIEW) 99 - VICKERS’ NEW ENGINE (REAR VIEW) 99 - HIGH DUTY ENGINE FOR LIGHT CRAFT 101 - LOW DUTY MARINE ENGINE 101 - THE PUMPHERSTON OIL SHALE WORKS 138 - SOME BURMAH PRODUCERS 154 - - - - -THE - -PETROLEUM TIMES - - PUBLISHED WEEKLY PRICE 6d. - - -The International - -Petroleum Journal - - -“The Petroleum Times” is Edited by ALBERT LIDGETT and is the most -influential and widely circulated petroleum journal printed in the -United Kingdom. - -_The fact that you are reading this advertisement suggests that it has -some interest to you. Then write for a specimen copy which will gladly -be sent._ - - -_Editorial and Publishing Offices_: - -BROAD STREET PLACE, - -LONDON, E.C.2 - - - - -PETROLEUM - - - - -CHAPTER I - -PETROLEUM AND ITS ORIGIN - - -In dealing with the question of petroleum and its origin, the subject -can well be defined under two headings: one, the origin of the word -“petroleum”; the other, the origin of the mineral itself. As to the -former, this is a matter of historical interest; of the latter, the -question is still in doubt--and the doubt becomes even the more -doubtful, the more the question is debated. - -Let us, therefore, take first the word “petroleum” as we know it -to-day. It covers a multitude of products derived from the refining of -crude oil, though the word does not suggest any of them. It is quite -a generic term, and in a general way represents the whole of that -ever-increasing family of hydrocarbons--the refined products of crude -oil. There is no doubt that it derives its name from the Latin _petra -oleum_, which, literally, is rock oil, and equivalents of the name are -found in all languages. Even in modern practice we use the word, though -not in a specific sense, while our own Government usually refers to -“petroleum oil,” which, of course, involves tautology. Crude petroleum -is known throughout the oil-fields of the world as denoting the crude -oil coming from the wells: then we have petroleum spirit, otherwise the -lightest form of refined oil; we have petroleum distillate, designating -an illuminating oil; but, “petroleum oil” is, it is to be regretted, -generally used as suggesting some form of petroleum product. - -Though the petroleum industry--in its commercial sense--only goes back -some sixty years, the use of petroleum can be traced to Biblical times, -for was it not the great Prophet Elisha who told the widow to “Go, sell -the oil and pay thy debts and live”? - -Job also speaks of the rock which poured him out rivers of oil; in -Maccabees we find that the priests hid the fire which they took from -the altar in a deep pit without water; while Nehemiah called the liquid -which burst into flame and kindled a great fire by the name “Nephthar, -which is as much as to say, a cleansing; but many call it Nephai.” And -so, in many parts of the Old as well as in the New Testament, oil is -clearly referred to, and, in Biblical times, as much later, was looked -upon as a sacred fire. - -Many ancient authors make extensive reference to oil, prominent among -them being Herodotus, who described the methods adopted at the pits of -Kirab for the raising of the oil, which liquid “gives off a very strong -odour.” - -Petroleum, as known in Biblical times, and as so widely known to-day, -occurs in greater or less quantity throughout the world, and it is -found in the whole range of strata of the earth’s crust, from the -Laurentian rocks to the most recent members of the Quaternary period, -though it is found in commercial quantities almost wholly in the -comparatively old Devonian and Carboniferous formations on the one hand -or in the various divisions of the comparatively young Tertiary rocks -on the other. - -The problem of the origin of petroleum has been the subject of -considerable scientific controversy for many years. Not a few of the -leading scientists hold to the theory that petroleum is derived from -metallic carbides lying far beneath the porous strata in which the oil -is stored by Nature, and that even at the present time the process is -in operation. This idea, which may be termed the inorganic theory of -petroleum origin, was considered to have received substantial support -when it was found that the action of water on the carbides of certain -metals resulted in the liberation of hydrocarbons. - -The view that petroleum is of organic origin is to-day almost -universally accepted, although there is no general agreement either -as to whether petroleum is derived from vegetable or animal matter, -or as to the forms of life that provided for its genesis. In certain -places in the world--notably on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea -and also near the Mediterranean--there is some conversion of organic -matter into petroleum actually to be seen to-day. It is not difficult, -as the late Sir Boverton Redwood, Bart., pointed out in an address -before the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1918, to account for -the formation of adequate deposits of the necessary material. In the -comparatively deep and quiescent water along the margin of the land in -past ages, there would be abundant opportunity for the deposition not -only of the remains of marine animals and plants, but also of vegetable -matter brought down to the coast by the water courses, and the changes -which the earth has undergone would result in the burial of these -substances under sedimentary mineral matter, the deposits thus formed -being ultimately, as the result of further alterations in the earth’s -surface, frequently found occupying positions far removed from the sea, -and sometimes beneath immense thicknesses of subsequent deposits. - -That vegetable matter may be the source of certain petroleums is an -opinion that has found increasing evidence to support it. There are two -kinds of vegetable matter which are possible, terrestrial and aquatic, -and in the deltaic conditions that characterize so many oil-fields, -either could be equally well appealed to as a source of accumulation. -The extensive coal and lignite deposits in many geological periods -bear eloquent testimony to the presence of carbonaceous matter far -in excess of that required to provide proved supplies of petroleum. -Every important coal-field demonstrates the fact that vegetable matter -can be partially converted into bituminous compounds or hydrocarbons -by natural processes. Marsh gases often occur in great quantities in -faulted zones in the coal measures, though the bituminous substances -found in coal are not true bitumens that dissolve in the usual -solvents, while the tars derived from the destructive distillation of -coal in no way resemble natural petroleums or the products of oil-shale -distillation. - -In spite, however, of the outstanding differences between petroleum, -oil-shales and coal, I might here point out in favour of the vegetable -theory of origin, that actual petroleum and true bitumens have been -found in some coals, though in small quantities, while solid paraffins -have been extracted by means of pyridine and chloroform. Again, low -temperature distillations have yielded petroleum hydrocarbons, all -of which appear to indicate that even when coal was the overwhelming -product, at certain times and places the conditions were merging into -those which could yield petroleum. There is no doubt that each of the -various views expressed as to the organic origin of petroleum contains -elements of truth, and it is reasonable to assume that a substance so -varied in its physical and chemical properties as petroleum has not in -all cases been created under precisely the same conditions, or from an -exactly similar source. - -Summing up the whole question of origin, however, the balance of -opinion points to its being the result of organic action, and that the -petroleum which we now find in the Palaeozoic and Tertiary rocks is -substantially of the same geological age as the rocks themselves. - -Volumes of technological literature have been written upon this complex -question of petroleum origin, and though these may be of intense -interest to the student of geology, the brief references which I have -already given to the question are sufficient for the purpose of this -little publication. - -The geographical distribution of petroleum throughout the two -hemispheres is no less wide than the geological. The deposits mainly -occur along well-defined lines, often associated with the mountain -ranges. This is chiefly due to the formation, in the elevatory process, -of minor folds which have arrested and collected the oil in richly -productive belts. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE OIL-FIELDS OF THE WORLD - - -Ever since petroleum and its products entered the realm of commercial -commodities, there has been a ceaseless search throughout the two -hemispheres for crude oil, and to-day there are comparatively few -countries in the world where the presence of petroleum has not been -proved. The ever-expanding uses of petroleum, which in their train -have called for a continually increasing demand for crude oil, have -given an impetus to the search for commercially productive oil-fields, -which, in mining history, has no parallel. On the one hand, we have -those important oil-producing regions which embrace enormous regions of -the United States, Mexico, Russia, Roumania, the Dutch Indies, India, -and Galicia; on the other, we find comparatively recent enterprise -which is bringing into prominence the newer oil-producing regions of -Egypt, Trinidad, Canada, the Argentine, Algeria, and various parts -of Australia and Japan, though in several of these latter mentioned -countries, the production of petroleum has been carried on by private -means for not only many years, but even for centuries. - -It naturally follows that, with the constant withdrawal of large -supplies of crude oil from Mother Earth, Nature’s stores must be -growing less, and it is not surprising, therefore, to hear, with -persistent regularity, alarming rumours of the coming dearth of crude -oil. Experts have devoted considerable time and thought in an endeavour -to arrive at a conclusion as to the length of time it will take for the -withdrawal of practically the whole of the crude oil from the known -deposits in the more developed fields: their conclusions, however, are -widely different, for while some assert that in the United States, for -instance, the known fields will cease to be commercially productive -within forty years, others there are who declare that centuries must -elapse before the question of a failing supply need call for serious -consideration. - -But there is one point which must not be overlooked in this connection, -and that is the fact that, while thus far very few thoroughly developed -oil-fields have shown signs of permanent decay, there are numerous -others which, while having already furnished conclusive proof of their -productivity, have, for the most part, been but slightly developed. -Each passing year registers the incoming of fresh oil-producing areas, -while numerous regions in practically every part of the world, giving -much promise of the success of ultimate oil developments, are as yet -virgin territory. - -The cry of possible shortage of supply was, fortunately, made at the -opportune moment: it was a word of warning, and was taken to heart -especially by those associated with the development of the older -producing oil-fields. In these fields--whether we look to America or -Russia--there has always been considerable waste of crude oil, mostly -in regard to furnishing power for oil-field operations, while the -natural gases which exude from the wells themselves, and to which -reference is made in another chapter, have, in times past, been -allowed to pass uncontrolled into the atmosphere. To-day, however, -we see conservation in every direction--thanks to the application -of scientific and engineering knowledge, combined with the exercise -of care--and there is no doubt that this new factor will tend in a -greater degree than may at first be imagined toward the preservation of -Nature’s stores of crude oil for unlimited time. - -With these few general remarks, let us proceed to briefly survey the -principal oil-fields of the world, leaving those which are in the -process of development or exploitation to later consideration. - -THE UNITED STATES.--In no other country has such continuous progress -been recorded in connection with the production of petroleum as in -the case of the United States. Quite recently, the U.S. Geological -Survey estimated that there are no less than 9,000 square miles of -oil-bearing territory in the States, yet the petroleum industry was -not commercially established until the early sixties of the last -century. It was in Pennsylvania that the industry had its birth, -and the troubles which beset Drake, the pioneer, have filled many -pages of early oil literature. His first well, which produced quite -a modest yield of crude oil, was at Titusville, Pa., which spot soon -became a thriving town. And as Pennsylvania was the scene of the early -successes, it also became the pivot round which the petroleum industry -of the States prospered for many years. Until 1885, the Pennsylvanian -fields furnished over 98 per cent. of the production of crude oil: then -a gradual decline set in, until, at the present time, Pennsylvanian -regions do not produce 10 per cent. of the oil output of the United -States. No sooner had the petroleum industry been firmly established in -Pennsylvania than an active search was made for the precious fluid in -various parts of the States, and one by one new oil regions were opened -up, but it is interesting to recall the fact that, even in the first -developed oil-producing region, no district has been entirely abandoned -as exhausted of oil, for to-day wells are being pumped quite close to -Drake’s first well and the scene of the birth of the American petroleum -industry. In the zenith of its prosperity, the Pennsylvanian field -produced nearly 5,000,000 tons of crude oil per annum, but to-day the -output has fallen off nearly 40 per cent. - -When it is mentioned that the output of crude petroleum from the -various fields of the United States last year was over 40,000,000 tons, -the magnitude of America’s oil industry will at once be apparent. -The regions known as the Mid-Continent fields--and which embrace the -extensive oil-producing regions of Kansas and Oklahoma--are responsible -for a very large portion of this output. Each field has its various -“pools,” the most famous of this part, perhaps, being the Cushing pool, -which came into prominence but a few years ago. Toward the end of 1914, -it was estimated that the daily output of Cushing was 35,000 tons of -crude oil. Cushing, like all other prolific oil districts, has many -interesting stories associated with its rapid rise as an oil-producing -centre, and there are instances on record where, in the course of a few -days, land values have increased tenfold. - -The rise of the Californian fields, too, is an example of the rapidity -with which oil regions can be developed. California’s output in 1919 -was, roughly, 120,000,000 barrels of crude oil, or over 14,000,000 -tons. It possesses nearly 900 square miles of oil-lands, and though at -one time a great difficulty was experienced in disposing of the crude -oil production, since it was of a somewhat low grade, the position has -now been reversed, and the consumption of petroleum products is greater -than the supply. With the improvement of the methods of drilling, and -the debut of the rotary system, it has been possible not only to drill -to much greater depths, but to considerably reduce the time requisite -for drilling a well to the oil sands. Californian records for quick -drilling with the rotary machine show that wells have been got down -to the producing sands, in some fields nearly 4,000 feet below the -surface, within one month. This deep drilling policy, which is now -much in vogue among Californian oil operators, has proved the existence -at the greater depth of larger volume of oil of far better quality -than that met with in the shallow strata, and it is to the discovery -and consequent development of the deeper oil horizons that much of -California’s recent advance is due. - -Though but of small significance, the oil-wells in Summerland, Cal., -call for mention for the reason that these are drilled in the sea at -quite a distance from the coast. The encroachment of sea-water to the -wells themselves is prevented by the continuance of the tubes in the -wells to a height above the level of high-water mark, the produced oil -being piped to the mainland. - -There is no doubt that a wonderful future awaits California in regard -to its oil export trade. The Far East is largely drawing upon the -State for crude oil for treatment in the Far Eastern refineries: the -oil-burning vessels of the Pacific rely upon Californian fuel oil -for their supplies, while the opening of the Panama Canal, and the -establishment of oil storage depots there, has brought California -within easy transport distance of the European markets. During the past -few years several cargoes of Californian refined oil have, in fact, -come upon the English market. - -The oil-fields of Texas have, perhaps, witnessed more “boom” periods -than any other oil regions of the States. The Gulf coastal fields which -embrace Texas and Louisiana, came into prominence some seventeen years -ago, and they were not long in recording an output of over 5,000,000 -tons in a single twelve months. The prolific districts of Spindle Top, -Sour Lake, Humble, etc., attracted rapid attention, and the speculator -in oil lands became immensely rich. But these boom periods cannot be -said to be of much real value to the oil industry, for they are -always followed by times of depression, when fortunes are lost almost -as quickly as they have been made. To-day, the Gulf coast fields have -settled down to a period of steady expansion; systematic development is -taking place in every field, and, as in California, the policy of deep -drilling has been eminently successful. - -[Illustration: THE GLEN POOL--ONE OF AMERICA’S OIL PRODUCING CENTRES] - -Space forbids my entering into details respecting the more recently -developed or partially exploited fields of America, but it is safe to -say that there is scarcely a single State that does not hold out hope -for profitable oil development: this is evidenced by the large amounts -of new capital which are to-day finding employment in regions which are -only commencing their oil-field history. - -There is no other oil-producing country in the world where the -petroleum industry has reached such a highly organized state as in -the United States. Each producing field is connected by means of -underground pipe-lines with the trunk pipe-line system, by which it -is possible to pump oil from the most distant fields direct to the -Atlantic seaboard. Some of the principal lines are hundreds of miles -in length. In another chapter I deal with this wonderful system of oil -transportation: it is, therefore, unnecessary here to more than mention -it _en passant_. The oil-refining branch of the American petroleum -industry is also particularly well organized and up to date, but with -this subject, too, I deal at length elsewhere. - -[Illustration: A TYPICAL GEOLOGICAL SECTION SHOWING THE OIL SANDS] - -MEXICO.--The oil-fields of Mexico can claim to have leapt into -prominence at a far more rapid rate than any other oil-field of -importance in the world. Their development has been phenomenal, and -from being practically unknown sixteen years ago, they now rank as -the third largest producing regions, coming but next to the United -States and Russia. My object in dealing with the Mexican fields prior -to referring to the Russian petroleum industry is that they may be said -to form an integral part of the fields of the New Continent, and, from -many points of view, are linked up with the petroleum industry of the -United States. Indeed, there are several authorities who are now urging -that it is to Mexico that the United States Government must look if it -is to be in a position to furnish the major portion of the petroleum -products required for the markets of the world. Another reason for my -dealing with Mexico at the moment is that, when development operations -are carried a little further, and when ocean transport facilities are -available for adequately dealing with the flood of Mexican petroleum, -there is not the slightest doubt that Mexico will rank as the second -largest country of petroleum production. Its annual output of crude -oil is, approximately, 8,000,000 tons, but even this figure in no way -represents the productivity of its prolific oil-producing regions, -for according to the official statement of the Mexican Government the -production in 1918 represented only 10 per cent. of that possible. The -Mexican wells have no parallel in the world, large as have been some of -the oil-fountains in Russia. - -It will be of great interest here to refer briefly to these, and though -it would be impossible to detail all those Mexican wells which have -ranked quite outside the limits of ordinary producers, I will touch -only upon two of these remarkable oil gushers. They both were drilled -on the properties owned by the well-known English firm of Pearsons, the -operating company being the “Aguila” (Mexican Eagle) Company. It was in -1906 when the Company commenced active drilling operations in Northern -Vera Cruz, and though these were very successful from the start, it -was two years later that the famous “Dos Bocas” well came in. A heavy -gas pressure developed when the rotary drill was down just over 1,800 -feet, and in a few minutes the internal pressure manifested itself by -bursting the wire-wrapped hose connected with the drilling apparatus. -The oil then commenced to come to the surface in an immense stream, and -in twenty minutes the well was beyond control. Fissures began to appear -in the ground at considerable distance from the well, and through -these came oil and gas. One of these fissures opened directly under -the boilers, and though the fires had been drawn, the gas ignited. The -position was well-nigh hopeless from the start, the well itself was -throwing out an 8-inch column of oil hundreds of feet in the air. The -force of the volume of oil below ground flung the heavy English drill -pipe out of the well, and soon it became impossible to approach within -300 feet of the “mad gusher.” The flames of fire are said to have -reached 1,000 feet in height, and inasmuch as all ground round the well -had fallen into the cavity caused, they were over 50 feet in diameter. -And for 58 days did this gusher burn with all the fury imaginable, its -glare being seen far out at sea. Anything approaching an approximate -production of oil from this well will never be made: it can safely be -recorded, however, that its mad flow of oil ran into many millions of -barrels, and it is placed on record that nearly 2,000,000 tons of solid -earth were carried away by the force of the oil from the well’s mouth, -for a crater of nearly 120,000 square metres was formed round the well. - -[Illustration: A GUSHER OF THE MEXICAN EAGLE CO. UNDER CONTROL--A DOME -BUILT OVER THE MOUTH] - -Toward the end of 1910 another surprise was in store for those in -charge of drilling operations for the Company, for it was then that the -world famous “Protero del Llano” gusher came in. This well ranks as one -of the largest, if not the largest, ever associated with the petroleum -industry. Its estimated daily flow was over 125,000 barrels, and within -three months the well had produced over 8,000,000 barrels of crude oil. - -During November, 1919, a new field at Naranjos was developed by the -Mexican Eagle Co., and the first three wells to come into production, -commenced to yield over 30,000 tons daily. - -It says much for the enterprise of the Pearson (Lord Cowdray) interests -that they have been able to build up such a remarkable business in -Mexico’s oil industry in so comparatively a short space of time. The -production of crude oil, as everyone knows, is but the first link in -a long chain of commercial oil operations. To-day, the Mexican Eagle -Oil Company owns considerably over 250 miles of pipe-line (mostly -of 8-inch capacity), possess several miniature railways, and on the -fields of production has bulk oil storage accommodation for several -million barrels of crude oil. It has also two large refineries--one -at Minatitlan and another at Tampico, which together are capable of -handling over 5,000 tons (about 35,000 barrels) of crude oil daily, and -turning the same into a complete range of high-grade products--motor -spirit, illuminating oils, lubricants, fuel oil, paraffin wax, and an -asphalt for road-making. - -An interesting equipment of this Company in Mexico is that of its -sea-loading pipe-lines at Tuxpam. Here, the water inside the bar is -too shallow to allow the gigantic bulk oil-carriers of the Company’s -associated concern--the Eagle Oil Transport Company, Ltd.--to come -alongside and load. Pipe-lines have accordingly been laid on the -bed of the sea reaching out to a loading terminal a mile and a half -out at sea. Here, the pipe-lines are connected with the steamers by -means of flexible hose, and three or four tank vessels can be loaded -simultaneously from the storage tanks on shore. In one recent twelve -months alone over 200 oil tankers were so loaded in this way, and on -the average, each was loaded and dispatched within 2½ days, for the -pipe-line facilities permit of 10,000 tons of oil being pumped into the -vessel’s tanks every 24 hours. - -[Illustration: INSIDE THE DERRICK OF AN AMERICAN OIL WELL] - -There are several large amalgamations of capital interested in the -development of the Mexican fields--American and English, while, prior -to the war, the Germans had anxious eyes upon this growing industry, -and even formulated plans whereby German interests would be largely -represented in its future. - -While on the subject of the Mexican fields, might I say that no other -oil-producing regions have, in the short space of time during which -developments have taken place, exercised such an influence upon the -international oil situation as has Mexico. This may be traced to the -fact that Mexican oil is an admirable liquid fuel, and as such is now -in regular use the world over. The vast consuming centres in the South -American Continent have seen that, whereas coal is very dear, it is -possible to secure almost unlimited supplies of Mexican fuel oil almost -at their own doors, while overseas, consequent upon the advent of the -fuel oil age, Mexican fuel oil is playing a most important part, and -to-day is in great demand for the mercantile fleet. - -RUSSIA.--Long before the commercial value of petroleum and its products -was established, Baku--the present centre of the Russian petroleum -industry--had become famous for its “Eternal Fires,” and it was to -that place the Parsees made pilgrimages for over 1,000 years; in fact, -centuries before the Russians occupied the Caucasus, the tribes of -Persia eagerly sought the oils of Baku for their curative qualities. - -The Russian oil-fields have an output of, approximately, 10,000,000 -tons annually, or, roughly, 15 per cent. of the world’s total -production of crude oil. Since the time when the petroleum industry -was placed upon a commercial footing, the Russian fields have produced -230,000,000 tons of petroleum. Enormous though this quantity is, it -has been more than doubled by the United States. - -The oil-fields of Baku have gained a distinction for the reason that -numerous individual wells have given forth a flood of crude oil which -has, with very few exceptions, been unknown in other petroliferous -regions. The Baku fields proper embrace the districts of Balakhany, -Saboontchi, Romany, and Bibi Eibat: the first three districts stand on -a plateau but a few miles from Baku, while Bibi Eibat is located quite -near the Caspian Sea, on a bay from which the field takes its name. -One remarkable feature of these fields--as showing their prolific oil -content--is that the four main oil-producing districts in Baku have an -area of less than 4,000 acres. It is in this locality that the Russian -petroleum industry, having had its birth, became centred, and though -it is known that there are several really promising oil areas in this -south-western part of the Caucasus, the fact that the lands belong to -the State has been a sufficient stumbling-block to development in the -past. - -Apart from the Baku fields, the most highly developed oil-field -of importance in Russia is that of Grosny, which is situated on -the northern slopes of the Caucasian range and connected with the -Vladicaucas railway by a branch line. The Grosny field, however, has -only been developed during the past fifteen years in what may be called -a commercial sense, but its operated area is almost double that of -Baku. It has greatly suffered owing to the inadequacy of transport -facilities, but in 1919 a project was drafted to build a pipe-line to -the Black Sea. - -It is not a feature of this little publication that minor regions -shall be all enumerated, and thus I may be forgiven if I refer but -to one of the several new districts which have recently attracted -the attention of both oil operators and speculators. I refer to the -Maikop fields, which prominently came before the British investing -public in 1910, and which were directly responsible for the oil boom -of that year. A few months before, a very prolific spouter of oil had -been struck in Maikop, which was then quite an agricultural centre, -and enormous excitement followed. Land was quickly taken over at -ever-increasing prices, and the boom, for which English capital was -largely responsible, lasted for several months. There have been many -opinions put forward by supposed experts in oil geology for and against -the Maikop oil region, but the kindest thing of all that can be said -for the district is that, while there was really no justification -for the remarkable Maikop oil boom of 1910, there was certainly no -reason why public opinion should so rapidly change in regard to its -potentialities. I have every reason to believe that some day Maikop -will justify the optimistic opinions held for it during the boom, but -in the eyes of the English investor the region bears the stamp of -fraud, for the simple reason that so many have invested their savings -in it, and have been doomed to acute disappointment. - -Some millions of English money went into Maikop oil enterprises during -that ill-fated oil boom, but a very small percentage of this went to -really prove the contents of the lower strata. The fact that the ground -was simply “scratched” and condemned because it did not respond with -oil fountains, cannot in the slightest affect the ultimate career of -the Maikop oil region, the presence of oil in which has been known -even from ancient times. Looking back upon that Maikop oil boom, one -cannot but express surprise at our gullibility generally: we stake our -faith and our capital upon what at the best is a sheer gamble, and -we seem content if we find that anything approaching 20 per cent. of -the money subscribed actually goes into the serious development of the -scheme which we fancied. There are a few who grow suddenly rich upon -the spoils of such oil booms--I know some of these personally, and to -me it has always been a source of keen regret that the State does not -exercise something of a rigid control over these publicly invested -funds. I cannot here refrain, while on the subject of the Maikop oil -boom, just making a remark as to the overrated value which the public -generally attach to the reports of many gentlemen looked upon as oil -experts. Some remarkable stories are associated with the locking up -(and loss) of English moneys in the Maikop boom, but the strangest -I know is of a Russian who came to England when the boom was at its -height, for the purpose of selling a number of Maikop oil claims. -There were many prospective buyers, but it was necessary to possess a -report from some supposed “oil expert.” To save time, the seller of the -claims drafted what he considered quite an alluring statement, and the -next day the report, couched in the same language, bore the “expert’s” -signature. And the “wheeze” worked. - -But to return to the main subject. Prior to 1870, the crude petroleum -in the Baku district, as well as in the minor fields of Russia, was -obtained from surface pits, dug by hand, and rarely more than 50 -feet deep, and the production was carried away from the mouth of the -shaft in leathern bottles. The general arrangements were on the most -primitive lines, but, nevertheless, the industry--such as it was -then--thrived. Even to-day in several fields in Russia we see the -survival of the hand-dug wells, but they are steadily becoming a -feature of a page of oil-field history which is almost filled. - -It was in 1873 that Robert Nobel went to Baku, and to his enterprise -and technical genius a great deal of the subsequent rapid development -of the Russian industry is due. Boring by steam power was introduced, -and the deeper oil horizons were reached, but, owing to the depth at -which the strata became commercially productive, it was necessary to -commence the well with a starting diameter of 36-40 inches, so as to -ensure the requisite depth being obtained with a workable size of -baler--for the Baku crude oils are “baled” from the wells. Upon the -question of baling wells, I shall have something to say in another -chapter. - -Under the improved conditions which were introduced in methods of -boring and operating the oil-wells, the industry steadily expanded, -the general awakening of boring enterprise being best reflected in the -number of oil-wells in operation in subsequent years. For instance, -in 1893, the Baku fields could boast of but 458 bore-holes; in 1898, -the number had increased to 1,107; in 1903, it was about 2,000; while -in 1911, there were over 3,000 bore-holes in the Baku fields. There -has been a steady decline in the number of these bore-holes since -1914 due in some part, I assume, to the difficulties of securing the -requisite materials for new boring, combined with the enormous increase -in the cost of the same. The drilling of the wells in Russia is a very -expensive item, for they cost from anything over £10,000 up to £15,000, -and usually take a couple of years to drill. But when they are down -to the producing strata and commence production, it can be taken for -granted that they will continue, providing ordinary care is taken of -the well itself, for many years to profitably produce. - -The Russian petroleum industry is in the hands of a large number of -operating firms, the majority of which work quite independently of -each other, and these independent firms are responsible for more than -one-half of the total output. The other production of the crude oil, -representing certainly over 40 per cent., is in the hands of combines -representing the large and middle-class firms, prominent among which -we get the firm of Messrs. Nobel Brothers, the “Shell” group, and the -General Russian Corporation. - -The refining of the crude oil is carried out in Baku, the portion of -the town in which this operation takes place being known as Blacktown. -It does not belie its name either. At one time these refineries, or at -least many of them, were erected in the centre of the town of Baku, or -near it, and made it almost uninhabitable by their smoke, smell, and -refuse, the latter flowing into the streets and the harbour. A special -district was therefore selected, to which all had to remove, and it is -this portion of the town which forms “Blacktown” to-day. - -One of the great difficulties of the Russian refining industry in its -commencement was due to the fact that sulphuric acid, so absolute a -necessity in petroleum refining, had to be brought from Europe at great -expense, but in 1883, Messrs. Nobel built a factory for its production -on the spot from Caucasian pyrites, mined in the neighbourhood of -Alexandropol. Other factories for the same purpose and for the -regeneration of the acids have since that time been established. - -As in other great industries, so in regard to the methods by which the -Russian crude oil is transported and to-day handled, great strides -forward have been made since the early days. Then the whole of the -prevailing conditions were primitive: crude oil, for instance, was -carried from the Baku wells to the refineries in skins and barrels -loaded on carts or camels. Messrs. Nobel Brothers were the first to -lay a pipe-line to their factory, but later on pipes were laid between -the refineries and the harbour, these obvious improvements meeting -with fierce resistance on the part of the workpeople. The transport of -the refined products from Baku to the consumers was equally difficult. -There was then no railway from Baku to Tiflis, and the only way to -the Black Sea was thus effectively shut off. On the other hand, the -navigation of the Volga was only possible during six months of the -year, while the monopoly of water transport on the Caspian Sea imposed -high rates on all Baku petroleum products. - -Improvements were again due to the enterprise of Messrs. Nobel -Brothers, who built the first cistern waggons for transporting oil on -the railways, instead of using the old wooden barrels, which were far -from satisfactory. In order, too, to open an outlet on the Black Sea, -the same firm, in 1889, constructed a pipe-line from Mikhailovo to -Kvirili, over the Suram mountains. Now, of course, we have the great -pipe-line running from Baku to Batoum, a distance of nearly 560 miles, -and which is responsible for the transport of the quantities of Russian -oil exported. - -But the Russian petroleum industry has always existed more or less -under a cloud. The old regime of Government did not attempt to foster -and encourage the industry from which it received so much yearly in -royalties, for it must be recollected that the Russian State was the -chief gainer by the exploitation of the Baku oil lands, owing to the -prevalence of the system of royalties. It seemed to be content to -leave the industry to its fate, so long as it received therefrom so -substantial a sum in royalties, etc. Instances are on record where -operating firms pay the Government 40 per cent., or even more, of -their crude oil production as royalties--payment for the privilege of -taking the oil from the ground. Such conditions have been relentlessly -imposed, and it is not surprising to find that, operating under this -burden of expense, numerous firms find it quite out of the question -to earn profits for their shareholders. Several English enterprises -come into this category, but the fault is not of their seeking; it is, -however, to be regretted, for once an equitable system of payments -is arranged, the Russian petroleum industry will expand in a healthy -manner, and become a much greater source of revenue to the State than -it is at present. - -But, apart from the troubles which have to be faced by the Baku oil -producers, and which we may call Governmental, the relation between the -employers and workpeople is far from being friendly. To-day, of course, -it is worse than it was under the old regime of the Tzar, and then it -was bad enough. The oil-field workman in Russia is the incarnation -of all that is unsatisfactory. He works when he thinks he will, he -labours under grievances, many of which are purely imaginary, and then -he ventilates his spite upon his masters. The pages of history tell -of many a conflict between capital and labour in the Baku oil-fields, -with the consequent burning of all that would take fire on the fields, -and the damaging of the producing wells by the workpeople. Instances -are placed on record where, in a single night, dozens of productive -oil-wells, which have taken years to bring into production, have been -irreparably damaged by these oil-field workers. Their life, admitted, -is nothing to write books upon, and their environments are in some -cases of the worst description, rendered no better by the natural -aptitude of the people themselves. But their views upon labour are of -the most Utopian imaginable. During recent years, there has been a sort -of combination between these operatives, whose socialistic tendencies -run high, and less than two years ago they collectively put before the -managers of the oil-fields the conditions under which they would in -future work. There were nearly 100 different claims detailed, and a few -of these are worthy of mention, as showing the appreciation of fairness -which is instilled in the mind of the Russian oil-field worker. In the -first place, a 50 per cent. increase in wages was desired, this to be -retrospective. Holidays had to be paid for by the masters, and when the -worker went on strike he had to receive his full pay from the master -until such strike was settled. Then the workmen had to be represented -on the board of management of the companies, their houses had to be -improved by the masters, free railway and tramway accommodation had to -be provided, etc. Generally, the demands put forward were distinctly -arbitrary, though in many cases very humorous. - -Recent events in the conduct of affairs in Russia do not suggest that -great improvements may be expected in the near future, either in -regard to the attitude of the Government toward the Russian petroleum -industry, or to the attitude of the workers to those responsible -for oil-field operations. Even before the European War, the Russian -petroleum industry was rather on the decline. The only hope that can -be expressed at this juncture is that when Russia possesses a stable -government, and the country enters upon a period of peaceful progress, -the Mining Department will take care that Russia takes its proper -position as one of the most important oil-producing countries in the -world. But before this comes about, there will have to be a complete -revision of the Government’s policy respecting oil royalties. The -destruction, however, wrought in Baku towards the end of 1918 will take -several years to make good. - -[Illustration: ROUMANIA: A FEW OF THE HAND DUG WELLS IN BUSTENARI] - -ROUMANIA.--During comparatively recent time, Roumania has come -prominently forward as one of the large petroleum-producing countries -of the world, and its yearly output of crude oil, according to latest -returns, is about 11,000,000 barrels, or, say, 1,600,000 tons. The -production of petroleum in the country, however, has been proceeding -for centuries, for, in the seventeenth century, the peasants were -in the habit of digging wells by hand and selling the crude oil for -medicinal purposes, the greasing of cart-wheels, as well as for -lighting. There are many places in Roumania which are named from -petroleum, a fact which points to the existence of the industry long -before the present-day methods of extraction were thought of. Several -hundreds of these hand-dug wells still exist round the fringe of the -Transylvanian and Carpathian Alps, and though many of them have now -fallen into decay, there are numerous others from which a payable -quantity of petroleum is extracted by primitive methods. - -The hand-dug wells in Roumania are highly interesting relics of a -period which is now relegated to the past, though so long as the -Roumanian petroleum industry exists, so long will the old hand-dug -wells be associated with it. These wells are about 5 feet in diameter, -and are sunk through alternate layers of clay, schisty clay, sandy -clay, sandstone, and petroliferous sand to the more shallow oil -horizons. They are dug by workmen who descend dressed with the minimum -of clothing, usually saturated with oil, and wearing a tin hat to -protect the head from falling stones, etc. The sides of the wells -are lined with impermeable clay, which is protected by wicker-work. -The man is lowered by a rope, air being supplied to him by means of -bellows. At some places the rotary fan was employed more recently, -but somehow it frequently happened that it was operated in the wrong -direction, and the unfortunate digger was asphyxiated. These old wells -have a depth of about 450 feet, and though their yield of oil is not -considerable, it has for many years been a paying proposition to those -engaged in this primitive method of petroleum production. The excavated -earth, when digging these wells, was brought to the surface in buckets, -lowered and raised by means of either manual labour or horse traction. -When the first oil source was reached and the extraction of the crude -oil commenced, this was accomplished by means of the use of wooden -buckets or leather skins, one being lowered empty while the other was -raised full. By this means it was possible to raise as much as 20 -tons of the oil per day--quite a considerable amount, considering the -primitive means adopted. - -Mechanical developments throughout the Roumanian oil-fields on a -more or less serious scale began about 1898, as the result of the -introduction of foreign capital, and, from that time to the present, -the history of the Roumanian petroleum industry has been one steady -period of continued expansion. Various systems of drilling have been -introduced into the work of developing old fields or opening up new -centres, but in regard to these I shall deal at length in another -chapter. The advent of the rotary method of drilling, however, opened -up a new era for expansion in 1912, and since that time Roumania has -made more marked progress than at any time previously. - -The Roumanian oil-fields, as at present defined, cover a region roughly -20 miles in width, and extend to a length of between 300 and 400 -miles, with, of course, numerous breaks. Of the numerous petroliferous -regions in Roumania, those of Campina-Bustenari, Gura-Ocnitza, Moreni, -and Baicoi-Tzintea among them provide about 95 per cent. of the total -production, and, with the one exception of the Moreni field, all have -been previously exploited by hand-dug wells. - -The prosperity of the Roumanian industry has been directly the result -of the influx of foreign capital, and the majority of the 550,000,000 -francs employed in it, is mostly made up of British, American, and -German capital. The principal English Company in the fields is the -Roumanian Consolidated Oil-fields, Ltd., which concern, with its -capital of one and three-quarter millions sterling, represents an -amalgamation of many small companies. - -Space forbids my referring at length to the momentous happenings in -the Roumanian fields towards the end of 1916, but they will ever -form one of the most interesting--and at the same time the most -tragic--incidents associated with Roumania’s petroleum industry. At -that time, the German armies were pushing their way toward Roumania, -and, in fact, having crossed the border, were marching on for -possession not merely of territorial gains, but in order to secure -themselves of large quantities of petroleum products by capturing the -prolific oil-fields of the country. It was at that critical time that -the British Government sent out its Military Mission, headed by Colonel -(now Sir) John Norton Griffiths, completely to destroy all that was -valuable in connection with the oil-fields, the refineries, and the -installations. One night the Mission arrived at the offices of the -Roumanian Consolidated Oil-fields, Ltd., and made its plan of campaign -clear. There was nothing to be done but to fall in with it, and the -following morning practically everything was destroyed, or rather, a -start was made to destroy it. And the destruction was carried out in a -complete manner, for not only one, but several concerns which had been -steadily built up to perfection as the result of many years of careful -and systematic expansion, were all wiped out, excepting in name. The -oil-wells were plugged beyond all hope of repair, the refineries were -dismantled, machinery broken, pipe-line connections damaged, and both -crude and refined oil stocks burned. It was the most tragic proceeding -ever recorded in oil-field history, but it was necessary, and not -carried out one day too soon, for the incoming armies were dangerously -near. - -[Illustration: BUSTENARI--ROUMANIA’S FAMOUS OIL REGION] - -The Germans lost no time in making good a great deal of the damage to -the fields, and at the time of the armistice it was stated that the -crude oil output of Roumania was up to 80 per cent. of its pre-war -level. - -Now that the various allied interests are again operating in the -Roumanian fields, considerable expansion of the country’s petroleum -industry is being planned, though the pre-war German interests therein -are now taken over by the Allies. - -During the past decade Roumania has necessarily catered for the export -trade, for the volume of crude oil produced has been far beyond its -requirements. The great petroleum storage port of Constantza has been -made the centre for this export business, and the completion of a trunk -pipe-line from the Roumanian refineries to the port was one of the -most recent enterprises undertaken by the Roumanian Government prior -to the war. During the period when Roumania was under German control -its terminal point was so changed that the line ran to a spot which -rendered the transport of petroleum to Germany a matter of ease. Now, -however, Germany’s plans have been frustrated, and Roumania’s great -pipe-line will have its terminal point at Constantza, where all kinds -of petroleum products can be pumped direct to the oil tankers. - -THE DUTCH INDIES.--The growth of the petroleum industry in the Dutch -Indies has been surprisingly rapid, and this growth synchronizes with -the advent of the “Shell” Company into the Far Eastern fields. It is -stated that there are many hundreds of square miles of territory in -the East Indian Islands which can be remuneratively developed; at -the moment, however, though but the fringe of exploitation has been -touched, the production has been amazing. Eighteen years ago, it was -placed at 300,000 tons of crude oil; last year it nearly reached -2,000,000 tons. In Sumatra several companies successfully operated -for many years, but most of them eventually became merged with the -Royal Dutch Company, whose interests now are also those of the -“Shell” Company. As to Borneo, the “Shell” Company commenced active -developments in 1900, or thereabouts, for it had acquired an area of -approximately 460 square miles. The fields rapidly responded to the -drill, and the crude oil production rose by leaps and bounds. The -crude was of a high-grade character, and for a long time it taxed the -energies of those responsible for the good conduct of the concern, -as to exactly what should be done with some of the refined products. -As a matter of fact, some thousands of tons were burned, for at that -time there was little or no demand for motor spirit. I well remember -when the Company’s Chairman--Sir Marcus Samuel--faced the shareholders -in 1900 and explained that if only the Company could realize 6d. per -gallon for its motor spirit, what handsome profits would accrue. But -events have marched quickly since those days. The motor-car has come -to stay, and what seemed a useless product of the Far Eastern oils -in the early days of development, is now one of the chief sources of -revenue. The advent of the heavier motor spirits has also been of great -benefit to the Borneo petroleum industry, for the public has grown -accustomed to recognize that it is not specific gravity which counts in -the quality of motor spirit, but the closeness of the boiling points -of its constituent fractions. To-day, the Far Eastern fields supply -enormous quantities of refined products to the consuming markets of -the Eastern hemisphere, and so long as the supplying centres continue -their present productivity, there need be no talk of approaching -famine, for, if necessary--providing facilities permitted--these -regions could materially increase their present output of petroleum -products. - -[Illustration: OIL PRODUCTION IN THE EARLY DAYS OF THE INDUSTRY IN -BURMAH] - -INDIA also ranks to-day as a very important petroleum producing -region, the fields of Upper Burmah--in which the Burmah Oil Company -operates--being responsible for practically the whole production. In -another part of this little publication, I deal briefly with this -Company’s operations, so, for the moment, it is sufficient to mention -that, though to-day they produce large quantities of petroleum, there -are several new districts which show much promise of new production. -For many years the Upper Burmah fields were exploited by means of very -shallow wells: it was only when the deeper strata were reached that the -potentialities of the region became fully manifest. - -[Illustration: AN OLD JAPANESE WAY OF OPERATING THE WELLS] - -JAPAN, as an oil-producing country, affords food for an interesting -story, for it was here that very early attempts were made to develop -production. Even in the seventh century, the Emperor was presented -with “burning water” with which the Palace was lighted. The crude -oil was collected from pools, or, alternately, wells were dug by -hand, the process of extraction being very picturesque, if very -primitive. To-day, Echigo is the centre of the industry, for which -the introduction of European methods of drilling have worked wonders -in regard to progress. The Celestials consume large quantities of -petroleum, especially for lighting purposes, and in spite of the now -considerable yields from the wells, a gigantic trade is regularly done -in imported oils, especially those of American origin, for which there -is a most up-to-date organization for distribution. The statement that -American petroleum products find their way to every quarter of the -globe is strangely exemplified in Japan (as also in China), where the -ubiquitous tin container for petroleum can be seen in the most isolated -parts. - -[Illustration: THE GALICIAN FIELDS, SHOWING DAMAGE DONE BY THE RUSSIAN -ARMIES WHEN RETREATING IN 1916] - -GALICIA.--Since the commencement of the period when petroleum and -its products assumed a degree of industrial importance, the Galician -oil regions have attracted considerable attention. The area of the -oil-fields extends over a length of 200 miles, and in width varies -from 40 to 60 miles, and though in this territory several fields of -considerable note have for many years been systematically developed, -there is enormous scope for future operations. Its annual output of -crude oil, which nearly reached 1,900,000 tons in 1909, is in itself -suggestive of the extensive manner in which the oil-producing fields -have been developed during late years. The oil-field history of Galicia -is particularly interesting, for the oil seepages round Boryslaw have -been exploited for very many years. Long before the introduction -of the drilling methods of modern times, the shallow oil sources in -the Galician fields were tapped by means of the hand-dug wells, but -it was only when the first drilled well was sunk in 1862 that the -real value of the Galician ozokerite, which abounds in many places -in the oil-fields, was appreciated by the operators. This ozokerite -is one of the most valuable of bitumens, and though found in several -countries, is nowhere met with in such large quantities as in Galicia. -The ozokerite there fills the fissures in the much disturbed _cpaly_, -and evidently originates from a natural process of concentration. The -mines are operated by modern machinery, and the industry in Galicia -has reached a stage of great importance, some thousands of tons of -the mineral being yearly raised. The material is refined, and the -resulting wax serves numerous commercial purposes, the refining taking -place in the Austro-Hungarian refineries. Considerable quantities of -the raw material are exported to Germany and Russia, while the refined -products are well known on the export markets. About seven years ago, -serious water trouble materially reduced the production of the Galician -oil-wells (for when the water courses are not properly shut off, -water may encroach and cause the loss of the producing well), but the -trouble was to some extent surmounted by the taking of greater care in -cementing the wells. The introduction and consequent popularity of the -modern drilling methods which were introduced by Mr. W. H. Margarvey -in 1882 permitted the testing of the deeper horizons of the Galician -fields, and to-day wells are by no means uncommon with depths up to and -sometimes exceeding 4,000 feet. The Boryslaw-Tustanowice district still -continues to be the centre of the crude oil production, but several -new oil areas with great promise have been opened up during the past -six years. Naturally, the European War has retarded development work -considerably, and the Galician fields have on more than one occasion -been the scene of battle. At one time in 1915 they passed over to the -Russians, but when the Russian retreat occurred later from Lemberg, -considerable damage was done to the fields in order to prevent their -being of immediate use to the enemy. The wells were seriously damaged, -and the State refinery at Drohobitz was partially dismantled, while -immense reserves of refined oil stocks were burned. - -The Galician oil industry has for years attracted the attention of -foreign capitalists, for the highly remunerative nature of petroleum -exploitation is generally appreciated. Prior to the European war -German capital was very largely interested in the Galician industry, -and the majority of Allied companies had Germans as their local -representatives, but all this is now changed, and in the future Allied -capital will be considerably increased. The Premier Company is the -largest English concern in the Galician fields. - -GERMANY has made great endeavours in the past to institute a petroleum -industry of its own, but no great success has been recorded, for while -it does possess several oil-producing areas, these are only small -fields, with a very limited yield of heavy petroleums. The wells, -though producing for many years steadily, do not give forth those large -quantities of petroleum so characteristic of the best wells in other -petroleum-producing fields, and flowing wells are indeed very rare. -Germany, therefore, has to look to imported petroleum for its large -demands. - -In a succeeding chapter I refer at length to those oil regions which -come within the limits of a chapter, “Petroleum in the British -Empire”: there is no need at the moment to make reference to them here. - -Space does not permit my even briefly touching upon the many other oil -regions of the world which are now being successfully operated; it is -certain, however, as time goes on that their number will be materially -increased. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -HOW PETROLEUM IS PRODUCED - - -Time was when the engineering aspect of the production of petroleum -was practically non-existent. The ancients, and even those of the last -century, were content to resort to the most primitive means for winning -petroleum from the earth. Shallow wells were sunk or dug by hand, the -eventual securing of the oil being carried out by lowering primitive -receptacles (generally leather bottles) into the hole. It was a period -long before the advent of the Oil Age, and the methods employed were -clearly in keeping with the mode of life of that day. In practically -every oil-producing field of the world--though in this respect the -United States is almost an exception--the history records the fact that -for many years the extraction of oil from the ground was confined to -the use of the primitive methods which held sway in those days--those -associated with the operations of the hand-dug wells. In the Far East, -notably in Japan, we find the first serious attempts to obtain and -utilize petroleum, for as far back as A.D. 615, there were shallow -wells in existence, from which the “burning water,” as it was called, -was collected. In Roumania and Russia, too, the earlier attempts to -create a petroleum industry were confined to these methods. - -It was only when the demand for petroleum became large and consistently -increased with the opening up of new fields, that we find other and -more practical methods were introduced for winning larger quantities -of the oil from the earth. To-day, in every branch of the industry -associated with petroleum--whether it be in producing the crude -oil, in transporting it, or in refining Nature’s product into those -numerous commodities which are part and parcel of everyday life--the -engineering aspect is one of very great importance. In fact, throughout -the petroleum industry, engineering science is the Alpha and Omega. By -its means we are now able to carefully study the nature of the ground -at depths of 6,000 feet, and to extract from the deep lying strata a -wealth of minerals; we are able, too, to transport thousands of tons of -crude oil daily across thousands of miles of continent, while is it not -the direct result of engineering science which allows over 15,000 tons -of petroleum products to be carried across the oceans of the world in -one vessel with the same ease that one would take a rowing boat from -one side of a lake to another? - -Great, however, as have been the degrees of progress recorded in -connection with drilling for petroleum, the old methods, generally -speaking, and which date back to the days of early China, are still -largely copied in all pole and percussion systems of drilling, and -though steam has replaced manual labour (and electricity now bids -fair to replace steam), the operating principles to-day are the same -as then. The only exception, of course, is the advent and growing -popularity of the rotary method of drilling, to which interesting phase -of the subject I will briefly refer later. - -The old Eastern method of drilling has obviously been the forerunner -of the Canadian, standard, and other systems of to-day, the wire rope -replacing the use of poles. In oil-field work, the principal types -of percussion drills used are known (1) as the Pennsylvanian cable, -(2) the Canadian pole, and (3) the Russian free-fall system, and -though from time to time many attempts have been made to introduce -modifications of these, the vast majority have been unsuccessful in -their operation. - -The Pennsylvanian cable system was used for drilling the earliest -oil-wells in the United States, and doubtless took its name from the -fact that it was so largely used in that oil region. As may also be -gathered from the name, the principal feature in this system is the -cable by which the tools are suspended and connected to the walking -beam. There is no doubt that this system of drilling, which has been so -universally used in the oil-fields, gives most satisfactory results. -When first introduced in Pennsylvania, the cable system of drilling -was particularly simple, and did remarkably good work, for the reason -that the strata usually encountered was of such a nature that it did -not cave, and, as a result, the well-pipe was only lowered when the -full depth of that string had been drilled. The drilling bits were -seldom more than 4 inches thick. In order to give a rotary motion to -the bit, the continuous twisting of the cable to and fro was necessary; -but when in other fields, where deeper strata had to be explored, the -cable system was introduced, the semi-sandy nature of the strata called -for wells of larger diameter with correspondingly larger drilling -bits. As a consequence of the additional weight of the drilling bit, -it was found that the swing of the tools was sufficient to give them a -rotating movement for the drilling of a circular hole. In regions where -caving-in of the walls of the wells was liable to occur, the string of -pipe had to closely follow the tools, which, with the old Pennsylvanian -type of rig, meant frequent winding of the cable from the bull wheel, -so as to allow of the well pipes being handled. - -In order to prevent the waste of time which these operations -occasioned, the calf wheel was added, by means of which the pipe could -be lowered into the hole without the removal of the drilling cable. -This cable almost invariably was of the Manila character, and in many -instances this rope is retained to-day, though wire ropes have been -introduced frequently. - -The Canadian pole system, which is largely in use in oil-field -operations, is, like the first-mentioned method of drilling, of the -percussion type, the chief essential difference being that, instead of -a cable connecting the tools to the surface, poles are used. In former -times, these poles were of ash-wood, but with the extended use of the -system, iron rods took their place. The introduction of these iron rods -was a distinct advantage, for they could be welded to whatever lengths -are required, whereas the wooden poles, which were seldom more than -20 feet long, had to be spliced for practical work. The rig used with -the Canadian system is not so powerful as that for the Pennsylvanian -method, but the one great advantage of the Canadian system is that, -for the drilling of shallow oil-wells, it could be operated by men of -less experience. The success which has attended the operation of the -pole system lies in the fact that although drilling by its means is -very slow--for seldom is 250 feet per month exceeded--it is one of the -best methods of drilling through complicated strata, and, in the hands -of conscientious men, does highly satisfactory work. It might be of -interest to very briefly refer to the operations of the system when -a well is being drilled. The rig (that is, the superstructure above -ground) is quite a simple framing, 70 or more feet high, with a base -of about 20 feet. The power is usually derived from a steam engine, -with the usual means for operating the gear from the derrick; fuel -found locally, natural gas, or other form of heating agent used. One -shaft and two spools running in bearings transmit the various motions -desired, the drive being taken up by a pulley attached to the main -shaft. On this shaft are keyed two band pulleys, which communicate by -belting with two spools running immediately overhead in the upper part -of the framework. Fastened to one extremity of the main shaft is a -disc crank, which, through the medium of a connecting rod, transmits -an oscillating movement to an overhead pivoted walking beam. In all -systems of percussion drilling, the drilling bit is raised and then -dropped a distance of several feet, the result being that the strata to -be drilled are steadily pounded away. As the ground is pulverized by -the percussion tools, the debris has to be cleared away so as to enable -the drill to fall freely and to deliver clean blows to the unbroken -strata, and this work is performed by appliances known as bailers and -sand pumps. There is no need for me to go into the numerous technical -details regarding this or any other system of drilling, for my only -desire is to give a general impression as to the usual methods adopted -for the winning of petroleum. - -I will therefore pass on to deal briefly with the Russian free-fall -system so much in vogue in the Russian fields. Incidentally, I may -here say that when drilling for oil in Russia, one has to recollect -several features which are not common to the development of other -oil-fields. Bearing in mind the great depth to which wells have to be -sunk to reach the prolific oil horizons in the majority of the fields -in Russia, which necessitates starting the well with a very large -diameter--frequently 30 inches--it will be easily appreciated that the -loss of a hole in the course of drilling is a very expensive affair. -The Russian free-fall system of boring necessitates patient and hard -manual labour. It is, as its name implies, of the percussion type, and -is, in fact, a modified pole-tool system which well suits the local -conditions. The clumsy drilling tools have a practically free drop, -being picked up when the walking beam is at its lowest point, and -released at the top of the stroke. When released, the tools naturally -force their way downwards in the strata, and are released only with -difficulty, although in a measure this difficulty is minimized on -account of the fact that the under-reaming (slightly enlarging the -diameter of the hole) is done simultaneously with the drilling. - -After a Russian well has been started by means of a slip-hook -suspended from a haulage rope, and a depth of some 30 feet obtained, -the free-fall is added to the string of tools. This free-fall is -composed of two separate parts--the rod and the body--and these are -held together by means of a wedge working in vertical slots cut in the -sides of the body. In operating the free-fall, the handles, fixed to -the temper screw, are held by the driller. On the downward stroke these -are pushed forward from right to left, but as soon as the downward -stroke is completed, they are quickly pulled backwards. The steel -wedge enters the recess and the tools are carried to the top of the -stroke, where, by a quick forward jerk, the wedge is thrown clear of -the recess, and the tools drop freely, the momentum of the string of -tools driving the drilling bit deeper into the hole. After several feet -of the hole are drilled, the tools have to be withdrawn in order to -allow the pulverized mass of debris to be cleared away, while, owing to -the caving nature of the strata, it is necessary to case the well as -drilling proceeds. - -As I have said, the system is very cumbersome, but, in the hands of -experienced men, it does its work well, if but slowly. There are many -cases on record where, when the well has assumed a considerable depth, -it has been completely spoiled by the carelessness of the operators, -but, more often than not, this has been deliberate, for the Caucasian -oil-field worker has many grievances, admittedly more or less imaginary. - -[Illustration: ILLUSTRATION OF THE “OILWELL” HEAVY ROTARY OUTFIT, -SHOWING RING AND WEDGE (ON LEFT-HAND SIDE OF FOREGROUND) TO GRIP THE -CASING] - -During recent years, the rotary method of drilling has been -successfully adopted, and it is in regard to this revolutionary method -of speedy drilling that I will now touch upon. The rotary method of -drilling made its début in Texas some fourteen years ago, and since -then it is not any exaggeration to say that nearly 20,000 wells for oil -have been drilled with the system, which has found popularity in all -the oil-fields of the world. Its main operation is simplicity itself: a -rigid stem of heavy pipe rotates a fish-tail drilling bit at the bottom -of the hole, cutting and stirring up the formation to be drilled. It -cuts its way through the underground formations, much in the same way -as a screw when rotated forces its way through wood. It is the essence -of speed in drilling, for, unlike the necessary principles to be -adopted in the percussion methods of drilling, the rotary drill does -not have to be lifted from the hole for the purposes of clearing. The -pulverized strata are continuously washed from the hole by a stream of -water reaching the bottom of the drill. Very frequently, a pressure-fed -mud is used, and this serves a double purpose, for in its return to -the surface it tends to plaster the walls of the well. The mud emerges -in streams of high velocity from the two apertures in the drilling bit -(for in its downward course it is carried through the drilling pipe or -stem), but naturally loses this velocity considerably in its return to -the surface. It is, however, very easy to detect the kind of stratum -being drilled through from the returned cuttings, these reaching the -surface but a few minutes after the drilling bit has entered the -formation. - -From time to time various grievances have been ventilated against this -improved system of boring for petroleum, but to-day its adoption is -world-wide, and by its use wells which, with the old-fashioned method -of drilling would take many months if not two or three years, are now -got down to the producing horizons in but a few weeks. It is, in fact, -solely due to the ever-increasing use of the rotary drill that the -universally increased demands for petroleum products have been met by -an ever-increasing production of the crude oil. - -Leaving the question of drilling methods, I cannot fail to mention -the interesting fact that in oil-field operations progress is now -being recorded in another direction, and that is by the increasing -utilization of electrical power in the place of steam. At the time -of writing, it is safe to say that fully 60 per cent. of the power -requirements on the oil-fields is provided for by steam plants, -with their attendant waste. Oil and gas engines, with their greater -efficiency, may claim to be operated to an extent of 35 per cent., -while not more than 5 per cent. of the requirements are satisfied -by the use of electric motors. There is no doubt that prejudice has -had a deal to do with the very minimized use of electrical power on -the oil-fields in the past, but this is being gradually swept aside, -and, in the next few years, I have no doubt that both electrical -manufacturers and the petroleum industry generally will materially -benefit from the use of this cheap and very economical form of power. -In the past, many disastrous oil-field conflagrations have been due -solely to the use of open-fired engines in close proximity to the -wells, but with the use of electrical energy this fire danger will be -rapidly removed. - -Before closing this chapter, I would say a word or two with respect to -the bringing into the producing stage of the oil-wells when once they -have been drilled. In the early history of oil-held developments, -it was not infrequent to find the crude oil ejected from the well -by natural pressure, but to-day it is the exception to find those -oil-fountains which have made the early history of the Russian -oil-fields so famous. In many of the fields, explosives are used to -promote the flow of oil, and when the well “comes in” to production, -the ordinary methods of bailing or pumping are resorted to. Compressed -air is also used for bringing about and sustaining production. The -quantity of air and the periods of admission naturally vary with -the diameters of the wells, the amount of gas present, the level of -the liquid, etc., which latter also determines the pressure of air -necessary. - -The natural exhaustion of oil-wells can obviously have no remedy, but -areas conveying that impression can often be revived by methods, the -study of which is being carefully continued. As I write, I find that -the officials of the United States Bureau of Mines, who have been -studying this question of exhaustion, have arrived at the conclusion -that from 20 to as much as 90 per cent. of the crude oil remains in -the strata tapped by the well, even when it is abandoned as no longer -capable of profitable production. This conclusion opens up what may -prove some day to be a most interesting chapter in oil-field history. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM - - -Inasmuch as the aim of this little volume is to interest other than -those who are directly associated with the petroleum industry, I shall -endeavour in this chapter to refer to the refining of petroleum in a -manner which shall be readily understood by the reader, and shall, -wherever possible, refrain from entering into those highly technical -matters which do not lend themselves to popular expression. - -The refining of crude oil as it is produced from the earth, consists in -the classification of its various hydrocarbons by means of fractional -distillation, into the various products which so largely enter into our -commercial and domestic life of to-day. The refined products, in the -order in which they are received by distillation, are: motor spirit, -illuminating oils, solar oils, lubricating oils, fuel oils, residuum, -etc.--the first mentioned being the lightest and the last the heaviest -in specific gravity. - -Almost simultaneously with the discovery of petroleum, there sprung up -the first attempts to refine Nature’s product, and though these early -experiments were of a most primitive character, they doubtless served -their purpose admirably. In this respect, probably the most primitive -oil refinery in the world was built near the Tigris, in Mesopotamia. - -Crude petroleum varies in its character, for while certain crudes -are pale in colour and almost transparent, others are almost black -and viscid. Some, indeed, would appear to have undergone a course of -refining by Nature itself, for in some fields the crude oil will -freely burn in lamps without any refining treatment: in the vast -majority of cases, however, the crude oil, as withdrawn from the -producing wells, represents a liquid somewhat like molten tar. - -The chemical composition of petroleum consists essentially of carbon -and hydrogen, together with oxygen and varying amounts of nitrogen -and sulphur. The crude from Pennsylvania--and this is the finest -crude in the United States--consists chiefly of a large number of -hydrocarbons of the paraffin series, whilst in the Russian petroleums, -the predominant constituents are naphthenes or polymethylenes. Then -the crude petroleum of the Dutch Indies and Burmah is of a different -character from that found elsewhere, for in it aromatic hydrocarbons -are largely present. The various series of hydrocarbons found in -crude oils--the paraffins and naphthenes--readily lend themselves to -conversion into other compounds of carbon and hydrogen by dissociation, -and this conversion produces compounds of higher volatility, such as -motor spirits, etc. When the compounds of hydrogen and carbon are -submitted to distillation, certain chemical changes occur, as the -result of which other series of hydrocarbons are formed, and, though it -is not my intention here to dive into this comparatively new realm of -chemical investigation, it is interesting to mention that, by carrying -the treatment of the compounds still further, it is possible to obtain -aromatic hydrocarbons, including trinitrotoluene (generally known as -the explosive T.N.T.), in addition to various dye products. - -In the earlier methods of refining, the stills usually consisted of -a vertical cylinder in which the charge of crude oil was distilled -almost to dryness, but this method was completely revolutionized many -years ago, especially in the United States, by the introduction and -immediate success of a principle known as the “cracking” process, and -by the separation of the distillation into two portions, one for the -removal of the more volatile constituents in the crude oil (such as -motor spirit) and the other for the treatment of the heavier products. - - - CRUDE OIL - - FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION - | - +--------------------+-----------------+--------------------+----+------------------+ - | | | | | - Crude Naphtha Heavy Crude Natural +-------------+ Cylinder Stock - | Naphtha Lamp Oil | Lubricating | | - Steam Distillation | | | Distillate | | - | Steam Distillation Distillate +-------------+ | - +-------+-----+ | Acid | Clay - | | | +-----+---+ Treatment Cold Pressing Percolation - Gasoline | Bottoms | | | | | - | | Bottoms +------+---+ +----+------+ | - +------------+ | | | | | | - | Naphtha | +------------+ Sludge | Slack Wax +-------------+ | - | Distillate | | Naphtha | | | | Pressed | | - +------------+ | Distillate | +---------+ Sweating | Lub’g Dist. | | - | +------------+ | W W Oil | Process +-------------+ | - Acid Treatment +---------+ | | | - | +-----+----+ | +-------+---+ - +------+---------+ | | | | | - | | | Foots | Asphalt | - Sludge Deodorized | Oil | +----------+ - Naphtha | | | Cylinder | - +--------------+ | | Oil | - | Crude | | +----------+ - | Paraffin Wax | Fractional - +--------------+ Distillation - | | - Clay +----+--------+ - Percolation | | - | +------------+ +-----------+ - +--------------+ | Gas & Fuel | | Neutral | - | | | Oil Stock | | Oil Stock | - | Asphalt +------------+ +-----------+ - +--------------+ | - | Paraffin Wax | Clay - +--------------+ Percolation - | - +----------+---+ - | | - Asphalt | - +-------------+ - | Neutral Oil | - +-------------+ - - -DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM BY FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION - -I will first deal with the method of refining known as the “straight” -process, or the process which does not involve “cracking.” At one time, -the refiner had to consider the saleability of his refined products -before he commenced to refine them, but to-day, with the perfect system -which prevails for the handling of huge quantities of refined products, -and the transporting of them to the most distant markets, the one -desire of the refiner is, naturally, to secure from his treatment of -the crude oil, as many refined products as possible, always keeping an -eye on the production of the largest quantities of the higher priced -products than upon those which are of low value. - -The process of refining to be applied to any particular oil naturally -depends upon its composition as shown by analysis. It may be that the -crude oil to be treated, apart from containing a small percentage of -distillates with a low boiling point (motor spirit), is principally -made up of residues of little value except as fuel, or, on the other -hand, it may be that the crude oil is of high quality and contains all -possible products. In the former case, the process of distillation is -brief, and the plant inexpensive, as compared with the lengthy process -of full refining necessitated in the latter case. - -The refining operations consist of three distinct branches: (1) the -distillation, (2) the extracting of paraffin and refining, and (3) -the chemical treatment. When only a small percentage of the low -boiling fractions has to be removed from the crude oil, the process -is known as “topping,” and a convenient form of apparatus for the -purpose is the tower still. This consists of a vertical cylinder -fitted with perforated plates resting at intervals on pipes through -which superheated steam travels. The pipes serve the double purpose -of conveying the steam to its inlet and of heating the oil to be -distilled. The steam, on entering the cylinder, ascends, meeting the -crude oil, as it descends from plate to plate in a regulated stream, -and carrying with it to the outlet the light fractions which the -operation is intended to remove. - - - CRUDE OIL - - CRACKING DISTILLATION - | - +-----------------------+----------------+---------------+---------+----------------------------------------------+ - | | | | | - Crude Naphtha +---------+ Natural Cracked Distillate Tar - | | Crude | Lamp Oil | | - Steam Distillation | Heavy | Distillate Steam Distillation Mild Cracking - | | Naphtha | | | Distillation - +------------+-----------+ +----+----+ Acid Treatment +---------+---------+ | - | | | | | | | +----------+----+----+-----------+ - Gasoline | Bottoms | +---------+ +---------+ +------------+ | | | | - +------------+ | | | | Crude | | Test | +------------+ | +----------+ Coke - | Naphtha | Steam Sludge Lamp | Naphtha | | Cracked | | Cracked | | | Wax | - | Distillate | Distillation | Oil +---------+ | Distillate | | Distillate | | | Tailings | - +------------+ | | | +------------+ +------------+ | +----------+ - | +-----+-----+ | Acid | | - Acid Treatment | | | Treatment Acid +----------------------+ - | +------------+ Bottoms | | Treatment | Paraffin Distillate | - +----------+---+ | Naphtha | | +-------+--+ | +----------------------+ - | | | Distillate | | | | +------+-----+ | - Sludge | +------------+ | Sludge | | | Cold Pressing - +------------+ Separated +----------+ Sludge | | - | Deodorized | by boiling | Gasoline | +------------+ +-------+----------+ - | Naphtha | with water | Stock | | Treated | | | - +------------+ | +----------+ | Test | Slack Pressed Paraffin - +-----------+ | | Distillate | Wax Distillate - | | Steam +------------+ | | - +-----------+ Acid Distillation | Sweating Fractional - | Weak | Oil | Fractional Process Distillation - | Sulphuric | | +-----+---+ Distillation | | - | Acid | | | | | | +-------+-------+ - +-----------+ | Gasoline Bottoms +---------------+ | | | - Fractional | | | +------------+ +-----------+ - Distillation +------------+ +----------+ | | Gas & Fuel | | Paraffin | - | | Standard | | Gas and | | | Oil Stock | | Oil Stock | - +----------+ | White | | Fuel Oil | | +------------+ +-----------+ - | | | Distillate | | Stock | | | - Acid Oil Asphalt +------------+ +----------+ +--------+ | - Distillate | | | | - Acid Treatment | Foots Acid - | | Oil Treatment - +-------------------+ | | - | | +----------+ +-----+-----+ - +--------------------+ Sludge | Crude | | | - | Standard White Oil | | Paraffin | +----------+ Sludge - +--------------------+ | Wax | | Paraffin | - +----------+ | Oil | - | +----------+ - Clay Percolation - | - +------+----+ - | | - Asphalt +--------------+ - | Paraffin Wax | - +--------------+ - -DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM OBTAINED BY THE “CRACKING” -PROCESS - -A few years ago, a Californian chemist invented an improvement of the -principles of maximum heating and evaporating surfaces. His name was -Trumble, and the process is known as the Trumble process. The crude -oil is heated to the desired temperature in pipes or retorts set in a -primary furnace, the hot gases of combustion from which are utilized to -heat the distillation chamber proper. Entering the vertical cylinder at -the top, the oil is spread over and through perforated plates falling -on a cone-shaped plate to divert the continuous stream of oil to the -sides of the still, down which it flows in a thin film. Other conical -plates, arranged at intervals underneath, maintain the flow in the -desired channel until it reaches the outlet at the bottom. When 60 or -70 per cent. (comprising the motor spirit series, the kerosenes, and -perhaps the intermediate fractions) are to be removed, it is common -practice to distil the crude oil in a series of stills, cylindrical in -shape, connected continuously. The best-known system is that patented -35 years ago by Mr. Henderson, of the Broxburn Oil Company, Ltd., for -the distillation of shale oil, and since adopted by many refiners of -petroleum. In this system, the crude oil flows from a charging tank by -gravity through a pre-heater, heated by the passage, from the second or -other still, of distillates of suitable temperature, and thence into -the first still. Here it is raised to distillation temperature, and the -specific gravity of the distillate therefrom fixed. The feed of the -crude oil is constant, the residue formed in the still passing through -a connection at the bottom into the second still in the series, at the -top, and led from back to front so that the inlet and outlet shall be -as far apart as possible. It is here raised to a higher temperature, -yielding a distillate of higher specific gravity, the residue passing -on to the next still, and so on through the series of stills until it -reaches the point where all the motor spirit (or benzine, as it is -called), kerosene, and the intermediate distillates are removed. - -The distillates obtained from the refining of the crude are usually -purified by treatment successively with sulphuric acid and solution of -caustic soda, this process of chemical treatment being necessary before -the products are fit for the market. - -The “cracking” process of distillation briefly consists in distilling -the oils at a temperature higher than the normal boiling points of -the constituents it is desired to decompose, and, in practice, the -result is that the heavier oils are turned into lighter hydrocarbons -of lower boiling points: thus the yield of the more valuable of the -refined products is materially increased. The “cracking” process, -which very largely obtains to-day, was quite accidentally discovered -by a small refiner in America many years ago. The man in charge of the -still left it with the intention of returning very shortly. He was, -however, absent for several hours, and to his dismay found that; as the -result of his neglect in attending to the still, a very light coloured -distillate of much lower density than that which it was usual to -obtain, was issuing from the condenser. - -Upon investigation, it was found that a portion of the distillate -had condensed upon the upper part of the still, which was cooler, -and had dropped back into the still, where the temperature was -sufficient to produce products of a lower boiling point--certainly -a distinct improvement. As may be imagined, this “cracking” process -does not commence until the lighter products of distillation have been -removed, and is now so popular because by its use a greater yield can -be obtained of those more valuable products for which there is an -ever-increasing demand. - -It is unnecessary here to enter into those various improvements which -have been introduced from time to time, all of which have as their -aim the production of larger quantities of refined oils, and it would -likewise be invidious to enumerate even the more popular scientists to -whose energies much of the resulting progress has been due, for the -simple reason that it has ever been the aim of the petroleum chemist to -turn his abilities in the direction indicated. - -As may be imagined, the industry of petroleum refining has had to adapt -itself to the altered conditions of to-day. For instance, prior to the -advent of the internal combustion engine, which now is responsible -for such a wide application of motor spirit, the demand for this, -the lightest product of petroleum distillation, was non-existent. -Consequently, when such spirit was produced, there was no market for -it, and its production represented sheer loss to the refiners. Both -in the Far East and in Russia, we have examples of the enormous loss -which accrued to the refiners by reason of there being no market -for this highly inflammable product. In the Far Eastern fields, in -particular, this loss was very heavy, for in the earlier days of its -operations, the “Shell” Company had to remove thousands of tons of -this now valuable motor spirit from its refineries and burn it in the -open fields. The successful introduction of the internal combustion -engine, however, completely changed the aspect of petroleum refining, -and the desire became general, not to see how little motor spirit could -be produced, but to perfect methods by which the yield of the benzene -series of hydrocarbons should be as large as possible. Even to-day -progress is still being recorded in this direction, and each American -refiner is vying with his neighbour as to how far that output of -gasoline, as it is there called, can be increased. - -Many and varied are the means which have been resorted to for this -purpose, but most of them have reference to improvements in the -processes for refining the crude oil. One, however, is worthy of being -mentioned in this little treatise, inasmuch as it deals with quite -another aspect of the problem of increased motor spirit supply. - -As I have mentioned in another chapter, enormous quantities of natural -gas exude from the oil-wells, and this in the past has been for the -most part allowed to go to waste in the air, causing an ever-present -danger to oil-field operations on account of its liability to ignite. -Being heavier than the air itself, for it is impregnated with oil -gases, it remains for long periods in the lower air strata, and, -consequently, not infrequently, has been the direct cause of great -oil-field fires. This gas--casing-head gas, as it is termed--comes from -the oil-wells between the casing and the tubing, and, in the case of -numerous wells, the flow is remarkable, some wells giving forth 300,000 -cubic feet of gas every 24 hours, and the only useful purpose that this -vapour has served until recent years has been to light several towns -situated comparatively near to the oil-producing fields. The great -volume of the gas, however, has been allowed to go to waste. - -But experiments have proved that the gas is capable of condensation -into motor spirit, and the general yield of such spirit may be taken -as fully 2 gallons per 1,000 cubic feet of natural gas treated. What -wonderful possibilities lie in the direction of the conversion of this -vapour into motor spirit! The oil-producers in the United States have -not been slow to appreciate this, and to-day there are hundreds of -plants in the United States which have been erected solely to condense -these oil-well gas vapours. Some of these plants are dealing with as -much as 3,000,000 cubic feet of gas a day. The most recent official -returns available from the United States show that the production of -gasoline (motor spirit) from this process of oil gas condensation is, -approximately, 150,000,000 gallons per annum, and even this substantial -figure is being steadily increased. - -There is also another phase of the oil-refining industry which, during -recent years, has materially altered. I refer to the production of -solar oil during distillation. It is an apt saying that we can scarcely -look to any section of our commercial or domestic life without being -confronted with the fact that oil products play some part therein: -there are few, however, who, without reflection, would agree that when -they light their gas they are dependent upon petroleum for much of the -light the gas gives. It is, nevertheless, a fact, as I will proceed to -show. - -Many years ago, the oil refiners in Baku were confronted with a -problem which appeared for some time to be insurmountable. After the -distillation of their kerosene, or illuminating oil, and before they -could commence to take off the lubricating oil fractions, there was an -intermediary product which, while being of no use for lamp oil, did not -possess the necessary constituents of viscosity to make it acceptable -as a lubricant. It was a fairly decent volume of something for which -there was no market at the time. - -Experiments were made, and with these the name of Dr. Paul Dvorkovitz -will ever be associated, and it was found that by the passage of a -current of gas over the surface of this intermediate product, the gas -caught up as it were a richness which materially increased the lighting -power of the gas. To cut a long, but highly interesting, story short, -this solar or gas oil was subsequently introduced by Dr. Dvorkovitz to -England for gas enrichment purposes, and the extent of its employment -to-day may be judged from the fact that the United Kingdom regularly -imports between 60,000,000 and 70,000,000 gallons per annum for the -enrichment of the coal gas which finds useful employment in practically -every home throughout the land. As is known, the gas companies have to -produce gas of a certain lighting quality, and it is in the upholding -of the lighting strength of the gas that solar oil to-day plays so -important a part. At first, the oil came almost exclusively from -Russia, but now the competition from the United States has secured -for our American friends the vast bulk of the trade, which, as I have -shown, has reached enormous proportions. - -Solar oil is also largely utilized for the production of refined -perfumery oils, which are quite colourless and inodorous, while the -finest quality is used in pharmacy and known as _paraffinum liquidum_, -and is in much demand, but in this connection it is the Russian -petroleums that have gained distinction. It was held for many years -that such tasteless and colourless oils could not be produced from the -United States petroleums, but from the commencement of the European -War, and the consequent closure of Russia’s export port, whereby all -overseas trade in Russian petroleums was held up, much progress was -made in the manufacture of tasteless medicinal petroleums in the United -States, such articles having now become popular throughout the world. - -One of the most important discoveries made during recent years has -been the finding of large quantities of toluol in petroleum. This -article is necessary for the manufacture of high explosives. In Borneo -heavy petroleum, toluol exists to a very large extent, and it was its -discovery and consequent use by the allies--thanks to the offer made -to the Governments by Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart.--that almost unlimited -quantities of high explosives were manufactured. - -Vaseline is another useful commodity which is derived from the refining -of crude petroleum, and this article is turned out of the American -refineries as well as those of Russia and Galicia, in large quantities, -but, beyond mentioning this fact, no useful purpose would here be -served by relating the various processes employed. - -With reference to the methods generally adopted in the refining of the -products from the distillation of the Scottish oil shales, these are -briefly dealt with in the chapter devoted to the Scottish oil industry. - -It is safe to say that the past two or three decades have witnessed -marked progress in perfecting the methods by which crude petroleums are -refined into the innumerable common commodities of commerce, and it -is doubtful whether in any branch of chemical research there has been -such concerted energy shown as in regard to the refining of mineral -oils. Signs, however, are not wanting to show that the zenith of this -progress has by no means been reached. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -TRANSPORT BY LAND AND SEA - - -The remarkably perfect methods by which petroleum and its products -are transported by land and sea before they reach the consumer may -not at first sight appear to be anything but commonplace, but a -moment’s reflection will be sufficient to suggest that a vast and -complete organization must be required in order that petroleum may be -brought from practically the ends of the earth to the consumer in the -most remote village in the British Isles. But it is the demands of -necessity that have been responsible for the building up of this vast -organization of transportation which represents, in the United States -alone, the investment of many millions of pounds sterling. - -Taking first the methods of oil transportation by land, in no other -oil-producing country do we find such an elaborate system for dealing -with enormous quantities of petroleum as in America, for it is safe to -say that at least 500,000 barrels of crude oil have to be dealt with -daily at the present time. - -Going back to the time when petroleum first became a commercial -commodity--when the first wells in Oil Creek commenced to open up -a period of new prosperity for the United States--these wells were -situated so close to the water that their product could easily be -loaded into canoes and barges, and floated down the Alleghany river. In -the dry season, the flow was insufficient to float the craft, and then -some hundreds of the boats, carrying each from 50 to 1,000 barrels, -would be assembled in a mill-pond near the wells, and the water -impounded while the loading was in progress. Then the gates would be -opened, and the fleet, carried on the flood of rushing water, would -be hurried down the river in charge of pilots. The fleet of creek and -river boats engaged in this novel work at one time numbered 2,000. - -But, as the production of oil increased, and new districts were -successfully tapped, it became obvious that some different method of -handling the crude oil would have to be adopted. The inland wells -could not get rid of their production, and it is not surprising to -find that at one time--about 1862--crude oil prices at the well fell -to 10 cents per barrel. A system of horse haulage was initiated, and -in time thousands of animals were required to haul the oil from the -inland wells to shipping points. The waggon train of the oil country -in the pre-pipe-line days at its maximum consisted of 6,000 two-horse -teams and waggons, and a traveller in the oil region in those early -sixties could not lose sight of an endless train of waggons each laden -with from five to seven barrels. The roads were almost bottomless, and -the teamsters tore down fences and drove where they liked. These men, -always of the roving, picturesque type, would earn anything from 10 to -25 dollars per day, spending the most part in revelry on the Saturday -night. - -It was at this time that a Bill was introduced into the States -legislature authorizing the construction of a pipe-line from Oil -Creek to a spot known as Kittanning, but the opposition of 4,000 -teamsters defeated the Bill and the first effort to organize an oil -pipe-line company. The modest beginning of the present-day system of -oil transportation on land by pipe-line was due to the enterprise of -a Jerseyman named Hutchings, who laid a 2-inch pipe from some wells -to the Humbolt refinery. The teamsters, foreseeing the possibilities -of this innovation, proceeded to tear up the line, and warned the -oil-producers not to adopt these new methods of oil transportation. - -But Hutchings was undismayed, for he laid a second line, this being -composed of cast-iron joints caulked with lead. Although this -was impracticable, the teamsters again wrought vengeance on the -proposition, and completely destroyed it. Hutchings still persisted in -his efforts, but died--disappointed and penniless--a genius living a -little before his time. - -[Illustration: A PRIMITIVE METHOD OF TRANSPORTING OIL] - -At the end of 1865, a Henry Harley commenced the laying of a pipe-line -to the terminus of the Oil Creek railroad, but teamsters cut the pipes, -burned the collecting tanks, and retarded the work in every possible -way. Armed guards eventually came on the scene, the mob was quelled and -dispersed, and the line completed. It was of 2-inch diameter, and laid -to handle 800 barrels of oil daily: this was the first successful and -profitable pipe-line on record for the handling of oil. - -From this time, the number of pipe-lines have multiplied, until to-day -there are thousands of them scattered throughout every oil-producing -field of America. The first long main transportation line for oil -was laid in 1880 from Butler County to Cleveland, a distance of over -100 miles, and immediately after its completion, trunk lines were -commenced from the Bradford oil region to the Atlantic seaboard. The -popularity of this new method of oil transportation may be judged from -the fact that within three years from the completion of these first -propositions, the National Transit Company possessed over 3,000 miles -of oil pipe-lines, and had iron tank storage for 35,000,000 barrels of -crude oil. - -Then a few master minds came to the front, and loyally supported by -Mr. John D. Rockefeller, of Standard Oil fame, they undertook the -herculean task of practically girdling the States with a system of oil -pipe-lines that has no parallel anywhere. They eliminated the jaded -horses, oil-boats, wooden tankage, and slow freights, tedious methods, -and questionable practices of handling petroleum, and substituted -therefor the stem pump, the iron conduit, the steel tank storage, and -systematic and businesslike methods which soon commanded the confidence -and respect of all oil-producers. They extended their pipe-lines to -practically every producing well and established a transportation -system which serves the industry to-day as no other on earth is -served. The advantages of the modern pipe-line to the oil-producer are -obvious. A pipe-line connection to a producer’s tank ensures prompt -service and a cash market for his product at all times. The small line -connected with his tank conveys the crude oil therefrom, either by -gravity or by means of a pump, into a receiving tank of the gathering -or field lines of the pipe-line system, from which it is pumped into -the main trunk pipe-lines to the refineries. - -[Illustration: OIL PIPE-LINE CONNECTIONS IN THE AMERICAN FIELDS] - -The system by which the producer can have payment for his oil at -any time, for he is credited with its value when it once enters the -pipe-line, is the perfection of simplicity, accuracy, and efficiency. -The pipe-line of which the gathering or field lines are composed varies -in diameter from 2 to 8 inches, the joints of which are screw threaded. -The main trunk lines are from 6 to 10 inches in diameter, and pumping -stations, supplied with powerful plant driven by steam or internal -combustion engines of the Diesel type, are located at suitable points -of the line. According to the nature of the crude oils to be passed -through the pipe-line must the erection of pumping houses be governed: -for instance, in handling the heavy Californian or Mexican crudes, the -pumping stations have to be much nearer each other than when a lighter -crude oil is transported. Some of the heavier oils have, in fact, to be -heated before they enter the pipes at all. - -As already mentioned, the total oil transported to-day by the American -pipe-line system exceeds half a million barrels daily. The lines -themselves--all laid, of course, below ground--are so unobtrusive and -do their work so quietly and unseen, that they attract no attention, -and yet they are vastly important to not only the business of the -States, but to those myriads of consumers abroad. - -It is, in fact, impossible to over-estimate the importance of this -up-to-date system of oil transportation in the United States as it -exists to-day. To show the impossibility of conducting the present-day -American petroleum industry without the use of pipe-lines, let me give -a few facts. The large oil-tank cars, which are not unusual sights on -our railways, hold, at the maximum, about 25 tons of oil. Excluding -California altogether from these illustrations, the half-a-million -barrels of oil which are transported daily in the States by pipe-lines -would fill over 2,500 tank cars. Taking 25 cars to make up a freight -train, it would require fully 100 trains daily to transport the oil -that now goes by pipe-line, and inasmuch as it is estimated that the -oil on the average is transported overland (or, rather, under-land) -1,000 miles, it would require, approximately, 200,000 railroad tank -cars to do the daily work in connection with the transport of oil in -the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, for the average movement -of tank cars is 30 miles daily, and all empty cars must be returned. -No less than 8,000 railroad engines would be required to do this work, -which, on the face of it, is a railway impossibility. - -I am afraid I have devoted more space to the question of pipe-line -transport in the States than the confines of this little work warrants, -but the subject is one of great interest to all who would know the -magnitude of the organization which is comprised in the limits of the -petroleum industry. - -The United States, however, is but one of the large oil-producing -countries where the pipe-line system for the land transport of oil has -become the backbone of transport. In Russia, for instance, the fields -of production are situated hundreds of miles from the exporting ports, -and, following upon the principles which obtain in the United States, -the pipe-line system had, perforce, to be adopted. In this respect, -however, Russia has still a great deal to learn from our Western -friends, and the conservative policy which permeated the Russian Empire -as a whole has precluded the making of much headway. - -The Russian oil-fields--those of Baku and Grosny--are situated at great -distance from the coast, and the necessity of connecting both fields -with the export port of Batoum, on the Black Sea, has frequently been -put forward as a project offering the one solution of the difficulties -attending the retention of a large export oil trade. The Grosny -pipe-line is still a scheme for future solution, but that affecting -Baku has been solved by the laying of a pipe-line from Baku to Batoum. -This line, which is approximately 650 miles long, runs direct between -the two oil centres and, assuming it operates 24 hours in the day, has -a capacity of transporting over 3,000 tons of oil daily. Inasmuch as -the Russian oil refineries are at Baku, the line is used solely for -the transportation of the refined products. The line itself is laid -alongside the railway line of the Transcaucasian Railway, at a depth of -4 feet, but many strange stories are related as to the tapping of it at -various points, and a lucrative trade being done in the oil so caught. - -When normal conditions return to Russia and the petroleum industry -rights itself, Russian petroleum products will again come on the -international markets, and in this respect the Grozny oil will be able -to secure an outlet via Novorossisk. - -Roumania can also boast of a main trunk pipe-line for refined products -from the inland refineries direct to the port of Constantza. This -important project, which has been carried out practically by the -Government itself, was just about ready for service when the European -War broke out: it has, therefore, had little time in which to display -its practical use to the petroleum industry at large. When one -recollects that Roumania’s future, so far as the petroleum industry -is concerned, lies in the direction of the building up of its already -established export trade in petroleum products, the necessity for -such a trunk pipe-line to the seaboard has been obvious for many -years. Unlike the case of the United States, there are no interesting -events to recall which delayed the advent of this new form of land oil -transportation. There is only one oil pipe-line of any considerable -length in the United Kingdom and this runs across Scotland from Old -Kilpatrick (on the west) to Grangemouth (on the east coast), its -terminal being in close proximity to the naval base at Rosyth. The -line, which is 36 miles long, was laid to circumvent the activity of -enemy submarines, but was only completed in November, 1918, after the -conclusion of the European hostilities. - -The one other important oil-pipe-line which calls for mention is that -connecting the oil-fields of Persia with the coast. In this scheme, the -British Government is heavily interested, and, though there has been -much criticism of its action, there is no doubt that, in due time, the -Persian fields will play an important part in the supply of petroleum -products to England, and, in that connection, the Persian pipe-line -must naturally prominently figure, since, without it, there would be -numerous difficulties to be contended with in getting the oil to the -coast. - -The carrying of large quantities of petroleum products over the seas of -the world is a subject which has taxed the minds of experts quite as -much as that of land transport. For many years it was the rule to ship -petroleum products overseas in the ordinary barrels (approximately, 42 -gallons each) to the consuming countries. It was a costly business, -for, apart from the initial cost of the barrels themselves, they -took up a very considerable space on the vessels, which was not -proportionate with the quantity of oils carried. Leakage also played -a very important rôle in this ocean transport, and, generally, the -principle left much to be desired. The _Atlantic_ was doubtless the -first vessel designed to carry petroleum in bulk from America, but -records show that some years previously--in 1863--a Mr. Henry Duncan, -of Kent, sent the first oil-carrying vessel to Europe. The vessel, -however, never completed her voyage, for she was lost in the Gulf of -St. Lawrence, just as she was starting on her trip across the Atlantic. -The _Charles_--quite a small vessel--also played a part in the early -days of bulk oil transport across the Atlantic, for this steamer was, -I believe, the first to employ iron tanks for the bulk transport of -petroleum. After these first few attempts to convey petroleum in -bulk from continent to continent, tank vessels steadily wiped the -barrel-carrying boats off the seas. It was found that not only did oils -carried in bulk take up but one-half the space of those in barrels, -but the cost of the oak-staved barrels themselves (usually 5s. each) -was obviated. At first, sailing ships were adopted to meet the newer -requirements, but later, vessels propelled by steam were introduced. - -At first the shipbuilders had nothing to guide them in the shape of -practical experience of bulk oil carriers, but, from small things, -a great ocean trade in bulk petroleum products soon grew. It is -interesting to note the enterprise which English shipbuilders displayed -in this new method of handling petroleum for ocean transport, for -during at least two decades the vast bulk of construction of oil -carriers took place in English shipbuilding yards. The opening of the -Far Eastern fields of production led to the construction of a large -number of oil tankers--each of increasing size--for Messrs. M. Samuel -and Company, and these were named after various shells. The fleet of -“Shell” tankers to-day ranks as one of the finest in the world, and -forms the connecting link between the prolific oil-producing properties -of the “Shell” Transport and Trading Company, Ltd., in the Far East, -and the demand for petroleum products in this and other countries, the -vessels themselves being owned by the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company, -Ltd., one of the influential owning interests in the wide ramifications -of the “Shell” Company. - -For several years the oil tanker _Narragansett_, owned by the -Anglo-American Oil Company, Ltd. (London), held claim to being the -largest bulk oil carrier in the world, for the good ship had a capacity -of nearly 11,000 tons of products. The size of this vessel may be -judged from the fact that she had a length between perpendiculars -of over 510 feet, with a 63 feet beam, while her moulded depth was -42 feet. This vessel, which marked a distinct step forward in oil -tanker construction, belonged to Lloyd’s A1 three-deck class. The -Anglo-American Oil Company has shown its belief in oil fuel for ocean -power purposes by contracting for internal combustion-engined tankers, -and the first of this class was launched in November, 1919. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE MAMMOTH TANKERS OF THE EAGLE OIL COMPANY’S -FLEET] - -It was left to the enterprise of the Eagle Oil Transport Company--that -important concern associated with Lord Cowdray’s immense oil -organization for handling Mexican petroleum products--to make what -will ever go down as the most bold policy of increasing the size of -oil tankers by 50 per cent. upon all predecessors. Some six years ago, -just when the Mexican fields were commencing to pour forth their flood -of oil for the world’s requirements, the Eagle Oil Transport Company -included in its programme of activities the building of an immense -fleet of oil tankers, and it was decided that a number of these should -each have a capacity of 15,000 tons of petroleum products. There were -many who asserted that the limit to the size of oil tankers had been -reached, but, undaunted, the Company went forth with their policy. -It was a bold stroke, yet a successful one, for not only have the -vessels proved to be very practical, but they have taught a lesson in -economy of ocean transport which has been seriously taken to heart by -practically all engaged in ocean oil transport. - -I had the honour of being one of the invited guests at the launch -of the first of these gigantic oil carriers, and of subsequently -experiencing a trip in the mammoth floating “tank.” The vessel behaved -admirably at sea, and in a chat with the designer, I recollect asking -if there were any reason to believe that the limit in size had been -reached. The reply was pointed: “So long as we can have loading and -discharging berths large enough to enable such large vessels to be -manipulated, we can easily go beyond the present size.” Events have -proved that the policy adopted by the Eagle Oil Transport Company was -justifiable, for already a new oil tanker, the _San Florentino_, has -been built, having a capacity of over 18,000 tons. - -Before leaving this interesting subject of ocean oil transportation, -I should like to emphasize the distinct step forward which is marked -by these latest oil tankers. To-day, we have entered the era when -oil fuel has passed its experimental stages and become one of the -greatest boons to those associated with the navigation of the seas. -The ease with which oil fuel is handled is remarkable, for vessels of -the largest size--that is, those using oil instead of coal for power -purposes--could replenish their stores within a few hours at any oil -port. In the transport of petroleum by the modern tankers, the taking -on board of a full cargo is accomplished in about a single day, thanks -to the most improved means of pumping oil from the shore tanks through -flexible pipes. The great oil tankers trading between this and other -countries and Mexico, load up off the Mexican coast by means of a -submarine pipe-line, and, reckoning but fourteen return trips per -annum, it will easily be apparent what immense stores of petroleum -can with ease be brought to the centres of consumption. Compare this -with the primitive methods of transport in barrels, and it will be -readily seen with what rapidity the hands of progress have moved during -comparatively recent years. - -The vast majority of oil tankers to-day, true to their calling, -derive their power from oil, for they burn it under their furnaces, -and, therefore, are not liable to those tedious delays so inseparable -from the use of coal, and should severe storms beset their passage in -Mid-Atlantic, then a little oil pumped overboard will quell the most -turbulent sea and permit a safe passage onward. - -It is evident, however, that the motor-engined oil tanker will be the -order of the future, for already vessels are being built which utilize -oil fuel internally--a much more economical process than burning it -under boilers. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -PETROLEUM AS FUEL - - -So much has been written of late as to the use of petroleum as fuel -for the purposes of steam-raising, that the reader is bound to be more -or less _au fait_ with the subject. It is, of course, one of vast -importance, and during the next decade is certain to receive far more -consideration than it has hitherto done, owing to the general desire -that our coal wealth shall be conserved as much as possible. Given the -one allowance that oil fuel can be procured at anything approaching a -reasonable figure--and there is no reason why, in normal times, this -reasonable price should not be prevalent all over the world--then -petroleum offers many advantages over its older competitor, coal. The -ease with which large quantities can be handled, the simple method of -operating anything which is fired by petroleum as fuel, and the fact -that its heat-giving units are far higher than those of coal, will ever -be the chief factors governing its popularity. - -Many years ago, fuel oil made its serious début, but at that time the -supply of the product was very uncertain, and, consequently, progress -in passing from the old to the new form of power-raising was slow. -To-day, however, matters have materially changed. The crude oil output -has been immeasurably increased, and many fields whose production of -crude oil is essentially suited for fuel purposes have been opened up. -In this respect, the oil-fields of Mexico have no parallel, and it is -recorded that, once these fields are provided with adequate storage and -transport facilities, they can easily supply the whole of the fuel oil -necessary for the world, and at the same time have immense quantities -to spare. - -But, though the subject of petroleum as fuel has aroused much attention -for some years, there is still an erroneous idea prevailing as to what -really is fuel oil. A word or two on this question will, therefore, not -be without interest. Fuel oil is that portion of crude oil which is -incapable of giving off by the process of ordinary distillation those -lighter products of petroleum known as motor spirit, illuminating oils, -or lubricants. It is, in a word, the residue of distillation which is -unsuitable for refining purposes. It represents a black, tarry liquid, -and is, of course, minus those fractions that go to produce the refined -products. Many there are who refer to crude oil as fuel oil, but this -is a misnomer, though crude oil, in many instances, is utilized for the -purposes of fuel. In this chapter, however, when I speak of fuel oil, -I am referring not to the crude oil as it comes from the ground (and -which has a comparatively low flash) but to the article of commerce, -the residue of distillation, which is the real article--fuel oil. - -The headway which fuel oil has made during the past few years has been -remarkable, though it is safe to say that its general use is still in -its infancy. In no matter what capacity it has been tried as a heating -or steam-raising agent, it has proved itself capable of withstanding -most successfully the most stringent tests, and has convinced all who -have given the question serious consideration that it holds numerous -advantages over coal, yet has no drawbacks. Perhaps the most recent -impetus which has been given to the use of fuel oil is that following -the introduction of it, and now its general adoption, throughout the -units composing the British Navy. On land, however, it has for some -years achieved marked distinction. Especially is this the case in -regard to its use on locomotives, the United States railways alone -consuming last year over 6,000,000 tons of fuel oil. In the realms -of industry, fuel oil, too, is claiming the attention of those large -industrial establishments, and to-day is largely used for creating -intense heats, such as are necessary in hardening, annealing, melting -and smelting, rivet heating, glass-melting, etc. - -Let me first of all refer to the use of oil fuel for marine purposes. -Fifteen years ago, its use was very strongly advocated by Sir Marcus -Samuel, Bart., for marine purposes, and he approached the British -Government in an endeavour to get it taken up. Matters moved very -slowly, but eventually oil fuel was adopted, and Admiral Sir William -Pakenham asserts that it was due to the unceasing efforts of Sir Marcus -Samuel that the Admiralty vessels constructed during the war were -oil burners. The largest of this new class of vessels is the _Queen -Elizabeth_. Oil fuel is now largely used in place of coal on our great -liners, vessels like the _Aquatania_ and _Olympic_ having gone over to -its general use. - -There are, of course, many reasons which have commended fuel oil to -the experts as a substitute for coal. In the first place, inasmuch -as one ton of fuel oil is equal to more than one-and-a-half tons of -coal, the radius of action of units fitted for utilizing fuel oil is -increased over 50 per cent.--I speak from the point of view of bunker -weight. Again, one ton of oil occupies considerably less space than -an equivalent weight of coal, while this advantage can be materially -increased--as is now the usual practice--by carrying the fuel oil -in double-bottom tanks. Then the bunkering question is one of vital -moment. Fuel oil can be taken on board under far cleaner conditions, -and at a greatly accelerated rate, than would be possible with coal. -There is no arduous manual labour required. Once the hose connections -have been made, the fuel oil is pumped on board at the rate of hundreds -of tons an hour, and a few hours suffice to re-fuel our largest -battleship. But it is when bunkering at sea is required that fuel oil -further emphasizes its immense advantages. This question was some years -ago one of the problems of naval strategy: to-day it is regularly -carried out in the simplest possible fashion, hose connections to a -standing-by oil tanker being all that is required. - -Another advantage of fuel oil is that materially increased speed can -rapidly be attained, for, with fuel oil fired furnaces, the ship’s -boilers can be forced to nearly 50 per cent. above normal rating -without that great strain on the personnel which would be essential -in burning coal under forced draught. Then there is the great saving -of labour effected when burning fuel oil, the stokehold staffs being -reduced by quite 90 per cent. The fuel oil is automatically fed to the -furnaces and mechanically fired, the maximum heat of the oil burners -being attained within a few minutes of starting. But the absence of -smoke when the battleship is proceeding at full speed is, perhaps, one -of the most important advantages which the use of fuel oil gives to -the units of the fleets employing it. The emission of dense volumes of -smoke, which are ever present on a coal-fired vessel, is quite absent -when fuel oil is used, and this advantage is twofold, for not only does -it prevent the giving away of the location of the battleship, but it -also renders its own gun-fire more efficient. - -The advantages attendant upon the use of fuel oil for naval vessels -are, in the main, also strikingly apparent when oil is adopted for -the mercantile marine. It is many years ago since the oil tankers of -the “Shell” Transport and Trading Company, Ltd., commenced to do the -voyage regularly from the Far East to this country and back without -an intermediate port of call. To-day, practically every oil tanker -afloat burns fuel oil. But, of recent date, fuel oil has reached wider -application by reason of its being adopted on many cargo and passenger -vessels, and, had the European War not considerably hampered ordinary -shipbuilding construction, we should have seen ere this a number of -the largest vessels crossing the Atlantic exclusively running on oil. -In fact, arrangements have been made whereby many of our Transatlantic -lines will operate exclusively on fuel oil, which will be taken on -board in the United States. - -[Illustration: TAKING OIL FUEL SUPPLIES ON BOARD] - -My friend, Mr. J. J. Kermode, of Liverpool--the well-known fuel oil -expert--has taken the most prominent part in calling general attention -to the immense superiority of fuel oil over coal, and it is due to -this gentleman’s untiring energies that not only does our Navy to-day -use fuel oil to such an extent, but that those responsible for ocean -passenger transport have taken the matter up so seriously. There are -three general headings under which fuel oil use will affect transport -costs. They are as follow: (_a_) by increased passenger or cargo -capacity, (_b_) by increased speed, and (_c_) by a great reduction in -running costs. As to the increased capacity, I have already shown that -fuel oil can be stored in considerably less space than coal, and the -simplicity of both bunkering fuel oil, and using it on vessels, has -also been touched upon. With reference to the increased speed which -vessels utilizing fuel oil can attain over those running on coal, I -have a concrete example in front of me. Two sister ships of the Eagle -Oil Transport Company--the _San Dunstano_ and the _San Eduardo_--each -of 9,000 tons deadweight capacity, are fitted to burn coal and fuel -oil respectively. Upon a trip carried out under careful observation, -the weight of fuel consumed worked out as two to three in favour of -fuel oil, while the indicated horse-power developed showed an 18 per -cent. improvement in the case of the oil-fired vessel. But the striking -fact of the comparison is that the _San Eduardo_ made the round voyage -to Mexico--out and home--eight days quicker than the other, this -additional speed being solely due to the fact that with fuel oil it -was possible to maintain consistent speed throughout the voyage--an -impossible matter when coal is consumed. If space permitted, I could -enumerate many cases where the results in favour of fuel oil are -even more strikingly apparent, but I will content myself by briefly -referring to calculations made by Mr. Kermode, based upon voyages of -our largest liners: they are sufficiently interesting and suggestive -to record here. On an average, says Mr. Kermode, to maintain a speed -of 25 knots, 5,500 tons of coal are consumed upon the voyage between -Liverpool and New York by one of the mammoth liners; or 11,000 tons for -the round trip. Some 3,300 tons of fuel oil--which could be stored if -necessary (and as will frequently be done in the future) in the double -bottom of the vessel--would, by automatic stoking, do even more work -than 5,500 tons of coal. Calculating the daily consumption of 600 tons -of coal now used for 24 hours, this represents about 2,000 tons less -fuel on a five days’ trip, land to land run, or 4,000 tons less, out -and home. The utilizing of the vacant space thus saved for merchandise -would bring in a very handsome income. Of the 312 firemen and trimmers -now employed for a coal-fired liner, 285 might be dispensed with, -and occupation found for them under healthier conditions ashore, -say in handling the additional cargo which would be carried. The -saved accommodation in this respect could be allotted to third-class -passengers, of whom at least another 250 could be carried. Our mammoth -liners are fitted with 192 furnaces in order to produce 68,000 -horse-power (as was the case of the _Mauretania_ and the _Lusitania_), -and, on the assumption that thirty-two fires are cleaned every watch, -10,000 indicated horse-power is lost every four hours through burning -down and cleaning, a quite unnecessary operation with fuel oil. Figures -such as these show the startling possibilities of fuel oil for marine -purposes. - -[Illustration: TYPICAL LIQUID FUEL BURNERS - -THE KERMODE STEAM BURNER] - -[Illustration: KERMODE’S AIR JET BURNER - - In the steam burner, the oil enters through B, the valve G - giving it a whirling motion. The steam goes round the cone A. - _F_ is the air cone, the amount of air being adjusted by the - openings D by means of a perforated strap E. In the air jet - burner the oil enters at A. The previously heated air enters at - the branches B and C, and as the air passes C it meets the oil - as it passes the control valve operated by E.] - -But it is on land, as well as on sea, that we find fuel oil rapidly -making headway, for, as far back as 1889, hundreds of the Russian -locomotives went over to the burning of a petroleum residue. This -was the first practical application of fuel oil for railway haulage. -To-day, nearly 50,000,000 barrels of fuel oil are consumed annually -by the various railroads in the United States, and, according to -the official figures I have of the total mileage of fuel oil for -the past twelve months, the United States oil-burning locomotives -did journeys aggregating over 145,000,000 miles. Mr. Hall, of the -American International Railway Fuel Association, is responsible for the -statement that, owing to the fact that the steaming capacity of the -engines is materially increased, a locomotive running on fuel oil can -haul a load of considerably greater tonnage and at a much increased -speed than would be possible with a coal-fired engine. Many Continental -railways use fuel oil rather than coal; the Roumanian and Austrian -State Railways, the Western Railway of France, the Paris and Orleans -Railway, being a few of the principal. - -So far as England is concerned, the use of fuel oil has not made great -headway, for the reason that, while on the one hand, the majority of -our great railway systems pass through the coal-producing fields, there -has, on the other hand, until recently been an absence of organization -for the supply of fuel oil. The Great Eastern Railway many years ago -successfully ran oil-fired locomotives. - -It is evident that oil fuel will be increasingly used in the future for -locomotive purposes, and at the time of writing--December, 1919--the L. -and N.W. Railway are carrying out experiments on express engines, with -a view to being able to some extent to discard coal. - -In our industrial life of to-day there are a vast number of instances -where fuel oil is rapidly displacing coal: the oil-fired furnace has -been brought to a stage of perfection, and is being extensively -and increasingly employed both in this country and abroad in regard -to metallurgical and industrial processes. Without going into detail -respecting the numerous spheres in which the new fuel finds profitable -employment it is safe to say that these are being extended every year. - -[Illustration: OIL FUEL FOR MARINE PURPOSES - - Arrangement of heaters, filters and pumps for burning oil - fuel for marine purposes. The installation is that of the - Wallsend-Howden pressure system.] - -A wealth of inventive effort has been bestowed in the perfection of the -burners employed to consume fuel oil. Leaving aside for the moment the -principles governing the use of oil in the internal combustion engines -of the Diesel or semi-Diesel type, fuel oil used for the production -of power is introduced into the furnace in the form of a spray, this -being accomplished by atomizing the oil in its passage through a -specially designed burner. Of these burners, there are numerous makes -upon the market, each of which possesses its own characteristics and -advantages. The one feature common to all fuel oil burners is the -arrangement for atomizing the oil fuel into a fine spray, so that -each particle of fuel shall receive sufficient oxygen to ensure its -complete combustion. Theoretically, it requires about 14 lb. of air to -effect the combustion of 1 lb. of oil, and on the thorough combustion -of the fuel oil depends the efficiency of the furnace. There are -three distinct methods by which the atomization is brought about, and -each of these means possesses its advantages and limitations. By one -method, the fuel oil is atomized by the use of steam; by the second -method, compressed air is used; while a third system--that of applying -pressure to the oil supply itself--is sometimes adopted. Steam is the -method usually employed for stationary boilers and locomotives, for it -is the simplest to manipulate, and does not call for the employment -of auxiliary apparatus in the shape of air compressors or oil pumps, -but most industrial oil furnaces work on compressed air, which gives -exceptionally good results. There is no doubt that, with the use of -compressed air, say admitted at a pressure of 80 lb., a saving in -fuel oil is shown over using steam at similar pressure, but the cost -of the compressing plant, which must be taken into consideration, is -sufficient to wipe out the greater part of this advantage. - -[Illustration: THE “SCARAB” OIL BURNER] - -With respect to the use of the fuel oil direct under pressure, this -system generally involves the heating of the fuel oil, as well as -its filtration, the fuel being supplied under pressure by means of -pumps. The system is extensively employed at the present time on -marine boilers operating with forced or induced draught, and, in this -connection, the Wallsend system stands pre-eminent. - -Since writing the first edition of this little volume considerable -advance has been made in connection with the use of oil fuel for -general power-raising purposes, and much of this expansion has been -consequent upon the introduction of a new burner--the “Scarab”--which -is here illustrated. It is the invention of Lieut.-Col. Macdonald, and -is the outcome of the war. When the Lieut.-Colonel was on service in -Mesopotamia, he recognized the possibilities of oil fuel, for while -wood and coal were being transported from India at great cost, oil was -running to waste on the neighbouring fields of the Anglo Persian Oil -Company. The Lieut.-Colonel therefore introduced a method of cooking -by oil fuel, and immediately on his return to England he carried out -experiments which led to the introduction of the “Scarab” burner. It -is a simple contrivance, and is practically fool-proof, since there -are really no parts to get out of order. The oil fuel flows through a -tube by gravity, while another tube carries air compressed to about -10 lbs. pressure. The oil and air meet some inches distant from the -mouth of the burner, and the combustion of the fuel, which is turned -into a finely atomised spray, is complete. Experiments have been made -with the burner for domestic purposes, and it has been adopted already -in several London hotels for cooking purposes, though its general -application is practically unlimited. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -PETROLEUM AS A LIGHTING AND COOKING AGENT - - -From times immemorial, petroleum has been utilized as a lighting -agent. Fifteen hundred years ago we have records of its use in the Far -Eastern countries, and in the seventh century one of the Emperors of -Japan ordered that his temples should be illuminated by the sacred oil -light. And from that long distant date to the present times, petroleum -has played a not insignificant part in the provision of artificial -light throughout the world. For centuries, petroleum, as a means of -artificial light, had the field to itself, and, though the Ancients -consumed large quantities for lighting purposes, the apparatus used for -burning the oil were of a most primitive type, giving results which -to-day would be considered far from satisfactory. - -About the middle of the last century, when the petroleum industry was -making steady advance in several European countries, and a little -later, when the United States entered upon its era of oil progress, -there was marked development in the use of oil for lighting purposes. -The more modern oil lamp was introduced, and it is worthy of record -that in one year alone over fifty patents were taken out in the United -States for oil lamp improvements. The Germans, too, were not behind in -this respect; in fact, it is very largely due to the numerous German -improvements that the general governing principles of present-day oil -lamps became so popular. - -There is no doubt that the ordinary oil lamp has often been, and still -is, unjustifiably condemned for certain defects which are not inherent -in it. It necessarily demands attention if it is to give a satisfactory -light, but, unfortunately, this attention is not adequately bestowed -upon it, and complaints are the result. I have frequently argued that, -just as it is possible with inattention to make the most improved -pattern of oil lamp operate unsatisfactorily, so is it possible, with -a little care and common sense, to get a really good and satisfactory -light from the cheapest oil lamp obtainable. - -In days gone by, the quality of the oil was, in many cases, -unsuitable for burning in the ordinary lamps; its lighting power -was very inferior, and it gave off a distinctly unpleasant smell. -To-day, however, the illuminating oil sold throughout the world is a -first-class article, and its flash-point has been so raised that it -can be used freely without there being any suggestion of its lack of -safety. One still hears of the “dangerous” paraffin lamp, but, to all -intents and purposes, whatever danger was attendant upon the use of oil -lamps has long ago departed, though, of course, care must always be -exercised, a remark which naturally applies to every illuminant. It is -not within my province to give a series of hints to the ordinary user -of illuminating oil, but it is well to draw attention to a point which -is frequently overlooked: that is, to see that lamps should be kept -well filled. It has been established that the light from an oil lamp is -greatly affected by the quantity of oil in the reservoir. An increase -of 20 per cent. can be secured in the illuminating power of the lamp if -only the oil is kept to a good level in the container. This is due to -the assistance given to the capillary action of the wick by the higher -level. - -The advent of gas, and, at a later period, electric current, for -illuminating purposes has, to an extent, restricted the use of oil as -an illuminant, yet the reader will be surprised to learn that at least -2,000,000 oil lamps are nightly lighted throughout Great Britain. The -inhabitants of the majority of our villages have to fall back upon oil -lamps after nightfall, and even in remote spots where enterprising gas -companies have laid gas mains large numbers still keep faith with oil, -no doubt by reason of its cheapness in normal times. - -The greatest improvement made in regard to oil lighting has been in -connection with the introduction of the incandescent mantle. As a -result of this innovation, several elaborate designs of lamps have -been placed on the market, and to-day oil is frequently used in large -residences in preference to the more modern illuminants. This is due, -without doubt, to the fact that oil light is particularly soft, and, -while giving a great illuminating power when consumed under the best -conditions, lacks that dazzling brilliancy which causes injury to the -eyes. - -One of the earliest methods of utilizing petroleum under an -incandescent mantle was the Kitson system, according to which -illuminating oil is compressed to about 50 lb. per square inch in a -suitable vessel, forced through a soft brass tube of very small bore -into a heating chamber, and, subsequently, through a needle orifice to -a Bunsen burner. The Kitson system, which has found many adherents in -the United Kingdom and abroad, is particularly adapted for lighthouse -illumination, and in such cases where large units are essential. It is -interesting to record the fact that for some time one of London’s main -West-end thoroughfares was illuminated by incandescent oil lamps, and, -though they are now superseded, no tangible reason was given as to why -these highly economical means of illumination were ever removed. - -Space forbids my referring to the various designs of oil lamps on the -English market to-day: they may be counted by their hundreds, while -still a larger number of those which have either been unsuccessful or -have found no sale may be found in the records of the Patent Office. - -During comparatively recent times, devices have been brought forward -whereby remarkably good results have been achieved by the use of -gaseous vapour for portable lamps. In these cases, motor spirit is -vapourized and used under an incandescent mantle. The best known -of these lamps is the “Petrolite.” In this lamp, a porous stone is -impregnated with suitable hydrocarbons--motor spirit--and a current -of air is introduced, the necessary draught being provided by the use -of a fairly long chimney. The great advantage of the “Petrolite” lamp -is that of its perfect safety, for if by any chance the lamp becomes -overturned and the chimney displaced or broken, the draught ceases, and -with it, the generation of the inflammable vapour; the lamp, therefore, -immediately going out. - -But while this method of utilizing motor spirit for illuminating -purposes has been adopted to a very large extent by means of portable -lamps, a greater field has been developed both in this and other -countries in connection with the domestic and industrial use of petrol -air-gas for lighting purposes. These apparatus in the main possess -but slight differences. The essential principle of each is that motor -spirit is carburetted and then, in the form of an oil gas, conducted -through pipes in the same manner as coal gas is burned, to the rooms -in which it is required. The carburetted air-gas is automatically -produced, and the small cost at which these automatic plants can be -supplied has rendered this system of lighting deservedly popular. -Its great economy also is an important point, for 1 gallon of motor -spirit will yield almost 30 cubic feet of vapour. This vapour, in -order to form a lighting agent, is mixed to the extent of over 98 per -cent. air and less than 2 per cent. petrol vapour, so that 1 gallon of -motor spirit will produce, approximately, 1,500 cubic feet of air-gas. -The plants, which are usually worked by a small hot-air engine (or, -alternately, by the use of weights), supply only the demand created, -and their control is automatic perfection. - -[Illustration: THE ANGLO-AMERICAN OIL COMPANY’S OIL COOKER] - -To-day, petroleum plays quite an important part in heating -arrangements, and several stoves are upon the market which burn the -ordinary illuminating oil. The prettily designed heating stoves of the -“Perfection” or “Reform” make are largely in use, the efficacy and -economy of these being responsible for their popularity. Various makes -of oil cookers are also in large demand. These range from the small -variety like the “Primus” stove, which burns illuminating oil under -pressure, to the oil cooking stoves of the Anglo-American Oil Company, -Ltd., which are quite competent to meet the requirements of practically -any household. These latter stoves consume illuminating oil by means -of the circular wick arrangement, and are in several sizes, one of the -best being that containing three lighters. Two of these are under the -oven, and one at the end can be used for boiling purposes. Speaking -from several years’ experience of these stoves, I can say that they are -truly perfection. They are very economical, are easily cleaned, and -when in full operation give off not the slightest odour. The oven is -more readily heated than with the coal gas apparatus, and the properly -diffused heat cooks all kinds of food most readily and perfectly. The -illustration of the stove given on the preceding page will afford the -reader a good idea of the apparatus, which deserves to be even more -popular than it is at present. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES - - -In no other sphere of employment has petroleum made such rapid -strides during the past two or three decades as those recorded in -connection with its use in internal combustion engines, and one of the -most interesting features of modern mechanical engineering is their -development. The advent and immediate popularity of this kind of engine -has been responsible for some of the most remarkable conquests of -mankind over the forces of Nature, for it has brought into being the -automobile, the aeroplane, the dirigible airship, and a host of other -inventions. It has also been responsible for quite a new departure in -ocean transport, for experiments have proved that the largest vessels -can be very economically operated by means of the internal combustion -engine. - -It might, by way of introduction, be well to explain for the benefit of -the uninitiated, the meaning of the term “Internal combustion engine.” -As most of my readers are well aware, the steam, or, rather, to be -exact, the highly heated water vapour which drives the steam engine, -is supplied from boilers which are heated by the burning of coal, oil -fuel, or, sometimes, gas, and such engines might, therefore, be called -“external combustion engines,” since the fuel is consumed in apparatus -external to the engine proper. Such a term, however, is not in use -amongst engineers, and might raise a superior sort of smile if used -in their presence. It will be readily seen from the foregoing that a -great deal of weight and apparatus of some complication is required -before the water vapour which drives the steam engine can even be -provided. - -In the case of the internal combustion engine, the fuel (motor spirit -or the heavier oils) is introduced directly into the engine and there -vapourized and mixed with air so as to form an explosive mixture, so -that all boilers, with the necessarily complicated systems of piping, -etc., are done away with. It needs no imagination to understand the -enormous saving of weight and space resulting from this elimination of -the boiler, and of the room which it would occupy. - -The latter-day demands for the provision of lighter and yet lighter, -as well as space-saving propelling machinery for submarines, airships, -aeroplanes, motor-cars, etc., especially during the war, have -enormously stimulated the development of the engine which consumes its -own fuel, and which is known as the internal combustion engine. A very -wide field has thus been opened out for the exercise of the engineer’s -ingenuity, and he has availed himself to the full of the opportunities -thus created, never failing to rise to the occasion when fresh demands -have been made upon him. - -In these circumstances, it is not at all surprising to find that -numerous firms have given considerable attention to the manufacture -of the internal combustion class of engine, and many varieties, -for a multiplicity of purposes, are upon the market. The limits -of space effectively prevent my detailing the list of even the -largest manufacturers; I will therefore content myself by referring -to but one firm--Messrs. Vickers, Ltd.--who are now the largest -manufacturers in the Kingdom. This progressive firm has grappled with -the internal combustion engine problem from the earliest stages of the -petrol engine to the latest forms of the heavy oil engine and its -remarkable developments, and a large section of their establishment at -Barrow-in-Furness is, and has long been, set aside exclusively for the -design and manufacture of the heavy oil internal combustion engine. A -very large staff of expert engineers has been selected for the work, -while experiments with a view to improvements being effected in details -are continually being conducted in the establishment. The result is -that the development of this engine at the Barrow works has been -attended with the highest success, a fact which is not widely known to -the general public. - -I take it as a great compliment that permission has been given me in -this book to refer somewhat in detail to the achievements of Messrs. -Vickers, Ltd., in this respect, for, hitherto, publicity in connection -with this section of the firm’s operations has been strictly withheld. -One of the latest and, it might well be said, the most important -developments in connection with Messrs. Vickers’ activities, is the -Vickers patent system of fuel injection, which enables an engine of the -Diesel type (that is, using heavy oil) to be successfully run without -the use of an air compressor for injecting the fuel into the engine. -Before the introduction of this system, an air compressor, with its -attendant complication and weight, had to be used for the introduction -of the fuel into the engine. The elimination of this compressor has -resulted in considerable economy in weight, space, and attendance, -which, it will readily be seen, is a step in the right direction, -whilst the efficiency of the engine has also been improved. The -disadvantages attendant upon the use of the air compressor were early -comprehended by Messrs. Vickers, and they have spared no efforts (nor -expense) in developing the system which has led to its elimination. - -The reader will require no knowledge of the subject to understand that -the question of fuel consumption is one of the highest importance -in any engine system, and, in regard to this point, Messrs. Vickers -have made a special study, with the result that whilst the ordinary -consumption in a Diesel engine with air compressor is ·41 lb. brake -horse-power an hour (or 184 grammes _par force de cheval_), that firm -have been able to reach the low figure of ·376 lbs. B.H.P. an hour (or -·170 grammes _par force de cheval_). - -As one might expect, Messrs. Vickers, in bringing their engine -to its present state of perfection, have, perforce, had a varied -experience with fuel oils--and a considerable one, too,--for they have -experimented with oils from all the well-known producing fields, and -find that, under their system, practically any fuel oil which can be -made to flow may be utilized in their engines--a fact which, in its -importance, speaks for itself. The physical properties of the oils used -by them have, naturally, differed very considerably. For instance, -specific gravities have varied from ·810 to ·950 flash points from 100° -Fahr., to upwards of 250° Fahr., whilst the viscosities, which the lay -mind might well be excused for thinking of as “degrees of stickiness,” -have varied from that of the ordinary kerosene (illuminating oil) to -the thick asphaltic fuel oil which comes from Mexico. Readers may judge -from this of the painstaking and difficult experiments that have been -carried out in the Barrow works. - -The advantages derivable from the use of the Vickers system could not, -obviously, be withheld from general use, and the firm have upwards of -twenty licensees now manufacturing internal combustion engines under -their designs. This fact, though not familiar to “the man in the -street,” is known in the manufacturing world. - -[Illustration: 900 B.H.P. LOW DUTY VICKERS ENGINE FOR OIL TANK VESSELS] - -[Illustration: BACK VIEW OF ENGINE] - -Already a very large number of their engines have been constructed, -the approximate brake horse-power produced by same being upwards of -337,600. These engines are of various sizes, ranging from 200 to 2,000 -horse-power. The cylinders vary in diameter from 10 to 29 inches, and -are arranged to work in groups to suit the power required, and may be -either two-stroke or four-stroke cycle. The high temperatures set up in -starting the engine are sufficient to ignite the fuel, the introduction -of which in a finely-divided condition has been the object of so many -experiments at Barrow; and so successful in this direction have Messrs. -Vickers been that they are now able to deal satisfactorily, by careful -adjustments of the engine to suit the various fuels, with the most -troublesome oils. - -As already referred to, the elimination of the air compressor -constitutes the chief improvement embodied in the Vickers type of -engine, seeing that the greatest worry which the Diesel engineer has -had to encounter has been this very compressor. Needless to remark, -therefore, this feature alone strongly recommends the new system to the -experienced man. Further, the power required to drive the compressor -above-mentioned is considerable, so that economy is not one of the -least results due to its absence. - -The principal advantages that can be claimed for the Vickers engine may -be summarized as under-- - - 1. Safety in working. (Many accidents have been due to the use - of the air compressor.) - - 2. Weight is saved. - - 3. Space is saved. - - 4. Lower air compression in the cylinders for ignition, and - economy in air for starting the engine. - - 5. Reduction in first costs; and - - 6. Reduction in upkeep expenses. - -[Illustration: 900 B.H.P. HIGH DUTY REVERSING ENGINE FOR LIGHT CRAFT] - -[Illustration: 1,250 B.H.P. LOW DUTY VICKERS MARINE ENGINE FOR OIL TANK -VESSEL] - -With regard to (4), the low compression claimed is rather interesting, -as Messrs. Vickers have successfully demonstrated that, although a high -compression temperature is necessary in the ordinary Diesel engine with -the usual air spraying compressor, a much lower degree suffices for -their mechanical injection system, whilst there is a greater certainty -of ignition of the fuel on its first introduction, even with the -existence of lower compression in the cylinder. The reason of this is -that the spraying air used in the ordinary Diesel is usually compressed -to about 60 atmospheres (900 lb. per square inch). What happens when -air spraying is practised is this. When the cold air carrying the very -high pressure above mentioned enters the cylinder, it necessarily -expands, owing to the lower temperature already existent there, and -such expansion chills the whole mixture, frequently preventing ignition -on the first introduction of the fuel. - -Under the Vickers system of mechanical fuel injection, there is, -of course, no introduction of very highly compressed air, and, -consequently, first ignition is rendered easier. From this, it will -at once be seen that an oil possessing a high flash point can be more -easily burned in the Vickers engine than in the ordinary Diesel, with -the necessary adjunct of an air compressor. Provision is also made -(should the type of fuel used require it) for a higher temperature of -compression, and such oils are, therefore, much more easily dealt with -than in the ordinary Diesel engine. - -From what I have already said, it will be evident to the reader that it -is only a question of time for air spraying, with its attendant use of -the compressor, to become a thing of the past. - -The mechanism involved by the adoption of the new system of fuel -injection developed by Messrs. Vickers is exceptionally simple. It -consists of a small fuel pump, such as is ordinarily used for pumping -fuel, a reservoir or accumulator of novel form to retain the charge, -and a valve with a special nozzle to admit the fuel in the form of a -fine spray into the cylinder. The accumulator, I may here mention, -is merely a tube, flattened slightly on the sides, and of sufficient -length, when the oil is forced into it, to enable it to yield and store -up a charge of fuel at the required high pressure, as explained in the -next paragraph. - -The principal feature of the system (and the secret of its great -success) is the very high pressure at which the oil is injected into -the cylinder. This pressure is kept up at about 4,000 lb. the square -inch, so that the oil fuel, when it enters the cylinder and encounters -the hot compressed air therein, is in the form of a very finely -atomized mist, a conjunction of circumstances most favourable for -ignition. As in all great inventions, the simplicity of the arrangement -is not the least of its merits. - -This somewhat rough, yet brief, outline will suffice to explain the -astonishing success of the Vickers heavy oil engine, but, if the whole -history of these (and other) noteworthy experiments could be written, -a highly interesting story would be produced, showing indomitable -perseverance in the face of discouragement, difficulty, and very heavy -expense. - -I have avoided touching upon the ordinary kerosene engines, for I -imagine they are too well known to need more than passing reference -here; nor have I gone into the details concerning the advent of the -ordinary Diesel engine, which was a German invention. - -I have preferred rather to deal with a British invention which is -already revolutionizing oil engine construction generally, and which, -obviously, has limitless fields open to it. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -PETROLEUM IN ENGLAND - - -There will be no chapter in this little treatise which will be more -carefully perused than the present one, for the subject is of direct -interest to every reader, whether actually associated with the search -for oil or not. To-day, as I have already mentioned in another chapter, -this country is dependent for practically the whole of its petroleum -requirements upon foreign oil-producing countries, and though ample -evidence is forthcoming to suggest that there are possibilities of -obtaining liquid oil in England--in fact, many years ago this was -actually obtained in not inconsiderable quantities--it is very strange -that only recently have serious efforts been made in the direction of -systematic search for the valuable liquid. - -That large quantities of petroleum can be produced in this country is -agreed by all who have given the subject more than passing thought; -the question is, by what means shall this production be brought about. -While it is problematical as to the amount of commercial success which -will attend the present search for liquid oil, though those who are -most competent to judge believe that large stores of liquid oil will -be found, it is already certain that there are vast possibilities in -England for the production of petroleum from the treatment of the -bituminous shales which freely abound in many parts. - -It will be seen, therefore, that the subject really divides itself -under two heads, and it is with the first of these--that of the -possibilities of finding liquid oil reserves in commercial quantity in -this country--that I will now proceed to deal. For this purpose, it is -better that we divide the country into three zones--western, middle, -and eastern. The western zone will include the whole of England between -the third meridian of West Longitude and the Irish Sea, the Bristol -Channel, and the North Atlantic. It will be bounded on the north by a -line running near Whitehaven to the mouth of the River Tees, and having -the English Channel as its southern boundary. In this zone, the most -northern occurrence of petroleum is found at Whitehaven, Cumberland, -and the next is found on the Lancashire coast. Other indications are to -be found in Denbighshire and in the northern part of the South Wales -coalfield. - -The occurrences of petroleum in what may be described as the middle -zone are far more important and numerous than those of the western -zone. They are important in the physical conditions to which they -are subordinate, and in their greater productiveness. They are more -numerous, and their geological position is more in direct relationship -with later dynamical alterations in the rock structures. In this -zone occurs the most important occurrence which has so far been -recorded--I refer to that at Alfreton, in Derbyshire--for it was from -this natural flow of petroleum over 70 years ago that Dr. Young, the -founder of the Scottish shale oil industry, manufactured paraffin wax. -Near Chesterfield is also unmistakable evidence of the presence of -liquid oil at depth, for considerable quantities have flowed from the -workings at the Southgate Colliery. In this middle zone, too, are the -occurrences of petroleum found near Wigan and West Leigh, while flows -of oil are recorded from several spots round Barnsley and Ilkeston. The -petroleum find at Kelham, near Newark, some few years ago, is important -for the reason that the drill in this case, at a depth of somewhere -about 2,400 feet, struck true petroliferous sands, underlain by dark, -waxy shales. The oil rock has been proved to consist of loose, coarsely -grained sand, having all the features of strata in which petroleum is -ordinarily met with. The great value of this boring is that it has -demonstrated the fact, so long doubted by many of the best geological -authorities in Great Britain, that all the geological conditions, -dynamical as well as historical, are present in this locality for the -formation and subsequent retention of liquid petroleum, and that, -as Dr. William Forbes-Leslie puts it, despite all contention to the -contrary, a true oil-field exists in England. - -So far as I am aware, however, North Staffordshire alone, among all the -places in England, has the distinction of so far having produced liquid -petroleum in sufficient quantity for refining purposes. It was in 1874 -that oil was discovered in a seam of coal in one of the pits of the -Mear Hay Collieries, Longton, and a contract was ultimately made with -a Mr. William Walker, Senr., of Hanley, who erected plant at Cobridge -for the purpose of refining the oil. I am indebted to Mr. Walker for -the following facts, though in a general way I have full corroboration -for them, for it was within a couple of miles from the collieries that -I was born and spent my earlier days. The seam of coal wherein the oil -was discovered was one of the deeper seams, and by no means one of -the best in the district. At that time, the flow produced more than -5 tons of crude oil per week, and inasmuch as England then was not -inundated with American petroleums, great possibilities were seen in -the discovery. But almost before the refining of the crude had settled -down to be a commercial undertaking, the plans of operation were upset, -for a serious explosion occurred at the colliery, which rendered -necessary the closing of the pit. Twelve months later, however, they -were re-opened, and after the re-sinking had proceeded awhile, the oil -was found far up the shaft, and in due course the shaft was cleared and -the mines re-opened. Refining operations were resumed and continued for -a year or two, when the pits had to be closed on account of the shafts -shrinking. - -However, in the course of a number of years, petroleum appeared in -another colliery less than a mile from the Mear Hay Colliery, and -again Mr. Walker secured the contract for the whole of the output. The -quantity of crude oil found was several tons weekly, and a large stock -had accumulated when Mr. Walker’s attention was drawn to this new find. -This time, the supply continued for a longer period, and then again the -seam of coal in which the deposit occurred had to be abandoned. Thus, -while the resources of this part of the Charnian axis have not been -properly tested--for, in the opinion of the colliery owners, it is not -possible profitably to work coal and oil at the same time--there is -ample evidence to suggest that, in the not distant future, there may be -most interesting oil developments in this part of North Staffordshire. - -The eastern zone of the country doubtless furnishes the most -interesting petroleum occurrences in England. Here, the interest does -not so much depend upon the number of escapes, as upon the promising -geological conditions subserving the production and possible retention -of petroleum. According to the investigations of Dr. W. Forbes-Leslie, -F.R.G.S., whose valuable contribution on the subject of the occurrence -of petroleum in England forms one of the most important papers ever -read before the Institution of Petroleum Technologists, the northern -line of oil occurrences runs from Filey, north-westerly, the principal -finds being located at Filey, Pickering, and Kirby Moorside. Oil, too, -has been found at Brigg, in Lincolnshire, at Market-Rasen, Haugmont, -and Donnington-on-Bain. The line of oil occurrences starts at King’s -Lynn, on the Wash, and runs south-westwards as far as Cottenham, -in Cambridgeshire, the principal occurrences being at King’s Lynn, -Downham, Littleport, and Ely. The information obtained by the bore-hole -at Kelham, to which I have already referred, is a factor of great -value when taken into consideration and applied to an analytical -review of the petroleum seepages in England. It is a positive proof -that a true oil-bearing stratum underlies the surface rocks, at any -rate, in one part of the British Isles, and, when it is considered in -relation with the surface position of the oil escapes on the eastern -flank of the Pennine Chain, it suggests a possible connection between -those underground sources of oil and those surface escapes which are -scattered, seemingly at such random, along the Pennines. - -The attempts which were made but a few years ago to develop the -possibilities of the Heathfield district of Sussex, with a view to -obtaining commercial quantities of natural gas, were also prompted with -the idea of maybe striking deposits of liquid petroleum, though it is -doubtful, both from a geological point of view, and from the nature of -the natural gas which is there in abundance, whether liquid oil will -be met with in that part of the country. What has been established, -however, is the fact that large quantities of natural gas are to be -found in this delightful part of rural Sussex, and it is a great pity -that the necessary enterprise has not been forthcoming to permit of -a really serious development. Some years ago, I motored an American -oil-man over the gas-fields of Heathfield, and he assured me that, if -such evidences were found in the States, there would immediately be a -great boom, and finance would freely flow in to stimulate development. -But not so with Heathfield, for the opinion is freely held that this -field is too near our midst for real speculative enterprise. Remove -it to the wilds of Russia, and British finance would appreciate the -immense potentialities which to-day lie dormant. For those readers who -are, perhaps, not conversant with the history of the Heathfield gas -developments it is well to record the fact that attention to these -deposits was drawn years ago, when a well was being drilled for water -on the property of the Brighton and South Coast Railway, near the -present station. Strong smells of gas prevented working for some time, -and as these increased it was decided that the better course would be -to suspend drilling operations. The tubes of the well were partially -drawn out, and the well sides caved in, yet the gas pressure increased. -The well was abandoned as a water well, but pipes were attached to the -cap at the mouth, and a steady pressure of gas was emitted. It was -decided that, inasmuch as the gas burned with a pure flame, the station -should be lighted with it. That was over twenty years ago, and to-day -the well is still producing, and the station is still lighted with the -natural gas, which needs no refining. Not only so, but a well-appointed -hotel close by utilizes the gas for lighting and cooking. - -A project was set on foot for sinking further wells and piping the -gas to the southern coast resorts for general use, but lack of -capital prevented progress being made, and so, to-day, Heathfield, -like many other centres in the country, awaits the attention of the -carefully-directed drill to open up its underground wealth. - -In August, 1917, the feeling in many parts of the country that the -Government should take some action in order to develop these latent -resources became so strong that a Bill was introduced into Parliament -with this object in view. No attempt was made to progress with it until -the following October, when a financial resolution was rejected by the -House of Commons on the question of royalties. An amendment was adopted -against the payment of royalties to the owners of surface lands who had -made no attempt to obtain liquid oil, and who, as a matter of fact, did -not know that it was there. Two months later the Petroleum (Production) -Bill was dropped. - -In March, 1918, however, a most encouraging turn of events occurred, -for Lord Cowdray, head of the great firm of Messrs. S. Pearson & Son, -and associated with those influential interests in oil represented by -the Mexican Eagle Oil Company, the Eagle Oil Transport Company, and the -Anglo-Mexican Petroleum Company, made offers to the Government which -were couched in the following terms-- - -(_a_) For the period of the war to place at the disposal of the -Government, free of all cost, the services of his firm and geological -staff for the purpose of exploration and development. - -(_b_) If the Government did not wish to risk public money on what had -to be deemed a speculative enterprise, Messrs. S. Pearson & Son were -prepared to drill, at their own risk and expense as licensees, subject -to certain areas being reserved to them. The offer committed the firm -to an expenditure of, possibly, £500,000. - -The public spirited offer of Lord Cowdray was most thankfully accepted -by the Government and, with a minimum of delay, drilling sites were -marked out for the commencement of active operations. - -Lord Cowdray’s geological staff particularly favoured the neighbourhood -in Derbyshire, near to which Young made his first discoveries of -oil, and Chesterfield was selected as headquarters for the new oil -developments. The first oil well to be drilled in this country was -commenced in September, 1918, at Hardstoft, near Pilsley, on the -Great Central main line between Sheffield and Nottingham, and on -Tuesday, 18th October, the inauguration of England’s oil industry -took place there in the presence of many oil notabilities. American -drilling machinery of the percussion type was installed and, in view -of the great depth to which it was expected the drill would have to -proceed before encountering commercial quantities of oil, the well was -commenced with a diameter of 18 inches. - -A depth of just over 3,000 ft. had been reached at the commencement -of June, 1919, at which depth oil production started. The well was -put on the pump and began its steady yield of a good grade crude oil, -the production being about fifty barrels per week. Up to the time of -writing (December, 1919) the well is maintaining its yield. - -Other wells have been sunk in the Chesterfield area at Ironville, -Heath, Renishaw, Brimington, Ridgeway and in North Staffordshire and -Scotland, but so far the success met with is not promising, though it -is quite possible that commercial oil may be encountered. - -Private enterprise has also commenced the sinking of a well at Kelham, -Nottinghamshire, near a site where, many years ago, small quantities of -oil were found in an experimental coal bore. Here, however, no definite -result has been attained. The Company--The Oilfields of England, -Ltd.--is operating under a drilling license from the Government under -which the Government may take over the properties on a valuation should -commercial oil be found. - -Let us now briefly turn to the other aspect of the question of the -production of petroleum in England--that is, of producing oils from -the treatment of the bituminous shales. There are several sources from -which petroleum can be obtained in this country by distillation, and -these are: (1) oil-shales, (2) coal, (3) cannel coals and torbanites, -(4) blackband ironstones, (5) lignite, and (6) peat. - -Though in the past the oil shales of England have not been recognized -as possessing great potential value, comparatively recent discoveries -have proved that at home we have enormous deposits of oil shales of -remarkable richness. These are, so far as at present proved, situate -in Norfolk and at short distance from King’s Lynn. Dr. Forbes Leslie, -F.R.G.S., has for many years carried out a number of tests as to the -quality and quantity of the shales in the Norfolk field, and as a -result of his work it has been proved that upwards of twenty miles -square, there is an area in Norfolk underlaid with rich oil-shales. -From a geological point of view the shales are remarkable, for they -uniformly lie within 300 ft. of the surface, several of the seams being -but a few feet below ground. Their prolific nature may be judged from -the fact that in sinking test wells to depths of 300 ft. in various -parts of the field, over 150 ft. of this oil shale has been drilled -through, and it is thus established beyond all possible doubt that at -home we have all the materials at hand for a huge home production of -oil. - -The whole of the field has been secured by English Oilfields, Ltd., -a company which, by reason of the influential interest behind it, is -bound to be strikingly successful in its future developments in Norfolk. - -The crude oil content of the shales is surprisingly great, for these -shales yield approximately 60 gallons of oil per ton, or considerably -more than double as much as the Midlothian shales. Dr. Forbes Leslie -asserts that there is already proved over 2,000,000,000 tons of shale -on the properties in Norfolk, and after having carefully inspected the -whole of the fields on many occasions, I think Dr. Leslie’s statement -may be taken as very conservative, for after all it is only a question -of a simple sum of calculation which allows one to arrive at the -figures above quoted. - -Commercial developments have already been commenced on the Norfolk -fields, and it is safe to assume that they will become of enormous -National importance, since the production of home oil supplies is -to-day considered of vast National interest. - -The other shales--such as the Kimmeridge shales of Dorset and -Sussex--are not being worked commercially in spite of strenuous -efforts, and there remains much to be done before a steady supply -of petroleum can be counted upon from these sources. Of the other -possible sources of supply, coal yields too little, and at the same -time is considered too valuable to be utilized on a general scale; -lignites are not yet opened for development on a sufficient scale; -and peat has proved troublesome and expensive to treat owing to the -difficulty of eliminating the water. This, therefore, leaves cannel -coals, torbanites, and blackband ironstones, which are closely -associated and, in numerous cases, easily obtainable. Cannel coal, I -should explain, differs from the ordinarily known coal on account of -its being less carbonized; it contains many fragments and particles of -vegetable matter still showing their natural forms, though flattened by -pressure. The percentage of hydrogen to carbon is higher in a cannel -coal than in the bituminous coal, the percentage of inorganic matter is -usually higher also, and the fracture and general appearance serve to -distinguish this variety of carbonaceous deposit. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -PETROLEUM IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE - - -The desire that the British Empire should be self-supporting in every -possible way has been the predominating idea of our statesmen for -many years: it is to be regretted, however, that such little progress -has been recorded in the direction of the achievement of a practical -result. This remark applies to many commodities, yet to none more so -than to petroleum and its products. To-day, as much as at any preceding -time, the Empire is dependent upon foreign sources of supply for the -vast bulk of its petroleum products. It is true that in the United -Kingdom there is a growing production of oil from the shale-fields -of Scotland, but this total represents but a fraction of the large -quantities of products which are annually required to meet the -ever-increasing demands in commercial and domestic circles. - -At the outbreak of the European War, it was forcibly brought home to us -as a nation that we were in a position regarding our petroleum supplies -of absolute dependence upon other countries. The refined products -were an essential part of the war, for without them it would have -been impossible to have continued for almost a single day, and yet, -practically every gallon used had to be transported thousands of miles, -and from a country which at that time was neutral. To make matters -even worse, the Continental sources of supply from which we had been -previously drawing large quantities of petroleum were closed to export, -for, through the Dardanelles, the Roumanian and Russian export ports -were effectively shut off from the outside world. - -Fortunately for Great Britain, the United States came forward with -the offer of all the petroleum products required for the successful -prosecution of the war, and we owe to the United States alone all -success which has been the natural result of possessing ample -requirements of petroleum products both on sea and land. - -The fact, nevertheless, stands out tragically prominent that we as a -nation have not developed our own oil resources in a manner we ought to -have done, although everyone conversant with the oil business has been -for years advocating the giving of serious attention to this important -subject. To-day, speculative drilling for petroleum is proceeding in -England, and it is to be hoped that some success will be ultimately -recorded, but, inasmuch as I dealt with the question of Petroleum in -England in the previous chapter, I will at the moment pass over this -very interesting phase of the problem, and briefly look at the subject -from an Empire point of view. Under the British Flag, we already -have, or control, some excellent oil-fields in Burmah, Persia, Egypt, -Trinidad, and Assam, and each producing steadily increasing quantities -of crude oil. The Burmah fields have achieved fame mainly owing to -the very large profits made by the chief operating company--the -Burmah Oil Company, Ltd., whose head offices are at Glasgow. These -have of recent years been developed upon most up-to-date lines, and -the producing limits of the territory greatly extended, until now the -annual crude oil production is upwards of 1,000,000 tons. The fields -of Persia are very prolific, and their control to-day is in the hands -of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Ltd., an influential concern largely -controlled by the British Government, by reason of the investment of -large sums of public moneys a few years ago. The development of the -Persian fields is more or less in its initial stages, and though huge -quantities of oil have already been produced therefrom, the limits of -the presumably oil-bearing areas have by no means been defined. In -order to facilitate the export of Persian oil, a pipe-line has been -laid from the fields to Abadan, on the Persian Gulf, and a programme -has already been laid down under which large quantities of Persian -petroleum products will come upon the English markets. - -The Egyptian oil-fields have lately witnessed developments upon an -important scale, thanks to the enterprise of the Anglo-Egyptian -Oil-fields, Ltd., a concern closely allied with the “Shell” -Combination, and having as its Chairman, Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart. -Commercial supplies of crude oil have been found at several points near -the coast of the Gulf of Suez, and a large refinery has been built for -the refining of the oil. Down to 1914, the only oil finds of importance -had been at Gemsah, where a number of oil gushers were struck, but -the field there proved to be one of most irregular formation, and -none of the wells gave anything like a permanent yield. Fortunately, -in that year a field was discovered at Hurgada, the formation of -which was found to be singularly regular, and the yield of which has -steadily increased until, at the time of writing, the production of -crude oil in it is over 15,000 tons per month. That additional wells -have not been sunk and the field further increased has been primarily -due to the difficulties of obtaining the necessary plant under war -conditions. Some very large wells have already been brought in, but, -so far, the petroleum industry in Egypt is quite in its infancy. It is -quite obvious, however, that in the next few years the production of -petroleum in Egypt will be increasingly large, and the developments -are bound to have a significant bearing upon the oil situation -generally. - -The same remarks equally apply to the Trinidad fields, where the -anticipations of those associated with the pioneer oil operations have -been more than fulfilled. Some prolific fields have been opened up, -and the production to-day is such that an export trade of considerable -magnitude can be maintained. Developments upon the Island were -impeded by the total absence of roads in the oil districts, and much -pioneer work had to be undertaken before it was possible to commence -the serious exploitation of the fields themselves. The crude oil of -Trinidad is of both the light and the heavy grades, the former showing -remarkable percentages of motor spirit, while the latter is used not -only as fuel oil but also for the treatment of roads so as to render -them dustless. It is in Trinidad that there is the famous pitch lake, -from which for many years large quantities of asphalt have been removed -and exported for a variety of purposes. Trinidad asphalt, in fact, -is well known all over the world. The potentialities of the Island -are rapidly being appreciated, for its geographical position is such -that would make it a practical base for the “oiling” of the great -ocean-going vessels which are rapidly passing over from coal to fuel -oil burning. - -While on the subject of oil-fields which are under the British Flag, -mention must be made of Canada, whose oil industry has been developed -for many years. The principal producing fields are in Ontario, and the -town of Petrolia is the centre of the petroleum interests. But the -wells are not of the prolific class, and almost without exception show -a very poor return for operating. Many of them are sunk only to the -shallow strata, and their operation would certainly be profitless were -not a system employed by which quite a number of small producing wells -are pumped by central power. From time to time, Canada has experienced -various oil booms, one of the most recent being that which occurred -in Calgary, in 1914. A well showed a small production of high-grade -oils, and immediately the country for miles round became the centre of -an oil fever, which gradually died down when a number of unsuccessful -developments took place. To-day, the output of the Canadian fields -is steadily declining, and all efforts to stimulate the production -have so far failed. Even a Government bounty of 1½ cents a gallon of -oil produced has failed to encourage an increase in output, and it -is evident that, unless new fields are opened out, the future offers -little hope. - -The total production of petroleum to-day by the oil-fields developed -in the British Empire represents but about 2 per cent. of the world’s -total petroleum output: it is therefore clear that, if we intend -to secure our oil supplies in the future from territory under the -British Flag, large supplementary sources of supply must be found. It -is doubtful whether any additional liquid oil regions will be found -to produce oil in commercial quantity, for, though several attempts -have been made in various parts with this end in view, they have not -achieved success, and numerous instances might be quoted where the -employment of British capital in an endeavour to bring about this much -desired result has met with failure. - -The question then arises: Is it possible to augment considerably -Empire-produced oils from other means of development? In this -direction, the future is full of promise, for, though Nature has not -given the Empire freely of liquid oil-producing fields, there are -immense areas of oil-bearing shales at home and in our Dominions -overseas which can, without great difficulty, be turned into most -useful account. It is well known that great deposits of retortable -material exist within the Empire’s bounds, and many of these deposits -are exceedingly rich. At the moment, however, scarcely any have been -exploited, and none adequately developed. From time to time, many -samples of oil-bearing shales from various parts of the Empire have -been sent to this country for analysis, and these have usually been put -through Scottish retorts with varying results. - -But the unsatisfactory analyses have not been due to the qualities -of the shale or torbanite examined, but to the methods by which -the distillations were carried out. The well-known consulting oil -engineer--Mr. E. H. Cunningham-Craig--made a special point of this in a -most interesting article which recently appeared in one of the Empire -magazines, and he pointed out that the reasons for the unsatisfactory -conclusions arrived at were very simple and obvious. The Scottish -retorts are designed to deal effectually with highly inspissated and, -as a rule, not very rich, oil-shales. The recovery of the maximum -amount of sulphate of ammonia is a desideratum; a sufficient supply -of incondensable gases to fire the retort must be produced; while -the recovery of the lighter fractions (motor spirit) of the material -treated was not an object of the first consideration. For these -purposes, says Mr. Cunningham-Craig, large and high vertical retorts -are used, the temperature of distillation is comparatively high, -superheated steam is blown into the retorts, and a fairly complete -extraction of volatile matter is achieved. But to apply such methods to -a very rich and fresh torbanite--such as the richer shales of New South -Wales--is absurd, involving many practical difficulties and not giving -the most remunerative results. - -Similarly, the rich oil-shales of New Brunswick (Canada), though more -nearly allied to the Scottish shales, differ from them both chemically -and physically to such an extent as to require different treatment. Let -me now briefly refer to the deposits which are known in the Dominions -and Colonies that give promise of yielding oil in commercial quantities -by destructive distillation. I will first take the shales of Canada, -for though, as I have pointed out, the Dominion’s production of liquid -oil is steadily decreasing, there are numerous deposits of shales which -only await careful exploitation and development in order to render -Canada a petroleum-producing country of considerable magnitude. The -oil-shales of New Brunswick have been known for many years, yet only -a fraction of the area has been yet prospected. Experiments with the -shales have shown that they are capable of producing nearly 50 gallons -of crude oil the ton of shale treated, while ammonium sulphate has been -produced at the remarkable proportion of 77 lb. a ton. Albert County is -one of the best shale-fields, and it is here that a Government scheme -has now been promulgated. The shales of Nova Scotia are likewise to be -commercially developed, but so far no serious attempt has been proposed -to deal with the enormous areas in Newfoundland, the Province of -Quebec, and other already known regions of Canadian oil-shales. - -Australia can boast of very large areas of shales: some deposits -have been operated for several years, but others are still awaiting -development. From a variety of causes, however, the shale-oil industry -of Australia has never been set upon a profitable footing. The -Commonwealth Oil Corporation some years ago set out to accomplish -much, but the only thing which it seemed to do with energy was to -sail to destruction. Its failure cannot be said to have been due to -any absence of the material it set out to treat for petroleum, for at -every turn enormous quantities were opened up. It would appear that the -immensity of the possibilities which awaited its operations was one -of the prime reasons for its premature decay, while there is no doubt -that the system it employed was by no means the best for treating the -shales. A more simple and less expensive method of retorting the shales -would doubtless ensure successful working. In Queensland, Tasmania, and -New Zealand the presence of these shales has been proved over extensive -areas, and though for the most part they have so far been neglected, -there is reason to hope that, in the not distant future, the advantage -to be derived from their commercial exploitation will be the more -widely appreciated. A most lucrative industry could be built up by the -Commonwealth of Australia by the distillation of the torbanites there, -and though, perhaps, it is too much to expect that an export trade in -petroleum products could be built up, there is no doubt whatever that -the large requirements for petroleum products in the Dominion could -easily be met by the production from home sources. - -The possibilities of developing a shale industry in Africa are not -particularly promising, though they are by no means out of the range -of probability. In the coal series in the Transvaal, beds of what are -known as “oil-shales” are encountered in several localities The seams -generally are thin, and in some cases unworkable, but the material is -very rich, and has proved capable of yielding high percentages of crude -oil. - -In Sarawak (British North Borneo) the “Shell” Company is carrying out -most important and highly successful developments, which are bound to -have far-reaching and gratifying results in regard to developments -under the British Flag. - -As I have shown, the problem of Imperial oil supply would be far on -its way to solution by the development of the various shales in the -British Empire, and the pity is that a more progressive policy has not -been adopted in regard thereto long before the subject became of such -pressing importance. Each of our Colonies--like the Mother Country--is -a large consumer of petroleum products, and each is also totally -dependent upon imported supplies, yet within the borders of each are to -be found large deposits of the necessary crude material. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -PETROLEUM’S PART IN THE GREAT WAR - - -A perusal of the preceding chapters of this little work will have made -it clear to the reader that petroleum and its products play a most -important part to-day in the life of nations: if, however, one would be -impressed with the immensely significant rôle which petroleum products -have played in the conduct of the great European War, a brief reference -to the subject will amply suffice. From the commencement of the Titanic -struggle in 1914, it became obvious to those who were most competent -to judge that, if victory was to be on the side of the Allies, it was -imperative that they should possess sufficient reserves of petroleum -products for all purposes, for it was evident then that activity would -not be limited to armies on the land, but that the air and the sea -would also become battle-grounds whereon the destinies of nations would -in part be decided. - -Germany, too, saw this; before the war it had been practically -dependent upon regular supplies from the United States as well as -from Roumania, but the bulk of its requirements came from the former -mentioned country. With its States’ oil shipments cut off, it turned -its attention to securing at least part of its stocks from the neutral -North-Western European countries, which, in their turn, were likewise -dependent upon America. The ruse worked for some time, and the -unsuspecting American exporters shipped cargoes to Denmark, Norway, and -Sweden with little idea that the bulk of these were ultimately to find -their way into Germany. It was only when the figures were published in -the States as to the abnormally large quantities of petroleum products -that had been sent to the European neutral countries that, to the -thinking mind, it became obvious something was wrong. - -I can modestly claim to have called the attention of the British -Government to this underhand proceeding early in 1915, when I not -only gave them details of cargoes which had been delivered to various -North-Western European ports _en route_ to Germany, but also managed -to secure the names of vessels all laden with such supplies, which at -that time were crossing the Atlantic. Mr. Winston Churchill, to his -credit be it said, acted without delay, and within a few days, as the -vessels passed the North of Scotland, they were stopped, and--well, to -cut a long story short, this country got the petroleum products which, -in accordance with the original plan, would have gone to Germany. -Some time afterwards there came a voice of protest from one or two -interested persons in those neutral countries, for they declared that -not a single barrel of petroleum had gone over to Germany, but evidence -was soon forthcoming to show how well Germany’s ruse had worked for -some months, and a prosecution in one of those countries made against -an importing firm, for actually sending petroleum supplies into -Germany, effectively closed the protest from those who would have liked -the enemy’s desires to have been undisturbed. - -There is not the slightest doubt that Germany at that time was in dire -straits for sufficient petroleum products for its military purposes: -had the war been somewhat delayed in its commencement, she would have -been far better prepared, for, under the auspices of the Government, -there had been laid down an elaborate programme for the importation -and distribution of Roumanian petroleum products throughout Germany. -As it was, the country was unprepared, and, though in other directions -every possible precaution had been taken to carry through an elaborate -military programme of offence, the prospective dearth of sufficient -supplies of petroleum products necessitated the enforcing of the -most stringent regulations with regard to the uses of all petroleum -products, excepting for military purposes. - -The taking of the Galician fields from the Central Armies by Russia -gave a serious set-back to Germany’s military plans, and it was only -when the Russians had to withdraw from Lemberg that the enemy was able -to count upon sufficient supplies to meet his military requirements. -To an extent, he was even then doomed to disappointment, for, when his -armies arrived on the Galician fields, they found that practically the -whole of the petroleum reserves had been destroyed, and a large number -of the prolific producing wells more or less permanently damaged. -Nor, to my mind, was the advance into Roumania prompted by the idea -of territorial gains so much as to secure control of the country’s -oil-fields. Here, again, Germany’s desires were in part thwarted, -for the efforts of the British Military Mission, to which I refer -elsewhere, had been eminently successful. - -From that time onward, however, Germany’s supplies of petroleum -products were secured, and that she turned them to account was a matter -of common knowledge. Germany, naturally, greatly valued the acquisition -of the Roumanian oil-fields, and it must be to its people a great -disappointment that the whole of these immensely prolific regions for -oil production are now permanently removed from the nation’s grasp. - -Unfortunately, the British Government did not seriously appreciate the -importance of petroleum products in war as well as peace until the -war cloud of 1914 was about to burst. It had taken no notice of the -suggestions made from time to time that in our own country there might -be vast petroleum reserves awaiting development, and it had not even -shown any encouragement to the Scottish shale-oil industry. All that -it had done, and even this was on the eve of war, was to invest over -£2,000,000 in the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Ltd., for the development -of the Persian oil-fields, so that the Navy could secure ample supplies -of fuel oil. But here, however, there were difficulties ahead, for the -Persian fields are in the interior of the country and have to rely upon -pipe-lines to bring the supplies to the coast. - -Everything, therefore, depended upon the security of the pipe-line, -and the idea which was in the minds of many who opposed the scheme as -to the possibility of supplies being cut off by the activities of the -insurgents, was by no means a mistaken one; the pipe-line was, in fact, -partially destroyed, and the transport of fuel oil held up for a long -time. - -As a nation, we have all along had to depend upon imported petroleum -products, and, inasmuch as our supplies could be drawn at will from -a variety of producing countries, the idea that we might at one time -find ourselves cut off from supply does not appear to have occurred to -many. No sooner had the war started, however, than we found, owing to -the closing of the Dardanelles, that both Russia and Roumania could no -longer attend to our requirements, while the Far East, owing to the -great ocean journey necessitated to this country (and the quickest way -lay through the Mediterranean) could not maintain regular shipments -with us. It is fortunate that we found the United States willing, and -from the start very desirous, to do all that was possible to help us -out of a difficulty; while Mexico, with its wealth of British oil -interests, catered in every way for the meeting of the enormous demands -we made upon its resources. - -To say that petroleum products have played a highly-important part in -the conduct of the war is but to under-estimate facts. The importance -of their part has been equal to that of the supply of guns and shells, -and, when the statement was made in the House of Commons in 1917 that -adequate supplies of petroleum were quite as essential as men and -munitions, petroleum’s part was then not over-stated. Rather would I -say it was on the contrary, for, had there been at any time a dearth -of any classification of petroleum products, then the vast naval and -army organization, both on and across the water, would immediately have -lost its balance, and our great fighting units would automatically have -become useless. Just think of it for a moment. - -To-day, our great naval fighters--take the _Queen Elizabeth_, for -instance--rely upon fuel oil for purposes of power, while our second -and third line units must also have it, for, whether it be fuel oil or -the lighter products of the oil refinery--I refer to motor spirit--it -matters not, so far as supply is concerned. The whole of our winged -fleets in the air must, of necessity, be useless unless they can -regularly draw large quantities of motor spirit, and the volume they -consume, even on a single trip, would surprise many, though it is not -possible here to enter into figures. - -At first sight one might be inclined to think that, apart from -petroleum products being a very useful adjunct to the organization of -battles on land, their use is not of a very real nature, but, if we -pause for one moment, our first impressions are disillusioned. - -It was my privilege at the end of 1917, thanks to the kindness of -the British Foreign Office, to pay a visit to the fronts of France -and Flanders, and there to have an opportunity of seeing the part -which petroleum products did actually play. The immensity of this -importance cannot be easily grasped, nor easily described. We all -know the remarkable progress which had been made in regard to the -extension of the railway systems throughout the zones of battle, but -it will surprise many to learn that it was when the rail-heads had -been reached, and between there and the real battle front, that motor -spirit had the realm of transport to itself. Tens of thousands of heavy -motor vehicles took up the work of transport when it left the railway, -and it was this service that was required to see not only that our -millions of men daily received their food, but each and every sort of -ammunition also. But it was not even when the front line of battle was -reached that motor spirit had finished its work. Those great machines -of war--the tanks--had to remain stationary if they were not fed by -large supplies of spirit, while petroleum, too, took a primary position -in the making of the liquid fire which now and again we heard of as -causing such havoc to Fritz. But, at its best, the railway was somewhat -slow at the Front, no doubt owing to the enormous congestion which -was inseparable from the reign of a state of war. Consequently, whole -fleets of motor vehicles were employed day and night in a ceaseless -stream of traffic, from the coastal ports right up to the zone of -battle. Without divulging secrets, it is safe to say that that branch -of the service alone demanded millions of gallons of motor spirit -weekly. - -Both after as well as before battle, the products of petroleum were -essential, for, when the Red Cross vehicles took up their humane work -of transporting the wounded heroes of the fight, those, too, called for -innumerable quantities of motor spirit. And when darkness had fallen -the oil lamp came into general use. It was to be found wherever there -was a vestige of life in those zones of battle: the soldiers in their, -at times, lonely dug-outs, used oil for cooking as well as for light, -and all vehicular traffic was guided from disaster along the roads by -the use of oil, which also offered the only source of artificial light -in the Red Cross vehicles. What an immense organization it was which -depended for its ceaseless activities upon the products of petroleum! - -One day, while at General Headquarters, I expressed a desire to see -the methods by which all that world of activity secured its necessary -supplies of petroleum products regularly, when once they had arrived -in France in bulk. A few days later, I was, accordingly, allowed to -visit the immense central depot at Calais, at which all the petroleum -products required for use in the organization of transport were dealt -with. It is safe to say that at no centre in the world did there -exist such an extensive petroleum depot, nor anywhere else was there -an organization upon whose perfect working so much depended. Though -motor spirit necessarily occupied the first position of importance, -practically the whole range of products was dealt with. The motor -spirit was received in bulk, but at the depot had to be measured into -the familiar 2-gallon can (which was made on the spot) and sent up -country in special trains each day. Specially coloured tins denoted -the best quality of the spirit, and it was that which was reserved for -the numerous aerodromes in France and Flanders. The magnitude of that -branch of the depot might be guessed when I state that at the time of -my visit considerably over 2,000,000 2-gallon petrol tins were being -either stored or filled for up country dispatch. - -All kinds of lubricants were also essential for the purposes of war, -for even motor spirit itself would be of little use for the internal -combustion engines, if the engines could not secure their regular -supplies of lubricating oils. These, too, had to be dispatched with -remarkable regularity to every section of the battle zones, whilst, as -I have suggested earlier, the daily requirements of war necessitated -the distribution of illuminating oil in large quantities. - -But no reference to petroleum’s part in the great European war would be -complete were it not to include mention of the way in which supplies -of toluol assisted in securing victory to the Allies. Toluol, as is -known, is necessary for the production of high explosives, and in the -early stages of the great conflict, the output of high explosives was -considerably restricted by the absence of sufficient quantities of this -necessary explosive primary. - -It was at that time that a discovery of the utmost importance was made, -for, as the result of investigations carried out at the Cambridge -University, it was found that the heavy petroleums of Borneo contained -large percentages of toluol. - -Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart., the Chairman (and the founder) of the Shell -Transport and Trading Company, Ltd., lost no time in apprising the -British Government of the discovery, for it is in the Borneo oils that -the Shell Company and its allied concerns are chiefly interested. - -The offer for the delivery of these immense quantities of toluol was -eagerly accepted by the British and Allied Governments, and from that -time onward, the supply of high explosives was practically unlimited. - -The French and Italian Governments have asserted that, but for this -specific offer of toluol, the manufacture of high explosives would have -had to remain so limited, that it would have been impossible to bring -about an Allied Victory in 1918. Their thanks were publicly extended -to the Shell Company at the conclusion of hostilities, and Mr. H. W. -Deterding and the Asiatic Petroleum Company were specially thanked, -while as far back as 1915, Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart., received the -thanks of the British Government for his invaluable war services. It -was only after the firing of the guns had ceased on all Fronts, that it -was permissible to record in what a remarkable manner these services -were rendered. - -The exigencies of space have prevented my dealing, excepting in the -most brief manner, with this interesting subject: I only hope I have -succeeded in showing that, in times of war, as well as in those of -peace, petroleum products occupy the position of first importance. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE SCOTTISH SHALE-OIL INDUSTRY - - -In view of the great interest which is now being centred in the -production of petroleum in the British Isles--thus making this country -to a large extent less dependent upon foreign sources of supply--the -Shale-oil Industry of Scotland is assuming a new importance, for the -reason that it is in the direction of the development of new oil-shale -areas in several parts of the country that experts look with a great -amount of confidence. - -It is specially interesting, therefore, to deal at some length with -the growth of the industry, the methods by which the oil shales are -operated, and the prospects for its extension. - -The name of Dr. James Young, of Renfrewshire, will ever be associated -with the commercial exploitation of the oil-bearing shales in the -Midlothians, for it was due to his enterprise that the Scottish -shale-oil industry really owed its birth and much of its later -development. It was while Young was managing a chemical works at -Liverpool that his attention was drawn to small flows of oil which -came from a coal seam at Alfreton, in Derbyshire. This was in 1847, -and after experimenting with the liquid, Young succeeded in extracting -therefrom on a commercial scale both a light burning oil and a -lubricant, as well as wax. When the supply became exhausted, Dr. Young -had an idea to imitate the natural processes by which he believed the -oil had been formed. The outcome of this was the well-known Young -patent for obtaining paraffin oil and other products from bituminous -coals at slow distillation. - -The Young process was utilized with much success in the United States -until such time as it became unprofitable owing to the largely -increasing production in America of liquid oils obtained direct from -the earth. It was about this time that a bituminous mineral known as -Boghead coal, and existing in the Midlothians, was discovered, and -from this Young secured upwards of 100 gallons of oil from each ton -treated, but soon this mineral was, in a practical sense, exhausted, -and so the bituminous shales, now known as oil-shales, came in for -attention. Before passing away from Dr. Young’s services in connection -with the establishment of the Scottish shale-oil industry, it should be -mentioned that he figures very largely in more than one of the earlier -Scottish shale concerns. He founded the Bathgate Oil Company, which, in -the zenith of its operations, treated 1,000 tons of shale daily, this -Company being later merged into the Young’s Paraffin Light and Mineral -Oil Company, Ltd., one of the large Scottish shale-oil undertakings and -well known throughout the world to-day. - -The Scottish shale-oil fields, as exploited to-day, cover a belt of -territory which is about 6 miles broad and stretches from Dalmeny -and Abercorn, on the Firth of Forth, southwards across the fertile -tract between the River Almond and the Bathgate Hills to the moorland -district of Cobbinshaw and Tarbrax. Throughout this region there are -various important mining centres, such as Broxburn, Uphall, East -Calder, Mid-Calder, West Calder, and Addiwell; and in connection with -the shale-oil industry, upwards of 25,000 persons now find regular -employment. - -The shale measures on which the shale-oil industry depends, form part -of the calciferous sandstone series of Mid and West Lothian and the -southern coast of Fife. The carboniferous system of Scotland may be -arranged in descending order in four divisions, as under-- - -4. Coal measures, comprising red sandstone, shales, and marls with no -workable coals, underlaid by white and grey sandstones and shales with -numerous valuable coal seams and ironstones. - -3. Millstone grit, consisting of coarse sandstones, with beds of -fireclay, a few thin coals, ironstones, and thin limestones. - -2. Carboniferous limestone series, embracing three subdivisions, the -highest of which contains three or more limestones with thick beds of -sandstone and some coals, the middle includes several valuable seams of -coal and ironstone, and the lowest is characterized by several beds of -marine limestone with sandstone, shales, some coals, and ironstones. - -1. Calciferous sandstone series, forming two subdivisions. The upper -is known as the oil-shale group, and is over 3,000 feet in thickness, -and contains, in its highest part, beds of coal, usually of inferior -quality, and, farther down, about six main seams of oil-shale, -inter-stratified with beds of sandstone, shale, fire-clay, marl, and -estuarine limestones. - -Although the calciferous sandstone series is well developed in other -parts of Scotland, it has not hitherto yielded any oil-shale of -economic importance beyond the limits of West Lothian, Mid Lothian, -and Fife. Thin seams of oil-shale do occur in various places in the -counties of Haddington and Berwick, but, generally speaking, the -quantity is not sufficient to be practically worked. - -A word or two as to the oil-shales themselves. The shales, as known -in the Lothians, are fine black or brownish clay shales, with certain -special features which enable them to be easily distinguished in the -field. Miners draw a distinction between “plain” and “curly” shale, -the former variety being flat and smooth, and the latter contorted or -“curled,” and polished or glossy on the squeezed faces. In internal -structure, oil-shale is minutely laminated, which is apparent in the -“spent” shale after distillation, when it is thrown out in fragments, -composed of extremely thin sheets like the leaves of a book. - -Before touching upon the methods employed in mining the shale and the -treatment it receives during distillation, it is interesting to note -that the industry in Scotland has passed through many vicissitudes -since its establishment. At that time, the American oil industry was -but in its infancy, and the production in the States was utilized -mainly on the American markets. Consequently, there was a great -demand for the Scottish oils in this country, and in 1870 there were -no fewer than ninety small oil-works in the Lothians, the majority -of which were operating the shales. It was about this time that the -American illuminating oil came over to this country, and a very -sorry blow was dealt the Scottish industry. So disastrous was the -resulting competition between the Scottish products on the one hand, -and the American and Russian petroleums on the other, that one by -one the Scottish companies closed down, and, after less than eight -years of competition, the number of operating companies had fallen to -twenty-six. The decay continued until the number of active concerns in -the Scottish shale-oil industry could be counted on one’s fingers. - -The industry exists to-day simply as a result of the great improvements -which have been made in the retorting of the shale, by which larger -quantities of products are produced--including ammonia. It is thus able -to withstand foreign competition. - -To-day, it is estimated that nearly 4,000,000 tons of the Scottish -shales are treated every twelve months by the several operating oil -companies. The most important of these concerns--the Pumpherston Oil -Company--has been regularly operating since 1883, and, inasmuch as it -deals with by far the largest quantities of shale treated, a brief -account of its operations will be of advantage in enabling the reader -to understand the methods by which a total of nearly 400,000 tons of -oil are produced each year in Scotland. - -The operations of the Pumpherston Oil Company are upon a scale of -considerable magnitude, for the Company’s works comprise the crude oil -plant, the sulphate of ammonia plant, oil and wax refineries, etc. The -Seafield and Deans works, 7 and 4 miles distant respectively, possess -only crude-oil and sulphate-producing plants, the refining plants being -confined to Pumpherston. The Company’s works cover 100 acres, while -the shale fields extend over many thousands of acres in and around the -district of Pumpherston. - -As has already been mentioned, the shale fields so far operated -lie, in the main, in the Lothians, and, as one motors by road from -Edinburgh to Glasgow, the shale country is passed through. Before -the commercial development of a shale field, trial borings are sunk, -now more generally by means of a diamond bore, for by its revolving -action a solid core is obtained which readily shows the character and -inclination of the strata passed through. When a seam of shale has been -found by boring operations, and the exact position and depth of outcrop -determined, it is necessary, before sinking a mine, to put down a trial -shaft for the purpose of making sure as to the true gradient at which -the shale is lying, and the thickness as well as the quality of the -same. - -In the shales in the Pumpherston district there are five distinct -seams, dipping from 29 degrees to 38 degrees, and the mine is driven in -the middle seam, the other seams being entered by level cross-cut mines -driven from one to another. Each of these seams is worked separately, -the cross-cut shown in the sketch serving the purposes of communication -and transit. In some cases, where the inclination of the shales is at -a different angle, it is necessary to sink a vertical shaft, and this -method is applied to the series known as the Mid-Calder. - -The usual dimensions of the inclined shaft are a width of from 10 -to 12 feet, and the height is from 6 to 8 feet. If the sides of the -shaft prove to be of a soft nature, as is generally the case with the -shale at the crop, walls are run up and the roof is supported by larch -crowns, but, where the shale is hard and the roof good, then the less -costly method of timbering is adopted. - -The supports to the roof in many cases are fixed “centre” fashion, -dividing the shaft into two unequal parts. The smaller division has -generally a width of just over 3 feet, and is used for haulage ropes -and water pipes, while the larger division is utilized for winding. -During the progress of sinking, levels are broken away in the seam at -regular distances, and driven so as to get communication with, and -drive headings to form, the outer mine. These headings are driven in -the same direction as the sinking mine to the levels above, until -they connect with the outer mine or shaft. The outer mine is then -used for winding the shale up to the surface, and the other is kept -for sinking purposes, and by this means winding and sinking can go on -simultaneously. - -[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF THE PUMPHERSTON WORKS] - -The seams of shale in the Midlothian fields vary generally from 4 to -10 feet in thickness, say 7 feet as an average, and, on the whole, -they are comparatively free from ribs of unproductive rock. With a -thickness of 7 feet, experience has shown that the method best adapted -for the efficient working of the shale is “stoop and room,” but in the -case of two seams of shale, separated by a bed of foreign material -of sufficient thickness for packing, the long wall method proves the -more suitable. The “stoop and room” method, however, is more generally -used throughout the Scottish shale district than any other, its chief -characteristics being the (1) “whole” or first working, and (2) the -broken or second working. The whole working consists of a series of -excavations made in the shale, whereby it is divided into rectangular -blocks or pillars. These excavations are called rooms, one set being -driven at right angles to the dip of the shale and at regular distances -from one another, and commonly called “levels”; another set, driven to -the rise of these levels and at right angles to them, being usually -known as “ends” or “upsets.” The latter are broken off the levels at -regular intervals and driven upwards to meet the levels above. - -The shale miner holes as far as he can reach--probably three or more -feet--and brings down the shale by blasting, the process being repeated -until he penetrates a distance of from 9 to 12 feet from the face at -road-head. The shale, being loosened from its natural bed, is then -placed in “hutches,” which are taken to the bottom of the shaft by -either horse or chain haulage (much as with coal), and then the journey -to the mouth is commenced. Before leaving the question of shale mining, -it should be explained that the shale miner is subject to dangers much -as his colleague in the coal-pit, but the volume of gases found in the -shale seams is not so great as in the coal measures. These, however, -are of an explosive nature, the most common being fire-damp. - -Once above ground, the shale is conveyed to breaking machines by -endless wire-rope haulage. Passing through the machines, it is broken -into suitable sizes for distillation, and drops into hopper-shaped -hutches. These hutches have a capacity of about a ton, and each in turn -is conveyed to the top of the retorts on an inclined scaffold by an -endless chain. The shale then falls by the operation of a lever into a -hopper or magazine communicating directly with the retorts, one hopper -with a storage capacity of 24 hours’ supply of shale being connected to -each retort of the Pumpherston Company. - -This Company’s retorts--they are patented--are in use at the various -works of the Pumpherston Company, and are an interesting feature to -visitors. The shale is fed by gravitation into cylindrical-shaped -retorts, and built vertically in ovens of four, each oven having four -chambers. The upper portion is of cast-iron, 11 feet long by 2 feet -in diameter at the top, and slightly enlarged toward the bottom. Heat -is applied externally from the incondensable gases obtained from the -distillation of the shale, and this heat is made to circulate round -the retort. In the case of the poorer qualities of the shale, however, -the heat is assisted by producer-gas. The heating gas enters near -the bottom portion of the retort, which is of fire-brick, along with -a certain quantity of air, and a high temperature--from 1,200°F. to -1,600°F.--is maintained, in this portion converting the nitrogen of the -shale into ammonia, which is preserved by a continuous supply of steam -delivered at a slight pressure at the bottom of the hopper. - -The oil gases are distilled from the shale in the cast-iron portion -of the retort at a temperature of about 900° F., and, along with the -ammonia gas, are drawn off by the exhausters through a branch pipe -at the top of the retort, through the atmospheric condensers, from -which the condensed liquid oil and water containing ammonia flow into -a small separator tank. It is here that, owing to their different -specific gravities--for one is lighter than the other--they assume -different levels, and are thus drawn off into separate tanks. The -gases then pass through ammonia scrubbers, in which they are washed -for ammonia, and then through the naphtha scrubbers, where the lighter -gases, which could not be caught in the atmospheric condensers, -are washed with oil and a good quality of light oil or naphtha is -recovered. The incondensable portion passing from these scrubbers is -burned in the retorts as previously mentioned. With a shale of average -yield, the retort can be heated by these incondensable gases from the -distillation, and a surplus obtained for burning under steam boilers. - -What is doubtless a very unique feature of the Pumpherston retort -is the mechanical arrangement for withdrawing the spent shale -continuously, and thus keeping the whole mass inside the retorts in -constant movement. Below each pair of retorts is fixed a hopper made -of cast-iron, and fixed to girders supported on the brick piers or -columns between the ovens. At the top of each hopper, and immediately -underneath the bottom of the retorts, is fixed a cast-iron disc or -table, with a space left between its edge and the sides of the hopper. -The whole mass of shale in the retort rests upon the table, the space -permitting some to pass over the edge. Through the centre of the table -a steel spindle projects, on the upper end of which is fixed a curved -arm, and this, when rotated, pushes some of the shale off, causing it -to fall over the edge of the table into the hopper below. The shaft -carrying the curved arm passes through a stuffing-box on the hopper, -and has a ratchet and lever fitted to the lower end, actuated by a -rod of T-iron which is made to travel horizontally, and is driven by -a small electric motor. The motion is comparatively slow, the arm -making but one revolution in about 20 minutes, but the action is most -satisfactory, the through-put of shale being regulated at will. - -The ammonia water got from the atmospheric condensers is pumped through -a heater, in which it is raised in temperature by the waste water -flowing from the still, and passes into the top of the still, which is -circular in shape, about 30 feet high, and has a series of cast-iron -shelves or trays fixed horizontally every 2 feet or thereabouts from -the top to near the bottom. Steam is put into the bottom of the still -at a pressure of 40 lb., and passes to the top through a series of -conical arrangements on the shelves carrying with it the volatile -ammonia, while the water, after traversing the whole area of each tray, -passes out into a concrete tank containing a cast-iron worm, which is -the heater already referred to, for the ammonia water on its way to the -still. During its progress from the top to the bottom of the still, the -water is diverted into a chamber containing milk of lime, setting free -the fixed ammonia which cannot be got by steaming. - -The steam and ammonia gas liberated in the still pass over into a -large lead-lined tub or saturator, and bubbles through holes in a -lead worm placed round the circumference at the bottom of the vessel. -Sulphuric acid is at the same time run into the saturator, and, at -a certain temperature, sulphate of ammonia is formed. The sulphate -falls into a well, formed in the centre of the bottom of the vessel, -in which are placed two steam ejectors, and these blow it out along -with some liquor. This mixture is delivered into hutches having -perforated bottoms, through which the ammonia liquor drains off, the -solid sulphate being left in the hutch. This is now run by an overhead -railway to the drying or storage stalls, and from these it is packed -up and dispatched to the market. The exhaust steam and waste gases -from the saturator are passed into the retorts, and utilized for the -formation of ammonia from the shale, while the spent water is pumped to -the spent shale bing, and thoroughly filtered before being allowed to -escape from the works. - -For dealing with the weak acid water recovered from the refinery, the -Pumpherston plant consists of lead-lined tubs or crackers, into which -a quantity of the acid water is run, and saturated with ammonia gas -until it is near the salting point, when it gravitates into settling -vessels in order to separate any tar carried over with the acid water. -The clear liquid is then drawn into the saturator, where it is quickly -converted into sulphate and blown out in the manner already described. - -So up to date is the whole of the system governing the treatment of the -shales and the resulting products, that the pumping of water from the -mines, the haulage of the shale to the refineries, as well as driving -of machinery in the works, is performed by electric power, the exhaust -steam from the engines driving the generators, as in the case of the -sulphate of ammonia exhaust, being sent to the retorts for use in the -production of ammonia. - -The process of refining the crude oil obtained from the shale into -the various products is somewhat complicated and perplexing to those -unassociated with the industry on account of the many distillations -and treatments which have to be carried out before a good marketable -article is produced. The following outline, however, will give a fair -idea of the process adopted throughout Scotland. - -The crude oil is delivered at the refinery into large tanks, which -are placed at a sufficient height to feed the stills by gravitation. -The crude oil is allowed to settle for twelve or more hours at a -temperature sufficiently high to separate any water that may have -passed the test at the retorts, and after this water has been run -off, the oil is fed into the centre boiler of a battery of oil -boilers. The lightest fraction of the oil--ultimately motor spirit and -illuminating oils--is distilled off the feeding boiler and condensed -in a coil of cast-iron pipes immersed in water in a tank, cold water -being continuously run into the tank, while heated water is run off. -The boilers on each side of the feed vessel receive their oil by a -pipe connecting with the bottom of the latter, and they also distil -over the lighter portion of oil with which they have been fed, the -heavier portions passing on to a third boiler, where the process of -distillation is repeated. - -The oil now left is delivered into a cast-iron pot-still, in which -it is ultimately distilled to dryness, the residue left in the still -forming oil coke, which is valuable as a fuel on account of its high -percentage of fixed carbon and low yield of ash. Steam is admitted to -the still in large quantities at all distillations. The various stages -of distillation are carried through in almost identically the same -manner as that of crude oil, and, therefore, need not be described in -detail. - -The treatment or washing of the oil to remove the impurities that -cannot be eliminated by distillation, consists in stirring the oil -by compressed air for a given time in an iron vessel, with a fixed -quantity of sulphuric acid, allowing it to settle, and running off the -heavy mixture of tar and acid which separates. The acid-treated oil -is then run into another similar vessel, treated with a solution of -caustic soda, settles, and the soda tar which separates is run off. -The acid tars are steamed and washed, the resulting acid water being -sent to the sulphate of ammonia house for the manufacture of sulphate -of ammonia, whilst the tar is mixed with that from the soda treatments -and burned under the stills as liquid oil. As there is more than -sufficient of this tar to distil all the oil at the various stages, -the distillation is carried out without cost for fuel, excepting that -necessary for steam-raising purposes. - -A portion of the oil distilled at the second distillation, or green -oil stage, is sent from the stills to the paraffin sheds to be cooled -and the scale extracted, this eventually being made into paraffin wax. -Stored in tanks until brought down to atmospheric temperature, the -oil is pumped into the inner chamber of a cooler, which consists of a -series of four vessels having inner and outer compartments. At the same -time, anhydrous ammonia is forced into the outer compartment or jacket, -and absorbs heat from the cooler, freezing the oil in the inner jacket -into a pasty mixture of liquid oil and solid crystals of wax. - -This mixture is then pumped into filter-presses, where a portion of -the oil flows away through the cloth, while the wax is left behind -in solid cakes, still containing a quantity of oil. These cakes are -delivered by conveyors to the back of the hydraulic presses, where -they are wrapped in cloth and placed on shelves between iron frames in -the presses, most of the remaining oils being thus squeezed out. The -material obtained from the hydraulic presses is known to the trade as -paraffin scale, and as it is discoloured by the small quantity of oil -which cannot be removed by pressing, a process of sweating by steaming -in large brick compartments is adopted, in order to remove the oil. -The scale, consequent upon the removal of the oil therefrom, becomes -whiter and of higher melting point, and after further treatment is -finally passed through filter paper and run into moulding trays. When -cooled, this product is known as paraffin wax, of which there are many -grades. One cannot enter into the technical arrangements involved, for -obvious reasons, the chief one of which is that these cannot interest -the reader; but sufficient has already been written in this chapter to -suggest to the reader the perfection which has now been reached in the -treatment of the shales of the Midlothians. - -As to the future, it is full of promise. There is no doubt that for -many years to come the full force of foreign competition, as it has -existed in previous times, will not be felt. There is a free field -for Scottish enterprise in connection with the distillation of its -oil-bearing shales. Nor is the region for development limited to its -present area. Reports point to the fact that much area of commercial -ground exists, not only on the eastern side of Scotland, but also in -the north and north-west, while it is already an open secret that -those responsible for the conduct of Government operations are viewing -with favour even the liquid extraction of oil from certain areas not -far distant from the zone of the present operations. The Scottish -shale-oil industry has, so far, managed to defy competition from abroad -to an extent which is reflected in the balance sheets of the several -operating companies, whose yearly dividends have been from 50 per cent. -downward during recent years. - -One thing is certain, and that is, the Government is well aware that -there are great possibilities associated with the shale-oil industry -of Scotland, and it is not only watching developments with direct -interest, but is doing all in its power to foster the industry, and -by all means possible encourage the exploitation of areas so far -not commercially developed. At some future date there is a great -possibility that the present area for developments will be largely -extended, and as this is written, there is much evidence forthcoming to -suggest that this commercial development of new lands will not long be -delayed. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -A FEW NOTABLE PETROLEUM ENTERPRISES - - -No brief survey of the petroleum industry would be complete were -reference not made to a few of those remarkable commercial undertakings -in various parts of the world whose interests are not only closely -associated with it, but to whose energies has been due much of the -expansion that has been witnessed in every direction during the past -few decades. It is safe to assert that, had it not been that the -petroleum industry has, in its various industrial and commercial -aspects attracted the attention of some of the finest financial and -business houses in the world, the wonderful progress which has been -recorded would, for the most part, have been impossible. - -The first place must of necessity be given to that much maligned -amalgamation of capital, the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, which -was formed as far back as 36 years ago by Mr. John D. Rockefeller -and his associates for the primary purpose of developments in the -petroleum industry of the United States. At that time, the petroleum -production of America had become quite a factor in commerce, but it -was, obviously, in want of a guiding hand which could not only place -it upon a basis of solidity, but which would tend to remove much of -that gambling element which had become almost part and parcel of all -developments. The Company, at the head of which were several gentlemen -who had already made themselves famous in the land of oil, launched out -in several directions, and, through the numerous subsidiary concerns -which it soon created, it owned very extensive oil-bearing properties -in practically every oil-field of the States, while it built quite a -network of pipe-lines for the conveyance of the oil from the fields to -the refineries, and from the refineries to seaboard. It erected and -equipped oil refineries, and, so as to provide the much-needed foreign -markets for American petroleum products, it built its fleet of oil -tankers; and, lastly, opened depots for the distribution of American -petroleum products all the world over. - -At one time, the ultimate success of its vast operations was open to -question, and many there were who predicted that one day it would -ignominiously pass on to the list of oil failures. Indeed, it nearly -came to this on one or two occasions, and it was only owing to the -remarkable perseverance of those at the head of the Company’s affairs -that prevented headlong disaster. The Standard Oil Company soon became -an integral part of the petroleum industry of the United States, -with which it grew up and steadily assumed a position of world-wide -importance, though one which was not unassailable. Its ultimate success -was the chief cause for the multiplication of its critics, and volumes -have been written of its wrong-doings by writers whose knowledge of -the petroleum industry was mostly based upon wilful ignorance of -facts. Consequent upon a decision of the United States Supreme Court -some seven years ago, which held that the Company was violating the -Anti-Trust Law of 1890, the Standard had to rid itself of its various -subsidiary companies (over thirty in number), but it still controls -almost a similar number of concerns to-day which are actively engaged -in the production of crude oil and natural gas. It also owns several of -the largest refineries in the States, while its fleet of oil tankers -will, when present building is completed, be considerably over 300,000 -tonnage. Its capital is $100,000,000, and during the last twelve -years it has paid in dividends over 400 per cent., in addition to an -additional cash distribution of 40 per cent. - -The Standard Oil Company of New York is another immense concern -which, with a capital of $75,000,000, has its headquarters in the -Standard’s palatial building at 26 Broadway, New York, and interested -principally in the refining industry, its facilities permitting of -20,000 barrels of crude oil being treated daily. Another very prominent -company is the Standard Oil Company of California, with its capital -of $100,000,000. This Company not only produces its crude oil, but -refines it, and engages in the export business. Its refinery at Point -Richmond, California, is reported to be the largest in the world, for -it can treat 65,000 barrels of crude oil daily. Its fleet of tankers -and barges for the export trade is capable of carrying at one trip over -100,000 tons of products, and, for the purposes of its land transport, -it possesses pipe-lines over 1,000 miles long. - -The second place of importance in regard to the petroleum enterprises -of international influence must be given to the “Shell” Transport -and Trading Company, Ltd., whose headquarters are in London, with -that well-known oil pioneer, Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart., as its -Chairman. Formed just over twenty years ago for dealing primarily as -a transporter of petroleum products in the Far East, the “Shell” has -steadily and continuously extended the sphere of its operations, until -the result of a carefully thought out policy is seen in its activities -in almost every oil-field of the world. Just over ten years ago, the -Company made an amalgamation with the Royal Dutch Petroleum Company, -or, to give it its correct name, the Koninklijke Nederlandsche -Maatschappij tot exploitatie van petroleum-bronnen in Nederlandsch -Indie (whose capital is £12,500,000), and by reason of so doing it -materially increased its international position and importance. The -“Shell”--Royal Dutch Combine to-day has a controlling interest in some -of the largest operating companies in Russia, Roumania, California, -Mexico, Venezuela, and other oil regions, one of its most recent -extensions being in its advent into the petroleum industry of Trinidad. -The “Shell” Company has a record for successful industrial expansion -which is achieved by few companies in the world of commerce: its -capital is now £15,000,000, and in dividends it has distributed over -300 per cent. Among the “Shell” Company’s associated concerns, that -of the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company, Ltd., which is responsible for -the ocean transportation of the petroleum products of the Combine, -takes first place, with its capital of £8,000,000; while the Asiatic -Petroleum Company, Ltd. (capital, £2,000,000), ranks but second. The -recent fusion of the interests of Lord Cowdray with those of the -“Shell,” for the latter has acquired the control of the great Mexican -interests associated with the Pearson company, is another instance of -how the “Shell” Company has trod the road of progress and expansion. - -The sudden rise to fame of the oil-fields of Mexico gave birth to what -may safely be referred to as one of the most enterprising amalgamations -of capital in the long list of concerns associated with the petroleum -industry, and it is gratifying to note that this enterprise was solely -due to the well-known firm of Messrs. S. Pearson & Sons. Lord Cowdray, -as the head, was not slow to recognize the vast opportunities which -awaited the development of the Mexican fields, and the formation of the -Mexican Eagle Oil Company, in 1908, with a capital of now $60,000,000 -(Mexican), or about £6,125,000 sterling, was the initial result of his -efforts. It was just about this time that the serious fuel oil era -opened, both in this country and others, and it was evident that, for -the purpose of adequately distributing the products of Mexican oil (and -these include the whole range of refined oils, as well as fuel oil), -there was room for the operations of a large and influential company. -The Anglo-Mexican Petroleum Company, Ltd., was accordingly formed, with -Lord Cowdray’s son (the Hon. B. C. Pearson) as Chairman, and a capital -of £2,000,000, to deal with the importation and distribution of Mexican -petroleum products on the English market. - -As already stated, the control of this Company has now passed under the -“Shell,” and its future expansion is assured, both at home and abroad. - -The Mexican products are transported from Mexico to this country, as -well as many others, by the large fleet of Eagle oil tankers, the -property of the Eagle Oil Transport Company, Ltd., which admirably -managed concern of £3,000,000 capital is also presided over by the Hon. -B. C. Pearson. The Eagle Company possesses the largest oil tankers -afloat, many of them carrying over 15,000 tons of bulk oil, though -others to be built are to be considerably larger; an 18,000 ton tanker -is, indeed, already in commission. - -Another highly important enterprise in the world of petroleum is that -of the Burmah Oil Company, Ltd., which, as its name suggests, is -occupied with the petroleum industry in Burmah, and catering for the -almost unlimited needs of the Far East in regard to refined petroleum -products. It controls enormous acres of oil-bearing territory held -under lease from the Burmah Government, possesses extensive refineries -at Rangoon, and has quite a fleet of oil tankers. Its capital is -three and a half millions sterling, and its consistent success may be -judged from the fact that it has paid over 400 per cent. in dividends. -Of comparatively recent date, the Burmah Oil Company has turned its -attention to other fields, particularly to Trinidad, but it is in -connection with the development and subsequent operations of the fields -of Burmah that the Company is chiefly concerned. - -The Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Ltd., which is closely allied to the -Burmah Oil Company (capital, £6,000,000) by reason of its large -interest therein, has come into prominence during recent years, -owing mainly to its agreement with the British Government, in which -the latter has invested over £4,000,000 of the public moneys in -the enterprise. The Company acquired its petroliferous concessions -from several interests, including the Burmah Oil Company and the -late Lord Strathcona, which had been granted to them by the Persian -Government. When I mention that the Company’s concessions cover an -area of, approximately, half a million square miles, and on which -petroleum has been found in quantity on the majority of the small -areas already examined, the significance of the enterprise will be -somewhat appreciated. There is no doubt that the company’s success is -doubly assured, and, from this point of view, the investment of the -public moneys in the undertaking has been sound finance, especially -when one considers the important part which petroleum products -under British control must hereafter play. As a matter of fact, the -proposition is a well-paying one to-day, and it is asserted that the -Government’s interest is already worth no less than £20,000,000. Persia -as an oil-producing country will occupy a very prominent place. The -Company has immense petroleum-producing fields: it has its pipe-line -to seaboard, and its refineries, situate on the Persian Gulf. It -has possibilities without end, and it is rapidly availing itself of -them. The Company also now owns the entire capital of three formerly -German-owned concerns in London--the British Petroleum Company, -Ltd., the Homelight Oil Company, Ltd., and the Petroleum Steamship -Company, Ltd. Consequent upon these acquisitions, the Anglo-Persian -Company, Ltd., is making arrangements to enter the English market as -distributors of Persian petroleum. The question of transport need -not here be considered, for the Anglo-Persian Oil Company owns the -entire capital of the British Tanker Co., Ltd. The Company thus has -the producing and refining possibilities: the acquired concern of the -Tanker Company, together with that of the Petroleum Steamship Co., -will suffice to bring its products to the English market, while the -large distributing organizations of the British Petroleum Company and -the Homelight Oil Company, owning depots all over the country, will -offer easy facilities for the distribution of the petroleum products -imported. My argument all along has been that the advent of the British -Government into this enterprise--I will not call it a speculation, -though at one time it looked like it--places all that private -enterprise, which in the past has brought all the products of petroleum -to our own doors at a reasonable and competitive price, at absolute -discount. Ever since the petroleum industry assumed proportions of -international magnitude, and we became more or less (I should have said -more than less) dependent upon our necessities being met by petroleum -and its products, private enterprise has always kept us well supplied. -But the Anglo-Persian Oil Company has made immense headway since the -Government took an interest in its operations, and its appearance on -the English market as a refiner of Persian crude oil and a distributor -of the products thereof, is but a reflection of the prolific nature -of the vast fields in Persia which it possesses. It has decided upon -having its first English oil refinery near Swansea, and it is reported -that this will be in operation before the end of 1920. It has also -secured the control of the Scottish shale oil refineries which will be -used for the treatment of Persian crude oil when occasion warrants. - -[Illustration: A FEW OF THE BURMAH COMPANY’S PROLIFIC PRODUCERS] - -One might go on to interminable length in briefly referring to the -great concerns whose operations have been responsible for the expansion -of the world’s petroleum industry to its present magnitude, but the -exigencies of space prevent this. The brief list of companies already -referred to represents an amalgamation of capital to the extent of -nearly £120,000,000 sterling, though this cannot be considered as -representing more than one-half the total world’s investments in -petroleum enterprises. - -So far, I have not touched with the magnitude of the petroleum -companies operating in the distributing oil trade of England, though, -to some extent, this may be gathered from the references to such -companies as the “Shell,” the Anglo-Mexican Petroleum Company, etc. - -Practically the first company of any magnitude to distribute petroleum -products in this country was the Anglo-American Oil Co., Ltd., which -has actively engaged in this branch of commerce for the past thirty -years. It imported and dealt in American oils long before the advent of -the companies before mentioned, and, to-day, is certainly one of the -largest--if not the largest--company so engaged. Its name is known in -every hamlet in the country: its tank cars are seen on every railway, -and its depots are to be found in every centre throughout the length -and breadth of the land. Its name is legion. Its capital is £3,000,000, -and it is to the Anglo-American Oil Company that, throughout the -clatter of European War, the credit is due for having supplied us with -those almost unlimited quantities of petroleum products so necessary -both on sea and land, for it is the largest importer in the Kingdom. -As its name implies, the “Anglo” deals mostly in American petroleum -products: it was at one time the importing concern of the Standard -Oil Company, but to-day it purchases broadcast in an endeavour--and a -very successful one, too--to supply the British consumer with all the -petroleum products he requires. - -The present chapter deals, I feel, most inadequately with the general -question of concerns whose interests are directly allied with that of -petroleum; in fact, it was not my desire to give an encyclopaedia of -the thousands of companies so engaged, but, rather, to suggest the -names of a few which have secured world-wide distinction. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -STATISTICAL - - -THE WORLD’S OUTPUT OF PETROLEUM - -The world’s total production of crude oil for 1917, and for the period -of years 1857 to 1917, is given in the following table. The details are -given in barrels, which, divided by seven, will give the output in tons. - - PRODUCTION. TOTAL PRODUCTION. - 1917. 1857-1917. - - _Barrels _P.C. _Barrels _P.C. - of 42 of of 42 of - Gallons._ Total._ Gallons._ Total._ - COUNTRY. - United States *335,315,601 66·98 4,252,644,003 60·89 - Russia #69,000,000 13·78 1,832,583,017 26·24 - Mexico 55,292,770 11·04 222,082,472 3·18 - Dutch East Indies ¶12,928,955 2·58 175,103,267 2·51 - India #8,500,000 1·70 98,583,522 2·41 - Galicia 5,965,447 1·19 148,459,653 2·13 - Japan and Formosa 2,898,654 0·58 36,065,454 0·52 - Roumania 2,681,870 0·54 142,992,465 2·05 - Peru 2,533,417 0·51 21,878,285 0·31 - Trinidad 1,599,455 0·32 5,418,885 0·08 - Argentina 1,144,737 0·23 3,047,858 0·04 - Egypt 1,008,750 0·20 2,768,686 0·04 - Germany 995,764 0·20 15,952,861 2·30 - Canada 205,332 0·04 24,112,529 3·50 - Italy 50,334} 0·11 947,289 0·01 - Other countries #§530,000} 927,000 0·01 - ------------------------------------------ - Total 500,651,086 100·00 6,983,567,246 100·00 - ========================================== - - * Quantity marketed. - # Estimated. - ¶ Includes British Borneo. - #§ Includes 19,167 barrels produced in Cuba. - - -THE PETROLEUM IMPORT TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM - -The imports of petroleum products into the United Kingdom for the past -seven years are given in the following table. Those for 1917 are only -approximate quantities inasmuch as, toward the end of the year, the -Custom House authorities decided for the time being not to compile such -statistics for general use. The figures in every case are given in -gallons-- - - ------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - OILS. | 1912. | 1913. | 1914. | 1915. - ------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - Petroleum (Crude) | 12,742 | 1,108,900| 15,105,588| ---- - Petroleum (lamp) |146,030,093|157,141,241|150,131,233|141,424,353 - Petroleum (lubricating) | 69,327,061| 67,962,493| 66,646,512| 69,974,170 - Petroleum (Gas Oil) | 73,273,526| 65,949,677| 83,105,346| 88,089,202 - Petroleum (Fuel Oil) | 48,135,845| 95,062,187|212,675,855| 27,288,850 - Petroleum (Other prdcts)| 963,856| 24,178| 17,942| 705,353 - Motor Spirit | 79,590,155|100,858,017|119,030,155|146,334,702 - ------------------------+-----------+-----------+----------------------- - - ------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - OILS. | 1916. | 1917. | 1918. | 1919. - ------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - Petroleum (Crude) | ---- | ---- | ---- | 7,577,549 - Petroleum (lamp) |126,840,494|127,958,665|148,021,234|153,371,858 - Petroleum (lubricating) | 80,443,694| 87,779,737|102,273,841| 65,832,998 - Petroleum (Gas Oil) | 57,160,493| 31,303,820| 38,835,460| 30,033,002 - Petroleum (Fuel Oil) | 22,646,669|440,582,168|842,405,536|265,405,203 - Petroleum (Other prdcts)| 1,728,092| ---- | ---- | ---- - Motor Spirit |163,965,834|139,270,181|192,959,054|200,332,648 - ------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+ - - -AMERICA’S CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION DURING THE PAST FIFTY YEARS - -The output of crude petroleum in the oil-fields of America during the -past fifty years has been as under, the figures being given in barrels -of 42 gallons (usually reckoned at seven to the ton)-- - - _Year._ _Barrels._ - - 1869 4,215,000 - 1870 5,260,745 - 1871 5,205,234 - 1872 6,293,194 - 1873 9,893,786 - 1874 10,926,945 - 1875 8,787,514 - 1876 9,132,669 - 1877 13,350,363 - 1878 15,396,868 - 1879 19,914,146 - 1880 26,286,123 - 1881 27,661,238 - 1882 30,349,897 - 1883 23,449,633 - 1884 24,218,438 - 1885 21,858,785 - 1886 28,064,841 - 1887 28,283,483 - 1888 27,612,025 - 1889 35,163,513 - 1890 45,823,572 - 1891 54,292,655 - 1892 50,514,657 - 1893 48,431,066 - 1894 49,344,516 - 1895 52,892,276 - 1896 60,960,361 - 1897 60,475,516 - 1898 55,364,233 - 1899 57,070,850 - 1900 63,620,529 - 1901 69,389,194 - 1902 88,766,916 - 1903 100,461,337 - 1904 117,080,960 - 1905 134,717,580 - 1906 126,493,936 - 1907 166,095,335 - 1908 178,527,355 - 1909 183,170,874 - 1910 209,557,248 - 1911 220,449,391 - 1912 222,935,044 - 1913 248,446,230 - 1914 265,762,535 - 1915 281,104,104 - 1916 300,767,158 - 1917 335,315,601 - 1918 360,000,000 - - -ROUMANIA’S CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION DURING THE PAST FIFTY YEARS - -Roumania’s crude oil production for the past fifty years is given in -the following table in barrels of 42 gallons (seven to the ton). The -officially recorded output goes back as far as 1857, when the twelve -months’ yield was just under 2,000 barrels. During 1861, the production -passed the 10,000 barrel mark for the first time, and six years later -reached 50,000 barrels for the year. The figures are as under-- - - _Year._ _Barrels._ - - 1868 55,369 - 1869 58,533 - 1870 83,765 - 1871 90,030 - 1872 91,251 - 1873 104,036 - 1874 103,177 - 1875 108,569 - 1876 111,314 - 1877 108,599 - 1878 109,300 - 1879 110,007 - 1880 114,321 - 1881 121,511 - 1882 136,610 - 1883 139,486 - 1884 210,667 - 1885 193,411 - 1886 168,606 - 1887 181,907 - 1888 218,576 - 1889 297,666 - 1890 383,227 - 1891 488,201 - 1892 593,175 - 1893 535,655 - 1894 507,255 - 1895 575,200 - 1896 543,348 - 1897 570,886 - 1898 776,238 - 1899 1,425,777 - 1900 1,628,535 - 1901 1,678,320 - 1902 2,059,935 - 1903 2,763,117 - 1904 3,599,026 - 1905 4,420,987 - 1906 6,378,184 - 1907 8,118,207 - 1908 8,252,157 - 1909 9,327,278 - 1910 9,723,806 - 1911 11,107,450 - 1912 12,976,232 - 1913 13,554,768 - 1914 12,826,578 - 1915 12,029,913 - 1916 10,298,208 - 1917 2,681,870 - - -MEXICO’S REMARKABLE PROGRESS IN CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION - -Fourteen years ago, the crude petroleum production in the oil-fields -of Mexico was officially recorded for the first time. Its remarkable -progress since that time will be seen from the following table, the -figures being in barrels of 42 gallons-- - - _Year._ _Barrels._ - - 1904 220,653 - 1905 320,379 - 1906 1,097,264 - 1907 1,717,690 - 1908 3,481,610 - 1909 2,488,742 - 1910 3,332,807 - 1911 14,051,643 - 1912 16,558,215 - 1913 25,902,439 - 1914 21,188,427 - 1915 32,910,508 - 1916 39,817,402 - 1917 55,292,770 - 1918 64,605,422 - - -GALICIAN CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION - -The output of crude petroleum in the Galician fields during the past -thirty years is given herewith-- - - _Year._ _Barrels._ - - 1888 466,537 - 1889 515,268 - 1890 659,012 - 1891 630,730 - 1892 646,220 - 1893 692,669 - 1894 949,146 - 1895 1,452,999 - 1896 2,443,080 - 1897 2,226,368 - 1898 2,376,108 - 1899 2,313,047 - 1900 2,346,505 - 1901 3,251,544 - 1902 4,142,159 - 1903 5,234,475 - 1904 5,947,383 - 1905 5,765,317 - 1906 5,467,967 - 1907 8,455,841 - 1908 12,612,295 - 1909 14,932,799 - 1910 12,673,688 - 1911 10,519,270 - 1912 8,535,174 - 1913 7,818,130 - 1914 5,033,350 - 1915 4,158,899 - 1916 6,461,706 - 1917 5,965,447 - 1918 4,341,050 - - -GERMANY’S CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION - -Official figures were first recorded of Germany’s crude oil production -in 1880, when the total output for the twelve months was about 9,000 -barrels. For the past thirty years, the yearly output has been as -under-- - - _Year._ _Barrels._ - - 1888 84,782 - 1889 68,217 - 1890 108,296 - 1891 108,929 - 1892 101,404 - 1893 99,390 - 1894 122,564 - 1895 121,277 - 1896 145,061 - 1897 165,745 - 1898 183,427 - 1899 192,232 - 1900 358,297 - 1901 313,630 - 1902 353,674 - 1903 445,818 - 1904 637,431 - 1905 560,963 - 1906 578,610 - 1907 756,631 - 1908 1,009,278 - 1909 1,018,837 - 1910 1,032,522 - 1911 1,017,045 - 1912 1,031,050 - 1913 1,002,700 - 1914 936,400 - 1915 960,430 - 1916 948,320 - 1917 995,764 - 1918 820,310 - - -EXPORTS OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS FROM THE UNITED STATES - -The following table gives the total export movement of petroleum -products from the United States from the year 1865, when American -petroleum products commenced to have an international overseas market-- - - _Year._ _Gallons._ _Value in - Dollars._ - - 1918 2,714,430,452 344,290,444 - 1917 2,596,900,000 253,021,000 - 1916 2,607,482,000 201,721,000 - 1915 2,328,725,000 142,941,000 - 1914 2,240,033,000 139,900,000 - 1913 2,136,465,000 149,316,000 - 1912 1,883,479,000 124,210,000 - 1911 1,768,731,000 105,922,000 - 1910 1,546,067,000 99,090,000 - 1909 1,561,671,000 105,999,000 - 1908 1,443,537,000 104,116,000 - 1907 1,257,430,000 84,855,000 - 1906 1,257,949,000 84,041,000 - 1905 1,123,334,000 79,793,000 - 1904 984,424,000 79,060,000 - 1903 941,699,000 67,253,000 - 1902 1,106,208,000 72,302,000 - 1901 1,034,643,000 71,112,000 - 1900 967,252,000 75,611,000 - 1899 999,713,000 56,273,000 - 1898 1,034,249,000 56,125,000 - 1897 973,514,000 62,635,000 - 1896 890,458,000 62,383,000 - 1895 884,502,000 46,660,000 - 1894 908,252,000 41,499,000 - 1893 904,337,000 42,142,000 - 1892 715,471,000 44,805,000 - 1891 710,124,000 52,026,000 - 1890 664,491,000 51,403,000 - 1889 616,195,000 49,913,000 - 1888 578,351,000 47,042,000 - 1887 592,803,000 46,824,000 - 1886 577,628,000 50,199,000 - 1885 574,628,000 50,257,000 - 1884 513,660,000 47,103,000 - 1883 505,931,000 44,913,000 - 1882 559,954,000 51,232,000 - 1881 397,660,000 40,315,000 - 1880 423,964,000 36,208,000 - 1879 378,310,000 40,305,000 - 1878 338,841,000 46,574,000 - 1877 309,198,000 61,789,000 - 1876 243,660,000 32,915,000 - 1875 221,955,000 30,078,000 - 1874 247,806,000 41,245,000 - 1873 187,815,000 42,050,000 - 1872 145,171,000 34,058,000 - 1871 149,892,000 36,894,000 - 1870 113,735,000 32,668,000 - 1869 100,636,000 31,127,000 - 1868 79,456,000 21,810,000 - 1867 70,255,000 24,407,000 - 1866 50,987,000 24,830,000 - 1865 25,496,000 16,563,000 - - -RUSSIA’S CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION DURING THE PAST FIFTY YEARS - -The output of crude petroleum in the Russian oil-fields during the -past fifty years is given in the following table. For the purpose of -comparison, the figures are given in barrels of 42 gallons, rather than -in poods (62 to the ton) which is the usual manner of recording Russian -quantities. The figures are as under-- - - _Year._ _Barrels._ - - 1869 202,308 - 1870 204,618 - 1871 165,129 - 1872 184,391 - 1873 474,379 - 1874 583,751 - 1875 697,364 - 1876 1,320,528 - 1877 1,800,720 - 1878 2,400,960 - 1879 2,761,104 - 1880 3,001,200 - 1881 3,601,441 - 1882 4,537,815 - 1883 6,002,401 - 1884 10,804,577 - 1885 13,924,596 - 1886 18,006,407 - 1887 18,367,781 - 1888 23,048,787 - 1889 24,609,407 - 1890 28,691,218 - 1891 34,573,181 - 1892 35,774,504 - 1893 40,456,519 - 1894 36,375,428 - 1895 46,140,174 - 1896 47,220,633 - 1897 54,399,568 - 1898 61,609,357 - 1899 65,954,968 - 1900 75,779,417 - 1901 85,168,556 - 1902 80,540,044 - 1903 75,591,256 - 1904 78,536,655 - 1905 54,960,270 - 1906 58,897,311 - 1907 61,850,734 - 1908 62,186,447 - 1909 65,970,250 - 1910 70,336,574 - 1911 66,183,691 - 1912 68,019,208 - 1913 62,834,356 - 1914 67,020,522 - 1915 68,548,062 - 1916 72,801,110 - 1917 69,000,000 - - - - -INDEX - - - Advantages of liquid fuel, 78 - A few notable petroleum enterprises, 148 - American petroleum exports, 163 - America’s crude oil production, 160 - America, the petroleum industry in, 8 - Anglo-American Oil Company, Ltd., the, 156 - Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Ltd., the, 153 - - Baku-Batoum pipe-line, 24, 69 - Baku, boring operations in, 22 - ----, the oil-fields of, 19 - British Empire, petroleum in, 114 - Burmah Oil Company, Ltd., the, 152 - ----, the oil fields of, 35 - - California petroleum industry, 9 - Canada, petroleum in, 118 - Chemical composition of petroleum, 52 - Cooking by means of oil, 93 - - Distillation of Scottish oil shales, 144 - Drilling methods for oil, 41 - Dutch Indies, petroleum in the, 23 - - Egyptian oil-fields, the, 116 - Empire oil, 114 - England, petroleum in, 104 - England’s petroleum trade, 160 - - Famous oil companies, 148 - Fifty years’ American production, 160 - ---- ---- Russian production, 164 - - Galicia’s crude oil production, 162 - Galicia, the oil-fields of, 36 - Germany’s attempts at oil production, 39 - ---- march on Roumania, 30 - ---- output of crude oil, 162 - - Hand-dug wells in Roumania, 29 - Heathfield, natural gas in, 109 - How petroleum is produced, 41 - ---- ---- is refined, 51 - ---- the Scottish shales are operated, 136 - - Internal combustion engines, 95 - - Japan, petroleum in, 36 - - Liquid fuel in the Navy, 78 - Lord Cowdray’s enterprise in England, 111 - ---- ---- ---- Mexico, 16, 151 - - Maikop oil boom, the, 20 - Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., new engines of, 96, 102 - Methods of drilling wells, 43 - Mexico’s crude oil production, 161 - ----- petroleum industry, 12 - - Ocean oil transport facilities, 71 - Oil fuel advantages, 82 - Origin of petroleum, 3 - - Petroleum as fuel, 76 - ---- in England, 104 - ---- in historical times, 2 - Petroleum’s part in the Great War, 123 - Petroleum, the production of, 41 - ----, the refining of, 51 - ----, the world’s output of, 158 - - Remarkable oil wells in Mexico, 14 - Rotary system of drilling, 48 - Roumania, petroleum industry of, 28 - Roumania’s crude oil production, 160 - Russia, petroleum industry of, 18 - Russia’s crude oil production, 164 - - Scottish oil pipe-line, 70 - ---- shale-oil industry, 132 - “Shell” Company and the Dutch Indies, 33 - ---- Transport and Trading Co., the, 150 - Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart., and toluol supplies, 130 - Solar oil for gas enrichment purposes, 61 - Staffordshire, petroleum in, 106 - - Texas, the oil-fields of, 10 - Toluol from Borneo petroleum, 62 - Transport of petroleum, 63 - Trinidad, progress in, 117 - - Vicker’s oil engines, 102 - - -THE END - - -_Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_ - - - -[Transcriber's Note: - -Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.] - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Petroleum, by Albert Lidgett - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PETROLEUM *** - -***** This file should be named 52825-0.txt or 52825-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/8/2/52825/ - -Produced by deaurider, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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