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- display: none; - } - - ul {margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 0;} - li {list-style-type: none; padding-left: 1em; text-indent: -1.5em;} - - .transnote { - page-break-inside: avoid; - margin-left: 2%; - margin-right: 2%; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - padding: .5em; - } - - .index {margin-left: 0;} - li.indx, li.ifrst {list-style-type: none; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; padding-top: .2em;} - li.isub1 {padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -2em;} - - .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block; text-align: center;} -} - </style> - </head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Lightships and Lighthouses, by Frederick A. Talbot - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Lightships and Lighthouses - -Author: Frederick A. Talbot - -Release Date: August 16, 2016 [EBook #52817] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIGHTSHIPS AND LIGHTHOUSES *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div class="transnote covernote"> - -<p class="center">Transcriber’s Note<br />Cover created by Transcriber, using an illustration from the -original book, and placed in the Public Domain.</p> -</div> - -<h1>LIGHTSHIPS AND LIGHTHOUSES</h1> - -<div id="if_i_frontis" class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;"> - <img src="images/i_frontis.jpg" width="398" height="591" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of Messrs. Siemens Bros. & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE 43,000,000 CANDLE-POWER BEAMS THROWN FROM THE HELIGOLAND -LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionl">Being projected from a height of 272 feet above the sea, the beacon has a range of 23 miles, and on a -clear night the rays are seen from Büsun, 35 miles away.</p> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Frontispiece.</i><br /> -</p></div></div> - -<hr /> - -<p class="newpage p4 center"> -CONQUESTS OF SCIENCE</p> - -<p class="p2 center vspace wspace gesperrt xlarge">LIGHTSHIPS AND<br /> -LIGHTHOUSES</p> - -<p class="p2 center vspace wspace larger"><span class="small">BY</span><br /> -FREDERICK A. TALBOT<br /> -<span class="xxsmall">AUTHOR OF</span></p> - -<p class="p0 center small">“MOVING PICTURES,” “RAILWAY CONQUEST OF THE WORLD,”<br /> -“THE STEAMSHIP CONQUEST OF THE WORLD,” ETC.</p> - -<p class="p2 center"><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></p> - -<p class="p2 center vspace wspace larger">PHILADELPHIA: J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY<br /> -LONDON: WILLIAM HEINEMANN<br /> -<span class="smaller">1913</span> -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v">v</a></span></p> -<p class="newpage p4 center smaller"><i>Printed in England.</i></p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> -</div> - -<p>Romances innumerable have been woven around the flaming -guardians of the coast, but it is doubtful whether any purely -imaginative work is so fascinating and absorbing as the plain -unvarnished narrative of how some famous lightship or -lighthouse has been brought into existence. And the story -of construction is equalled in every way by that relating to -the operation and maintenance of the light, against all odds, -for the guidance of those who have business upon the ocean.</p> - -<p>This volume is not a history of lightships and lighthouses; -neither is it a technical treatise. Rather my object has been -to relate how the difficulties, peculiar and prodigious, have -been overcome by the builders in their efforts to mark some -terrible danger-spots, both on the mainland and isolated -sea-rocks.</p> - -<p>While the lines of the lightship and lighthouse are familiar -to all, popular knowledge concerning the internal apparatus -of the building or ship is somewhat hazy. Therefore I have -explained, with technicalities simplified as much as possible, -the equipment of the tower and vessel, and the methods -whereby both visual and audible warnings are given. The -very latest developments in this field of engineering and -science are incorporated, so as to render the subject as comprehensive -as possible within the limits of a single volume.</p> - -<p>In the compilation of this book I have received the -heartiest assistance from those who are prominently associated -with the work of providing adequate aids to navigation, -and am particularly indebted to the engineers to the Commissioners -of Northern Lights, Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi">vi</a></span> -Lieutenant-Colonel William P. Anderson, the Engineer-in-Chief -to the Lighthouse Department of the Canadian -Government; the various officials of the Lighthouse Board -of the United States of America; the Engineer-in-Chief to -the French Service des Phares; the lighthouse authorities of -New South Wales and New Zealand; Mr. Gustaf Dalén and -his assistants; Messrs. Chance Brothers and Company, -Limited, of Birmingham; Messrs. Edmondsons, Limited, of -Dublin; Samuel Strain, Esq., the Director of the Lighthouse -Literature Mission, Belfast; the <cite>Scientific American</cite>, and the -<cite>Syren and Shipping</cite>, etc.</p> - -<p class="sigright">FREDERICK A. TALBOT.<br /></p> - -<p class="smaller"><i>June, 1913.</i></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii">vii</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table id="toc" summary="Contents"> - <tr class="small"> - <td class="tdr">CHAPTER</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE ORIGIN OF THE LIGHTHOUSE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">BUILDING A LIGHTHOUSE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">11</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE LIGHT AND ILLUMINANTS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">28</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">FOG-SIGNALS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">57</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">72</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl">SOME FAMOUS LIGHTS OF ENGLAND</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">81</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE BELL ROCK AND SKERRYVORE LIGHTS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">96</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE LONELY LIGHTS OF SCOTLAND</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">108</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">IX.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE FASTNET, THE OUTPOST OF EUROPE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">121</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">X.</td> - <td class="tdl">LIGHTHOUSES BUILT ON SAND</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">132</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XI.</td> - <td class="tdl">SOME LIGHT PATROLS OF THE FRENCH COAST</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">148</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XII.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE GUARDIAN LIGHTS OF CANADA’S COAST</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">161</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE MINOT’S LEDGE LIGHT</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">176</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XIV.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE TILLAMOOK ROCK LIGHT-STATION</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">183</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XV.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE COAST LIGHTS OF THE UNITED STATES</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">196</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XVI.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE LAMP-POSTS OF THE GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">208</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XVII.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE MOST POWERFUL ELECTRIC LIGHTHOUSES OF THE WORLD</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">218</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XVIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">SOME LIGHTHOUSES IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">229</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XIX.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE SIGNPOSTS OF THE SANDBANKS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">240</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XX.</td> - <td class="tdl">A FLAMING SENTINEL OF THE MALACCA STRAITS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">257</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XXI.</td> - <td class="tdl">UNATTENDED LIGHTHOUSES</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">267</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XXII.</td> - <td class="tdl">FLOATING LIGHTHOUSES</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">284</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XXIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE LIGHT-KEEPER AND HIS LIFE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">301</a></td></tr> - <tr class="tocbot"> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl">INDEX</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">318</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii">viii</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - -<table summary="List of Illustrations"> - <tr class="small"> - <td class="tdr" colspan="2">FACING PAGE</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The 43,000,000 Candle-Power Beams thrown from the Heligoland Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdl"><a href="#if_i_frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">How the Beachy Head Lighthouse was built</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_6">6</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Workmen returning by the Aerial Cableway to the Top of Beachy Head</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_7">7</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Sanganeb Reef Lighthouse in the Red Sea</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_14">14</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Alcatraz Lighthouse under Construction</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_15">15</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Alcatraz Lighthouse completed</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_15">15</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Thimble Shoals Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_22">22</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Setting the Last Stone of the Beachy Head Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_23">23</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Hyperradial Apparatus for the Manora Point Light, Karachi, India</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_48">48</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">First Order Triple Flashing Light of 920 Millimetres Focal Distance for Chilang Lighthouse, China</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_49">49</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Looking up the Lantern of the Needles Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_52">52</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Fixed Apparatus of the Fourth Order for Sarawak</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_53">53</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">A Modern Lighthouse Siren Plant</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_58">58</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Sirens of the Lizard</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_59">59</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Acetylene Fog-Gun</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_64">64</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Rattray Head Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_65">65</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Sule Skerry Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_65">65</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Eddystone, the Most Famous Lighthouse of England</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_76">76</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">A Thrilling Experience</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_77">77</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The “Bishop,” the Western Outpost of England</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_82">82</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Wolf Rock Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_83">83</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Longships Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_88">88</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Godrevy Light, Scilly Islands</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_89">89</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Chicken Rock Lighthouse, off the Isle of Man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_92">92</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">How the Skerryvore is built</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_93">93</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Skerryvore, Scotland’s Most Famous Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_102">102</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Barra Head Lighthouse, Scotland</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_103">103</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Homes of the Keepers of the Skerryvore and Dhu-Heartach Lights</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_103">103</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix">ix</a></span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Dhu-Heartach Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_110">110</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The North Unst, Britain’s most Northerly Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_111">111</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The North Unst Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_116">116</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Landing Water at the North Unst</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_116">116</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Flannen Islands Light-Station</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_117">117</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Building the Fastnet Rock Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_122">122</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Building the Fastnet Tower</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_123">123</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Erecting the Fastnet Lantern</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_123">123</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Fastnet, the Outpost of Europe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_128">128</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Lantern of the Fastnet Rock Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_129">129</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Rothersand Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_136">136</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Fourteen-Foot Bank Lighthouse, built on Sand</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_137">137</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Heaux de Bréhat Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_150">150</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Fitting the Lantern of La Jument Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_151">151</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Preparing the Foundations of the Jument Tower</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_154">154</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Jument Light recently erected off Ushant</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_155">155</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Cape Race Lighthouse, Newfoundland</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_162">162</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cann Island Lighthouse, on the East Coast of Newfoundland</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_163">163</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Light at the Southern End of Belle Ile</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_166">166</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The North Belle Ile Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_167">167</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">A Magnificent Canadian Light on the Pacific Coast</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_168">168</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The West End Guardian of Sable Island</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_168">168</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">St. Esprit Island Light, Nova Scotia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_169">169</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Gull Island Light, Newfoundland</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_169">169</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Batiscan Front Range Lighthouse, River St. Lawrence</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_170">170</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Isle St. Thérèse Upper Range Back Lighthouse, River St. Lawrence</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_170">170</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Upper Traverse Lighthouse in the River St. Lawrence</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_171">171</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">An “Ice Shove” upon the Back Range Light in Lake St. Peter</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_171">171</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Minot’s Ledge Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_178">178</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Tender landing Building Material upon the Tillamook Rock</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_179">179</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Tillamook Rock Light-Station from the South</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_186">186</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Conquest of the Tillamook</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_187">187</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Terrible Tillamook Rock</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_187">187</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Famous United States Lighthouses of Two Centuries</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_192">192</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Race Rock Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_193">193</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Carquinez Strait Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_198">198</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">A Church as a Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_199">199</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x">x</a></span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Bonita Point Lighthouse off the Californian Coast</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_202">202</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Point Pinos Light-Station, California</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_203">203</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Farallon Rock and Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_204">204</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Farallon Lighthouse off San Francisco</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_204">204</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Punta Gorda Light-Station, California</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_205">205</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">A Lighthouse on the Great Lakes in the Grip of Winter</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_210">210</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Building the Barre à Boulard Light in the River St. Lawrence</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_211">211</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Colchester Reef Lighthouse, Lake Erie</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_214">214</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Latest Development in Lighthouse Engineering</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_215">215</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Electric Searchlights of the Heligoland Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_222">222</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Heligoland Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_223">223</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Green Cape Lighthouse, New South Wales</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_232">232</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Sentinel of Sugar Loaf Point, New South Wales</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_232">232</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">“Bungaree Norah” Station, New South Wales</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_232">232</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Cape Byron Lighthouse, New South Wales</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_233">233</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Macquarie Lighthouse, South Head of Sydney Harbour</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_233">233</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Painting the Troubridge Lighthouse, South Australia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_234">234</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Green Point Lighthouse, Natal</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_235">235</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Pacific Outpost of the United States of America</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_235">235</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Seven Stones</i> Lightship</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_242">242</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>San Francisco</i> Lightship</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_243">243</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Norderney</i> Lightship</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_250">250</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Fire Island</i> Lightship, the Atlantic Outpost of the United States</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_251">251</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Completing the One-Fathom Bank Lighthouse in the Malacca Straits</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_262">262</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The One-Fathom Bank Lighthouse, Malacca Straits, in Course of Erection</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_263">263</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Platte Fougère Lighthouse under Construction</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_268">268</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Platte Fougère Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_269">269</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Setting the Compressed-Air Reservoir at Fort Doyle</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_270">270</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Fort Doyle Siren</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_271">271</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">An Unattended Beacon Light placed upon a Wild Part of the Scottish Coast</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_272">272</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Gasfeten Light: a Lonely Beacon in Swedish Waters</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_273">273</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Dalén “Sun-Valve,” the Most Wonderful Invention of Modern Lighthouse Engineering</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_274">274</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Gas Accumulators Employed with the Dalén Automatic System</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_275">275</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Lagerholmen Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_278">278</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi">xi</a></span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">An Unattended Beacon Light in the Straits of Magellan</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_279">279</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">An Automatic Lightboat</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_279">279</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Wigham Thirty-One Day Unattended Petroleum Light</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_280">280</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Willson Automatic Gas and Whistling Light off Egg Island, Nova Scotia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_281">281</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The “Outer Automatic” Combined Gas and Whistling Light, Halifax, Nova Scotia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_281">281</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Kalkgrundet</i>, Sweden’s Latest Automatic Lightship</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_293">293</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Svinbādan</i> Unattended Lightship in Swedish Waters</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_292">292</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Lantern used in the Wigham Automatic Petroleum Beacon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_298">298</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The “6-Bar” Floating Wigham Light in Portsmouth Harbour</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_299">299</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Pumps whereby the Oil is lifted from the Lowest Floor to the Lantern Room</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_306">306</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Combined Kitchen and Living-Room in the Lighthouse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_307">307</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Keeper cleaning the Lamp after it has cooled down</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_312">312</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">A Lighthouse Bedroom</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_313">313</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1">1</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE ORIGIN OF THE LIGHTHOUSE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The mariner, in pursuit of his daily business, is exposed to -dangers innumerable. In mid-ocean, for the most part, he -need not fear them particularly, because he has plenty of -sea-room in which to navigate his ship, and in case of thick -fog he can ease up until this dreaded enemy lifts or disperses. -But in crowded coastal waters his position is often precarious, -for he may be menaced by lurking shoals or hidden -reefs, which betray little or no indication of their whereabouts, -and which may be crossed with apparent safety. -If the ship blunders on in ignorance, it is brought up with -a thud as it buries its nose in the sucking sand, or gives -a mighty shiver as it scrapes over the rocky teeth, perhaps -to be clasped as in a vice, or to be battered and broken -so fearfully that, when at last it tears itself free and slips -off into deep water, it can only founder immediately. Here, -if fog blots out the scene, the ship is in danger of being -lured to certain destruction by currents and other natural -forces, since the captain is condemned to a helplessness as -complete as of a blind man in a busy street.</p> - -<p>It is not surprising, then, that the captain, as he approaches -or wanders along a tortuous shoreline, scans the -waters eagerly for a glimpse of the guardian monitor, which, -as he knows from his reckonings and chart, should come -within sight to guide him on his way. The danger-signal -may be one of many kinds—a misty, star-like glimmer -thrown from a buoy dancing on the waves, the radiant orb -from a lightship bobbing up and down and swinging rhythmically -to and fro, a fixed flare-light, or dazzling, spoke-like -rays revolving across the sky. If sight be impossible -owing to fog, he must depend upon his ear for the measured<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2">2</a></span> -tolling of a bell, the shriek of a whistle, the deep blare of a -siren, or the sharp report of an explosive. When he has -picked up one or other of these warnings, he feels more at -ease, and proceeds upon his way, eyes and ears keenly -strained for warning of the next danger ahead.</p> - -<p>The lighthouse is the greatest blessing that has been -bestowed upon navigation. It renders advance through -the waters at night as safe and as simple as in the brilliancy -of the midday sun. But for these beacons the safe movement -of ships at night or during fog along the crowded -steamship highways which surround the serrated shores of -the five continents would be impossible. It is only natural, -therefore, that the various nations of the world should strenuously -endeavour to light their coasts so adequately that the -ship may proceed at night as safely and as comfortably as a -man may walk down an illuminated city thoroughfare.</p> - -<p>Whence came the idea of lighting the coastline with -flaring beacons? It is impossible to say. They have -been handed down to modern civilization through the mists -of time. The first authentic lighthouse was Sigeum, on -the Hellespont, which undoubtedly antedates the famous -Pharos of Alexandria. The latter was a massive square -tower, 400 feet high, and was known as one of the Seven -Wonders of the World. It was built about 331 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> The -warning light was emitted from a huge wood fire, which -was kept burning at the summit continuously during the -night; the illumination is stated to have been visible for -a distance of forty miles, but modern knowledge disputes -this range. The precise design of this wonderful tower is -unknown, but it must have been a huge structure, inasmuch -as it is computed to have cost the equivalent in modern -money of over £200,000, or $1,000,000.</p> - -<p>For sixteen hundred years it guided the navigators among -the waters from which it reared its smoking crest, and then -it disappeared. How, no one knows, although it is surmised -that it was razed by an earthquake; but, although it was -swept from sight, its memory has been preserved, and the -French, Italian, and Spanish nations use its name in connection<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3">3</a></span> -with the lighthouse, which in France is called -<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">phare</i>; in the other two countries mentioned, <i xml:lang="es" lang="es">faro</i>.</p> - -<p>The Romans in their conquest of Gaul and Britain -brought the lighthouse with them, and several remains of -their efforts in this direction are to be found in England, -notably the pharos at Dover.</p> - -<p>In all probability, however, the lighthouse in its most -primitive form is at least as old as the earliest books of the -Bible. Undoubtedly it sprang from the practice of guiding -the incoming boatman to his home by means of a blazing -bonfire set up in a conspicuous position near by. Such a -guide is a perfectly obvious device, which even to-day is -practised by certain savage tribes.</p> - -<p>When the Phœnicians traded in tin with the ancient -Britons of Cornwall, their boats continually traversed the -rough waters washing the western coasts of Spain, where, -for the safer passage of their sailors, doubtless, they erected -beacons upon prominent headlands. The oldest lighthouse -in the world to-day, which in some quarters is held to be -of Phœnician origin, is that at Corunna, a few miles north -of Cape Finisterre. Other authorities maintain that it was -built during the reign of the Roman Emperor Trajan. In -1634 it was reconstructed, and is still in existence.</p> - -<p>At the mouth of the Gironde is another highly interesting -link with past efforts and triumphs in lighthouse engineering. -The Gironde River empties itself into the Bay of -Biscay through a wide estuary, in the centre of which is -a bunch of rocks offering a terrible menace to vessels. -This situation achieved an unenviable reputation in the -days when ships first ventured out to sea. Being exposed -to the broad Atlantic, it receives the full force of the gales -which rage in the Bay of Biscay, and which make of the -Gironde River estuary a fearful trap. The trading town of -Bordeaux suffered severely from the ill fame attached to -the mouth of the waterway upon which it was dependent, -for both the sea and the roads exacted a heavy toll among -the ships which traded with the famous wine capital of -Gascony. How many fine vessels struck the rocks of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4">4</a></span> -Cordouan and went to pieces within sight of land, history -does not record, but the casualties became so numerous -that at last the firms trading with Bordeaux refused to -venture into the Gironde unless a light were placed on the -reef to guide their captains. Alarmed at the prospect of -losing their remunerative traffic, the citizens of Bordeaux -built a tower upon the deadly reef, with a beacon which they -kept stoked with wood, four men being reserved for its -service. In return the authorities exacted a tax from each -vessel arriving and leaving the port, in order to defray the -expense thus incurred. Probably from this action originated -the custom of lighthouse dues.</p> - -<p>This bonfire served its purposes until the Black Prince -brought Gascony under his power. He demolished the -primitive beacon, and erected in its place another tower, -40 feet high, on which the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">chauffer</i> was placed, a hermit -being entrusted with the maintenance of the light at night. -Near the lighthouse—if such it can be called—a chapel was -built, around which a few fishermen erected their dwellings. -When the hermit died, no one offered to take his place. -The beacon went untended, the fishermen departed, and -the reef once more was allowed to claim its victims from -shipping venturing into the estuary.</p> - -<p>In 1584 an eminent French architect, Louis de Foix, -secured the requisite concession to build a new structure. -He evolved the fantastic idea of a single building which -should comprise a beacon, a church and a royal residence -in one. For nearly twenty-seven years he laboured upon -the rock, exposed to the elements, before he (or rather his -successor) was able to throw the welcome warning rays -from the summit of his creation. This was certainly the -most remarkable lighthouse that has ever been set up. It -was richly decorated and artistically embellished, and the -tower was in reality a series of galleries rising tier upon tier. -At the base was a circular stone platform, 134 feet in -diameter, flanked by an elegant parapet surrounding the -light-keepers’ abode. This lower structure was intended -to form a kind of breakwater which should protect the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5">5</a></span> -main building from the force of the waves. On the first -floor was a magnificent entrance hall, leading to the King’s -apartment, a <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">salon</i> finely decorated with pillars and mural -sculptures. Above was a beautiful chapel with a lofty roof -supported by carved Corinthian columns. Finally came -the beacon, which at that date was about 100 feet above -the sea-level.</p> - -<p>Access to the successive floors was provided by a beautiful -spiral staircase, the newels of which were flanked by busts -of the two French Kings, Henry III. and Henry IV., and of -the designer de Foix. The architect died not long before his -work was completed, but the directions he left behind him -were so explicit that no difficulty was experienced in consummating -his ideas, and the Tour de Cordouan shed its -beneficial light for the first time over the waters of the Bay -of Biscay in 1611. So strongly was the building founded -that it has defied the attacks of Nature to this day, although -it did not escape those of the vandals of the French Revolution, -who penetrated the tower, where the busts of the -two Henrys at once excited their passion. The symbols -of monarchy were promptly hurled to the floor, and other -damage was inflicted. When order was restored, the busts -were replaced, and all the carvings which had suffered -mutilation from mob law were restored. At the same time, -in accordance with the spirit of progress, the tower was -modified to bring it into line with modern lighting principles; -it was extended to a height of 197 feet, and was crowned -with an up-to-date light, visible twenty-seven miles out to -sea. For more than three centuries it has fulfilled its designed -purpose, and still ranks as the most magnificent -lighthouse that ever has been built. Its cost is not recorded, -but it must necessarily have been enormous.</p> - -<p>In Great Britain the seafarer’s warning light followed the -lines of those in vogue upon the older part of the Continent, -consisting chiefly of wood and coal fires mounted on conspicuous -lofty points around the coast. These braziers -were maintained both by public and by private enterprise. -Patents were granted to certain individuals for the upkeep<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6">6</a></span> -of beacons in England and Scotland, and from time to time -the holders of these rights came into conflict with the public -authority which was created subsequently for the maintenance -of various aids to navigation around the coasts. In -England these monopolies were not extinguished until 1836, -when the Brethren of Trinity House were empowered, by -special Act of Parliament, to purchase the lights which -had been provided both by the Crown and by private -interests, so as to bring the control under one corporation.</p> - -<div id="ip_6" class="figcenter" style="width: 407px;"> - <img src="images/i_p006a.jpg" width="407" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo by permission of Messrs. Bullivant & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>HOW THE BEACHY HEAD LIGHTHOUSE WAS BUILT.</p> - -<p class="captionl">To facilitate erection a cableway was stretched between the top of Beachy Head and a staging placed -beside the site of the tower in the water. A stone is being sent down.</p></div></div> - -<p>The <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">chauffer</i>, however, was an unsatisfactory as well as -an expensive type of beacon. Some of these grates consumed -as many as 400 tons of coal per annum—more than -a ton of coal per night—in addition to vast quantities of -wood. Being completely exposed, they were subject to -the caprices of the wind. When a gale blew off the land, -the light on the sea side was of great relative brilliancy; -but when off the water, the side of the fire facing the sea -would be quite black, whereas on the landward side the -fire bars were almost melting under the fierce heat generated -by the intense draughts. This was the greater drawback, -because it was, of course, precisely when the wind was -making a lee shore below the beacon that the more brilliant -light was required.</p> - -<p>When the Pilgrim Fathers made their historic trek to the -United States, they took Old World ideas with them. The -first light provided on the North American continent was -at Point Allerton, the most prominent headland near the -entrance to Boston Harbour, where 400 boatloads of stone -were devoted to the erection of a tower capped with a large -basket of iron in which “fier-bales of pitch and ocum” -were burned. This beacon served the purpose of guiding -navigators into and out of Boston Harbour for several -years.</p> - -<p>When, however, the shortcomings of the exposed fire -were realized, attempts were made to evolve a lighting -system, which does in reality constitute the foundation of -modern practice. But the beacon fire held its own for many -years after the new principle came into vogue, the last coal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7">7</a></span> -fire in England being the Flat Holme Light, in the Bristol -Channel, which was not superseded until 1822.</p> - -<p>In Scotland the coal fire survived until 1816, one of the -most important of these beacons being that on the Isle of -May, in the Firth of Forth, which fulfilled its function for -181 years. This was a lofty tower, erected in 1636, on which -a primitive type of pulley was installed for the purpose of -raising the fuel to the level of the brazier, while three men -were deputed to the task of stoking the fire. It was one -of the private erections, and the owner of the Isle of May, -the Duke of Portland, in return for maintaining the light, -was allowed to exact a toll from passing vessels. When -the welfare of the Scottish aids to navigation was placed -under the control of the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses, -this body, realizing the importance of the position, -wished to erect upon the island a commanding lighthouse -illuminated with oil lamps; but it was necessary first to -buy out the owner’s rights, and an Act of Parliament was -passed authorizing this action, together with the purchase -of the island and the right to levy tolls, at an expenditure -of £60,000, or $300,000. In 1816 the coal fire was finally -extinguished.</p> - -<div id="ip_7" class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;"> - <img src="images/i_p006b.jpg" width="398" height="555" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo by permission of Messrs. Bullivant & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>WORKMEN RETURNING BY THE AERIAL CABLEWAY TO THE TOP OF -BEACHY HEAD.</p></div></div> - -<p>The English lights are maintained by the Brethren of -Trinity House, and their cost is defrayed by passing -shipping. This corporation received its first charter during -the reign of Henry VIII. Trinity House, as it is called -colloquially, also possesses certain powers over the Commissioners -of Northern Lights and the Commissioners of -Irish Lights, and is itself under the sway, in regard to certain -powers, such as the levy of light dues, of the Board of -Trade. This system of compelling shipowners to maintain -the coast lights is somewhat anomalous; it possesses many -drawbacks, and has provoked quaint situations at times. -Thus, when the <i>Mohegan</i> and the <i>Paris</i> were wrecked on -the Manacles within the space of a few months, the outcry -for better lighting of this part of the Devon and Cornish -coasts was loud and bitter. The shipowners clamoured for -more protection, but at the same time, knowing that they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8">8</a></span> -would have to foot the bill, maintained that further lighting -was unnecessary.</p> - -<p>The British Isles might very well emulate the example -of the United States, France, Canada, and other countries, -which regard coast lighting as a work of humanity, for the -benefit of one and all, and so defray the cost out of the -Government revenues. Some years ago, when an International -Conference was held to discuss this question, some -of the representatives suggested that those nations which -give their lighthouse services free to the world should distinguish -against British shipping, and levy light-dues -upon British ships, with a view to compelling the abolition -of the tax upon foreign vessels visiting British ports. Fortunately, -the threat was not carried into execution.</p> - -<p>The design and construction of lighthouses have developed -into a highly specialized branch of engineering. Among -the many illustrious names associated with this phase of -enterprise—de Foix, Rudyerd, Smeaton, Walker, Douglass, -Alexander, and Ribière—the Stevenson family stands -pre-eminent. Ever since the maintenance of the Scottish -coast lights was handed over to the Northern Commissioners, -the engineering chair has remained in the hands of this -family, the names of whose members are identified with -many lights that have become famous throughout the world -for their daring nature, design, and construction. Moreover, -the family’s contributions to the science of this privileged -craft have been of incalculable value. Robert Louis -Stevenson has written a fascinating story around their -exploits in “A Family of Engineers.”</p> - -<p>It was at first intended that the great author himself -should follow in the footsteps of his forbears. He completed -his apprenticeship at the drawing-table under his father -and uncle, and became initiated into the mysteries of the -craft. At the outset he apparently had visions of becoming -numbered among those of his family who had achieved -eminence in lighthouse construction, and he often accompanied -his father or uncle on their periodical rounds of -inspection. Probably the rough and tumble life in a small<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">9</a></span> -tender among the wild seas of Scotland, the excitement of -landing upon dangerous rocks, the aspect of loneliness revealed -by acquaintance with the keepers, and the following -of the growth of a new tower from its foundations, stirred -his imagination, so that the dormant literary instinct, which, -like that of engineering, he had inherited, became fired. -Mathematical formulæ, figures, and drawings, wrestled for -a time with imagination and letters, but the call of the -literary heritage proved triumphant, and, unlike his grandfather, -who combined literature with lighthouse construction, -and who, indeed, was a polished author, as his stirring -story of the “Bell Rock Lighthouse” conclusively shows, -he finally threw in his lot with letters.</p> - -<p>The fact that for more than a century one family has -held the exacting position of chief engineer to the Northern -Commissioners, and has been responsible for the lights -around Scotland’s troublous coasts, is unique in the annals -of engineering. Each generation has been identified with -some notable enterprise in this field. Thomas Smith, the -father-in-law of Robert Stevenson, founded the service, -and was the first engineer to the Commissioners. Robert -Stevenson assumed his mantle and produced the “Bell -Rock.” His son, Alan Stevenson, was the creator of the -“Skerryvore.” The next in the chain, David Stevenson, -built the “North Unst.” David and Thomas Stevenson, -who followed, contributed the “Dhu-Heartach” and the -“Chicken Rock” lights; while the present generation, -David and Charles, have erected such works as “Rattray -Briggs,” “Sule Skerry,” and the Flannen Islands lighthouses. -In addition, the latter have developed lighthouse -engineering in many novel directions, such as the unattended -Otter Rock lightship, the unattended Guernsey -lighthouse, and the automatic, acetylene, fog-signal gun, -which are described elsewhere in this volume.</p> - -<p>Some forty years ago the Stevensons also drew up the -scheme and designed the first lighthouses for guarding the -coasts of Japan. The essential optical apparatus and other -fittings were built and temporarily erected in England, then<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">10</a></span> -dismantled and shipped to the East, to be set up in their -designed places. The Japanese did not fail to manifest -their characteristic trait in connection with lighthouses as -with other branches of engineering. The structures produced -by the Scottish engineers fulfilled the requirements -so perfectly, and were such excellent models, as to be considered -a first-class foundation for the Japanese lighthouse -service. The native engineers took these lights as their -pattern, and, unaided, extended their coast lighting system -upon the lines laid down by the Stevensons. Since that -date Japan has never gone outside her own borders for assistance -in lighthouse engineering.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">11</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /> - -<span class="subhead">BUILDING A LIGHTHOUSE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Obviously, the task of erecting a lighthouse varies considerably -with the situation. On the mainland construction -is straightforward, and offers little more difficulty than -the building of a house. The work assumes its most -romantic and fascinating form when it is associated with -a small rocky islet out to sea, such as the Eddystone, -Skerryvore, or Minot’s Ledge; or with a treacherous, exposed -stretch of sand, such as that upon which the Rothersand -light is raised. Under such conditions the operation -is truly herculean, and the ingenuity and resource of the -engineer are taxed to a superlative degree; then he is -pitted against Nature in her most awful guise. Wind and -wave, moreover, are such formidable and relentless antagonists -that for the most momentary failure of vigilance -and care the full penalty is exacted. Then there are the -fiercely scurrying currents, tides, breakers, and surf, against -which battle must be waged, with the odds so overwhelmingly -ranged against frail human endeavour that advance -can only be made by inches. The lighthouse engineer must -possess the patience of a Job, the tenacity of a limpet, a -determination which cannot be measured, and a perseverance -which defies galling delays and repeated rebuffs. -Perils of an extreme character beset him on every hand; -thrilling escape and sensational incident are inseparable -from his calling.</p> - -<p>The first step is the survey of the site, the determination of -the character of the rock and of its general configuration, -and the takings of levels and measurements for the foundations. -When the rugged hump is only a few feet in diameter -little latitude is afforded the engineer for selection, but in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">12</a></span> -instances where the islet is of appreciable area some little -time may be occupied in deciding just where the structure -shall be placed. It seems a simple enough task to determine; -one capable of solution within a few minutes, and so for -the most part it is—not from choice, but necessity—when -once the surface of the rock is gained. The paramount -difficulty is to secure a landing upon the site. The islet is -certain to be the centre of madly surging currents, eddies, -and surf, demanding wary approach in a small boat, while -the search for a suitable point upon which to plant a foot -is invariably perplexing. Somehow, the majority of these -bleak, wave-swept rocks have only one little place where -a landing may be made, and that only at certain infrequent -periods, the discovery of which in the first instance often -taxes the engineer sorely.</p> - -<p>Often weeks will be expended in reconnoitring the position, -awaiting a favourable wind and a placid sea. Time to the -surveyor must be no object. He is the sport of the elements, -and he must curb his impatience. To do otherwise -is to court disaster. The actual operations on the rock -may only occupy twenty minutes or so, but the task of -landing is equalled by that of getting off again—the latter -frequently a more hazardous job than the former.</p> - -<p>The west coast of Scotland is dreaded, if such a term may -be used, by the engineer, because the survey inevitably -is associated with bitter disappointments and maddening -delays owing to the caprices of the ocean. This is not -surprising when it is remembered that this coastline is of -a cruel, forbidding character and is exposed to the full -reach of the Atlantic, with its puzzling swell and vicious -currents. The same applies to the west coast of Ireland -and the open parts of the South of England. The Casquets, -off the coast of Alderney, are particularly difficult of approach, -as they are washed on all sides by wild races of -water. There is only one little cove where a landing may -be effected by stepping directly from a boat, and this place -can be approached only in the calmest weather and when -the wind is blowing in a certain direction. On one occasion,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">13</a></span> -when I had received permission to visit the lighthouse, I -frittered away three weeks in Alderney awaiting a favourable -opportunity to go out, and then gave up the attempt -in disgust. As it happened, another month elapsed before -the rock was approachable to make the relief.</p> - -<p>When the United States Lighthouse Board sanctioned -the construction of the Tillamook lighthouse on the rock -of that name, off the Oregon coast, the engineer in charge -of the survey was compelled to wait six months before he -could venture to approach the island. In this instance, -however, his time was not wasted entirely, as there were -many preparations to be completed on the mainland to -facilitate construction when it should be commenced. Early -in June, 1879, the weather moderated, and the Pacific -assumed an aspect in keeping with its name. Stimulated -by the prospect of carrying out his appointed task, the -engineer pushed off in a boat, but, to his chagrin, when he -drew near the rock he found the prospects of landing to be -hopeless. He cruised about, reconnoitring generally from -the water, and then returned to shore somewhat disgusted.</p> - -<p>A fortnight later he was instructed to take up his position -at Astoria, to keep a sharp eye on the weather, to take the -first chance that presented itself of gaining the rock, and -not to return to headquarters until he had made a landing. -He fretted and fumed day after day, and at last pushed off -with a gang of men when the sea where it lapped the beach -of the mainland was as smooth as a lake; but as they -drew near the Tillamook it was the same old story. A -treacherous swell was running, the waves were curling -wickedly and fussily around the islet; but the engineer -had made up his mind that he would be balked no longer, -so the boat was pulled in warily, in the face of terrible risk, -and two sailors were ordered to get ashore by hook or by -crook. The boat swung to and fro in the swell. Time after -time it was carried forward to the landing spot by a wave, -and then, just as the men were ready to jump, the receding -waters would throw it back. At last, as it swung by the -spot, the two men gave a leap and landed safely. The next<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">14</a></span> -proceeding was to pass instruments ashore, but the swell, -as if incensed at the partial success achieved, grew more -boisterous, and the boat had to back away from the rock. -The men who had landed, and who had not moved a yard -from the spot they had gained, became frightened at this -manœuvre, and, fearing that they might be marooned, -jumped into the sea, and were pulled into the boat by means -of their life-lines, without having accomplished a stroke.</p> - -<div id="ip_14" class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"> - <img src="images/i_p014a.jpg" width="399" height="525" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE SANGANEB REEF LIGHTHOUSE IN THE RED SEA.</p> - -<p class="captionl">It indicates a treacherous coral reef, 703 miles from Suez. It is an iron tower 180 feet high, -with a white flashing light having a range of 19 miles.</p></div></div> - -<p>The engineer chafed under these disappointments, and -himself determined to incur the risk of landing at all -hazards. With his tape-line in his pocket, he set out once -more a few days later, and in a surf-boat pulled steadily -into the froth and foam around the rock; while the men -sawed to and fro the landing-place, he crouched in the -bow, watching his opportunity. Presently, the boat steadying -itself for a moment, he made a spring and reached the -rock. He could not get his instruments ashore, so without -loss of time he ran his line from point to point as rapidly -as he could, jotted down hurried notes, and, when the swell -was growing restive again, hailed the boat, and at a favourable -moment, as it manœuvred round, jumped into it.</p> - -<p>The details he had secured, though hastily prepared, -were sufficient for the purpose. His report was considered -and the character of the beacon decided. There was some -discussion as to the most favourable situation for the light -upon the rock, so a more detailed survey was demanded to -settle this problem. This task was entrusted to an Englishman, -Mr. John R. Trewavas, who was familiar with work -under such conditions. He was a master-mason of Portland -and had been engaged upon the construction of the Wolf -Rock, one of the most notable and difficult works of its kind -in the history of lighthouse engineering.</p> - -<p>He pushed off to the rock on September 18, 1879, in a -surf-boat, only to find the usual state of things prevailing. -The boat was run in, and, emulating the first engineer’s feat, -he cleared the water and landed on the steep, rocky slope; -but it was wet and slippery, and his feet played him false. -He stumbled, and stooped to regain his balance, but just<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">15</a></span> -then a roller curled in, snatched him up and threw him into -the whirlpool of currents. Life-lines were thrown, and the -surf-boat struggled desperately to get near him, but he was -dragged down by the undertow and never seen again. -This fatality scared his companions, who returned hastily -to the mainland. The recital of their dramatic story stirred -the public to such a pitch that the authorities were frantically -urged to abandon the project of lighting the Tillamook.</p> - -<p>Mr. David Stevenson related to me an exciting twenty -minutes which befell him and his brother while surveying -a rock off the west coast of Scotland. They had been -waiting patiently for a favourable moment to effect a landing, -and when at last it appeared they drew in and clambered -ashore. But they could not advance another inch. The -rock was jagged and broken, while its surface was as slippery -as ice owing to a thick covering of slimy seaweed whereon -boots could not possibly secure a hold. Having gained the -rock with so much difficulty, they were not going away -empty-handed. As they could not stand in their boots, -they promptly removed them, and, taking their line and -levels, picked their way gingerly over the jagged, slippery -surface in their stockinged feet. Movement certainly was -exceedingly uncomfortable, because their toes displayed -an uncanny readiness to find every needle-point on the -islet; but the wool of their footwear enabled them to obtain -a firm grip upon the treacherous surface, without the risk -of being upset and having a limb battered or broken in the -process. Twenty minutes were spent in making investigations -under these disconcerting conditions, but the time -was adequate to provide all the details required. When -they had completed the survey and had regained their -boat—a matter of no little difficulty in the circumstances—their -feet bore sad traces of the ordeal through which they -had passed. However, their one concern was the completion -of the survey; that had been made successfully and was -well worth the toll exacted in the form of physical discomfort.</p> - -<div id="ip_15" class="figcenter" style="width: 605px;"> - <img src="images/i_p014b.jpg" width="605" height="360" alt="" /> - <div class="caption intact"> - <table class="wide"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">THE ALCATRAZ LIGHTHOUSE<br />UNDER CONSTRUCTION.</td> - <td class="tdc">THE ALCATRAZ<br />LIGHTHOUSE COMPLETED.</td> - </tr> - </table> - <p class="captionc">This tower off the Californian coast is one of the latest works of the American Lighthouse Department. It has a range of 21 miles.</p> - </div></div> - -<p>As a rule, on a wave-swept rock which only shows itself -at short intervals during the day, the preparation of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">16</a></span> -foundations is not an exacting task. A little paring with -chisels and dynamite may be requisite here and there, but -invariably the engineer takes the exposed surface as the -basis for his work. The sea has eaten away all the soft, -friable material in its ceaseless erosion, leaving an excellent -foundation to which the superstructure can be keyed to -become as solid as the rock itself.</p> - -<p>When the beacon is to be erected upon a sandy bottom, -the engineer’s work becomes more baffling, as he is compelled -to carry his underwater work down to a point where a -stable foundation may be secured. When the Leasowe -lighthouse was built on the sandy Wirral shore, the -builders were puzzled by the lack of a suitable foundation -for the masonry tower. An ingenious way out of the difficulty -was effected. In the vicinity an incoming ship, laden -with a cargo of cotton, had gone ashore and had become a -total wreck. The cotton was useless for its intended purpose, -so the bales were salvaged and dumped into the sand -at the point where the lighthouse was to be erected. The -fleecy mass settled into the sand, and under compression -became as solid as a rock, while its permanency was assured -by its complete submersion. The stability of this strange -foundation may be gathered from the fact that the tower -erected thereon stood, and shed its welcome light regularly -every night, for about a century and a half, only being -extinguished two or three years ago as it was no longer -required.</p> - -<p>In the Old World, and, indeed, in the great majority of -instances, the lighthouse is what is described as a “monolithic -structure,” being built of courses of masonry, the -blocks of which are dovetailed together not only laterally, -but also perpendicularly, so that, when completed, the -tower comprises a solid mass with each stone jointed to its -fellow on four or five of its six sides. This method was first -tried in connection with the Hanois lighthouse, off the -Guernsey coast, and was found so successful that it has -been adopted universally in all lighthouses which are exposed -to the action of the waves.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">17</a></span> -The upper face and one end of each block are provided -with projections, while the lower face and the other end -are given indentations. Thus, when the block is set in -position, the projections fit into corresponding indentations -in the adjacent blocks, while the indentations receive the -projections from two other neighbouring pieces. The whole -is locked together by the aid of hydraulic cement. Consequently -the waves, or any other agency, cannot possibly -dislodge a stone without breaking the dovetails or smashing -the stone itself. For the bottom layer, of course, the surface -of the rock is pared away sufficiently to receive the stone, -which is bedded in cement adhering to both the rock and -the superimposed block. A hole is then drilled through the -latter deep into the rock beneath, into which a steel rod or -bolt is driven well home, and the hole is sealed up with -cement forced in under such pressure as to penetrate every -interstice and crevice.</p> - -<p>The iron supports constitute the roots, as it were, of the -tower, penetrating deep into the heart of the rock to secure -a firm grip, while the tower itself resembles, in its general -appearance, a symmetrical tree trunk, this form offering -the minimum of resistance to the waves. The lower part -of the tower is made completely solid by the dovetailing of -the integral blocks, and is cylindrical in shape up to a certain -predetermined level which varies according to the surrounding -conditions and the situation of the light. Some years -ago the lighthouse assumed its trunk-like shape at the bottom -course, rising in a graceful concave curve to the lantern; -but this method has been abandoned, inasmuch as, owing -to the decreasing diameter of the tower as it rose course by -course above its foundations, the lowest outer rings of masonry -did not have to withstand any of the superimposed weight, -which naturally bears in a vertical line. By carrying the -lower part to a certain height in the form of a cylinder, and -then commencing the concave curve of the tower, the -pressure of the latter is imposed equally upon the whole of -its foundations. The latter may be stepped—<i>i.e.</i>, one tier -of stones may project a little beyond that of the one immediately<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">18</a></span> -above—but this arrangement is adopted in order -to break the smashing force of the waves.</p> - -<p>The conditions attending the actual building operations -upon the rock, which may be accessible only for an hour -or two per day in calm weather, prevent the blocks of -granite being shaped and trimmed upon the site. Accordingly, -the lighthouse in the first place is erected piecemeal -on shore. A horizontal course of stones is laid to see -that each dovetail fits tightly and dead true. The next -course is laid upon this, and so on for perhaps eight -or ten courses, the trimming and finicking being accomplished -as the work proceeds. Each projection has to be -only just big enough to enter its relative indentation, while -the latter must be exactly of the requisite dimensions to -receive the projection, and no more. Each stone is then -given an identification mark, so that the masons on the rock -may perceive at a glance its precise position in a course, -and to what ring of stones it belongs. Therefore the mason -at the site has no anxiety about a stone fitting accurately; -he has merely to set it in position upon its bed of cement.</p> - -<p>On shore—generally in the quarry yard—when a series -of courses have been temporarily built up in this manner -and have received the critical approbation of the resident -engineer, the topmost course is removed and retained, while -the other blocks are despatched to the site. This topmost -course forms the bottom ring in the next section of the -lighthouse which is built up in the yard, and the topmost -course of this section in turn is held to form the bottom -course of the succeeding part of the tower, and so on from -foundation to lantern parapet.</p> - -<p>During the past two or three years reinforced concrete -has been employed to a certain extent for lighthouse construction, -but granite of the finest and hardest quality still -remains the material <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">par excellence</i> for towers erected in -exposed, sea-swept positions. The Russian lighthouse -authorities have adopted the ferro-concrete system in regard -to one or two shore lights, especially on the Black Sea, -while another fine structure upon this principle was built<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">19</a></span> -by the French <i>Service des Phares</i> in 1905 at the entrance -to the River Gironde. The system has also been adopted -by the Canadian lighthouse authorities; one or two recent -notable lights under their jurisdiction have been constructed -in this material, although on somewhat different lines from -those almost invariably followed, so far as the general design -is concerned.</p> - -<p>While the masonry or monolithic structure is the most -durable and substantial structure, it is also the most expensive. -In many parts of the world, notably along the -Atlantic coastline of the United States, what are known as -“screw-pile lighthouses” are used. These buildings vary -in form, some resembling a huge beacon, such as indicates -the entrance to a river, while others convey the impression -of being bungalows or pavilions on stilts. The legs are -stout, cylindrical, iron members, the lower ends of which are -shaped somewhat after the manner of an auger, whereby -they may be screwed into the sea-bed—hence the name. -This system has been employed for beacons over dangerous -shoals; and while they are somewhat squat, low-lying lights, -they have proved to be highly serviceable.</p> - -<p>Iron has been employed also for lighthouse constructional -work, the system in this case being a combination of the -screw pile and the tower, the latter, extending from a platform -whereon the living-quarters are placed and mounted -clear of the water, on piles, being a huge cylindrical pipe -crowned by the lantern. One of the most interesting and -novel of these iron lighthouses is the Hunting Island tower -off the coast of South Carolina. In general design it resembles -the ordinary lighthouse wrought in masonry, and -it is 121½ feet in height from the ground to the focal plane. -It is built of iron throughout, the shell being in the form of -panels, each of which weighs 1,200 pounds.</p> - -<p>This type of tower was selected owing to the severe -erosion of the sea at the point where it is placed. When it -was erected in 1875, at a cost of £20,400, or $102,000, it -was planted a quarter of a mile back from the sea. This -action was severely criticized at the time, it being maintained<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">20</a></span> -that the light was set too far from the water’s edge -to be of practical value; but the hungry ocean disappointed -the critics, because in the course of a few years the intervening -strip of shore disappeared, and the necessity of -demolishing the light and re-erecting it farther inland arose. -On this occasion the engineers determined to postpone a -second removal for some time. The tower was re-erected -at a point one and a quarter miles inland, and the sum of -£10,200, or $51,000, was expended upon the undertaking. -The iron system, which was adopted, proved its value in -this work of removal piece by piece, because, had the tower -been carried out in masonry, it would have been cheaper to -set up a new light, as was done at Cape Henry.</p> - -<div id="ip_20" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/i_p021.jpg" width="280" height="610" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Sectional Diagram of the Ar-men Lighthouse, -showing Yearly Progress in Construction.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">It guards the “Bay of the Dead,” off Cape Finisterre. Commenced in -1867, it was not finished until 1881.</p></div></div> - -<p>Some of the American coast lights are of the most primitive -and odd-looking character, comprising merely a lofty -skeleton of ironwork. The lamp is a head-light, such as is -carried by railway engines, fitted with a parabolic reflector. -Every morning the lamp is lowered, cleaned, and stored in -a shack at the foot of the pyramid, to be lighted and hauled -into position at dusk. This is the most economical form -of lighthouse which has been devised, the total cost of the -installation being only about £2,500, or $12,500, while the -maintenance charges are equally low. Lights of this description -are employed for the most part in connection with -the lighting of waterways, constituting what is known as -the “back-light” in a range or group of lights studded -along the river to guide the navigator through its twists -and shallows, instead of buoying of the channel.</p> - -<p>The task of constructing a sea-rock lighthouse is as tedious -and protracted an enterprise as one could conceive, because -the engineer and his workmen are entirely at the mercy of -the weather. Each great work has bristled with its particular -difficulties; each has presented its individual problems -for solution. Few modern lighthouses, however, have so -baffled the engineer and have occupied such a number of -years in completion, as the Ar-men light off Cape Finisterre. -This tower was commenced in 1867, but so great and so -many were the difficulties involved in its erection that the<span class="pagenum"><a class="hidev" id="Page_21">21</a><a id="Page_22">22</a></span> -light was not first thrown over the Atlantic from its lantern -until 1881.</p> - -<p>This light is situated at one of the most dreaded parts -of a sinister coast. At this spot a number of granite points -thrust themselves at times above the water in an indentation -which has received the lugubrious name Bay of the -Dead. The title is well deserved, for it is impossible to -say how many ships have gone down through fouling these -greedy fangs, or how many lives have been lost in its -vicinity. The waters around the spot are a seething race -of currents, eddies, and whirlpools. It is an ocean graveyard -in very truth, and although mariners are only too -cognizant of its terrible character, and endeavour to give -this corner of the European mainland a wide birth, yet -storms and fogs upset the calculations of the most careful -navigators.</p> - -<div id="ip_22" class="figcenter" style="width: 601px;"> - <img src="images/i_p022a.jpg" width="601" height="355" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE THIMBLE SHOALS LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">A typical example of the American iron screw pile system. A vessel ran into this beacon and wrecked it; the ruins caught fire, and the keepers -only escaped in the nick of time.</p></div></div> - -<p>As the streams of traffic across the Bay of Biscay grew -denser and denser, it became imperative to provide a -guardian light at this spot, and the engineers embarked -upon their task. They knew well that they were faced -with a daring and trying enterprise, and weeks were spent -in these troubled waters seeking for the most favourable -site. As a result of their elaborate surveys, they decided -that the rock of Ar-men offered the only suitable situation; -but what a precarious foundation upon which to lift a massive -masonry tower! The hump is only 25 feet wide by 50 feet -in length; no more than three little pinnacles projected -above the sea-level, and at low-tide less than 5 feet of the -tough gneiss were exposed. Nor was this the most adverse -feature. The rock is in the centre of the bad waters, and -is swept from end to end, under all conditions of weather, -by the furious swell. Some idea of the prospect confronting -the engineers may be gathered from the fact that a whole -year was spent in the effort to make one landing to take -levels.</p> - -<p>When construction was taken in hand the outlook was -even more appalling. It was as if the sea recognized that -its day of plunder was to draw to a close. The workmen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">23</a></span> -were brought, with all materials and appliances, to the -nearest strategical point on the mainland, where a depot -was established. Yet in the course of two years the workmen, -although they strove day after day to land upon the -rock, only succeeded twenty-three times, while during this -period only twenty-six hours’ work was accomplished! It -is not surprising that, when the men did land, they toiled -like Trojans to make the most of the brief interval. The -sum of their work in this time was the planting of the -lighthouse’s roots in the form of fifty-five circular bars, -each 2 inches in diameter and spaced 3¼ feet apart at a -depth of about 12 inches in the granite mass. By the end -of 1870 the cylindrical foundation had crept a few feet above -the highest projection; this plinth was 24 feet in diameter, -18 feet in height, and was solid throughout. A greater -diameter was impossible as the wall was brought almost -to the edge of the rock.</p> - -<p>By dint of great effort this part of the work was completed -by the end of 1874, which year, by the way, showed the -greatest advance that had been attained in a single twelvemonth. -As much of the foundations was completed in -this year as had been achieved during the three previous -years. Although the heavy gales pounded the structure -mercilessly, so well was the masonry laid that it offered -quite effective resistance. Upon this plinth was placed the -base of the tower. This likewise is 24 feet in diameter, -and about 10 feet in height. It is also of massive construction, -being solid except for a central cylindrical space -which is capable of receiving some 5 tons of coal.</p> - -<div id="ip_23" class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"> - <img src="images/i_p022b.jpg" width="388" height="588" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of Messrs. Bullivant & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>SETTING THE LAST STONE OF THE BEACHY HEAD LIGHTHOUSE.</p></div></div> - -<p>The base was completed in a single year, and in 1876 the -erection of the tower proper was commenced, together with -the completion of the approaching stairway leading from -the water-level to the base of the structure. The latter, -divided into seven stories, rises in the form of a slender -cone, tapering from a diameter of 21½ feet at the bottom -to 16½ feet at the top beneath the lantern. Some idea of -the massive character of the work which was demanded in -order to resist the intense fury of the waves may be realized<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">24</a></span> -when it is mentioned that the wall at the first and second -floors is 5½ feet in thickness, leaving a diameter of 10 feet -for the apartment on the first floor, which is devoted to the -storage of water, and of 7 feet for that on the second floor, -which contains the oil reservoirs for the lamps. The living-rooms -have a diameter of 11 feet, this increased space being -obtained by reducing the thickness of the wall to 2½ feet. -The erection of the superstructure went forward steadily, -five years being occupied in carrying the masonry from the -base to the lantern gallery, so that in 1881 for the first time -powerful warning was given of a danger dreaded, and often -unavoidable, from the time when ships first sailed these seas. -Fifteen years’ labour and peril on the part of the engineers -and their assistants were crowned with success.</p> - -<p>Whereas the Ar-men light off Cape Finisterre demanded -fifteen years for its completion, the construction of the -Beachy Head lighthouse off the South of England coast -was completed within a few months. It is true that the -conditions were vastly dissimilar, but the Sussex shore is -exposed to the full brunt of the south-westerly and south-easterly -gales. This lighthouse thrusts its slender lines -from the water, its foundations being sunk into the chalk -bed of the Channel, 550 feet from the base of the towering -white cliffs, which constitute a striking background. This -beacon was brought into service in 1902, its construction -having occupied about two years. The light formerly was -placed on the crown of the precipice behind, but, being -then some 285 feet above the water, was far from being -satisfactory, as its rays were frequently blotted out by the -ruffle of mist which gathers around Beachy Head on the -approach of evening.</p> - -<p>Indeed, this is one of the great objections to placing a -light upon a lofty headland. In such a position it does not -serve as an aid, but more often than not as a danger, to -navigation, owing to the light being invisible at the time -when its assistance is required and sought most urgently. -Consequently lighthouse engineers endeavour to set their -towers at such a level that the light is not raised more than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">25</a></span> -from 160 to 200 feet above the water. In the case of -Beachy Head, a further reason for a new structure was the -disintegration of the cliff upon which the light stood, under -the terrific poundings of the sea, huge falls of chalk having -occurred from time to time, which imperilled the safety of -the building.</p> - -<p>When the new lighthouse was taken in hand, investigation -of the sea-bed revealed an excellent foundation in the -dense hard chalk, and accordingly a hole 10 feet deep was -excavated out of the solid mass to receive the footings of -the building. As the site is submerged to a great depth at -high-tide, the first operation was the erection of a circular -dam carried to a sufficient height to enable the men to toil -within. By this arrangement the working spells were -lengthened considerably, labour only being suspended at -high-tide. When the sea ebbed below the edge of the dam, -the water within was pumped out, leaving a dry clear space -for the workmen. Excavation had to be carried out with -pickaxe and shovel, blasting not being permitted for fear -of shattering and splitting up the mass forming the crust -of the sea-bed.</p> - -<p>Beside the site a substantial iron staging was erected, -and from this point to the top of the cliffs behind a Bullivant -cableway was stretched, up and down which the various -requirements were carried, together with the workmen. -This cableway, designed by Mr. W. T. H. Carrington, -M.I.C.E., consulting engineer to Messrs. Bullivant and Co., -Ltd., facilitated rapid and economical construction very -appreciably. The span was about 600 feet between the -erecting stage and the cliff summit, and there were two -fixed ropes stretched parallel from point to point. One -rope, 6 inches in diameter, had a breaking strain of 120 tons; -the second, 5½ inches thick, had a breaking strain of 100 tons. -At the seaward end the cables were anchored into the solid -chalk. Everything required for the constructional operations -was handled by this carrying system, and when it is -recalled that some of the blocks for the lower courses -weighed from 4½ to 5 tons, it will be recognized that such a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">26</a></span> -method of handling these ungainly loads, with the care -that was demanded to preserve the edges and faces from -injury, solved an abstruse problem completely.</p> - -<p>The base of the tower, the diameter of which is 47 feet, -is solid to a height of 48 feet, except for a central circular -space for storing drinking water. It was designed by Sir -Thomas Matthews, M.I.C.E., the Engineer-in-Chief to the -Trinity Brethren, and is a graceful building, the tower -rising in a curve which is described as a “concave elliptic -frustum.” From the base to the lantern gallery is 123½ feet, -and 3,660 tons of Cornish granite were used in its construction. -The over-all height to the top of the lantern is 153 -feet. The building is provided with eight floors, comprising -the living and sleeping quarters for the keepers, -storage of oil, and other necessaries. The light, of the -dioptric order, is of 83,000 candle-power, and the two white -flashes given every fifteen seconds are distinguishable for -a distance of seventeen miles, which is the average range of -modern British lighthouses.</p> - -<p>Although the constructional work was frequently interrupted -by rough weather, every advantage was taken of -calm periods. While from the point of daring engineering -it does not compare with many of the other great lights -of the world, yet it certainly ranks as a fine example of the -lighthouse builder’s skill. Owing to the elaborate precautions -observed, the achievement was not marred by a -single fatality, although there were many thrilling moments, -the sole result of which, however, was the loss of tools and -sections of the plant, which in the majority of cases were -recovered when the tide fell. The most serious accident -was a crushed toe, which befell one of the masons when a -stone was being bedded.</p> - -<p>Although the lighthouse is subjected to the full fury of -wind and wave, if skilfully erected it will withstand the -ravages of both without creating the slightest apprehensions -in the engineer’s mind. The stones are prepared so carefully -that they fit one another like the proverbial glove, -while the cement fills every nook and cranny. Occasionally,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">27</a></span> -however, the cement will succumb to the natural disintegrating -forces, and, becoming detached, reveal a point -vulnerable to attack. The air within the interstice becomes -compressed by the surging water, and thereby the fabric is -liable to be shattered. Some years ago one or two of the -lighthouses guarding the Great Lakes of North America -were found to have become weakened from this cause. A -novel remedy was evolved by an ingenious engineer. He -provided each tottering lighthouse with an iron overcoat, -enveloping it from top to bottom. The metal was not laid -directly upon the masonry, but was so placed as to leave about -a quarter of an inch between the inner face of the metal and the -surface of the masonry. Liquid cement was then admitted -under pressure—“grouting” it is called—into this annular -space, and penetrating every crack and crevice in the -masonry, and adhering both to the metal and the stonework, -it practically formed another intermediate jacket, -binding the two so firmly together as to make them virtually -one. This novel procedure absolutely restored the menaced -building to its original homogeneity and rigidity, so that it -became as sound as the day on which it was built.</p> - -<p>Nowadays, owing to the skill in designing and the workmanship -displayed, one never hears of a modern lighthouse -collapsing. Expense is no object; the engineer does not -endeavour to thwart the elements, but follows a design -wherein the minimum of resistance is offered to them.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">28</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE LIGHT AND ILLUMINANTS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>While it is the tower that probably creates the deepest -impression upon the popular mind, owing to the round of -difficulties overcome associated with its erection, yet, after -all, it is the light which is the vital thing to the navigator. -To him symmetry of outline in the tower, the searching -problems that had to be solved before it was planted in a -forbidding spot, the risks that were incurred in its erection—these -are minor details. His one concern is the light thrown -from the topmost height, warning him to keep off a dangerous -spot and by its characteristic enabling him to determine his -position.</p> - -<p>I have described the earliest type of light, the open wood -or coal fire blazing on an eminence. In due course the brazier -gave way to tallow candles. This was an advance, certainly, -but the range of the naked light was extremely limited. -Consequently efforts were made to intensify it and to throw -it in the desired direction. The first step was made with a -reflector placed behind the illuminant, similar to that used -with the cheap wall-lamp so common in village workshops. -This, in its improved form, is known as the “catoptric -system,” the reflector being of parabolic shape, with the -light so disposed that all its rays (both horizontal and -vertical) are reflected in one direction by the aid of a highly -polished surface. While the catoptric system is still used -on some light-vessels, its application to important lighthouses -has fallen into desuetude, as it has been superseded -by vastly improved methods. But the reflector, made -either of silvered glass set in a plaster-of-Paris mould or of -brightly polished metallic surfaces, held the field until the -great invention of Augustin Fresnel, which completely -revolutionized the science of lighthouse optics.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">29</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_29" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p029.jpg" width="258" height="275" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Fixed Apparatus of 360 Degrees.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">Shows one ray throughout the complete circle.<br /> -(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<p>Fresnel was appointed a member of the French Lighthouse -Commission in 1811, and he realized the shortcomings of the -existing catoptric method only too well. Everyone knows -that when a lamp is lighted the luminous rays are diffused -on every side, horizontally as well as vertically. In lighthouse -operations the beam has to be thrown in a horizontal -line only, while the light which is shed towards the top and -bottom must be diverted, so that the proportion of waste -luminosity may be reduced to the minimum. While the -parabolic reflector achieved this end partially, it was far -from being satisfactory, and Fresnel set to work to condense -the whole of the rays into a horizontal beam. Buffon, a -contemporary investigator, as well as Sir David Brewster, -had suggested that the end might be met by building up a -lens in separate concentric rings, but neither reduced his -theories to practice.</p> - -<p>Fresnel invented a very simple system. He took a central -piece of glass, which may be described as a bull’s-eye, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">30</a></span> -around this disposed a number of concentric rings of glass. -But these rings projected beyond one another. Each constituted -the edge of a lens which, while its radius differed -from that of its neighbour, owing to its position, yet was of -the same focus in regard to the source of illumination. The -parts were shaped with extreme care and were united in -position by the aid of fish glue, the whole being mounted in -a metal frame. The advantage of the system was apparent -in the first demonstrations. The lenses being comparatively -thin, only one-tenth of the light passing through was absorbed, -whereas in the old parabolic reflectors one-half of the -light was lost.</p> - -<div id="ip_30" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p030.jpg" width="246" height="272" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.—Single Flashing Apparatus (One Panel -and Mirror).</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<p>This revolutionary development was perfected in 1822, -and in the following year it was submitted to its first practical -application on the tower of Cordouan in the Gironde. Several -modifications were made by the inventor for the purpose of -adapting his system to varying conditions. One of the most -important was the disposition of lenses and mirrors above<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">31</a></span> -the optical apparatus for the purpose of collecting and driving -back the rays which were sent out vertically from the illuminant, -so that they might be mingled with the horizontal -beam, thereby reinforcing it. At a later date similar -equiangular prisms were placed below the horizontal beam -so as to catch the light thrown downwards from the luminous -source, the result being that finally none, or very little, of -the light emitted by the illuminant was lost, except by -absorption in the process of bending the rays into the desired -direction.</p> - -<div id="ip_31" class="figcenter" style="width: 230px;"> - <img src="images/i_p031.jpg" width="230" height="232" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.—A Twenty-Four Panel Light, which was introduced -into Certain French Lighthouses.</span></div></div> - -<p>In this ingenious manner the circle of light is divided into -sections, called “panels,” each of which comprises its bull’s-eye -and its group of concentric rings and prisms. The -extent of this division varies appreciably, as many as -sixteen panels being utilized in some instances. In this -direction, however, subdivision can be carried too far. -Thus, in some of the French lighthouses no less than twenty-four -panels were introduced. The disadvantage is obvious. -The total volume of light emitted from the luminous source -has to be divided into twenty-four parts, one for each panel. -But the fewer the panels, the more light is thrown through<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">32</a></span> -each, and the correspondingly greater power of the beam. -Thus, in a four-panel light each beam will be six times as -powerful as that thrown from a twenty-four panel apparatus -of the same type.</p> - -<p>Fresnel also introduced the system of revolving the -optical apparatus, and by the introduction of suitable devices -was able to give the light a flashing characteristic, so that -it became possible to provide a means of identifying a light -from a distance entirely by the peculiarity of its flash. The -French authorities were so impressed with the wonderful -improvement produced by Fresnel’s epoch-making invention -that it was adopted immediately for all French lights. Great -Britain followed suit a few years later, while other countries -embraced the system subsequently, so that the Fresnel lens -eventually came into universal use.</p> - -<div id="ip_32" class="figcenter" style="width: 229px;"> - <img src="images/i_p032.jpg" width="229" height="228" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.—A Four-Panel Light.</span></p> - -<p class="captionl">The ray thrown through each panel is six times as powerful as the -beam thrown through a twenty-four panel apparatus.</p></div></div> - -<p>But the Frenchman’s ingenious invention has been developed -out of recognition. To-day only the fundamental -basis is retained. Marked improvements were made by Mr. -Alan Stevenson, the famous Scottish lighthouse engineer. -In fact, he carried the idea to a far greater degree than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">33</a></span> -Fresnel ever contemplated, and in some instances even -anticipated the latter’s subsequent modifications and improvements. -This was demonstrated more particularly in -the holophotal revolving apparatus, the first example of -which he designed for the North Ronaldshay lighthouse in -1850, a similar apparatus being devised some years later by -Fresnel. In 1862 another great improvement was made by -Mr. J. T. Chance, of the well-known lighthouse engineering -firm of Birmingham, which proved so successful that it was -incorporated for first and third order apparatuses in the -New Zealand lights designed by Messrs. Stevenson in the -same year.</p> - -<div id="ip_33" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p033.jpg" width="246" height="262" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.—Single Apparatus in Four Panels.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<p>The French and British investigators, however, were not -having things entirely their own way. The United States -played a part in these developments, although they did not -enter very successfully into the problem. The first lighthouse -at Boston Harbour carried candles until superseded -by an ordinary lamp, which was hung in the lantern in much -the same way as it might have been suspended behind the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">34</a></span> -window of a private dwelling. An inventor, Mr. Winslow -Lewis, who confessed that he knew nothing about lighthouse -optics, patented what he called a “magnifying and reflecting -lantern” for lighthouse work, which he claimed was a lamp, -a reflector, and a magnifier, all in one. It was as crude a -device as has ever emanated from an inventive brain, but -the designer succeeded in impressing the Government so -effectively that they gave him £4,000, or $20,000, for his -invention. The reflector was wrought of thin copper with -a silvered surface, while the magnifier, the essence of the -invention, was what he called a “lens,” but which in reality -comprised only a circular transparent mass, 9 inches in -diameter, and varying from 2½ to 4 inches in thickness, -made of bottle-green glass. The Government considered -that it had acquired a valuable invention, and was somewhat -dismayed by the blunt opinion of one of its inspectors who<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">35</a></span> -held contrary views concerning the magnifier, inasmuch as -he reported cynically that its only merit was that it made -“a bad light worse.”</p> - -<div id="ip_35" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p034.jpg" width="229" height="305" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.—Double Flashing Apparatus: Two -Panels and Mirror.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_35b" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p035.jpg" width="245" height="290" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.—Double Flashing Apparatus: Two Groups -each of Two Panels.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<p>The inventor did not manifest any antagonism to this -criticism, but immediately pointed out the great economy -in the consumption of oil that was arising from the use of -his idea. Indeed, he prosecuted his claims so successfully -that he clinched a profitable bargain to himself with the -Government. His apparatus had been fitted to thirty-four -lights, and he contracted to maintain them on the basis of -receiving one-half of the oil previously consumed by the -lamps which his invention superseded. This arrangement -was in vogue for five years, when it was renewed, with the -difference that on this occasion the Government, concluding -that the inventor was making too much out of the transaction, -reduced the allowance to one-third. Subsequently -the invention received higher commendation from the officials<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">36</a></span> -than that advanced by the critical inspector, although it -must be pointed out that meanwhile the magnifying bull’s-eye -had been abandoned, and a new type of reflector introduced, -so that the sole remaining feature of the wonderful -invention was the lamp. Even that had been modified. -When the Lighthouse Board was established in 1852 it -abolished the much-discussed invention, and introduced the -Fresnel system, bringing the United States into line with the -rest of the world.</p> - -<div id="ip_36" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p036.jpg" width="240" height="297" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.—Triple Flashing Apparatus: Three -Panels and Mirror.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<p>One feature of the subject cannot fail to arrest attention. -This is the possibility of producing a variety of combinations -by the aid of the lenses to fulfil different requirements. The -Fresnel, Stevenson, and Chance developments in the science -of lighthouse optics facilitated this work very significantly. -Accordingly, to-day a variety of lights, evolved from the -variations in the mounting of the lenses, is in vogue. For<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">37</a></span> -purposes of identification they have been divided into a -number of classifications, and, for the convenience of the -navigator, are described as lights of the first order, second -order, and so on. Broadly speaking, there are seven main -groups, or orders, the rating only applying to dioptric or -catadioptric lights, indicating the bending of the luminous -rays in the desired direction, either by refraction and reflection -through the medium of prisms, or a combination of -both. Actually there is a distinction between these two, -the true dioptric system referring only to refraction, where -the ray is bent in the desired direction by a glass agent, -known as a “refracting prism.” In the catadioptric system, on -the other hand, both methods are employed, since the prism -performs the dual purpose of reflecting and refracting the -rays. However, in modern lighthouse parlance both are -grouped under the one distinction “dioptric.”</p> - -<p>The rating or classification of the lights varies according -to the inside radius or focal distance of the lens—in other -words, the distance from the centre of the light to the inner -surface of the lens. The main groups are as follows:</p> - -<table class="intact" summary="Focal distances"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Hyperradial,</td> - <td class="tdl">1,330</td> - <td class="tdc">millimetres</td> - <td class="tdl">(52·3 inches)</td> - <td class="tdc">focal distance.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">1st order,</td> - <td class="tdl">920</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdl">(36·2 <span class="ditto">”</span>)</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">2nd <span class="in05">”</span></td> - <td class="tdl">700</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdl">(27·6 <span class="ditto">”</span>)</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">3rd <span class="in06">”</span></td> - <td class="tdl">500</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdl">(19·7 <span class="ditto">”</span>)</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">3½ <span class="in06">”</span></td> - <td class="tdl">375</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdl">(14·7 <span class="ditto">”</span>)</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">4th <span class="in06">”</span></td> - <td class="tdl">250</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdl">( 9·8 <span class="ditto">”</span>)</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">5th <span class="in06">”</span></td> - <td class="tdl">187·5</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdl">( 7·4 <span class="ditto">”</span>)</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">6th <span class="in06">”</span></td> - <td class="tdl">150</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdl">( 5·9 <span class="ditto">”</span>)</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The most powerful apparatus used to-day, however, is -that known as the “hyperradiant,” and it is the largest -which has yet been devised. For this, lighthouse engineering -is indebted to Messrs. Stevenson, the engineers to the Commissioners -of Northern Lighthouses. It was first suggested -as far back as 1869, and experiments were carried out which -emphasized the fact that such an apparatus was required, -since it was found that when large gas-burners were used -much of the light in revolving apparatuses was out of focus -and escaped condensation. The Scottish engineers thereupon<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">38</a></span> -suggested that an apparatus should be used having -a focal distance of 1,330 millimetres, or 52·3 inches. In -fact, they went farther and suggested even larger apparatuses, -but this idea has not matured. But it was not until -1885 that Messrs. Stevenson had such a system manufactured, -and then it was tested at the South Foreland beside -the powerful lenses which had just been built for the new -Eddystone and the Mew Island lighthouses. The merits -of the theories advanced by Messrs. Stevenson were then -completely proved, for it was found that with a ten-ring -gas-burner the hyperradiant apparatus threw a light nearly -twice as powerful as that given by the rival lenses with the -same burner.</p> - -<div id="ip_38" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p038.jpg" width="260" height="249" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.—Quadruple Flashing Apparatus: -Four Panels.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<p>At the present moment the hyperradiant is regarded as -the <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">ultima thule</i> of lighthouse optical engineering, and Messrs. -Chance Brothers and Co., of Birmingham, have built some -very magnificent apparatuses of this order. At present there -are not more than a dozen such powerful lights in operation. -Three are on the English coast, at Bishop Rock, Spurn<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">39</a></span> -Point, and Round Island, respectively; two in Scotland, at -Fair Isle and Sule Skerry; two in Ireland, at Bull Rock and -Tory Island; one in France, at Cap d’Antifer; one in China, -at Pei Yu-shan; one in India, at Manora Point, Karachi; -and the Cape Race light in Newfoundland. The hyperradiant -apparatus is a massive cage of glass, standing some -12 feet in height, and, as may be supposed, is extremely -expensive.</p> - -<p>There is another point in lighthouse optics which demands -explanation. This is the term “divergence,” which plays an -important part in the duration of the flash. In speaking -about focus, the engineer follows somewhat in Euclid’s footsteps -in regard to the definition of a point; in a way it is -equally imaginary. The focal point does not mean the -whole of the flame, but the centre of the luminous source, -and, as is obvious, it is impossible to secure a flame without -dimensions. It may be an attenuated, round, oval, or fan-shaped -light—the result is the same. The focal point is the -theoretical centre of the luminous source, and the rays, -coming from the top, sides, and bottom of the flame cannot -come from the true focus. If they did, all the light from -one panel would be emitted in absolutely parallel lines, and -therefore in a revolving apparatus the beam would pass any -given point on the horizon in an infinitely short period of -time—to be precise, instantaneously. But the ex-focal rays -of the flame, in passing through the lens, emerge at an angle -to those coming from the absolute centre, so that the whole -beam becomes “diverged,” and throws a cone of light from -the lens. Consequently the beam occupies an appreciable -period of time in passing a given point on the horizon.</p> - -<p>As may be supposed, the intricate character of the lenses -constituting the optical apparatus of the modern lighthouse -demands the highest skill and infinite care in their -preparation, while the composition of the glass itself is a -closely guarded secret. There are less than half a dozen -firms in the world engaged in this delicate and highly -specialized work, of which France claims three, Germany one, -and Great Britain one. All the lighthouse authorities of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">40</a></span> -various nations have to secure their requirements from one -or other of these organizations. The industry commenced -in France, and for many years the French reigned supreme. -Then it contrived to make its entrance into England, and -was taken up by the family of Chance in Birmingham, who -soon proved themselves equal to their French leaders.</p> - -<div id="ip_40" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p040.jpg" width="222" height="257" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.—Red and White Flashing Apparatus.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<p>The British firm has established a unique reputation, as -it has been responsible for the majority of the great lights -of the world, some of which are not only of huge dimensions -and weight, but also of novel form. The hyperradial apparatuses -which have been placed recently in the towers of -Manora Point and Cape Race probably rank as the most -powerful and the finest in existence. These are used in -conjunction with the petroleum vapour incandescent burner. -The Cape Race light, for instance, comprises a revolving -optic of four panels, subtending a horizontal angle of -90 degrees, with a vertical angle of 121½ degrees. Each lens -comprises the central disc, or bull’s-eye, around which are -placed nine rings of glass, giving a total refracting angle of -57 degrees. In order to bend the vertical rays into a horizontal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">41</a></span> -path twenty-two catadioptric reflecting prisms are -disposed above the lens, while below are thirteen similar -prisms. The total amount of glass worked into the four -panels is about 6,720 pounds, and the prisms are mounted -in gun-metal frames, which weigh approximately 4,800 -pounds, so that the total weight of the glass portion and its -mounting alone, standing some 12 feet in height, is over -11,500 pounds. The installation completed for the equipment -of the Manora Point lighthouse, Karachi, is very similar.</p> - -<p>In some cases the demand for a powerful light has been -met with a system differing from the “hyperradiant.” -The lenses and respective groups of refractors are superimposed, -each tier having its individual burner and flues for -carrying off the products of combustion. In this way we -have the biform, comprising two such panels arranged one -above the other, as in the Fastnet and Eddystone lights; -and the quadriform, wherein four tiers are built one above -the other, as installed at the Mew Island light in Ireland. -The advantage of this arrangement is that a beam of great -intensity is secured with a lantern of comparatively small -diameter.</p> - -<p>The French authorities adopted a modification of this -system. Instead of placing two lenses and refractors one -above the other, they ranged them side by side, the effect -being analogous to a couple of squinting eyes, the panels -being parallel and therefore throwing out parallel beams. -But these adaptations have not come into extensive use, -as they have been superseded by more simple means of -achieving similar requirements with an even more powerful -ray. The hyperradiant stands as the finest type of apparatus -yet devised, and therefore is employed when an -extremely powerful light is required.</p> - -<p>While the design and arrangement of the optical apparatus -is certainly a most vital and delicate task, the mounting -thereof upon a substantial support in such a way that it may -perform its work with the highest efficiency is equally -imperative, since the finest apparatus might be very adversely -affected by being improperly mounted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">42</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_42" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p042.jpg" width="235" height="251" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.—Apparatus showing a Double Flash, -followed by a Single Flash.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<p>Obviously, owing to the great weight of the glass, the -support must be heavy and substantial. A massive cast-iron -pedestal is employed for this purpose. When the light -is of the revolving character, means have to be incorporated -to secure the requisite rotation. In the early days the -turntable upon which the lens is mounted ran upon rollers, -but now a very much better system is universally employed. -This has been brought to a high standard of perfection by -Messrs. Chance of Birmingham, who have carried out unceasing -experiments in this field. The objection to rollers -was the enormous friction that was set up, and the great -effort that was required, not only to set the lenses revolving, -but to keep them rotating at a steady pace. In the modern -apparatus the rollers are superseded by an iron trough filled -with mercury, upon which floats the turntable carrying the -lenses. When the apparatus is properly built and balanced, -the friction is so slight that the turntable can be set in motion -by the little finger, notwithstanding that several tons have -to be moved. Although the optical part of the apparatus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">43</a></span> -floats upon the bed of quicksilver in the same way as a cork -lifebelt floats upon water, it is provided with rollers which -serve to hold the whole apparatus steady and to overcome -any oscillation.</p> - -<p>In the case of an immense apparatus such as a hyperradiant -lens, which, together with the turntable, may have -a total weight of 17,000 pounds, an enormous quantity of -mercury is required. The trough of the Cape Race hyperradiant -light carries 950 pounds of quicksilver, upon which -the lantern is floated. In such an instance, also, the pedestal -is a weighty part of the apparatus, representing in this -case about 26,800 pounds, so that the complete apparatus -utilized to throw the 1,100,000 candle-power beam from -the guardian of the Newfoundland coast aggregates, when -in working order, some 44,000 pounds, or approximately -20 tons.</p> - -<p>Within the base of the pedestal is mounted the mechanism -for rotating the optical apparatus. This is of the clockwork -type driven by a weight. The latter moves up and down a -tube which extends vertically to a certain depth through -the centre of the tower. The weight of the driving force -and the depth of its fall naturally vary according to the -character of the light. In the Cape Race light the weight -is of 900 pounds, and it falls 14½ feet per hour. Similarly, -the length of time which the clock will run on one winding -fluctuates. As a rule it requires to be rewound once every -sixty or ninety minutes. A longer run is not recommended, -as it would demand a longer weight-tube, while many -authorities prefer the frequent winding, as the man on duty -is kept on the alert thereby. As the weight approaches the -bottom of its tube it sets an electric bell or gong in action, -which serves to warn the light-keeper that the mechanism -demands rewinding.</p> - -<div id="ip_43" class="figcenter" style="width: 603px;"> - <img src="images/i_p044.jpg" width="603" height="371" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.—The Classification of Lights, showing the Respective Radius or Focal -Distance of Lens from 150 to 1,330 Millimetres.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<p>The weight and clockwork mechanism perfected by -Messrs. Chance is regarded as one of the best in service. The -rotation is perfect and even, owing to the governing system -incorporated, while the steel wire carrying the weight is -preferable to the chain, which is subject to wear and is noisy<span class="pagenum"><a class="hidev" id="Page_44">44</a><a id="Page_45">45</a></span> -in action. In the Chance clockwork gear the weight is just -sufficient to start the apparatus from a state of rest, the -advantage of such a method being that, should the apparatus -be stopped in its revolution from any untoward incident, it -is able to restart itself.</p> - -<p>Of course, the clockwork mechanism is required only in -those cases where the lenticular apparatus has to be revolved. -This introduces the question of avoiding confusion between -lights. When beacons were first brought into service, the -lights were of the fixed type, and the navigator, although -warned by the glare to keep away from the spot so marked, -was given no information as to his position. Accordingly, -lighthouse engineers sought to assist him in this direction -during the blackness of the night by providing a ready visual -means of identification. Owing to the ingenuity which has -been displayed, it has been rendered possible to ring the -changes upon a light very extensively.</p> - -<p>These may be subdivided broadly as follows:</p> - -<table class="bordered wid35 intact" summary="Types of White Lights"> - <tr> -<th class="wid1">Type of Light.</th> -<th class="wid2">Symbol.</th> -<th>Characteristics.</th> -</tr> - <tr> - - <td class="tdl">Fixed</td> - - <td class="tdl">F.</td> - - <td class="tdl">A steady continuous light.</td> -</tr> - <tr> - - <td class="tdl">Flashing</td> - - <td class="tdl">Fl.</td> - - <td class="tdl">A revolving light showing a single flash at regular intervals, or a fixed light with total eclipses.</td> -</tr> - <tr> - - <td class="tdl">Fixed and flashing</td> - - <td class="tdl">F.Fl.</td> - - <td class="tdl">A fixed light varied at regular intervals by a single flash of greater brilliancy.</td> -</tr> - <tr> - - <td class="tdl">Group flashing</td> - - <td class="tdl">Gp.Fl.</td> - - <td class="tdl">Various combinations of flashes shown at regular intervals.</td> -</tr> - <tr class="last"> - - <td class="tdl">Occulting</td> - - <td class="tdl">Occ.</td> - - <td class="tdl">A steady light suddenly and totally eclipsed at regular intervals.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>In the foregoing classifications only a white light is used. -But it may so happen that the lighthouse, owing to its -position and the dangerous character of the spot which it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">46</a></span> -marks, carries a light which changes colour from white to -red or green, which are shown alternately in various combinations. -These characteristics are indicated as follows:</p> - -<table class="bordered wid35 intact" summary="Types of Colored Lights"> - <tr> -<th class="wid1">Type of Light.</th> -<th class="wid2">Symbol.</th> -<th>Characteristics.</th> -</tr> - <tr> - - <td class="tdl">Alternating</td> - - <td class="tdl">Alt.</td> - - <td class="tdl">White and colour alternating.</td> -</tr> - <tr> - - <td class="tdl">Alternating flashing</td> - - <td class="tdl">Alt.Fl.</td> - - <td class="tdl">Flashing alternations by revolving mechanism.</td> -</tr> - <tr> - - <td class="tdl">Alternating fixed and flashing</td> - - <td class="tdl">Alt.F.Fl.</td> - - <td class="tdl">Fixed and flashing alternating.</td> -</tr> - <tr class="last"> - - <td class="tdl">Alternating group flashing</td> - - <td class="tdl">Alt.Gp.Fl.</td> - - <td class="tdl">Group flashing alternating.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>In timing a revolving or flashing light, the cycle is taken -from the beginning of one flash to the beginning of the next. -In these readings the flash is always shorter than the -duration of the eclipse, while an occultation is shorter than, -or equal to, the length of the light interval. Since flashing -and occulting may be carried out with a fixed light suddenly -extinguished or eclipsed, the characterization is determined -solely according to the relative duration of light and darkness, -irrespective of the type of apparatus employed or the -relative brilliancy. There is one peculiarity of the flashing -light which may be remarked. At short distances and in -clear weather a faint continuous light may be shown.</p> - -<p>Hand in hand with the development of the optical apparatus -has been the wonderful improvement in regard to -the illuminants and the methods of producing a brilliant -clear flame. The fuel first used upon the introduction of -the oil lamp was sperm or colza oil, the former being obtained -from the whale, and the latter from seeds and a wild-cabbage. -Both were very expensive, so that the maintenance of a light -was costly—so much so that the United States authorities -devoted their efforts to the perfection of a high-class lard-oil. -This proved highly satisfactory, possessing only one -drawback. In winter it congealed so much under the low<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">47</a></span> -temperature that it had to be heated before it could be placed -in the lamp; but once the light was set going, the heat -radiated from the burner served to keep the oil sufficiently -fluid to enable it to mount the wick to the point of combustion -under capillary action.</p> - -<p>So far as the American authorities were concerned, the -advantages of lard-oil sufficed to bring a cheaper medium -than colza-oil into vogue. A company, which had been -induced by the Government to install an elaborate and expensive -plant for the production of colza-oil, after prolonged -experiment and efforts to reduce the cost of production, -announced that it could not compete with the lard-oil, and -suggested that the latter should be employed in preference -to the colza. The Government agreed, but, to compensate -the company for its trouble, purchased the plant which the -latter had laid down.</p> - -<p>The advances in the processes for refining petroleum, and -the exploitation of the extensive resources of the latter, led -to “earth-oil,” in some form or other, being employed for -lighthouse purposes. The attempt was facilitated by the -invention and improvement of the Argand burner, whereby -a brilliant white annular sheet of flame is produced. Various -lighthouse engineers devoted their attention to the improvement -of this burner in conjunction with paraffin. Their -results were completely successful, and at last paraffin -became universally utilized as the cheapest and most efficient -illuminant known.</p> - -<p>The general method of feeding the lamps was to pump the -oil from a low level to the burner, thereby producing practically -a pressure-feed system in preference to the capillary -action which is used in the ordinary household lamp. By -increasing the number of rings the intensity of the flame -was increased, until at last it was thought that with this -development perfection had been attained so far as lamps -were concerned.</p> - -<p>Then came another radical revolution. The invention of -the incandescent gas mantle by Dr. von Auer, and the -complete change that it wrought in connection with gas<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">48</a></span> -lighting, induced lighthouse engineers to experiment in this -field. As they could not use coal-gas, they devoted their -investigations to the perfection of a gas from petroleum, -which should be capable of combustion with the incandescent -burner. Many years were devoted to these experiments, -and many petroleum vapour systems were devised. One of -the best known, most successful, and most scientifically -perfect, is the Chance incandescent light. This burner is -used in many of the most powerful lights of the world and -has given complete satisfaction. The mantle varies in size -with the size and type of the light, ranging from 35 to 85 -millimetres in diameter, the latter, in conjunction with a -hyperradial apparatus, producing a light exceeding 1,000,000 -candle-power.</p> - -<div id="ip_48" class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"> - <img src="images/i_p048a.jpg" width="333" height="602" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE HYPERRADIAL APPARATUS FOR THE MANORA POINT LIGHT, -KARACHI, INDIA.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Of 1,330 millimetres focus, this is the most powerful and largest lighthouse apparatus made.</p></div></div> - -<p>Not only was a far more powerful light obtained in this -manner with the assistance of the petroleum vapour burner -and incandescent mantle, but the cost of maintaining the -light was reduced, owing to the great economy in oil consumption -that was effected thereby, the largest mantle and -burner—85 millimetres—burning only 2½ pints of oil per -hour. The light thus obtained, while being vastly superior -to that derived from a six-wick oil-burner, enables a saving -of nearly £48, or $240, per annum to be recorded, taking the -cost of the petroleum at 1s., or 25 cents, per gallon delivered -to the lighthouse.</p> - -<p>While petroleum is generally used, some countries have -adopted other oil fuels for small permanent lights. Thus, -in Germany compressed oil-gas, water-gas associated with -benzine vapour, and Blau liquid gas, are utilized. The last-named -is coming very extensively into vogue, also, in Holland, -Denmark, and Austria. Blau gas has the advantage that -it can be transported in small steel tanks under extremely -high pressure—up to 100 atmospheres, or approximately -1,400 pounds per square inch. It is an extract of oil-gas -produced at a low pressure in the gas retorts, and then -compressed so severely that it liquefies. The fuel, as it is -drawn from the cylinder in which it is stored, has the pressure -reduced by means of a valve, so that it reaches the burner<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">49</a></span> -in a gaseous form at a pressure equivalent to that of the coal-gas -used in private houses, and is burned in the same way -with an incandescent mantle. The advantage of this -method lies in the facility with which large volumes of gas -may be transported, a steel cylinder containing 7,500 cubic -feet weighing only 132 pounds. It is also inexpensive, a -bottle of the foregoing capacity costing only 12s. 6d., or $3. -In some cases the incandescent mantles, the average life -of which is about a fortnight, are of large diameter, running -up to 100 millimetres, or about 4 inches.</p> - -<p>Recently Mr. Gustaf Dalén, of the Gas Accumulator Company -of Stockholm, the inventor of the Dalén flasher and -sun-valve, which are described elsewhere, has introduced a -new illuminant, which is coming into vogue, especially on -the Continent. This is called “Daléngas,” and is a mixture -of 9 per cent. dissolved acetylene and 91 per cent. atmospheric -air. Here the dissolved acetylene gas is conducted -from a storage reservoir or high-pressure gas cylinder, of -special construction, to a governor, where the pressure is -reduced, and then to the mixing apparatus, where the -acetylene gas is associated with the air in the above proportions. -The idea of this combination and method is to -enable an acetylene gas mixture to be used with the ordinary -incandescent mantles.</p> - -<div id="ip_49" class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;"> - <img src="images/i_p048b.jpg" width="329" height="596" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>FIRST ORDER TRIPLE FLASHING LIGHT OF 920 MILLIMETRES -FOCAL DISTANCE FOR CHILANG LIGHTHOUSE, CHINA.</p></div></div> - -<p>The advantage of the Daléngas, according to present -experience, is the increased candle-power that is obtainable -as compared with other systems, the superiority being about -75 per cent. under ordinary conditions. With the largest -Fresnel lenses a lighting power of 200,000 Hefner candle-power -is secured, while with revolving lenses of the latest type -a beam of 3,000,000 candle-power can be obtained. The flame -is small, and thus becomes concentrated more in the focus of -the lens, so that the divergence of the light may be diminished -if desired. When a light of a certain range is to be -installed, the optical apparatus can be made smaller for -Daléngas than for other illuminants, and the cost is reduced -correspondingly. Similarly, if the system is introduced -into an existing light, the latter can be made appreciably<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">50</a></span> -more powerful, without changing the optical apparatus or -affecting the divergence.</p> - -<p>In this system the gas is conducted into the lens apparatus -from above, and the lighting arrangement is quite independent -of, and does not interfere in any way with, the revolving -apparatus, while the time spent in changing the mantle is -less than half a minute.</p> - -<p>All combustible gases, mixed with air in certain proportions, -may produce more or less violent detonations when -fired. But the quantity of mixed gas in this instance is -confined in the length of piping between the burner and the -mixing apparatus, and this quantity is so small that an -explosion cannot be dangerous. In fact, all such danger has -been guarded against completely—is, indeed, impossible in -any circumstances.</p> - -<p>Electric light has been adopted in one or two cases; but -while the foremost authorities agree that it throws the best, -most brilliant and most powerful beam of light, the system is -generally impracticable on account of its great cost. When -tests with this light were made some years ago in comparison -with the light thrown from oil burners, it was claimed -that the latter, owing to its reddish-yellow tinge, was the -most suitable from the all-round point of view, and that it -could penetrate to a greater distance in foggy weather. I -have been informed by several authorities, who have gone -more deeply into this question since, that this is a fallacy, -and that the advantage rests completely with electric light. -Experience in Germany, which has two magnificent electric -lighthouses, and in Scotland, certainly supports this contention, -and I have been assured that the sole reason why -electric lighting has not been adopted more widely is the -heavy cost, both of installation and of maintenance. When -electric lighting is rendered cheaper and is brought more -to the level of existing lighting arrangements, one may -expect another complete change in lighthouse practice. -In this direction, as explained in another chapter, the -Germans have carried out practical experiments in their -characteristic manner, and have brought the cost of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">51</a></span> -maintaining a most powerful electric light to the minimum.</p> - -<p>One very great advantage of the electric light is the ease -with which the power of the beam may be increased during -thick weather, so as to secure penetration to the greatest -distance, and decreased to suit easier conditions in clear -weather.</p> - -<p>This point raises the question, “From how far can a light -be seen out at sea?” This factor is influenced by climatic -conditions, and also by the curvature of the earth. The -higher the light, or the spectator, or both, is elevated above -the water, the greater the distance from which the light can -be seen. The table on p. <a href="#table52">52</a>, prepared by Mr. Alan Stevenson, -the eminent Scottish lighthouse engineer, gives the -distances at which objects can be seen at sea, according to -the respective elevations of the object and the eye of the -observer.</p> - -<p>For instance, the passenger on a liner the boat-deck of -which is 40 feet above the water, approaching the English -Channel, will sight the Bishop Rock light from a distance -of about 22 miles, because the focal plane—that is, the bull’s-eye -of the lens—is 163 feet above the water, which, according -to the following table, equals about 14½ miles, to which must -be added the height of the boat’s deck, 40 feet representing -7·25 miles. Similarly, the ray of the Belle Ile light will -come into view when the vessel is 32½ miles distant—height -of focal plane of light, 470 feet = 25 miles, + eye of -observer on board the liner, 45 feet = 7·69 miles; while the -Navesink light, being 246 feet above the water, may be -picked up by the captain of a liner from a distance of -28 miles. The range of many lights, however, owing to -the curvature of the earth, is greatly in excess of their -geographical range, and with the most powerful lights the -glare of the luminous beams sweeping the clouds overhead -may be seen for a full hour or more before the ray itself -comes into view.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">52</a></span></p> - -<p id="table52" class="newpage p1 center">TABLE OF DISTANCES AT WHICH OBJECTS CAN BE SEEN AT SEA, ACCORDING TO THEIR -RESPECTIVE ELEVATIONS AND THE ELEVATION OF THE EYE OF THE OBSERVER.</p> - -<table class="bordered" summary="Visible distances according to elevations"> - <tr><th>Heights in<br />Feet.</th><th>Distances in<br />Statute or English<br />Miles.</th><th>Distances in<br />Geographical or<br />Nautical Miles.</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2·958</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2·565</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 10</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·184</td> - <td class="tdc"> 3·628</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 15</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·123</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·443</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 20</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·916</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·130</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 25</td> - <td class="tdc"> 6·614</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·736</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 30</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·245</td> - <td class="tdc"> 6·283</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 35</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·826</td> - <td class="tdc"> 6·787</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 40</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8·366</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·255</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 45</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8·874</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·696</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 50</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9·354</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8·112</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 55</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9·811</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8·509</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 60</td> - <td class="tdc">10·246</td> - <td class="tdc"> 8·886</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 65</td> - <td class="tdc">10·665</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9·249</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 70</td> - <td class="tdc">11·067</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9·598</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 75</td> - <td class="tdc">11·456</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9·935</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 80</td> - <td class="tdc">11·832</td> - <td class="tdc">10·260</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 85</td> - <td class="tdc">12·196</td> - <td class="tdc">10·570</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 90</td> - <td class="tdc">12·549</td> - <td class="tdc">10·880</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> 95</td> - <td class="tdc">12·893</td> - <td class="tdc">11·180</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">100</td> - <td class="tdc">13·228</td> - <td class="tdc">11·470</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">110</td> - <td class="tdc">13·874</td> - <td class="tdc">12·030</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">120</td> - <td class="tdc">14·490</td> - <td class="tdc">12·560</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">130</td> - <td class="tdc">15·083</td> - <td class="tdc">13·080</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">140</td> - <td class="tdc">15·652</td> - <td class="tdc">13·570</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">150</td> - <td class="tdc">16·201</td> - <td class="tdc">14·220</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">200</td> - <td class="tdc">18·708</td> - <td class="tdc">16·220</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">250</td> - <td class="tdc">20·916</td> - <td class="tdc">18·14 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">300</td> - <td class="tdc">22·912</td> - <td class="tdc">19·87 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">350</td> - <td class="tdc">24·748</td> - <td class="tdc">21·46 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">400</td> - <td class="tdc">26·457</td> - <td class="tdc">22·94 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">450</td> - <td class="tdc">28·062</td> - <td class="tdc">24·30 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">500</td> - <td class="tdc">29·580</td> - <td class="tdc">25·65 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">550</td> - <td class="tdc">31·024</td> - <td class="tdc">26·90 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">600</td> - <td class="tdc">32·403</td> - <td class="tdc">28·10 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">650</td> - <td class="tdc">33·726</td> - <td class="tdc">29·25 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">700</td> - <td class="tdc">35·000</td> - <td class="tdc">30·28 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">800</td> - <td class="tdc">37·416</td> - <td class="tdc">32·45 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">900</td> - <td class="tdc">39·836</td> - <td class="tdc">34·54 </td></tr> - <tr class="last"> - <td class="tdc">1,000 </td> - <td class="tdc">41·833</td> - <td class="tdc">36·28 </td></tr> -</table> - -<div id="ip_52" class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"> - <img src="images/i_p052a.jpg" width="402" height="582" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the “Syren and Shipping.”</i> -</p> - -<p>LOOKING UP THE LANTERN OF THE NEEDLES LIGHTHOUSE.</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">53</a></span> -So far as the candle-power of any light is concerned, the -method of determining this factor, varying according to the -calculating methods adopted, is somewhat misleading. So -far as Great Britain is concerned, the practice of setting out -the candle-power of any light in the official list has been -abandoned, the authorities merely stating that such and -such a light is of great power. The United States and -Canada, on the other hand, indicate the approximate candle-power.</p> - -<div id="ip_53" class="figcenter" style="width: 347px;"> - <img src="images/i_p052b.jpg" width="347" height="595" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>FIXED APPARATUS OF THE FOURTH ORDER FOR SARAWAK.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The focal distance is 250 millimetres, and the diameter of lantern inside -glazing 6 feet 7¾ inches.</p></div></div> - -<p>By combining and arranging the integral parts of the -optical apparatus, the lighthouse engineer is able to accomplish -many astonishing results. Thus, while the various -types generally follow accepted broad lines, coinciding with -the order which they represent, here and there some very -striking divergences are made. The Bell Rock light is -perhaps the most interesting example in this direction. It -was designed by Messrs. D. and T. Stevenson, and built -by Messrs. Chance Brothers and Co. The light is alternating, -the colours being white and red. Externally the -optical apparatus appears to be bizarre, yet it is one of the -most perfect which has ever been installed. In its design -and construction almost all the known lighthouse optical -elements are incorporated, including the equiangular refractor, -the reflecting prism, the double-reflecting prism, and -the dioptric mirror. Another noteworthy fact is that, by an -exceedingly ingenious arrangement, the absorption of the -rays by the glass used in producing the red flashes is neutralized -to such a vast degree that the white and red flashes are -of equal intensity.</p> - -<p>The subsidiary light is another striking feature which the -lighthouse engineer has introduced. For instance, a light -may be shown from a dangerous reef, and give the mariner -all the warning desired. But some distance away may lurk -another isolated rock, which it is just as imperative to indicate, -and yet on which another tower cannot be erected. -This necessity is met by the subsidiary light. A portion of -the light from the main apparatus is deflected and thrown to -the desired spot by an ingenious arrangement of the prisms. -On the west coast of Scotland, at Stornoway, a stream of -light used to be deflected from the lantern in a vertical<span class="pagenum"><a class="hidev" id="Page_54">54</a><a id="Page_55">55</a></span> -direction down the tower, and there bent at right angles, to -be thrown through a lower window and fall upon a prism -placed on the crest of a rock several hundred feet distant. -From the deck of a vessel, the effect of the light striking the -prism was akin to that produced by a beacon. Similarly in -the case of St. Catherine’s light in the Isle of Wight: a portion -of the light, which would otherwise be wasted over the area -on the landward side, is carried vertically down the tower -by a disposal of lenses and prisms, and is projected horizontally -through a small window, after being coloured into a -red ray by passing through some glass of the desired tint, to -mark a danger spot some distance away. This method, -however, is not favoured now, as the peril can be more -efficiently marked by means of an independent beacon, a -system which has become feasible owing to the vast improvements -that have been made in automatic lights requiring no -attention for several weeks or months at a time.</p> - -<p>But in those instances where the latter expedient is not -adopted, the practice is to cover the danger with a ray thrown -from an entirely different light. When the present Eddystone -tower was completed, a “low-light room,” as it is -called, was incorporated, and a low-powered light was thrown -from two Argand burners and reflectors through a window -to mark a dangerous reef some three miles distant. But -perhaps the best example of a subsidiary light is that which -was carried out by Messrs. Chance in connection with the -Cap de Couedie lighthouse. In this instance two dangers -had to be indicated in a subsidiary manner, one being -covered with a red, the other with a green, ray. The red -sector marks a danger spot known as Lipson’s Reef, lying -8¾ miles distant, while the green light indicates Casuarina -Island, 1¾ miles away. This installation, it may be pointed -out, has proved highly successful, and certainly is very -economical.</p> - -<div id="ip_55" class="figcenter" style="width: 411px;"> - <img src="images/i_p054.jpg" width="411" height="596" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.—The Means whereby the Rays are deflected from -the Main Light to form a Subsidiary Light.</span></p> - -<p class="captionc">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd.</i>)</p></div></div> - -<p>There is another point which deserves mention—the -duration of the flash in a revolving light. There was considerable -discussion and difference of opinion upon this -question some years ago. It was maintained that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">56</a></span> -shorter the duration of the flash, and the more rapidly it -were thrown, the better it would be for the mariner. The -Scottish engineers realized the significance of this problem, -and, despite the hostile criticism of contemporary engineers, -adopted a specific principle which was to give a flash of -two and three-quarter seconds’ duration. Subsequently it -was reduced to one second. The introduction of the mercury -float enabled the optical apparatus to be revolved faster, -and also facilitated the reduction in the number of panels -or faces, so that ultimately the Scottish engineers reduced -the flash to one of four-tenths of a second.</p> - -<p>When Mr. Bourdelles devised the mercury float which -enabled rotation to be accelerated, the French authorities -rushed to the opposite extreme. They reduced the faces -to four, and arranged for the apparatus to be revolved at a -high speed, so that the duration of the flash was only one-tenth -of a second at rapidly-recurring intervals. This type -of light was called the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">feu-éclair</i>, and was adopted as a -result of prolonged laboratory investigation. But this was -an instance where laboratory experiments and scientific -reasoning failed to go hand in glove with practical experience -and navigation, where the mariner has to contend with all -sorts and conditions of weather. The seafarer expressed his -opinion of the one-tenth of a second flash in uncomplimentary -terms, displaying an indifferent appreciation of artificially-produced -sheet-lightning.</p> - -<p>Eventually there was a general agreement, among all those -countries which had investigated the problem closely, that a -flash of about three-tenths of a second was the most satisfactory, -and this has since become tacitly standardized. -The French authorities recognized the fallacy of their idea, -and soon came into line with the other countries.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">57</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<span class="subhead">FOG-SIGNALS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Notwithstanding the wonderful ingenuity that is displayed -in the concentration of light into powerful beams, these all -count for nothing when fog settles upon the sea. The ray of -1,000,000 candle-power is almost as futile then as the glimmer -from a tallow dip.</p> - -<p>Fog is the peril of the sea which the mariner dreads more -than any other. The blanket of mist, descending upon the -water, not only shuts everything from sight, but deadens -every sound as well. The sea is absolutely calm, so that -no intimation of danger ahead is conveyed by the breaking -of the waves upon rock, shoal, sandbank, or iron-bound -coast.</p> - -<p>It is in times of fog that the navigator must be given the -greatest protection. As this is impossible to accomplish -visually, appeal must be made to his ear. In the early days -of lighthouse engineering the methods of conveying audible -warning were very crude. The discharge of a gun was the -most popular, but it was neither serviceable nor reliable, and -was made upon somewhat haphazard lines. Thus, in the -case of a dangerous headland on the North American coast, -which the Boston steamer had to round on its journey, the -keepers mounted guard at the probable time of the vessel’s -arrival off this point. They listened eagerly for the steamer’s -whistle, and when it came screaming over the water they -began hurriedly firing a carronade, keeping up the blank-cartridge -bombardment until another shriek told them that -those on the vessel had heard their signals. Sometimes the -whistle was heard from a distance of six miles; at others -from not more than two miles away. It depended upon -circumstances. Obviously, such a primitive system was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">58</a></span> -attended with considerable danger, as an accident was liable -to happen to the men in their feverish haste to load and -discharge the gun, while the plight of the boat was far from -being enviable at times.</p> - -<div id="ip_58" class="figcenter" style="width: 488px;"> - <img src="images/i_p058a.jpg" width="488" height="347" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>A MODERN LIGHTHOUSE SIREN PLANT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Showing gas engines and air-compressors in duplicate, with siren at side.</p></div></div> - -<p>In the early days every lighthouse tower was provided -with a heavy bell. Indeed, the ponderous dome of metal -projecting from the lantern gallery was considered indispensable. -The bell varied in weight from 1,200 to 2,240 -pounds, was fitted with a massive clapper, and when struck -emitted a deep musical note. In order to enable the seafarer -to gain some idea of his whereabouts, the fog-signals -were given a sound-characteristic somewhat upon the lines -of those in connection with the light. Thus, one lighthouse -would give one stroke every ten seconds; another would -give two strokes in quick succession, followed by a long -silence, and so on. This system suffers from the severe -handicap that the sound does not travel very far during -foggy weather.</p> - -<p>Another ingenious engineer recommended the utilization -of the locomotive whistle, giving a high-toned, ear-piercing -shriek, but the same objection as attended the use of the -bell prevailed: the sound could not be heard more than -a short distance away. The British lighthouse authorities -submitted the idea to a series of searching investigations to -ascertain its possibilities, but eventually were compelled to -conclude that it was not superior to, if as good as, the other -systems then in vogue. The United States authorities, as a -result of their independent experiments, expressed a similar -opinion; but in Canada practical application gave this -whistle a favourable verdict.</p> - -<p>Rockets also have been adopted, and are highly successful. -Indeed, this method of conveying audible warning -prevails still in many countries. The practicability of such -a means of throwing sound over a wide area was advanced -by Sir Richard Collinson, when Deputy-Master of Trinity -House, and his idea comprised the insertion of a gun-cotton -charge, timed to explode at a given height, in the head of -the rocket. The height could be varied up to about<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">59</a></span> -1,000 feet, and the weight of the charge fluctuated according -to requirements. The rocket system was tested very -severely, and in some instances the report was heard as -many as twenty-five miles away. It received the approbation -of Professor Tyndall, and, although superior methods of -signalling have been devised since, there remain one or two -lighthouse stations where it is considered to be the most -satisfactory fog-signalling device, notably the station on the -island of Heligoland, where the rocket is hurled into the air -to explode at a height of nearly 700 feet.</p> - -<p>In many lighthouses the detonation of gun-cotton constitutes -the means of conveying warning to passing vessels, -but is accomplished in a different manner. The charge, -instead of being sent into the air to be exploded, is attached -to a special device which is supported upon a simple frame -at a point above the lantern, so that no damage may be -inflicted upon the glass of the latter from the concussion. -The apparatus is fitted with a safety device which prevents -premature explosion, so that the keeper is preserved from -personal injury, and, unless culpable negligence is manifested, -the charge cannot be ignited until it has been raised -to its designed position. The report is of great volume, -and as a rule can be heard a considerable distance; but in -this, as in all other cases, the atmosphere plays many strange -tricks. Still, it has not been superseded yet for isolated -sea-rock lighthouses, such as the Eddystone, Skerryvore, -and Bell Rock, where there is lack of adequate space for -the installation of any other equally efficient fog-signalling -facilities.</p> - -<div id="ip_59" class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"> - <img src="images/i_p058b.jpg" width="395" height="592" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo, Paul, Penzance.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE SIRENS OF THE LIZARD.</p> - -<p class="captionl">Owing to the importance of the Lizard Station and the fact that the coast often is obscured by fog, -a powerful fog-signalling station is imperative.</p></div></div> - -<p>In the early seventies an American investigator, Mr. C. L. -Daboll, contrived an entirely new system, which developed -into the foundation of one of the most successful fog-signalling -devices for lighthouses which has been discovered—the -siren. The Daboll invention was a huge trumpet, recalling -a mammoth phonograph horn. It was 17 feet in -length, and its mouth was 38 inches in diameter. In the -lower end of this trumpet—the throat—was placed a tongue -of steel measuring 10 inches in length and secured at one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">60</a></span> -end to form a reed. It was blown by air compressed in a -reservoir to the desired degree, and then permitted to escape -through the trumpet. The mad rush of the expanding air -through the constricted passage set the reed vibrating -violently, causing the emission of a penetrating, discordant -bellow. When Daboll commenced his experiments, he suffered -from the lack of a suitable mechanical means for -compressing the air, and made shift with a donkey for this -purpose until the hot-air engine was improved, when the -latter was substituted.</p> - -<p>Trinity House adopted the idea and found it serviceable; -but the Canadian authorities, after four years’ experiment, -dissented from this view, remarking that the trumpet was -expensive to maintain, unreliable in working, and liable to -break down when most urgently needed. In fact, they -characterized the Daboll trumpets which they had installed -as “sources of danger instead of aids to navigation.”</p> - -<p>From the trumpet to the siren was not a very big step. -The history of the latter’s invention is somewhat obscure, -but it was brought before the United States Government in -a primitive form. The American engineers, recognizing its -latent possibilities, took it up, and endeavoured to improve -it to such a degree as to render it suitable for lighthouse -work. Their efforts were only partially successful. The -solution of the many difficulties attending its perfection was -effected in Great Britain by Professor Frederick Hale Holmes, -whose magneto-electric machine brought electricity within -reach of the lighthouse as an illuminant, and it was due to -the efforts of this scientist that the siren became one of the -most efficient sound-producing instruments which have been -discovered for this class of work.</p> - -<p>The reason that made Professor Holmes bring his energies -and knowledge to bear upon this subject was somewhat -curious. The siren in its first form made its way from the -United States to Great Britain. The British Admiralty -realized the power and penetration of its sound, and forthwith -adopted it in the navy, operating it by steam instead -of by air. At this there arose a great outcry from the mercantile<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">61</a></span> -marine. Captains argued that the similarity of the -signals confused and often misled them, as they could not -tell in the fog whether the sound proceeded from a warship -or a lighthouse. The Board of Trade was forced to intervene, -but, as it had no jurisdiction over the Admiralty, it -sought to extricate itself from an awkward situation by -inviting Professor Holmes to perfect a siren which would -emit a distinctive sound. His efforts were crowned with -complete success.</p> - -<div id="ip_61" class="figcenter" style="width: 273px;"> - <img src="images/i_p061.jpg" width="273" height="142" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.—The Fixed (A) and Revolving (B) Parts of the -Siren.</span></div></div> - -<p>Professor Holmes exhibited his wonderful device at the -Paris Exhibition of 1867. He installed it in working order, -and the visitors displayed an anxiety to hear it. It was -brought into action, and those around never forgot the experience. -It was the most diabolical ear-splitting noise -which had been heard, and, apprehensive that serious results -might arise from its demonstration when the buildings were -thronged with sight-seers, the authorities refused to permit -it to be sounded again. The humorous illustrated papers -did not suffer such a golden opportunity to escape. Grotesque -and laughable cartoons appeared depicting the curious -effects produced by the blast of the instrument, one showing -the various statues being frightened off their pedestals -proving exceptionally popular.</p> - -<p>The siren in its simplest form is an enlarged edition of -the “Deviline” toy whistle. There is a Daboll trumpet -with a small throat, in which is placed horizontally, not a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">62</a></span> -reed, but a metal disc, so as to fill the whole circular space -of the throat. The sheet of metal is pierced with a number -of radial slits. Behind this disc is a second plate of a similar -character, and likewise pierced with radial slits of the same -size, shape and number; but whereas the first disc is fixed, -the second is mounted on a spindle. The free disc rotates -at high speed, so that the twelve jets of air which are driven -through the throat are interrupted intermittently by the -blanks of the revolving disc coming over the openings in the -fixed disc, while when the two slits are in line the air has -a free passage. If the revolving disc completes 3,000 revolutions -per minute, and there are twelve slits in the discs, -then a total of 36,000 vibrations per minute is produced -while the instrument is in operation. The speed of the -revolving disc, as well as the number and size of the openings, -varies according to the size and class of the siren; but in -any case an intensely powerful, dense and penetrating -musical tone is emitted, which can be heard a considerable -distance away. The blast of a high-powered large siren -has been heard at a distance of twenty to thirty miles in -clear weather, though of course in thick weather its range -is reduced.</p> - -<p>While Professor Holmes was experimenting with this -device, another investigator, Mr. Slight, of Trinity House, -was wrestling with the same problem. Indeed, he may be -described as the inventor of the modern siren. Although -he effected only an apparently slight modification, it was -the touch which rendered the instrument perfect, while it -also removed the possibility of a breakdown at a critical -moment, as he rendered the moving part freer in its working -and eliminated the severe strains to which it was subjected. -The improvement was appreciated by Professor -Holmes, who adopted it immediately.</p> - -<p>While these indefatigable efforts were in progress, ingenious -attempts were made to press Nature herself into -operation. As is well known, there are many “blowing-holes” -distributed throughout the world, where the water -by erosion has produced a long, narrow cavern in the base<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">63</a></span> -of a rock, with a constricted outlet into the outer air. The -waves, rushing into the cave, compress the air within, which, -in its escape at high velocity through the small vent, produces -a bellowing sound. It was this curious phenomenon -which gave the Wolf Rock its name. General Hartmann -Bache, of the United States Engineers, attempted in 1858 -to make use of a blowing-hole on one of the Farallon Isles, -lying forty miles off the entrance to San Francisco Bay. A -chimney was built with bricks above the orifice, through -which the air compressed by the waves below made its -escape, and on top of this shaft a locomotive whistle was -placed. The first effort was a dead failure, because the -force of the rush of air was so great that it carried away the -chimney; but in the second attempt success was achieved, -and an excellent automatic whistle blared out night and day -almost continuously and was audible for some distance out -to sea. The only drawback was that in foggy weather, -when the most intense sound was required, the signal was -dumb owing to the smoothness of the water. This novel -signal was maintained for some time and then was superseded -by a powerful siren.</p> - -<p>One of the most interesting fog-signalling installations in -service is that on the bald formidable hump of rock lying -in the estuary of the Clyde, known as Ailsa Craig. For years -this rock constituted a terrible menace to the crowded -shipping of this important marine thoroughfare, and its -victims were numerous. While the Commissioners of -Northern Lighthouses mitigated its terrors as far as possible -by the provision of a powerful light, they recognized -the fact that a visual warning did not meet the situation -completely. But the installation of a fog-signal was a -somewhat peculiar problem, owing to the configuration of -the rock. A single station would not meet requirements, -because it was necessary to throw the warning from both -sides of the obstruction. The provision of two sound-stations -would have been an expensive matter, even if it had been -feasible, which it was not, owing to the precipitous nature -of the cliffs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">64</a></span> -An ingenious solution was advanced by Mr. Charles -Ingrey, C.E. He proposed to erect a central power-station -and to control the sounding of two sirens, placed on opposite -sides of the island, therefrom, the compressed air being led -through underground piping. The plans were submitted to -Messrs. Stevenson, the engineers to the Northern Lighthouse -Board, who, after examining the proposal thoroughly, gave -it their approval. But when it came to obtaining the sanction -for the requisite expenditure from the Board of Trade, -that august body, despite the fact that the project had been -investigated and had received the approbation of the -engineers to the Northern Lighthouse Commissioners, declined -to permit public money to be expended upon an -untried scheme. Such is the way in which pioneering effort -and ingenuity are stifled by Government departments.</p> - -<div id="ip_64" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p064a.jpg" width="181" height="598" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE ACETYLENE FOG-GUN.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The latest ingenious device for giving both audible and visual -warning automatically.</p></div></div> - -<p>Many another engineer would have abandoned the project -after such a rebuff, but Mr. Ingrey without any delay -laid down a complete installation upon the lines he contemplated -on the island of Pladda, where a Holmes fog-horn -was in service. With the aid of a workman whom he took -from Glasgow, the light-keepers and some farm labourers, -this trial installation was completed, the piping being carried -round the island from the air-compressing plant to the fog-signal. -The work occupied about a fortnight, and then, -everything being ready to convince the sceptical Board of -Trade, the inspecting engineers were treated to a comprehensive -and conclusive demonstration. They were satisfied -with what they saw, appreciated the reliability of the idea -and gave the requisite sanction. Forthwith the Ailsa Craig -Island installation was put in hand and duly completed.</p> - -<p>This plant possesses many ingenious features. As the -light is derived from gas distilled from crude oil, a small -gas-making plant is installed on the island, and this is used -also for driving a battery of five eight-horse-power gas-engines—four -are used at a time, the fifth being in reserve—to -supply the thirty-horse-power demanded to operate the -fog-signal. The energy thus developed drives two sets of -powerful air-compressors, the four cylinders of which have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">65</a></span> -a bore of 10 inches by a stroke of 20 inches, the air being -compressed to 80 pounds per square inch and stored in two -large air-receivers which hold 194 cubic feet. From this -reservoir pipes buried in a trench excavated from the solid -rock extend to the two trumpets, placed on the north and -south sides of the island respectively. The length of piping -on the north side is 3,400 feet, and on the south side 2,500 -feet. At places where the pipe makes a dip, owing to the -configuration of the rock, facilities are provided to draw off -any water which may collect. Extreme care had to be displayed -in connecting the lengths of piping, so that there -might be no leakage, in which event, of course, the pressure -of the air would drop and thereby incapacitate the signal.</p> - -<div id="ip_65" class="figcenter" style="width: 298px;"> - <img src="images/i_p064b.jpg" width="298" height="280" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE RATTRAY HEAD LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionl">A very exposed Scottish rock tower. It is unique because a full-powered -siren fog-signal is installed therein.</p></div></div> - -<p>Each signal is mounted in a domed house built of concrete, -the mouth of the trumpet extending from the crown -of the roof. Within the house is an air-receiver 9 feet in -height by 4½ feet in diameter, of about 140 cubic feet -capacity, which receives the compressed air transmitted -through the piping from the compressing-station. It also -contains the automatic apparatus whereby the signal is -brought into action at the stipulated intervals, so as to -produce the requisite sound characteristic. This is a self-winding -clockwork mechanism which admits and cuts off -the supply of air to the trumpets, its chief feature being -that the clock is wound up by the compressed air itself, so -that it is entirely free from human control. However, as a -breakdown even with the best-designed and most-carefully-tended -machinery cannot be circumvented entirely, there is -a duplicate electrical mechanism, also automatically controlled -from the power-generating station, the electric cables -for which are laid in the pipe trenches. This acts as an -emergency control.</p> - -<div id="ip_65b" class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;"> - <img src="images/i_p064c.jpg" width="260" height="341" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson.</i> -</p> - -<p>SULE SKERRY LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">A lonely light of Scotland. The nearest land is the Butt of Lewis, -30 miles distant.</p></div></div> - -<p>The two signals are not sounded simultaneously; neither -are they alike nor of the same tone. The north signal gives -a single blast of high tone, lasting five seconds, and then is -silent for 175 seconds. On the south side the siren gives a -double note, although there are three blasts—viz., high, low, -high—corresponding to the letter R of the Morse code. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66">66</a></span> -notes are sounded for two seconds, with similar intervening -periods of silence, and silence for 170 seconds between the -groups. The complete signal from the two stations is given -once in three minutes, the north signal commencing to sound -ninety seconds after the south signal has ceased. The high -note corresponds to the fourth E in the musical compass, -there being 38,400 vibrations per minute; while the low -note is tuned to the third D in the musical compass, with -16,800 vibrations per minute. The notes are purposely -timed more than an octave apart and made discordant, as -thereby the sound is more likely to attract attention and -to be readily distinguished.</p> - -<p>About eighteen minutes are required to bring the apparatus -into operation—that is, to start compressing and to raise -the pressure of the air to the requisite degree—but, as fogs -descend upon the Clyde with startling suddenness, the -signals may be started within five minutes of the fog-alarm. -The air-reservoirs are kept charged to the working pressure, -the machinery being run once or twice for a short time every -week for this purpose and to keep the plant in working -order.</p> - -<p>Up to this time it had been the practice to place the siren -in close proximity to the air-compressing machinery, but -the installation at Ailsa Craig proves conclusively that this -is not essential to success; also it demonstrates the fact -that a number of signals can be operated reliably and effectively -from a central station. Indeed, this Scottish plant -aroused such widespread interest that the Pulsometer Engineering -Company of Reading, who had acquired Professor -Holmes’s patents and who carried out the above installation, -received several inquiries from abroad with regard to -its suitability for similar situations. In one instance the -compressed air was to be transmitted for a distance of nearly -four miles.</p> - -<p>While the siren has been adopted and found adequate by -the majority of nations, the Canadian Government has installed -a far more powerful instrument upon the River St. -Lawrence, as the ordinary siren signals originally established<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">67</a></span> -near the mouth of the river, although of great power, -were found to be inadequate. The new apparatus, which -is known as the “diaphone,” gives an extraordinarily -powerful sound. It comprises a cylindrical chamber, in the -walls of which are cut a number of parallel slits. Concentrically -disposed within the chamber is a cylindrical hollow -piston, with similar slits and a flange at one end, the whole -being enclosed in an outer casing. Air under pressure is -admitted into the outer casing, and drives the piston backwards -and forwards with great rapidity. The result is that -the air effects its escape through the orifices, when they -come into line, in intermittent puffs.</p> - -<p>While the broad principle is not unlike that of the conventional -siren, the main difference is that in the latter -there is a rotary motion, whereas in the diaphone the action -is reciprocating. The great advantage of the latter is that -all the vibrations are synchronous, owing to the symmetrical -disposition of the slits, and consequently the note produced -is very pure. The mechanism is so devised that the piston’s -motion is controlled to a nicety, and the sound is constant. -Experience has proved that the best results are obtained by -using air at a pressure of 30 pounds per square inch. The -sound thus produced is intensified to a markedly greater -degree by means of a resonator properly attuned.</p> - -<p>This instrument has displaced the siren among the -stations upon the St. Lawrence River. The general type -of apparatus has a piston 4½ inches in diameter, and uses -11 pounds of air per second during the sounding of the blast. -But at more important stations a far larger and more -powerful class of apparatus is used, the diaphone at Cape -Race having a piston 8½ inches in diameter and using 27 feet -of air per second while sounding. This does not indicate -the limit of size, however, since the builders of this terrible -noise-producer are experimenting with an apparatus having -a piston 14 inches in diameter. The sound issuing from -such a huge apparatus would be almost as deafening as the -report of a big gun and should succeed in warning a mariner -several miles away.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68">68</a></span> -The atmosphere, however, plays many strange pranks -with the most powerful sound-producing instruments. To-day, -for instance, a fog-signal may be heard at a distance of -ten miles; to-morrow it will fail to be audible more than a -mile away. This aberration of sound is extraordinary and -constitutes one of the unsolved problems of science. Innumerable -investigations have been made with the object -of finding the cause of this erratic action, but no conclusive -explanation has been forthcoming. Another strange trick -is that, while a sound may be audible at distances of two -and four miles during a fog, it fails to strike the ear at three -miles. It is as if the sound struck the water at a range of -two miles, bounded high into the air, and again fell upon -the water at four miles, giving a second leap to hit the water -again farther on, in much the same way as a thin flat stone, -when thrown horizontally into the water, will hop, skip, and -jump over the surface. This trick renders the task of the -lighthouse engineer additionally exasperating and taxes his -ingenuity to the utmost, as it appears to baffle completely -any attempt towards its elimination.</p> - -<p>Recently another ingenious and novel system has been -perfected by Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson. This is an acetylene -gun which acts automatically. Hitherto an unattended -fog-signal—except the bell-buoy tolled by the movement of -the waves, which is far from satisfactory, or the whistling -buoy, which is operated upon the same lines and is equally -ineffective except at very short range—has found little -favour. The objections to the bell and whistle buoys are -the faintness of the sounds, which may be drowned by the -noises produced on the ship herself; while, if the wind is -blowing away from the vessel, she may pass within a few -feet of the signal, yet outside its range. Thus it will be -recognized that the fog-gun serves to fill a very important -gap in connection with the warning of seafarers during thick -weather.</p> - -<p>As is well known, even a small charge of acetylene, when -fired, will produce a loud report, and this characteristic of -the gas induced Messrs. Stevenson to apply it to a fog-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">69</a></span>signal. -They have developed the automatic acetylene -system of lighting to a very high degree around the coasts -of Scotland, and there are now more than twenty lights of -this class, mostly unattended, in operation, some of which -have been established for many years. These lights have -proved highly satisfactory. There has never been an accident, -a freedom which is due to the fact that Moye’s system -is used, wherein the possibilities of mishap are surmounted -very effectively. Accordingly, the engineers saw no reason -why a similar system should not be adapted to the emission -of sound instead of light signals, or, if desired, of both -simultaneously. Their experiments have been crowned with -complete success, and, as the gun uses no more gas than -would be consumed if a flashing light system were used, the -cost of operation is very low.</p> - -<p>The general features of the acetylene fog-gun may be observed -from the illustration (facing p. <a href="#ip_64">64</a>). The acetylene, -dissolved in acetone, is contained under pressure in a cylinder, -and thence passes through a reducing valve to an annular -space, where it is ignited by an electric spark. A trumpet -is attached to the firing chamber, so that the sound becomes -intensified. If desired, the explosion can be effected at the -burner, so that, in addition to a sound-signal, a flashing light -is given.</p> - -<p>The applications vary according to the circumstances. -Suppose there is an unlighted bell-buoy at the bar of a port. -Here the procedure is to install a gun and light combined, -so that the flash of the explosion may give visual and the -report audible warning. Or, should there be a lighted buoy -already in position, its effectiveness may be enhanced by -adding the gun, the detonation alone being employed for -warning purposes. The size of the cylinder containing the -dissolved acetylene may be varied, so that renewal need -only be carried out once in one, two, or more months, according -to conditions. If the increasing traffic around a -certain rock demand that the latter should be marked, a -combined sound and light apparatus can be installed. It -may be that the head of a pier which is accessible only at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">70</a></span> -certain times, or a beacon which can be reached only at -rare intervals, may require improved facilities. In this -case the gun can be set up and a cable laid to a convenient -spot which may be approached at all times by an attendant. -Then the latter, by the movement of a switch, can bring -the gun instantly into action upon the alarm of fog, and it -will keep firing at the set intervals until, the fog lifting, the -gun is switched off.</p> - -<p>In some cases, where the apparatus is set upon a lonely -rock, a submarine cable may be laid between the marked -point and the control-station. The cable is not a very -costly addition. There are many lights where wages have -to be paid merely for a man to bring the fog-signalling bell -machinery into action. In such cases a fog-gun can be installed -and the annual cost of maintenance decreased -enormously, thereby enabling the outlay on the gun to be -recouped within a very short time; while the light may be -improved by using the flashes, so that the warning can be -rendered more distinctive.</p> - -<p>The invention is also applicable to lightships, many of -which are manned by four men or more at a large cost per -annum. In the majority of cases an unattended Stevenson -lightship—such as described in another chapter, six of which -are in use around the coasts of Scotland, and which give, not -only a first-class light, but, by the aid of the fog-signal gun, -can be made to give an excellent fog-signal as well—offers a -means of reducing the heavy maintenance charges arising -in connection with a manned light-vessel. In many instances -existing lightships can be converted to the automatic -system and completed by the gun. Each case must, -of course, be decided upon its merits as regards the time -the gun and light are required to work upon a single charge -of acetylene, but there are no insuperable obstacles to its -utilization.</p> - -<p>Of course, in an isolated station lying perhaps some miles -off the mainland, it may be necessary to keep the gun going -night and day in fog and in clear weather alike. In this -case, naturally, the great number of explosions involves<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">71</a></span> -considerable expense; but the inventors are carrying out -experiments with a view to switching the gun on and off, as -required, from a distant point by means of wireless telegraphy, -so as to effect a saving in the expenditure of acetylene -when there is no need on account of fine weather to -keep the gun going. Still, it must not be supposed that -the detonations even during clear weather are altogether -abortive, inasmuch as a sound-signal at sea, where the -atmosphere has a long-distance-carrying capacity as a rule, -in conjunction with a light, draws double attention to a -danger spot. Under such circumstances the waste of -acetylene gas during periods of clear weather is more -apparent than real.</p> - -<p>The contest against the elements is still being waged, -and slowly but surely engineering science is improving its -position, and is hopeful of rendering audible signals as completely -effective as those of a visual character.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">72</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>It is doubtful whether the name of any lighthouse is so -familiar throughout the English-speaking world as the -“Eddystone.” Certainly no other “pillar of fire by night, -of cloud by day,” can offer so romantic a story of dogged -engineering perseverance, of heartrending disappointments, -disaster, blasted hopes, and brilliant success.</p> - -<p>Standing out in the English Channel, about sixty miles -east of the Lizard, is a straggling ridge of rocks which -stretches for hundreds of yards across the marine thoroughfare, -and also obstructs the western approach to Plymouth -Harbour. But at a point some nine and a half miles south -of Rame Head, on the mainland, the reef rises somewhat -abruptly to the surface, so that at low-water two or three -ugly granite knots are bared, which tell only too poignantly -the complete destruction they could wreak upon a vessel -which had the temerity or the ill luck to scrape over them -at high-tide. Even in the calmest weather the sea curls -and eddies viciously around these stones; hence the name -“Eddystones” is derived.</p> - -<p>From the days when trading vessels first used the English -Channel the reef has been a spot of evil fame. How many -ships escaped the perils and dangers of the seven seas only -to come to grief on this ridge within sight of home, or how -many lives have been lost upon it, will never be known. -Only the more staggering holocausts, such as the wreck of -the <i>Winchelsea</i>, stand out prominently in the annals of -history, but these serve to emphasize the terrible character -of the menace offered. The port of Plymouth, as may be -supposed, suffered with especial severity.</p> - -<p>As British overseas traffic expanded, the idea of indicating<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">73</a></span> -the spot for the benefit of vessels was discussed. The -first practical suggestion was put forward about the year -1664, but thirty-two years elapsed before any attempt was -made to reduce theory to practice. Then an eccentric -English country gentleman, Henry Winstanley, who dabbled -in mechanical engineering upon unorthodox lines, came forward -and offered to build a lighthouse upon the terrible -rock. Those who knew this ambitious amateur were dubious -of his success, and wondered what manifestation his eccentricity -would assume on this occasion. Nor was their scepticism -entirely misplaced. Winstanley raised the most -fantastic lighthouse which has ever been known, and which -would have been more at home in a Chinese cemetery than -in the English Channel. It was wrought in wood and most -lavishly embellished with carvings and gilding.</p> - -<p>Four years were occupied in its construction, and the -tower was anchored to the rock by means of long, heavy -irons. The light, merely a flicker, flashed out from this -tower in 1699 and for the first time the proximity of the -Eddystones was indicated all round the horizon by night. -Winstanley’s critics were rather free in expressing their -opinion that the tower would come down with the first -sou’-wester, but the eccentric builder was so intensely -proud of his achievement as to venture the statement that -it would resist the fiercest gale that ever blew, and, when -such did occur, he hoped that he might be in the tower at -the time.</p> - -<p>Fate gratified his wish, for while he was on the rock in -the year 1703 one of the most terrible tempests that ever -have assailed the coasts of Britain gripped the structure, -tore it up by the roots, and hurled it into the Channel, -where it was battered to pieces, its designer and five keepers -going down with the wreck. When the inhabitants of -Plymouth, having vainly scanned the horizon for a sign -of the tower on the following morning, put off to the rock -to investigate, they found only the bent and twisted iron -rods by which the tower had been held in position projecting -mournfully into the air from the rock-face.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">74</a></span> -Shortly after the demolition of the tower, the reef, as if -enraged at having been denied a number of victims owing -to the existence of the warning light, trapped the <i>Winchelsea</i> -as she was swinging up Channel, and smashed her to -atoms, with enormous loss of life.</p> - -<p>Although the first attempt to conquer the Eddystone had -terminated so disastrously, it was not long before another -effort was made to mark the reef. The builder this time -was a Cornish labourer’s son, John Rudyerd, who had -established himself in business on Ludgate Hill as a silk-mercer. -In his youth he had studied civil engineering, but -his friends had small opinion of his abilities in this craft. -However, he attacked the problem boldly, and, although his -tower was a plain, business-looking structure, it would have -been impossible to conceive a design capable of meeting the -peculiar requirements of the situation more efficiently. It -was a cone, wrought in timber, built upon a stone and wood -foundation anchored to the rock, and of great weight and -strength. The top of the cone was cut off to permit the -lantern to be set in position. The result was that externally -the tower resembled the trunk of an oak-tree, and appeared -to be just about as strong. It offered the minimum of -resistance to the waves, which, tumbling upon the ledge, -rose and curled around the tapering form without starting -a timber.</p> - -<p>Rudyerd, indeed, may be considered to be the father of -the science of modern lighthouse designing, because the -lines that he evolved have never been superseded for exposed -positions even in these days of advanced engineering -science, greater constructional facilities, and improved -materials. Rudyerd’s ingenuity and skill received a triumphant -vindication when the American engineers set out to -build the Minot’s Ledge and Spectacle Reef lighthouses, -inasmuch as these men followed slavishly in the lines he -laid down, and their achievements are numbered among the -great lighthouses of the world to-day.</p> - -<p>Rudyerd built his tower with infinite care, although he -was harassed in his operations by the depredations of French<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">75</a></span> -privateers, who haunted this part of the British coast. On -one occasion the whole of the men were surprised while at -their work, and were borne off in triumph as prisoners of -war to France. Louis XIV., however, heard of the capture, -and the privateers, instead of being honoured for the catch, -as they anticipated, were strongly reprimanded and compelled -to release their captures. “Their work is for the -benefit of all nations. I am at war with England, not with -humanity,” was the Sovereign’s comment; and by way of -compensation the prisoners were loaded with presents and -reconveyed to the rock, to resume their toil.</p> - -<p>For forty years Rudyerd’s structure defied the elements, -and probably would have been standing to this day had it -not possessed one weak point. It was built of wood instead -of stone. Consequently, when a fire broke out in the -lantern on December 4, 1755, the flames, fanned by the -breeze, rapidly made their way downwards. The keepers -were impotent and sought what refuge they could find -under projecting crags below, as the lead which had been -employed in construction melted into drops and rained -down on all sides, so that the unfortunate men were exposed -to another and more alarming danger. In fact, one man, -while watching the progress of the fire, was drenched with -a shower of molten metal, some of which, he declared, had -entered his open mouth and had penetrated into his stomach. -When rescued he was writhing in fearful agony, but his -story was received with incredulity, his comrades believing -that the experience had turned his brain and that this was -merely one of his delusions. When the man died, a post-mortem -examination was made, and the doctors discovered -ample corroboration of the man’s story in the form of a lump -of lead weighing some seven ounces!</p> - -<p>No time was lost in erecting another tower on the rock, -for now it was more imperative than ever that the reef -should be lighted adequately. The third engineer was John -Smeaton, who first landed on the rock to make the surveys -on April 5, 1756. He was able to stay there for only two -and a quarter hours before the rising tide drove him off,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">76</a></span> -but in that brief period he had completed the work necessary -to the preparation of his design. Wood had succumbed to -the attacks of tempest and of fire in turn. He would use a -material which would defy both—Portland stone. He also -introduced a slight change in the design for such structures, -and one which has been universally copied, producing the -graceful form of lighthouse with which everyone is so -familiar. Instead of causing the sides to slope upwards in -the straight lines of a cone, such as Rudyerd adopted, -Smeaton preferred a slightly concave curve, so that the -tower was given a waist at about half its height. He also -selected the oak-tree as his guide, but one having an extensive -spread of branches, wherein will be found a shape in the -trunk, so far as the broad lines are concerned, which coincides -with the form of Smeaton’s lighthouse. He chose a -foundation where the rock shelved gradually to its highest -point, and dropped vertically into the water upon the opposite -side. The face of the rock was roughly trimmed to -permit the foundation-stones of the tower to be laid. The -base of the building was perfectly solid to the entrance -level, and each stone was dovetailed securely into its -neighbour.</p> - -<div id="ip_76" class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;"> - <img src="images/i_p076a.jpg" width="401" height="491" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo, Paul, Penzance.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE EDDYSTONE, THE MOST FAMOUS LIGHTHOUSE OF ENGLAND.</p> - -<p class="captionc">To the right is the stump of Smeaton’s historic tower.</p></div></div> - -<p>From the entrance, which was about 15 feet above high-water, -a central well, some 5 feet in diameter, containing a -staircase, led to the storeroom, nearly 30 feet above high-water. -Above this was a second storeroom, a living-room -as the third floor, and the bedroom beneath the lantern. -The light was placed about 72 feet above high-water, and -comprised a candelabra having two rings, one smaller than, -and placed within, the other, but raised about a foot above -its level, the two being held firmly in position by means of -chains suspended from the roof and secured to the floor. -The rings were adapted to receive twenty-four lights, each -candle weighing about 2¾ ounces. Even candle manufacture -was in its infancy in those days, and periodically the -keepers had to enter the lantern to snuff the wicks. In -order to keep the watchers of the lights on the alert, Smeaton -installed a clock of the grandfather pattern in the tower,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">77</a></span> -and fitted it with a gong, which struck every half-hour to -apprise the men of these duties. This clock is now one -of the most interesting relics in the museum at Trinity -House.</p> - -<p>The first stone of the tower was laid on a Sunday in June, -1757, as the date on the block indicates; and although work -had to be pursued fitfully and for only a few hours at a time -between the tides, in the early stages, Smeaton seized every -opportunity offered by the wind and sea to push the task -forward. For four years the men slaved upon the rock, and, -although the mechanical handling appliances of those days -were primitive, the tower was completed without a single -mishap. The solidity of the structure, and its lines, which, -as the engineer stated, would offer the minimum of resistance -to the Atlantic rollers, but at the same time would insure -the utmost stability, aroused widespread admiration, for -it was felt that the engineer had triumphed over Nature at -last. Many people expressed a desire to see how the tower -would weather such a storm as carried away Winstanley’s -freakish building, especially as, in a roaring sou’-wester, -the waves hurled themselves upon the ledge to wreathe and -curl upwards to a point far above the dome, blotting the -light from sight. The supreme test came in 1762, when the -lighthouse was subjected to a battering and pounding far -heavier than any that it had previously known. But the -tower emerged from this ordeal unscathed, and Smeaton’s -work was accepted as invulnerable.</p> - -<div id="ip_77" class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"> - <img src="images/i_p076b.jpg" width="399" height="597" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo, Paul, Penzance.</i> -</p> - -<p>A THRILLING EXPERIENCE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Landing upon the Eddystone by the crane rope during a rough sea.</p></div></div> - -<p>The lighthouse had been standing for 120 years, when -ominous reports were received by the Trinity Brethren -concerning the stability of the tower. The keepers stated -that during severe storms the building shook alarmingly. -A minute inspection of the structure was made, and it was -found that, although the work of Smeaton’s masons was -above reproach, time and weather had left their mark. -The tower was becoming decrepit. The binding cement -had decayed, and the air imprisoned and compressed within -the interstices by the waves was disintegrating the structure -slowly but surely. While there was no occasion to apprehend<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78">78</a></span> -a sudden collapse, still it was considered advisable to -take precautionary measures in time. Unfortunately, it -was not feasible to strengthen Smeaton’s tower so adequately -as to give it a new lease of life, while lighthouse -engineering had made rapid strides in certain details since -it was completed. Another factor to be considered was -the desire for a more elevated light, capable of throwing its -rays to a greater distance.</p> - -<p>Under these circumstances it was decided to build a new -tower on another convenient ledge, forming part of the -main reef, about 120 feet distant. Sir James Douglass, the -Engineer-in-Chief to Trinity House, completed the designs -and personally superintended their execution. The Smeaton -lines were taken as a basis, with one important exception. -Instead of the curve commencing at the foundations, the -latter comprised a perfect cylindrical monolith of masonry -22 feet in height by 44 feet in diameter. From this base the -tower springs to a height which brings the focal plane -130 feet above the highest spring-tides. The top of the -base is 30 inches above high-water, and the tower’s diameter -at this point being less than that of its plinth, the set-off -forms an excellent landing-stage when the weather permits.</p> - -<p>The site selected for the Douglass tower being lower than -that chosen by Smeaton, the initial work was more exacting, -as the duration of the working period was reduced. The -rock, being gneiss, was extremely tough, and the preliminary -quarrying operations for the foundation-stones which had -to be sunk into the rock were tedious and difficult, especially -as the working area was limited. Each stone was dovetailed, -not only to its neighbour on either side, but below -and above as well. The foundation-stones were dovetailed -into the reef, and were secured still further by the aid of -two bolts, each 1½ inches in diameter, which were passed -through the stone and sunk deeply into the rock below. -The exposed position of the reef enabled work to be continued -only fitfully during the calmest weather, for often when -wind and sea were quiet the rock was inaccessible owing to -the swell. Upon the approach of bad weather everything<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">79</a></span> -was made fast under the direct supervision of the engineer—a -man who took no chances.</p> - -<p>From the set-off the tower is solid to a height of 25½ feet, -except for two fresh-water tanks sunk in the floor of the -entrance-room, which hold 4,700 gallons. At this point -the walls are no less than 8½ feet thick, and the heavy teak -door is protected by an outer door of gun-metal, weighing -a ton, both of which are closed during rough weather.</p> - -<p>The tower has eight floors, exclusive of the entrance; -there are two oilrooms, one above the other, holding -4,300 gallons of oil, above which is a coal and store room, -followed by a second storeroom. Outside the tower at -this level is a crane, by which supplies are hoisted, and which -also facilitates the landing and embarkation of the keepers, -who are swung through the air in a stirrup attached to the -crane rope. Then in turn come the living-room, the “low-light” -room, bedroom, service-room, and finally the lantern. -For the erection of the tower, 2,171 blocks of granite, -which were previously fitted temporarily in their respective -positions on shore, and none of which weighed less than -2 tons, were used. When the work was commenced, the -engineer estimated that the task would occupy five years, -but on May 18, 1882, the lamp was lighted by the Duke -of Edinburgh, the Master of Trinity House at the time, the -enterprise having occupied only four years. Some idea may -thus be obtained of the energy with which the labour was -pressed forward, once the most trying sections were overcome.</p> - -<p>Whereas the former lights on this rock had been of the -fixed type, a distinctive double flash was now introduced. -The optical apparatus is of the biform dioptric type, emitting -a beam of some 300,000 candle-power intensity, which is -visible for seventeen miles. In addition to this measure of -warning, two powerful Argand burners, with reflectors, were -set up in the low-light room for the purpose of throwing a -fixed ray from a point 40 feet below the main flashing beam, -to mark a dangerous reef lying 3½ miles to the north-west, -known as Hand Deeps.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">80</a></span> -When the new tower was completed and brought into -service, the Smeaton building was demolished. This task -was carried out with extreme care, inasmuch as the citizens -of Plymouth had requested that the historic Eddystone -structure might be re-erected on Plymouth Hoe, on the -spot occupied by the existing Trinity House landmark. -The authorities agreed to this proposal, and the ownership -of the Smeaton tower was forthwith transferred to the -people of Plymouth. But demolition was carried out only -to the level of Smeaton’s lower storeroom. The staircase, -well and entrance were filled up with masonry, the top was -bevelled off, and in the centre of the stump an iron pole was -planted. While the Plymouth Hoe relic is but one half of -the tower, its re-erection was completed faithfully, and, -moreover, carries the original candelabra which the famous -engineer devised.</p> - -<p>Not only is the Douglass tower a beautiful example of -lighthouse engineering, but it was relatively cheap. The -engineer, when he prepared the designs, estimated that an -outlay of £78,000, or $390,000, would be incurred. As a -matter of fact, the building cost only £59,255, or $296,275, -and a saving of £18,000, or $90,000, in a work of this magnitude -is no mean achievement. All things considered, the -Eddystone is one of the cheapest sea-rock lights which has -ever been consummated.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">81</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /> - -<span class="subhead">SOME FAMOUS LIGHTS OF ENGLAND</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The captain of the lordly liner, as he swings down Channel -or approaches the English coast from the broad Atlantic, -maintains a vigilant watch until the light or the slender -proportions of the lonely outpost rising apparently from the -ocean’s depths off the south-west corner of the Scilly Islands, -become visible. This is the Bishop Rock, the western sentinel -of the English Channel, mounting guard over as wicked a -stretch of sea as may be found anywhere between the two -Poles, where the maritime traffic is densest and where -wrecks, unfortunately, are only too frequent; for the toll -levied by the sea off the Cornish coast is fearful.</p> - -<p>Among these islands was planted one of the first beacons -erected off the British coasts. At the outset it was merely -a wood bonfire, then a brazier, and finally a lighthouse, -which crowned St. Agnes’s height, to guide the mariner on -his way. But to-day the St. Agnes light is no more than a -memory. Two or three years ago the keepers quenched the -light in the misty grey of the dawn for the last time. The -vigil which had been maintained over shipping uninterruptedly -through some 230 years was ended. On a neighbouring -point a superior modern light had been planted which took -up the sacred duty. Although established in 1680, the -St. Agnes was not the oldest light in England. This distinction -belongs to the North Foreland light on the East -Kentish coast, which was set going as far back as 1636. -This warning was shed from a tower of timber, lath, and -plaster, built by Sir John Meldrum, but it fell a victim to -fire forty-seven years later. The light was reconstructed -promptly, and to-day throws a red and white gleam of 35,000 -candle-power, which may be picked up twenty miles away.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">82</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_82" class="figcenter" style="width: 597px;"> - <img src="images/i_p082a.jpg" width="597" height="242" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo, Paul, Penzance.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE “BISHOP,” THE WESTERN OUTPOST OF ENGLAND.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This tower marks a treacherous reef, rising from the depths of the Atlantic off the Scilly Islands. Its slim proportions are familiar to -Transatlantic passengers.</p></div></div> - -<p>The south-western extremity of England, however, is far -more to be dreaded than the south-eastern. Here Nature -mixed land and water in an inextricable maze during her -moulding process. Deep, tortuous, wide channels separate -rugged granite islets, while long, ugly ridges creep stealthily -out to sea beneath the pall of water, ready to trap the unsuspecting -vessel which ventures too closely. If one were -to take a map of this part of the country, were to dig one -leg of a compass into the Lizard Head, stretching the other -so as to reach the Eddystone light, and then were to describe -a circle, the enclosed space would contain more famous sea-rock -lights than a similar area on any other part of the -globe. Within its circumference there would be the Eddystone, -Bishop Rock, Wolf, and Longships, each of which -lifts its cupola above a wave-swept ledge of rocks.</p> - -<p>The need for an adequate indication of the Scillies was -felt long before the Eddystone gained its ill fame. These -scattered masses of granite, numbering about 140 in all, -break up the expanse of the Atlantic about twenty miles -south-west of the Cornish mainland. Now, the maritime -traffic flowing in and out of the English Channel is divided -into two broad classes—the coastal and the oversea trade -respectively. The former is able to creep through the dangerous -channel separating the Scillies from the mainland, -but the latter has to make a détour to the south. One -fringe of the broken cluster is as dangerous as the other, -so that both streams of trade demand protection.</p> - -<p>On the south side the knots dot the sea in all directions. -They are mere black specks, many only revealing themselves -at lowest tides; others do not betray their existence -even then. The outermost ledge is the Bishop Rock, where -disasters have been fearful and numerous. One of the most -terrible catastrophes on record happened here, when three -vessels of Sir Cloudesley Shovel’s fleet went to pieces in the -year 1707, and dragged 2,000 men down with them, including -the Admiral himself. In more recent times, some -two or three years ago, the Atlantic transport liner <i>Minnehaha</i> -dragged her lumbering body over the selfsame attenuated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">83</a></span> -rampart, and was badly damaged before she could be -rescued. As may be supposed, in days gone by the awful -character of the coast brought prosperity to the inhabitants -of Cornwall, who reaped rich harvests from the inhuman -practice of wrecking, in which horrible work the Scilly -Islanders were easily pre-eminent and more successful, since -they held the outer lines upon which the majority of ships -came to grief.</p> - -<p>In the forties of last century it was decided that this -graveyard should be marked, but there was one great difficulty. -This was the exposure of the low-lying rock to some -4,000 miles of open Atlantic, where the rollers rise and fall -with a force that turns the waters for miles around into a -seething maelstrom of foam and surf. The aspect presented -at this spot during a stiff south-westerly or westerly gale is -terrifying in the extreme, and it is not surprising that -approaching vessels stand so far off that the tower is often -barely discernible against the background of cloud and -banks of mist caused by the spray hurled into the air from -the breakers smashing on the rocks.</p> - -<div id="ip_83" class="figcenter" style="width: 598px;"> - <img src="images/i_p082b.jpg" width="598" height="354" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo, Paul, Penzance.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE WOLF ROCK LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">One of the famous lights of England. Owing to the rocks being exposed to the full fury of the Atlantic, its erection was attended with -prodigious difficulty.</p></div></div> - -<p>When it was proposed to build a lighthouse upon a crag -in the heart of this vortex, many people who knew the -neighbourhood shook their heads doubtfully. The ledge -was so small, the force of the elements so powerful, that it -appeared to be tempting Fate unduly to attempt the erection -of a slim stalk of stonework thereon. Some records of the -wind pressure exerted during the heaviest tempests were -taken, and they showed that the pressure of the wind at -times exceeded 7,000 pounds per square foot. It was -decided to provide a structure which should offer the minimum -of resistance to the waves. This assumed the form -of the iron screw-pile tower so common in American waters. -The legs were cast-iron tubes sunk into the solid granite, -braced and stayed by means of wrought-iron rods. The -engineers maintained that the waves would be able to roll -unrestrainedly among the piles, instead of being obstructed, -so that the skeleton building would escape the heavy -buffetings which solid masonry would experience.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">84</a></span> -But engineering science proved woefully frail when pitted -against the unharnessed forces of Nature. A heavy gale -sprang up one night; the waves rose and fell upon the stilts, -broke them up like reeds, and carried away the whole of the -superstructure. The following low-tide revealed only a few -short lengths of broken and bent tubes, around which the -waves bubbled and hissed as if in triumph at their victory. -Thus ended the first attempt to provide the Bishop Rock -with a lighthouse.</p> - -<p>The engineer, though defeated, was not dismayed. As -a skeleton structure was impotent, he would erect a massive -masonry tower which not all the force of the waves could -avail to demolish. Although the reef is about 150 feet in -length by 52 feet in width, the engineer, James Walker, -was not afforded much space upon which to place his creation. -He reconnoitred the ridge, and finally chose a small -lump just sufficiently large upon which to effect a foothold. -The Smeaton type of tower was his model, and the surface -of the rock was trimmed to receive the first blocks. -This was the greatest difficulty. Unless the sea were as -smooth as a millpond, he was helpless, as the lowest blocks -had to be laid a foot beneath low-water mark. A heavy -cofferdam was erected around the site, and the water within -was pumped out, so that the masons might be able to toil -upon a dry rock-face.</p> - -<p>The exposed, isolated character of the spot rendered the -housing of the workmen a problem in itself. They could -not be accommodated on the site; a temporary dwelling -on piles for their accommodation could not be established, -as it would come down with the first gale, and housing on -a tender was equally impracticable. There was a small -uninhabited islet within convenient distance of the reef, -and on this the living-quarters and workshops were erected, -the men being transported to and fro whenever the conditions -were suitable. Traces of this bygone industrial -activity still remain on the island, but the sea-fowl have -once more claimed it exclusively as their home. The -working spells were brief, as well as being somewhat few<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">85</a></span> -and far between, while the base was being prepared. The -granite was brought to the island depot, fashioned into -shape, and then sent to the Bishop for erection. Granite -was used exclusively, and in 1878, after seven years’ arduous -labour, the tower, 120 feet in height, capped by a powerful -light, was completed: the dreaded Bishop Rock was conquered -at last.</p> - -<p>When it was first commissioned, four men were deputed -to watch this light, three being on the rock, and the fourth man -on leave at St. Mary’s. The duty was for three months continuous, -one man being relieved every month if possible; but, -as a matter of fact, the spell on the rock often was increased, -owing to the weather rendering it impossible to exchange -the men. The character of their duty, under the terrible -assaults of the sea, played havoc with the constitutions and -nerves of the lighthouse-keepers. They became taciturn, -and inevitably fell victims to neurasthenia, owing to their -long periods of isolation. Accordingly the authorities -gradually relaxed the spell of duty, until now it -comprises a month on the rock, followed by a fortnight -ashore, while six men, instead of four, are appointed to -the station. The Bishop light demands watchers of iron -constitution and prolonged experience of the rigours of -imprisonment upon a lonely rock. The men appear to -suffer most from the fear that one day the seas will regain -the upper hand and carry the slender-looking shaft of -masonry away. When the Atlantic is roused to fury, the -din created by the waves smashing against the tower and -reef is so deafening that the keepers can only converse by -signs.</p> - -<p>The attacks which this tower has to withstand are fearful. -When the equinoxes are raging, it is no uncommon circumstance -for the waves to roll up the side of the tower and -hurl themselves clean over the lantern. The enormous -force of the water was brought home very startlingly to -the attendants of the light one night, when a more than -usually wicked breaker slid up the curved round face and -wrenched the fog-bell, weighing 550 pounds, from its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86">86</a></span> -fastenings on the lantern gallery. The ponderous piece of -metal was dashed on to the reef and smashed to fragments. -A small piece was recovered after the gale, and is now -preserved in the Trinity House museum as an interesting -memento of the night when the Atlantic almost got the -upper hand. The nerves of the men are tried severely, also, -by memories of the terrible marine disasters which have -happened on or near the ridge, such as that of the German -packet <i>Schiller</i>, which went down in 1875 with the loss of -331 lives.</p> - -<p>It is not surprising that the ceaseless attacks of the waves -should have left their traces at last. The light had been -burning for about twenty years, when tremors and quakings, -similar to those observed in connection with Smeaton’s -Eddystone tower, were reported to the authorities. Sir -James Douglass visited the rock, and made a minute inspection. -It was apparent that the lighthouse demanded extensive -overhauling and strengthening if it were to be preserved. -In fact, this was the only feasible course of action, -as there was not another suitable spot whereon a new structure -could be raised. The Eddystone had been completed, -and as the same tackle was available, the protective work -was undertaken at once. In conjunction with this enterprise, -the engineer also advocated an increase in the height of the -tower.</p> - -<p>His plans met with approval, and an ingenious means of -strengthening the existing building was evolved. Virtually -it comprised the erection of a new tower around the old -shaft, and connected to the latter, so as to form one homogeneous -structure. In order to strengthen the foundations, -massive blocks of masonry were sunk into the rock, cemented, -and held in position by heavy bolts. From the -masons’ point of view, the task of overhauling was more -exciting and dangerous than that which had attended the -erection of the original tower; for the men had to toil on -narrow, swinging platforms, cutting notches in the face of -every stone in the existing structure to receive dovetails on -the blocks of the new outer shell. Thus the latter were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">87</a></span> -dovetailed to adjacent blocks on five out of their six faces. -A massive chain was slung round the upper part of the tower, -from which life-lines hung down to the men working below. -A man was stationed as a lookout. When he saw a breaker -approaching he gave a signal; each man clutched his life-rope -tenaciously and retained his foothold as best he could -on his perilous perch while the water swept over him. -Often the men were submerged by a rushing wave, and -when the water subsided shook themselves like dogs emerging -from the water. But the provision of the life-ropes prevented -serious injury and loss of life, although the masons -at times were considerably knocked about.</p> - -<p>The tower has been given an enormous, massive, cylindrical -base, while the shaft is solid to the entrance level, -except for the usual water-tanks. The attachment of the -outer shell reinforced it remarkably, the walls at the entrance -being increased to a thickness of 8 feet. The addition of -the four extra floors elevated the light by a further 40 feet, -the focal plane now being 163 feet above high-water. The -light, of 622,500 candle-power, visible for eighteen miles, -is a white group-flash, there being two flashes, each of four -seconds’ duration, with an intervening eclipse of five seconds, -while the groups are separated by intervals of forty-seven -seconds.</p> - -<p>Off the northern shores of the Scillies, standing in the -strait which provides a short-cut around the toe of England, -is another magnificent tower. This is the Wolf Rock -lighthouse, marking the reef of that name, which lies eight -miles off Land’s End in the fairway of the coastal traffic. -The cluster of rocks from which it rises is just as dangerous -as that to the south, and is exposed likewise to the full fury -of the south-westerly gales coming in from the Atlantic. -It was one of the most attractive spots to the old Cornish -wreckers, for ships which lost their way during the fogs -which hang about this coast invariably blundered into the -reef, to be smashed to pieces within a very short time.</p> - -<p>This spot was not so greatly feared by the seafarer when -heavy gales prevailed. There was a hollow rock on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">88</a></span> -ridge, into which the waves were driven. In so doing they -compressed the air within the space, which, as it escaped, -produced a long, distinctive wail, recalling the cry of the -wolf. It was this natural phenomenon which gave the -rock its name. The harder the wind blew, and the higher -the waves rose, the louder was the reverberating bellow, -and, as it could be heard distinctly above the music of the -storm, the navigator was able to steer clear of the formidable -obstruction. On the other hand, during periods of heavy -fog, when the waves were usually quiet, there was scarcely -any perceptible sound.</p> - -<div id="ip_88" class="figcenter" style="width: 599px;"> - <img src="images/i_p088a.jpg" width="599" height="269" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo, Paul, Penzance.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE LONGSHIPS LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">In the background is the forbidding iron-bound Cornish coast, where wrecks unfortunately are frequent.</p></div></div> - -<p>The Wolf Rock would be growling to this day had it not -been for the inhuman action of the Cornish plunderers. -They detested the weird noise as cordially as the mariner -blessed it. It robbed them of so many rich hauls that at -last they decided to silence the rock for ever. They filled -the cavity with large boulders, which were carried out in -boats from the mainland and dumped overboard. Then -the Cornishmen met with a spell of enhanced prosperity -from the increased number of wrecks which occurred.</p> - -<p>When the exigencies of commerce demanded that the -reef should be guarded, a most fantastic device was prepared. -An attempt was made to restore artificially the natural -siren. A fabric wrought in copper in the form of a huge -wolf with distended jaws was contrived, the designers -averring that the air would rush in and produce a distinctive -whistle. This grotesque danger-signal never reached its -destination. It would have been absolutely useless even -had it been placed over the rock, as the first lively sea would -have carried it away, while the noise produced, if any, would -have been inaudible more than a few feet away.</p> - -<p>The Trinity Brethren at last took the matter up, but their -investigations caused them to doubt the possibility of building -a lighthouse on such a forbidding spot. They did the next -best thing. They drove a thick oak joist into the rock, and -attached a coloured sphere to its upper extremity. This -constituted a valuable landmark by day, but was useless at -night. But its life was brief. The first storm which swept<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">89</a></span> -the reef after the erection of the beacon tore it up by the -roots. It was replaced by a heavy mast of wrought-iron, -which suffered a similar fate, as did also a third iron pole -9 inches in diameter. At last a low conical stump was built -upon the ridge, with the staff and sphere projecting from -its centre. This defied wind and wave successfully for many -years. Its permanency impressed the builders of the Bishop -Rock light, who came to the conclusion that, as the small -conical tower held hard and fast, a masonry tower could -be given just as firm a hold.</p> - -<p>When the engineer approached the reef to make his -surveys, he found the water boiling and bubbling madly, -and it was some time before he could get a foothold. He -completed his examination, and then found, to his dismay, -that the boat could not approach to take him off. He could -not stay where he was, as the tide, which was rising, would -engulf the reef within a short time, so he resorted to a bold -expedient. He had taken the precaution to bring a life-line -with him, so that he was in touch with the boat. He -looped this round his waist securely, and then, telling the -men to pull as hard as they could, he plunged into the water. -In this manner he was dragged through the furious surf -and pulled into the boat, thoroughly drenched, but otherwise -none the worse for his adventure.</p> - -<div id="ip_89" class="figcenter" style="width: 601px;"> - <img src="images/i_p088b.jpg" width="601" height="350" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo, Paul, Penzance.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE GODREVY LIGHT, SCILLY ISLANDS.</p> - -<p class="captionc">It marks a forbidding clump of rocks, landing on which is always exciting.</p></div></div> - -<p>The work was begun in 1862, when the masons were -despatched to the rock to prepare the face for the reception -of the bottom masonry blocks. The tedious and exceptionally -dangerous character of the work was emphasized very -forcibly upon those engaged in the task. It was seldom -that the water was sufficiently placid to enable a landing to -be made. Then, as the working spell was very brief, being -restricted to low-tide, the men could pause only for a few -minutes at a time, and even during these were menaced by -the breakers. During the first working season only eighty-three -hours of labour were possible—a fact which conveys -a graphic idea of the exposed character of the site, its difficulty -of access, and the short time available for work between -the tides.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">90</a></span> -While excavations were under way, the preparation of a -landing-stage was taken in hand. As only small blocks of -stone could be used, naturally it occupied a considerable time. -It was, however, essential, in order to permit the erection -of a derrick by which the heavy blocks for the tower could -be lifted from the construction boat to the rock. On the -rock-face itself the masons toiled strenuously, chipping, -scraping, and paring away all the faulty pieces of gneiss, -so that a firm, solid foundation was secured, into which the -bottom course of stones was dovetailed and anchored.</p> - -<p>Owing to the frequency with which the rock was swept -by the seas, special precautions had to be adopted to insure -the safety of the workmen. Iron dogs were driven into the rock -at frequent points, to which ropes were fastened and allowed -to trail across the rock, each mason being urged to keep one -of these life-lines always within arm’s length. As an additional -precaution he was compelled to wear a lifebelt, -which, although it hampered free movement somewhat, -yet gave the wearer, if he lost his foothold or were thrown -into the water, a chance of keeping afloat until the lifeboat -standing by was able to reach him. A Cornish fisherman, -who was familiar with the seas on this part of the coast, -and who could judge a breaking wave from a distance, -acted as a lookout. When he saw a comber about to creep -over the rock, he gave a signal, when the workmen clutched -their life-lines, and, with feet firmly planted and the ropes -drawn taut, or throwing themselves prostrate, with heads -pointed to the advancing wave, allowed the breaker to roll -over them and expend its violence harmlessly. Time after -time the masons were buried beneath huge tumbling hills -of water. Work under such conditions was decidedly irksome, -and progress was very appreciably retarded, but -the safety of the workmen was, of course, the pre-eminent -consideration. Curiously enough, these men who face the -perils, privations, and exciting incessant dangers, incidental -to lighthouse building, are extremely superstitious. If an -undertaking such as the Wolf were attended by a disaster -and loss of life in its initial stages, the completion of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">91</a></span> -task might be seriously jeopardized. The rock would be -regarded as a “hoo-doo,” and would be shunned like a -fever-stricken city. Therefore the engineer will go to any -lengths to secure, so far as is humanly possible, the preservation -of the lives and limbs of those in his employ. This is -the chief reason why the erection of these wonderful towers -has been attended by so few accidents or fatalities, while -the men fitted for the task are so few that the engineer cannot -afford to disturb their peace of mind.</p> - -<p>The Wolf tower follows the generally accepted lines, and -is solid at the base. It is wrought throughout of granite, -the stones being joggled together. One ingenious measure -was adopted in connection with the lower courses in order -to prevent the action of the waves from breaking up the -cement in the exposed joints and setting up disintegration. -The upper surface of each stone is given a wide rabbet, and -the stone above fits into the recess so that the horizontal -joint between the two is covered by the outer fillet, thereby -protecting it completely. This practice was followed -throughout all the lower courses to a height of 39 feet, and -the security thus obtained is reflected by the strength of -the tower to-day after half a century’s wear.</p> - -<p>Work proceeded so slowly in the early stages, owing to -the abnormal conditions, that by the end of 1864 only thirty-seven -stones in the second course of masonry were laid. In -the meantime, however, the landing-stage had been practically -completed, and the erection of the crane enabled the -blocks for the tower to be transferred to the rock with -greater ease and rapidity. The tower, 135 feet in height, -was completed on July 19, 1869, while the light was brought -into service early in the following year. Eight years were -expended upon the enterprise, and during this period 296 -landings were effected upon the rock and 1,814 hours of -labour were consummated. This is equal to about 101 -working days of ten hours each, or, on the average, less -than one hour every day of the years occupied in the undertaking. -The lantern throws a powerful white light, which -in clear weather may be seen from twenty to twenty-five<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">92</a></span> -miles away. The cost of the enterprise was £62,726, or -$313,630—nearly twice that of the first Bishop Rock light.</p> - -<div id="ip_92" class="figcenter" style="width: 597px;"> - <img src="images/i_p092a.jpg" width="597" height="369" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE CHICKEN ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, OFF THE ISLE OF MAN.</p> - -<p class="captionc">It marks a dangerous reef. The revolving light of 143,000 candle-power is visible for sixteen miles. Although the lantern is 143 feet above the -water, the waves frequently engulf it.</p></div></div> - -<p>Another gaunt structure rears itself from a reef a few -miles to the north-west of the Wolf, and a short distance -off the Land’s End. This is the Longships light. The -name itself suggests a light-vessel, and a stranger is surprised -to learn that it is an imposing building, worthy of comparison -with the two other structures already described which guard -the Scillies. Although it is within a short distance of the -mainland, its exposed situation rendered its construction as -exasperatingly difficult as that of both the Bishop and Wolf -lights. A few miles farther north another powerful light -indicates the “Kingdom of Heaven,” as the black hump -of Lundy Island, rising out of the Bristol Channel, is colloquially -called, from the name of its clerical owner.</p> - -<p>On the opposite side and due north of this bight, the Pembrokeshire -coast breaks off abruptly at St. David’s Head, -only to reappear out at sea in some twenty little rugged -islets known as The Smalls. They occur some twenty-one -miles off the mainland, and for years they played havoc -with the shipping plying between North of England ports -and the Bristol Channel. These rocks—for they are little -else—were the private property of a Liverpool gentleman, -who became so distracted by the frequency of disaster that, -in 1773, he decided to crown them with a beacon. He -selected a musical instrument manufacturer named Whiteside -as his engineer, and this amateur mechanic, after an -inspection, decided to place the warning light on a tiny crag -which projected about 5 feet above high-water. It is -somewhat strange that the adequate safeguarding of two -devastating parts of the south-western coast of England -should have been placed in the hands of men who were not -professional engineers. Rudyerd, the silk-mercer, was -responsible for the second Eddystone, and here was an -instrument-maker taking over one of the most difficult -enterprises it was possible to find. Yet both these amateur -engineers inscribed their names ineffaceably upon two of -the most evil spots around the coasts of the British Islands.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">93</a></span> -Rudyerd gave us the true conical design, which has never -been superseded for strength and stability; while Whiteside -evolved a skeleton tower which braved the most tempestuous -seas for some eighty years. In the first instance the -latter carried out his work in iron, thinking that metal would -prove irresistible, but within a short time he replaced it -with heavy legs of oak. The frail-looking structure was -submitted to storms of almost seismic violence, but it withstood -them all for over half a century, when a peculiarly -vicious wave, as it rolled between the supports, suddenly -flew upwards, driving the floor of the keepers’ quarters into -the roof. It was an exceptional accident, which no engineer -could have foreseen. When the Trinity House Brethren -took over the light, their chief engineer, Mr. James Walker, -looked upon the erection as such a fine piece of work that -the damage was repaired, and the Whiteside light gleamed -for a further twenty years before it gave place to the present -graceful stone building.</p> - -<div id="ip_93" class="figcenter" style="width: 597px;"> - <img src="images/i_p092b.jpg" width="597" height="800" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>HOW THE SKERRYVORE IS BUILT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">In the centre, a vertical section. At sides, transverse sections at different masonry courses, -showing method of laying the stones.</p></div></div> - -<p>It was a grim episode at this light which brought about the -practice of appointing three men at least to a sea light-station. -When first completed, The Smalls was provided -with only two keepers, and on one occasion one of the two -died. His companion refrained from committing the body -to the sea, lest he might be suspected of foul-play, so he constructed -a rough shell, in which he placed the body of his -dead chum, and stood the grisly burden on end beside his -flag of distress on the gallery outside the lantern. As the -spell of duty in those days was four months, it was some -time before the relief came out. Then they discovered a -shattered human wreck tending the lights, who had never -neglected his duty under the onerous and weird conditions, -but who nevertheless had become broken down and aged -under the terrible ordeal. After this experience three men -instead of two were placed on duty at all such exposed and -inaccessible lights. It may be recalled that Alphonse -Daudet tells a similar creepy story which was related to him -by a light-keeper on the rugged Corsican coast, and which -he narrates in the “Phares des Sanguinaires.” A similar<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">94</a></span> -experience is also associated with Rudyerd’s Eddystone -light.</p> - -<p>Off the North Welsh coast there are the famous lights of -the South Stack and the Skerries, the latter rising out of the -water on a dangerous cluster of rocks off Carmel Head. -The Isle of Man also possesses a magnificent specimen of -lighthouse engineering in the Chicken Rock light, the work -of the brothers Stevenson, which, although in the Irish Sea, -comes within the jurisdiction of the Commissioners of -Northern Lights. This tower stands on a reef which is -submerged by 6 feet of water even at high neap-tides. When -a gale is raging and the spring-tides are at their highest, -the waves frequently engulf the lantern, although it is -perched 143 feet above the water. The light is of 143,000 -candle-power, of the revolving type, and visible for sixteen -miles in clear weather.</p> - -<p>Entering the English Channel from the Scillies, the -voyager observes the powerful Lizard light gleaming like two -brilliant white stars from a prominent elevated point on the -cliff. Formerly three lights were shown, but two were -found to meet the necessities of the situation adequately. -The steamship lane lies across the chord of the arc formed -by the coastline between the Lizard and Start Point, leaving -the Eddystone to the north. The next important light is -the Needles, at the entrance to the Solent. A few miles -farther on the brilliant spoke-light flashes of St. Catherine’s, -described in another chapter, compel attention. No other -light after this is seen until Beachy Head is approached. -Another dreary stretch brings the vessel abeam the nose of -Kentish coast known as Dungeness, a particularly notorious -danger spot. Here there is a continual struggle between -the engineers and the sea. While the waves gnaw into the -coastline at other neighbouring places, here they surrender -their capture, so that the headland is persistently creeping -farther and farther out to sea. It is lighted, and has been -guarded for years, but the tower is left at a constantly -increasing distance from the water’s edge. The light has -been moved once or twice, so as to fulfil its purpose to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">95</a></span> -best advantage, but the engineer will be kept on the alert -until the currents change their courses and refrain from -piling up further drift at this point. This light, coming as -it does at the entrance to the bottle-neck of the English -Channel, is of prime importance to navigation, because -vessels, after they have rounded the South Foreland, make -a bee-line for this headland.</p> - -<p>Since the eastern coast of England is flanked by sandbanks -and shoals, the lighthouse is not in powerful evidence, -the aids to navigation consisting chiefly of light-vessels, -which are distributed liberally so as to patrol completely a -treacherous stretch of shoals. Northwards the sandy, low-lying -wastes give way to towering cliffs, amongst which -Flamborough Head and its light are conspicuous. At the -far northern limit of the operations of Trinity House comes -the Longstones, mounting guard over the terrible Farne -Islands and their rocky outposts. Who has not heard of the -heroism of Grace Darling, the light-keeper’s daughter, and -the thrilling rescue, in the teeth of a hurricane, of the exhausted -survivors of the <i>Forfarshire</i>?</p> - -<p>Complaints have been made often regarding the paucity -of powerful lights around the coast of England, but the -criticism scarcely is deserved. All the prominent and most -dangerous spots are lighted adequately, and, as may be -recognized, the provision of these lights has proved an -exacting and costly enterprise. What England may lack -in numbers in this particular field of engineering is compensated -for by the daring nature of the works completed, -which are regarded throughout the world as marvellous -achievements.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">96</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE BELL ROCK AND SKERRYVORE LIGHTS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>At first sight it seems somewhat remarkable—some might -feel disposed to challenge the assertion—that so small a -country as Scotland should stand pre-eminent among the -nations of the world as being that possessed of the greatest -number of imposing sea-rock lights. But such is the case. -Moreover, North Britain offers some of the finest and most -impressive specimens of the lighthouse builder’s resource -and skill to be found in any part of the globe.</p> - -<p>When the responsibility for lighting the Scottish coasts -was handed over to the Commissioners for Northern Lighthouses, -one of their first tasks was the adequate illumination -of the wave-swept Inchcape or Bell Rock, which lies some -twelve miles off the Scottish mainland in the busy portal -of the Firth of Tay. At that time this sinister menace to -navigation was not marked in any way whatever, and -apparently had remained in this unprotected condition ever -since the notorious pirate, Ralph the Rover, cut away the -buoy-bell which had been placed upon it by the Abbot of -Aberbrothock, as narrated in Southey’s famous ballad.</p> - -<p>The rock, or rather reef—inasmuch as it measures -2,000 feet from end to end, and lies athwart the fairway—is -submerged completely to a depth of 16 feet at high spring-tides, -while at lowest water only some 4 feet of its crest -are laid bare here and there. This is not all. The ledge -is the summit of a dangerous, slowly-rising submarine -hillock, where, for a distance of about 100 yards on either -side, the lead sounds only 3 fathoms. Wrecks were so -numerous and terrible at this spot that the protection of the -seafaring community became imperative, and the newly-appointed -guardians of the Scottish coast lost no time in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">97</a></span> -justifying the trust reposed in them, but erected a first-class -light. The Eddystone had been conquered, and, although -the conditions were dissimilar and the enterprise bolder, no -tangible reason against its imitation was advanced.</p> - -<p>The engineer John Rennie was entrusted with the work, -while Robert Stevenson was appointed as his assistant. -The rock was surveyed, and a tower similar in its broad -lines to that evolved by Smeaton for the Eddystone was -elaborated, and the authority for its construction given in -the year 1806.</p> - -<p>Work upon the rock in the earliest stages was confined -to the calmest days of the summer season, when the tides -were lowest, the water was smoothest, and the wind in its -calmest mood. Under such conditions the men were able -to stay on the site for about five hours. The engineer hoped -against hope that the elements would be kind to him, and -that he would be able to complete the preliminary work -upon the rock in one season.</p> - -<p>The constructional plans were prepared carefully, so that -advantage might be taken of every promising opportunity. -One distinct drawback was the necessity to establish a -depot some distance from the erecting site. Those were the -days before steam navigation, and the capricious sailing -craft offered the only means of maintaining communication -between rock and shore, and for the conveyance of men -and material to and fro. The year 1807 was devoted to -the construction of vessels for the work, and to the establishment -of workshops with machinery and other facilities -at Arbroath, the nearest suitable point on the mainland to -the rock. A temporary beacon was placed on the reef, while -adjacent to the site selected for the tower a smith’s forge -was made fast, so as to withstand the dragging motion of -the waves when the rock was submerged. The men were -housed on the <i>Smeaton</i>, which during the spells of work on -the rock rode at anchor a short distance away in deep -water. The arrangements stipulated that three boats, -which were employed to bring the men from the vessel to -the rock, should always be moored at the landing-place,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">98</a></span> -so that, in the event of the weather changing for the worse, -the masons, forced to cease work suddenly, might regain -the <i>Smeaton</i> safely in one trip, the three boats being able to -convey thirty men, which constituted the average complement -on the rock.</p> - -<p>While the preparations were proceeding ashore, a little -body of workers toiled, whenever possible, at clearing the -face of the rock and carrying out the requisite excavation -work. While this was in progress a disaster was averted -very narrowly, which would have jeopardized the completion -of the tower, owing to the superstitious natures of the men -engaged. On September 2, 1807, the <i>Smeaton</i>, as usual, -had brought out some thirty masons, had landed them -safely on the rock, and was riding at anchor.</p> - -<p>Suddenly the wind freshened, and the engineer on the -rock grew apprehensive of the <i>Smeaton</i> dragging her cables. -A party at once put off from the rock in one of the three -boats and regained the ship, but were scarcely aboard when -the cables parted, and the vessel, caught by the wind and -tide, made off. Before the men regained control of her she -had drifted some three miles to leeward. Meantime on the -rock the situation was growing serious. Only Mr. Stevenson, -who was supervising operations on the spot, and the -landing-master were aware of its gravity. The masons -were so busy hewing, boring and chiselling, that they had -not noticed the <i>Smeaton’s</i> drift. But the engineer, observing -the flowing of the tide, realized that the rock must be submerged -before the ship could be brought up again. He -racked his brains to find some means of getting his gang -of men off safely in the nick of time, but it was a searching -problem to solve with only two boats, which, at the utmost, -could carry twenty-four persons. To make matters worse, -one of those mists which are so peculiar to the Scottish coast -began to settle down, blotting everything from sight.</p> - -<p>The water rose higher. The men toiling on the lowest -levels receded higher and higher before the advancing tide, -though still too deeply occupied in their labours to bestow -a thought upon the <i>Smeaton</i>. At last the smith’s forge was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">99</a></span> -quenched, and this was the general signal to the men to -prepare to leave the rock. Tools were collected, and the -party strode towards the landing-stage to enter the boats. -Conceive their consternation when they saw that one boat -was missing! When they glanced over the water the -<i>Smeaton</i> was not riding in her usual place—in fact, was -nowhere to be seen! One and all gathered around the -engineer to learn the reason for this remarkable breach in -the arrangements for their safety, and yet all were too dumbfounded -to question or protest. As for the luckless engineer, -he was at his wits’ end and could not offer a word of explanation -to the inquiring looks that besieged him. One and all, -as the water lapped their feet, realized the hopelessness of -the position. Suddenly, when they were beginning to -despair, one of the men described the phantom form of a -vessel making for the rock. “A boat!” he shouted in -exultation. Sure enough the shadow matured into the -familiar form of the Tay pilot-boat, the master of which, -observing the workmen on the rock, the rising tide, and the -absence of the <i>Smeaton</i>, had realized that something must -have gone wrong, and approached the rock to make inquiries. -He came up at the critical moment. The men -were drenched, and, their feelings having been strung to a -high pitch with anxiety, they nearly collapsed at the arrival -of this unexpected assistance. The pilot-boat, after taking -off the men, awaited the return of the <i>Smeaton</i>, which took -them on board about midnight.</p> - -<p>This narrow escape so terrified the men that on the following -day the engineer found only eight of his staff of -thirty-two, who were willing to venture upon the rock again. -When this gang returned in the evening, their safety appeared -to restore courage to their companions, so that next -day all expressed their readiness to resume their tasks.</p> - -<p>The fitful character of the work did not leave its mark so -distinctly as might be supposed. Whenever there was a -chance, the men worked with an amazing will and zeal; -and although the first stone of the tower was not laid until -July 10, 1808, three courses of masonry were completed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">100</a></span> -when the undertaking was suspended at the end of November -for the winter. The succeeding season’s toil saw the -addition of about 27 feet more of the tower, which was -finally completed by the close of 1810. The building was -120 feet in height, and the light was shown for the first time -on February 1, 1811.</p> - -<p>In view of the difficulties which had to be surmounted, -this “ruddy gem of changeful light,” as it is described by -Sir Walter Scott, was not particularly costly. By the time -it was brought into commission, £61,330, or $306,650, had -been expended. In 1902, after nearly a century’s service, -the tower was provided with a new light-room, so as to bring -it into conformity with modern practice.</p> - -<p>While the Bell Rock tower stands as a monument to the -engineering ability of Robert Stevenson, the Skerryvore, on -the western coast, is a striking tribute to the genius of his -son, Alan. For forty years or more previous to 1844 one -ship at least had been caught and shattered every year on -this tumbled mass of gneiss. From the navigator’s point -of view, the danger of this spot lay chiefly in the fact that -it was so widely scattered. The ridge runs like a broken -backbone for a distance of some eight miles in a west-south-westerly -direction, and it is flanked on each side by isolated -rocks which jut from a badly-broken sea-bed. The whole -mass lies some distance out to sea, being ten miles south-west -of Tyree and twenty-four miles west of Iona. In rough -weather the whole of the rocks are covered, and the waves, -beating heavily on the mass, convert the scene into one of -indescribable tumult.</p> - -<p>The Commissioners of Northern Lights acknowledged the -urgent need of a light upon this ridge, but it was realized -that its erection would represent the most daring feat of -lighthouse engineering that had been attempted up to this -time. There was only one point where a tower could be -placed, and this was so exposed that the safe handling of -the men and materials constituted a grave responsibility. -The rock has to withstand the full impetus of the Atlantic -waves, gathered in their 3,000 miles’ roll, and investigations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">101</a></span> -revealed the fact that they bear down upon the Skerryvore -with a force equal to some 3 tons per square foot. It -was apparent that any masonry tower must be of prodigious -strength to resist such a battering, while at the same -time a lofty stack was imperative, because the light not -only would have to mount guard over the rock upon which -it stood, but also over a vast stretch of dangerous water on -either side.</p> - -<p>After he had completed the Bell Rock light, Robert -Stevenson attacked the problem of the Skerryvore. In -order to realize the magnitude of the undertaking, some of -the Commissioners accompanied the engineer, but the experience -of pulling out into the open Atlantic on a day -when it was slightly ruffled somewhat shook their determination -to investigate the reef from close quarters. Sir -Walter Scott was a member of the party, and he has described -the journey very graphically. Before they had gone -far the Commissioners on board expressed their willingness -to leave the matter entirely in the hands of their engineer. -With grim Scottish humour, however, Robert Stevenson -insisted that the rock should be gained, so that the Commissioners -might be able to grasp the problem at first -hand.</p> - -<p>But after all nothing was done. The difficulties surrounding -the work were only too apparent to the officials. -They agreed that the expense must be prodigious and that -the risks to the workmen would be grave.</p> - -<p>In 1834 a second expedition was despatched to the reef -under Alan Stevenson, who had accompanied his father on -the previous occasion, and who now occupied the engineering -chair. He surveyed the reef thoroughly, traversing the -dangerous channels around the isolated humps, of which no -less than 130 were counted, at great risk to himself and his -companions. However, he achieved his object. He discovered -the best site for the tower and returned home to -prepare his plans.</p> - -<p>His proposals, for those days, certainly were startling. -He decided to follow generally the principles of design, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">102</a></span> -had been laid down by his father in regard to the Bell Rock. -But he planned something bigger and more daring. He -maintained that a tower 130 feet high, with a base diameter -of 42 feet, tapering in a curve to 16 feet at the top, was -absolutely necessary. It was the loftiest and weightiest -work of its character that had ever been contemplated up -to this time, while the peculiar situation of the reef demanded -pioneering work in all directions.</p> - -<div id="ip_102" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/i_p102a.jpg" width="400" height="453" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE SKERRYVORE, SCOTLAND’S MOST FAMOUS LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionl">The erection of this tower upon a straggling low-lying reef 24 miles off Iona, and exposed to the -full fury of the Atlantic, ranks as one of the world’s engineering wonders.</p></div></div> - -<p>The confidence of the Commissioners in the ability of their -engineer was so complete that he received the official -sanction to begin, and in 1838 the undertaking was commenced. -The engineer immediately formulated his plans -of campaign for a stiff struggle with Nature. One of the -greatest difficulties was the necessity to transport men, -supplies and material over a long distance, as the Scottish -coast in this vicinity is wild and sparsely populated. He -established his base on the neighbouring island of Tyree, -where barracks for the workmen, and yards for the preparation -of the material, were erected, while another colony was -established on the Isle of Mull for the quarrying of the -granite. A tiny pier or jetty had to be built at this point -to facilitate the shipment of the stone, and at Tyree a small -harbour had to be completed to receive the vessel which -was built specially for transportation purposes between the -base and the rock.</p> - -<p>Another preliminary was the provision of accommodation -for the masons upon the reef. The Atlantic swell, which -rendered landing on the ridge precarious and hazardous, did -not permit the men to be housed upon a floating home, as -had been the practice in the early days of the Bell Rock -tower. In order to permit the work to go forward as uninterruptedly -as the sea would permit, a peculiar barrack -was erected. It was a house on stilts, the legs being sunk -firmly into the rock, with the living-quarters perched some -40 feet up in the air. The skeleton type of structure was -selected because it did not impede the natural movement -of the waves. It was an ingenious idea, and fulfilled the -purpose of its designer admirably, while the men became<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">103</a></span> -accustomed to their strange home after a time. For two -years it withstood the seas without incident, and the engineer -and men came to regard the eyrie as safe as a house -on shore. But one night the little colony received a shock. -The angry Atlantic got one or two of its trip-hammer blows -well home, and smashed the structure to fragments. Fortunately, -at the time it was untenanted.</p> - -<p>The workmen, who were on shore waiting to go out to -the rock to resume their toil, were downcast at this unexpected -disaster, but the engineer was not at all ruffled. He -promptly sent to Glasgow for further material, and lost no -time in rebuilding the quaint barrack upon new and stronger -lines. This erection defied the waves successfully until its -demolition after the Skerryvore was finished.</p> - -<p>Residence in this tower was eerie. The men climbed the -ladder and entered a small room, which served the purposes -of kitchen, dining-room, and parlour. It was barely 12 feet -across—quarters somewhat cramped for thirty men. When -a storm was raging, the waves, as they combed over the rock, -shook the legs violently and scurried under the floor in -seething foam. Now and again a roller, rising higher than -its fellows, broke upon the rock and sent a mass of water -against the flooring to hammer at the door. Above the -living-room were the sleeping-quarters, high and dry, save -when a shower of spray fell upon the roof and walls like -heavy hail, and occasionally percolated the joints of the -woodwork. The men, however, were not perturbed. Sleeping, -even under such conditions, was far preferable to -doubtful rest in a bunk upon an attendant vessel, rolling -and pitching with the motion of the sea. They had had a -surfeit of such experience during the first season’s work, -while the barrack was under erection.</p> - -<div id="ip_103" class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;"> - <img src="images/i_p102b.jpg" width="403" height="274" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>BARRA HEAD LIGHTHOUSE, SCOTLAND.</p> - -<p class="captionl">The tower is 60 feet in height, but owing to its position on the cliffs, the white occulting light is -683 feet above high water, and is visible 33 miles.</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_103b" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/i_p102c.jpg" width="400" height="227" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission. -</p> - -<p>THE HOMES OF THE KEEPERS OF THE SKERRYVORE AND DHU-HEARTACH -LIGHTS.</p> - -<p class="captionc">On the Island of Tiree, Argyllshire, 10 miles away.</p></div></div> - -<p>Yet the men could not grumble. The engineer responsible -for the work shared their privations and discomforts, for -Alan Stevenson clung to the rock night and day while work -was in progress, and he has given a very vivid impression of -life in this quaint home on legs. He relates how he “spent -many a weary day and night—at those times when the sea<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">104</a></span> -prevented anyone going down to the rock—anxiously looking -for supplies from the shore, and earnestly looking for a -change of weather favourable for prosecuting the works. -For miles around nothing could be seen but white foaming -breakers, and nothing heard but howling winds and lashing -waves. At such seasons much of our time was spent in -bed, for there alone we had effectual shelter from the winds -and spray, which searched every cranny in the walls of the -barrack. Our slumbers, too, were at times fearfully interrupted -by the sudden pouring of the sea over the roof, the -rocking of the house on its pillars, and the spurting of water -through the seams of the doors and windows—symptoms -which, to one suddenly aroused from sound sleep, recalled -the appalling fate of the former barrack, which had been -engulfed in the foam not 20 yards from our dwelling, and -for a moment seemed to summon us to a similar fate.”</p> - -<p>The work upon the rock was tedious and exasperating in -the extreme. The gneiss was of maddening hardness and -obstinacy—“four times as tough as Aberdeen granite” was -the general opinion. The Atlantic, pounding the rock continuously -through the centuries, had faced it smoother than -could any mason with his tools, yet had not left it sufficiently -sound to receive the foundations. In the external -layer, which the masons laboured strenuously to remove -with their puny tools, there were cracks and crevices here -and there. The stubborn rock played havoc with the finest -chisels and drills, and clearing had to be effected for the -most part by the aid of gunpowder. This powerful agent, -however, could only be used sparingly and with extreme -skill, so that the rock-face might not be shivered or shattered -too severely. Moreover, the men ran extreme risks, -for the rock splintered like glass, and the flying chips were -capable of doing as much damage, when thus impelled, as -a bullet.</p> - -<p>While the foundations were being prepared, and until the -barrack was constructed, the men ran other terrible risks -every morning and night in landing upon and leaving the -polished surface of the reef. Five months during the summer<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">105</a></span> -was the working season, but even then many days and -weeks were often lost owing to the swell being too great to -permit the rowing-boat to come alongside. The engineer -relates that the work was “a good lesson in the school of -patience,” because the delays were frequent and galling, -while every storm which got up and expended its rage upon -the reef left its mark indelibly among the engineer’s stock-in-trade. -Cranes and other material were swept away as -if they were corks; lashings, no matter how strong, were -snapped like pack-threads. Time after time the tender -lying alongside had to weigh anchor hurriedly, and make a -spirited run to its haven at Tyree.</p> - -<p>When the barrack was erected, the situation was eased -somewhat, but then the hours became long. Operations -being confined to the summer months, the average working -day was from four in the morning until nine in the evening—seventeen -hours—with intervals for meals; but the men -were not averse to the prolonged daily toil, inasmuch as -cessation brought no welcome relaxations, but rather encouraged -broodings over their isolated position, whereas -occupation served to keep the mind engaged. Twice the -men had severe frights during the night. On each occasion -a violent storm sprang up after they had gone to bed, and -one or two ugly breakers, getting their blows home, shook -the eyrie with the force of an earthquake. Every man -leaped out of his bunk, and one or two of the more timid, in -their fright, hurried down the ladder and spent the remaining -spell of darkness shivering and quaking on the completed -trunk of the lighthouse, deeming it to be safer than -the crazy-looking structure which served as their home.</p> - -<p>Two years were occupied upon the foundations, the first -stone being laid by the Duke of Argyll on July 7, 1840. -This eminent personage evinced a deep interest in the work -and the difficulties which had to be overcome, and as proprietor -of the island of Tyree extended to the Commissioners -free permission to quarry any granite they required from -any part of his estate.</p> - -<p>For a height of some 21 feet from the foundation level the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">106</a></span> -tower is a solid trunk of masonry. Then come the entrance -and water-tanks, followed by nine floors, comprising successively -coal-store, workshop, storeroom, kitchen, two bedrooms, -library, oil-store, and light-room, the whole occupying -a height of 130 feet, crowned by the lantern. As a -specimen of lighthouse engineering, the Skerryvore has become -famous throughout the world. The stones forming -the solid courses at the bottom are attached to one another -so firmly and ingeniously as to secure the maximum of -strength and solidity, the result being that nothing short of -an earthquake could overthrow the stalk of masonry.</p> - -<p>The erection of the superstructure was by no means free -from danger and excitement. The working space both on -the tower itself and around the base was severely cramped. -The men at the latter point had to keep a vigilant eye upon -those working above, since, despite the most elaborate precautions, -falls of tools and other heavy bodies were by no -means infrequent. Notwithstanding its perilous character, -the undertaking was free from accident and fatality, and, -although the men were compelled by force of circumstances -to depend mostly upon salt foodstuffs, the little colony -suffered very slightly from the ravages of dysentery.</p> - -<p>Probably the worst experience was when the men on the -rock were weather-bound for seven weeks during one season. -The weather broke suddenly. Heavy seas and adverse winds -raged so furiously that the steamboat dared not put out of -its haven, but remained there with steam up, patiently -waiting for a lull in the storm, during which they might -succour the unfortunate men on the reef. The latter passed -a dreary, pitiable time. Their provisions sank to a very -low level, they ran short of fuel, their sodden clothing was -worn to rags, and, what was far worse from their point of -view, their tobacco became exhausted. The average working -man will tolerate extreme discomfort and privation so -long as the friendship of his pipe remains, but the denial of -this companion comes as the last straw.</p> - -<p>The lantern is of special design, and is one of the most -powerful around the Scottish coasts. It is of the revolving<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">107</a></span> -class, reaching its brightest state once every minute, and -may be seen from the deck of a vessel eighteen miles away. -Six years were occupied in the completion of the work, and, -as may be imagined, the final touches were welcomed with -thankfulness by all those who had been concerned in the -enterprise. The tower contains 4,308 tons of granite, and -the total cost was £86,977, or $434,885, rendering it one of -the costliest in the world. This sum, however, included the -purchase of the steam-vessel which now attends the lighthouse, -and the construction of the little harbour at Hynish.</p> - -<p>The lighthouse-keepers live on the island of Tyree, where -are provided substantial, spacious, single-floor, masonry -dwellings with gardens attached. This is practically a -small colony in itself, inasmuch as the accommodation includes, -not only that for the keepers of the Skerryvore, but -for the guardians of the Dhu-Heartach light as well.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">108</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE LONELY LIGHTS OF SCOTLAND</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Barren ruggedness, ragged reefs, and towering cliffs form -an apt description of the north and west coasts of Scotland, -and he is a prudent navigator who acknowledges the respect -which these shores demand, by giving them a wide berth. -The Norwegian coast is serrated, the island of Newfoundland -may be likened to the battered edge of a saw, -but Scotland is unique in its formation. The coastline is -torn and tattered by bays and firths, with scattered outlying -ramparts. The captain of a “tramp” who has sailed -the seven seas once confessed to me that no stretch of coastline -ever gave him the shivers so badly as the stretch of -shore between Duncansby Head and the Mull of Kintyre.</p> - -<p>Certainly a ship “going north about” is menaced every -mile of her way between these two points unless she takes -a very circuitous course. If the weather conditions are -favourable and daylight prevails, the North of Britain may -be rounded through the narrow strait washing the mainland -and the Orkney Islands, but the Pentland Firth is not an -attractive short-cut. The ships that run between Scandinavian -ports and North America naturally follow this route, -as it is several hundred miles shorter than that via the North -Sea and English Channel; but they keep a sharp eye on the -weather and are extremely cautious. When the Pentland -Firth is uninviting, they may either choose the path between -the Orkneys and the Shetlands, or, to eliminate every -element of risk, may stand well out to sea, and round the -most northern stretches of the Shetlands. These are lonely -seas, comparatively speaking, and yet are well lighted. -Although a wicked rock lies in the centre of the eastern -entrance to the Pentland channel, it is indicated by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">109</a></span> -Pentland Skerries light. When the mariner in his wisdom -pushes still farther north, he falls within the glare of the -rays thrown from the beacon near Muckle Flugga. This -is the northernmost point of the British Islands, and it is -truly forbidding. The rock lies three-quarters of a mile -off the Shetland Islands, and is a huge fang, sheering to a -height of 196 feet above high-water. On the side facing -north it rears up so abruptly that it appears to lean over, -while on the opposite side it is almost as steep.</p> - -<p>The majority of lighthouses have been called into existence -by the claims of commerce purely and simply. But -it was not so with the North Unst lighthouse, as the beacon -crowning this pinnacle is called. War was responsible for -its creation, though probably sooner or later the requirements -of peace would have brought about a similar result. -While the armies of France and Britain were fighting the -Russians in the Crimea, the British fleet was hovering about -these waters, watching the mouth of the Baltic, so as to -frustrate any attempts on the part of the Russian fleet to -dash around the northern coast of Scotland. In those days -these lonely seas were badly lighted, and the Admiralty -realized only too well the many perils to which the warships -were exposed while cruising about the pitiless coasts of -the Orkneys and Shetlands. Accordingly, the department -called upon the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses -to mark Muckle Flugga. Time was everything, and the -engineers were urged to bring a temporary light into operation -with the least delay.</p> - -<p>The engineers hurriedly evolved a tower which would -meet the Government needs. It was thought that the extreme -height of the rock would lend itself to the erection of -a building which, while possible of early completion, would -be adequate for subsequent purposes. The materials for -the light, together with a lantern, and a second building for -the storage of the oil and other requisites, were shipped -northward from Glasgow. Simultaneously the engineers, -with another small gang of men who had already reached -the rock, pushed on with the preliminary preparations, so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">110</a></span> -that when the constructional vessel arrived erection might -go ahead straightforwardly and rapidly.</p> - -<div id="ip_110" class="figcenter" style="width: 602px;"> - <img src="images/i_p110a.jpg" width="602" height="284" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE DHU-HEARTACH LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">To the left is the lower part of the temporary structure in which the builders lived while erection was in progress.</p></div></div> - -<p>The engineers tried the rock from all sides to find a safe -landing. This was no light matter, owing to the steepness -of the slope even upon the easiest face of the pinnacle. The -attempt represented a mild form of mountaineering, for the -sea had battered away the projection of the lower-lying -levels, and the men found it trying to effect a foothold, even -in stepping from the boat on to the rock. They had to -climb hand over hand up the precipice, with life-lines round -their waists, taking advantage of every narrow ledge. With -infinite labour they gained the summit, and then they found -that there was just sufficient space, and no more, upon which -to plant the lighthouse buildings.</p> - -<p>The top was cleared quickly, and then the advance party -set to work to improve the landing-place on the south side of -the rock for the reception of the building materials. A small -site was prepared with great difficulty, as the tough rock -offered a stern resistance to the chisels, drills, and wedges; -while in addition the men had to cut steps in the flank of -the rock to facilitate the ascent to the site.</p> - -<p>On September 14, 1854, the constructional vessel <i>Pharos</i> -hove in sight, and, the weather being favourable, the landing -of the material was hurried forward. The men had to -become pack-animals for the time, carrying the loads on -their backs. In this manner they tramped laboriously up -and down the cliff-face with material and stores of all descriptions. -The heavier and bulkier parts were hauled up by -rope and tackle, a few feet at a time, and this task was -quite as exacting. In all, 120 tons were conveyed to the -top of the crag. Construction was hastened just as feverishly, -and on October 11, 1854, twenty-six days after the -<i>Pharos</i> anchored off Muckle Flugga, the North Unst light -shone out for the first time. This is probably one of the -most brilliant exploits that has ever been consummated in -connection with lighthouse engineering, the merit of which -is additionally impressive from the fact that almost everything -had to be accomplished by manual effort.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">111</a></span> -While the light was admittedly of a temporary character, -the importance of the outpost had been appreciated, and -it was determined to erect a permanent light upon the rock -for the guidance of those who compass the North of Scotland -in order to pass from and to the North Atlantic. It -was decided to commence the permanent masonry building -the following year, and a gang of men volunteered to stay -behind on the rock throughout the winter to complete all -the essential preparations for the foundations. Accommodation -was available for this staff in a substantial iron shelter, -in which they made themselves comfortable for the winter.</p> - -<p>But it is during this season that the winds from the north, -lashing the sea to fury, create huge rollers which thunder -upon the base of the pinnacle to crawl up its perpendicular -face in the form of broken water and spray. The men -standing on the brink often watched these rollers, but never -for a moment thought that one would be able to leap to a -height of nearly 200 feet and sweep over the rock. The -December gales dispelled this illusion very convincingly. -One morning the workmen, while breakfasting in their warm -shelter, received a big surprise. A terrific blow struck the -door, which flew open as if hit by a cannon-ball. It was -followed instantly by a three-foot wall of water. The broken -wave rushed round the apartment, seething and foaming, -and then out again. The workmen were dumbfounded, but -had scarcely recovered from the shock when another roll of -water came crashing in and gave the apartment another -thorough flushing out. One of the Scottish workmen vouchsafed -the remark that the man responsible for cleaning the -floors that day would be spared his job, but he was silenced -when, a few seconds later, another angry sheet of water -dropped on the roof of the building and threatened to -smash it in.</p> - -<div id="ip_111" class="figcenter" style="width: 591px;"> - <img src="images/i_p110b.jpg" width="591" height="348" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE NORTH UNST, BRITAIN’S MOST NORTHERLY LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The tower is perched on the top of a precipitous crag, the light being 260 feet above the sea. Despite this height, the waves often dash over the lantern.</p></div></div> - -<p>The closing month of that year was particularly boisterous. -Time after time when the sea rose, the lighthouse -tower was drenched in water. One might think it impossible -that a wave could get up sufficient impetus to -mount a height of 200 feet; but this experience offered conclusive<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">112</a></span> -testimony to the contrary and to the immense power -of the waves when they have an uninterrupted run over -several hundred miles of open ocean.</p> - -<p>In a way, the terrifying experience of these marooned -workmen was invaluable. They reported the bare facts to -the engineers upon the first opportunity, and this intelligence -brought about a revision in the designs for the permanent -masonry structure.</p> - -<p>The present North Unst lighthouse is a massive masonry -building, standing in the centre of the small flat space on the -top of the pinnacle, with heavy masonry walls bounding it -on all sides. The tower is 64 feet in height, while the red -and white light may be seen from a distance of twenty-one -miles in clear weather. That the winter storms of 1854 -were by no means exceptional has been proved up to the -hilt on several occasions since. When the nor’-wester is -roused thoroughly, the breaking waves curl up the cliff and -rush over the lantern. Such a climb of 260 feet conveys a -compelling notion of the force of the sea. The weight of the -water thrown into the air has threatened to overthrow the -massive boundary walls, while now and again the invader -leaves tangible evidences of its power by smashing the -windows of the lantern. Upon one occasion it burst open -the heavy door, which weighs the best part of a ton.</p> - -<p>The light-station is served by four keepers, two on duty -simultaneously, their homes being on the island of Unst, -four miles away. For the conveyance of water, fuel, provisions, -and other requirements, from the landing-stage to -the lighthouse 200 feet above, an inclined railway has been -provided on the easier slope, so that the men are no longer -called upon to pack their provisions, like mules, from the -water-level up a steep cliff, as was formerly required.</p> - -<p>Rounding these island dangers, the navigator picks up -the light of Cape Wrath, glimmering from a height of -370 feet above the water-level and standing at the western -corner of the rectangular head of the Scottish mainland. -Going south, he has two passages available—the inner, -which extends through the Minches and inside the Hebrides;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">113</a></span> -or the outer, which lies beyond the latter rampart. In -making the outer passage he comes within range of the -light shining from the summit of a lonely group of rocks -standing some twenty-two miles out to sea off the Isle of -Lewis. These are the Flannen Islands, or Seven Hunters, -one of many similar lonely Scottish stations. The tower is -mounted upon the crown of one of the highest points, and -the white group-flashing light is visible over a radius of -twenty-four miles. Farther south the seafarer picks up -and drops the Monach Islands light, likewise lying out in -the Atlantic, some ten miles from the nearest land. Finally, -rounding Barra Head, the most southerly point of the reef -lying off Barra Island, the light from which is cast 580 feet -above the water owing to the height of the cliff, the vessel -slips into a huge indentation, where isolated rocks peep -above the Atlantic, one of the most dangerous of which is -indicated by the Skerryvore lighthouse.</p> - -<p>I have described the Skerryvore light in the previous -chapter; but nineteen and a half miles to the south-east of -the latter is another reef, just as exposed, which is as perilous -in every respect. Indeed, it may be said to constitute a -greater menace to the navigation of these waters, since it lies -in the cross-roads of the entrance to the Irish Channel, the -Firth of the Clyde, and the Minches. A powerful light -mounts guard on the Rhins of Islay, twenty-seven miles -due south, but between the latter and Skerryvore there are -forty-three miles of coast, as dangerous as the mariner could -wish to avoid, with this rock looming up almost halfway.</p> - -<p>This peril is the Dhu-Heartach, lying out to sea in deep -water, fourteen miles from the nearest point of the mainland. -The physical configuration of the sea-bed at this point is -somewhat similar to that prevailing at Skerryvore. The -Ross of Mull tumbles abruptly into the Atlantic, to reappear -out to sea in the form of the Torrin Rocks, which run for a -distance of four and a half miles in the direction of Dhu-Heartach. -Then the reef comes to a sudden stop, to be -seen once more, nine miles farther out, in the rounded hump -of Dhu-Heartach, this being practically the outermost point<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">114</a></span> -of the ridge. Being so isolated and projecting so suddenly -from deep water, this ledge claimed many victims among -the vessels frequenting these unlighted waters. The Commissioners -of Northern Lighthouses were assailed for not -marking the danger spot in some form or other. The -authorities, however, were fully alive to the need of such -protection, but it was not until 1867 that they were able to -proceed with the erection of a lighthouse.</p> - -<p>The situation is peculiar, and the engineers, Messrs. D. -and T. Stevenson, were faced with a somewhat perplexing -problem recalling those which had arisen in conjunction -with the Skerryvore, not far distant. Indeed, the Dhu-Heartach -undertaking might very well be described as a -repetition of those struggles, with a few more difficulties of -a different character thrown in. The rock itself in reality -is a series of islets, or hummocks, surrounding the main -hump, which is 240 feet in length by 130 feet in breadth, -the highest point of the rounded top being 35 feet above -high-water at ordinary spring-tides. On all sides the lead -marks very deep water, the result being that in times of -storm and tempest the rollers of the Atlantic, having a -“fetch” of some 3,000 miles or more, thunder upon it with -terrific force, the broken water leaping high into the air. -It is very seldom that the rock can be approached even in a -small boat and with a calm sea, as the hump is invariably -encircled in a scarf of ugly surf. The swell strikes the -western face of the rock, is divided, flows round the northern -and southern ends of the obstruction, and reunites on the -eastern side. Consequently the rock is nearly always a -centre of disturbance.</p> - -<p>The distance of the rock from the mainland complicated -the issue very materially. A suitable site had to be prepared -on shore as a base, where the stones could be prepared for -shipment, while a special steam-tender was necessary to run -to and fro. The handling of the workmen had to be carried -out upon the lines which were adopted at Skerryvore—namely, -the erection of a barrack upon a skeleton framework -on the rock, where the men might be left safely for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">115</a></span> -days or weeks at a time. The shore station selected was at -Earraid, on the neighbouring island of Mull, because it was -the nearest strategical point to the work, and because ample -supplies of first-class granite were available in the immediate -vicinity, the proprietor, the Duke of Argyll, as in the -previous instance, facilitating the work as far as possible.</p> - -<p>The authority to commence operations was given on -March 11, 1867, and this year was devoted to completing -preparations, so that in the following season work might be -started in earnest and carried on throughout the summer -at high pressure. The first task was the erection of the -barrack on the rock. The workmen got ashore for the first -time on June 25, 1867, and, although landing at all times -was trying and perilous, attempts often having to be abandoned -owing to the swell, the engineer succeeded in landing -twenty-seven times up to September 3, when work had to -be suspended until the following year. Despite the shortness -of the season, the men made appreciable headway. -The iron framework of the barrack was completed to the -first tier, while a good beginning was made upon the rock-face -in connection with the foundations for the lighthouse. -When the autumnal gales approached, everything in connection -with the barrack was left secure, the builders being -anxious to ascertain how it would weather the winter gales -and the force and weight of the waves which bore down -upon it.</p> - -<p>The engineers finally decided upon a tower 107½ feet in -height. After trying various curves for the outline, they -came to the decision that a parabolic frustum would afford -the most serviceable design, as well as providing the maximum -of strength. A diameter of 36 feet was chosen for the -base, tapering gradually and gracefully to one of 16 feet at -the top, with the entrance 32 feet above the base, to which -point the cone was to be solid.</p> - -<p>The arrangements were that work should be resumed in -the early spring of 1868, so as to secure full advantage of the -favourable easterly winds. Accordingly, when the special -steam-tender arrived on April 14, she was loaded up with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">116</a></span> -necessaries and men, ready to proceed to the site directly -the wind should veer round to the desired point of the -compass. But with aggravating persistency it clung to the -west and south-west until the end of June, so that many -valuable weeks were unfortunately lost. Time after time, -when there was a lull in the weather, the steamer put out -from Earraid, the engineers determined to make a dash for -the rock, and as many times they were foiled, as the men -could not be got through the surf. One day, however, an -hour and a half was snatched on the rock, and, although -no work could be done in that time, yet the interval was -sufficient to enable the engineers to take a look round and to -see how their handiwork had withstood the heavy gales of -the previous winter. There was only one marked evidence -of the Atlantic’s wrath. One section of the iron ring connecting -the heads of the legs of the barrack at a height of -30 feet had been carried away.</p> - -<div id="ip_116" class="figcenter" style="width: 404px;"> - <img src="images/i_p116a.jpg" width="404" height="273" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE NORTH UNST LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The first light was built in twenty-six days during the Crimean War at the British Government’s -urgent request.</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_116b" class="figcenter" style="width: 405px;"> - <img src="images/i_p116b.jpg" width="405" height="297" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>LANDING WATER AT THE NORTH UNST.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Showing tramway connecting with tower, 200 feet above.</p></div></div> - -<p>On June 29 the wind moderated sufficiently to enable the -men to be landed, but the climatic conditions remained -adverse. The wind refused to swing round to the east; a -westerly swell was the luck day after day. The engineers -had to dodge the ocean as best they could, and some idea of -the handicap under which they laboured may be gathered -from the fact that only four landings were made during the -sixty-one days of May and June. July enabled the greatest -number of landings to be effected—thirteen; while during -August and September the men only gained the rock on -twenty-one occasions, making a total of thirty-eight landings -in the course of 153 days.</p> - -<p>During this interrupted season, however, the barrack was -completed. It was a massive structure, and resembled a -huge iron barrel secured endwise upon an intricate arrangement -of stilts which were heavily stayed and tied together -by diagonals and cross-members. In the two previous -instances where a similar arrangement had been adopted -the temporary dwelling had been wrought in wood, but on -this occasion the engineers decided to adopt iron, as they -concluded that a wooden structure would not fare well<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">117</a></span> -against the heavy seas. This was a fortunate decision, -because, as subsequent experience proved, a wooden barrack -would have received very short shrift from the Atlantic -breakers; in fact, probably it would have gone down with -the first sou’-wester. The iron barrack, as the workmen -narrated, was pounded and battered by the waves most -unmercifully; but although it suffered at times, quivering -and shaking under the terrific impacts, it weathered all the -onslaughts.</p> - -<p>One interesting incident serves to illustrate the perils to -which the workmen were exposed. A date had been set -down when all the men were to be brought off the rock for -the season, as the approach of the equinox rendered further -toil extremely doubtful, and there was no intention of unduly -imperilling them. The engineer’s resident representative, -Mr. Alexander Brebner, went out to the rock on August 20, -the day fixed for the suspension of operations, to inspect the -progress that had been made and to have a last look round. -At the time of his arrival the weather was beautifully calm, -and held out every promise of remaining settled for several -days. As the season had been so adverse, he decided, on -his own responsibility, to delay the cessation of toil, so, with -the thirteen men, he remained on the rock, determined to -make up leeway somewhat while the weather held out.</p> - -<div id="ip_117" class="figcenter" style="width: 557px;"> - <img src="images/i_p116c.jpg" width="557" height="374" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE FLANNEN ISLANDS LIGHT STATION.</p> - -<p class="captionc">One of Scotland’s lonely beacons. It marks a group of islets 15 miles off the Hebrides. In 1900 the three keepers mysteriously -disappeared, and their fate remains unsolved to this day.</p></div></div> - -<p>But the resident paid the penalty for his disobedience. -The little party retired that night with the stars shining -brilliantly overhead from a cloudless sky, and with the sea -like a mirror. In the middle of the night one and all were -roused suddenly from their slumbers. The wind was roaring, -and the breakers were hammering upon the rock, while the -foam and surf rushed violently between the legs of the -barracks. When the men looked out they were confronted -with a terrifying spectacle. The night was black as pitch, -but the sea white as a snow-covered plain, from the crests -of the rollers and the surf playing on and around the rocks. -A furious gale had sprung up with the characteristic suddenness -of the Atlantic, and was already raging. The next -morning no one dared to venture outside the iron home,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">118</a></span> -while the gale, instead of abating, appeared to be increasing in -fury. For five days the men were held fast, and at times their -fears got the better of them. This was particularly the case -when, now and again, a more than ugly wave got up, rolled -over the rock, and crashed with full force against the barrack. -The building shook and trembled fearfully, but its legs -were driven too deeply into the rock for it to be overturned, -while the cross-bracing was too intricate for the legs to be -snapped off. Again and again the men were plunged into -darkness, as a wall of water rushed right over the drum, -notwithstanding that the roof was 77 feet above high-water.</p> - -<p>Their fears rose almost to frenzy when a breaker, leaping -the rock, drove full tilt against the floor of the barrack. In -this upward rush of 55 feet the building suffered. The men’s -entrance to the home was by means of a heavy hatch, or -trapdoor, which was bolted securely upon the inside. -This particular comber burst in the hatch as if it were no -thicker than the wood of a matchbox, flooding the whole -compartment.</p> - -<p>Meantime the engineer-in-chief at Edinburgh had heard -of the incident. He had given strict instructions that the -men should be brought off on August 20, and when the intelligence -was communicated to him that his order had been -disobeyed, and that his men were in serious straits, he -became distracted. He knew only too well how the waves -bombard Dhu-Heartach. Mr. David Stevenson related to me -how his father paced the offices during the day, and his own -home at night, unable to drown his thoughts in work or sleep. -His worry was intensified as the true character of the gale -came to his ears. He had planned everything with such -care that neither life nor limb of a single workman need be -jeopardized, and here he was confronted with the possibility -of losing fourteen men at one stroke! The iron -barrack, although staunchly constructed, was just as likely -as not to succumb to the full brunt of a very vicious sou’-wester, -so there was every excuse for his anxiety. He gave -orders that the steam-tender was to stand by with steam -raised, so as to make a dash for the rock upon the first opportunity.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">119</a></span> -No one had a moment’s peace until at last the -news came through that the steam-tender had been out to -the rock, and with much difficulty had got hold of the fourteen -men and brought them ashore, somewhat scared and -bearing evidences of their experience, but unharmed. Mr. -Stevenson told me that he could not quite say which was -worse—the distracted wanderings of his father, or the expression -of his pent-up feelings when he met the unfortunate -resident a few days later, who was taken severely to task -for his flagrant breach of orders, whereby the lives of the -workmen had been imperilled so unnecessarily.</p> - -<p>The year 1869 was kinder to the engineers, and great -headway was made. The men were able to make their -first landing on the rock as early as March 25, and it was -accessible up to October 29, when all forces withdrew from -the scene for the winter. During this period sixty landings -were effected, while heavy supplies of masonry and other -materials were shipped to the site. The masons took up -their permanent residence in the barrack on April 26, and -did not leave it until September 3, while they were able to -squeeze in 113 days of toil, with a welcome rest from their -labours on Sundays. The excavations for the foundations -were completed speedily, and on June 24 the erection of the -tower was commenced. The stones were brought ready -for setting in position, and were laid so rapidly that by the -end of the month two courses were completed and the third -had been well advanced. Then came a temporary setback. -A blusterous summer gale sprang up, and the sea, after -assaulting the rock for two days, succeeded in leaving its -mark. The crane and other tackle at the landing-stage -were washed away, while fourteen stones laid in the third -course were uprooted, of which eleven were seen no more. -The water in this case had to leap upwards for 35½ feet, -while the stones which it carried away weighed 2 tons -apiece, and were firmly joggled, so that the wrench which -displaced them must have been terrific indeed.</p> - -<p>If a summer gale could wreak such damage, what was the -dreaded equinox likely to achieve? The engineers were so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">120</a></span> -much impressed that they thereupon made assurance doubly -sure by effecting a modification of the original plans. When -the work was commenced, it was intended to take the solid -part of the tower up to a height of 52 feet 10 inches above -high-water. The effects of this summer gale induced them -to continue the solid section a further 11½ feet, so that the -entrance level is 64 feet 4 inches above high-water mark. -The result is that the solid base of the Dhu-Heartach tower -weighs no less than 1,840 tons—more than one-half the total -weight of the structure—and is executed throughout in -massive blocks of grey granite.</p> - -<p>The tower contains six floors above the entrance hall, -these, on ascending the spiral staircase, being as follows: -oil-store, kitchen, provision-store, bedroom, dry-room, and -light-room. The masonry part of the work was completed -by the end of the season of 1871, and the first-order dioptric, -fixed, white light was exhibited on November 1, 1872. The -focal plane, being 145 feet above the water-level, has a range -of eighteen nautical miles. The total cost of the work was -£76,084, or $380,420, of which sum the shore station was -responsible for £10,300, or $51,500.</p> - -<p>The ocean made an attempt to defeat the workmanship -and skill of the engineers in the very winter following the -opening of the lighthouse. On the lee side of the tower -there is a copper lightning-conductor, 1 inch thick by 1½ -inches wide, which is let into a channel cut in the stonework, -so that it comes flush with the face of the building. -This conductor is fixed at intervals of 5 feet in a substantial -manner. The winter storms of 1872 tore some 10 feet out -of this channel near the base of the structure, and wrenched -the screws from their sockets; while at the kitchen window -level, which is 92 feet above high-water, the rod was similarly -disturbed for some distance. It will be seen that the -waves which assail Dhu-Heartach are by no means to be -despised.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">121</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE FASTNET, THE OUTPOST OF EUROPE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Four and a half miles out to sea, separated from Cape -Clear, the most south-westerly point of Ireland, by a -treacherous channel, rises the jagged, formidable shape of -the Fastnet. To mariners the rock, with its brilliant -shaft of light by night, has developed into more than a -mere beacon. It is the first and last light of the Old World -on the eastward and westward passages across the Atlantic. -All passing vessels are “spoken” from this point to London, -New York, and elsewhere.</p> - -<p>It was in the early fifties of the past century that the -engineer conceived the idea of planting a light upon this -lonely crag. Maritime interests had agitated for a beacon -for many years previously, since, although a warning gleam -was thrown from the station on Cape Clear, this ray often -was invisible, or partially obscured, owing to the wreaths -of cloud and mist which draped the summit of the headland. -The builder was Mr. George Halpin, engineer to the Port -of Dublin Corporation, which was responsible at that time -for the illumination of the shores of Ireland.</p> - -<p>His task was not to be despised. The Fastnet itself is -merely a pinnacle, rising precipitously to a height of about -100 feet above low-water, but it is the centre of many -dangers. It is flanked on all sides by needle-points and -ridges; the currents run strongly, and the tides are wicked, -rendering approach uncertain even in the smoothest weather.</p> - -<p>The indefatigable engineer attacked his task boldly. He -chose the highest point of the rock as the site for his tower, -which was a cast-iron cylindrical building, 91 feet in height. -The lantern was equipped with a revolving apparatus -which threw a flash of 38,000 candle-power for fifteen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">122</a></span> -seconds once every two minutes from an elevation of 148 feet, -rotation being obtained through a belt and a weight-driven -clock. Its erection was a tedious undertaking; although -a start was made in 1848, it was not until January 1, 1854, -that the light first cast its welcome rays over the wastes of -the Atlantic, by which time £20,000, or $100,000, had been -spent upon the undertaking.</p> - -<div id="ip_122" class="figcenter" style="width: 516px;"> - <img src="images/i_p122a.jpg" width="516" height="378" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>From the “Scientific American.”</i> -</p> - -<p>BUILDING THE FASTNET ROCK LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Looking down from the top of the rock upon the men setting one of the solid masonry courses.</p></div></div> - -<p>For ten years Halpin’s work successfully defied the -elements, although at times the keepers grew somewhat -apprehensive concerning its stability. Time after time, -during heavy gales, it seemed as if it must succumb to the -storm. The waves curled up the cliff and struck the tower -with staggering force, causing it to tremble like a leaf. On -one occasion a cup of coffee standing upon the table was -thrown to the floor. While the shaft defied the most severe -poundings, the cliff itself gave way, and large masses of rock -on which the tower stood were carried away. One huge -chunk, weighing some 3 tons, was detached, and, as it -slipped down, was picked up by the next incoming wave, -to be hurled with terrific force against the tower, but without -inflicting any marked damage. On another occasion a -cask containing 60 gallons of fresh water, which the keepers -had made fast to the railing of the gallery surrounding the -lantern, 133 feet above the water, was wrenched free by a -wave which dashed over the rock, and was swept away as if -it were an empty tin. The keepers’ anxiety under these -circumstances may be understood.</p> - -<p>At last, in April, 1865, the consulting engineer to the -Corporation visited the lighthouse in company with Mr. -George Stevenson, the famous Scottish lighthouse builder, -to examine the rock thoroughly. The latter suggested -certain recommendations to insure the stability of the tower; -but when the sanction of the Brethren of Trinity House was -sought, they deferred a decision until their own engineer -had visited the works, although they appreciated Mr. -Stevenson’s advice.</p> - -<p>Some of the recommendations advanced by Mr. Stevenson -were followed subsequently, and this reluctant recognition<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">123</a></span> -of his knowledge brought its reward. The authorities—now -the Commissioners of Irish Lights—had a fright in -1881. The storms of that winter were among the heaviest -that have ever assailed the British Islands. The Calf Rock -light, which was a similar tower to the Fastnet, and which -had been strengthened upon identical lines, came to grief. -The tower was broken off at the point where the reinforcement -ceased. This disaster naturally aroused many misgivings -concerning the luck of the Fastnet. Had it shared -a similar fate during the same gale? To their intense -relief, the Commissioners found that it had issued from the -conflict with no more injuries than a few broken panes of -glass.</p> - -<p>The tower withstood the attacks of wind and wave successfully -until 1891, when the Commissioners came to the -conclusion that it was time the Fastnet light was improved, -to meet the requirements of the busier mercantile traffic -passing the point. Accordingly, Mr. William Douglass, -the engineer to the Commissioners, recommended a new -tower, fitted with the latest form of illumination, so as to -bring it into line with the other leading lights of the world. -He advocated a tower of masonry with the focal plane -at an elevation of 159 feet; the shaft, 147 feet high, springing -from a position 6 inches below high-water, with a -diameter at the base of 42 feet. The cost of the light was -estimated at £70,000 or $350,000.</p> - -<p>One cannot help admiring the daring of the engineer, -since he declined to be assisted by the rock summit in his -purpose. Instead he preferred the ledge of a chasm on the -hardest part of the rock below high-tide, and directly -exposed to the full force of the sea. He maintained that -such a tower, planted on this shelf, would receive the force -of the heaviest seas before they rose to their full height; -also by building the base of the tower in the form of steps, -as in the case of a breakwater, an excellent buffer would be -offered to the rollers.</p> - -<div id="ip_123" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p122b.jpg" width="257" height="351" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>BUILDING THE FASTNET TOWER.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Showing derrick for setting the stones into position.</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_123b" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p122c.jpg" width="256" height="351" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>The “Scientific American.”</i> -</p> - -<p>ERECTING THE FASTNET LANTERN.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This illustration gives a striking idea of its height.</p></div></div> - -<p>The new design came at an opportune moment. Another -inspection of the existing tower by Mr. C. W. Scott, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">124</a></span> -present engineer-in-chief to the Commissioners, revealed a -parlous state of affairs. Halpin’s building was on the verge -of collapse. Many of the plates in the upper stories had -worked loose under the poundings inflicted by the seas, and -in many instances the bolts holding the fabric together -were sheared. Repairs had to be made hastily to enable -the old tower to hold out until the new lighthouse was -erected.</p> - -<p>Before the work was commenced, the designer, as a -result of further investigation, decided to increase the -diameter of his tower to 52 feet at the base. The lowest -courses did not comprise complete rings of masonry, but -were anchored at the points where the circle was broken -into the face of the cliff, so as to form an integral part -thereof, as it were. The depth of this partial ringwork is -26 feet, at which level the first complete ring of masonry -was laid. Thenceforward the tower is solid throughout its -thickness for a further height of 30 feet, except for a central -circular space forming the water-tank, which holds 3,250 -gallons of water. From this point the masonry structure -rises gracefully to a height of 88<span class="fraction"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> feet to the lantern gallery. -The lighthouse is divided into eight floors, affording living-rooms -for the keepers, storerooms for oil, fog-signals, -provisions, coal, etc.</p> - -<p>The lighthouse, the landing-stage, and other appurtenances, -are executed in Cornish granite throughout. The -blocks were fashioned from picked stone of fine, close, hard -grain, and ranged up to 4 and 5 tons in weight. The method -of construction followed the approved lines of to-day, in -which each stone is dovetailed into its neighbour, above, -below, and on either side. As the stones were cut and -fitted in the Cornish quarries, they were set up and fitted -course by course. Then, when they had met the approbation -of the engineer deputed for this duty, they were numbered -and given other identification marks, so that upon -reaching the base at Rock Island, upon the Irish mainland, -within easy reach of the Fastnet, they could be despatched -in rotation to the site, to be set in position.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125">125</a></span> -It was in August, 1896, that the first little squad of -labourers landed on the Fastnet, under the superintendence -of James Kavanagh, a first-class all-round mason—one of -those men who occupy a unique position when emergency -calls. He was just the type of foreman that the task -demanded, careful, daring, a hard worker, zealous, dauntless. -Once he had landed on the rock to prepare the foundations, -he seldom left it; and, what is more, every stone constituting -the tower was well and truly laid by his own hand. It was -indeed unfortunate that Kavanagh, after his momentous -round of toil was over, should be stricken down with -apoplexy, to which he succumbed, after virtually years of -imprisonment upon an ill-famed rock, facing discomforts -and privations of all descriptions, and seizing every opportunity -to drive the task forward. It was as if Nature, -baffled in her efforts to circumvent the work of human -ingenuity, had taken revenge upon the man who had -laboured mightily to complete her subjection.</p> - -<p>Kavanagh took with him upon the rock a small boiler -and steam-winch, which he set up without delay, to land -both workmen and necessaries. He lost no time in cutting -away at the toe of the cliff, to admit the first partial ring -of stones. It was a ding-dong battle between the masons -and the sea for the first few rounds. The men toiled -heroically with their chisels between the coming of the -rollers, with one eye on the water and the other on a handy -life-line, which they grabbed when the Atlantic endeavoured -to steal a march upon them. On some days splendid progress -was made; on others the masons never drove the -chisels once into the rock-face.</p> - -<p>Landing was an exciting experience in itself. The tender, -naturally, could not draw right in, owing to the swell and -other dangers. She stood off a little way, and there -anchored. When men were coming to or going from the -rock, the rope was run out from the derrick. To this was -attached a kind of double stirrup, not unlike a child’s -swing. The men took up their position, two at a time, on -these stirrups, standing face to face. At the command,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126">126</a></span> -“Lower away!” or “Heave ho!” the derrick winch commenced -to grunt and rattle, and the men were whisked -into mid-air, clutching tightly to their frail, cramped hold, -and steadied in their aerial journey by another rope extending -to the rowing-boat below. It was an exciting trip -while it lasted, and at first glimpse appeared to be dangerous, -so much so that on one or two occasions the courage of raw -hands broke down at the last moment, and they hesitated -to trust themselves to such a flimsy-looking vehicle.</p> - -<p>Bringing the stones ashore was even more difficult. It -was imperative that the edges and corners of the blocks -should be protected from blows which might chip and scar -them, thereby impairing their true fit, and possibly allowing -the sea to get a purchase in its efforts to destroy. Accordingly, -the blocks were packed in skeleton crates, with substantial -wooden battens completely protecting the vital -parts. It was impossible to swing them singly direct -through the air from steamer to rock, and it was inadvisable -to transfer them first to a rowing-boat; so an ingenious -alternative method was perfected. The tender was -brought as near the rock as possible, and the derrick boom -was swung out, so that a hook carried at the end of the rope -could be attached to the stone, which rested on rollers upon -the tender’s deck leading to an open doorway in the taffrail. -When the rope was secured, the word was given to -haul in the derrick rope slowly and gently. This brought the -stone gradually to the vessel’s side, when it was permitted -to fall into the water where it could suffer no injury. The -derrick rope meanwhile was wound in, and the stone, still -submerged, at last brought to rest against the side of the -tower.</p> - -<p>A vertical series of wooden battens had been attached to -the outside of the building, so as to form a slide up which -the blocks could be hauled to the required level. Of course, -as the tower increased in height, the latter part of the operation -had to be varied, owing to the concave curve of the -structure. Then the stone had to complete its final stage -through the air, being steadied in its ascent by a rope held<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127">127</a></span> -below to prevent it swinging and coming to grief against the -completed part of the shaft. In this manner 2,074 stones, -representing a dead-weight of 4,633 tons, were landed and -set in position.</p> - -<p>Work was painfully slow and tedious at times, owing to -adverse weather. Although the men on the rock were condemned -inevitably to periods of idleness, they were made -as comfortable as conditions would permit, so as to remove -any longing on their part to return to the mainland for a -change. This was a necessary precaution. Although the -men might leave the rock in perfectly calm weather, the -Atlantic is so fickle that an interval of two or three hours -was quite sufficient to permit the wind to freshen, and the -swell to grow restive, to such a degree as to render a return -to the rock impossible for several days. Owing to the -cramped nature of the quarters on the rock, elaborate care -had to be exercised to protect the men from the ravages -of disease. The toilers had to board themselves, and the -authorities demanded that each man should maintain a -fortnight’s reserve supply of provisions upon the rock to -tide him over a spell of bad weather. This rule was enforced -very rigidly, any infringement of it being attended with -instant dismissal. For emergency purposes the Commissioners -maintained a small stock of salt beef, pork, tinned -meats, tea, sugar, milk, biscuits, and so forth, on the rock, -from which the men could replenish their larders. The -foreman acted as a kind of medical officer of health, as well -as fulfilling his other duties. He was supplied with a ship’s -medicine-chest, plenty of bandages, liniment, and antiseptics, -in case of accident. At five o’clock every morning -the men were compelled to tumble out of their bunks, to -indulge in a thorough wash, to turn their bedding into the -air when the weather was agreeable, and to wash out their -quarters. The strictest supervision was maintained over -matters pertaining to sanitation, and, thanks to these -elaborate precautions, cases of sickness were very few.</p> - -<p>Extreme care was observed in the building operations, -so that no workman might be exposed to any unnecessary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128">128</a></span> -risks, although the task at times bristled with unavoidable -perils. As a matter of fact, the whole enterprise was -attended by only three accidents on the rock. One man -was cutting a tram-rail, when a piece of steel flew into one -eye, completely blinding it. Another suffered a similar -calamity from a chip of stone while quarrying. The third -man met misfortune while at work at the windlass of the -derrick. As a breaker rolled in, his companion dropped his -handle, with the result that the other workman was knocked -down and had one leg broken. There was a true Hibernian -flavour about this last-named accident, in keeping with the -setting in which it occurred. The man was incapacitated -for some months, and then brought an action for compensation, -claiming that he had been rendered unfit for any -further manual labour. The sympathetic court solaced -him with an award of £350, or $1,750. The amazement and -disgust of the engineer may be imagined when, three months -after the action, he suddenly espied the supposedly totally -incapacitated workman assisting in the transference of coal -from a barge to the tender!</p> - -<div id="ip_128" class="figcenter" style="width: 404px;"> - <img src="images/i_p128a.jpg" width="404" height="590" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of the “Scientific American.”</i> -</p> - -<p>THE FASTNET, THE OUTPOST OF EUROPE.</p> - -<p class="captionl">On the top of the rock is the first light, opened in 1854. At the side is the present noble tower, -completed in 1906. The flashing beam of 750,000 candle-power has a range of 20 miles.</p></div></div> - -<p>As the tower grew above the existing building, which it -was to exceed in height, it obscured the light thrown from -the latter in a certain direction. At this juncture, accordingly, -a temporary scaffolding was erected upon the summit -of the new shaft, on which were rigged two ordinary lightship -lights, and these were kept going until the new lantern -was completed. The last stone was set on June 3, 1903, -after some four years’ labour.</p> - -<p>During the winter everything was brought virtually to a -standstill, owing to the succession of gales, but the men on -the rock never missed an opportunity to advance the undertaking. -Kavanagh, the foreman, absolutely refused to go -ashore so long as any work could be completed. Often he -remained on the Fastnet the whole year round, and never -was away for more than two months in the year, when -work was impossible. Other workmen, when they had -lived down the first feelings of loneliness, became imbued -with the same spirit, and appeared loth to forsake the scene<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129">129</a></span> -of their labours even for a day or two. When the men -settled down to their toil, it was very seldom that a wish -was expressed to be taken ashore more than once in three -months.</p> - -<p>The lantern was undertaken directly the stonework was -completed. The landing of this apparatus was an exciting -task, for, the season being advanced, it was decided to -run unusual risks, lest the rock should become unapproachable. -It was accomplished successfully, and the various -parts were stored on the rock in what was considered a safe -place. The weather looked fine and gave no signs of -breaking; yet two hours after all had been inspected and -secured for the night a terrific gale sprang up, and the rock -was enveloped in water, which dashed right over it. The -waves caught some of the lantern apparatus and smashed -it; other parts were carried away and never seen again. -This was an unexpected catastrophe. The remaining -damaged parts of the apparatus were sent back to Birmingham -to be overhauled and the missing portions replaced.</p> - -<p>As there was no possibility of being able to complete the -lantern that winter, and the authorities did not like to -entrust the marking of the rock solely to the temporary -lightship lights—the lantern of the Halpin tower had been -taken down meanwhile—it was thereupon decided to erect -the dismantled old lamp in the new tower for the time -being.</p> - -<div id="ip_129" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p128b.jpg" width="234" height="595" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE LANTERN OF THE FASTNET ROCK LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">It consists of two tiers each of four panels of 920 millimetres focal distance.</p></div></div> - -<p>The next summer the new apparatus was got on to the -rock and erected safely. The light is of the dioptric type, -derived from a series of incandescent burners, giving a total -power of 1,200 candles. This part of the installation is the -invention of the chief engineer to the Commissioners, Mr. -C. W. Scott, and it has proved to be one of the most perfect -and economical devices of this type yet submitted to practical -operations. The oil is vaporized by being passed -through a spraying device under pressure, similar to the -forced carburation in automobile practice, and the gas is -fed to the Bunsen burners. The lenses, together with their -revolving apparatus, weigh 13,440 pounds, and rotate upon<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130">130</a></span> -a bed of mercury under the fall of a weight of 290 pounds, -which descends 40 feet per hour, this being sufficient to -secure three complete revolutions per minute. In case the -incandescent gas installation should break down from any -cause, a four-wick oil-burner is held in reserve, and can be -brought into action instantly. The power of the rays -thrown from the 1,200 candle-power burners is intensified -by the lenses to some 750,000 candle-power, of extremely -white brilliancy, recalling the beam thrown by an electric -searchlight. The flash, of three-twenty-fifths of a second’s -duration, recurs every five seconds, and on a clear night the -light is readily distinguishable from a distance of twenty -miles, while its reflection in the sky may be observed from a -considerably greater distance.</p> - -<p>The erection of this lighthouse was not without one -humorous incident. While the lantern apparatus was being -set in position, a plumber was sent to the rock. He spent -one day and night there, a period that proved to be more -than enough for him. The murmuring of the waves lost -all their musical glamour for him when he was imprisoned -on a wild, isolated, wind-and-wave-swept eyrie. He did -not get a wink of sleep, and was scared nearly out of his -wits. When morning broke, and the men were turned out -of their bunks, the plumber expressed his fixed determination -to return to the shore at once. His companions laughed -at his fears, ridiculed his anxieties, coaxed and upbraided -him in turn. It was of no avail. He would not do another -stroke of work. Realizing the hopelessness of such a workman, -the engineer in charge signalled the mainland for -assistance. The steamer could not put out, but the lifeboat, -not understanding the import of such an unusual call, -made the dangerous pull to the rock, to ascertain what was -the matter. When they found that it was to take off a -scared workman, their feelings may be imagined. The -demoralized plumber was bundled into the lifeboat and -rowed back to shore. The blood did not return to his face, -nor did he collect his scattered wits, until he planted his -two feet firmly on the mainland, when he very vehemently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131">131</a></span> -and picturesquely expressed his determination never to -accept a job in such a forsaken place again.</p> - -<p>The old tower was reduced to the level of its solid base, -and converted into an oil-store. The finishing touches were -applied to the new tower, and on June 27, 1906, the scintillating -and penetrating ray of the present Fastnet was shown -for the first time. It is a magnificent light, and, being the -latest expression of British lighthouse engineering upon a -large scale, compels more than passing interest. The light -is fully in keeping with the importance of the spot it marks, -and the £84,000, or $420,000, which it cost has been laid -out to excellent purpose. The light and fog-signal station -is tended by six keepers, four being on the rock simultaneously, -and two ashore. The latter constitute the relief, -which is made twice a month if the weather permits, the -service being one month on the rock, followed by a fortnight -on shore. One keeper has day duty, maintaining a -lookout for fog and to signal passing ships; two are on -duty at night, the one having charge of the light and its -operation, while his comrade devotes his attention to signalling -ships and watching the weather. When a mist creeps -over the light, the fourth keeper is called up to manipulate -the explosive fog-signal. The lighthouse, being an important -landfall, is a signalling-station for Lloyd’s, and is also fitted -with wireless telegraphy, wherewith the movements of outgoing -and incoming vessels are reported to the mainland -for notification to all parts of the world.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132">132</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X<br /> - -<span class="subhead">LIGHTHOUSES BUILT ON SAND</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>While the greater number of the most famous sea-lights -have been erected upon the solid foundation offered by -rock, in one or two instances notable works have been consummated -upon sand. The two most remarkable achievements -in this particular field of enterprise are the Rothersand -lighthouse, off the coast of Germany, in the North -Sea, and the Fourteen Foot Bank, in Delaware Bay, U.S.A.</p> - -<p>The Rothersand light became necessary owing to the -expansion of the German mercantile marine and the development -of the ports of the Weser and Elbe. The estuary of -the Weser River is hemmed in by shoals and sandbanks, -similar to those found at the entrance to Liverpool, London, -and New York, rendering navigation extremely hazardous -under the most favourable circumstances. Bremerhaven, -on the Weser, had been selected as the home port for the -North German Lloyd Atlantic liners, but it was threatened -with abandonment unless the entrance to the waterway -should undergo improvement. It was of no avail to dredge -a deep channel through the treacherous ridges of sand, if -the general proximity of the shoal were left unmarked. -Consequently, in order to secure the interests of Bremerhaven, -it was decided by the three border States—Prussia, -Oldenburg, and Bremen—to provide a powerful light at -this danger-point. The financial problem was solved by -the agreement to levy a special tax upon all vessels entering -the Weser, to defray the cost of providing the safeguard.</p> - -<p>The undertaking was somewhat formidable. The shoal, -being of soft sand, was liable to erosion and movement, -owing to fluctuating and changing currents. Then, again, -the proposed site, some thirty miles from Bremerhaven and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133">133</a></span> -about halfway between that port and the island of Heligoland, -was exposed to the assaults of the North Sea, where -even slight breezes ruffle the water considerably. From the -soundings and observations that were made, it was evident -that the foundations would have to be carried down to a -great depth, and that ordinary systems of construction -were quite impracticable. At this juncture the Society -Harkort of Duisburg, which had accumulated great experience -in subaqueous work, was approached and asked if -it would undertake the enterprise at its own risk. This was -tantamount to a “no cure, no pay” proposal. If they -succeeded, they would be rewarded for their labours; if -they failed, they would have to face a heavy loss.</p> - -<p>This firm, after careful deliberation, allowed that the -work could be accomplished, but in one way only. This -was to construct a huge caisson—practically a gigantic -barrel of steel—on shore, to launch and tow it to the site, -and there to lower it until it rested on the bottom. Then, -by a removal of the sand from beneath this caisson, it could -be sunk to a great depth, and, the interior being filled with -concrete, a huge artificial core of rock would be created, -capable of supporting a tower. This system is employed -extensively in connection with bridge-building operations, -and the firm entertained no doubts concerning its feasibility -at Rothersand. The society accordingly prepared -its designs, and advanced an estimate for the cost of the -work.</p> - -<p>At this juncture an unexpected competitor appeared on -the scene. One of the engineers engaged in the preparation -of the Harkort designs severed his connection with that firm, -and, securing the collaboration of two engineering colleagues, -established a rival concern, which tendered for the contract. -They would follow the same lines, but would complete it -for £22,750, or $113,750, instead of £24,025, or $120,125, -asked by the Duisburg firm. The lower price was accepted, -the more readily since it included the foundations, whereas -the Society Harkort set these down as an extra. Naturally, -the society was somewhat chagrined at this turn of events,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134">134</a></span> -after all the trouble and care it had taken to discover the -most satisfactory solution of the problem, but subsequently -it had good reason not to regret its loss.</p> - -<p>The new engineers set to work and during the winter of -1880–81 constructed a huge caisson, which was launched -and on May 22 of the latter year started down the Weser in -charge of tugs. Then came a whole string of accidents. -One night the unwieldy fabric got adrift and drove its nose -into a sandbank, where it settled down with the tide. The -towing cables were attached once more, and after a great -struggle the structure was extricated on the next high-tide, -and resumed its journey. Reaching the site without further -incident, it was lowered by admitting the water within the -barrel. But this task being accomplished somewhat crudely, -the water rushed in with such force that the caisson commenced -to spin round like a top, as well as bobbing up and -down like an angler’s float. It threatened to topple over -and founder every moment, but, luckily keeping upright, -finally touched bottom. Lowering was completed. Night -having approached, workmen made themselves comfortable -on the caisson, while the constructional steamer stood -off and cast its anchor.</p> - -<p>The men on the caisson, however, experienced one of the -most sensational nights in their lives. As the tide rose, -they found their novel home to be behaving somewhat -curiously. It moved, and then heeled over. This was an -alarming state of affairs, especially as the list gradually -became worse and worse. They shouted frantically for -help, but, a heavy fog having descended upon the shoal, -their cries were absorbed by the white pall. At last the -caisson careened over to such a degree that the men could -not keep their feet, while the depressed edge was in danger -of being submerged. The men crawled to the opposite or -elevated side, and held on for their lives, expecting every -moment that the structure would give a heave and roll over. -It was a terribly anxious time for them, and at last, when -the constructional steamer came alongside in the morning, -they scuttled down the ropes from their perilous perch to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135">135</a></span> -deck below, thankful for having escaped, as they thought, -a certain watery grave.</p> - -<p>The engineers spared no effort to save their work. They -were harassed at every tide because the water rose above -the depressed edge and flooded the interior. With all -speed the wall at this point was increased in height, so as to -prevent inundation. Then, stormy weather having cut -away the sand under the elevated side, the structure -gradually righted itself. When it had regained its vertical -position, it was found that no serious damage had been -done, but rather that the engineers had profited, inasmuch -as the caisson had buried itself some 16 feet into the sand.</p> - -<p>Winter was approaching, and so the engineers crowded on -every man and effort possible, in order to get the structure -sunk to the requisite level before work would have to be -abandoned for the season. They departed from the -engineer’s axiom, “Make haste slowly,” and paid the -penalty. When the bad weather broke, compelling the -return of all the workmen to shore, the fabric was left -insecure. The lower part had been given its filling of -concrete, but above a certain level the fabric depended -only upon the iron shell of the cylinder. It was stiffened -as much as possible with cross-timbers and bracing, but the -elements soon made short work of this puny defence. The -North Sea, in common with the other large stretches of -water throughout the world, was swept by terrible storms -that winter, and one morning, when the sea was scanned -from shore through glasses, strange to say the caisson was -nowhere to be seen. All sorts of rumours were circulated -to account for its disappearance, among others being a -sensational theory that the caisson, having reached swampy -ground while being sunk, had simply dropped suddenly into -the submarine quagmire, and had been swallowed up completely. -But the divers, when they could get out to the site -and could venture into the ocean depths, returned to the -surface with a very different story. The waves had snapped -off the top of the caisson at the upper level of the concrete -within, and had carried it away. Thus ended summarily<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136">136</a></span> -the first attempt to build a lighthouse upon the red sand -at the entrance to the River Weser.</p> - -<div id="ip_136" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_p136a.jpg" width="600" height="353" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo by permission of the North German Lloyd S.S. Co.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE ROTHERSAND LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This magnificent light marks a dangerous shoal in the estuary of the Weser. The masonry tower is built upon a massive concrete caisson driven -deeply into the sand.</p></div></div> - -<p>The project, however, was not abandoned. The Society -Harkort was approached once more, and requested to undertake -the work upon its own terms. The invitation was -accepted, but the firm, realizing the abnormal risks incidental -to the enterprise, revised their price, so as to provide -for contingencies. It demanded a sum of £42,650, or -$213,250, in return for which it undertook to supply a -fully-equipped lighthouse less the illuminating apparatus. -The terms were accepted, but the responsible authorities, -having suffered a heavy loss from the first failure, decided -to protect themselves against a similar disaster, so exacted -a bond for £12,000, or $60,000, to be returned when the -work should be completed and accepted by the Government. -The Society Harkort, on its part, reserved the right to -withdraw from the undertaking in the event of the caisson -sharing the fate which overtook the first structure.</p> - -<p>The contracts were signed in September, 1882, and the -task was commenced. The first disaster was a blessing in -disguise, for the new engineers were able to turn the mistakes -of their predecessors to advantage. They designed a -caisson of oval shape, with pointed ends, measuring 46 feet -in length by 36 feet wide. It was an elaborate, staunch -structure, towering to a height of 60¾ feet when launched. -At a height of 8 feet from the bottom edge was a massive -flooring built of iron. The space below constituted the -area in which the men were to work upon the sea-bed, -excavating the sand under compressed air, while the lower -rim was a cutting edge, so as to facilitate the sinking of the -mass as the sand was removed. The upper part of the -caisson was divided into four floors, each of which was set -aside for a specific purpose. The lowest was the concrete-mixing -chamber; that above carried the machinery and -boilers; the third floor formed the living-quarters for the -men who worked and slept on the structure; while the top -floor formed a deck, and carried two powerful cranes -whereby the material was lifted from the boats which drew<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137">137</a></span> -alongside. Of course, when the caisson had been lowered -into the water and was eating its way deeper and deeper -into the sand, these platforms had to be moved higher and -higher from time to time, as the base of the tun became -filled with concrete, the outer walls of the fabric being -increased to keep the top well above high-water mark.</p> - -<p>When the caisson was completed on shore and sent into -the water, it was an impressive-looking monster. The shell -itself weighed 245½ tons, and with the various accessories -aboard the weight was brought up to some 335 tons. It -then had to be loaded down to the required depth for towing, -for which purpose ballast in the form of pig-iron, -concrete, and bricks, to the extent of another 245 tons, was -stowed aboard, while delicate precautions were taken to -maintain stability. The combined efforts of 120 men, -working day and night for 127 days, were required to erect -this caisson, and on April 1, 1883, it was ready for its -transportation to the site.</p> - -<p>The towing operation was extremely difficult, and the -voyage out was full of exciting incident. It was possible -to advance only on the ebb-tide, and the towing cables, -5 inches in diameter, were specially manufactured for the -operation. Two of the most powerful tugs owned by the -North German Lloyd Steamship Company were requisitioned, -three other steamers engaged in the conveyance of -requirements between tower and shore accompanying the -procession. Although the engineers were ready, the weather, -with aggravating persistence, refused to clear sufficiently to -produce the smooth sea and calm demanded for the safe -journey of the ungainly craft. Day after day slipped by, -with eighty men on the alert, and with fires banked and -steam raised on the vessels, ready to weigh anchor at the -first favourable moment. Fifty-five days passed before the -weather bureau recommended that the conditions were -suitable. Under the foregoing circumstances the expense -of this delay may be realized.</p> - -<div id="ip_137" class="figcenter" style="width: 595px;"> - <img src="images/i_p136b.jpg" width="595" height="349" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE FOURTEEN-FOOT BANK LIGHTHOUSE, BUILT ON SAND.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The erection of this structure constitutes a brilliant achievement in United States lighthouse engineering.</p></div></div> - -<p>Directly the intimation was conveyed that the tow could -be attempted, there was a scene of indescribable activity and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138">138</a></span> -bustle in the Bremerhaven dock, where the caisson was -moored. Full steam was raised on the tugs, and at half-past -three in the morning of May 26 the mighty steel barrel -moved out of the dock. The towing ropes were hitched -on, and very slowly the “Colossus,” as the caisson was -named, moved down the harbour, accompanied by the -whole fleet of nine vessels engaged in construction work, -so that the procession was imposing. It dropped down the -river without incident, when, the tide turning, anchor was -cast, and all was made fast until another advance could be -made at four o’clock in the afternoon. But the rising tide -was stronger than had been anticipated, and trouble was -soon encountered. The caisson, pressed by the current, -dragged and strained at the two tugs by which she was -being towed, causing them to slip their anchors. It was -an anxious moment. The two vessels could not hold the -“Colossus”; in fact, they were being towed backwards by -it. Hurriedly another tug was called up, and helped in the -effort; but although the three steamers put on full steam -ahead, they failed to keep the mass in check. Another tug -was signalled, and then, under the combined effort of 350 -horse-power, driving for all it was worth against the current, -the four vessels mastered the swing of the scurrying water, -and had the “Colossus” under control.</p> - -<p>A little later the procession continued on its way to the -North Sea, but when the boats came up with the Hoheweg -lighthouse further disquieting news was received. The -keepers signalled that the barometer was falling, and that -a thunderstorm was hurrying across the North Sea from -England. Anchors were thrown out hurriedly, and everything -made snug and tight for the approaching storm. It -burst with fearful severity. The waves got up, the wind -blew with fiendish velocity in terrifying gusts, and the rain -tumbled down in sheets. The engineers were on tenterhooks -the whole hour and a half the storm raged, as they -foresaw lively times if the unmanageable hulk broke loose. -But the “Colossus” rode the gale as quietly as if moored -to a wharf in dock. The storm, however, upset all calculations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139">139</a></span> -for the day. There was no possibility of getting the -caisson out and sunk before nightfall, so the engineers prepared -to pass the night at anchor, and to start off again -with the dawn. The weather, ruffled by the thunderstorm, -refused to settle down until a further day and night had been -wasted. Then, at 7.30 in the morning, on a favourable -tide, anchors were weighed, and, steaming hard through a -broken sea, the tugs conveyed the caisson on its journey. -At last the procession reached the buoy marking the site. -The caisson was brought to rest, the water was admitted -gently through the valves, and slowly, steadily, and vertically, -the shell sank lower and lower, until a scarcely -perceptible shock conveyed the intimation that it had -touched bottom.</p> - -<p>The most anxious part of the task was consummated with -complete success: the caisson had been got to the site and -sunk. Then the task of burying it deeply and irremovably -in the sand was hurried forward. Workmen descended into -the space beneath the bottom floor and the sea-bed. Under -compressed air they excavated the sand within the area -to permit the cutting edge to sink lower and lower. The -sand, as removed, was lifted to the top of the “Colossus” -and discharged overboard. Meanwhile the concrete-mixing -machine got busy, and the stone heart of the tun was -fashioned rapidly. Under this increasing weight the sinking -operation was assisted very appreciably. By the middle -of October the work had been advanced to such a stage that -the total weight of the structure had been increased to over -3,350 tons, and the top deck of the caisson, which had grown -in height by the attaching of successive rings of plates, -was about 99 feet above the cutting edge, which had buried -itself to a depth of 51 feet below low-water. Then work -had to be abandoned, as the autumnal gales sprang up. -The whole of the staff, with the exception of two men, who -mounted guard over the work, were taken back to Bremerhaven. -The gales increased in fury, culminating in a tempest -similar to that which had destroyed the first caisson. Remembering -the fate of that enterprise under such fearful<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140">140</a></span> -pounding from wind and wave, the Harkort engineers -naturally were somewhat anxious concerning the welfare -of their handiwork under identical conditions. But the -new creation was overwhelmingly strong where its predecessor -was weak, although the seas, baffled in their efforts -to upset the caisson, did not fail to leave their mark by -knocking the superstructure and scaffolding about somewhat, -as well as carrying away a few weighty pieces of the -top hamper.</p> - -<p>Work was resumed in February, 1884, and continued -more or less regularly until November. Interruptions were -of frequent occurrence, so that only about one-quarter of -the time available could be turned to useful account. The -structure which had been towed out of Bremerhaven a year -previously had disappeared from sight, the rim of the barrel -built on dry land being about 4 feet below water; but, of -course, as the work proceeded and the caisson sank, its walls -were extended upwards, as already explained. When the -structure had been sunk to its designed depth, the steel shell -was 107½ feet in height, from the cutting edge to the top -projecting above the water, and nearly 40 feet of its height -was buried in the Rothersand. To sink it to this level -required the removal of 3,000 cubic yards of sand from beneath -the bottom floor of the structure; while 49,100 tons -of material were brought out from Bremerhaven and built -into the steel shell to render it a solid elliptical mass, with -the exception of a short central hollow space which has -a narrow conduit connection with the outer sea, and which, -fitted with a float, acts as a tide-gauge which may be read -in the lighthouse. From this massive concrete pedestal rises -the tower proper, which at the base is circular, with a -diameter of 33¾ feet. This base rises in the form of a graceful -concave curve to a height of 26 feet, and is solid except -for two water-tanks. At the entrance level the tower is -23 feet in diameter. Above this are disposed four floors, -comprising the cellar, storeroom, kitchen, and living-quarters -for the men, crowned by the lantern, the gallery of which is -80½ feet above low-water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141">141</a></span> -The external appearance of this interesting lighthouse is -somewhat different from the general conception of such a -building. Instead of being merely a circular top and lantern, -there are three semicircular turret-like projections on the -dwelling-room and lantern levels, which serve for directing -and warning lights as well as for a lookout station.</p> - -<p>The fickle character of the North Sea where it rolls over -the Rothersand is reflected by an experience which befell -the Harkort engineer and the superintendent of erection -for the authorities, who wished to complete his duty of -inspection. The finishing touches were being applied, a -squad of twelve workmen being in the tower to continue -the work during the winter. The early December day was -fair and the sea smooth, as well as giving every indication -of remaining quiescent for some hours. The superintendent -had arranged to spend his Christmas holidays with some -friends, and desired to complete his duty in good time, so -that his sojourn might be free from care. The two started -off in the steamer, and landed without effort. But while -they were engaged in their work of inspection the wind -and sea freshened, so that a boat could not be sent from -the steamer to take them off. It was an amusing situation -which was keenly enjoyed at Bremerhaven; but all would -be right on the morrow, said everyone. But the next day -the weather was worse, and continued so for day after day. -When a fortnight had passed without it being possible to -succour the weather-bound engineers, amusement gave way -to anxiety, more especially as a signal was flying from the -tower which conveyed the unwelcome intelligence that one -of the workmen had fallen ill. The feelings of the superintendent -may be imagined. He had visions of spending -his Yuletide in a draughty, half-finished lighthouse tower, -where comfort was conspicuous by its absence, and where -seasonal fare such as he had been anticipating keenly was -unknown. But on December 21 the constructional engineers, -having grown impatient with the weather, sent out -one of their boats, with instructions to bring everyone -ashore at all hazards. The waves were running high and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142">142</a></span> -the wind was gusty, but the steamer anchored as near the -lighthouse as she dared, and by means of her boats, which -were in momentary danger of being swamped, brought off -the two engineers as well as all the workmen except two. -The latter remained behind as a guard, and, being given a -good stock of seasonal provisions and other necessities, were -left in their splendid isolation. The superintendent, after -all, was able to enjoy his Christmas holidays.</p> - -<p>The succeeding spring brought a resumption of toil, and -by September the tower was completed except for the -illuminating apparatus. One feature was observed during -construction and had to receive attention. The free swing -of the currents and tides, being obstructed by the tower, -had commenced heavy erosion, big hollows being scooped -out of the soft sea-bed around the caisson. As it was quite -possible that in the course of time this scouring might imperil -the safety of the building, protective works had to be -undertaken. These were of an elaborate character, and -comprised the sinking of mattresses, fashioned from brushwood, -around the foundations, upon which were dumped -boatloads of broken stone. This mattress had to be nearly -50 feet in width, and in some places about 15 feet in thickness. -For this protective work alone some 176,550 cubic -feet of brushwood, and 600 tons of block-stone to hold it -down, were used. These measures, however, effectually -overcame the danger of erosion.</p> - -<p>On November 1, 1885, the light was shown for the first -time, and the greatest peril at the entrance to the Weser -was indicated far and wide by night and day. It was a -magnificent achievement, carried through in the face of -enormous difficulties, sensational incidents innumerable, -and upon a foundation of disaster. The lighthouse is as -firm as if it were anchored upon a solid granite rock, instead -of having its roots thrust deep into treacherous -shifting sand, and constitutes an imperishable monument -to German engineering ability; while, all things considered, -the cost was low, being only £43,400, or $217,000, in all. -The light is electric, the power being supplied from a station<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143">143</a></span> -on shore, and fed to the lighthouse through a submarine -cable; the keepers are also in submarine telegraphic communication -with the mainland.</p> - -<p>When the United States set out to build a similar structure -in the spacious Delaware Bay, they were confronted -with a prospect just as forbidding, and a task in every way -as difficult, as that offered in connection with the Rothersand. -There is a dangerous shoal about twenty miles off -the land, where the Atlantic beats with furious rage, and -where vessels were apt to stick hard and fast. It was -described as “Fourteen Foot Bank” by mariners, from the -depth of the water flowing over the shoal, and this colloquialism -has provided the name for the present guardian -light. The open situation did not augur favourably for -the completion of a lighthouse at this spot, but the American -engineers were resolved to make the attempt. Accordingly, -plans were prepared for a construction upon the caisson -principle, which was the only method promising success.</p> - -<p>The preliminary step was the fabrication of a caisson. -The first part was more like a raft with sides. It was about -40 feet square, 5 feet thick, and with walls 7 feet deep. -It was built of timber, the staves being 12 inches square, -and upside down—that is, with the floor uppermost—on a -building-slip, as if it were a ship, and was launched into the -water upon similar lines. The sides and top were lined, -so as to secure water-tightness. In the centre there was a -circular space 5 feet in diameter to form the air-shaft.</p> - -<p>As the structure was built upside down, the rim was -brought to the lowermost position, and this formed the -cutting edge, which was to be sunk into the sand. On -this floating platform a circular iron cylinder was erected. -This tube was 35 feet in diameter, and was built up in -plates, 6 feet in width by 1½ inches thick. When three -rings of iron were set up the cylinder was 18 feet in height. -In order to sink it to a depth of 15½ feet into the water for -towing purposes, it was charged with a layer of concrete, -9 inches in thickness, to serve as ballast, and in this condition -the caisson weighed 400 tons.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144">144</a></span> -This huge barrel was built at Lewes, Delaware, and when -it was launched two powerful steam-tugs set out to drag it -to the shoal, twenty miles away. As the tide rises and falls -a matter of 6 feet in these waters, and the currents are somewhat -wicked, the engineers displayed no undue haste. -They waited for the first favourable opportunity, and seized -it. But it took the two tugs some six hours to reach the -site; an average speed of about three and a half miles per -hour cannot be construed into fast travelling.</p> - -<p>When the mighty caisson had been warped and nudged -dead into position over the desired spot, water was admitted. -With a gurgling and hissing the hulk sank slowly into the -sea. At last a slight jolt, which quivered through the mass, -signified that the structure was resting on the bottom. The -engineers gave a sigh of relief, but the next instant changed -it to a cry of dismay. The caisson began to heel over to -one side. Was it going to capsize? That was the absorbing -fear. It canted more and more, until at last it had a list of -12 degrees. <em>It had not sunk vertically!</em> There was less -than 16 inches of water between the sea-level and the rim -when the caisson first jarred against the sand, and if it -careened over too far the water certainly would rush in, -roll the whole tub over, and tumble it hither and thither -over the sea-bed. The engineers watched that caisson as -closely as a cat watches a mouse-hole. Presently it eased -up, and then, as the tide rose some six hours later, it began -to right itself. The engineers were relieved once more. The -danger was over. But their self-satisfaction was soon upset -as the tide began to ebb, because again the cylinder gradually -fell over on its side. The cause of this strange behaviour -flashed upon them. The surface of the sandbank was not -level! The mass in sinking had touched bottom on the -highest point of the shoal, and was trying to find its own -level.</p> - -<p>Without any further delay, the engineers decided upon an -ingenious means of correcting this erratic and dangerous -action. The tugs were despatched hurriedly to Lewes to -bring out cargoes of broken stone, which had been delivered<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145">145</a></span> -for the preparation of the concrete. While the steamers -pursued their errand, the engineers fashioned large pockets -on the elevated section of the structure, into which the stone -upon its arrival was placed. Gradually but surely the -caisson not only was corrected, but the weighted end was -induced to settle into the sand, until the opposite free edge -in its turn was resting upon the shoal.</p> - -<p>In this manner all danger of further canting now was -removed. As the rim had been brought perilously near the -water-level, and there was a possibility of flooding from a -rough sea, the walls of the caisson were extended vertically -with all haste; meanwhile two additional rings of iron were -placed in position, and the top was brought about 20 feet -above the water. While this work was in progress the -structure gradually bit farther and farther into the sand, -until at last it secured a firm hold.</p> - -<p>At the earliest possible moment the air-compressors were -set to work, and air was driven into the space between the -cutting edge and the roof, in which the men were to work. -This space was 40 feet square and 7 feet deep. The greater -pressure of the air drove the water out from this space, -and the men were able to enter through the air-lock and to -work upon a dry surface, isolated from the surrounding sea -by the fence formed by the cutting edge.</p> - -<p>The men toiled in eight-hour shifts continuously, removing -the sand within the space and sending it upwards -to be discharged overboard. As the area was excavated, -the cutting edge sank deeper and deeper, so that the -structure became more and more firmly embedded. There -was apprehension that the obstruction offered by the caisson -to the movement of the currents might set up undermining -around the cylinder, as in the case of the Rothersand; but -the engineers arrested any tendency in this direction by -dumping large pieces of stone overboard around the tub. -Some 6,000 tons of stone were used for this purpose, so that -the caisson has an impregnable protection.</p> - -<p>As the structure sank lower and lower, owing to the -excavation, concrete was dumped around the air-tube above<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146">146</a></span> -the floor of the space in which the men were labouring, while -successive rings of iron were added to the top of the cylinder. -The men worked with great gusto in their novel situation, -and, the task being prosecuted uninterruptedly throughout -the day and night, the cylinder sank from 12 to 24 inches -during the twenty-four hours. This labour was maintained -until the cutting edge of the caisson was 33 feet below the -surface of the shoal, when the engineers called halt. They -considered that the task had been continued to a sufficient -depth to secure the requisite rigidity for their lighthouse. -The men left the working chamber, which was then tightly -underrammed with sand, so as to form a solid foundation, -while the air-shaft was filled up with rammed sand and -sealed with a thick plug of concrete. The wall of the iron -cylinder had been intermittently increased in height by the -addition of successive rings of plates, until the rim was -70 feet above the cutting edge and projected about 30 feet -above the water at low-tide. From the bottom to a height -of 40 feet it is virtually a solid mass of concrete, protected by -a skin of iron 1½ inches thick. Further concrete was added, -bringing the solid section to within 10 feet of the rim, so -that the concrete heart is about 53 feet in height and 35 feet -in diameter. It is a solid circular rock sunk into the sand, -and as firm and free from vibration as a granite core.</p> - -<p>Upon this foundation a house for the light-keepers, -crowned by a tower, was erected, the focal plane being 59 feet -above mean high-water. It is fitted with a light of the -fourth order, visible for thirteen miles.</p> - -<p>One of the most important features in connection with -the Fourteen Foot Bank light was its small cost, which was -below the estimate, especially when it is compared with -the German work. The United States Government appropriated -a sum of £35,000, or $175,000, for the undertaking, -but the total expenditure was less than £25,000, or $125,000, -so that a sum of £10,000, or $50,000, was handed back to -the Treasury—a most unusual event in connection with -Government contracts. The lighthouse was finished and -brought into service in 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147">147</a></span> -The success of this novel enterprise prompted the authorities -to essay a more daring project—the erection of a lighthouse -upon the caisson principle on the Outer Diamond -Shoal, off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. But the storms -encountered off this inhospitable coast have proved too -overpowering for the engineer. Numerous attempts have -been made, but disaster has been their invariable fate. -The Diamond Shoal refuses to be indicated by anything -except a lightship.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148">148</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI<br /> - -<span class="subhead">SOME LIGHT PATROLS OF THE FRENCH COAST</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>In the matter of safeguarding its shores the French nation -has displayed considerable enterprise, and its engineers have -added some magnificent contributions to this field of -engineering. The maintenance and welfare of these aids -to navigation is placed in the hands of the Service des -Phares, which is controlled by the Department of Bridges -and Roads. The French scheme is the disposition of the -lights along the shore in such a way that their ranges overlap -on either side, so that, as one passes along the coast, -before one ray is dropped the next is picked up. Electricity -is employed extensively as the illuminant, so that the -lights are of great power and twinkle like brilliant white -stars on a clear night.</p> - -<p>While the majority of these guides are erected on the -mainland, others rise from islands lying off the coast, -which, by their position in deep water, render navigation -hazardous. The finest expressions of French lighthouse -engineering are to be found along the rugged islet-dotted -coast of the huge indentation in which lie the Channel -Islands—the cruel coast of Brittany. It was off the western -extremity of Brittany, which thrusts itself well out into the -Atlantic Ocean, forming the point generally known as -Ushant, that the <i>Drummond Castle</i> lost her way, to pull -up with a fatal crash against one of the jagged reefs stretching -to seaward. While this wreck was but one of many in -these troubled waters, it sent a thrill round the world, -owing to the terrible loss of life with which it was accompanied.</p> - -<p>It is not surprising, therefore, that the French Government -has endeavoured to remove the evil notoriety which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149">149</a></span> -this coast has reaped, and to render it as safe as the other -stretches lying to the north and south. The conditions, -however, are against the engineer, as the nose of the mainland -projects well into the ocean, and receives the full -brunt of its attacks when gales rage, so that a foothold is -precarious.</p> - -<p>When the question of lighting this inhospitable stretch -of coast arose, the French authorities debated whether it -would not be easier, cheaper, and more satisfactory, to place -the lighthouses on the mainland at a sufficient altitude, -and to fit them with adequately powerful lights to indicate -the outlying reefs. The general opinion was in favour of -such a practice. So when Léonce Reynaud proposed to -mark the Heaux de Bréhat with a magnificent tower, there -was considerable opposition. The critics maintained that -it was a flagrant temptation of Fate to attempt the conquest -of such an evil wave-swept rock, the head of which was -barely visible above high-water, and was of such small -dimensions that work would be possible for only a few hours -daily and then by no more than a mere handful of men.</p> - -<p>The engineer was confident that he could surmount all -difficulties in construction, and that he would be able to -erect a tower which would defy wind and wave, so he gained -the day and received the requisite sanction to proceed with -his undertaking. He had surveyed the rock and its surroundings -thoroughly; had discovered the velocity of the -currents, and their varying directions under all conditions -of weather. They tore along at about nine and a half miles -an hour, and this speed was augmented considerably in -rough weather. He selected the site for the lighthouse about -nine miles from the Isle of Bréhat, where landing would have -to be made at low-water, owing to the water rushing first -from the island to the rock, and then in the opposite direction, -according to the movements of the tides.</p> - -<p>The Isle of Bréhat was made the base for operations. It -is freely indented, and one of the coves was found to form -an excellent little harbour. A rough stone jetty was run -out for a length of 170 feet, and while one fleet of boats<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150">150</a></span> -was retained to convey material from the island to the rock, -another was kept to bring supplies to the island for preparation, -and the support of the men, whose quarters were established -at this depot. Sixty men were employed on the -work. They dressed the granite stones and prepared the -woodwork as it arrived in the raw condition, ample workshops -being provided for these purposes.</p> - -<div id="ip_150" class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;"> - <img src="images/i_p150a.jpg" width="364" height="542" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo by permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE HEAUX DE BRÉHAT LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">A striking tower built by Léonce Reynaud off the exposed Brittany coast. It is 159 feet -high and took six years to complete.</p></div></div> - -<p>The face of the rock was cleaned off during the brief -intervals when it was bared by the sea, and rough stones -and masonry were laid in concrete and continued solidly -to a point 13 feet above high-water. Around this confined -platform quarters were built for the handful of men who -stayed on the rock during the periods of calm weather, as -too much time was lost in travelling to and from the island, -while there were risks of landing being interrupted by the -swell. A temporary light was also placed in position while -constructional work was proceeding, to warn navigation. -The facilities also included a small forge for the fashioning -upon the spot of the iron dogs and bolts whereby the stones -were clamped together, and this proved highly convenient, -except for one thing: when the water was somewhat rough -and playful, the waves, striking the rock, flew into the air, -soused the forge, and extinguished the fire.</p> - -<p>The preparations of the foundations proved exceedingly -tedious. The rock is a very hard black porphyry, but the -surface was so scarred with fissures and deep cracks that -the whole of the upper surface had to be cleaned off, so as to -remove all rotten and splintered rock in order to secure a -firm, solid foundation. Then a circle 38 feet in diameter -was marked off, and masons cut away all the rock around -this line to a depth of about 20 inches and of sufficient -width to take the stones—a trench, as it were. This work -had to be executed during the short period of low-water, -and a special schedule was prepared to insure the men concentrating -the whole of their energies upon the task when -opportunity offered. As the ebbing tide began to bare the -space, the workmen were called, and they followed the -receding water, never leaving the spot for meals, but toiling<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151">151</a></span> -continuously until the returning tide drove them off. As a -rule the men were sufficiently fleet to get clear untouched, although -they delayed their retreat until the very last moment; -but at other times the sea was a trifle quicker, and the men -received an unexpected douche from a scurrying wave.</p> - -<p>When this trench had been cleared out and the face -levelled, the outer ring of stones was laid and secured firmly -in position. The inner space of the rock was left in its -roughly trimmed condition, and was then buried beneath -cement and rock to the level of the outer ring of stones, -forming a platform ready to receive the mass of the tower. -The outer ring was the main consideration, and the work -had to be finished in such a manner that a tight joint was -made with the rock, to resist the penetration of the water. -When the men were compelled to lay down their tools for -the coming tide, they hastily applied a thick covering of -quick-drying cement to the work completed, thereby protecting -it against the disintegrating and percolating action -of the sea.</p> - -<p>Ere the work had started thoroughly, the engineer was -faced with a trouble which he had not anticipated. The -men were left to attend to their own desires in the way of -provisions. This haphazard arrangement had the inevitable -sequel. Some of the men were stricken down with scurvy, -and the disease promised to secure a firm hold, when the -engineer stepped in with a firm hand. He established a -canteen, the contractor of which was compelled to maintain -a supply of varied provisions for six months at least, lest -the little colony should become isolated by rough weather. -A regular varied bill of fare was imposed upon the workmen, -who were compelled to purchase their requirements -from the canteen. By this firm and timely action the -disease was stamped out. The engineer also enforced other -stringent regulations in the interests of health. The men -were compelled to bathe once a week, and had to turn their -sleeping-blankets into the open air every day; while the -quarters had to be washed out and the walls given a dressing -of limewash at frequent intervals.</p> - -<div id="ip_151" class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"> - <img src="images/i_p150b.jpg" width="395" height="590" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">FITTING THE LANTERN OF LA JUMENT LIGHT.</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152">152</a></span> -When the visitor approaches the tower for the first time, -he cannot fail to be impressed by its unusual design. It -appears as if a former tower of great diameter had been -decapitated, and another more slender building placed -upon its butt. This is due to the ingenious idea adopted -by Reynaud. The lower part of the tower rises like the -trunk of a tree from the base, which is a solid plinth, to a -height of 39 feet above highest spring-tides. At the top -this lower tower is 28 feet in diameter, as compared with -38 feet at the base. Here the butt is levelled off, and from -its surface rises the lighthouse proper, in the form of a -slightly tapering cone, leaving a narrow gallery around -the superimposed structure to serve as a “set-off” and -landing or entrance platform.</p> - -<p>In carrying out his work, Reynaud followed a principle -quite divergent from the prevailing practice in lighthouse -construction. He did not attach every stone irremovably -to its neighbours, but merely made fast the masonry at -varying points, where the mass of water might be expected -to expend the greater part of its violence. The method he -adopted is very simple. Keystones are introduced at selected -points in each course, and these are driven up and held tight -by granite plugs and wedges. The principle was assailed at -the time as being deficient in strength, but no apprehensions -ever have arisen concerning the safety of the tower, so that -the engineer’s daring ingenuity has been completely justified.</p> - -<p>Considering the isolation of the rock and its wind-swept -position, it was built in a very short time. The whole of -the year 1834 was devoted to the survey of the rock, close -observations of the prevailing meteorological conditions, -and the preparation of the design. The succeeding year -was confined to the establishment of the workmen’s quarters, -the cutting of the annular trench in the rock, and the setting -of the masonry course. The erection of the superstructure -occupied nearly four years, the work being completed and -the light exhibited in 1859, according to the inscription. -The tower is 159 feet in height, and the light has a range -of eighteen miles.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153">153</a></span> -Since the Heaux de Bréhat was conquered so successfully, -French lighthouse engineering skill has been manifested -actively around the ill-famed Brittany coast, which now is -robbed of the greater part of its dangers. Reynaud’s work, -however, did not bring complete safety to the waters from -which it lifts its imposing form. Four miles off the self-same -island is the plateau of Horaine. This is a chain of -rocks, the greatest peril of which is that at high-tide nothing -whatever of them is seen, and their existence is betrayed -only by the agitated and broken waves rushing over them -with fearful force. As the tide falls the water becomes -more tormented, and is torn into flying foam, until, -when it has almost ebbed, these jagged fangs may be seen -projecting above the surf. Bearing in mind these terrible -characteristics, it is not surprising that time after time -vessels which had been driven out of their course by tempestuous -weather, or had got lost in a dense fog, blundered -into this death-trap and were lost.</p> - -<p>The French Government was sorely puzzled as to how to -overcome this danger. The engineers fought the elements -valiantly for forty years in an effort to crown Horaine -with a beacon, but time after time they were defeated. -Landing on the reef is highly dangerous. The rocks are -surrounded by surging, eddying currents, running at anything -from six miles upwards per hour, while the slightest -ruffle of wind is quite sufficient to stir up the water so as to -fling it swirling over the rocks even at lowest tide. Once or -twice, when a period of abnormal calm prevailed, the -engineers struggled on to the rock and hurriedly built a -substantial masonry beacon, but its life was always brief. -The first two or three gales which pounded and roared over -the chain invariably scattered the handiwork of man in all -directions.</p> - -<p>Then another expedient was attempted. A party landed -upon the ridge, drove a hole into the solid rock, and there -set a vertical iron girder 4 inches in thickness, trusting -that it would hold fast and indicate the reef sufficiently -during the day. But its life was short. A gale came along<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154">154</a></span> -and snapped the post in twain, leaving a twisted, bent -stump, some 36 inches long, remaining on the rock.</p> - -<div id="ip_154" class="figcenter" style="width: 595px;"> - <img src="images/i_p154a.jpg" width="595" height="399" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>PREPARING THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE JUMENT LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This illustration conveys an idea of the difficulties encountered in connection with this work.</p></div></div> - -<p>In 1890 another bold effort to subjugate the ridge was -made. An hexagonal structure was designed, and it was -determined to plant this on the rock by hook or by crook, -and so firmly as to resist the most powerful hammerings -to which it could be subjected by the waves. Six holes were -bored into the rock surface to form the corners of the -hexagon. But before commencing the work proper it was -decided to insert an iron post, 6½ inches thick, into one of -the holes, and to leave it to see what would happen. Time -after time it was inspected, and was found to be safe and -sound. Two years had slipped by, practically, since the -post was planted, and it was still intact. The engineers -thought they had triumphed, and were preparing their -plans, when the news came that a heavy storm, which had -swept the coast, had broken the pillar off flush with the -rock.</p> - -<p>This necessitated another change in the designs and the -plan of campaign. After further discussion it was decided -to proceed right away with a masonry tower, although -the engineers were prepared for a mighty tussle. The -surveys showed that, as the rock upon which the building -was to be erected was covered by 10 feet of water during -the highest spring-tides, work upon the foundations would -be confined to the lowest neap-tides, when about 4 feet of -the rock were exposed. But the tide sinks to the very low -level desired infrequently—about four days in every month. -Even then work would be possible for only about an hour -per day—four hours per month! The prospect certainly -was far from being attractive, especially as even to accomplish -this meed of toil the calmest weather and smoothest -sea were imperative, and it was scarcely to be expected -that everything would be in favour of the engineers at one -and the same time.</p> - -<p>Another adverse feature was only too apparent. If unpropitious -weather prevailed just after an hour or two’s -work had been completed, the chances were a thousand to one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155">155</a></span> -that it would be swept away. But this was a contingency -which had to be faced. The engineer could only do the -utmost humanly possible to secure his work, and then -must trust to luck.</p> - -<p>With infinite difficulty a small corps of daring workmen -and appliances of the simplest description, together with -materials, were got out to the rock upon the first favourable -day when there was a very low tide. An outer wall of -bricks was built piecemeal, and the space within was filled -with concrete. This stood, and so the engineer secured a -level plinth upon which to place his tower. He selected an -octagonal building, the angles of which touch the circumference -of a circle 20 feet in diameter described on the rock. -It was to be 50 feet in height, bringing the warning light -about 40 feet above high-water. The beacon was to be a -concrete monolithic structure at least for the greater part -of its height, as the light was to be of the unattended class. -Accordingly, the mould was formed by setting a cast-iron -post, 18 inches in height, at each corner of the octagon, -this support being anchored into the solid rock beneath. -These posts contained grooves to admit sliding wooden -uprights, which were to be firmly wedged, these joists -being inclined to take the angle, or batter, proposed for the -tower. Heavy transverse pieces of timber were laid between -these posts, forming a capacious octagonal box, into which -the concrete was poured. As the filling process behind the -wooden wall advanced, angle pieces of steel were superimposed -and bolted up.</p> - -<div id="ip_155" class="figcenter" style="width: 589px;"> - <img src="images/i_p154b.jpg" width="589" height="348" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE JUMENT LIGHT RECENTLY ERECTED OFF USHANT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This beacon was built with a legacy left by M. Potron, a distinguished French traveller, in the interests of humanity.</p></div></div> - -<p>The security of the structure occupied the sole attention -of the engineer. When work had to cease, and the boat put -off with the workmen after a spell of toil, the engineer would -watch the rising tide and the waves sweeping over his -structure, until at last it disappeared from sight. As the -tide fell he followed the receding waters just as eagerly, -and gave a sigh of relief when he saw that the tower was -still withstanding the blind forces of Nature. In the early -stages an effort to protect the work, when the men had to -retreat before the rising tide, was made by covering it with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156">156</a></span> -a heavy piece of sailcloth, lashed down and weighted in -position with huge masses of pig-iron. This served its -purpose for a time, but finally the sea got the upper hand, -tore the canvas from its lashings, and carried it away, -together with the whole of its weights. Then a wooden -protective device was employed, and this likewise held out -until a particularly unfriendly September gale smashed it -to matchwood, as well as damaging the concrete slightly -here and there.</p> - -<p>The men took their tools and materials with them on -every visit, and, as the tower rose, the working spells between -the tides became longer and longer, until, when a point above -high-water was reached, work was continued throughout the -day whenever the rock was approachable. A small wooden -platform was erected on one side, on which the concrete was -mixed, while on the other there was a little shelf with a small -cistern, which was filled with water from the boats below, -through the agency of a pump. A jury derrick was rigged -up to lift the material and men to the working level. As -the tower rose in height, the wooden mould had to be dismembered -and re-erected upon the new level, this operation -being repeated no less than forty times until the desired -height was gained. Work was exasperatingly slow and -intermittent, while it had to be suspended entirely for about -six or seven months, as no one dared to venture near the -rock in winter. Taken on the whole, it was one of the most -anxious and difficult pieces of the work of this character -which the French Government has ever undertaken, while -the working area was so confined that less than a dozen men -could toil simultaneously without getting in one another’s -way.</p> - -<p>Recently the Brittany coast has been further protected -by another magnificent beacon, the Jument lighthouse, off -Ushant. This awful spot has long been marked by a very -powerful electric light at Creach, which may be seen over -twenty miles away, and, together with its fellow on the -opposite end of the island, may be said to guide the crowded -shipping around this promontory very effectively. But<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157">157</a></span> -foggy weather reduces the mariner to helplessness, as the -sea for two miles round the island is studded with reefs, -ridges and rocky humps of a very formidable character, so -that vessels have to keep well beyond this zone. When the -light is obscured, safe travelling is possible only by going very -slowly and making liberal use of the lead, while the captain -must keep a sharp eye upon the rapid currents which set -inshore if he would not be thrown upon the rocks he is seeking -sedulously to avoid.</p> - -<p>The French Government, with its characteristic thoroughness, -determined to secure the complete indication of the -Ushant and all its dangers by a carefully-conceived and -comprehensive chain of lights distributed over the dangerous -area. The urgency of such a scheme is obvious when it is -remembered that it is computed that 24,000 vessels of all -classes pass Ushant in the course of the year. At the same -time the sea’s harvest of vessels and lives off this rocky -shore every year is appallingly heavy. The only handicap -to the immediate completion of the Government’s humane -project is the extreme difficulty of the work and its prodigious -cost.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, through the extreme generosity of a French -traveller—M. Potron—it was rendered possible to commence -the scheme. Upon his death, and according to the terms of -his will, dated January 9, 1904, this gentleman left 400,000 -francs—£16,000, or $80,000—for the erection of a lighthouse -of the latest type and with the most powerful lighting -apparatus off the coast washed by the open Atlantic, and -even suggested that a site off Ushant would be found the -most beneficial to humanity. After consultation between -his executor, residuary legatee, and the Government, a rock -known as La Jument, off the south of the Ile d’Ouessant -(Ushant) was selected for the site of his monument. The -lighthouse engineers advocated a tower 118 feet in height, -with a light of the latest type and a modern fog-signalling -apparatus. This proposal was accepted, and was sanctioned -on November 18, 1904, by the parties concerned.</p> - -<p>Headquarters were established in the Bay of Lampaul, on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158">158</a></span> -Ushant Island, which immediately faces the site, and by -the end of 1904 the preparations were well advanced. A -steamboat, a launch and a lifeboat were secured, the first-named -for the purpose of maintaining communication with -the mainland and to bring in supplies, together with suitable -craft for transporting material and provisions to the rock. -The situation of the ledge and its exposure to the worst -weather rendered approach very difficult. The danger spot -itself is completely covered at high-tide, and only projects -4 feet at low-water. So far as the foundations were concerned, -work was only possible for a few hours at a time. -During the closing months of 1904 seventeen landings were -made and fifty-two hours in all spent upon the rock, while -in the succeeding year the men landed fifty-nine times, to -put in an aggregate of 206½ hours.</p> - -<p>The current rushes round the reef with a velocity of some -ten miles per hour, varying its direction according to the -movements of the tides. Investigation proved the existence -of a small space of water on one side where the boats could -approach and moor safely in an eddy. The men were brought -out in the steamer, which also towed the launch and the lifeboat. -The latter was kept in readiness alongside the rock -while the men were at work, in case of emergency. A sharp -eye had to be kept upon the weather while the handful of -men laboured hastily preparing the face of the rock, and at -the first signs of a threatening sky or increased movement in -the swell the steamer blew its siren, the men scrambled -aboard, and were hurried back to the island.</p> - -<p>The year 1906 was one of bad weather, rendering frequent -approach impossible. During this season the men landed -only thirty-nine times and toiled for 152 hours, while the sum -of their achievement was the least throughout the whole -seven years which the tower occupied in its erection. The -building is solid for about 30 feet above the rock, and in 1908 -the construction of the tower proper was commenced. The -base is circular, with a diameter of 33¾ feet; but the tower -itself is of octagonal form, with a diameter at the base of -28 feet, tapering slightly to the top.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159">159</a></span> -One notable feature in connection with the work was the -utilization of electricity for the operation of the derrick, -which was driven by a petrol motor coupled thereto. This -was supplemented in times of pressure with another derrick, -driven by current generated on the steamer, from which a -cable trailed to the rock. Altogether 4,180 tons of masonry -were transported to the rock and set in position. During -the seven years the work was in progress, from the first -landing to the final withdrawal of the workmen, 449 landings -were made and 2,937 hours of work put in. The largest -annual aggregate of labour was in 1911, when 70 landings -were made and 400 hours turned to useful purpose. The -tower, which is of imposing appearance, has six floors for the -convenience of the keeper, stores, etc. The apartment immediately -beneath the lantern contains the fog-signalling -apparatus, which comprises a siren driven by air which is -compressed for the purpose by means of a fourteen horse-power -petrol motor. The signal is as follows: Three blasts of -one and a half seconds’ duration with intervening intervals -of one and a half seconds, followed by a silent period of fifty-two -and a half seconds, one cycle thus being emitted every -minute. The light, which is thrown from an elevation of -110¼ feet above high-water, throws groups of three red -flashes at intervals of fifteen seconds, and has a maximum -range of twenty miles in very clear weather.</p> - -<p>In accordance with the terms of the donor’s will, the light -is named after the rock upon which it stands, and therefore -is known as the Jument of Ushant lighthouse. The benefactor’s -second wish is also respected in the inscription -wrought in the solid granite, which translated runs: -“This lighthouse was built with the legacy of Charles Eugène -Potron, traveller, and member of the Geographical Society -of Paris.” The sum set aside by this benefactor of humanity, -however, did not defray the entire cost of the lighthouse. As -a matter of fact, the total outlay on the undertaking was more -than twice the sum left for the purpose, totalling 850,000 -francs—£34,000, or $170,000. The Government decided that -the munificence of its citizen offered the opportunity to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160">160</a></span> -carry out the first instalment of the scheme it had in view -upon the most complete lines—hence the heavy disbursement. -Nevertheless the origin of the Jument lighthouse is -almost unprecedented in the annals of lighthouse engineering, -and it probably ranks as the first important light which -has been built in accordance with the terms, and with -funds, left by a will.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161">161</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE GUARDIAN LIGHTS OF CANADA’S COAST</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The phenomenal commercial expansion of the Dominion of -Canada, which has brought about an amazing development -in the maritime traffic with that country on both its seaboards, -naturally has been responsible for the display of -striking activity in the provision of aids to navigation. Both -the Atlantic and Pacific coastlines bristle with dangers of -a most terrible nature; the innumerable islands and precipitous -flanks of rock recall the wild ruggedness of the -western coast of Scotland or the forbidding Atlantic shoreline -of France and Spain.</p> - -<p>When the ships of Britain first traded with Canadian -shores, shipwrecks and ocean tragedies were numerous; -there is no escape for a ship which is caught on those pitiless -coasts. The early settlers, therefore, did not hesitate to -provide ways and means of guiding navigators to safety. -Their first lights were primitive, comprising bonfires fed with -wood, of which ample supplies abounded, pitched on prominent -headlands; and these flickering rays, when not obscured -by smoke and fog, served to speed the ship safely on her way.</p> - -<p>The British pioneers, naturally, did not hesitate to improve -upon these uncertain crude methods of warning, in course of -time, by the erection of more substantial lights. These for -the most part comprised timber-frame dwellings, used by the -family entrusted with the maintenance of the light, from the -roof of which a wooden tower extended, similar in design -to the buildings favoured for a similar purpose in the United -States. Many lights of this class are still doing faithful -service to-day, and although one might anticipate the destruction -of such a beacon from fire, yet, owing to the unremitting -care displayed by the families associated with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162">162</a></span> -upkeep thereof, this awful fiend has not been responsible for -the temporary extinction of many lights in the country’s -history.</p> - -<div id="ip_162" class="figcenter" style="width: 601px;"> - <img src="images/i_p162a.jpg" width="601" height="308" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo by permission of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE CAPE RACE LIGHTHOUSE, NEWFOUNDLAND.</p> - -<p class="captionc">One of the finest and most powerful beacons in the world. It is filled with the hyperradiant apparatus, and the ray is of 1,100,000 candle-power.</p></div></div> - -<p>One of the oldest, if not the first light to be established, -was that on Sambro Island, to indicate the entrance into -Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia. This signpost of the sea -was set up in 1758, and fulfilled its purpose for 148 years, -when it was reconstructed and fitted with the most up-to-date -appliances. The white flash now bursts forth, at an -elevation of 140 feet above mean high-water, from the top -of a white octagonal stone and concrete tower, and is visible -from a distance of seventeen miles. When it is blotted out -by fog, a powerful signal is given once every ten minutes by -a cotton-powder charge. Mariners, however, are cautioned -against attempting to make Sambro in fog, as the shore -is wild and cruel. This explosive signal is emitted rather -to communicate a timely warning to vessels which have lost -their way.</p> - -<p>The two most dangerous spots in the approach to Canada, -however, lie off the mainland. One is the irregular triangular -island of Newfoundland; the other is a low-lying stretch of -sand known as Sable Island. Both are amongst the most -ill-famed graveyards in the North Atlantic, where hundreds -of ships have gone to their doom. Even to-day, although -both are well protected by lights, wrecks are by no means -uncommon. Sable Island is stalked by the ghosts of scores -of seafarers who have been the victims of some ghastly -ocean tragedy upon its banks.</p> - -<p>The island of Newfoundland lies in the jaw of the River -St. Lawrence, with two narrow passages leading between -the Gulf behind and the broad Atlantic. Both straits offer -dangers to navigation, although in this respect that of -Belle Ile, whereby the northern corner of the island is -rounded, is the worse offender. Yet the most dangerous -corner of the island is, not where the waterways are hemmed -in, but that tongue which thrusts itself far out to sea, to -terminate in the bluff headland of Cape Race. This shoreline -is as serrated as a fine saw, being a succession of indentations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163">163</a></span> -and steep promontories, with submerged reefs running -far out to sea. To the south lies that great submerged -tableland, invariably curtained in fog, where mighty icebergs -that have come down from the north pound and grate -themselves to pieces, which throughout the shipping world -is regarded with dread—the Grand Banks. This south-eastward -corner of the island, by being thrust so far outwards, -brings the rocky headlands into the path of the vessels -plying between Europe, Canada, and New York.</p> - -<p>The shortest route between the Old and New World -extends across the northern half of the Banks, with a slight -swing southwards to avoid Cape Race. So far as the great -liners are concerned, they are spared this peril, inasmuch -as their prescribed lanes give the cruel coast a wide berth; -but all other shipping has either to swing round the headland -to enter the Gulf of St. Lawrence, or strike farther north and -pass through the Strait of Belle Ile. The latter route, however, -is available for only five months in the year; the greater -volume of the traffic skirts the southern shores of the island.</p> - -<div id="ip_163" class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"> - <img src="images/i_p162b.jpg" width="560" height="349" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>CANN ISLAND LIGHTHOUSE ON THE EAST COAST OF NEWFOUNDLAND.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This is a typical example of a wooden frame building. The tower projects from the roof of the home of the lighthouse-keeper -and his family.</p></div></div> - -<p>Under these circumstances Cape Race is to the western -side of the Atlantic what the Fastnet and Bishop Rocks are -to the eastern boundaries of this ocean. Even if the wild -character of the coast were not sufficient justification for -a light, the currents experienced off these shores, which are -of high velocity and violently broken up by the indentations -and protuberances, would demand the provision of a beacon. -Over one hundred vessels of all descriptions have been -smashed to pieces in the vicinity of Cape Race alone. The -Allan liner <i>Anglo-Saxon</i> crashed into the cliffs and went -down in 1864 with 290 souls. In this instance the death-roll -would have been far heavier had it not been for the -pluck and grit of the lighthouse-keepers, who, observing the -wreck, hurried to the water’s edge, lowered themselves with -ropes from the heights above, and, stumbling, groping, and -feeling their way through the darkness, at imminent risk -to their own limbs and lives, rescued 130 of the luckless -passengers and crew from the wreck, who were huddled on a -ledge under the cliffs, hungry, shivering with cold, and too<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164">164</a></span> -exhausted to assist themselves. The light-keepers and men -from the telegraph-station had to lift these helpless survivors -one by one to the top of the precipice, a task demanding -herculean effort, patience, and intrepidity, and to lead -and help them to the lighthouse, where they were tended -until a steamer, answering the telegraphic call for help, came -round from St. John’s and took the hapless people off.</p> - -<p>In 1901 the <i>Assyrian</i> ran ashore in calm weather, and was -too firmly jammed on a reef to extricate herself. A week -later another fine vessel and cargo worth £80,000, or $400,000, -was battered to pulp by the waves, the lighthouse-keepers -once more, at great risk to themselves, putting out and -rescuing those on board in the nick of time. Ere the excitement -of this wreck had died down, a French emigrant steamer, -the <i>Lusitania</i>, ran full-tilt on to a reef, and but for the -timely aid rendered by the lighthouse-keepers and the -fisherfolk 550 people would have been drowned. More -fearful catastrophes have been enacted within hail of the -lights at Cape Race and Cape Ray, hard by to the west, and -more millions sterling of cargo and ship have been shattered -and lost here than upon any other corresponding -stretch of coast in the world. The most noticeable point in -connection with these disasters is the large number of big -boats which have ended their careers abruptly off this spot, -although the rocks have claimed a big share of small fry -as well.</p> - -<p>The first beacon was placed on the headland in 1856. It -was a cylindrical tower, built up of cast-iron plates, erected -near the edge of the cliff, which is 87 feet high. The tower -itself being 38 feet in height, the focal plane of the beam -was at an elevation of 125 feet above the sea. It was -erected jointly by the British and Newfoundland Government -authorities, although the maintenance thereof was -entrusted to Great Britain. In return for the provision of -this warning, a tax of one-sixteenth of a penny, or an eighth -of a cent, per ton, was collected in England from vessels -passing the light. The beacon was not particularly powerful, -the ray being only of some 6,000 candle-power.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165">165</a></span> -Some years ago the lighthouse was handed over to the -Canadian Government to be included in its service, together -with the balance of the fund which had accrued from the -levy of the special tax. This sum represented £20,579, or -$102,895. The Canadian Government abolished the light-due, -and the surplus funds were absorbed into the general -revenue of the country.</p> - -<p>The new owners, realizing the importance of the light, -subsequently decided to provide a new beacon of greater -power to meet the demands of shipping, which had increased -amazingly. In 1907 this structure was completed. It is -a cylindrical tower, carried out in reinforced concrete, -100 feet in height, surmounted by a lantern of the first order -with hyperradial apparatus. This is the largest type of -optical apparatus in use at the present time, and the ray of -light produced by an incandescent oil-burner and mantle -is of 1,100,000 candle-power, shed from an elevation of -195 feet above the water. The warning flash of a quarter -of a second every seven and a half seconds is visible from a -distance of nineteen miles. In addition, the fog-signalling -apparatus was brought up to date. The steam-whistle, -which had sufficed up to the date of reconstruction, was -replaced by a diaphone of the greatest power installed up -to that time. This is set up about 250 feet south of the -lighthouse, with which it is connected by a covered passage. -The air required to emit the warning blast, lasting three and -a half seconds once in every half-minute, is compressed by -the aid of steam. By day the lighthouse is readily distinguishable -from its red and white vertical stripes, red -lantern, and white dwelling with red roof, in which the -keepers have their quarters. To-day the station ranks as -one of the finest in the world, complying in every respect -with the requisitions for one of a first-class character.</p> - -<p>Sable Island is perhaps an even more evil spot in the -North Atlantic than the ill-famed Newfoundland coast. -It is a bleak, inhospitable, crescent-shaped collection of -sand-dunes, eighty-five miles due east of Nova Scotia and -lying right in the steamship tracks. A more uninviting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166">166</a></span> -stretch of dry land could not be conceived. Little grows -here beyond a special kind of brush, which appears to -flourish in sea-swept billows of sand. But the obstacle is -formidable, being twenty-two miles in length by a mile in -width at its broadest part. This does not constitute the -extent of its dangers—far from it. The island is slowly but -surely being swallowed up by the restless, hissing sea, with -the result that, when one stands on the almost indistinguishable -line where sea meets land, an aspect of white ruffs of -foam curl in all directions as far as the eye can see, where the -surf is thundering over the shoals. I have related the toll -that this island of the dead has exacted from shipping,<a id="FNanchor_A" href="#Footnote_A" class="fnanchor">A</a> and -now confine myself to describing the means that have been -provided to warn the mariner off its bars. The Canadian -Government maintains two lighthouses, at the western and -eastern extremities respectively, and those entrusted with -their safe-keeping have as lonely an existence as may be -conceived. The welcome face of a stranger never brightens -their lives, except when the relief-boat draws in as far as it -dares in the calmest weather, or when some luckless wretches -are snatched from a vessel which has fallen into the toils of -the sand and is doomed. The sea-birds and seals are their -sole companions on this lonely outpost.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_A" href="#FNanchor_A" class="fnanchor">A</a> “The Steamship Conquest of the World,” chapter xxi., p. 299.</p></div> - -<div id="ip_166" class="figcenter" style="width: 592px;"> - <img src="images/i_p166a.jpg" width="592" height="347" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo by courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE LIGHT AT THE SOUTHERN END OF BELLE ILE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This Canadian beacon throws its rays from a height of 470 feet. In foggy weather the headland often is obscured by fog, so an auxiliary light has been -provided 346 feet below.</p></div></div> - -<p>The necessity of indicating this death-trap to the mariner -was realized at the end of the seventeenth century, but it -was not until 1802 that a forward step was taken to ease the -plight of those who were thrown upon its shores. Then the -province of Nova Scotia voted a sum of £400 or $2,000, per -annum, for the maintenance of a fully-equipped life-saving -station. This sum was too slender to fulfil the purposes -conceived, but in 1827 the Imperial Government, recognizing -the humane character of the enterprise, voted a similar -appropriation, which is paid regularly, or was up to a -few years ago, towards its support. When the Dominion of -Canada became an accomplished fact in 1867, by the confederation -of the provinces, the matter was taken up whole-heartedly, -and since that date enormous sums have been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167">167</a></span> -expended upon the island for the protection of shipping and -the mitigation of the sufferings of those cast upon its inhospitable -shores. At the present time three life-saving -stations and six relief stations, equipped with the best -modern apparatuses, are maintained, connected by telephone -and equipped with a staff of about twenty men. When the -gales are raging and the island is encircled in a broad band -of maddened spray stretching to the horizon, these men are -out patrolling the shore, ready to man the lifeboat upon the -first signals of distress. The life of these lonely workers now -is lightened very appreciably, as the island is fitted with a -wireless station, wherewith the men are able to talk through -space with the mainland and with passing vessels.</p> - -<div id="ip_167" class="figcenter" style="width: 595px;"> - <img src="images/i_p166b.jpg" width="595" height="350" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo by courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE NORTH BELLE ILE LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The warning flash, thrown from a height of 137 feet, can be seen from a distance of 17 miles.</p></div></div> - -<p>The west end light has passed through many vicissitudes, -and the keepers have experienced innumerable thrills. At -this point the ocean is devouring the island rapidly. In -1873 the tower was raised in what was considered a safe -position. It was placed some distance from the water’s -edge on a favourable knoll, and thought to be immune from -the gnawing of the sea for many years to come. But Nature -disposed otherwise. The awful winter of 1881 played havoc -with the island. One mighty gale carried away a solid -chunk 70 feet wide by nearly 1,400 feet long. When the -summer came, and an inspection was made, fears were entertained -concerning the safety of the lighthouse. The keepers -had observed violent tremblings, for the tower vibrated -considerably under the smashing blows of the waves. -Nothing could be done that summer, and it was hoped that -the succeeding winter would be milder, to enable plans to be -prepared for the construction of a new tower in a safer -position. The keepers, however, were urged to keep a sharp -eye on developments, and to be prepared for any emergency. -The winter of 1882 proved to be worse than that of the -previous year, and the island suffered more than ever. The -keepers and their isolated comrades viewed the advance -of the waves with ill-disguised alarm. Would the island -around the light hold out until the spring? That was the -uppermost thought. Every gale brought the waves nearer,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168">168</a></span> -and at last it was recognized that one good gale would finish -matters. So the men prepared for the emergency. The -demolition of the tower commenced, a race between the -waters and human labour. The men worked well and had -just got the superstructure away, when there was a creak, a -groan, and a crash! The foundations, which had been undermined, -disappeared into the Atlantic. In less than ten years -the hungry ocean had carried a mile of Sable Island away.</p> - -<div id="ip_168" class="figcenter" style="width: 299px;"> - <img src="images/i_p168a.jpg" width="299" height="350" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By kind permission of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson.</i> -</p> - -<p>A MAGNIFICENT CANADIAN LIGHT ON THE PACIFIC -COAST.</p> - -<p class="captionc">An octagonal tower, 127 feet high, built of ferro-concrete.</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_168b" class="figcenter" style="width: 298px;"> - <img src="images/i_p168b.jpg" width="298" height="350" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE WEST END GUARDIAN OF SABLE ISLAND, THE -GRAVEYARD OF THE ATLANTIC.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This tower replaces the structure demolished by the waves.</p></div></div> - -<p>In 1888 the present magnificent lighthouse was brought -into service. It is a ferro-concrete tower of octagonal shape -rising from a massive plinth of the same form, and is provided -with four equidistantly-spaced wing buttresses to hold -the structure more rigid in rough weather. The building is -set on a knoll rising 20 feet above the water, and about 2,100 -yards east of the extremity of the western dry spit of land, -so that the Atlantic will have to gnaw a considerable distance -before it will render the position of this light untenable. -The tower is 97 feet in height, bringing the white ray 118 feet -above the level of the sea. The light is of the group revolving -type, thrown once every three minutes. The warning -is made up of three flashes, with an eclipse of thirty seconds -between each flash, followed by darkness for ninety seconds, -and may be seen sixteen miles away. While the beacon -mounts guard over the main end of the island on one side, -there is a dangerous submerged bar which runs north-westwards -and westwards for seventeen miles. The light at the -east end, which was erected in 1873, is likewise carried on an -octagonal tower 81 feet high, but, being set upon a more -commanding position, the beam is elevated to 123 feet. It -is erected five miles south-westwards of the extreme tip of the -island, and gives a white flash at intervals of three seconds, -followed by an eclipse of fifteen seconds; it may be picked -up seventeen miles away. Similarly, this light mounts guard -over a submerged sand-bar, which extends eastwards for -at least fourteen miles.</p> - -<p>During the late summer and autumn the majority of the -vessels plying between ports on the St. Lawrence and Europe -take the shorter route round the northern corner of Newfoundland<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169">169</a></span> -through the Straits of Belle Ile. This is a highly -dangerous passage, inasmuch as the narrow streak of water, -seventy miles in length, with a maximum width of eleven -miles, separating the frowning coasts of Newfoundland and -Labrador, is strewn with menaces, the most formidable of -which is Belle Ile, which lies right in the centre of the entrance -from the ocean. The island is really a lofty hump of -rock, twenty-one miles in circumference, with the shores for -the most part dropping precipitously into the water. It is -an extremely lonely spot, and, naturally, is feared by the -mariner. His apprehensions, however, have been considerably -relieved, because the channel is brilliantly lighted by -several powerful lights visible from twelve to twenty-eight -miles, while another is being established.</p> - -<div id="ip_169" class="figcenter" style="width: 301px;"> - <img src="images/i_p168c.jpg" width="301" height="342" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>ST. ESPRIT ISLAND LIGHT, NOVA SCOTIA.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Its white revolving light is visible for 14 miles.</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_169b" class="figcenter" style="width: 293px;"> - <img src="images/i_p168d.jpg" width="293" height="345" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE GULL ISLAND LIGHT, NEWFOUNDLAND.</p> - -<p class="captionc">A very lonely beacon, visible for 27 miles.</p></div></div> - -<p>The beacons are distributed along the shores of Newfoundland, -Belle Ile, and Labrador, one powerful light being -placed on Cape Bauld, the northernmost point of Newfoundland, -and another on Cape Norman, another promontory to -the west. These two lights are visible from twenty and -sixteen miles respectively, while on the opposite side of the -strait is Amour Point light, guarding the south-east side of -Forteau Bay on the Labrador shore, which has a range of -eighteen miles. Cape Bauld is the most important mainland -beacon, inasmuch as it indicates the entrance to the -Belle Ile Straits. Belle Ile is well protected at its two -extreme tips, the principal light being at the southern end. -The necessity of guiding ships between the island and Newfoundland -was recognized half a century ago, for this light -was erected in 1858. It is perched on the summit of the -cliff, 400 feet above the sea, the occulting light of ten seconds’ -duration and five seconds’ eclipse being thrown from an -altitude of 470 feet, rendering it distinguishable twenty-eight -miles away. Unfortunately, however, the extreme -elevation of the light often causes it to be enshrouded in -impenetrable banks of clouds, which drape the headland; so -in 1880 an auxiliary light was established, 346 feet below the -upper light. This beam is similar in character to the one -above, and, from its elevation of 124 feet above the water, it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170">170</a></span> -may be picked up from seventeen miles out. Consequently, -in foggy weather the lower light may be seen when the upper -beacon is obscured. This is one of the most important points -on the coast, being a marine telegraph, signal, and ice-report -station, while it is also fitted with wireless telegraphy. An -interesting feature in connection with this light is that it was -kept going for three generations by one family, the Coltons, -whose name is legendary in Quebec, and some of whom -were born and died on Belle Ile.</p> - -<div id="ip_170" class="figcenter" style="width: 301px;"> - <img src="images/i_p170a.jpg" width="301" height="349" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE BATISCAN FRONT RANGE LIGHTHOUSE, RIVER -ST. LAWRENCE.</p> - -<p class="captionc"><i>By courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson.</i></p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_170b" class="figcenter" style="width: 302px;"> - <img src="images/i_p170b.jpg" width="302" height="351" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>ISLE ST. THÉRÈSE UPPER RANGE BACK LIGHTHOUSE, -RIVER ST. LAWRENCE.</p> - -<p class="captionc"><i>By courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson.</i></p></div></div> - -<p>The second light, on the northern extremity of the island, -to indicate the northern entrance into the straits, is of -recent date, having been brought into operation in 1905. -It is a tower of iron, encased in a white octagonal reinforced -concrete covering capped with a red polygonal-shaped -lantern throwing a flash of half a second once every eleven -seconds from a height of 137 feet, visible from a distance of -seventeen miles.</p> - -<p>Fogs and mists are two great perils peculiar to this -northern waterway, so the splendid lighting arrangements -are supported by excellent and powerful fog-signals. The -northern light has a diaphone giving a blare lasting three and -a half seconds every minute, while the southern station -has a siren giving a double tone. First there is a low note -of two and a half seconds followed by silence for two and a -half seconds; then a high note of two and a half seconds -and a silent interval of 112½ seconds. This signal is emitted -from a point midway between the upper and lower lights, -the air for the blast being compressed by water-power. -Another humane provision is the depot at the southern -station, which is kept stocked with food supplies for the -benefit of shipwrecked mariners. In 1898 a freighter -carrying a deck-load of 400 oxen went ashore beneath this -light and became a hopeless wreck. The crew, realizing the -impossibility of saving the animals, fired the ship, so that -the animals were suffocated and bruised, thereby sparing the -inhabitants of the island a deadly risk, and solving the difficult -problem which otherwise would have arisen, had the -brutes been drowned in the ordinary way and their decomposing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171">171</a></span> -carcasses cast up on the beach. In the following -year the Dominion liner <i>Scotsman</i> crashed on to the rocks -near the same spot, and likewise became a total loss, with a -death-roll of nine. By dint of great effort the survivors -scrambled ashore, and had a weary trudge of nine miles -over a broken, rock-strewn wilderness to gain the lighthouse -station and assistance, arriving in a famished and exhausted -condition, to be tended by the light-keepers and their -families.</p> - -<p>Belle Ile is a lonely station in the fullest sense of the -word, although the keepers are better off now than they -were a few years ago. The straits are busy in the summer, -being crowded with shipping, but with the coming of -November all life disappears, and the liners do not return -until the following May or June. The rock is cut off from -the mainland by the masses of ice which pile up in the -estuary, together with the crowds of icebergs which come -down from Greenland. For six months the guardians of -the light are isolated from the world at large, although they -have a slender link of communication in the submarine -cable. But the storms and stress of winter often rupture -this line, and, as the wireless installation is closed down -when navigation ceases, the keepers and their families -settle down to a silent, weary vigil, knowing nothing of the -rest of the world, and all but forgotten by civilization, -because an interruption in the cable cannot be repaired -until the ice disappears.</p> - -<div id="ip_171" class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"> - <img src="images/i_p170c.jpg" width="399" height="292" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">UPPER TRAVERSE LIGHTHOUSE IN THE RIVER ST. LAWRENCE.</div></div> - -<div id="ip_171b" class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"> - <img src="images/i_p170d.jpg" width="402" height="310" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson.</i> -</p> - -<p>AN “ICE SHOVE” UPON THE BACK RANGE LIGHT IN LAKE ST. PETER.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This photo gives a striking idea of the trouble experienced with ice in Canadian waters.</p></div></div> - -<p>Even when the Gulf of the St. Lawrence is entered, the -navigator is not free from peril. The waterway is littered -with rocks and islands. Among these are Coffin Island -and Anticosti, the latter being the private property of -M. Henri Ménier, the French chocolate magnate. For many -years the St. Lawrence was a byword to navigation, and -wrecks were numerous. It was shunned by navigators and -abhorred by underwriters. Even to this day the latter -regard it askance, and the insurance rates are high upon -vessels trading in these waters. Through the efforts of the -Department of Marine and Fisheries, the Dominion Government<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172">172</a></span> -is removing this stigma from their great marine -avenue, and their engineer-in-chief. Lieutenant-Colonel -William P. Anderson, to whom I am indebted for much -information concerning the guardians of the Canadian coasts, -has displayed commendable enterprise and ingenuity in -combating the natural odds pitted against human endeavour -to render the coasts of the country more friendly to -navigation.</p> - -<p>In the St. Lawrence the great foe is ice. Its onslaughts -are terrific, and none but the strongest works has a chance -to survive the enormous pressure exerted when the ice is -on the run after the break of winter. As is well known, -for some five months in the year the river is frozen so thick -and solid that it will support a train. Naturally, when this -armour collapses, and the floes are hurled seawards by the -current, they concentrate their destructive energies upon -any obstacles in their way, piling up in huge masses weighing -thousands of tons. It is no uncommon circumstance for -the floes to pack in a jagged heap 50 feet high, while -all the time there is a continual push against the obstruction.</p> - -<p>Under these circumstances extreme ingenuity has to be -displayed in the erection of the fixed lights. The floating -lights, such as buoys, escape this peril, as they are picked -up when navigation ceases, to be housed in quarters on -dry land, and replaced when the river is open once more. -Yet it is not only the ice in itself which causes trouble. -The level of the river rises when the ice is running, and this -pressure alone is enormous, while the scouring action about -the foundations is terrific. The type of structure adopted -varies with the situation and character of the light. The -beacons for the aid of navigation, in common with the -practice upon American waterways, are divided into groups -or ranges, and the captain picks out his channel by keeping -these lights and marks in various lines. Maybe four or five -lights have to be brought into line, and accordingly the -height of the unit of each range varies from its fellow. Thus, -the front light will be low, that behind a little higher, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173">173</a></span> -so on, until the last light in the group, or “back light” of -the range, as it is called, is a lofty structure.</p> - -<p>In some places the light is placed in mid-stream, and -perhaps mounted upon a massive, high, steel caisson, -resting upon a concrete foundation, thereby proving immovable -to the most powerful of ice-shoves. Or a large pier -carried out in ferro-concrete and pyramidal in shape is used. -In the case of the back light there is a skeleton tower, which -structure is employed to gain the necessary height. This -is carried upon a high, huge, solid plinth of concrete, even -if built against the bank. The frazil ice dams the channel, -causing the water to rise, and unless the foregoing precautions -were adopted widespread damage would result. All -the lights between the gulf and Montreal have to be protected -in this manner, so that it will be seen that the adequate -lighting of this waterway bristles with engineering -difficulties of no light character, and is expensive.</p> - -<p>The Canadian Government also is responsible, to a certain -extent, for the lighting of the Great Lakes, which is described -in another chapter, where similar difficulties prevail. -It has also a long stretch of the most rugged part of the -Pacific coast to patrol, aggregating about 600 miles between -Victoria and Vancouver to the Portland Canal, where -Canadian meets Alaskan territory. This is a wicked coast, -broken and battered, as well as flanked by an outer barrier -of islands, recalling the Scandinavian Peninsula in its general -topographical characteristics. During the past few years -the necessity of lighting this seaboard adequately has become -more pronounced, owing to the creation of the new port of -Prince Rupert, a few miles below Alaskan territory, where -the Grand Trunk Pacific reaches down to the western sea, -and the growing sea-borne traffic with Alaska. The fact -that a large portion of this navigation is maintained through -the inside passages, bristling with sharp turns, narrow -defiles, and jagged headlands, which for the most part are -wrapped generally in fog, renders the lighting problem more -intricate. Probably the most important light, and certainly -the loftiest on the Pacific seacoast north of the Equator,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174">174</a></span> -is that on the summit of Triangle Island, British Columbia. -It was built in 1910, and although the lantern itself is only -46 feet in height, the elevation of the headland brings the -white group-flashing light of 1,000,000 candle-power 700 feet -above the sea, giving it a range of thirty-four miles. Four -flashes are emitted during each ten seconds, each flash -lasting 0·28 second with intervening eclipses each of 1·28 -seconds, with an eclipse between each group of 5·94 seconds.</p> - -<p>Lieutenant-Colonel Anderson has introduced a new type -of reinforced concrete lighthouse with flying buttresses. -The latter are not required for strength, but are utilized to -give greater stiffness to the tower, as a column 100 feet or -more in height, no matter how strongly it may be built, -must vibrate and swing in high winds. Yet it is desirable -to keep the lantern as steady as possible, and this is achieved -much more completely upon the above principle. The -engineer-in-chief of the lighthouse authority of the Canadian -Government considers this method of construction to be the -last word in lighthouse building, and has completed some -notable works upon these lines. Perhaps the most important -is the Estevan Point light, on the west coast of Vancouver, -at a place known as Hole-in-the-Wall. The tower, -of octagonal, tapering form, is 127 feet in height, and throws -a white group-flashing light, comprising three flashes each -of 9·3 seconds with two eclipses, each of 1·37 seconds, and a -final eclipse of 6·36 seconds between each group, seventeen -miles out to sea. The surroundings of this station are most -romantic. Landing anywhere in its vicinity is extremely -difficult and dangerous, and the engineer had to select a -point about two miles distant for this purpose. From this -place a road and tramway have been laid through a grand -primeval forest, such as is to be found only upon Vancouver -Island, wherein roams a drove of magnificent wild cattle.</p> - -<p>While the Canadian coast cannot point to any lighthouse -work comparing with the Eddystone, Skerryvore, or Heaux -de Bréhat, yet its most powerful beacons are of a commanding -character, representing as they do the latest and best -in connection with coast lighting. There is an enormous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175">175</a></span> -stretch of difficult shore to patrol, along which has to -be guided an immense volume of valuable shipping. In -addition to the attended lights, the Government has been -extremely enterprising in the adoption of unattended -beacons (described in another chapter), miles of lonely, -inhospitable shore being guarded in this way. Although -the development in this direction is of comparatively recent -date, the protection of maritime trade is being carried out -in accordance with a comprehensive policy, so that within -a few years the coasts of the Dominion will be rendered as -safe to the shipping of the world as human ingenuity can -contrive.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176">176</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE MINOT’S LEDGE LIGHT</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Lovers of Longfellow will recall the poet’s song to the -lighthouse, but how many of his admirers know to what -beacon these stirring lines refer? When they were penned -the author had in his mind’s eye an example of the engineer’s -handiwork which ranks as one of the finest sea-rock lights -in existence, worthy of comparison with the most famous -of similar structures scattered throughout the waters washing -the Old World.</p> - -<p>This is the far-famed Minot’s Ledge light, warning the -seafarer making to and from Boston Bay of the terrible -peril which lurks beneath the waves on the southern side -of the entrance to this busy indentation. “Like the great -giant Christopher it stands,” a powerful monument to -engineering genius, dogged perseverance against overwhelming -odds, and a grim, bitter contest lasting five weary years -between the implacable elements and human endeavour. -The Minot Ledge is one of those jagged reefs which thrust -themselves far out into the sea, studded with pinnacles and -chisel-like edges, which never, or very seldom, protrude -above the waves. Ship after ship fouled this danger spot, -either to be sunk or to be so badly crippled that it barely -could contrive to crawl to safety.</p> - -<p>The prosperity of Boston was threatened by this peril to -shipping, and therefore it is not surprising that a resolution -was passed to devise some ways and means of indicating its -presence to those who go down to the sea in ships. The solution -was offered in a skeleton structure fashioned from iron, -which was designed by Captain W. H. Swift, of the United -States Topographical Engineers. He searched the reef -through and through to ascertain the point where the beacon<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177">177</a></span> -should be placed so as to prove of the greatest value. This -in itself was no simple matter, inasmuch as Minot’s Ledge -is but one of a great area of wicked crags, which collectively -are known as the Cohasset Rocks, and which straggle -over the sea-bed in all directions. After the position had -been reconnoitred thoroughly, and sounding and levels had -been taken, the engineer decided that the most seaward -rock of the group, known as the Outer Minot, would be the -most strategical position, and accordingly he planned to -erect his beacon thereon.</p> - -<p>It was a daring proposal, because the reef at the point -selected only exposes some 25 feet of its mass above the -falling tide, and then the highest point of the rock scarcely -thrusts itself 3½ feet into the air. It was realized that the -periods of working between the tides would inevitably be -very brief, while even then, owing to the open position -of the ridge, a landing would only be possible in very smooth -weather, and the men would have to suffer exposure to the -fury of the waves as they dashed over the ledge.</p> - -<p>Captain Swift decided upon a skeleton iron structure, not -only because it would be quicker to erect and would cost -less, but because it would offer the least resistance to the -waves, which would be free to expend their energy among -the stilts. The task was taken in hand at the first favourable -opportunity, and, the system lending itself to rapid -construction, marked progress was made every time the -workmen succeeded in getting on the ledge. The lantern -and keepers’ quarters were supported upon nine piles, 60 feet -above the rock. The legs were so disposed that eight -described the circumference of a circle, while the ninth constituted -the axis.</p> - -<p>This tower was completed in 1848, and for the first time -the navigator making these treacherous waters received a -powerful warning to keep clear of Minot’s Ledge. For -three years the beacon survived the battering of wind and -wave, but its welcome beam was last seen on the night of -April 16, 1851. In the spring of that year a gale of terrific -fury beat upon the Massachusetts coast. The wind freshened<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178">178</a></span> -on April 13; the next day it rose to its full force, and -did not abate for four days. The good people of Boston -grew apprehensive concerning the plight of the two keepers -of the lonely Minot’s light, but, however willing they might -have been to have put out to the beacon, they were absolutely -impotent before the ferocity of the elements. Time after -time the light vanished from sight as it was enveloped in an -angry curling mountain of water. On April 17 the doleful -tolling of the lighthouse bell was heard, but the light was -never seen again. The structure had slipped completely -from sight, together with its faithful keepers, swallowed by -the hungry Atlantic. Evidently the wail of the bell was a -last plea for assistance, because no doubt the lighthouse -had bowed to the storm and was tottering when the tolling -rang out. But the call brought no help; it was the funeral -knell of the guardians of the beacon. When the sea went -down a boat pushed off to the ledge, and all that was seen -were a few bent piles. Captain Swift had done his work -well. The waves could not tear his beacon up by the roots, -so had snapped off the piles like carrots, and had carried -away the lantern.</p> - -<div id="ip_178" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/i_p178a.jpg" width="400" height="602" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE MINOT’S LEDGE LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionl">Marking the rock off Boston Harbour, it is one of the greatest works completed by the lighthouse -builders of the United States. It forms the theme of Longfellow’s well-known poem.</p></div></div> - -<p>This sensational disaster, after a brief existence of three -years, did not augur well for the permanence of a light upon -this precarious ledge. The Outer Minot appeared to be -determined to continue its plunder of ships, cargoes, and -lives, untrammelled. Accordingly, for three years no effort -was made to bring about its subjugation.</p> - -<p>In 1855 General Barnard, one of the most illustrious -engineers which the United States has ever produced, -brought forward the plans for a structure which he thought -would resist the most formidable attacks of wind and wave. -He took Rudyerd’s famous Eddystone tower as his pattern. -This was perhaps the strongest design that could be carried -out against the sea, having one weak point only—it was -built of wood. General Barnard contemplated a similar -structure for Minot’s Ledge, but in masonry.</p> - -<p>The Lighthouse Board, which had recently been inaugurated -to control the lighthouses around the coasts of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179">179</a></span> -country, examined the idea minutely, and submitted the -design to the most expert criticism and discussion, but all -were so impressed with its outstanding features that they -decided to support it whole-heartedly. A minute survey of -the rock was prepared, and the plans were straight away -perfected for the preparation of the masonry on shore. So -carefully was this work carried out, that, with the exception -of a few blocks of masonry constituting the foundations, -which had to be prepared on the site, and some slight variations -in the method of construction, the original ideas were -fulfilled.</p> - -<p>Work was commenced in 1855, the building operations -being placed in the hands of B. S. Alexander, at that time -Lieutenant of Engineers, and the successful completion of -the work was due in a very great measure to his ability and -ingenuity, because the whole undertaking was placed in -his hands and he had to overcome difficulties at every turn -as they arose.</p> - -<p>The builder was handicapped in every way. First there -was the brief period in which operations could be carried -out upon the site, the working season extending only from -April 1 to September 15 in each year. This is not to say -that the masons were able to toil upon the rock continuously -every day during this interval—far from it. In order to -get the foundations laid there were three essentials—a perfectly -smooth sea, a dead calm, and low spring-tides. Needless -to say, it was on very rare occasions indeed that these -three requirements were in harmony. As a matter of fact, -they could occur only about six times during every lunar -month—three times during full moon, and three at the -change. Even then, either the wind or the sea intervened -to nullify the benefits arising from the lowest tides. So -much so that, although work commenced at daybreak on -Sunday, July 1, 1855, only 130 working hours were possible -upon the rock before labours ceased for the season in the -middle of the following September.</p> - -<div id="ip_179" class="figcenter" style="width: 596px;"> - <img src="images/i_p178b.jpg" width="596" height="348" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>TENDER LANDING BUILDING MATERIAL UPON THE TILLAMOOK ROCK.</p> - -<p class="captionc">A derrick has been provided to facilitate these operations, while a stairway leads from the landing point to the lighthouse.</p></div></div> - -<p>On gaining the rock, Lieutenant Alexander decided to -make use of the holes which had been driven into the granitic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180">180</a></span> -mass by Captain Swift to receive the piles of the previous -structure. The twisted and broken pieces of iron were -withdrawn and the holes cleaned out. Simultaneously the -upper surface of the rock was pared and trimmed by the aid -of chisels, which was no easy task, because at times the -masons were compelled to manipulate their tools as best -they could in two or three feet of water. This preparation -of the rock to receive the base constituted one of the most -notable features of the work. In the greater number of -other outstanding achievements upon sea-rocks the surface -of the latter has been above the waves at lowest spring-tides, -whereas in this case a great part of the foundation -work was continuously submerged.</p> - -<p>This preparation of the rock-face necessitated the final -trimming and shaping upon the site of many of the masonry -blocks forming the root of the tower. They could not -possibly be prepared ashore to bring about the tight fit -which was imperative. Accordingly, all but the bottom -faces of the blocks were prepared in the depot on the mainland, -and they were then shipped to the ledge for final paring -and trimming.</p> - -<p>The attachment of the bottom courses to the rock-face -was carried out very ingeniously. Bags of sand were brought -on to the rock and laid around the spot upon which a particular -block of stone was to be laid. The sacks, being -filled with sand, were pliable, so that, when deposited, they -adapted themselves to the contour of the ledge, and prevented -the water making its way in under the rampart. -The water within this small dam was then removed, sponges -being used in the final emptying task, so as to suck out the -salt sea from the cracks and crevices, leaving the surface on -which the block of stone was to be laid quite dry. A film -of cement was then trowelled upon the rock surface, and -upon this was laid a sheet of muslin. The inclusion of the -muslin was a wise precaution, because while the work was -in progress a wandering wave was liable to curl over the -rock, swamping the small dried space, when, but for the -presence of the muslin, the cement would have been carried<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181">181</a></span> -away. At the same time the cement was able to penetrate -the meshes of the muslin when the stone was deposited, so -as to grip the surface of the latter and to hold it tightly -in position.</p> - -<p>Under such abnormal conditions of working the masons -had many exciting moments. No matter how smooth was -the sea, several renegade waves would plunge over the ledge. -The masons had to be prepared for these unwelcome visitors, -and precautions had to be introduced to prevent them being -washed off their slender foothold. A substantial iron -staging was erected over the working area on the rock, to -facilitate the handling of the building material. A number -of ropes were attached to this staging, the free ends of which -dangled beside the workmen. These were the life-lines, one -being provided for each man. A lookout was posted, who, -when he saw a wave approaching and bent upon sweeping -the rock, gave a shrill signal. Instantly each workman -dropped his tools, clutched his life-line tightly, threw himself -prostrate on the rock, and allowed the wave to pass over -him. The situation certainly was uncomfortable, and the -men often toiled in soddened clothes, but an involuntary -bath was preferable to the loss of a life or to broken limbs.</p> - -<p>Work advanced so slowly that during the first two years, -which were devoted to the excavation of the pit and the -preparations of the rock-face, only 287 hours’ work were -accomplished. In the third year this task was completed, -and four stones laid in a further 130 hours 21 minutes. By -the end of the working season of 1859 twenty-six courses -were finished, so that, while the volume of work fulfilled in -1,102 hours 21 minutes, and spread over five years, certainly -was not imposing, it was remarkable under the circumstances.</p> - -<p>The stones for the foundations were sent from shore -with the indication -3’ 5”, -2’ 9”, -1’ 3”, and so on, indicating -that these stones were prepared for positions 3 feet -5 inches, 2 feet 9 inches, and so on, below zero. And the -zero mark was 21 inches below water! Above the zero -mark the stones were prefixed by a “plus” sign.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182">182</a></span> -The shaft is purely conical, and solid except for a central -well extending from the foundations up to the level of the -entrance. The successive courses of stones were secured -to one another, and each stone was attached to its neighbour -in the ring by the aid of heavy iron dogs, so that the lower -part of the shaft forms a practically solid homogenous mass. -What are known as continuous “dowels” were sunk -through each course of masonry into the holes in the solid -rock prepared by Captain Swift for his skeleton light, this -further attachment of the mass to the ledge being continued -until the twelfth course was gained. Thus additional -security is obtained by anchoring the tower firmly to the reef.</p> - -<p>The solid portion of the building is 40 feet in height from -the level of the first complete ring of stones, and the tower -is 80 feet high to the lantern gallery. The over-all height -to the top of the lantern cupola is 102¾ feet, while the focal -plane is 84½ feet above mean high-water. The first stone -was laid on July 9, 1857, while the masons completed their -duties on June 29, 1860, so that five years were occupied -upon the work. In erection 3,514 tons of rough and 2,367 -tons of hammered stone, in addition to 1,079 numbered -stones, were used, and the total cost, including the light-keepers’ -houses on the mainland, was £60,000, or $300,000, -so that it ranks among the more costly lights which have -been provided for the seafarer’s benefit.</p> - -<p>On November 15, 1860, nine and a half years after the -destruction of the first beacon, the light was once more -thrown from Minot’s Ledge for the benefit of passing ships. -The light is of the second order, visible fourteen and three-quarter -miles out to sea, and is of the flashing type, signalling -“143” every thirty seconds thus—one flash followed -by three seconds’ darkness, four flashes with three seconds’ -eclipse, and three flashes with an interval of fifteen seconds’ -darkness.</p> - -<p>The tower has been subjected to repeated prodigious -assaults, the north-east gales in particular thundering upon -this reef with tremendous fury, but it has withstood all -attacks with complete success.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183">183</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE TILLAMOOK ROCK LIGHT-STATION</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>While the Northern Pacific Ocean is the loneliest stretch -of salt water in the world, yet it possesses one or two busy -corners. Prominent among the latter is that where it -washes the shores of the United States around the entrance -to the mighty Columbia River. The estuary is wide, and, -although navigation is handicapped by a bar, it is well -protected. But coming up from the south there is a -stretch of terribly forbidding coastline, with the cliffs at -places towering 1,500 feet or more into the air and dropping -sheer into the water. Rock-slides are of frequent occurrence, -and the beach is littered with heavy falls from above. -Here and there protuberances rise from the sea, formed of -rock sufficiently dense and hard to withstand more effectively -the process of erosion, only to constitute fearful menaces -to navigation. Often the mainland is completely obscured, -either by streaks of mist or heavy clouds of smoke produced -by forest fires, which in the dry season rage with great -violence. A ship caught within the toils of this stern coast -has no possible chance of escape, while the crew would find -it difficult to get ashore, inasmuch as at places there is not -a single landing-place within a distance of twenty miles.</p> - -<p>Owing to the coast being frequently blotted from view, -and to the fact that this stretch of sea is swept by furious -storms, the plight of the mariner making to or from the -Columbia River became exceedingly precarious. The worst -tragedy of these waters was enacted on the dark and stormy -night of January 3, 1881, when the sailing-ship <i>Lupata</i> lost -her way and went to pieces on the rocks off Tillamook -Head.</p> - -<p>Under these circumstances it is not surprising that an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184">184</a></span> -outcry arose for protection along this lonely reach of Oregon’s -jagged shoreline. The authorities responded to the agitation -by the promise to erect a lighthouse, once they should -have decided the site, which was the really perplexing -question. In the first instance it was thought that its -location upon the mainland would suffice, but a survey -betrayed the futility of such a choice. The light would be -too elevated to be of any service; for the greater part of -its time it would be rendered invisible by land fogs. Then, -again, it would mean cutting a road for a distance of twenty -miles through heavy, undulating country and primeval -forest to gain the point, as the verdant sea of green timber -extends to the very brink of the cliffs.</p> - -<p>After prolonged consideration, it was decided to erect -the light upon the Tillamook Rock. This is a hard mass of -basalt, rising boldly from the water to a height of 120 feet, -which, when viewed from one side, presented the appearance -of a clenched fist. It stands about a mile off the mainland, -twenty miles south of the Columbia River mouth, and drops -plumb into the sea, where the lead gives readings ranging -from 96 to 240 feet. The whole area of the rock is less than -one acre, and it is split almost in two; another isolated -knot of basalt, upon which the seas break heavily when a -storm is raging, rears its shaggy head into the air near by -at low-tide. The only possible landing-point is on the east -side, where there is a beach sloping upwards sharply from -the water to the crest. When the ocean is roused the sight -certainly is terrifying. The waves fall with shivering force -upon the base of the rock, to rush up its ragged sides and -sweep right over its crest in a dense curtain of angrily -frothing water and whipping spray.</p> - -<p>Despite its fearsome character, this rock constituted the -most serviceable situation for a light, for the reason that, -being a mile from the shore, it was free from land fogs and -clouds. The decision of the authorities depended upon -three factors only—that a landing could be made, the rock -occupied, and the requisite building materials unloaded. -The introduction of such a saving clause was politic, because<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185">185</a></span> -at first it seemed as if the rock would defy the gaining -of a foothold. The ghastly failure attending the survey, as -described in a previous chapter, brought public opinion into -dead opposition to the project, and many fearsome stories -were circulated sedulously up and down the coast and -among the towns fringing the Columbia River concerning -the perils, hardships, and terrible death-roll, which would -attend any attempt to place a beacon on this rock.</p> - -<p>After the disaster the authorities pressed forward the -enterprise with greater vigour than ever, so as to get work -well under way before public opinion would be able to -make its influence felt upon the unsophisticated minds of -workmen required to carry out the undertaking. A daring, -determined, and energetic leader was secured in Mr. A. -Ballantyne, and he was deputed to rally a force of eight or -more highly skilled quarrymen with whom to proceed to -Astoria, where the land headquarters were to be established. -He was informed that upon arrival at this point he would -find everything in readiness for his immediate departure to -the rock, with all essentials to enable him to commence -work at once and to provide quarters for the workmen, -who would be compelled to suffer isolation and a certain -amount of discomfort for weeks at a time. It was impossible -to take more than a handful of men at first, owing -to the difficulty of landing provisions.</p> - -<p>Mr. Ballantyne started off with his small picked force, -reached Astoria on September 24, 1879, and there suffered -his first check. The autumn gales had sprung up, rendering -approach to the rock absolutely hopeless. There was no -alternative; he must wait until the weather moderated. -As this might be a question of a few hours, days, or perhaps -a week or two, the chief grew anxious concerning his force. -If the men, having nothing to do, wandered idly about the -town, making acquaintance with all and sundry and listening -to gossip, then they could not fail to be impressed with the -extraordinary stories concerning dangers, hardships, perils, -and adventures; would conclude that the Tillamook was a -“hoodoo” rock; and would desert him promptly. To<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186">186</a></span> -guard against this contingency, the quarrymen were hurried -off and temporarily housed in the old light-keeper’s dwelling -at the Cape Disappointment light, some miles away on the -northern portal of the estuary, where they were safe from -pernicious influences.</p> - -<div id="ip_186" class="figcenter" style="width: 599px;"> - <img src="images/i_p186a.jpg" width="599" height="344" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE TILLAMOOK ROCK LIGHT STATION FROM THE SOUTH.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Rising from the sea one mile off the Oregon Coast, it was for years a terrible danger spot. The light of 160,000 candle-power, 132 feet above high -water, is visible for 18 miles.</p></div></div> - -<p>After twenty-six days of enforced idleness the squad was -picked up by a revenue cutter, which steamed to the rock, -and made fast to a buoy that had been laid previously for -mooring the vessels deputed to transport building materials -and other requirements. With extreme difficulty four men -were got on the rock, together with a supply of hammers, -drills, iron ring-bolts, a stove, provisions, supplies, and an -abundance of canvas, with which the advance staff were -to erect temporary shelters and to make themselves as -comfortable as they could. While the work was in progress -the wind freshened, the swell rose, and the boat had to retire -hurriedly before the remainder of the force could be landed; -but five days later they were transferred to the rock, together -with further provisions and supplies, as well as a derrick.</p> - -<p>The little party soon received a taste of what life would be -in this lonely spot. Three days after the second landing, -and before they had shaken down to their strange surroundings, -a gale sprang up. Heavy seas pounded the rock, -and the waves, mounting its vertical face, threw themselves -over its crest, drenching the workmen and their sleeping -blankets. It was a startling episode, but it became so -frequent that the quarrymen became inured to their fate, -and were not perturbed in any way, except when the Pacific -was roused to exceptional fury.</p> - -<p>When the first four men gained the rock it was seen that -the landing of material, especially the heavier incidentals, -would constitute the greatest difficulty. Then an ingenious -idea was advanced. Why not rig a heavy rope between -the mast of the vessel and the top of the rock, draw it taut, -and devise a traveller to run to and fro? It was a practical -suggestion and was adopted forthwith. With much difficulty -a 4½-inch rope was towed from the vessel—to the mast -of which one end was secured—to the rock, and grabbed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187">187</a></span> -by those in occupation. This end was anchored firmly, and -constituted the track. Then a large single block was rigged -to this main line in such a way that it could move freely -to and fro along the cable. This block was provided with -a heavy hook on which the weights could be slung. Other -blocks were fixed on the vessel and on the rock, while an -endless line, passing through these blocks at each end, and -attached to the shank of the hook on the travelling block, -enabled the traveller to be pulled freely and easily in either -direction.</p> - -<p>Both men and supplies were transferred from ship to shore -by this primitive, albeit ingenious, system. The men were -carried in a novel device, described as a “breeches-buoy,” such -as is used with the rocket life-saving apparatus, but of very -crude design improvised on the spot. It was contrived -from an ordinary circular rubber life-preserver, to which a -pair of trousers cut short at the knees were lashed tightly. -This was suspended from the block-hook by means of three -short lengths of rope. The trip through the air certainly -was novel, and not free from excitement; indeed, there was -just sufficient spice of adventure about it to appeal to the -rough-and-ready, intrepid spirits who constituted the forces -of the lighthouse engineer. Also, owing to the primitive -character of the apparatus, there was just the chance that -something would go wrong when the man was between ship -and rock. The breeches were provided to hold the man -in a safe position while in the air, to guard against a loss of -balance and tipping out; while should anything give way, -and the man make an unexpected plunge into the water, -the life-preserver would keep him afloat until a boat could -draw alongside to rescue him.</p> - -<div id="ip_187" class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"> - <img src="images/i_p186b.jpg" width="399" height="299" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE CONQUEST OF THE TILLAMOOK.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The top of the crag was blasted off to provide a level space for the lighthouse.</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_187b" class="figcenter" style="width: 397px;"> - <img src="images/i_p186c.jpg" width="397" height="294" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE TERRIBLE TILLAMOOK ROCK.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Showing how the menace rises abruptly from the sea on one side.</p></div></div> - -<p>There was another factor which had to be taken into -consideration, and which certainly contributed to the -novelty of the trip. As the boat responded to the action -of the waves the rope alternately drew tight and sagged. -When she rolled towards the rock the cable was slackened, -and the man generally had a ducking; the next moment, -when the vessel rolled in the opposite direction, he was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188">188</a></span> -whisked unceremoniously and suddenly into the air. It was -like being suspended at the end of a piece of elastic. The -men for the most part enjoyed the fun of the journey, and -considered it a new and exhilarating “divarshun.” Among -themselves the effort was to travel in either direction so as -to escape a cold douche on the journey. When the water -was rough, speculation took the form of guessing how many -dips into the water would be made before either terminus -was gained.</p> - -<p>This novel landing method provoked one amusing incident. -The supply-boat came out to the rock one day bringing a new -raw hand. The cableway was rigged up, and the workman -prepared for his ride to the rock. But the man was somewhat -corpulent, and could not be thrust through the preserver. -This was an unexpected <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">contretemps</i>, and it seemed -as if the superintendent would have to let his recruit return. -But Ballantyne did not worry over trifles, neither did he -relish the idea of losing a hand after having him brought so -far, so he put forward a somewhat daring proposal. He -told the captain of the steamer to lash the workman to the -top of the buoy, and they would pull him ashore all right. -The labourer was scared out of his wits at this suggestion, -and resented being handled as if he were a balk of timber. -Why, even the perishable articles were unloaded in casks -to protect them from the wet. He expressed his determination -to see them to perdition before he would make a trip -through the air under such conditions. Ballantyne was -somewhat crestfallen at the cold reception of his brilliant -idea, so told the captain to take the workman back to -Astoria, and to ransack the place to discover a buoy which -would be big enough to fit him.</p> - -<p>Two days later the vessel returned with the larger buoy -and also the corpulent quarryman. His second glimpse of -the primitive travelling frightened him worse than ever, -and he point blank refused to budge. In order to reassure -the raw hand, Ballantyne hauled the buoy ashore, and, -jumping into it, made a journey, to illustrate that the -system was perfectly safe, and that one need not even get<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189">189</a></span> -wet. But Ballantyne’s demonstration was rather unfortunate. -The cable was slack, and the ship rolled heavily. -Result: the superintendent was dragged through the water -for nearly the whole distance, and at times nothing of him -could be seen. When he landed on the boat, half-winded -and drenched to the skin, the quarryman was scared more -than ever, and announced his intention to return to Astoria. -Ballantyne cajoled, coaxed, argued, and stormed, in turn, -but to no avail. Then another idea came to his fertile mind. -If the man would not travel via the breeches-buoy, why not -send him ashore in a bos’n’s chair? This was rigged up -satisfactorily, and therein the workman consented to go -ashore, though not without the display of considerable -trepidation and anxiety to keep out of the water. They -got him on the rock safely, and without so much as wetting -the soles of his feet. The quarryman by his resolute opposition -set up a record. He was the first man to land dry on -the Tillamook.</p> - -<p>Subsequently this novel and, so far as it went, efficient -method of “quick transit” was superseded when the men -on the rock got their big derrick to work. The long arm of -this appliance leaned over the water far enough to pick up -the goods direct from the deck of the vessel moored off the -rock. This system was quicker, and enabled the goods to -be got ashore unsoiled.</p> - -<p>The first men to land found the rock in the occupation -of sea-lions, who swarmed its scaly sides in huge numbers, -even making their way to the crest to bask in the sunshine. -These tenants at first resented the white man’s invasion, -and were somewhat troublesome; but at last they recognized -that their eviction was certain, so suddenly deserted in a -body to another equally wild spot farther south.</p> - -<p>The first task was the preparation of the site for the building. -The fist-like overhanging crest was attacked to prepare -a foundation, thereby reducing the height from 120 to 91 feet. -The rock surface was scarred and riven in a fantastic -manner, owing to the scouring action of the waves eroding -the soft portions leaving the hard rock behind in the form<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190">190</a></span> -of needles, scales, and ugly crevices. The outer part of the -rock, moreover, was found to be of an unreliable character, -being more or less rotten, while the core, on the other hand, -was intensely hard, and promised an excellent foundation -for the beacon. The superfluous mass was removed by -blasting, this being carried out with extreme care and in -small sections at a time. The largest blasts did not remove -more than 130 cubic yards, or tons, of débris at one time. -This slow blasting, by handfuls as it were, was necessary so -as not to shatter or impair the solidity of the heart of the -rock, which was to support the buildings.</p> - -<p>Drilling and blasting were carried out in the face of great -difficulties. Rain, rough seas, spray, and heavy winds, -combined to thwart the little band of workers toiling strenuously -in solemn loneliness upon this bleak crag. Often days -would pass without any tangible impression being made -upon the surface. The drilling holes would be swamped, -and unless care was observed the powder charges ran the -risk of being damped and rendered impotent or uncertain -in firing. In the attack upon the crest the workmen -distributed themselves around the crown. On the precipitous -side, as there was not a friendly ledge on which to -secure a foothold to work the drills, bolts were driven into -the rock-face, from which staging was suspended by ropes, -and on this swinging, crazy foothold the men drove their -tools with salt fleece whirling round them.</p> - -<p>Until the men were able to erect more or less permanent -quarters, their plight at times was pitiable. The canvas -was cut up and an <span class="sans bold">A</span>-tent was rigged up. It was a cramped -home, measuring 16 feet long by 6 feet wide, while the ridge -pole was only 4½ feet above the ground. This domicile just -held the ten men in their sleeping-blankets. Naturally, they -had to crawl rather than walk about, and, as the shelter -served as a dining-room as well, the little band had to tolerate -many discomforts. When the wind howled round the -rock, causing the canvas to flap violently and threatening -to carry it away at every turn, when the sea swarmed over -the rock, and when the heavy rains to which this coast is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191">191</a></span> -subject poured down pitilessly, the men never knew what -it was to have dry clothing or bedding. Cooking was carried -on in the open, and the kitchen arrangements had to be -shifted from time to time, according to the direction of the -wind, so that the fire was brought on the lee side of the -shelter.</p> - -<p>The workers were exposed to danger on all sides incessantly, -but fortunately in their chief, Ballantyne, they had -one of those men who appear to be made for such contingencies; -who was alert, ready for any emergency, nursed -his staff sedulously, and whose buoyant spirits dispelled all -feelings of gloom, loneliness, or homesickness. The little -band toiled hard and long through the rough autumnal -weather, and the arrival of stern winter did not bring any -cessation in their labours. They fought the rock grimly -and ignored hardship. Certainly, they were cheered by the -arrival of the boats with supplies, but occasionally a fortnight -or more would pass without a call being made at the -rock, and often, when a boat did come up and prepare to -land material, it had to slip its anchor hastily to make a -frantic run for safety before the rising swell and the gathering -storm.</p> - -<p>Early in January Nature concentrated her forces, as if -bent upon a supreme effort to shake the determination and -courage of the little army striving so valiantly upon the rock. -On the night of New Year’s Day the clouds assumed an -ominous appearance, and accordingly the workmen were -not surprised to meet a stormy and rainy reception when -they made their way to their duties the following morning. -The weather grew worse on the third day, the spray -enveloping the rock and drenching the men, while the wind -blew so fiercely that they could scarcely keep their feet. -During the next two days it increased in force, while the -sea grew angrier. On the 6th the elements were raging in -torment, and in the afternoon Ballantyne, taking stock of -the meteorological signs, came to the conclusion that the -party “were in for it.” A hurricane, or possibly a tornado, -was looming. The tools were being swung with infinite<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192">192</a></span> -difficulty, when suddenly came the signal “Stop work!” -Ballantyne urged them to set to at once to lash everything -securely. At six o’clock in the evening the hurricane burst, -and the workmen witnessed a sight such as they had never -seen before. The whole coast was in the grip of a tornado, -of which the Tillamook Rock was the vortex, whereon the -elements concentrated their destructive forces. The huge -rollers assumed an uglier appearance than ever; the broken -water rushed up the steep sides into the air, where it was -caught by the whirling wind and dashed on the tiny camp. -It was impossible to escape that savage attack, as it was -driven home from all sides simultaneously. The men took -to their permanent quarters in silence and very gloomy. -By midnight the roof was being peppered with huge masses -of rock, which, detached by the waves, were caught up -and thrown clean over the rock. Ballantyne urged the -men to stay in their bunks, to keep up their spirits, and to -seek a little rest.</p> - -<div id="ip_192" class="figcenter" style="width: 602px;"> - <img src="images/i_p192a.jpg" width="602" height="351" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>FAMOUS UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSES OF TWO CENTURIES.</p> - -<p class="captionl">The rear tower was built on Cape Henry in 1789, with stones shipped from Great Britain. Owing to the sand thrown up by the sea, another light -had to be provided nearer the water, and was completed in 1879. The old light is retained as an historic building.</p></div></div> - -<p>But sleep was impossible. The quarrymen were scared -out of their wits, and there was every cause for their dismay. -It seemed as if the very rock itself must succumb to the -savage onslaught. The din was deafening; the rock shivered -and trembled as the breakers hurled themselves upon it.</p> - -<p>It had just turned two. Suddenly one and all sat up in -terror. There was a fearful crash—a rending and splitting, -which was heard plainly above the weird howling of the -hurricane. The men tumbled out of their bunks panic-stricken, -and were about to stampede from their shelter to -seek refuge upon a higher ledge. But Ballantyne’s pluck -asserted itself. He, too, had been scared by the awful noise, -but he collected his scattered wits more quickly than did his -comrades. He grasped the situation, and with iron nerve -commanded all the men to stick tightly where they were. -An ugly rush seemed imminent, but he stood with his back -to the door, and in plain English dared the men to leave -their cover. Any man who attempted to fight his way to -the upper refuge would be swept overboard by the wind -and sea.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193">193</a></span> -The quarrymen were not cowards, and Ballantyne’s -action steadied them. Then the foreman announced his -intention to go out to see what had happened. He grabbed -a storm-lantern and opened the door. Instantly he was -hurled back by the wind and sea, which appeared to be -submerging the rock. For two hours he stood waiting an -opportunity to slip out against the hurricane. At last he -succeeded, and in the intense darkness endeavoured to grope -his way over the rock. He had been gone only a few -minutes when he staggered back, battered, shaken, and -almost exhausted. He could not make headway against the -gale. So the men sat down and silently waited the approach -of dawn. Then they found that the rushing waves had fallen -upon the building in which all their supplies were stored, -had smashed it to atoms, and had destroyed and carried -away nearly all the provisions, the fresh-water tank, and -other articles, although the requisites for work were left -untouched. It was the break-up of this storehouse which -had woke them from their slumbers and had provoked the -panic.</p> - -<p>For ten days the gale raged, being more furious on some -days than others. When it decreased in fury the men were -able to settle to their work for an hour or two, but progress -was painfully slow; on other days not a tool could be picked -up. On the 18th the revenue cutter came out from Astoria -to ascertain how the men had weathered the tornado, and -the signal for coal and provisions was answered immediately -by the lowering of a surf-boat. The sailors had a stiff pull -to reach the rock, found that the men still had a scanty -supply of hard bread, coffee, and bacon—this was all—and, -taking off the letters, promised to send supplies immediately. -The construction ship also came up; the captain -sent ashore all the provisions he could spare, and undertook -to return at once with a full supply. But another ten days -passed before the sea went down enough to permit these to -be landed, together with five more men.</p> - -<div id="ip_193" class="figcenter" style="width: 597px;"> - <img src="images/i_p192b.jpg" width="597" height="353" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE RACE ROCK LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">It marks a dangerous reef in Long Island Sound, where, owing to the swift currents, construction of the foundations proved very difficult.</p></div></div> - -<p>Nature appeared to capitulate after this terrible assault, -and work proceeded rapidly. The crest of the rock was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194">194</a></span> -removed and levelled off, to form an excellent platform for -the reception of the beacon and other buildings. An inclined -tramway was excavated out of the rock-face, communicating -with the landing-stage, to facilitate the haulage -of the light-keepers’ necessities, and then the arrangements -for the completion of the building were hurried forward.</p> - -<p>When the public saw that the work was being accomplished -without loss to life or limb, and that the plucky little -party of toilers weathered the gales, an intense interest was -manifested in the undertaking. The foreman was provided -with an international code of signals, and passing -vessels, as an act of courtesy and in recognition of the -work that was being done to further their safety, always -stood towards the rock to render assistance in case it was -required. The workmen appreciated this feeling, and on -two occasions, during dense fog, intimated to captains who -had lost their way, and were groping blindly round the -rock, that they were venturing into dangerous waters. The -warning was primitive but effective. It comprised the -explosion of giant-powder cartridges over the sea in the -direction whence the ships’ sirens sounded. In both instances -the navigators heard the signals in the nick of time, -and were able to steer clear.</p> - -<p>The lighthouse itself comprises a group of buildings for -the keepers, from which rises a square tower 48 feet in height, -bringing the light 132 feet above mean high-water. The -dwelling is built of stone, measures 48 feet by 45 feet, and is -one story in height. In addition there is an extension for -housing the powerful siren and its machinery. The building -contains adequate living-quarters, together with storage -rooms and a kitchen. As this light is particularly lonely, -four keepers are stationed on the rock, and their rooms each -have a clear length of 12 feet by 10 feet wide. Also, as the -rock is so difficult to approach, and relief may suffer extreme -delay from adverse weather, sufficient provisions are stored -to insure full rations for six months.</p> - -<p>The light is of the first order, of 160,000 candle-power, -and is visible at a distance of eighteen miles in clear weather.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195">195</a></span> -It is a brilliant white flashing beam, occurring once every -five seconds, the flash being of two seconds, followed by an -eclipse of three seconds. The fog-siren is likewise of the -first order, driven by steam-engines. This plant is in -duplicate, and the signal is given every forty-five seconds, -the blast being of five seconds, followed by silence for forty -seconds.</p> - -<p>The conquest of the Tillamook Rock has been one of the -most difficult tasks that the United States Lighthouse Board -ever has accomplished. The little band of quarrymen who -braved danger, hardship, and privation, effected occupation -of the rock on October 21, 1879, and the light was exhibited -for the first time on January 21, 1881, the total time occupied -in the task being 575 days. It has robbed the dreaded -Oregon coast of one of its worst perils, and the money which -was devoted to the provision of this stalwart guardian—£24,698, -or $123,493—was indeed expended to good purpose.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196">196</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE COAST LIGHTS OF THE UNITED STATES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Few nations have such a varied coastline to guard as the -United States. On the Atlantic seaboard the northern -shore is a shaggy bold rampart of lofty cliff, hard and pitiless. -Farther south the rock gradually gives way to sandy -dunes, which the hungry sea is continually gnawing away -here and piling up somewhere else. Then, as the tropics -are entered, the sand in turn gives way to coral reefs, every -whit as formidable as rock and as treacherous as sand, -where the hurricane reigns supreme and makes its presence -felt only too frequently. Across the continent a similar -variation, though not perhaps so intense, is observable on -the Pacific side. The coast range runs parallel with the -shore, and consequently cliff and precipice are common, -owing to the lateral spurs of the range coming to an abrupt -termination where land and water meet.</p> - -<p>The result is that no one type of beacon is possible of -adoption as a standard for the whole coastline. The class -of structure has to be modified to meet local conditions, -but the battle between destruction and preservation is none -the less bitter and continuous. When ships began to trade -with the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, the erection -of warning lights became imperative. This duty was fulfilled -in the early days by local enterprise, and the first -lighthouse on the continent was built on Little Brewster -Island, at the entrance to Boston Harbour. It was completed -about 1716, was a conical masonry tower, and its cost, -which is interesting as being set out to the uttermost farthing—£2,285 -17s. 8½d.—betrays the scrupulous commercial -integrity of the first financiers of the United States. The -light was maintained by the levy of a due of one penny per<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197">197</a></span> -ton on all incoming and outgoing vessels, except those -engaged in coastal traffic, and was collected by the same -authority which subsequently got into trouble in the endeavour -to collect the tax on tea. This pioneer light is still -in service, although in 1783 it was rebuilt. The light, of the -second order, is 102 feet above mean high-water, and gives -a white flash every thirty seconds, which is visible from a -distance of sixteen miles; the fog-signal is a first-class siren, -giving a blast of five seconds, followed by silence for ten -seconds, with a succeeding blast of five seconds and silence -for forty seconds.</p> - -<p>The excellent example thus set by the good people of -Boston was followed by other States and individual authorities -along the coast. This system of local and arbitrary -control was by no means satisfactory, so in 1789 the Federal -Government took over the control of the lighthouse service, -and entrusted its safe-keeping to the Secretary of the -Treasury. There were only eight lights to watch when the -cession was effected, but the growth of the country soon -increased the duties of the department. Accordingly, a -decree was passed in 1817 whereby the control was transferred -from the Secretary of the Treasury to the fifth auditor -of the same department, Mr. Stephen Pleasanton, who -became known as the General Superintendent of Lights. -He assumed the new office in 1820, taking over fifty-five -lights, so that during the thirty years the aids to navigation -had been under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the -Treasury forty-seven new stations had been established.</p> - -<p>The new official held the post for thirty-two years, and -prosecuted his work so diligently and systematically that -by 1852 the service had grown to 325 lighthouses, lightships, -buoys, and other guides. The lighthouses were maintained -under contract, the contractor for each light undertaking -for a fixed annual sum to keep his charge in a perfect state -of repair, to supply all illuminant, wicks, chimneys, and -stores, that were required, as well as making one visit to -the lighthouse in the course of the year. Subsequently it became -necessary to award the contracts for terms of five years.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198">198</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_198" class="figcenter" style="width: 598px;"> - <img src="images/i_p198a.jpg" width="598" height="338" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE CARQUINEZ STRAIT LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">An imposing station on the north side of the entrance to the Strait.</p></div></div> - -<p>As time progressed, and the duties of the Superintendent -became more onerous, certain individuals took exception to -the idea of such an important service being entrusted to the -charge of one man, vested with wide discretionary powers. -Accordingly, complaints were formulated liberally, and the -superintendent became the butt of venomous attack. The -outcome of this agitation was the formation of a committee, -two members of which were sent upon a mission of inspection -to Great Britain and France, the lighthouse services of -which were stated to be far superior to that of the United -States, and more efficiently controlled. The result of this -investigation was the inauguration of an official department -known as the Lighthouse Board, constituted of capable -engineers. In 1852 this authority took over the administration -of the light service, which has remained under its -control ever since. In order to secure the utmost efficiency, -the coasts were divided into districts, each of which is presided -over by an accomplished officer of the United States -Corps of Engineers, who is held directly responsible to the -Board at Washington for the lights in his area. So admirably -was the new authority constituted that it has never -failed to give the utmost satisfaction, and the result is -that to-day the Lighthouse Board of the United States is -comparable with contemporary authorities in the Old -World.</p> - -<p>In the early days the majority of the lights were placed -on the mainland, and as a rule comprised wooden towers, -projecting from the roof of the keepers’ dwelling, similar -in character to some of the older lights to be found on the -coasts of Newfoundland and New Brunswick in Canada. -These buildings were cheap to construct, as they were -carried out upon the timber-frame principle; but they possessed -many disadvantages. The greatest objection arose -from the attachment of the tower to the roof frames of -the house. Being exposed to the full fury of the tempest, -the tower in time would become loosened, and the roof -itself distorted, so that the inmates had to suffer the inconvenience -of water penetrating into their rooms. Even the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199">199</a></span> -few masonry towers which were erected were of the most -primitive description, and soon fell victims to the ravages -of the weather.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, when the lighthouse administration was -placed upon an efficient footing, the first task was the complete -overhaul, and reconstruction where necessary, of -many of the existing lights. Of the eight beacons which -were taken over by the Federal Government in 1789, six -have been rebuilt. The only two exceptions are the Sandy -Hook light—a stone tower 88 feet high—and Cape -Henlopen, at the entrance to Delaware Bay, both of which -were built in 1764. Naturally, their illuminating apparatus -has been remodelled from time to time, in accordance with -the advances in this field of lighthouse engineering, but -that is the only change which has been effected.</p> - -<div id="ip_199" class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"> - <img src="images/i_p198b.jpg" width="402" height="596" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>A CHURCH AS A LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionl">A fixed white light, thrown from the tower of St. Philip’s Church, and visible for 18 miles, forms -the rear light of the main channel range in Charleston Harbour, South Carolina.</p></div></div> - -<p>One lighthouse on the Atlantic coast of the United States -possesses a pathetic and romantic interest. It indicates -the treacherous shores around Cape Henry, and mounts -sentinel on the headland at the southerly side of the entrance -to Chesapeake Bay, Virginia. The stranger on the passing -ship, as he scans the dreary bench of sand rising from the -water’s edge at this point, has his attention arrested by -two gaunt towers. The foremost is almost lapped by the -water; the other is some distance to the rear, and upon a -higher level. “Two lights, and for what?” is a natural -exclamation. But only one tower—that nearer the waves—throws -its glare by night. Its companion behind has -passed its cycle of utility long since, but it has not been demolished -because of its unique history. It was built in -1789 with bricks and stones brought from England. In -shape it is a tapering octagonal cone, and when first erected -the waves almost washed its base. But the sea, which -eats away the rock and soft soil at some parts, casts this -débris ashore here, so that Cape Henry is slowly but surely -thrusting its dismal tongue of sand farther and farther into -the Atlantic. The old tower fulfilled faithful service until -the seventies, when, being considered too far from the -water, it was superseded by the shaft rising from the sand-dunes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200">200</a></span> -below. After a century’s service the old light was -extinguished, to permit the fixed white light of the first -order in the new tower to take its place.</p> - -<p>The new building, completed in 1881, is likewise octagonal -in section, gradually tapering from the base to the lantern -gallery. It is built upon what is described as the “double-shell -principle,” there being two iron cylinders, one within -the other. It is 152 feet in height, and the powerful white -beam has a range of twenty miles, while a red beam is cast -from one side to mark a dangerous shoal. As a powerful -flashing white light of a similar character is shed from a -tower on Cape Charles opposite, the mariner has a well-illumined -entrance into Chesapeake Bay.</p> - -<p>Ice was one of the great difficulties against which the -American lighthouse builders had to contend, and they -laboured valiantly to mitigate this evil. It caused more -damage to their works than wind and wave of the most -terrifying violence. The upper reaches of the great rivers -are encased with thick ice throughout the winter. When -the spring comes round, this brittle armour is broken up, -and, caught by the current, is swept toward the ocean, the -floes jostling and crashing among one another. When the -slightest obstruction is offered to their free movement, the -pieces mount one another, forming large hummocks, and -the pressure thus imposed is terrific. The “ice-shove,” -when it assumes large proportions, is quite capable of -wreaking widespread damage.</p> - -<p>When the screw-pile lighthouses came into vogue, this -danger was advanced as one of the greatest objections to -the adoption of this idea. It was pointed out that the ice -would pack around the slender legs, and either snap them, -or would bring about such severe distortion as to imperil -the safety of the superstructure. When Major Hartman -Bache undertook the erection of the Brandywine Shoal -light in Delaware Bay, he determined to frustrate the -effects of this peril. The light, being eight miles from the -ocean, was right in the path of the ice-shoves of the Potomac, -so the nine iron legs upon which the beacon is supported—<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201">201</a></span>eight -in a circle and one central—are protected by what is -known as an “ice-breaker.” This is a pier of thirty iron -piles, which likewise are screwed into the sea-bed. Each -pile is 23 feet long by 5 inches in diameter, and they are -connected at their heads, and at a point just above low-water, -by what are known as “spider-web braces.” The -result is that, when a shock is inflicted upon one pile, it is -communicated throughout the entire breaker. This system -has proved entirely successful, and has protected the lighthouse -within completely. The main building, although -subjected to heavy attacks by the piled ice, has never been -damaged thereby, although subsequently it became necessary -to strengthen the ice-breaker, because the onslaughts -of several winters had left their mark.</p> - -<p>Off the coast of Florida, and in the waters of the Gulf of -Mexico, this type of lighthouse is very strongly in evidence, -as it was found to be the most suitable for the coral sea-bed. -The most notable structure of this class is the Fowey -Rocks light, which rises, a flame-crowned skeleton, from the -extreme northern point of the Florida reefs. It is in an exposed -position, where inclement weather is often experienced. -At this point there is not more than 3 feet of -water, and the spot is as bad as a mariner could wish to -avoid, for no ship could hope to escape destruction once it -became entangled in these submerged toils.</p> - -<p>The building of this light presented many perplexing difficulties, -the greatest of which was offered by the weather. -The structure is an octagonal pyramid, with the keepers’ -quarters on a lower deck, communication with the lantern -being afforded by a winding staircase encircling a vertical -cylinder. The light is 110¼ feet above high-water, of the -fixed type, with red sectors guarding dangerous shoals in -the vicinity, while the white beams can be picked up some -eleven miles away.</p> - -<p>The integral parts of this building were prepared by three -different contractors, were fitted together, and the building -set up temporarily, on the mainland, so as to facilitate -erection at the site. The work was started in 1876, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202">202</a></span> -first move being the provision of a platform about 80 feet -square and 12 feet above low-water, from which to conduct -operations. The lower piles were driven about 10 feet -into the live coral reef. Extreme care was observed during -this operation, the pile after every stroke of the driver -being tested with a plumb-line, to make sure that it was -being sent home absolutely vertically. If it diverged, however -slightly, from the perpendicular, the error was corrected -immediately. When the piles had been driven to the -requisite depth, the tops were levelled to the height of the -most deeply driven pile; then the horizontal members were -placed in position, followed by the diagonal bracing.</p> - -<div id="ip_202" class="figcenter" style="width: 510px;"> - <img src="images/i_p202a.jpg" width="510" height="379" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE BONITA POINT LIGHTHOUSE OFF THE CALIFORNIAN COAST.</p> - -<p class="captionc">While the tower is only 21 feet in height, its position on a lofty cliff gives the light of 27,000 candle-power a range of 17 miles.</p></div></div> - -<p>This task occupied some two months, and then a spell of -bad weather broke over the coast, interspersed with brief -intervals of smooth seas and calms. As the land depot was -four miles away, this involved frequent journeys to and fro -for the workmen, who had to be brought off the work upon -the slightest sign of rough weather. To eliminate the -interruptions arising from this procedure, tents were despatched -to the site and pitched on the wooden platform, -so that the men might reside there. At times their situation -was alarming; the heavy seas rushed and tumbled -among the piles beneath the crazy perch, and the men were -always on tenterhooks lest a hurricane, such as is experienced -often in this region, should bear down upon them and carry -the whole colony away. When work was in progress, they -did not realize their lonely, perilous position so much, since -their minds were otherwise occupied; but it was the enforced -periods of idleness, often lasting several days on end, -which made them grow despondent, as they were virtually -imprisoned, and there was very little space in which to -obtain exercise. The material was brought out in lighters -towed by a steam-launch, on which steam was kept up day -and night, because the material had to be sent out at any -moment when the conditions were favourable. Again, this -“standing by” was imperative, in case a sudden call for -assistance should be given by the little isolated community -when faced with disaster during a storm. When the men<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203">203</a></span> -got the keepers’ quarters completed, their minds became -easier, as they were now in possession of a more stable -camp. The superstructure advanced at a rapid rate, and -the light was shown for the first time on June 15, 1878.</p> - -<p>Toil of a different character was associated with the -building of the Race Rock lighthouse, eight miles from -New London, Connecticut. This peril is a submerged ledge -off Fisher’s Island Sound, and is of formidable magnitude, -since the ledge is at the mouth of the race, where the -waters, according to the tide, sweep along with great -velocity and force, while in heavy weather the waves get -up high and thunder with awful power. The main ledge -bristles with ugly sharp spurs, some of which rise above -the main cluster, known as Race Rock, which is about -3 feet below mean low-water. The situation of this lurking -danger called for the erection of an efficient beacon, though -not demanding a light of the calibre of Minot’s Ledge, -because even in rough weather the water does not mount -in the form of thick curtains of spray. A smaller and -different type of light, therefore, was considered to be -adequate for the purpose.</p> - -<div id="ip_203" class="figcenter" style="width: 397px;"> - <img src="images/i_p202b.jpg" width="397" height="510" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>POINT PINOS LIGHT STATION, CALIFORNIA.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This mariners’ friend has been tended by a woman for the past 30 years.</p></div></div> - -<p>Even then, however, erection was not an easy matter by -any means. The velocity of the water and the submerged -character of the reef demanded the aid of divers to prepare -the ledge-face and to complete the foundations. The rock -was levelled as much as possible by the aid of small broken -stone and riprap. On this a heavy circular stepped plinth -of solid mass-concrete was laid. This foundation is 9 feet -in thickness, and is disposed in four concentric layers, the -lowermost of which is 60 feet in diameter by 3 feet in thickness. -The concrete was laid in huge hoops of iron, of the -desired height and diameter for the respective layers, to -prevent the mass from spreading. When this task was completed, -there was a level platform, as solid as the rock -itself, and projecting 8 inches above mean low-water. On -this a conical stone pier was built to a height of 30 feet, by -57 feet in diameter at the base. The top was crowned with -a projecting coping 55 feet in diameter. The outer face<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204">204</a></span> -of this pier is composed of massive blocks of stone backed -with concrete; while in its heart are the spaces for cisterns -and cellars. From one side of this pier stretches a short -jetty, to form a landing-place.</p> - -<div id="ip_204" class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"> - <img src="images/i_p204a.jpg" width="402" height="233" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE FARALLON ROCK AND LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The light of 110,000 candle-power is placed on the highest peak of the rock, 358 feet above the sea.</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_204b" class="figcenter" style="width: 406px;"> - <img src="images/i_p204b.jpg" width="406" height="299" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE FARALLON LIGHTHOUSE OFF SAN FRANCISCO.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Owing to the height of the rock, a tower 29 feet high was adequate to carry the lantern -and its equipment.</p></div></div> - -<p>The lighthouse comprises a granite dwelling of two floors -for the accommodation of the keepers, from the centre of -the front of which rises a granite tower, square at the base, -but round at the top, to carry the lantern, the light of which, -of the fourth order, is 67 feet above mean high-water. -The warning is an alternate flash of red and white, with a -ten seconds’ dark interval. For the protection of the base -of the pier, the ledge on all sides is covered with a thick layer -of boulders. The work was commenced in 1872, but, -owing to its difficult character, occupied six years. The -Race Rock lost its terrors for all time when the beam flashed -out on the night of New Year’s Day, 1879.</p> - -<p>On the Pacific seaboard, while the American lighthouse -engineers have not been so active in regard to engineering -work of an impressive nature, owing to the more slender -proportions of the maritime traffic, they have accomplished -some notable triumphs. The Tillamook Rock light, described -in the previous chapter, is the most important, and -is to the Pacific seaboard of the country what the Minot’s -Ledge light is to the Atlantic coast. The majority of the -lights on the Pacific are stationed on the mainland, or contiguous -thereto. These beacons are of more modern construction -than those on the Atlantic shore, and in some instances -are very powerful. Pride of place in this respect -is shared between Point Arena and Cape Mendocino. The -former, perched on the cliff-shore of California, has a flashing -group of two flashes of <span class="fraction"><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> second in five seconds, with eclipses -of 1<span class="fraction"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> and 4<span class="fraction"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> seconds respectively, thrown by its light of -1,000,000 candle-power over the water for a radius of -eighteen miles from a height of 155 feet. Cape Mendocino -light, on the same coastline, has the further distinction of -being the most elevated light on the United States Pacific -coast, the 340,000 candle-power beam being thrown for -ten seconds once every thirty seconds from an elevation of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205">205</a></span> -422 feet. Although the tower itself is only 20 feet in height, -the cliff sheers up for 402 feet. Consequently the flash may -be detected from twenty-eight miles out to sea in clear -weather.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the Point Cabrillo light, a few miles -south, whose flashing ray is of 650,000 candle-power, is picked -up from a distance of only fourteen miles, because the light -is but 84 feet above mean high-water. The Farallon -beacon, comprising a tower 29 feet high planted on the -highest point of Farallon Island, off San Francisco, comes a -good second in point of elevation, as the 110,000 candle-power -flash, occurring for ten seconds once in every minute, -is projected from an altitude of 358 feet, and can be discerned -twenty-six miles away. For many years the Point -Reyes light held the distinction of being the loftiest beacon, -since its flash of 160,000 candle-power once every five -seconds is shed from an elevation of 294 feet, but is now -relegated to third place in this respect. Taken on the whole, -the lights scattered along the rugged, lonely Pacific seaboard -are far more powerful than their contemporaries -guarding busier shipping on the eastern coast of the country; -but whereas the latter are placed somewhat close together, -the former are spaced far apart.</p> - -<div id="ip_205" class="figcenter" style="width: 594px;"> - <img src="images/i_p204c.jpg" width="594" height="340" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE PUNTA GORDA LIGHT STATION, CALIFORNIA.</p> - -<p class="captionc">One of the latest built by the United States. Commodious and handsome buildings are provided for the wardens of this light.</p></div></div> - -<p>There are some points which, while being so extremely -perilous to the mariner as to demand the provision of a -lighthouse, yet cannot be guarded at present. The peculiarity -of their situations and their physical characteristics -completely defy the ingenuity, skill, and resource, of the -engineer. Cape Hatteras, perhaps, is the most forcible -illustration of this defeat of science by Nature. The sea-bed -for miles off this point is littered with the most treacherous -sandbanks, beside which the Goodwins of Britain -appear insignificant. Every seafarer knows the Diamond -Shoals, and gives them a wider berth than any other danger -spot in the seven seas. For some seven and a half miles out -to sea from the prominent headland, the Atlantic, according -to its mood, bubbles, boils, or rolls calmly, over shoals -and serried rows of submerged banks. The currents are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206">206</a></span> -wild and frantic; the storms which rage off this point are -difficult to equal in any other part of the world; and the -number of ships which have gone to pieces or have been -abandoned to their fate in these inhospitable stretches of -sea is incalculable.</p> - -<p>Time after time the engineers have sought to subjugate -this danger, but without avail. The sea-bed is so soft and -absorbing that a firm foundation for a tower defies discovery. -One brilliant attempt was made to sink a caisson, -similar to that employed for the famous Rothersand light -in the River Weser. The mammoth structure was built, -and with extreme difficulty was towed out to the selected -site. But the seas roared against this attempt to deprive -them of their prey. They bore down upon the caisson -and smashed it to fragments, causing the engineers to -retire from the scene thoroughly discomfited. When a -huge mass, weighing several hundred tons, could be broken -up by the maddened seas so easily, of what avail were the -knowledge and effort of man? The Diamond Shoals still -resist conquest. The only means of warning ships of their -presence is a lightship moored well out beyond the pale of -their sucking embrace.</p> - -<p>At the present time the United States Lighthouse Board -mounts guard over 17,695 miles of coastline. This aggregate -embraces, not only the two seaboards of the North American -continent, but sections of the Great Lakes, the Philippines, -Alaska, Hawaiian Islands, and the American Samoan -Islands, the total detailed coast or channel line being no -less than 48,881 miles. In order to guide the mariner -on his way through waters over which the Stars and Stripes -wave, no less than 12,150 lights of all descriptions are required, -demanding the services of an army of 5,582 men and -women; while the cost of maintenance exceeds £1,200,000, -or $6,000,000, per annum. Seeing that the country levies -no tolls for services rendered in this connection, the shipping -community, and humanity in general, owe a deep debt of -gratitude to a powerful nation.</p> - -<p>The United States share with Great Britain, Austria,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207">207</a></span> -Belgium, Spain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Sweden, -the expense of maintaining a lighthouse which is situate -on the property of none of them. This is a kind of -no man’s, and yet it is every man’s, light. The beacon is -not located in an out-of-the-way part of the world, such as -the Arctic Sea, as might be supposed, but mounts guard -over one of the busiest marine thoroughfares of the globe—the -western entrance to the Mediterranean. This unique -light is that of Cape Spartel, on the Moroccan coast. While -it was built at the expense of Morocco, the responsibility -for its maintenance was assumed by the foregoing Powers, -in accordance with the convention of March 12, 1867, which -has remained in force since. There is no other light upon -the seven seas which has so many Powers concerned in its -welfare and maintenance.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208">208</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE LAMP-POSTS OF THE GREAT LAKES OF NORTH -AMERICA</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>On the North American continent the efficient lighting of -the coasts washed by two salt oceans is only one, although -the most important, concern of the United States and -Canadian Governments. In addition each has a long -stretch of rugged, tortuous shore hemming in those capacious -depressions draining a vast tract of country, and known -generally as the Great Lakes. These unsalted seas are -rightly named, seeing that they constitute the largest sheets -of fresh water on the inhabited globe.</p> - -<p>The responsibility of safeguarding the navigator as he -makes his way across these wastes is shared equally by -the two countries which they divide, with one exception. -This is Lake Michigan, which lies entirely within the United -States. The narrow necks of water which link these lakes -into one long chain likewise are lighted by the two nations. -For some years the Lower Detroit River, connecting Lakes -Erie and St. Clair, was maintained for the most part by -the United States, but the practice was not satisfactory; -so, as the result of a conference between the two Governments, -Canada assumed charge of the aids in certain -specified portions of the navigable channel lying entirely -in Canadian waters. The result of this new arrangement -has been the better patrolling of the waterway.</p> - -<p>The water-borne commerce on these lakes, although possible -for only half the year, is tremendous, while navigation -is extremely difficult and beset with innumerable -dangers.<a id="FNanchor_B" href="#Footnote_B" class="fnanchor">B</a> The different means whereby a ship is handled<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209">209</a></span> -and maintained on its course upon the salt-water ocean are -not completely applicable in this case. The greater number -of the boats are freighters and engaged in the transport -of ore, which, from its metallic character, is apt to disturb -the compass, rendering it somewhat unreliable. Nor is -the lead of much avail in thick weather, as the lake-bed -varies suddenly from comparative shallowness to great -depths. Navigation on these lakes has been likened to -coastal traffic, only with land on both sides of the mariner, -and the intervals when the ship is out of sight of the shoreline -are comparatively brief. Accordingly, the captain -picks his way rather by the aid of landmarks, and the -vessels are fitted with a bowsprit, to give the master a -point whereby to judge his direction. But landmarks, -however conspicuous and trustworthy they may be by day -and in clear weather, are useless at night and in fog, to which -latter visitation, by the way, these waters are extremely -susceptible.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_B" href="#FNanchor_B" class="fnanchor">B</a> For a full description of the marine traffic on the Great Lakes, -see “The Steamship Conquest of the World,” chapter ix., p. 119.</p></div> - -<p>Steamship traffic cannot be carried on with financial -success by daylight and in fair weather only, so it became -necessary to distribute beacons around the indented shores. -This procedure was rendered additionally necessary owing -to the formidable character of many of the dangers besetting -navigation, in the form of shoals, projecting ridges, -and submerged reefs, quite as terrifying to the master of -a fresh-water ship as similar dangers on an ocean-swept -coast.</p> - -<p>At the same time, however, one would not expect to find -examples of lighthouse engineering comparable with the -great sea-rock lights rearing above the ocean, such as the -Minot’s Ledge, Dhu-Heartach, or Bishop’s Rock. On the -other hand, the uninitiated might conclude that buoys and -small lights, such as indicate the entrance to harbours, -would fulfil requirements. So they would but for two or -three adverse factors. These lakes are ravaged at times by -storms of great violence, which burst with startling suddenness. -Fogs also are of frequent occurrence, especially in -the spring and autumn, often descending and lifting instantly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210">210</a></span> -like a thick blanket of cloud. But the most implacable -enemy is the ice. The engineer can design a tower -which will withstand the most savage onslaughts of wind -and wave with comparative ease, at, relatively speaking, -little expense; but the ice introduces another factor which -scarcely can be calculated. The whole of these lakes are -frozen over during the winter to such a thickness as to defy -all efforts to cut a channel, becoming, in fact, as solid as -terra firma.</p> - -<div id="ip_210" class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"> - <img src="images/i_p210a.jpg" width="399" height="601" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>A LIGHTHOUSE ON THE GREAT LAKES IN THE GRIP OF WINTER.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This tower marks the Racine Reef in 20 feet of water near the entrance to Racine Harbour on -the west coast of Lake Michigan.</p></div></div> - -<p>In the spring this armour cracks and breaks up like glass -shattered with a hammer. It then becomes the sport of -the currents, which in many places sweep and swirl with -enormous force round the headlands and spits projecting -into the lake. This action sets the ice moving in stately -majesty, but crushing everything that rears in its way, or -piling and breaking against the obstruction. Ice-shoves, -ice-jams, and ice-runs, are the three forces against which -the engineer has to contend, and at places his efforts are so -puny as to be useless. The ice, if it collects across one of -the outlets so as to form a massive dam reaching to the lake-bed, -immediately causes the level of the lake to rise; and -when at last the barrage breaks, then the water is released -in a mad rush.</p> - -<p>Lighthouse building on the Great Lakes demands the -highest skill, incalculable ingenuity, and the soundest of -design and workmanship. Consequently, some of the -guardian lights distributed around these shores, such as -Spectacle Reef, the Rock of Ages, Colchester, and Red Rock -lighthouses, are striking evidences of the engineer’s handiwork. -Of course, where the land presses in on either hand, -transforming the waterway into a kind of canal, or where the -shore is free from submerged obstructions, the type of lighthouse -on either shore follows the wooden frame dwelling -with a low tower, as it is completely adequate for the -purpose.</p> - -<p>The one erection, however, which commands the greatest -attention is the Spectacle Reef light, which has been called -the Eddystone, or Minot’s Ledge, of the Lakes. In its way<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211">211</a></span> -it was quite as bold an undertaking as either of these far-famed -works, and in some respects was far more difficult -to carry out, although the builder was spared the capriciousness -and extreme restlessness of tidal waters. Spectacle -Reef lighthouse rears its tapering head from a particularly -dangerous reef in an awkward corner of Lake Huron, where -commences the Strait of Mackinac, leading to Lake Michigan. -The spot is dangerous, because it is covered by -about 7 feet of water; awkward, because it occurs about -ten and a half miles off the nearest land, which is Bois -Blanc Island. The reef in reality comprises two shoals, -which lie in such relation to one another as to suggest a -pair of spectacles—hence the name. As it is exposed to -170 miles of open sea on one side, when these waters are -roused the rollers hammer on the reef with terrible violence, -while at times the currents skirl by at a velocity of two or -three miles per hour, and the ice in its movement grinds, -piles, and grates itself upon the reef in impotent fury. -When this ice is forced forward with the push exerted by -the currents, the pressure is tremendous and the force wellnigh -irresistible.</p> - -<p>When the lighthouse was projected, it was realized that -it would have to be of massive proportions and provided -with adequate measures to protect it from the assault and -battering of the ice. The task was undertaken by General -O. M. Poe, who was engineer-in-chief to General Sherman -on his historic march to the sea. This engineer decided to -take the Minot’s Ledge monolithic structure as his model, -seeing that the latter had withstood the savage onslaughts -of the Atlantic. Fortunately, the foundations were of an -excellent character, the reef being formed of hard limestone.</p> - -<div id="ip_211" class="figcenter" style="width: 593px;"> - <img src="images/i_p210b.jpg" width="593" height="394" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson.</i> -</p> - -<p>BUILDING THE BARRE À BOULARD LIGHT IN THE RIVER ST. LAWRENCE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Owing to the severity of the ice piling in this waterway, the structures have to be provided with massive foundations.</p></div></div> - -<p>The engineer selected as the site for the tower a point -where the ridge is submerged by 11 feet of water. Seeing -that the base was to be laid under water, obviously it -seemed to be an operation for divers; but General Poe prepared -a superior means of getting the subaqueous foundations -laid. He built a cofferdam around the site, and, as the -work would have to be protected from the winter ice, he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212">212</a></span> -built another cofferdam, entirely for protective purposes, -outside the former. The nearest point on the mainland -where he could establish a depot was Scammon’s Harbour, -some sixteen miles away, and here everything in connection -with the work was prepared and shipped to the site ready -for placing in position.</p> - -<p>The protective work comprised a wooden pier, built up -of timbers 12 inches square, 24 feet in height. This structure -was divided into a series of vertical compartments -on all four sides, leaving a clear internal space 48 feet -square. The outer compartments or pockets were filled -with stone, to secure solidity and stability. Landing -facilities were provided on this pier, together with quarters -for the men engaged in the construction work.</p> - -<p>In the inner space, containing 48 square feet of still water, -the cofferdam, in which the subaqueous work was to be carried -out, was lowered. This structure was cylindrical in form. It -was built up of staves, banded with heavy hoops of iron, -so that in reality it resembled a huge barrel 36 feet across. -It was fashioned at the site, being built while suspended -directly over the spot on which it was to be lowered. When -the tub was finished, loosely twisted oakum, 1½ inches -thick, was nailed all round the lower edge, while a flap of -heavy canvas was secured to the outside bottom rim in -such a way as to leave 36 inches dangling free. The exact -circular shape of the cofferdam was insured by liberal cross-bracing -from a central vertical post, which constituted the -axis of the barrel, corresponding to the vertical axis of the -tower. While this work was in progress, the face of the -rock was cleared of loose boulders, and then the cofferdam -was lowered bodily with extreme care, so that it descended -with unerring accuracy perpendicularly into the water, to -come to rest over the desired spot. As the surface of the -reef was very uneven, the cofferdam stopped when it -reached the highest projection under its edge. Then each -stave of the barrel was driven downwards until it came to -rest upon the sea-bed, and, as the oakum rope was forced -down likewise, this served to act as caulking. The outer<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213">213</a></span> -flap of canvas, when the cofferdam was driven right home, -spread out on all sides, and lay upon the surface of the reef.</p> - -<p>Pumps capable of discharging 5,000 gallons per minute then -were set to work, removing the water from within the cofferdam. -The oakum rope seal prevented the water regaining -the internal space under the bottom edge of the tub, while -the canvas assisted in securing absolute water-tightness, -because the outer water-pressure forced it into all the nooks -and crevices.</p> - -<p>By these means the workmen were given an absolutely -dry space in which to carry out their erecting work. The -face of the reef was cleaned and levelled off, and the first -layer of stones was laid. These were first fitted temporarily -upon a false platform on shore, so that when they reached -the site they could be set at once without finicking. The -bottom layer is 32 feet in diameter, and the tower is solid -to a height of 34 feet above the rock. The stones are each -2 feet in thickness, and are secured to one another on all -sides with wrought-iron bolts, 24 inches long by 2½ inches in -diameter; while the tower is anchored to the rock by cement -and bolts 3 feet long, driven through the bottom course -into the real rock beneath, entering the latter to a depth -of 21 inches. Liquid cement was driven into the holes -so as to fill up all the remaining interstices, and this now -has become as hard as the stone itself.</p> - -<p>The exterior of the tower is the frustum of a cone, and -at 80 feet above the base is 18 feet in diameter. The total -height of the masonry is 93 feet, and the focal plane is -brought 97¼ feet above the rock, or 86¼ feet above the water-level. -The tower is provided with five rooms, each 14 feet -in diameter, while the entrance is 23 feet above the water. -The undertaking was commenced in May, 1870, and the -light was shown first in June, 1874. As work had been -confined to the summer months, and a fortnight every -spring was devoted to preparations, as well as an equal -period in the autumn to making all fast to withstand the -rigours of winter, the total working period was only some -twenty months.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214">214</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_214" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/i_p214a.jpg" width="400" height="598" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson.</i> -</p> - -<p>COLCHESTER REEF LIGHTHOUSE, LAKE ERIE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">An isolated station maintained by the Canadian Government. It is a fixed light, visible -throughout a circle of 16 miles radius.</p></div></div> - -<p>The protection against the ice has proved its value completely. -The ice as it moves becomes crushed against the -defence, and then has its advance impeded by the shoal -upon which it grinds and packs, to form in itself a barrier -and ice-breaker against other approaching ice-fields. This -structure was soon submitted to a stern test to prove its -efficacy. In the spring of 1875, when the keepers returned -to the lighthouse—the light, in common with all other -beacons guarding the Great Lakes, is shut down during -the winter, when navigation is closed—they found the tower -unapproachable. The ice-shove had jammed, packed, and -been frozen into a solid berg to a height of 30 feet, of which -the tower itself formed the core. The doorway was buried -to a depth of 7 feet, and the keepers had to carve their way -with pickaxes to the entrance.</p> - -<p>Owing to the success of the design for the Spectacle Reef -lighthouse, which ranks as a striking engineering achievement, -it was adopted for the Stannard’s Rock tower. This -ledge rises from the water 28 feet from shore, and the -plant and tackle which were employed in connection with -the first-named structure were utilized in this undertaking. -The tower is 191 feet in height, and the light can be seen for -about twenty miles. During the past two or three years -the United States Government has erected two other noble -lighthouses in Lakes Superior and Michigan. The first -warns all and sundry off a rock having three ugly pinnacles -projecting above the water, and known as the “Rock of -Ages.” This danger stands right in the steamship tracks -between Port Arthur and Duluth, off the western end of -Isle Royale. The engineers selected one of the pinnacles -as the base for the tower, decapitating the projection to -12 inches above mean low-water, so as to secure a sufficiently -large and level plinth. On this bed a cylindrical foundation -pier, of massive proportions and strength so as to withstand -the ice action, was planted, to support a lofty tower -in reinforced concrete. The building has seven floors, one -being set aside for housing the two twenty-four horse-power -oil-engines which are used to drive the air-compressors for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215">215</a></span> -the fog-siren. The light is 125 feet above water-level, and -gives a double flash at ten-second intervals, which can be -picked up twenty-one miles away. This tower was erected -in a very short time, the work, commenced in May, 1907, -being completed, except for the installation of the permanent -lens, thirteen months later. The optical apparatus -was fixed and the light shown first on September 15, 1910.</p> - -<p>The second light has been placed on White Shoal, at the -north end of Lake Michigan, and supersedes a lightship -which fulfilled all requirements for many years. The shoal -is exceptionally dangerous, and the crowded character of -the shipping demanded the installation of a more powerful -light and fog-signal. The structure is a striking piece of -work, comprising a steel cylindrical tower, or shell, lined -on the inside with brick and faced externally with terra-cotta—an -unusual material for lighthouse construction. -The superstructure is built upon a massive concrete pier, -about 70 feet square, rising 20 feet above water-level, -this being borne in turn upon a heavy stone-filled timber -crib laid on a block-stone foundation, the whole being protected -thoroughly with riprap. The lantern is of the -second flashing order, with the focal plane 125 feet above -the lake-level, and the 65,000 candle-power ray is visible -twenty-five miles away. The tower is fitted with a duplicate -plant of twenty-four horse-power oil-engines and air-compressors, -operating an eight-inch whistle; and there is -also an electrically-operated submarine bell, the power for -which is generated by an independent oil-engine, the bell -being operated from the engine-room. This station is -equipped also with a compressed air water-supply system -and a motor-boat.</p> - -<div id="ip_215" class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"> - <img src="images/i_p214b.jpg" width="393" height="585" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE LATEST DEVELOPMENT IN LIGHTHOUSE ENGINEERING.</p> - -<p class="captionl">Building the hexagonal tower on Caribou Island, Lake Superior, upon the lines evolved by -Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson, the chief engineer to the Canadian Lighthouse Department.</p></div></div> - -<p>Owing to the peculiar prevailing conditions, the provision -of adequate beacons upon the Great Lakes is highly -expensive. Up to the year 1883 more money had been -devoted to the lighting of the shoreline of Lake Michigan -than to the illumination of any ocean or gulf in any other -State in the country. The total expenditure up to the -above year exceeded £470,000, or $2,350,000. The Spectacle<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216">216</a></span> -Reef light was considered cheap at £75,000, or $375,000; -and the Stannard Rock lighthouse, owing to the plant and -other facilities being available from the foregoing work, cost -£60,000, or $300,000. By the time the “Rock of Ages” -tower threw its light, £27,649, or $138,245, had been sunk; -and the White Shoals lighthouse absorbed £50,000, or -$250,000.</p> - -<p>The Canadian Government, too, has completed some -notable works upon the Great Lakes during recent years. -In Lake Erie, in the fairway of passing traffic, is a ledge -known as Colchester Reef, on the south-east edge of which -a lighthouse, one of the most isolated in Canadian waters, -has been placed. The circular stone pier is built in 14 feet -of water, and the lighthouse, comprising a two-story dwelling -and tower, supports the beacon 60 feet above the lake. -The light is a fixed white, of the third dioptric order, visible -throughout a circle of fourteen miles radius.</p> - -<p>At the entrance to Parry Sound, on a convenient site -offered by the solid granite mass of Red Rock, a new lighthouse -was constructed in 1911. This was the third beacon -placed at this point, the two previous lights dating from -1870 and 1881 respectively. It is a particularly bad spot, -since the waters of Georgian Bay have a free run, so that -the rock experiences the full hammering of the sea. The -beacon comprises a reinforced concrete building, nearly -elliptical in section, supported upon a heavy stone foundation, -which is encased in steel, and which is 12 feet high. -The tower has a height of 57 feet, bringing the occulting -flash of twelve seconds, with an eclipse of four seconds, -60 feet above the water. This station is also equipped with -a powerful diaphone. The keepers of this light experience -exciting times, as in a furious gale, such as the lakes only -can produce, the waves frequently crash over the building.</p> - -<p>Another fine light in the stretch of these waters under -Canadian jurisdiction is found about halfway across Lake -Superior, where Caribou Island thrusts its scrub-clothed hump -above the water, almost directly in the path of the vessels -running between Sault Ste. Marie and Sarnia. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217">217</a></span> -magnificent structure, placed on a small islet lying off the -main island, is built in ferro-concrete, in accordance with -Lieutenant-Colonel Anderson’s latest ideas, and was opened -for service in 1912. It is of hexagonal shape, with six -flying buttresses, and the focal plane is brought 99 feet above -the water-level, so that the white flash of half a second may -be seen all round from a distance of fifteen miles.</p> - -<p>The steamship lanes across the Great Lakes are now well -lighted. Canada alone maintains over 460 lights of all -descriptions throughout its waters between the eastern extremity -of Lake Ontario and the head of Lake Superior at -Port Arthur. The United States authorities watch over -694 attended and unattended aids to navigation in the same -seas, of which total 152 are scattered around the coastline -of Lake Michigan. The mariner in these fresh-water -oceans, consequently, has a round thousand lights to guide -him on his way, and the number is being steadily increased -to keep pace with the growth of the traffic, so that these seas -may become regarded as the safest and best protected in -the world.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218">218</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE MOST POWERFUL ELECTRIC LIGHTHOUSES OF -THE WORLD</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>In a previous chapter I have mentioned that, although oil -is the most popular form of illuminant in lighthouse engineering, -electricity is maintained to be preferable, but labours -under one heavy disadvantage which militates against its -more general adoption. It is expensive to install and to -maintain. Under these circumstances the system has been -restricted to lights of the most important character, preferably -landfalls or beacons indicating the entrance to a -harbour. Thus, we have the Lizard at the entrance to the -English Channel; St. Catherine’s on the Isle of Wight; the -Rothersand at the entrance to the Weser; the Heligoland -flaring over the island of that name; the Isle of May at the -entrance to the Firth of Forth; Cape Héve near Havre; -and the Navesink light on the highlands of the New Jersey -coast, to guide the mariner into New York harbour.</p> - -<p>The first attempt to apply electricity to lighthouse -illumination was made in the year 1859, by the Trinity -Brethren, on the strong recommendations of Professor -Faraday, who was then scientific adviser to the British -lighthouse authorities. The South Foreland light was -selected for the experiments, and the magneto-electric -machine invented by Professor Holmes, who subsequently -perfected the siren, was used.</p> - -<p>The installation was built with extreme care, as the -imperative necessity of reliability, owing to the peculiar -nature of the application, was recognized very fully. The -large wheels made eighty-five revolutions per minute, and at -this speed produced a very steady light. On a clear night, -owing to the elevation of the cliff the light was visible for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219">219</a></span> -over twenty-seven miles, and could be descried readily -from the upper galleries of the lighthouses on the opposite -French shore. In order to determine the relative value -of electric lighting in comparison with the other methods -of illumination then in vogue, another light emitted by an -oil-lamp, with reflectors characteristic of the period, was -burned simultaneously from a point below the top light, so -that passing mariners were able to compare the two systems -of illumination under identical conditions.</p> - -<p>The French lighthouse authorities were not dilatory in -adopting the new idea, and electricity was installed in -the Cape Héve lighthouse in 1863. The light was brilliant -for those times, being approximately of 60,000 candle-power. -The French investigators then embarked upon an -elaborate series of experiments, and in 1881 an electric -light of about 1,270,000 candle-power was established at -the Planier lighthouse, near Marseilles. The investigations -culminated in the great achievement of M. Bourdelles, -who, while engineer-in-chief of the Service des Phares, -designed a new electric installation for the Cape Héve -light, of 25,000,000 candle-power.</p> - -<p>Meantime British engineers had not been idle. In 1871 -Messrs. Stevenson, the engineers-in-chief to the Commissioners -of Northern Lighthouses, advocated strongly the -establishment of an electric light upon the Scottish coast; -but it was not until 1883 that the Board of Trade sanctioned -the sum necessary to complete such an enterprise, and suggested -that the innovation should be made at the Isle of -May lighthouse, as being the most important on the East -Scottish coast.</p> - -<p>This is one of the historic light-stations of Scotland. -Lying in the Firth of Forth, five miles off the Fifeshire -shore, the islet obstructs a busy marine thoroughfare. -For 276 years a light has gleamed from its summit, the -change from the coal fire to Argand lamps with reflectors -having been made by Thomas Smith, the first engineer to -the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses, when this -body assumed its control in 1816. Twenty years later it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220">220</a></span> -was converted to the dioptric system, with a first-order fixed -light apparatus having a four-wick burner. This arrangement -was in service for half a century, when it was -converted to electricity in conjunction with a dioptric -condensing apparatus.</p> - -<p>The electric installation was designed throughout by -Messrs. Stevenson, and it possesses many ingenious and -novel features to this day, while it was the pioneer of -modern electric lighting systems as applied to lighthouse -engineering. Although marked improvements have been -effected in electrical engineering and science since its completion, -it still ranks as one of, if not the, most powerful -electric lighthouses in the world. The beacon is a prominent -edifice on the summit of the island. The building is -somewhat pretentious, rather resembling a battlemented -castle than a warning for the mariner, the optical apparatus -being housed in a square turret rising above the main part of -the building. When electric illumination was adopted, the -existing accommodation for three keepers was found insufficient, -while a generating-station was necessary. Instead -of extending the old building to accommodate the additional -facilities, a second station was built at a low-lying point -near the sea-level. This contains the engine and generating -house, together with quarters for three more keepers and -their families. This decision was made because at this -point, 810 feet away and 175 feet below the lighthouse, -there is a small fresh-water loch whence water is available -for the boilers and condensers, while a marked saving in -the cost of handling fuel as well as of the haulage of the -building materials and machinery was feasible. The current -is led from the power-house to the lighthouse by means -of overhead copper conductors.</p> - -<p>Some difficulty was experienced in securing electrical -apparatus suited to the searching exigencies of lighthouse -engineering, and the designers made one stipulation, which -at first appeared to baffle fulfilment. This was the placing -of the positive carbon below, instead of above, so as to -enable the strongest light to be thrown upwards, to be dealt<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221">221</a></span> -with by the upper part of the dioptric apparatus, whereby -it could be used more effectively. One firm struggled with -this problem for many months, and then was compelled to -admit defeat, as time for further experimenting was unavailable, -since the lighthouse was almost completed. -Accordingly, the designing engineers had to revise their -plans, and had to acquire alternate-current De Meriten -machines, which, although more expensive and less powerful -than those originally intended, yet were, and are still, -wonderfully steady in working, while they had previously -proved highly efficient for lighthouse service. Two generators -of this description were secured, and they constituted -the largest that had been made up to this period, -each plant weighing about 4½ tons. Each machine -has sixty permanent magnets, disposed in five sets of -twelve each, while each magnet is made up of eight steel -plates. The armature makes 600 revolutions per minute, -and develops an average current of 220 ampères.</p> - -<p>The installation is so designed that one-, two-, three-, or -four-fifths, or the whole, of the current can be sent from -each unit to the distributor for transmission to the lantern, -or the two machines may be coupled and the full current -from both utilized. The current is conveyed to the lantern -through copper rods 1 inch in diameter, and this was the -first occasion on which such conductors were utilized for -lighthouse work. There are three lamps of a modified -Serrin-Berjot type, one being in service, and the other two -held in reserve. By means of a by-pass, or shunt, a large -percentage of the current is sent direct to the lower carbon, -only a sufficient amount to regulate the carbons being sent -through the lamp. The carbons used are about 1½ inches -in diameter, though two-inch carbons can be employed when -both machines are running, and the rate of consumption -is 1¼ inches, or, including waste, 2 inches, per hour. The -power of the arc thus obtained with the current fed from -one generator is between 12,000 and 16,000 candles. In the -event of the electric installation breaking down, a three-wick -paraffin oil lamp is kept in reserve, ready for instant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222">222</a></span> -service, and it can be brought into use within three -minutes.</p> - -<div id="ip_222" class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"> - <img src="images/i_p222a.jpg" width="402" height="597" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of Messrs. Siemens Bros. & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE ELECTRIC SEARCHLIGHTS OF THE HELIGOLAND LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">On the lower level are three projectors spaced 120 degrees apart. Above is a fourth searchlight -revolving three times as rapidly as those below.</p></div></div> - -<p>The dioptric apparatus, designed by Messrs. Stevenson, -and manufactured by Messrs. Chance Brothers and Co. of -Birmingham, is of a novel character, inasmuch as the condensing -principle has been carried to a pronounced degree. -The light characteristic is four brilliant flashes in quick succession -every thirty seconds. The lenticular apparatus also -includes the ingenious idea advocated by Mr. Thomas Stevenson, -an earlier engineer-in-chief to the Northern Commissioners -and perhaps the greatest authority on lighthouse -optical engineering, whereby the light may be dipped -during a fog. Thus, in clear weather the strongest part of -the ray may be directed to the horizon, while in thick -weather it can be brought to bear upon a point, say, four or -five miles away. The flashes are produced by a revolving -cage of straight vertical prisms, which enclose the fixed-light -apparatus. This cage makes one complete revolution every -minute, the rotary movement being secured through a train -of wheels and a weight, which has a fall of 60 feet in a tube -extending vertically through the centre of the tower, the -mechanism being wound up once an hour by manual effort.</p> - -<p>The beam of light obtained by the aid of electricity is -of intense brilliancy and penetration. Its equivalent in -candle-power is somewhat difficult to determine, because -the methods of calculation are somewhat arbitrary and misleading. -By their own method of calculation, the engineers -responsible for the installation rate it at 3,000,000 candle-power -with one generator in use, and 6,000,000 candle-power -when both are going. This is from 300 to 600 times -as intense as the oil light which was superseded. By another -method of calculation the beam is of 26,000,000 candle-power, -while another principle of rating brings it to upwards -of 50,000,000 candle-power. In clear weather the light has -a range of twenty-two miles, being indistinguishable at a -greater distance, owing to the curvature of the earth; but -the flashes of light illuminating the clouds overhead may be -picked up forty or fifty miles away. The total cost of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223">223</a></span> -electrifying the Isle of May light was £15,835, or $79,175; -while the annual cost of maintenance is over £1,000, or -$5,000.</p> - -<p>The most famous English electric lighthouse is that of -St. Catherine’s, in the Isle of Wight. This point, like the -Isle of May, has been a beacon for centuries. Its creation -for this work even antedates its northern contemporary, -because in the fourteenth century a chantry was built -by a benevolent knight on the highest point of St. Catherine’s -Downs, who furthermore provided an endowment -for a priest “who should chant Masses and maintain a -burning light at night for the safety of mariners.” But -this protection fell into desuetude.</p> - -<p>The station, however, was revived upon the old site in -1785, but it had to be abandoned, because it was found -to be built at too high an elevation. It was so often enveloped -in fog as to be useless, or at least unreliable, to -the seafarer. A new tower, accordingly, was erected at a -lower level, and brought into service in 1840, the warning -rays being thrown from a height of 134 feet above the water. -Oil was used with a burner of six rings, the light being -officially known as a “fixed oil light of the first class,” -while the beam was diffused over an arc of 240 degrees. -In the middle eighties the Brethren of Trinity House decided -to bring it up to date, and selected electricity as the illuminant, -at the same time changing the light from the fixed -to the revolving class, with a five-second flash once every -thirty seconds.</p> - -<div id="ip_223" class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"> - <img src="images/i_p222b.jpg" width="399" height="570" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of Messrs. Siemens Bros. & Co., Ltd.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE HELIGOLAND LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">One of the most powerful electric beacons in the world. Its maximum candle-power is 43,000,000.</p></div></div> - -<p>The installation is not widely dissimilar from that used -at the Isle of May. It comprises two De Meriten dynamos -in duplicate, while the lamps are of the modified Serrin-Berjot -type, using carbons, not of circular section, but with -fluted sides. This shape was introduced by Sir James -Douglass, who contended that the former type did not -produce the requisite candle-like steadiness of the flame so -essential to lighthouse illumination. The dioptric apparatus -was of the sixteen panel type, so that the rays were thrown -out in sixteen brilliantly white horizontal spokes. To one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224">224</a></span> -approaching the lighthouse at night-time, the effect in the -sky was somewhat curious. It recalled a huge and illuminated -cart wheel or Catherine wheel, lying flat on its side, -throwing its rays to all points of the compass in a steadily -moving circle. This practice had been borrowed from the -French, who went so far as to introduce a twenty-four panel -system, and, as in France, the St. Catherine’s light, when -first brought into service, was not a complete success. The -French considered that, by distributing the light through -as many panels as possible, the question of bringing the -flashes into action at short intervals would be facilitated, -ignoring the fact that by so doing the intensity of each ray -was impoverished. In other words, with the twenty-four -panel light each panel only received and threw out one-twenty-fourth -part of the volume of light emitted by the -arc. Similarly, in the St. Catherine’s light only one-sixteenth -part of the light produced was thrown through -each panel. A few years ago the optical system was replaced -by an apparatus having fewer panels. The light -thrown from the Isle of Wight pharos, with its beam exceeding -5,000,000 candle-power, represents a marked advance -upon the oil light which it displaced, and certainly it ranks -as the most brilliant light in the English Channel.</p> - -<p>A few years ago another magnificent light was brought -into service in the North Sea by the installation of electricity -in the lighthouse of Heligoland. With characteristic -Teuton thoroughness, the Germans discussed the question -of the illuminant for this beacon in all its bearings, and -resolved to introduce the most powerful light possible. -This decision was influenced by the dangerous character -of the waters washing the island, as it is flanked on all -sides by highly perilous ridges and sandbanks, which -must become accentuated owing to the heavy sea-erosion -that prevails.</p> - -<p>The German authorities investigated the various electrical -installations that had been laid down for lighthouse work, -with a view to discovering the most suitable system, the -advantages and defects of existing electric lights, and how<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225">225</a></span> -the drawbacks might be overcome most successfully. Meantime -the famous Siemens firm discovered a means of -grinding glass mirrors into parabolic form, and this discovery -was accepted as the solution to the problem.</p> - -<p>In this type of mirror the back is silvered. The metallic -polished surface is protected completely from mechanical -injury and from all possibility of tarnishing. The inventors -claim that mirrors so prepared are able to compete successfully -with lenses and totally reflecting prisms—in fact, it -was maintained that the silvered glass parabolic mirror -possessed the advantages of greater reflecting power and -enhanced accuracy, with less divergence of the beam of -light.</p> - -<p>Owing to the perfection of the lenses and prisms system -of lighthouse optics, the introduction of arc lights in conjunction -with parabolic mirrors was received with considerable -hesitation. In order to dispel these doubts, the above-mentioned -firm forthwith embarked upon an elaborate series -of comparative tests at Nuremberg to ascertain the relative -value of the two systems, and as a result of these experiments -they concluded that quite as good an effect is obtainable -with the arc and parabolic mirror as with the best -examples of any other method.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, the authorities decided to install the system -in the Heligoland lighthouse. They stipulated that the -intensity of the beam of light should be at least 30,000,000 -candle-power, with a maximum current of 100 ampères. -The duration of the flash was to be one-tenth of a second, -followed by eclipses of five seconds’ duration.</p> - -<p>The electrical engineering firm entrusted with the contract -fulfilled these conditions by mounting three searchlights -spaced 120 degrees apart upon a rotating platform. -That is to say, each light is projected outwards from a point -equal to a third of the circumference of a circle. The mirror -diameter was settled at 75 centimetres (29½ inches) and -the focal length at 250 millimetres (10 inches), the current -being taken at 34 ampères when the table made four revolutions -per minute.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226">226</a></span> -Subsequently a fourth searchlight was introduced into -the apparatus, for the purpose of practical experiments and -observations concerning the duration of the light-flash. -This fourth unit was mounted above the three searchlights, -but in the axis itself. It is so disposed that its flash comes -midway between any of the two below, and it is arranged -to rotate three times as quickly as the main group of lights. -Accordingly, the duration of the flash thrown from the -fourth searchlight is only one-third of the flash thrown by -the others—that is, one-thirtieth of a second. This lamp -is provided with all the necessary mechanism for keeping -it in steady rotation at the increased speed, and for drawing -current from its feed-cable.</p> - -<p>Before the installation was placed in the lighthouse at -Heligoland, it was submitted to searching tests at the -Nuremberg works of the builders. These trials proved that -with a current of only 26 ampères the average intensity -was as high as 34,000,000 candle-power, with a maximum -of nearly 40,000,000 candle-power; while with 34 ampères -the average intensity rose to approximately 40,000,000, -with a maximum of nearly 43,000,000 candle-power. Accordingly, -the terms of the contract were fulfilled completely.</p> - -<p>The searchlights throw their rays from a massive conical -tower, the focal plane of which is 272 feet above sea-level. -In average weather the rays are visible at a distance of -twenty-three nautical miles, and under the most advantageous -weather conditions visibility is limited only by the -curvature of the earth, although on a clear night the light -is seen from Büsun, which is about thirty-five miles away. -The Heligoland electric light ranks as a remarkable development -in the application of electricity to lighthouse illumination, -but it never has been duplicated. The cost of maintenance—about -£1,400, or $8,000, per annum—is an -insuperable handicap.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the Hornum electric light, which is -the most modern of its type in Germany, is more economical, -although by no means so powerful. The tower is of cast-steel, -and carries two electric lights; while about half a mile<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227">227</a></span> -distant is a second tower, which throws a third electric -light. In the main tower, on the ground floor, is installed -the electric generating plant (in duplicate), together with -all accessories, such as switchboards, etc. The floor above -is devoted to housing 100 accumulators, which are charged -during the day. This task can be completed by one generating -set in about six hours. A single charge is sufficient -to keep the three lights going for ten or eleven hours, and -the lights are controlled by a simple throw-over switch. -By this arrangement the cost of the maintenance of the light -is reduced very appreciably, as only one keeper is on duty -at a time, the station being equipped with two men, who -have proved adequate for the purpose.</p> - -<p>Above the accumulator-room is the storeroom and a -general workshop, followed by a bedroom and above that -the service-room. As only one keeper is on duty at a -time, he is provided with ample devices whereby he can -summon his comrade in times of emergency; the generating -machinery is also controllable from this floor. From the -service-room the lower light-room is entered. This is a -secondary or back light in the range, the front light being -in the tower half a mile away. Each of these two light-rooms -is fitted with two 150 candle-power incandescent -electric lights, but only one is burned in each set at a time: -the second is a reserve. Should the light in action fail from -any cause, although the keeper is warned of the occurrence, -he does not have to stir a finger to bring the reserve light -into service. The short-circuit produced by the accident -to the light automatically revolves the table upon which -the lamps are mounted, swings the reserve light into focus, -and then sets it going.</p> - -<p>Above the secondary light in the main tower is the -principal beacon, comprising a brilliant rapidly-flashing -light, the characteristic of which is groups of two flashes -alternating with four flashes, the cycle being completed -once in thirty seconds. The optical apparatus has been -devised especially for the “differential arc-light,” as it is -called, with a reflecting lens having a focal distance of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228">228</a></span> -250 millimetres (10 inches), the lens itself being 1,180 millimetres -(approximately 47 inches) in diameter. In front -of the lens is placed a disperser, having a diameter of -1,200 millimetres (48 inches) whereby the ray of light is -dispersed through an arc of 10½ degrees. Before the disperser -is the means for producing the characteristic flash. -This comprises a blind, or shutter, which is opened and -closed by mechanism adjusted to requirements; while the -rotating mechanism, instead of being weight-driven, is -actuated by an electric motor.</p> - -<p>The “differential arc,” which is utilized in this installation, -is considered by German engineers to be the best -system that has yet been devised for the exacting purposes -of lighthouse engineering, and the description has -arisen from the disposition of the carbons. While the -positive carbon is held horizontally, the negative carbon is -placed at an angle of 70 degrees thereto, and only the -crater of the positive carbon is considered for the lighting -effect, this being placed in the focus of the apparatus. -The positive carbon is <span class="fraction"><sup>3</sup>/<sub>5</sub></span> inch, and the negative carbon -<span class="fraction"><sup>2</sup>/<sub>5</sub></span> inch, in diameter, although both have a common length -of 19 inches, which is sufficient for nine hours’ service. -The beam emitted is of some 5,000,000 candle-power. This -is one of the cheapest electric stations at present in operation, -the annual running charges averaging less than £300, -or $1,500.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229">229</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">SOME LIGHTHOUSES IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Although the waters washing the Australian continent are -not so thickly intersected with steamship lanes, and the -mercantile traffic is not so dense there as in the seas of the -Northern Hemisphere, yet, owing to the activity in emigration -from Great Britain, as well as to the increasing prosperity -of the various rising industries under the Southern Cross, -they are becoming more crowded with each succeeding year. -The efficient lighting of the coasts is an inevitable corollary -of this expansion. Lighthouse engineering, however, is -unavoidably expensive, especially when sea-rocks demand -indication.</p> - -<p>From time to time severe strictures are passed by -European shipping interests upon the apparent lack of -coastal lights in Australasian waters, and the various -Government departments concerned with this responsibility -are often accused of parsimony and neglect. Unfortunately, -the greater number of these critics are apt to consider the -situation through European glasses; to take the countries -of the Old World and the United States as a basis for their -arguments, and to ignore local conditions. It has taken a -century or more for Europe and the United States to develop -their respective organizations, and in the majority of -instances there are ample funds from which expenses in -this direction may be met, especially when passing shipping -is mulcted a small sum in light-dues for the purpose. When -the shipping is heavy, these levies are certain to represent in -the aggregate a large sum every year.</p> - -<p>From time to time New Zealand has been roundly assailed -for its apparent negligence in the extension of its lighthouse -system. It maintains thirty-four lighthouses and beacons,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230">230</a></span> -which represent a capital outlay of over £200,000, or -$1,000,000. The total maintenance charges average about -£16,500, or $82,000, per annum, while the dues collected -from shipping for the maintenance of these aids to navigation -approximate £38,000, or $190,000, per annum. The balance -is not amazing, and certainly is not sufficient to warrant -heavy expenditure towards new lights, as the installation of -such warnings nowadays is highly expensive if they are to -conform with modern requirements. If the demands of -the critics were met, and a comprehensive scheme, such as -is advised, were taken in hand, the shipowner would have -to pay to meet the deficiency on the revenue account, and -this individual complains that he is overtaxed already.</p> - -<p>Those Australian States which possess what may be -described as a normal coastline—that is, one fairly free -from solitary rocks rising from the sea some distance from -land—are fortunate, since the sea-rock light is notoriously -costly. On the other hand, lights placed on the mainland, -even of the most powerful type, may be completed for a -small outlay, relatively speaking.</p> - -<p>Such a fortunate condition exists in connection with New -South Wales. Here and there off the mainland are small -reefs and ridges, but, taken on the whole, all these danger -spots are adequately covered, so that the State has not been -faced with searching problems of a technical or financial -character in this connection. The State boasts only two -“rock” lighthouses, and these obstructions are large -enough to be called “islands.” The one is South Solitary -Island, off the coast north of Sydney; the other is Montague -Island, to the south of the port. On the other hand, the -mainland is very well patrolled, some thirty lights being -scattered between Point Danger and Cape Howe, the -respective northern and southern sea-limits of the country.</p> - -<p>Although the light-keepers upon the rocks may consider -themselves somewhat isolated, yet their plight is enviable -as compared with that of some of their comrades in other -parts of the world. At Montague Island the three keepers -and their families are housed in comfortable cottages in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231">231</a></span> -close proximity to their ward, and they maintain a small -farm, including a horse, goats, well-stocked gardens, and so -forth. The keepers on South Solitary Island used to be -able to vary the monotony of their daily or nightly round -by indulgence in exciting sport. This assumed the form of -rabbit trapping and hunting, as the island was overrun with -these animals. One form of game must have become somewhat -nauseating in time upon the menu of the keepers, but -this diversion is now a thing of the past. A mysterious -disease appeared among the rabbits, and its ravages were -so devastating that within a short time Montague Island -knew them no more.</p> - -<p>The lighthouses of New South Wales deserve distinction -in one direction. As specimens of architecture they are -magnificent pieces of work, so that what the towers lack -in romance they make up in attractiveness. The most -imposing is the Macquarie tower, or Sydney lighthouse, -mounting guard over the harbour. The first beacon was -erected upon this site as far back as 1816, thereby rendering -it the first lighthouse in the State, and it was fitted with an -oil light, while one or two of the English lights were still -open coal fires. In 1883 it was decided to modernize the -lighting apparatus, so that a more powerful beam might -be thrown. Electricity was the illuminant selected, the -machinery for the generation of the requisite current being -designed for installation in the original tower. But three-quarters -of a century’s exposure to the elements had rendered -this building somewhat too weak to carry the requisite -heavy lenses and machinery, so a new tower was projected. -The old light was kept going while its successor sprang up -alongside; when the latter was completed, the oil light in -the famous old tower was extinguished for ever and the -building demolished.</p> - -<p>The new lighthouse is a fine structure. At the foot of the -tower is a spacious, well-lighted, and artistic one-floor building -housing the electrical machinery as well as the office. -The domiciles for the keepers and the engineers are placed -on either side of the spreading lawn surrounding the station.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232">232</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_232" class="figcenter" style="width: 602px;"> - <img src="images/i_p232a.jpg" width="602" height="340" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THREE STRIKING GUARDIANS OF THE SHORE OF NEW SOUTH WALES.</p> - -<p class="captionc">1. Green Cape Lighthouse. 2. The sentinel of Sugar Loaf Point, or Seal Rocks. 3. “Bungaree Norah” station, one of the loneliest -on the coast.</p></div></div> - -<p>The most southerly light upon the New South Wales -coastline is that at Green Cape, a few miles north of Cape -Howe. As at the other stations, three keepers are maintained, -being accommodated, with their families, in roomy -cottages; while a small patch of land is turned to agricultural -advantage, cows, horses, etc., being maintained by the -men. The most easterly light on the Australian continent -is at Cape Byron. This light is perched on a dangerous cliff, -which drops almost vertically into the water 371 feet below; -but it is within touch of civilization, a winding road having -been cut down the flank of the promontory on the land side -into the neighbouring town of Byron Bay, so that the -tradesmen’s carts are able to make their rounds up the cliff -to satisfy the varied wants of the wardens of the light. -One of the loneliest lights is that on Norah Head—Bungaree -Norah it is called—and this is also the latest light -erected by the State, as it dates from 1903. Although -somewhat out of the way, it is not to be compared with -some of the isolated British, Canadian, and United States -lights, being, in fact, no more inaccessible or lonely than -most localities in the Australian Bush.</p> - -<p>Sugar-Loaf Point is one of the most serious danger spots -along the shoreline, but is now well guarded with a fine -lighthouse planted on its summit, the welcome rays of -which are visible for many miles out to sea. The light-keepers -here had a surprising discovery one morning in -1910. The <i>Satara</i> fouled the point and was wrecked, -though fortunately her passengers were succoured by passing -steamers. On this vessel at the time of the disaster there -was a staghound, and although, when the rescues were -effected, search for the animal was made high and low on the -wreck, no signs of it could be seen. It was given up as lost. -Some days later the lighthouse-keepers ventured to the -beach below to have a look round, and to their astonishment -a staghound come bounding towards them, yelping with -joy at the sight of a human face. For a dog to be in such a -lonely spot was a strange circumstance, but at last it was -surmised to be the animal which was missed on the <i>Satara</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233">233</a></span> -Apparently the animal clung to the crippled craft for some -time, and then, realizing that the ship was abandoned, dived -overboard and swam ashore. It fraternized with the -keepers, and for some time kept them company at the -station.</p> - -<p>One of the worst wrecks which have happened upon the -shores of New South Wales was that of the steamer <i>Ly-ce-moon</i>. -By some inexplicable means the ship got out of her -course on a fine Sunday night, and came to grief off Green -Cape. The lighthouse-keepers at once hurried to the rescue, -the hapless passengers, as they were got ashore, being tended -at the station until they were removed to their homes. The -lighthouse-keepers worked tremendously hard, but they -were not entirely successful. Although by herculean effort -they brought a large number of people to safety, there is a -small fenced enclosure in the Bush behind the station where -lie the remains of some fifty persons who lost their lives in -the wreck, and whose bodies were washed ashore.</p> - -<p>While New South Wales has a comparatively easy length -of coastline to protect, the neighbouring colony of New -Zealand, on the other hand, has a wild, forbidding, and -extensive stretch of shore. Up to the present the Government -has concentrated its energies upon the illumination of -the busiest reaches of water, and has planted prominent -outposts at the respective extreme tips of the twin islands. -During the financial year ending March 31, 1912, sixteen -wrecks occurred in these seas, of which six were total losses. -The most ill-famed corner appears to be the large sweeping -indentation at the southern end of North Island, lying -between Cape Egmont and Wellington, particularly in the -vicinity of Wanganui, since this stretch of coast claimed -five victims. Cook’s Strait, which is dangerous to navigators, -is well protected, however, the most prominent -beacon being that on Stephens Island, its group-flashes, -occurring every thirty seconds, being particularly powerful, -and having a range of thirty-two miles.</p> - -<div id="ip_233" class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;"> - <img src="images/i_p232b.jpg" width="375" height="234" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">THE CAPE BYRON LIGHTHOUSE, NEW SOUTH WALES.</div></div> - -<div id="ip_233b" class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"> - <img src="images/i_p232c.jpg" width="377" height="276" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE MACQUARIE LIGHTHOUSE, SOUTH HEAD OF SYDNEY HARBOUR, -NEW SOUTH WALES.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The original tower, erected in 1816, was the first lighthouse built in the State. In 1882 it made -way for the present magnificent station.</p></div></div> - -<p>The Marine Department maintains thirty-two coastal -lights, of which twenty-two are on the mainland, and ten<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234">234</a></span> -situate on islands off the coast. They are of a varied -description, ranging from powerful lights of the first order -to beacons dependent upon dissolved acetylene, stored in -cylinders of sufficient capacity to keep the light gleaming -for sixty days continuously. Some of the places in which -the warning lights are placed are exceedingly lonely -and inaccessible, so that the perfection of the unattended -light has solved a complex problem, and has enabled -many terrible stretches of forbidding coast to be well -indicated.</p> - -<div id="ip_234" class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;"> - <img src="images/i_p234a.jpg" width="403" height="545" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>PAINTING THE TROUBRIDGE LIGHTHOUSE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA.</p> - -<p class="captionl">Keeping the building in repair is one of the lighthouse-keepers’ duties. This is especially urgent in -the case of an iron structure. This tower is 78 feet high, the light being visible for 15 miles.</p></div></div> - -<p>The first tower to be brought into service in New Zealand -was that on Pencarrow Head, to indicate the entrance to -the inlet in which Wellington nestles. It shed its rays for -the first time on New Year’s Day, 1859. It is an iron structure, -from the top of which a fixed white light may be picked -up by a vessel twenty-seven miles off the coast. The iron -had to be prepared and shaped in England, as there was -no foundry in the islands at that time capable of executing -the work. The building was shipped to New Zealand in -sections and erected. To-day, owing to the growth of the -iron industry, the country can supply all its own needs -in this field without difficulty, but in all cases the lanterns, -mechanism, and lenses, have to be acquired in -Europe.</p> - -<p>As may be imagined, with such a rugged coastline as -New Zealand possesses, some of the stations are terribly -lonely and difficult of access, owing to the treacherous nature -of the waters over which they mount guard. With the -exception of the Brothers light, which is situated on an -exposed rock in Cook’s Strait, three keepers are maintained -at each island lighthouse—one as relief—and at the more -isolated mainland lights. Those of the latter stations which -are within easy reach of civilization have only two keepers. -The Brothers light, which is New Zealand’s most lonely -station, has four keepers, three on the rock at one time, -while the fourth is ashore. The spell of service on the rock -is three months, followed by one month’s leave. The -wives and families of the men reside at Wellington. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235">235</a></span> -authorities, however, do not condemn the light-keeper to -one station throughout his whole term of service. He -undergoes frequent transference, so that all may have a -turn at good and bad stations. The duration of the stay at -each light averages about three years, so that there is very -little possibility of these patient, long-suffering stalwarts -being condemned to such a period of loneliness as to -provoke taciturnity and melancholia.</p> - -<p>The keeper of the lighthouse light in New Zealand is as -well provided for as his colleague in any other part of the -world. When he enters the service, he is placed on probation -as assistant keeper for six months, at an annual salary of -£90, or $450. Emerging from this ordeal satisfactorily, he -finds his salary increased at once to £100, or $500, per -annum, rising by increments of £10 every two years, until -it reaches £130, or $650, per annum. It remains at this -figure until he is promoted to the position of head-keeper, -which post brings an annual wage of £140, or $700, rising -by biennial increments of £10 to a maximum annual remuneration -of £180, or $900. In addition to the foregoing -scale, a keeper receives an extra annual station allowance of -£10 in the case of third-class stations, which are those on -lonely rocks and islands, and £5 in the case of stations which -are not isolated or difficult of access. All keepers in the -service live rent-free, and are supplied with coal and oil, -together with the free use of sufficient land, if available, to -prepare gardens, as well as grazing for two or three cows -and a few sheep, etc.; while their stores and provisions are -carried without charge by the Government steamer <i>Hinemoa</i>. -This vessel is retained solely for attending upon the lighthouses -and buoys, and visits every light, save in exceptionally -rough weather, once in three months.</p> - -<div id="ip_235" class="figcenter" style="width: 396px;"> - <img src="images/i_p234b.jpg" width="396" height="258" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>GREEN POINT LIGHTHOUSE, NATAL.</p> - -<p class="captionc">A well-known South African warning with a range of 23 miles.</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_235b" class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;"> - <img src="images/i_p234c.jpg" width="401" height="306" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE PACIFIC OUTPOST OF THE UNITED STATES.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The <i>San Francisco</i> Lightship throws a flashing electric beam of 700 candle-power and is fitted -also with the submarine bell.</p></div></div> - -<p>At all the isolated and rock stations landing is a hazardous -task, even under the most favourable conditions. The swell -and currents breaking upon the rocks render it impossible -for freight and men to be landed direct from the steamer -to the rock. Consequently all the work has to be carried out -by means of surf-boats, and heavy drenchings from breaking<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236">236</a></span> -waves, and exciting moments, are unavoidable. At times -the task assumes exceptional difficulty, and is attended -with fatal mishaps. On June 2, 1899, the <i>Hinemoa</i> stood -in towards the East Cape, the most easterly promontory on -the islands, on the southern arm enclosing the Bay of Plenty. -The sea looked wicked, but the relieving ship decided to go -ahead with its work. All went well until a heavy roller -suddenly came in and caught one of the boats at a disadvantage. -The craft was capsized before the crew realized -their position, and the chief officer, with three of his men, -was drowned. Such is one of the penalties which have -been exacted by the relentless sea, while courageous -men have been engaged in the risky occupation of keeping -the coast lights shining for the guidance of seafarers.</p> - -<p>The New Zealand shores have been the scenes of some -heartrending catastrophes. The steamship <i>Tararua</i>, of -563 tons register, was making her way from Dunedin to the -Bluff, when she crashed on to the reef which juts seaward -from Waipapapa Point. There was no light to warn the -ship—hence the accident. The vessel, battered by sledge-hammer -seas, broke up very rapidly, and 130 passengers -lost their lives. If the point had been guarded, no accident -would have happened. Now a second-order dioptric flashing -light of ten seconds guards the reef, and may be seen from -a distance of thirteen and a half miles. Another calamity -was the loss of the <i>Huddart Parker</i> liner on a danger spot -known as the Three Kings Rock. The fearsome character -of this peril has been recognized for many years past, but, -as it is to be marked by a light suited to the locality, it is -hoped that its evil harvest will come to an end. Yet at -the same time it must be pointed out that the provision of -a light does not always prevent a wreck even in the clearest -weather, owing to the weakness of human nature. This -was proved by the steamship <i>Triumph</i>, of 1,797 tons register. -She left Auckland on the night of November 29, 1883, -picked up the Tiri-Tiri Island light—this fixed star can be -seen from a distance of twenty-four miles—and yet within<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237">237</a></span> -two hours of her sailing was wrecked almost under the lighthouse. -In this instance gross negligence was only too -palpable, and the court of inquiry, after its investigation -of the wreck, signified its opinion of the carelessness displayed -by suspending the certificate of the master for three -years, and that of the chief officer for six months.</p> - -<p>Apart from Cook’s Strait, the narrow passage between the -two islands, the extreme points of the country are well -guarded, the towers for the most part being located upon -the prominent headlands. The southern extremity of the -South Island is a dangerous coast to navigate, since going -east, after the Puysegur Point ten seconds flashing light is -dropped at a distance of nineteen miles from the headland, -the vessel’s course is set to traverse Foveaux Strait, between -the mainland and Stewart Island. In the centre of the -neck of water is an ominous rock, Centre Island, which, -however, is well guarded by a first-order catadioptric fixed -light, shining from a wooden tower, the range of which -extends for twenty-two and a half miles, with red arcs -marking the inshore dangers. Overlapping this beacon’s -field of patrol is a light mounted on Dog Island, revolving -once in thirty seconds, and visible for eighteen miles, which -in turn meets the Waipapapa light. Thus the approach to -Invercargill is well indicated, and, with the east coast -promontories all protected, the possibility of a repetition -of the <i>Tararua</i> disaster is rendered remote.</p> - -<p>On the extreme northern tip of the sister isle, the headland -known as Cape Maria Van Diemen carries a first-order -dioptric light, revolving once a minute, illuminating a circle -of sea having a radius of twenty-four and a half miles. The -adjacent headland at the opposite corner of this spit, North -Cape, has not been protected hitherto; but this deficiency -is now being remedied by the erection of a second-order, -incandescent, group-flashing white light, giving three -flashes in quick succession every half-minute. The brilliant -illumination of this part of the coast is imperative, inasmuch -as shipping bound for and from Auckland has to bear round -this heavily indented and rock-strewn coast. The entrance<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238">238</a></span> -to Auckland harbour in particular is disconcerting, but -the navigator is assisted by the friendly guardians placed on -Cape Brett, Moko Hinou, and Tiri-Tiri, which have ranges -of thirty and a half, twenty-six, and twenty-four miles, -respectively. The task of the mariner, however, is to be -further simplified by the erection of another powerful light -on Chicken Island, in the Hauraki Gulf, which will overlap -the Moko Hinou and Tiri-Tiri lights. When this light and -that at North Cape are placed in commission, the sea -between Cape Maria Van Diemen and Auckland will be very -well lighted, and will offer the ship’s master few causes for -complaint. Two other points are being equipped, Castle -Point and Cape Terawhiti, the former with a second-order, -incandescent, group-flashing white light, flashing at intervals -of forty-five seconds, with periods of darkness lasting -eight seconds between each group.</p> - -<p>While the majority of the New Zealand coastal lights -are attended, certain beacons, from their exposed position, -come in the category of unattended lights, as described elsewhere. -These burn acetylene gas, and are replaced with -fresh supplies of dissolved acetylene every three months by -the <i>Hinemoa</i>. Simultaneously with the provision of additional -beacons the existing lights are being overhauled and -fitted with modern apparatus, rendering them more reliable, -economical, and of greater power. When the service was -established, the Doty burner, using paraffin-oil, was adopted; -but the perfection of the incandescent oil system, and its -many advantages over that in vogue, have influenced the -Government towards its adoption. The transformation -will be completed as soon as practicable, the work being in -active progress, as maintenance expenses are reduced -appreciably thereby, because kerosene, a cheaper oil, is used -in lieu of paraffin, while, furthermore, less oil is burned under -the incandescent system.</p> - -<p>Before many years have passed, the coasts of New Zealand -will be as adequately protected as is humanly possible by -a complete chain of coastal lights, which is being forged as -rapidly as the circumstances permit. The Government has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239">239</a></span> -revised its light-dues in order to meet the increased expenditure -in connection with the lighthouse service. Vessels -arriving from outside the Dominion have to pay oversea -light-dues at the first port of call, and coastal dues at all -other New Zealand ports which they touch; while vessels -arriving from the Chatham, Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, -and Bounty Islands also have to contribute to the funds.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240">240</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE SIGNPOSTS OF THE SANDBANKS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Although by dint of great effort and the expenditure of -considerable ingenuity the lighthouse engineer has succeeded -in erecting a permanent masonry tower upon a -foundation no more substantial than quicksand, yet the -general method of indicating these menaces is by the aid -of a lightship. In this way the estuaries leading to the -great ports of the world, which are littered with ridges, -humps, and mounds, of mud and sand brought down by the -river or thrown up by the sea, are guarded very completely. -There is the Nore lightship at the entrance to the -Thames, the Bar and North-West lightships off the mouth of -the Mersey, Fire Island near the portal to New York, and -so on. Similarly, the whereabouts of huge stretches of sand -lying off a coast, which either defy detection altogether or -only partially expose themselves at low-water, and which -constitute certain death-traps, are shown. The most striking -illustrations of this application are supplied by the Goodwin -Sands, the submerged sandy plateau lying off the east coast -of England, and by the serried rows of ridges running seven -and a half miles out to sea from Cape Hatteras, the ill-famed -headland of North Carolina.</p> - -<p>The utilization of the lightship, however, is not restricted -by any means to marking shoals and sandbanks. Here and -there are clusters of rocks obstructing the ocean highway, -which from their extremely exposed character would offer -the engineer a searching and expensive problem to solve, -and which, accordingly, are protected by a floating light. -But, taken on the whole, the lightship is used very sparingly. -If it is at all possible to provide a permanent structure, even -at an apparently prohibitive cost, upon a danger spot, this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241">241</a></span> -practice is followed in preference to the mooring of a light-vessel -thereto. A masonry tower is stationary in its -resistance to the assaults of the wildest tempest, but the -lightship swings like a cork at the free end of a chain. At -times it drags its anchors, and thereby unconsciously shifts -its position, so that it may throw its light from some distance -beyond the actual area of danger. Again, a lightship, -although not costly in the first instance, is somewhat expensive -to maintain. It cannot withstand the poundings -of the waves and the force of the wind for long without -developing some signs of weakness. It may ride over its -reef or shoal for several years, but depreciation is sure to -set in, so that at last it becomes too decrepit to be trusted. -Moreover, the number of men required to man a lightship -exceeds the force necessary to maintain a lighthouse.</p> - -<p>Lightships follow much the same general shape and construction -the whole world over. There is very little opportunity -to depart from well-tried lines; the experience of a -century and more has indicated conclusively the form of -hull, as regards both material and shape, best adapted to -the peculiar work which has to be fulfilled. The modern -lightship is essentially a British idea, the first floating beacon -of this description having been built and placed in the -mouth of the Thames as far back as 1713. From this small -beginning, which virtually was an experiment, has grown -the large fleet of light-vessels scattered all over the globe.</p> - -<p>The craft is sturdily built, and, although of clumsy appearance, -is capable of withstanding the onslaughts of the fiercest -gales. Internally it is made as snug as possible, but the -opportunities in this direction are not very extensive, as -the beacon is built primarily to protect ships and lives -against accident, and comfort is necessarily made subordinate -to reliability, durability, and serviceability.</p> - -<p>A mere hulk would be the most apt description as applied -to the average lightship. It is intended to cling to one spot -through thick and thin, and not to move about. In the -majority of instances the vessel is without any propelling or -sailing accessories. If it should happen to break its leashes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242">242</a></span> -it then becomes the sport of the waves, as helpless as a -derelict, until its signals of distress are espied and it is -picked up by a passing vessel. Although every precaution -is adopted to preserve the lightship from this mishap, when -the waves become exceptionally heavy and violent the -strongest chains are apt to snap under the sawing and -tugging of the vessel. In one or two instances lively times -have been experienced by the handful of men on board, -especially off the wicked stretches of the American seaboard -which is exposed to the attack of hurricane and cyclone.</p> - -<div id="ip_242" class="figcenter" style="width: 594px;"> - <img src="images/i_p242a.jpg" width="594" height="346" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p> -<i>Photo, Paul, Penzance.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE “SEVEN-STONES” LIGHTSHIP.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This vessel, probably occupying the most exposed position around England, marks a terrible danger spot off the Cornish coast.</p></div></div> - -<p>In her helplessness, the light-vessel depends upon the -friendly aid of any craft. The rescuer may be the alert -tender, which, having received intimation that the floating -beacon has got adrift, raises steam in all haste, hurries out, -scours the seas for the wanderer, recovers and rechains her -to the danger spot below. Or it may be that a passing· -steamer sights the breakaway, retrieves and restores her to -the allotted position, making her temporarily secure, and -reporting her condition when passing or entering a port.</p> - -<p>The lightship may be identified easily. There is nothing -inspiring about her lines. Her ugly hull, built for strength -and not beauty, is painted red, black, or white, according to -the colour practice of the country to which she belongs, while -on her sides in huge letters, stretching almost from water-line -to taffrail, is the name of her station, “Nore,” “Seven -Stones,” “Norderney,” “Ruytingen,” “Fire Island,” or -whatever it may be. Nor is this the sole means of identification. -From afar the mariner learns her character and -business by a huge skeleton sphere, a triangular cage, or some -other device, carried at the top of the mast or masts. At -night a lantern, entirely surrounding the mast, and large -enough to enable a person to stand upright within to trim -the lamps, throws its warning glare from an elevation about -halfway between the deck and the mast-top with the intensity -of 12,000 or more candles. Oil is the illuminant -most generally employed for the purpose, although in one or -two instances electric light is used.</p> - -<p>The specific purpose of the lightship, as already mentioned,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243">243</a></span> -is to warn passing vessels. But the French Government, -when they made an elaborate investigation of their -lightship service with a view to its modernization and -elaboration, discovered that at times the floating signpost -fulfils another and unofficial duty. The entrance to St. Malo -Harbour is flanked by an uneven group of rocks lying about -midway between the French coast and the island of Jersey. -Though a terrible spot for mariners, it is one of incalculable -value to the sturdy French and Jersey fishermen, as in the -waters around these barriers rich hauls may be made with -the net; indeed, the fishing industry here affords employment -for several score of persons. The French Government -contemplated the withdrawal of the lightship marking the -Minquiers, as these rocks are called, and the substitution in -its stead of a number of powerful automatic buoys which -would indicate the exact position of the most conspicuous -dangers, whereas the lightship only indicated their general -whereabouts, compelling mariners to calculate their distances -from the peril, which, by the way, was no easy matter owing -to the short range of the beacon.</p> - -<div id="ip_243" class="figcenter" style="width: 593px;"> - <img src="images/i_p242b.jpg" width="593" height="401" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE “SAN FRANCISCO” LIGHTSHIP.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This vessel, riding in 18 fathoms, marks the entrance to the Golden Gate and San Francisco Bay.</p></div></div> - -<p>Before making a decision, the Commission interviewed the -French fishermen to ascertain their views upon the subject. -To their intense surprise, a suggestion which they thought -would be received with unmixed approval was condemned -unequivocally. There was not a single fisherman who -could be found to support the buoy system. The unanimity -of the objection aroused suspicions, and further investigation -was made to probe the cause of this unveiled hostility. The -answer was found without effort. The fishermen pushed -off in their boats every night to the grounds, but they did -not spend the whole of their time throwing and hauling their -nets. When their luck was in, or they were satisfied with -the catch, one and all pulled for the lightship. There was -not another café within a dozen miles, and fishing is thirsty -work. So the lightship was converted into a nocturnal -hostelry. The keepers charged the glasses, and the captains -courageous sipped and quaffed to a whistling accompaniment, -finally indulging in terpsichorean acts on the lightship’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244">244</a></span> -decks, to give vent to their exuberant spirits. They -did not care whether the light overhead were throwing its -yellow beams over the waters or not. They made merry, -and kept up the orgy until the approaching dawn or the -watch showed that it was high time to pull for the shore -with their catches. It was a fortunate circumstance for -these happy-go-lucky spirits that the beacon was not -regarded by mariners as of much utility at night, owing to -the feebleness of its light. If seafarers failed to pick up -the Minquiers’s shimmering star, they attributed the obscurity -to the haze. That was all.</p> - -<p>This revelation, needless to say, clinched the Commission’s -decision. To-day four unattended gas-buoys mount vigil -over these rocks, and the rollicking days on the floating <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">café -chantant</i> are known no more.</p> - -<p>The average crew for a lightship numbers some seven men -under a captain and mate, who take it in turns to have -charge of the vessel, the second official being responsible -during the former’s spell of leave on shore. The crew is not -a man too many, owing to the several and varied duties to -be performed, especially when the storm-fiend is roused or -fog pays a visit. The arrival of the latter demands the foghorn’s -mournful dirge to penetrate the dense white curtain. -Some of the vessels possess a hooter, the unmusical wail of -which in its discordance is almost sufficient to put false -teeth on edge, because a blast runs through the whole -chromatic gamut with variations which would startle a -disciple of Tschaikowsky or Wagner. But discordance in -this instance is of incalculable value. The ear of the captain -of a passing vessel is unconsciously arrested; he can distinguish -the sound readily, and by noting its character can -identify the particular light-vessel from which it proceeds, -although he cannot get a glimpse of her form.</p> - -<p>The southern coasts of England, owing to the density of -the maritime traffic, especially on both sides of the bottle-neck -formed by the Straits of Dover, are well patrolled by -this form of warning which supplements the lighthouses. -Those guarding the dreaded Goodwin Sands perhaps are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245">245</a></span> -the most important. The crew of a vessel in these waters -is busy throughout the day and night even in calm, clear -weather, and the feeling of isolation is not so pronounced, -since the continuous sight of traffic dispels despondency. The -Nore light is another station which encounters very few -minutes of rest throughout the complete revolution of the -clock hands; especially is this the case when fog settles -down, rendering the Thames inapproachable, so that incoming -craft have to line up in long queues, ready to dash -forward directly the pall lifts sufficiently for them to see -100 yards ahead.</p> - -<p>There have been some exciting incidents among the -lights strung around the south-eastern toe of England. -The vessel outside Dover harbour appears to be particularly -unlucky, or to exercise such a peculiar magnetism upon -passing vessels that they must needs embrace her. This -is the peril that a lightship crew dreads more than any other. -Certainly it seems a sorry trick of Fortune that occasionally -the workers in the cause of humanity should be compelled to -fight desperately for their lives from a blow inflicted by the -very interests they strive might and main to protect. The -Dover light was sent to the bottom twice within a very -short time, and in each instance the men were rescued only -in the nick of time. On another occasion a relief lightship -was being towed to a station on the east coast, the acting -vessel being much in need of overhaul and repair. The -tug laboured through the North Sea with her charge, and -just before daybreak sighted the twinkling light which was -her goal. She eased up, meaning to stand by with her -charge until the beacon’s round of vigilance should be over, -and the light extinguished before the gathering dawn. Her -crew saw the light grow dimmer, until it was no longer of -sufficient power to penetrate the whitening haze. With the -sun just creeping over the horizon the tug weighed anchor, -and, heralding her approach vociferously on the siren, -steamed slowly towards the danger spot. To the surprise -of the captain, there came no answering blare. When he -thought he was alongside the light-vessel he stopped, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246">246</a></span> -the haze lifted. But there was no sign of the light-vessel; -she had vanished completely. The captain of the tug and -the master of the relief-boat wondered what had happened, -but without more ado the relief-ship was moored in position, -and the tug returned home empty-handed. There the crew -heard one of those grim stories sometimes related in the -service. The light-keepers had sighted the tug with the -relief-vessel, and were anticipating keenly their return to -civilization, when there was a crash! A cliff of steel reared -above them like a knife-edge; a vessel had blundered into -them, cutting their home in two. The next moment they -were shot pell-mell into the water as their craft sank beneath -their feet.</p> - -<p>On a calm day, when the lightship is riding quietly at -anchor, and the members of the crew, maybe, are beguiling -the tedium by fishing, a passer-by on a liner is apt to consider -the life one of quietness and enjoyment, albeit monotonous. -But contrast this placidity with the hours of storm. Then -the ungainly vessel writhes and twists, saws and rasps at the -chains which hold her prisoner. At one moment, with bow -uplifted, she is on the crest of a spray-enveloped roller; the -next instant she drives her dipping nose into the hissing -white and green valley, meanwhile lurching and staggering -wildly as she ships a sea, first on this side and then on that.</p> - -<p>The plight of the lighthouse-keeper in a gale is unenviable, -but it is far and away preferable to that of the lightship -crew under similar circumstances. The tower may bow -slightly like a tree before the storm, and the waves may -cause it to shiver at times, but that is the only movement. -On the lightship the crew appear to be tossed, rolled, and -spun, in all directions simultaneously. The deck becomes -untenable, but the men in the performance of their duties -have to grope and crawl from point to point, holding on -grimly with both hands when an angry sea douches them. -The spherical ball overhead gyrates in an amazing manner, -as if it were a pendulum bob boxing the compass. The crew -have a stiff struggle, to keep everything below safe and -sound, while the waves, as they come aboard, thump on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247">247</a></span> -deck as if determined to smash it to splinters, and to drive -the whole fabric to the bottom. To be so unlucky as to be -run down by a passing craft under such conditions is certain -death, as there is no hope of rescue in such maddened seas.</p> - -<p>The crew of an English ship emerged badly battered from -one heavy gale. Two or three rollers got aboard, and drove -their blows well home, pulverizing the lifeboat on deck, and -tearing up stretches of the bulwarks by the roots. The -crew were flung about like shuttlecocks. One of the hands -was making his way cautiously along the deck, trying to -maintain equilibrium upon an alarming incline, when a -breaker struck him from behind. He grabbed the ratlins to -secure himself, but his hand was wrenched away, and he -was flung against the mast, where the wave left him. He -was half stunned by the concussion, but a comrade, realizing -his plight, dashed forward while the vessel rolled over in the -other direction, grabbed the prostrate form by the collar of -its coat, and dragged it into the companion-way. The man’s -face was disfigured, and when bathed it was found to have -been cut, or rather burst, open from the eye to the chin by -the force of the blow.</p> - -<p>Bad weather tends to make the crew despondent at -times, inasmuch as its persistency holds them prisoners, so -that they cannot get ashore when the relief day comes round. -During some seasons of the year a delay of ten or twelve -days is not uncommon, owing to the weather, but the men -on the relief tender are so used to hard knocks and rough -seas that they do not wait for an absolute calm to achieve -their purpose. Heavy risks are incurred often in order to -lighten the lives of those who guard the deep by bringing -them ashore as near to the scheduled date as possible.</p> - -<p>Another ship that has to mount guard over a dangerous -corner of the coast of England is that which indicates the -cluster of rocks lying between Land’s End and the Scilly -Isles, about sixteen miles off the mainland. For the most -part the reef is submerged, but as the water goes down seven -ugly scattered pinnacles thrust themselves into the air. -They are terrible fangs with which to rip out the bottom of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248">248</a></span> -a steamer, and they have accomplished their fell work only -too often. The number of the projections has given its -name to the graveyard, which is known far and wide as the -Seven Stones, though the mariner refers to them simply -as The Stones.</p> - -<p>It would be difficult to say offhand which has claimed the -greater number of victims from the mercantile marine—the -sucking, glue-like sands of the Goodwins, or the splitting -granite teeth of the Seven Stones; they run a close race for -ill-fame. The latter lie right in the path of vessels rounding -the western toe of England, and the sea-bed on all sides of -them is littered with the shivered timbers of wooden sailing-ships, -the splintered iron and steel of steamers, and the -bones of scores of unfortunate passengers and crews. -Although a light of 12,000 candle-power strives to warn the -seafarer, now and again there is a miscalculation, and the -intimation is conveyed to the mainland: “Ship and all -hands lost.”</p> - -<p>It was in 1841, owing to the frequency and severity of the -disasters at this spot, that Trinity House decided to guard -it with a lightship. A lighthouse would be preferable, but -there is such small foothold for the engineer, and the position -is so fearfully exposed, that the erection of a masonry tower -would prove a costly and tedious enterprise. So the only -feasible alternative was adopted, and the vessel is kept -abreast of modern developments in this phase of coast -lighting. Lying as it does in a somewhat narrow channel, -yet open to the full roll of the terrible westerly gales, it -meets the Atlantic thundering through this constricted -passage with awe-inspiring violence. It has often suffered -greatly from the fury of the sea. Once a wave tumbled -aboard, crashed a man against the pump, knocked him half -senseless; picked up the lifeboat and threw it against the -deck-house, and in so doing caught another member of the -crew, mauling his thigh badly in passing. Two out of the -seven men forming the crew were thus put <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">hors de combat</i> -by a single wave. The taut little vessel rides in 40 fathoms -of water, about one and a half miles eastward of the danger<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249">249</a></span> -spot, as even a lightship must not be moored too closely to a -ridge, or she herself would incur the risk of being pounded -to fragments.</p> - -<p>The French lighthouse service has a magnificent lightship -in the <i>Ruytingen</i>, which rides in 60 feet of water over a -treacherous sandbank outside Dunkirk. It is a steel vessel -about 100 feet in length, and displaces in loaded condition -about 387 tons. It is held in position by massive umbrella-like -anchors, weighing some 2 tons, which, burying themselves -in the ground, refuse to drag even under the most -fearful tugs and jerks imposed by a gale, while the chains -which hold the ship in leash are able to give her a run of -approximately 1,000 feet.</p> - -<p>The German coast is as dangerous to approach, owing to -the shoals and banks, as the eastern shores of England, and -one or two magnificent lightships have been built and -stationed over the most notorious danger areas, among -which may be mentioned the <i>Norderney</i> and <i>Eider</i> vessels. -The latter is about 133 feet in length by 24 feet wide, and is -fitted with three masts. It throws a fixed white light, which -may be seen on all sides from eight to eleven miles away. -This boat is fitted with every modern device to increase its -warning powers and service, including wireless telegraphy -and the submarine bell.</p> - -<p>These two latter inventions have improved the serviceability -of the lightship to a vast degree, inasmuch as the -ocean liners and many freighters are equipped with both -these useful handmaids to navigation. The tolling of the -bell under water may be heard for several miles, and conveys -intimation of the approach to danger in foggy weather, -when the siren or other fog-signal is somewhat precarious.</p> - -<p>The <i>Norderney</i> lightship is probably one of the finest craft -in operation upon the seven seas. Before it was designed -the German engineers carried out a thorough inspection of -all the most modern lightships in service in Europe, and -from the results of their investigations contrived this magnificent -aid to navigation. The vessel is about 150 feet in -length, and is built of steel. The light is shown from a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250">250</a></span> -lantern fitted with a third-order pendular lens carried at -the top of a hollow steel mast. The illuminant used is -Pintsch’s oil-gas, with incandescent mantle, the fuel being -stored in reservoirs stowed in the hold of the ship; fresh -supplies are brought out by the tender at periodical intervals. -Weight-driven clockwork mechanism is employed to revolve -the lantern. The light is one of the most powerful in -European waters, 50,000 candle-power being emitted with -an incandescent gas mantle having a diameter of 30 millimetres -(1¼ inches).</p> - -<div id="ip_250" class="figcenter" style="width: 598px;"> - <img src="images/i_p250a.jpg" width="598" height="286" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE “NORDERNEY” LIGHTSHIP.</p> - -<p class="captionc">One of the finest in the world.</p></div></div> - -<p>The vessel is also equipped with 200 horse-power oil-engines, -driving an air-compressor for the operation of the -fog-siren, the air being stored in reservoirs in the hold and -maintained at the working pressure, so that the signal may -be brought into service at a moment’s notice. The vessel is -also furnished with a Pintsch submarine bell, driven by -compressed air. When not required, this bell is housed -amidships on the spar-deck, and when the occasion arises -for its service it is lowered into the water through an open -tube built in the ship for this purpose. This important -light-vessel carries a full complement of thirteen men, -including the captain, mate, and engineer. The arrangement -is, one-third of the crew on shore-leave at a time; but -this does not apply to the winter months, when the full -number has to remain on board, owing to the duties being -more arduous and continuous during that season of the -year.</p> - -<p>“Fire Island!” What a thrill the sound of this name -sends through the floating town approaching the New World -from Europe. Its effect is magical among the emigrants -who scan the horizon eagerly for the first glimpse of this outpost -of the new home, in which all their hopes are centred. -The sullen red hull of this flush-deck, schooner-rigged steam-vessel, -with her two masts, and name painted in huge white -letters on her flanks, rides in 96 feet of water, nine and three-eighth -miles south of Fire Island lighthouse. A few miles -beyond is a similar craft marking the Nantucket Shoals, -whence incoming and outgoing vessels are reported, while<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251">251</a></span> -the end of the chain is “No. 87,” marking the Ambrose -Channel off the entrance to New York.</p> - -<p>But the light-vessel controlled by the United States -which occupies the most responsible and perilous post is -the <i>Diamond Shoal</i>, off Cape Hatteras. It throws its warning -rays from a spot about four and five-eighth miles beyond the -most seaward point of this terrible ocean graveyard, and is -thirteen and five-eighth miles distant from Cape Hatteras -light on the mainland. A long way from the actual danger -spot, you say, but the little squad of men who have to -maintain the light through storm and calm will tell you that -the situation, in 180 feet of water, is quite as near as is -pleasant when there is the ever-present danger of anchors -being dragged, or of the craft breaking adrift under the -force of the cyclonic disturbances which ravage this sinister -coast. Even in calm weather the relief-boat has many -anxious moments, owing to the swell and currents, while -storms rise with startling suddenness. While the exchange -of men is being made and stores are being transferred, a keen -lookout is kept by the relief-boat hands so as to be ready to -cut and run for the open sea the moment the clouds begin to -collect ominously. In these latitudes the weather is placid -one minute; the next the elements are writhing in fury.</p> - -<div id="ip_251" class="figcenter" style="width: 599px;"> - <img src="images/i_p250b.jpg" width="599" height="326" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE “FIRE ISLAND” LIGHTSHIP, THE ATLANTIC OUTPOST OF THE UNITED STATES.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This vessel rides in 96 feet of water, 9¾ miles south of the Fire Island Lighthouse.</p></div></div> - -<p>Probably this is the most dangerous station on the whole -seaboard, and if any heavy trouble is caused by the tempest, -the <i>Diamond Shoal</i> inevitably bears grim evidence of the -conflict. The skill of the engineers is taxed sorely to devise -ways and means of keeping the vessel in the position she is -designed to occupy, but moorings and anchors must be of -great weight and strength to stand up against a wind blowing -eighty miles an hour, with the waves running “mountains -high” and repeatedly sweeping the vessel from stem to -stern. After every battle a careful look round has to be -made to determine how far the vessel has shifted. Being -steam-driven, this craft is not condemned to absolute helplessness -when her moorings snap. The crew get her under -control and keep her head pointed in the desired direction, -so as to mitigate the battering of the wind and waves, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252">252</a></span> -not moving more than is essential for safety. Subsequently -the vessel crawls back to her position, the bearings are -taken, and she is anchored firmly once more.</p> - -<p>One hurricane swept Cape Hatteras, and the lightship -received its full energy. The boat strained and groaned at -her chains. Suddenly they snapped. No steam could hold -the boat against the assault. She was picked up, thrown -about like an empty box, and carried inshore, luckily missing -the ridges of sand. Had she plumped into one, it would have -gripped her tightly while the waves pounded her to fragments. -The crew were helpless and could only wonder what -the end would be, as they saw the rugged coastline approach -nearer and nearer. When they thought all was over and that -their fate was sealed, a big incoming wave snatched the lightship, -hurried her along on its bosom, and dropped her on the -beach, practically uninjured, and safe from further attack.</p> - -<p>When the crew surveyed their position, they found themselves -faced with a difficult proposition. The ship was safe -and sound, but on the wrong side of the shoals, and the -question was how to lift her over those greedy ridges. There -was only one method. That was to dig a pit around her on -the beach, let in the water so that she could float, and then -to cut a wide deep trench out to sea so as to regain deep -water. It was feasible, and was attempted. While the -pond on the beach was being dug, a powerful dredger came -up, and ploughed its way through the shoals from deep water -to the stranded light-vessel. When the craft was once more -afloat, the dredger carved its way back again, the light-vessel -being taken through the narrow, shallow ditch thus -provided, which was closed up by the running sand as the -two boats crept slowly forward, until at last the shoals were -negotiated. The ship was taken to headquarters, the relief-vessel, -which is always kept ready for an emergency, having -taken up her position on the station immediately the -hurricane had blown itself out.</p> - -<p>Under these circumstances it will be realized that the -maintenance of the <i>Diamond Shoal</i> light is by no means a -sinecure. When these adversities are aggravated by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253">253</a></span> -relief-boat being unable to fulfil its scheduled duty, when -week after week slips by without the men receiving the -welcome spell ashore, while they are suffering privations -and experiencing the nerve-shattering pangs of isolation and -monotony, it is not surprising that despondency shows signs -of getting the upper hand among the crew. Melancholia is -the malady which is feared most on a light-vessel such as -this, and the men have to pull themselves together to resist -its insidious grip. Probably at times there is half an inclination -to desert the light, but fortunately there is little fear of -this temptation succeeding. The axiom “Never abandon the -light” is too deeply rooted; besides, the men are safer where -they are, although it appears a crazy refuge in rough weather.</p> - -<p>Prolonged imprisonment on the <i>Diamond Shoal</i> precipitated -one mutiny. The crew on duty were awaiting the -arrival of the reserve vessel to take them home; but the -weather disposed otherwise. With that inexplicable persistence, -the wind got round to a rough quarter and kept -there tenaciously, never moderating for a few hours, but -just blowing, blowing, blowing, getting up a nasty sea which -made the lightship reel and tumble, while at intervals a -comber came aboard to flush the decks.</p> - -<p>In the course of ten days or so the crew began to fret and -fume at the obstinacy of the elements; when a month slipped -by without bringing any welcome relief, the mate and the -engineer incurred the captain’s dire displeasure by fraternizing -and playing cards with the crew, thereby creating a -breach of discipline and etiquette. The offenders, somewhat -overwrought by their continued incarceration, ignored -the captain’s reprimand. This arrant disobedience played -upon his nerves, which similarly were strung up. It did not -require a very big spark to start a conflagration of tempers. -The mate and engineer brooded over the captain’s remarks, -and at last they waited upon him, forcibly ventilated their -opinions concerning his lack of civility and of endeavours to -make one and all comfortable under the trying circumstances, -and expressed their determination to tolerate his -overbearing manner no longer. This was the last straw<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254">254</a></span> -from the captain’s point of view. Drawing his revolver, he -growled that he was master of the lightship, and that they -would have to do as he told them. There was a tussle, but -the firearm was wrenched away from the master’s hands as -being a somewhat too dangerous tool for a man in his overstrung -condition. The crew naturally sided with the -officers, and the captain was kept under surveillance until -the relief-vessel came up some weeks later.</p> - -<p>The moment the crew stepped on dry land, every man, -with the exception of the mate, deserted the ship, thoroughly -satiated with the uncertainty pertaining to watching the -Diamond Shoals. They indulged in a hearty carousal, and -were arrested. And the captain, who also was not averse to -enjoyment on shore, having lodged the charge of mutiny, -followed their example. An inquiry was held, and the sequel -is interesting. The captain, having deserted his ship upon -reaching port, was dismissed from the service; the mate, -who had provoked the captain, not only was acquitted of the -grave charge, but was promoted to the command of the light-vessel, -because there was one outstanding feature in his favour -which negatived everything else—he had stuck to his post.</p> - -<p>Life on a lightship, although somewhat strenuous, has -its interludes. In fine weather the men have considerable -time on their hands, and while away the hours in various -occupations. Fretwork, mat-making, carpentering, and other -hobbies, are followed with keen enjoyment. Owing to the -light attracting flocks of birds during the migratory seasons, -the men often effect valuable captures on the deck, rare -songsters and other specimens falling exhausted into their -hands. Cages are contrived, and the silence of the living-quarters -is relieved by the piping and trilling of the birds -when once they have shaken down to their captivity. -Meteorological work, which is practised in some cases, -relieves the round of toil, while contributions to science are -made by investigating the depths of the sea and its bed with -small trawls and other devices, so as to secure data concerning -life in the deep, the vagaries of currents, submarine -temperatures, and so forth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255">255</a></span> -The lightship, however, is both a safeguard and a menace. -When she is riding quietly at the end of her chains she is an -incalculable boon to the passing mariner, but after a gale -the navigator and the light-keepers are suspicious. The -boat may, and indeed probably has, dragged her anchors -somewhat. Now, the seafarer on his chart has the precise -position which the lightship should occupy. Consequently, -if she has shifted and he is unaware of the error, his calculations -will lead him astray. After a tempest the master of a -lightship endeavours to ascertain if his craft has moved, -and if he can he takes his bearings at once. If this is impossible, -or if he entertains any doubt in his mind, he flies a -signal, which warns the navigator that the lightship has -moved. Unless the vessel is able to regain her station under -her own steam, she communicates with the shore at once, -and a boat is sent out to reset her. Every time the relief is -effected the officer in charge takes the bearings, so that the -lightship may be truly in the position she is intended to -assume, and able to effect her humane work satisfactorily.</p> - -<p>The evolution of the most efficient illuminating apparatus -for the lightship has been a most perplexing problem to the -lighthouse engineer. What is applicable for the masonry -tower is not necessarily adapted to its floating contemporary, -since the conditions are so dissimilar. The United States -service has adopted electric lighting on all its steam-driven -vessels, the current being easily obtainable in this instance. -On the whole, however, oil is the most popular form of -illuminant, the burners—there are several lamps arranged -in a ring round the mast—being fitted with two circular -wicks, one within the other; while behind the lamp an -ordinary parabolic reflector is placed in order to increase the -intensity of the light produced. These reflectors are disposed -in such a manner around the mast that the concentrated -beam of light from one lamp just overlaps the rays -which are projected similarly from the lamp placed on either -side, the result being that a fixed white light of equal -luminosity throughout the circle is projected. But, unlike -the illuminant in the lighthouse, the light is not stationary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256">256</a></span> -in its vertical plane; it is swung from side to side and up and -down in rhythm with the movement of the vessel. Under -these circumstances, at one moment the light would project -a short ray owing to the declination of the beam in relation -to the line of the water, thereby bringing it below the -horizon, while the next moment, when the ship lurched in -the opposite direction, the ray of light would be thrown into -the air and above the horizon. The problem is to keep the -light at one steady angle, irrespective of the motion of the -vessel, and this end is achieved by hanging each reflector -upon gimbals, so that the rolling practically is counteracted, -the reflectors maintaining a constant vertical position.</p> - -<p>Some lights are of the flashing type, and in this instance -the reflectors are disposed in groups. Here the gimbals, -carrying the reflectors, are mounted upon the framework -which revolves around the mast by clockwork mechanism, -and are so arranged as to give any type of distinguishing -flash that may be desired. In the most approved types of -modern lightships, however, the dioptric apparatus is -incorporated, means having been discovered to avoid -breakage from the rolling motion of the ship, while the risk -of throwing the beam above or below the horizon according -to the rolling of the boat is overcome. In this case the lamps -and reflectors are disposed on a turntable in the lantern, with -the dioptric apparatus mounted very carefully so as to secure -a true balance upon gimbals. The apparatus for revolving -the light is erected in a deck-house, the weight actuating the -mechanism being permitted to rise and fall in a special tube -extending from the bottom of the ship to the deck. The -rotary action thus produced is transmitted from the deck -to the lantern above by means of a vertical shaft and pinion. -While ordinary lamps are installed as a rule in the lanterns, -Messrs. Chance Brothers and Co., the Birmingham lighthouse -illuminating engineers, have succeeded in adapting -their incandescent oil-vapour system, which has proved so -eminently successful in lighthouses, to light-vessels, with a -very decided increase in the candle-power, and marked -economy in oil consumption and cost of upkeep.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257">257</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX<br /> - -<span class="subhead">A FLAMING SENTINEL OF THE MALACCA STRAITS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>With the development of commerce between Europe, -China, and Japan, following the awakening of the East, -it became imperative to render the seas approaching these -countries far safer to navigation. If one consults the atlas, -and follows the routes taken by the great liners from Britain -and the Continent to the Orient, he will see a rampart forming -the boundary between the Indian Ocean and the South -China Sea. This is the East Indian Archipelago, and it -bristles with dangers of all descriptions to the mercantile -traffic flowing to and fro. After leaving India, the steamships -turn their noses towards Singapore, at the extremity -of the Malay Peninsula; but this busy port is shut in on the -south by the attenuated rocky chain of islands forming the -Dutch East Indies, of which Sumatra and Java are the most -important.</p> - -<p>The steamship lane lies between Sumatra and the Asian -mainland, and is known as the Straits of Malacca. It is a -fearsome neck of water, studded with islands and sandbanks, -some visible above high-water, others revealed only -by the falling tide; while still more never see daylight at all, -yet owing to their shallow position are none the less perilous.</p> - -<p>In order to foster the growth of the sea-traffic with China, -these unattractive waters demanded full illumination, -while the rock-girt shores of China and Japan were similarly -in need of protective outposts. Japan was particularly -enterprising in this forward movement. The country was -emerging from the state of suspended civilization in which -it had reposed so calmly for centuries. The rising forces -were not slow to realize that unless they safeguarded -steamship traffic their ports would wait in vain for the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258">258</a></span> -ships from Europe. In fact, the mercantile interests of the -Western world bluntly stated that unless this course were -followed their ships would not come to trade.</p> - -<p>Japan at that time had not capable men at home for the -purpose of completing the first part of a comprehensive -coast-lighting scheme, and it was acknowledged that years -must elapse before the country would be able to walk alone -in this field. Accordingly they sought Britain’s assistance. -The Stevenson family, as narrated already, elaborated a -comprehensive scheme, which was accepted. The structures -were prepared in Britain, sent out piecemeal to Japan -together with a force of competent men, and erected at -the desired points.</p> - -<p>Upon this foundation the Japanese built up their excellent -lighthouse service. The Eastern pupil, in his own estimation, -became as competent as the Scottish teachers. At all -events, Japan has since completed all works of this description -at home and unaided. China followed suit, but in -this instance it was due to British initiative purely and -simply. The British Inspector-General of the Imperial -Maritime Customs took up the question. He appointed an -engineer-in-chief, to whom the construction and repair of -the lights were entrusted. The chief engineer was provided -with a coast inspector, upon whom devolved the responsibility -for the personnel and the maintenance of the stations, -he in turn being assisted in his exacting and, at that time, -difficult work by a corps of zealous officers.</p> - -<p>Although the countries concerned and the shipping companies -of Europe appreciated this forward policy, one class -of individuals resented this introduction of Western ideas -into Oriental life. This was the population who lived by -wrecking and piracy. They recognized the fact only too -well, that, if brilliant beacons were to be permitted to be -erected freely throughout these troublous seas, their despicable -but remunerative calling would cease. Their solution -of the problem assumed a characteristic Chinese and Malay -form; they endeavoured to wreak their revenge upon the -lights. Now and again there were sharp tussles between<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259">259</a></span> -the engineering staffs and these high-water brigands, but -firearms well handled by the white men invariably got the -better of the argument. Pirates caught in the attempt to -tamper with the lights received very short shrift. One -engineer who had seen service in these waters related to me -that in the early days the amount of lead expended in protecting -a light from these marauders exceeded the quantity -of this metal used in the tower itself.</p> - -<p>The Malacca Straits, from their exceedingly dangerous -nature, constituted a happy hunting-ground for these -gentlemen, and the lighting of these waters was effected as -soon as possible. Among the innumerable menaces abounding, -a shoal some sixteen miles west of the coastline was particularly -harassing to mariners. It became known as One -Fathom Bank, and the shallowest part was only about -18 feet below the surface at high-water. When these -waters were guarded first, a lightship did duty; but the -position is so open, and is so exposed to the full fury of -the monsoon, that she frequently dragged her anchors, so -that the warning became somewhat uncertain.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, it was decided to supersede the floating -light by a permanent structure, and a lighthouse on stilts, -similar to those familiar to American waters, was erected -in 1874, and emitted a white flash once a minute. Although -this ironwork structure was pounded mercilessly by the -seas, it withstood all assaults completely, and was only -superseded eventually owing to the ever-increasing exigencies -of commerce, which demanded a more powerful and -elevated light.</p> - -<p>The present tower was commenced in 1907. The engineers -appreciated the fact that they were being called upon to -carry out an undertaking in an especially trying position. -The bank is well out to sea, and when the monsoon is in -full blast waves 8 feet in height thunder upon the shoal, -their ferocity varying according to the state of the tide, -which rises and falls a matter of 14 feet. The difficulties -attending the building of the Rothersand and Fourteen Foot -Bank lighthouses under closely similar conditions were not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260">260</a></span> -forgotten, and the prospect of building a huge caisson on -the mainland, and then towing it to the site to be sunk, -was by no means attractive, even if the fullest avail were -taken of the spells of calmest weather.</p> - -<p>Therefore an alternative method of construction, possessing -the qualities of being simpler, quicker, and less expensive, -which was advanced by a well-known firm of -engineers in Singapore, Messrs. Hargreaves, Riley and Co., -upon the designs of Mr. O. P. Thomas, received the closest -consideration. This scheme proposed a lighthouse constructed -on piles, with the focal plane 92½ feet above water-level, -wrought in ferro-concrete.</p> - -<p>The project was somewhat novel and daring, because, -although this constructive principle had been adopted -previously for stations upon the mainland, it had never been -utilized in connection with exposed sea-lights. The system -recommended was that known as the Hennebique, which -had been employed extensively for buildings, bridges, sea-defences, -and other works. The proposal was investigated -thoroughly by the Hon. A. Murray, M.Inst.C.E., the Colonial -Engineer and Surveyor-General for the Straits Settlements, -and, as it met with his full approval, the work was handed -over to the Singapore engineers to fulfil upon the lines -advanced.</p> - -<p>The structure comprises the main building, including -the living-quarters, supported upon piles disposed in two -rings, an inner and an outer, about a central pile, the whole -being well braced together. The shape is octagonal in plan. -From the roof of the living-quarters, to which point the -outer piles are carried vertically from the sea-bed, these -members rise with an inward rake, forming an octagonal -pyramid, with the lantern and its room below forming the -apex.</p> - -<p>The underwater work was the most difficult, owing to -the situation and the climatic conditions. Seeing that the -nearest land is sixteen miles distant, it was impossible to -carry the men to and from the scene of their labours every -day when the weather permitted. A base was established<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261">261</a></span> -on the coast for the preparation of materials and as a point -for shipping all requirements to the site, but the men were -accommodated with special facilities upon the spot. Here -a temporary staging was built on piles, on which platform -a large hut was erected to provide quarters for the men, as -well as a workshop.</p> - -<p>The piles forming the main support to the building were -made 50½ feet long, and hollow. The concrete, composed -of broken granite and Portland cement, encased a steel -skeleton, consisting of four longitudinal round steel rods, -1¾ inches in diameter, laid at the corners, and laced together -with steel wire <span class="fraction"><sup>3</sup>/<sub>16</sub></span> inch thick. Eight of these piles were -made 18 inches square, while nine were 24 inches square, -and each was fitted with a pointed end to facilitate driving -into the sea-bed.</p> - -<p>As these piles were prepared on shore, their transference -to the site was a pretty problem in itself. Ordinary methods -of transport were impracticable. The engineer overcame -the difficulty in an ingenious manner. He built up a raft -of barrels, twenty-six of which were lashed together in -two rows, between which the pile was laid flat and evenly. -The raft was built upon peculiar lines, so as to facilitate the -unshipping of the pile when it reached its destination. It -was divided into four sections, each of which could be -detached without disturbing the other three parts. The -raft and its pile were towed out to sea by a steamer, and -when the work was gained the raft was cast off, to be floated -under the staging and to the exact point where it was to be -set up. A chain sling was lowered from the platform and -attached to the head of the pile, and the lashings to the -first section of the raft were released, thus permitting the -strapped barrels concerned to float away and to be recovered. -The pile was then slowly and carefully hoisted at the head, -the second part of the raft being released when the pile had -gained a certain height. This procedure was repeated until -finally, when the last part of the raft was freed, the pile -hung free, as vertically true as a plumb-line, with the pointed -foot resting on the sand. In order to send it truly into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262">262</a></span> -sea-bed, heavy timber guides were set up, and as the pile -descended it was frequently tested with the plummet, to -see that it was sinking in an absolutely perpendicular -manner.</p> - -<div id="ip_262" class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;"> - <img src="images/i_p262a.jpg" width="403" height="509" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>COMPLETING THE ONE FATHOM BANK LIGHTHOUSE IN THE MALACCA STRAITS.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The keepers live on the lower floors. The upper floor beneath the lantern is the service room.</p></div></div> - -<p>The piles were sunk into the soft sea-bed by means of -water-jets, which, playing about the foot of the pile, -burrowed a hole into which it could move downwards. A -depth of 15 feet had been considered necessary to secure -the desired rigidity, and as a rule the pile could be driven -to this depth in about four hours. When the pile-driving -commenced, however, it was found that the sandbank had -undergone a marked change since the surveys were made. -Erosion had been very active owing to the currents having -been checked by the obstructions which the legs of the -staging offered. Under these circumstances a novel experiment -was made upon the site. One of the piles was lengthened -by 14½ feet, to be driven to its limits, just to ascertain -how far it would go into the sand. This in itself was a -somewhat daring undertaking, seeing that the tiny colony -on the staging did not possess the facilities which were -available on shore for the work. However, it was accomplished -satisfactorily, and when the pile was sunk it was -found to descend another 13½ feet, where it touched hard -rock. This discovery brought about a modification in the -plans. As a solid foundation could be gained at a depth -of 28½ feet, and as the piles could be lengthened successfully -upon the site, it was decided to extend all the piles to a -complete length of 64½ feet, and to drive them down to the -hard bottom. When the piles were all lowered, they were -subjected to four blows from a “monkey” weighing -2½ tons, dropped from a height of 4 feet. But these four -final blows only drove the piles from ¼ to <span class="fraction"><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch farther -into the sea-bed, whereas, according to the specification, -a margin of 1 inch was allowed for this test.</p> - -<p>The diameter of the tower at the base is 40 feet, and heavy -bracing is introduced at a point 4 feet below high-water to -hold the fabric together, and to supply the requisite strength -and rigidity. At a height of 21 feet above this main<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263">263</a></span> -bracing is the floor of the superstructure, comprising an -octagonal two-floor building, surrounded by an overhanging -gallery, built on the cantilever principle, 5 feet in width, -which forms the landing platform. The two floors have a -total height of 24 feet, and constitute the keepers’ home. -The roof is flat, in order to facilitate the collection and -conduct of rain-water into two ferro-concrete cisterns, each -holding 1,000 gallons. The lower floor is devoted to housing -stores, oil, etc., while the upper story forms the living-quarters. -The roof is caused to overhang a distance of -4 feet on all sides, thereby providing a flat surface 44 feet -across. From this point the eight main columns of the -building slope inwards, until, at a height of 30 feet, they -have a diameter of 18½ feet, where the lantern is introduced. -The lower part of the latter constitutes the service-room, -and leads directly to the lantern above. Access to the -different levels is afforded by means of a teak-wood staircase, -while that leading from the entrance floor to the water -for landing purposes is hinged, so that it may be accommodated -to the condition of the tide.</p> - -<p>The lantern, which weighs 17½ tons, is of the modern -type, and is more powerful than that of the 1874 light, which -it displaced. The white light is thrown in groups of flashes -every fifteen seconds, and the warning is visible from the -deck of a vessel some fifteen miles away. The central pier, -which carries a great proportion of the total weight of the -tower, and which extends continuously from the bed-rock -foundation to the lantern-room, is solid to the roof of the -living-quarters. Above this point it is hollow, having a -bore of 12 inches, and in this space the weight actuating -the revolving mechanism of the light moves up and -down.</p> - -<div id="ip_263" class="figcenter" style="width: 592px;"> - <img src="images/i_p262b.jpg" width="592" height="346" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE ONE FATHOM BANK LIGHTHOUSE, MALACCA STRAITS, IN COURSE OF ERECTION.</p> - -<p class="captionc">It is built throughout of ferro-concrete, and is supported on piles driven into the sand. At the left are the quarters provided for the lighthouse -builders who lived on the spot.</p></div></div> - -<p>Although the idea was novel at the time, the complete -success of the work justified the recommendations of the -designers as to the suitability of this form of construction -for open-sea lighthouses. In this instance the enterprise -not only was completed for a less sum than would have been -required for a corresponding lighthouse erected in masonry<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264">264</a></span> -upon orthodox lines, but the structure is lighter, was more -rapidly built, and is thoroughly hygienic. The complete -weight of the whole tower is less than 1,000 tons; and from -the setting of the first pile to the lighting of the lamps only -fourteen months elapsed, notwithstanding the fact that -work was interrupted and hindered frequently by inclement -weather. Any doubts that were entertained concerning -the ability of the structure to resist the attacks of the wind -and seas encountered in these latitudes was dispelled during -erection, because the monsoons which broke during the -period of erection were abnormally heavy, and submitted -the fabric to exceptional strains and stresses, which it withstood -with complete success.</p> - -<p>Another fine light which has been provided for the benefit -of the navigator in these Eastern seas is that on Gap Rock. -This is a rugged, lofty eminence, rising from the sea, thirty-two -miles south of Hong-Kong. Being exposed on all sides, -it is difficult to approach, while at the same time it lies in the -path of vessels. A few years ago the Hong-Kong Government -decided to conquer this islet, and to deprive it of its -perils to shipping. With great effort a landing was effected, -and one of the pinnacles was decapitated and levelled off, -to form a spacious platform for landing. The light itself -rises from the highest point of the rock, and its rays are -visible through a circle of twenty miles radius. The Gap -Rock light is also a signal-station, being in telegraphic -communication with Hong-Kong.</p> - -<p>Although the days of human hostility to the lighthouse -in Eastern waters have passed, the engineer is confronted -by an enemy which is in every way as destructive. This -is the white ant. The ravages of this insect are so relentless -and complete where wood is concerned that timber towers -are quite impracticable. Moreover, this material has to be -used only sparingly for fittings, even in masonry and iron -buildings.</p> - -<p>A curious experience with this insidious and implacable -foe was related to me by a lighthouse engineer. He was -engaged in the erection of a new beacon at a remote point<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265">265</a></span> -on the coast. The lenses and lantern apparatus, as usual, -had been ordered in England, and were despatched to the -East carefully packed in substantial tin-lined cases. In -order to secure the utmost protection during transit, each -metallic and lenticular part was wrapped in tow. Care -also was bestowed upon the sealing of the tin case, since -the propensity of the ant to discover the smallest pinhole -so as to reach the interior was emphasized upon -the packers. Accordingly the seams were doubly soldered.</p> - -<p>In due course the cases with their precious contents -reached the site of erection, but unfortunately the season -was so far advanced that the engineer concluded he could -not complete the erection of the lantern before the monsoon -broke. As the contents of the cases were preserved by -the tin armour from climatic attacks, he stored the cases -securely, and with his workmen left the place until favourable -weather returned.</p> - -<p>Some weeks later the chief and his toilers reappeared upon -the scene. All preparations for setting the optical apparatus -were completed. Imagine the dismay of the engineer -when, on opening the case containing the most important -parts of the lantern, he found that it had been raided by -white ants. They had driven their tracks spirally through -the tow, which evidently they had enjoyed, and although -this was of little consequence, the formic acid had played -sad havoc with the bright surfaces of the spindles. In -lighthouse engineering the surfaces of these parts must be -as bright and as clean as a mirror to insure smooth, steady -working. But now these spindles were as pitted and marked -as a victim to smallpox. It was a maddening contretemps, -since the only way to restore the vital bright surfaces was -to turn them in the lathe. Such a tool was not available -within a hundred or more miles. Erection had to be delayed, -however, until this treatment was effected.</p> - -<p>Seeing that the tin case was soldered up with such infinite -care, the question arises. How did the ants get into it? To -the engineer it seemed an inscrutable puzzle, but he subjected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266">266</a></span> -the case to a minute examination. Finally he solved -the problem. At one corner he found that a nail, while -being driven during the process of nailing up the heavy -outer wooden case at the English factory, had turned slightly, -so that its point had punctured the inner metal case. The -ants, too, had discovered this minute breach, and through -it had swarmed to the attack upon the interior.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267">267</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI<br /> - -<span class="subhead">UNATTENDED LIGHTHOUSES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>During the past fifty years engineering science as applied to -lighthouses has made remarkable advances. This has been -due largely to the indefatigable perseverance and ceaseless -labour of the chemist in regard to illumination. This -wonder-worker has given us acetylene, has evolved means -whereby oil-gas may be compressed to a pressure of several -atmospheres with safety, and has discovered other gases -obtainable by inexpensive and simple means. The engineer -has not hesitated to profit from these developments, and -has devised highly ingenious apparatuses whereby these -illuminating mediums may be stored and used, so as to dispense -with the human element almost entirely; in fact, in -these instances the latter factor has been reduced to such a -degree that it is only called upon to perform certain perfunctory -operations, such as the recharging of the storage -vessels at long intervals—three, six, or twelve months, -according to circumstances.</p> - -<p>This combination has provided the lighthouse engineer -with a new, powerful, and efficient means of overcoming -abnormal difficulties. Many a rock, reef, or stretch of uninhabited -coastline has demanded indication, but has defied -such protection from motives of cost, inaccessibility, or -searching problems concerning the accommodation and -relief of the keepers. As I have shown in the course of this -volume, the erection of a first-class lighthouse is a costly -undertaking, and the shipping interests, which in the case -of Great Britain and a few other countries are called upon -to pay the bill, naturally demur, unless the rock or other -obstacle is situate in the centre of the marine thoroughfare, -or the approach to a pitiless coast is extremely hazardous,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268">268</a></span> -when the erection of the tower becomes absolutely imperative. -If one were to add up the costs of all the great lights -scattered throughout the seven seas, it would be found that -several millions sterling had been sunk in this humane -effort, and yet, relatively speaking, but a small area of -danger in the aggregate is safeguarded.</p> - -<div id="ip_268" class="figcenter" style="width: 601px;"> - <img src="images/i_p268a.jpg" width="601" height="403" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE PLATTE FOUGÈRE LIGHTHOUSE UNDER CONSTRUCTION.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This automatic light marks a dangerous reef, off the Guernsey coast, which is familiar to readers of Victor Hugo’s “Toilers of the Sea.”</p></div></div> - -<p>Then the human factor demands consideration. A colony -of four or six men scarcely could be found willing to suffer -isolation from the world at large and to be deprived of -intercourse with their fellow-beings in the interests of -shipping, say, through the Straits of Magellan, around Cape -Horn, among the icy fastnesses of the Northern Labrador -coast, or in Hudson Bay. Life in the lighthouses which -guard the busy steamship lanes is monotonous and nerve-shattering -enough, but to maroon men in such remote -places as those mentioned above would be to promote a -wholesale rush of inmates for the lunatic asylums.</p> - -<p>This is where the chemist and the engineer in collaboration -have triumphed. By their joint efforts it is now possible -to supply the most inhospitable shore with a belt of lights -equal in every respect to those mounting sentinel over the -more densely populated reaches of coast in the civilized -parts of the globe. The unattended lighthouse is a modern -development born of necessity, which has proved highly -serviceable, effective, and reliable. The passenger, as he -lolls against the taffrail of the steamer ploughing her way -carefully through the lane 375 miles long separating the -mainland of South America from Tierra del Fuego, and -watches the faithful star twinkling upon the top of a frowning -cliff and urging the mariner to keep clear, may cherish -a feeling of pity for the man who has to keep that beam -shining. But his commiseration is misplaced. No human -hands touch that beacon, perhaps, for six months or more at -a time. It is a triumph of automatic operation. The same -applies to the wicked shores of New Zealand, the uninviting -northern stretches of the Gulf of Bothnia, the iron-bound -coasts of Norway and Sweden, and many another unattractive -mainland and island.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269">269</a></span> -All the great maritime nations possess several of these -silent, faithful lights, which, although upon their introduction -they were regarded with a certain amount of suspicion, -owing to the urgent necessity of a light never failing in -its duty for the guidance of the seafarer, yet have been proved -by the convincing lesson of experience to be as reliable in -every respect as the light which is tended by human hands.</p> - -<p>So far as Great Britain is concerned, the unattended light -has been brought to a high stage of efficiency and utility by -the efforts of Messrs. David and Charles Stevenson, while -in other parts of the world the apparatus and methods -perfected by Mr. Gustaf Dalén of Stockholm are used -extensively.</p> - -<p>The most interesting example of the Stevenson unattended -lighthouse is provided in the English Channel, indicating the -entrance to the strait which leads to the Guernsey capital of -St. Peter Port. This was one of the first of its character to -be erected, but the type is now being adopted widely owing -to the success of this initial undertaking. The Channel -Islands have achieved an unsavoury reputation in marine -annals, as they form a graveyard of the Channel; they have -claimed their victims, during recent years at any rate, -mostly from the ranks of the heavy cross-Channel traffic.</p> - -<div id="ip_269" class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"> - <img src="images/i_p268b.jpg" width="393" height="469" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE PLATTE FOUGÈRE LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionl">This beacon, designed by Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson, probably is the finest unattended lighthouse -in existence. On the top of the tower is the automatically controlled acetylene light.</p></div></div> - -<p>The Russell Channel, leading to St. Peter Port from the -north, is exceedingly dangerous, the sea being littered with -granite rocks both submerged and exposed, of which the -Grande Braye, Barsier, and Platte Fougère, form the outer -rampart. Readers of Victor Hugo may gather some realistic -idea of the perilous nature of these waters by perusing “The -Toilers of the Sea,” in which these rocks figure very -prominently, particularly the Platte Fougère. The menace -of this corner of the channel is accentuated by the velocity -of the tidal currents which swing and swirl round the reefs, -together with the extreme range of the tides, which averages -about 30 feet. Formerly, in thick weather, vessels found -it almost impossible to pick up the Russell, and often a -captain, by the rip and crash of metal being torn, to his -dismay learned that he had swung too far to the westward.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270">270</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_270" class="figcenter" style="width: 397px;"> - <img src="images/i_p270a.jpg" width="397" height="593" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>SETTING THE COMPRESSED-AIR RESERVOIR AT FORT DOYLE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The Platte Fougère automatic light is supplemented by a land station on the island of Guernsey -a mile away.</p></div></div> - -<p>The companies engaged in this traffic repeatedly petitioned -the authorities to mark the entrance to the strait by some -adequate means. A light was not required so keenly as a -sound-signal, because in clear weather navigation was -tolerably safe. The proposal was discussed time after time, -but no solution appeared to be forthcoming. To erect a -lighthouse on the outer fringe of the barrier would have -entailed prodigious expenditure, which the island authorities -could ill afford, even if such a scheme were practicable.</p> - -<p>The question was taken up boldly by General Campbell -during his occupation of the post of Governor-General of the -Island of Guernsey, and he pressed forward the scheme -vigorously in a resolute determination to bring about a -diminution in the number of maritime disasters at this -point. He approached Messrs. David and Charles Stevenson, -who had considerable experience of similar conditions around -the Scottish coasts, and they, after an elaborate survey of -the site, recommended the erection of a light and fog-signal -station upon the Platte Fougère, which should be controlled -from the land a mile distant. They agreed that the erection -of a tower similar to those generally planted on sea-rocks -would be a formidable undertaking and enormously expensive, -owing to the conditions prevailing, but the station -they suggested was quite practicable, and would serve the -purposes equally well.</p> - -<p>Instead of a massive, gracefully-curving tower, measuring -some 40 feet in diameter at the base, these engineers suggested -a building of irregular octagonal shape, measuring -14½ and 17 feet across the faces, 80 feet in height, and -carried out in ferro-concrete. They advocated its erection -upon the Platte Fougère, because there the fog-signal -would be brought into the most serviceable position for -shipping. A narrow or thin building was advised, to offer -the minimum of surface to the waves, which break very -heavily on these ridges. The wisdom of this design has been -revealed very convincingly since the tower has been in -service. The seas fall on either side, divide and rush round -the building, so that it does not experience the full brunt of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271">271</a></span> -their heavy, smashing blows. As the engineers pointed out, -“It is better to avoid heavy sea pressures, where feasible, -in preference to courting them.”</p> - -<p>Still, the Platte Fougère was not an ideal rock from the -engineers’ point of view, although it is a solid knot of granite. -Its head is visible only at low-water spring-tides, while it is -difficult to approach, even in the smoothest weather, owing -to the tides and currents. Much of the foundation work had -to be carried out under water. The season was unavoidably -limited, as the days when both the wind and the sea are -calm in this part of the channel are very few and far between.</p> - -<p>The tower is solid for a height of 46 feet above the rock, -and the base is formed of Portland cement placed in iron -moulds, with iron bars driven into the solid rock to anchor -the concrete firmly. On the side to which the building is -exposed to the heaviest seas, massive beams of rolled steel -are driven into the rock, so as to impart additional strength -to the part of the tower where the greatest strains are likely -to be set up.</p> - -<p>On the entrance level is a compartment containing an -electric motor and air-compressor, while on the floor immediately -above is a duplicate installation. The siren -projects through the top of the tower, the trumpet being so -turned as to throw the sounds in a horizontal direction -over the water. On the top of the tower is a small automatic -acetylene gas plant and light, such as the engineers have -employed so successfully in their unattended Scottish light-stations, -two air-receivers, and a water-tank. A new type -of burner is used, and a clockwork mechanism is incorporated -to extinguish the light at dawn and to ignite it at dusk, with -a special arrangement to allow for the short summer nights -and the long periods of darkness during the winter.</p> - -<div id="ip_271" class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;"> - <img src="images/i_p270b.jpg" width="398" height="594" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE FORT DOYLE SIREN.</p> - -<p class="captionl">This installation on the island is maintained so as to take the place of the automatic lighthouse -a mile out to sea, in the remote event of the latter breaking down.</p></div></div> - -<p>As mentioned above, the station is controlled electrically -from a point on shore. In deciding the latter, it was necessary -to discover the most favourable landing-place for the -submarine cable in relation to its route, and Doyle Fort -was selected as meeting all requirements in this direction. -Here a two-floor dwelling has been erected for the keepers,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272">272</a></span> -together with an adjoining engine-house, which measures -32 feet in length by 20 feet wide. The tower being a mile -distant, the designers had to meet the possibility of the -machinery therein breaking down. Accordingly, at the -shore station there is an auxiliary fog-siren and air-compressing -plant, which is brought into use when the sea -apparatus is deranged.</p> - -<div id="ip_272" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/i_p272a.jpg" width="400" height="602" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By courtesy of Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson.</i> -</p> - -<p>AN UNATTENDED BEACON LIGHT PLACED UPON A WILD PART OF -THE SCOTTISH COAST.</p> - -<p class="captionl">These lights will run for several months without any human attention, and, by means of ingenious -mechanism, light and extinguish themselves automatically.</p></div></div> - -<p>The machinery includes two oil-engines which drive three-phase -alternators, and an air-compressor for working the -land siren when required. One of the greatest difficulties -arose in connection with the submarine cable which connects -the land-station with the sea-tower. Owing to the broken, -rocky nature of the sea-bed, the viciousness of the currents, -and the heavy seas, the cable had to be of exceptional -strength; indeed, it had to be made specially for the purpose. -It is a double-sheathed, steel-armoured cable of the heaviest -“rock” type, being 11 inches in circumference, and weighing -45 tons per nautical mile. As the current used is three-phase, -there are three conductors, which weigh 1,100 pounds -per mile, protected by a thick layer of gutta-percha averaging -450 pounds per mile. In the centre of the core are two -other wires for switching and telephone purposes respectively. -The laying of the cable was a peculiar and exacting task in -itself; 6,504 feet had to be paid out. But by waiting for a -very calm day and slack water this task was achieved -without mishap. In the tower there is a simple switch -operated by an electro-magnet, whereby the motor-driven -air-compressors are thrown in and out of action. The two -compressors are used alternately, so as to keep them in -thorough working order; and as they have to be left sometimes -for months without being examined, special attention -has been devoted to their lubrication.</p> - -<p>A visit to this lighthouse is a somewhat curious experience. -Climbing the ladder and entering the building, one finds it -apparently abandoned. Not a sound beyond the murmuring -of the waves playing about the rocks below disturbs a silence -which is uncannily tense. Suddenly there is an almost -imperceptible click. The keeper at the light-station has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273">273</a></span> -moved his switch, and simultaneously that in the tower has -closed. The electric motors instantly commence to revolve, -with a low grunt at first, but rising quickly to a loud humming -as they settle down to their stride, driving the air-compressors. -Then comes the ear-splitting, deep-toned roar -from the siren overhead, attended by the whirr of machinery -in motion. The humming of the motors and the compressors -dies down, and in a few seconds absolute stillness -prevails once more. The sensation is decidedly eerie. It -seems impossible that a silence so intense as to be felt should -be interrupted by a click—the result of a slight movement -by an unseen hand a mile away—which gives forth such a -nerve-shattering din as to convey the idea that Bedlam had -been let loose. At the land-station the experience is similarly -weird. The keeper moves his switch which brings the -tower machinery into action. Presently there is the sharp -tinkle of an electric bell. This notifies the keeper that the -blast on the tower has been given, but conclusive evidence -of this fact does not arrive until five seconds later, when -the baying of the siren comes rolling over the water.</p> - -<p>A complete check is kept upon the isolated station out at -sea. If the electric bell does not ring out at the appointed -period, to notify the keeper that the siren has emitted its -warning note, he knows that something is amiss. The land-station -is brought into service without delay, the intimation -to the mariner to stand clear being thrown from Doyle Fort -once every ninety seconds. The men on shore take it in -turns to mount watch for fog both day and night, and their -vigil is checked. There is an electric alarm, which maintains -silence only so long as the man on duty fulfils his appointed -task and records this fact upon his mechanical register at -scheduled intervals. Should he fail to perform this function, -there is a frenzied clanging by the alarm-bell, which summons -the second keeper to duty.</p> - -<div id="ip_273" class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"> - <img src="images/i_p272b.jpg" width="399" height="518" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE GASFETEN LIGHT: A LONELY BEACON IN SWEDISH WATERS.</p> - -<p class="captionl">This was the first tower to be fitted with the Dalén “sun-valve” in conjunction with the -Dalén flasher. Several automatic lights of this type are used to show the way through the -Panama Canal.</p></div></div> - -<p>Apparently, the weakest point in the installation is the -submarine cable, but the engineers entertain no apprehensions -on this score. It is too stoutly made and too -heavily armoured to rupture very readily. Experience has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274">274</a></span> -proved its efficiency and reliability, while a long life is anticipated -for it. The Platte Fougère unattended lighthouse has -opened up new possibilities for protecting wild coasts. It -has proved conclusively that there is no difficulty in maintaining -such a station and controlling it from a distance so -long as automatic apparatus which has proved its worth -is employed. This practical application should serve to -solve many peculiar problems. No longer can the bogie of -expense be put forward as an argument against safeguarding -a notoriously evil length of shoreline or isolated rock, even -if the latter is exposed to the heaviest seas known. The -Guernsey installation was completed for £8,500, or $42,500, -and is as serviceable as the ordinary type of tower, which in -this instance would have cost at least £60,000, or $300,000, -to build and equip. From the maintenance point of view -it is equally convincing and economical, inasmuch as only two -keepers are required in the place of the four who otherwise -would have been necessary.</p> - -<div id="ip_274" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p274a.jpg" width="214" height="598" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE DALÉN “SUN-VALVE,” THE MOST WONDERFUL -INVENTION OF MODERN LIGHTHOUSE ENGINEERING.</p> - -<p class="captionl">Depending upon the action of daylight alone, it automatically ignites and extinguishes -the light at dusk and dawn respectively.</p></div></div> - -<p>The system which has been devised by Mr. Gustaf Dalén -of Stockholm, and which is exploited by the Gas Accumulator -Company of the Swedish capital, operates with dissolved -acetylene. The first light in Scandinavian waters to be -brought into action upon the “Aga” principle, as it is -called, was installed in the Gasfeten tower, an exceedingly -isolated beacon which offered every means of testing it -thoroughly. The idea follows the broad lines of that -adopted in connection with lightships, and, the Gasfeten -experiments proving completely successful, it has been -adopted extensively since, not only by the Swedish authorities -for the lighting of lonely waters in the Baltic Sea and -Gulf of Bothnia, but by various other Powers. The Straits -of Magellan are protected in this way, and when one recalls -the sparse population which dwells upon the banks of this -short-cut between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and -bears in mind the fact that the lights have to be left to their -own automatic action for some months on end, then one -may realize the perfection and reliability of the invention. -The failure of a light in such treacherous waters would be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275">275</a></span> -notified speedily to the authorities responsible for the -illumination of this sea-lane, but no such complaints appear -to have been received from passing vessels. These lonely -lights for the most part are of a very simple character, a -result due to local conditions. As a rule they are planted on -lofty eminences—not at too high an elevation, as thereby -they might be rendered useless by headland fogs—at a -height varying between 150 and 250 feet. The base of the -tower forms a space for the accommodation of the gas-accumulators, -wherein the illuminating medium is stored -under pressure, surmounted by the lantern which carries -the requisite optical apparatus, and the flasher whereby -the characteristic visual warning is given.</p> - -<p>Although adoption of the flasher enabled the consumption -of gas to be reduced very appreciably, there was one noticeable -drawback: the light had to burn both night and day, -unless clockwork mechanism were introduced to extinguish -the light at sunrise and to ignite it at twilight. Some -authorities, however, do not place trust in clockwork -mechanism. Certainly it is liable to fail at a critical moment, -and in the case of an isolated light, several hundred miles -from the nearest base, this would be a serious calamity, -intimation of the fact not being available until several weeks -after the disability had been observed.</p> - -<p>In order to overcome the fallibility of clockwork, and to -insure a still further marked decrease in the consumption -of gas, Mr. Gustaf Dalén devoted his energies to the perfection -of a device which should achieve the self-same end, -but be operated by Nature herself. His efforts were crowned -with complete success by the invention of the “light-valve,” -but which has become more widely known as the “sun-valve.”</p> - -<div id="ip_275" class="figcenter" style="width: 558px;"> - <img src="images/i_p274b.jpg" width="558" height="345" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE GAS ACCUMULATORS EMPLOYED IN THE DALÉN AUTOMATIC SYSTEM.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The size of the storage cylinder varies according to the work, character, and position of the beacon.</p></div></div> - -<p>This device is based upon a well-known principle. If -two objects, fashioned from the same metal, and identical -in every respect except that one is made light-absorbing -and the other light-reflecting, are exposed to daylight, while -the former will expand, the latter will remain unaffected. -This result is due to the fact that the one which absorbs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276">276</a></span> -light transforms it into energy. The acting part of the -“sun-valve” therefore is a light-absorber. It consists of a -central rod, the surface of which is coated with lampblack, -so that its light-absorbing qualities are enhanced as much -as possible. The lower part of this rod is connected to a -small lever, which opens and shuts an orifice through which -the gas passes to the flasher in the lantern above. Around -this central black copper rod are three other copper rods, -disposed equidistantly. They resemble the former in every -respect except that they have no light-absorbing qualities, -but they are given polished gold surfaces, so that their -light-reflecting properties are raised to the maximum.</p> - -<p>This sun-valve is exposed. At the break of dawn, under -the gathering intensity of daylight, the central black rod -absorbs the luminosity, the amount of which is increased -by the light thrown from the gold-burnished outer rods, -and, converting it into energy, expands longitudinally. In -so doing it forces the lever at the base downwards, closing -the opening through which the gas flows to the flasher. -In a short while, when the day has broken fairly and there -is no further need for the beacon’s services, the gas-feed is -cut off entirely, only the pilot burner remaining alight, the -gas-supply to this not being affected by the sun-valve. In -order to bring the greatest possible pressure upon the lever, -the blackened rod is so arranged that it can expand only in -one direction—namely, downwards.</p> - -<p>Upon the approach of evening, owing to the daylight -becoming weaker, the blackened rod contracts, and, the -pressure upon the lever being released, the gas commences -to flow once more to the burner. It is a small stream at -first, but as the darkness gathers, and the shrinking continues, -the valve opens wider and wider, until at last, when -night has settled down and the copper central rod has fully -contracted, the gas-valve is opened to its fullest extent, -permitting the greatest pressure of gas to flow to the burner, -so that the beacon throws its most brilliant light. This automatic -action continues infallibly every dawn and dusk, and -is the simplest and at the same time most reliable means<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277">277</a></span> -of economizing gas during the day that has yet been devised.</p> - -<p>There is another feature of this system which must not be -overlooked. Suppose, for some reason or other, that the -sea becomes shrouded in suffused light, such as might arise -from the obscuring of the sun by an overhanging bank of -fog or smoke, the beacon comes automatically into service, -as the cutting off of the daylight must bring about a contraction -of the blackened copper rod controlling the valve.</p> - -<p>The central rod can be adjusted to any degree of sensitiveness, -by means of a screw, while protection of the vital -parts is insured by enclosure within a heavy glass cylinder. -The first apparatus of this character was tested by the -Swedish authorities in 1907, and proved so successful that -it is now in service at all the exposed unattended lighthouses -in Swedish and Finnish waters; while it has been -adopted, also, very extensively by the United States, more -particularly for the lighting of the lonely stretches of the -Alaskan coastline and of the Panama Canal.</p> - -<p>Of course, the saving of gas which is rendered possible by -the use of the sun-valve varies according to the season of -the year. During the winter, when the nights are long, the -saving may not be very marked, but in the summer, when -darkness does not last more than four or five hours, the -economy is very noticeable. According to the experience -of the Swedish authorities, the average saving of gas during -the year varies from 35 to 40 per cent., as compared with -similar lights not fitted with this device.</p> - -<p>But there is another factor which is influenced to a very -appreciable degree by the utilization of the sun-valve. By -cutting off the light when it is not required, the capacity of—<i>i.e.</i>, -the duration of service upon—one charge is lengthened, -and this in the case of an isolated light is a very -important consideration. In fact, with the “Aga” system -wherein the sun-valve is combined with the flasher, it is -possible for the light to work a round twelve months without -the least control or necessity for intermediate inspection, -and at as low an annual charge as £2 15s., or about $14.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278">278</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_278" class="figcenter" style="width: 396px;"> - <img src="images/i_p278a.jpg" width="396" height="601" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE LAGERHOLMEN LIGHTHOUSE.</p> - -<p class="captionc">It marks a lonely dangerous rock in the Baltic Sea, and operates upon the Aga unattended -automatic system, with Dalén flasher and “sun-valve.”</p></div></div> - -<p>One of the latest unattended installations which have -been carried out upon these lines is the Lagerholmen lighthouse, -marking a dangerous rock in the Baltic Sea. It is a -cylindrical tower, with the focal plane 56 feet 4 inches -above sea-level, and the flashing light, with sun-valve control, -has a range of eighteen miles. The geographical range, -however, is only thirteen miles, owing to the comparatively -low height of the tower.</p> - -<p>An interesting and ingenious automatic unattended light -has also been established in an isolated part of the Bristol -Channel. It was designed by Sir Thomas Matthews, the -engineer to the Brethren of Trinity House. This is purely -and simply a clockwork-controlled apparatus in which -extreme care has been taken to eliminate the disadvantages -incidental to such mechanism. This type of light was -designed to fulfil three conditions—to give a flashing light; -to light up and go out at the proper times; and to require -attention only at long intervals. Acetylene is the illuminant -used, the gas being stored in a reservoir under high pressure. -The gas as it emerges from the supply cylinder is expanded, -so that the pressure at the burner does not exceed 2 pounds -per square inch.</p> - -<p>The outstanding feature of this apparatus is that the -clockwork control cutting off and turning on the gas does -not require to be wound by hand, but is actuated by the -mechanism which revolves the lenses, through a simple set -of gearing. The gas as it issues from the reservoir passes -into one of two cylinders. Each of these is provided with an -inlet and an exhaust valve, while the upper end is closed -with a lid of leather, covering the top like the vellum of a -drum. To each leather cover is attached a circular piece of -metal, smaller than the leather diaphragm, and from this -in turn extends a vertical rod, the upper end of which is -connected to one end of a centrally pivoted rocking arm. -When the gas enters one cylinder, naturally in expanding -it forces the leather lid upwards, and with it the vertical -rod. This elevates the corresponding end of the rocking -arm, and simultaneously drives down the rod attached to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279">279</a></span> -the opposite end of the beam, which in turn drives down -the leather lid of the second cylinder, and forces out any gas -that may be therein. The apparatus consequently is something -like a double pump, owing to the rocking arm having -a seesaw motion. This reciprocating action serves to wind -up the clock, and also to revolve the lenses through spurs -and pinions. The mechanism, however, is controlled completely -by the clock whereby the light is started, inasmuch -as without this the apparatus cannot be set in motion. -There are two dials, one of which is divided into twenty-four -divisions, corresponding to the hours of the day, and the -other into twelve divisions, representing the twelve months -of the year. The clocks work together, and the time of -lighting up is advanced or retarded, according to the time -of the year, through the clock train wheels.</p> - -<p>The apparatus is very compact, highly ingenious, and -has proved efficient in service. Although this is the first -application of the idea for rotating the lenses by the gas -which feeds the burners, so far as England is concerned, it -has been employed under similar circumstances in Germany -with conspicuous success, in combination with the Pintsch -oil-gas apparatuses, but it lacks the simplicity and reliability -of the sun-valve.</p> - -<div id="ip_279" class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"> - <img src="images/i_p278b.jpg" width="370" height="236" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>AN UNATTENDED BEACON LIGHTING THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This warning, fitted with Dalén flasher and sun-valve, is visited once in six months.</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_279b" class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;"> - <img src="images/i_p278c.jpg" width="364" height="308" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>AN AUTOMATIC LIGHT-BOAT.</p> - -<p class="captionl">This novel warning was constructed for installation at the mouth of a Swedish river -owing to the extreme velocity of the current. Such a boat may be left unvisited for a -year if desired.</p></div></div> - -<p>A different system, which has been adopted widely -throughout the East and in Australian waters, is the -Wigham petroleum beacon. This system possesses many -notable features, the most important being that well-refined -petroleum oil is employed. In many parts of the -world carbide of calcium is not readily obtainable, and, -moreover, is somewhat expensive, whereas, on the other -hand, oil is comparatively cheap and available in unlimited -quantities. The principle of working is somewhat -novel. The wick is not burned in the manner generally -followed in regard to lamps—viz., at the end, which within -a short time becomes carbonized and brings a marked -diminution of the illuminating power—but it is moved so -that the same part is not exposed continuously to the action -of the heat arising from combustion. It is caused to travel<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280">280</a></span> -horizontally over a small roller, in a specially-constructed -burner, combustion taking place, therefore, on its flat side. -It is moved slowly and continuously over this roller, so -that it cannot burn through, and in this manner the flame, -being constantly emitted from a fresh surface, is of uniform -intensity.</p> - -<div id="ip_280" class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;"> - <img src="images/i_p280a.jpg" width="401" height="596" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE WIGHAM THIRTY-ONE DAY UNATTENDED PETROLEUM LIGHT.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The type at left shows the lamp carried upon a cast-iron pillar; while on the right it is mounted -upon a lattice tower.</p></div></div> - -<p>The lamp comprises three main parts. There is the -lantern, with the lens and the projecting panes of plate-glass, -in the focus of which the burner is fixed. Then there -is the burning-oil reservoir, which feeds the wick as it -moves towards the burner. This reservoir is circular in -shape, somewhat shallow, and serves as a deck on which -the lantern is built up. The third part is the float cylinder, -made of copper, which is attached to the underside of the -oil reservoir. This cylinder is filled with oil, which is kept -quite distinct from the burning oil, and thereon floats a -weighted copper drum, to which one end of the wick is -secured by means of a hook. At the lower end of this -cylinder is a micrometer valve, which when opened permits -the oil to drip away at a certain speed. This causes the -float to fall with the oil in the cylinder, and to drag the -wick over the burner roller and down the float cylinder -after it, so that a fresh surface of the wick is presented -continuously for combustion. The lamps themselves may -be divided into two broad classes—the single-wick and the -three-wick respectively. The latter obviously emits the -more brilliant light, and is the type which is coming into -more extensive use at the present time. In the latest type -a duplex burner is employed, and this has been found to -give a very powerful light with a comparatively low oil -consumption.</p> - -<p>The light is generally carried at the top of a lattice-work -steel tower. A support of this character can be -taken to pieces, packed within small compass, and transported -without difficulty, while erection is simplified and -facilitated. Seeing that a large number of these beacons -have been erected on headlands along the wildest stretches -of the African continent and the loneliest coasts of Australia,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281">281</a></span> -where the methods of transport are restricted to coolies -or mules, this method of packing is distinctly advantageous. -The lamp is secured to the top of the tower, with the float -cylinder of the lamp depending from the centre. In this -arrangement, as a rule, a small tank is provided into which -a drain-pipe empties the oil dropping from the drip-valve. -In this way the oil may be drawn off, filtered, and used -again in the float cylinder. In some instances the lamp -is mounted upon a cast-iron column, in which case the -float cylinder and the oil-drip tank are placed within the -tube, access thereto being obtained through a door.</p> - -<p>The length of service on one charge varies according to -the situation of the light. If in a very exposed and inaccessible -place, it may be required to burn for two or -three months without attention. Taken on the average, -however, a monthly charge has been found to offer the -greatest advantages. But in some places the longer interval -is unavoidable. For instance, the Wigham light which -is mounted upon the extremity of the Manora breakwater -at Karachi cannot be approached for three months at a -time during the monsoon. Under these circumstances a -one-hundred-day service is imperative.</p> - -<p>The lenses are of the dioptric order, consisting of six -elements built up into a strong gun-metal framework. -The internal diameter naturally varies with the size and -number of the wicks, and ranges from 10 inches for a -1<span class="fraction"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch single wick, to 15 inches in the case of a 1<span class="fraction"><sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> inch -three-wick lamp. In the larger sizes a curved plate-glass -pane is fitted outside the lens as a protection from the action -of the weather. These storm-panes are set in copper doors, -so that the glasses may be easily cleaned and polished when -the lamp is being retrimmed.</p> - -<div id="ip_281" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p280b.jpg" width="190" height="457" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">WILLSON GAS AND WHISTLING FLOATING -LIGHT OFF EGG ISLAND, NOVA SCOTIA.</div></div> - -<div id="ip_281b" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_p280c.jpg" width="192" height="459" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">THE WILLSON “OUTER AUTOMATIC,” -HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.</div></div> - -<p>The maintenance charges are guided by the local market -values of materials and labour, the item of repairs and -renewals being practically negligible. So far as oil consumption -per month is concerned, this fluctuates according -to the type of lamp used, ranging from 1<span class="fraction"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>5</sub></span> pints per twenty-four -hours, or 4·8 gallons per month, in the case of a 1<span class="fraction"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282">282</a></span> -single-wick burner, to 2¼ pints per twenty-four hours, or -8¾ gallons of oil per month, in the case of the latest 1<span class="fraction"><sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span>-inch -duplex-wick burner. American petroleum-oil, of a specific -gravity of about 0·795, gives the best results and the -brightest and clearest flame. Russian and other heavier -oils generally used in lighthouses are unsuitable. In view -of the world-wide operations of the Standard Oil Company, -however, no difficulty is experienced in procuring adequate -supplies of this oil anywhere between the two Poles.</p> - -<p>The oil used in the float cylinder, as mentioned previously, -is quite distinct from the burning oil, and is used -only to support the float to which the wick is attached. -As the oil escapes through the drip-valve, it may be allowed -to run to waste, or, what is far preferable, it may be caught, -filtered, and used again for this purpose, to bring about a -reduction in the cost of upkeep. The float cylinder of a -thirty-one-day light, irrespective of the number of wicks, -requires the same quantity of oil for the float cylinder—9½ -gallons.</p> - -<p>The advantages of the unattended, automatic light have -been appreciated by the various maritime Powers, and -their application is being developed rapidly. They are -inexpensive in first cost, and their maintenance charges are -very low. In Sweden a second-order light, consuming -6 cubic feet of acetylene gas per hour, throwing a fixed -white light of 4,000 candle-power, and visible for seventeen -miles in clear weather, costs about £15, or $75, per annum; -while the smaller lights, with a 300-millimetre lens and a -12-inch burner emitting 360 candle-power, may be run -for £2, or $10, per annum, the low cost in this instance -being attributable to use of the Dalén flasher and sun-valve.</p> - -<p>The cost of the acetylene gas averages ¾d., or 1½ cents, -per cubic foot, a result attributable to the fact that Scandinavia -is the world’s largest producer of carbide of calcium.</p> - -<p>The Wigham petroleum system has proved similarly -economical and reliable, and has been installed in some -of the wildest corners of the globe. The Congested Districts -Board for Ireland have established a number of these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283">283</a></span> -beacons on the rugged west coast to assist the fishermen -in making their harbours at night. Many are placed in -very exposed positions on headlands, where they are frequently -swept by the full force of the Atlantic gales. The -Austrian Government has adopted the principle for lighting -the dangerous coasts of the Adriatic near Trieste, while -the shoreline of Jamaica is safeguarded by more than -sixteen lights of this type. Many of these lights suffered -severely from the effects of the earthquake which overwhelmed -the island a few years ago, but others withstood -all the shocks successfully. In this instance, had expensive -and massive lighthouses of the usual type been erected, -the loss would have been considerable, in view of the severity -of this seismic disturbance and the widespread destruction -which was wrought. These lights play a very prominent -part in the guarding of the southern ocean, the Australian -shores being protected by over sixty such beacons, many -of which are established in very exposed and isolated -positions off the mainland.</p> - -<p>While the day is still far distant when expensive graceful -towers, carrying immensely powerful lights, will be no longer -constructed, the perfection and utility of the unattended -light, in one or other of its many forms, are assisting tangibly -in the solution of the problem of lighting busy shorelines -adequately and inexpensively. Structures costing tens of -thousands sterling in future will be restricted to important -places, especially in connection with sea-rocks, such as -landfalls, or to those some distance from the land, where -a fog-signal station must be maintained, unless the example -of the Platte Fougère land-controlled station becomes -adopted.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284">284</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">FLOATING LIGHTHOUSES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Hand in hand with the development of the unattended -light for service on land positions has proceeded the adaptation -of the floating light. This may be described briefly -as an enlarged edition of the lighted buoy, which is such -a conspicuous feature of our harbours and estuaries. Yet -it is more than a buoy. It can fulfil all the purposes of a -light-vessel, both as regards the emission of a ray of light -or a distinctive sound, so that both audible and visual -warning are given simultaneously. These lights likewise -are automatic in their action, and, when set going, require -no further attention for some time. Nine months or more -are often permitted to pass without human hands touching -them, and they have solved some very abstruse problems -in connection with coast lighting.</p> - -<p>For instance, there is probably no such lonely stretch -of coastline as that of British Columbia and Alaska. There -is only one large port north of Vancouver—Prince Rupert—and -this rising hive of maritime activity is 550 miles distant. -The coast is as wild as that of Norway, which, indeed, it -resembles very closely, bristling as it does with fjords and -islands, with rugged cliffs rising abruptly from the water -to a height of several hundred feet. Navigation at night -is extremely hazardous, as the path leads by devious ways -through deep channels intersecting the outer barriers of -islands, where fogs hang low and thickly. The captain -has to pick his way carefully, determining his course by -timing the period between the blast of his siren and its -echo, as it is thrown from headland to headland. As the -passenger traffic developed, the masters of the vessels -entrusted with so many human lives felt the increased<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285">285</a></span> -responsibility keenly, and agitated for more adequate -protection. The erection of lighthouses, even of the most -economical type, would have entailed huge expenditure -by both the United States and Canadian Governments, -while the question of maintenance would have bristled -with searching problems.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, it was decided to adopt the floating automatic -system, which had proved eminently satisfactory -in other parts of the world. In this manner a highly -successful and inexpensive solution of the difficulty was -found. These buoys have been installed at all the most -treacherous points leading to sounds and canals, as the -lochs are called, and have been found in every way equal -to the simplest type of attended lighthouse. The southern -coast of Nova Scotia has been protected in a similar manner, -a chain of automatic lights, spaced ten miles apart, having -been completed, so that this wild, rugged shore is patrolled -very efficiently at the present moment. Other countries -have not been dilatory in adopting the same methods. -Consequently, to-day the automatic floating lighthouse is one -of the handiest, most efficient and reliable devices for assisting -navigation that the lighthouse engineer has at his command.</p> - -<p>The lights assume different forms, this factor being influenced -by position, specific duty, and local conditions. -Similarly, the character of the illuminant employed also -varies, acetylene, compressed oil-gas, petroleum, and -electricity, being utilized, according to circumstances. On -the whole, however, acetylene gas appears to be the most -favoured illuminating medium, inasmuch as the preparation -of the carbide of calcium has undergone such marked -improvement.</p> - -<p>When Mr. Thomas L. Willson discovered the cheap -process for the manufacture of carbide of calcium upon a -commercial scale, and the new industry became placed -upon a firm footing, it was only natural that the inventor -should realize the possibilities of applying the new illuminant -to the assistance of navigation. Acetylene gas -gives a brilliant clear light of intense whiteness, which is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286">286</a></span> -capable of penetrating a great distance. Accordingly, he -set to work to devise a buoy lighted by this gas, and -able to carry sufficient storage of calcium carbide to burn -for weeks or months without attention. When he had -completed the first apparatus of this character, he handed -it over to the Marine Department of the Canadian Government -for submission to any test that they might consider -expedient, in order to ascertain the limits of its application. -The buoy was set in position and watched carefully. -Periodically it was examined to ascertain whether overhauling -and cleaning were necessary, as well as the behaviour -of the light under all conditions of weather. Captains of -vessels passing the beacon were requested to pronounce -their opinions upon the quality of the light, and their remarks -concerning its range, facility with which it might be picked -up, reliability, and so forth, were carefully marshalled and -digested by the authorities. Precisely what the officials -thought of the invention is reflected most convincingly by -the fact that to-day over 300 lights working upon this -principle are stationed in Canadian waters, both upon -the storm-bound ocean coasts and upon the wind-swept -shores of the Great Lakes and waterways.</p> - -<div id="ip_286" class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;"> - <img src="images/i_p287.jpg" width="445" height="801" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.—Sectional Elevation of the Willson Automatic -Floating Light.</span> (See <a href="#Page_288">next page</a>.)</div></div> - -<p>The Willson buoys are absolutely automatic in their -operation. All the impurities in the gas are removed by -passing it through a special purifier, so that the burner -cannot become clogged or the light impoverished. A charge -of 1,300 to 1,500 pounds of carbide is carried within the -apparatus, and the gas is generated <em>under low pressure</em>. -The lantern is fitted with a Fresnel lens, so that the light -is condensed into an intensely powerful and penetrating -horizontal beam. One prominent feature is that the candle-power -of acetylene gas is seven times as high as that of -compressed oil-gas, while the reservoir of a given size will -contain this equivalent of more light. The candle-power -of these floating lights obviously varies, the largest size -being capable of emitting a beam of 1,000 candle-power, -this flame being the maximum that the lens will stand -without breaking.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a class="hidev" id="Page_287">287</a><a id="Page_288">288</a></span> -The construction and the principle of operation are exceedingly -simple, as may be gathered from reference to -<a href="#ip_286">Fig. 16</a>. The beacon comprises a gas generator tube of -steel (1), which is supported by the steel float chamber (2), -on the upper side of which is placed the support (3) carrying -the lantern (4). Stability is insured by means of the -counterweight (6) attached to the lower end of the generator -tube. A few feet from the bottom of the latter is -a diaphragm (7), fitted centrally with a conically-seated -valve (8) which is mounted on a stem (9). This extends -through the centre of the generator and its head (10). -The upper end of the valve stem carries a hexagonal nut -(11), while the stem itself at this point has a keyway cut -into it. A spline is fitted into the generator head to engage -the keyway, and when the nut (11) is turned to close or -to open the valve, the stem itself cannot move with it, -except in two directions only—up or down. The nut itself -cannot be turned too far, in which event it might drop -the stem and valve, as there is a stop-collar (12). Leakage -of gas is prevented by a cap (14), which is screwed into -the generator head and sealed with a rubber washer. This -cap is sufficiently long to permit the valve stem to be -raised or lowered so as to adjust the movement of the valve. -The stem of the valve is protected from the carbide by -enclosure within a tube (13), which works through a guide -bar (24) bolted to the side of the generator tube. A grid -(23) is fitted in the centre of the diaphragm (7) and surrounding -the valve (8), so as to prevent small pieces of -carbide, which may pass through the grate (16), from falling -into the water, and thereby being wasted. The steel grate -upon which the carbide rests is attached to the inside of -the generator, a short distance above the diaphragm. The -grid (23) also acts as a valve seat, and is provided with a -rubber packing (15), which is held in a groove in the seat, -and projects a sufficient distance to make a good joint with -the valve (8) when it is closed, even if the valve happen to -be foul.</p> - -<p>The carbide of calcium, in the form of large crystals<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289">289</a></span> -measuring about 8 by 4 inches, is placed in the generator -tube when the beacon is immersed in the water, the valve (8) -being opened and the valve-cap (14) screwed down. In -the centre of the counterweight (6) is an orifice through -which the water enters from the outside, and passes through -the open valve, to come into contact with the carbide -resting upon the grate. Gas is generated instantly, to -ascend through the carbide into the purifying chamber (5), -where all deleterious matter is removed, the gas escaping -thence through the small aperture (17) and pipe (18) to -the lantern, to which the supply-pipe is connected by the -aid of the coupling (19).</p> - -<p>Of course, at times gas is liable to be generated more -rapidly than it can be consumed. What happens? The -apparatus is not provided with facilities to receive the -surplus gas. Being unable to escape upwards through the -generator tube, it collects at the bottom, and as the pressure -increases it gradually forces the water away from the carbide, -so that generation ceases, and is not resumed until the surplus -gas has been absorbed, when the water once more is able to -come into contact with the carbide. Thus it will be seen -that the gas generation is controlled automatically, and -that it is almost impossible for the gas pressure within -the plant to reach a disruptive degree, owing to the fact -that when it exceeds a certain limit it has a free vent from -the bottom of the device, where the water normally is -permitted to enter to carry out its designed purpose.</p> - -<p>This invention has been utilized for a wide variety of -purposes, from the lighting of harbours, navigable channels, -rivers, bays, and so forth, to that of exposed coasts. The -automatic beacon, properly so called, has a tower, which -brings the focal plane to an elevation varying between -50 and 100 feet, this tower being built of lattice steelwork -attached to the top half of the buoy, with a day mark -surrounding the lantern gallery, access to which is secured -by an iron ladder. This type of light carries a sufficient -storage of carbide in a single charge to keep the light burning -continuously for about forty weeks. In this instance the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290">290</a></span> -only modification from that already described is that the -water for the production of the gas is admitted into the -top instead of to the bottom of the generator. When an -excess of gas occurs, the pressure thereof drives the water -away from the carbide until the surplus has been consumed. -Another type, somewhat smaller, carrying a charge sufficient -for nearly six months, has proved highly successful as a -coastal light, some thirty beacons of this class being -stationed along the shore of British Columbia. The only -trouble experienced therewith in these waters has been due -to frost, which, solidifying the water around the buoy, has -interrupted the designed functions.</p> - -<p>But probably the most complete and useful type of -Willson acetylene gas beacon is that in which the Courtenay -whistling device is incorporated, so that in thick weather -audible warning of the danger may be extended. In this -instance the floating chamber which supports the superstructure -carrying the light and also the generator tube, -is fitted with two further tubes which project from the base -like huge legs. These tubes are open at the bottom, but -are closed at the top except for a connection with a valve-casing, -which is fitted with a ball-valve, and upon which -a powerful whistle is bolted. Now, if the buoy is lowered -and anchored in absolutely still water, the water will rise -to the same level within the tubes as it is outside; but when -the buoy is lifted upon the crest of a wave, the level of the -water falls, so that the air space within the tubes is increased. -Air enters this augmented space through the ball-check -inlet valve in the valve-casing. When the beacon falls, -naturally the water endeavours to maintain its level within -the tubes, and therefore the air which was admitted into -the space becomes compressed, to be expelled through -the only possible vent—the whistle—thereby producing a -very powerful blast. Thirty of these combined light and -whistling buoys have been strung along the rugged Nova -Scotia coast, and have proved highly popular, that outside -Halifax harbour being known colloquially among seafarers -as the “Outer Automatic.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291">291</a></span> -Another acetylene system, but working upon a better -principle, has been perfected in Sweden, and, indeed, now -has been adopted universally, owing to its many excellent -features. This is the “Aga” light, which is the invention -of Mr. Gustaf Dalén,<a id="FNanchor_C" href="#Footnote_C" class="fnanchor">C</a> and which has been brought to a high -stage of commercial success by the Gas Accumulator -Company of Stockholm. I have pointed out the one objection -to the Willson acetylene automatic light—namely, -its uselessness when the surrounding water becomes frozen. -While this drawback does not affect its sphere of utility to -a noticeable degree in Canadian waters, it acts somewhat -adversely in other seas where similar conditions prevail, -but where the navigable channels are kept open by ice-breakers, -such as, for instance, in the Baltic Sea. Mr. -Dalén recognized this weak point in any system wherein -contact with water is responsible for the generation of the -gas, and accordingly sought for a superior method. Fortunately, -the perfection of a new means of handling acetylene, -by French inventors, offered the complete solution of the -problem in a practical way. The principle of this lies in -the use of dissolved acetylene, which is perfectly safe from -explosion, and can be handled with the greatest facility. -The gas can be stored in cylinders similar to those used -for containing oxygen and hydrogen under pressure, gases -which are easier to transport than carbide of calcium, and, -what is far more important, climatic conditions do not -exercise the slightest influence upon it.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_C" href="#FNanchor_C" class="fnanchor">C</a> The humane labours of Mr. Dalén received recognition by the -award of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1912.</p></div> - -<p>Dissolved acetylene may be stored within the cylinder, -or accumulator, as it is called, to a pressure of at least -ten atmospheres, and at this pressure it contains 100 times -its own volume of acetylene gas. The accumulators may -be made of any desired size, this factor being governed -by considerations of transport and application, as well as -of the consumption of the burner.</p> - -<p>The perfection of the dissolved acetylene process came -as a great boon to the Swedish lighting authorities, inasmuch<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292">292</a></span> -as they have probably the most difficult stretch of -coastline in the world to protect. At the same time, owing -to the wild, exposed character of many of the points which -demanded lighting, a perfect, economical, and reliable -automatic system was in urgent demand. Acetylene was -an obvious illuminant, since, while the country is deficient -in the essential resources for the preparation of other fuels, -carbide of calcium is very cheap, Sweden, in fact, being -the largest producer of this commodity. The Swedish -Board of Pilotage experimented with acetylene lighting -for six or seven years, submitting every known acetylene -lighting system to searching practical trials, but failed -to be sufficiently convinced on the vital question of reliability. -Freezing-up was the most pronounced shortcoming, -but when dissolved acetylene appeared as a commercial -product this disadvantage was removed completely, -and acetylene was adopted.</p> - -<div id="ip_292" class="figcenter" style="width: 596px;"> - <img src="images/i_p292a.jpg" width="596" height="317" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE “KALKGRUNDET,” SWEDEN’S LATEST AUTOMATIC LIGHTSHIP.</p> - -<p class="captionc">The Dalén Flasher is used, and this undoubtedly is the finest vessel of its type in the world.</p></div></div> - -<p>Yet dissolved acetylene, though completely successful, -possessed one drawback. It was expensive as compared -with oil-gas. Accordingly, there was great scope for a -means of economizing the consumption of the fuel without -interfering with its lighting value and efficiency. At the -same time a superior flashing system was desired. The -methods which were in vogue to this end were satisfactory -so far as they went, but they involved a considerable useless -consumption of gas.</p> - -<p>This is where Mr. Gustaf Dalén completed one of his -greatest achievements. He perfected a flashing apparatus -wherein the gas passes to the burner in intermittent puffs, -to be ignited by a small invisible pilot light. The device -was tested and proved so successful that it was adopted -throughout the service. In Swedish waters to-day there -are 127 aids to navigation operating upon this system, -of which five are lightships. The success of the invention -in the land of its origin attracted other nations to its -possibilities. At the present moment over 700 lights, -scattered throughout the world, are working upon this -principle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293">293</a></span> -If a beacon throws a fixed light, unless it is of extreme -power, it is liable to be confused with a ship’s mast-light, -a fact which was found to be one of the greatest objections -to the fixed white light of the acetylene aid to navigation. -On the other hand, a flashing warning must be of such a -character that it cannot be mistaken for the twinkling of -a brilliant star, or of a light which has nothing to do with -navigation. This is where the “Aga” flasher emphasizes -its value. It throws a short, powerful gleam at brief -intervals. The mariner cannot possibly confuse or misconstrue -it; the regularity of the flash arrests his immediate -attention, and its purport may be divined instantly. The -apparatus is simple and highly effective, while it has the -advantage that the periods of light and darkness can be -altered in relation to one another, or grouped, as desired.</p> - -<p>From the maintenance point of view, however, the -invention is of far greater significance. As the gas is -consumed only during the light periods, which are very -brief in comparison with the eclipse, the economy effected -is very appreciable. When the apparatus was first brought -within the range of practical application, many authorities, -which had become wedded to the oil-gas lighting system, -wherein the light flashes are of long duration in comparison -with the dark periods, maintained that the Dalén flash -was too short to be of any value. They disregarded the -fact that the power of the acetylene-gas flash is about seven -times as intense as that of the oil-gas light. For instance, -when the United States acquired the first Aga light in the -autumn of 1908, the authorities demanded either a characteristic -signal comprising ten seconds of light followed by -five seconds of darkness, or flashes and eclipses of equal -duration—five seconds.</p> - -<div id="ip_293" class="figcenter" style="width: 597px;"> - <img src="images/i_p292b.jpg" width="597" height="334" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>THE “SVINBĀDAN,” UNATTENDED LIGHTSHIP IN SWEDISH WATERS.</p> - -<p class="captionc">It works upon the Dalén system with flasher, giving a flash of 0·3 second duration, followed by darkness for 2·7 seconds.</p></div></div> - -<p>There was a prejudice against short, powerful, and oft-repeating -flashes, mainly because their advantages were -misunderstood. Practical experience, however, demonstrated -the fact that the period of light might be reduced -very considerably, and, as a result of prolonged investigations, -the Swedish Board of Pilotage adopted a characteristic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294">294</a></span> -comprising 0·3 second light followed by darkness for -2·7 seconds. This has become known since as the “one-tenth -flash,” owing to the luminous interval occupying -one-tenth of the combined period of light and darkness. -It will be seen that, as a result of this arrangement, twenty -flashes are thrown per minute.</p> - -<p>As the flame is lighted for only one-tenth of the signal -period, it will be seen that the saving of gas amounts to -90 per cent., as compared with the light which is burning -constantly. Accordingly, the gas charge will last ten times -as long with the flashing apparatus; consequently, the -accumulator need have only one-tenth of the capacity of that -for a similar beacon which burns constantly. The economy -really is not quite 90 per cent., as a certain volume of gas -is consumed by the pilot flame, which ignites the charge of -gas issuing from the flasher burner. This, however, is an -insignificant item, inasmuch as the quantity of gas burned -by the pilot light does not exceed one-third of a cubic foot -per twenty-four hours.</p> - -<p>Not only has this highly ingenious system been adapted -to varying types of buoys, similar in design and range of -action to those described in connection with the Willson -apparatus, wherein the light may be left unattended for as -long as twelve months, according to the capacity of the -accumulator, but it has also been applied to “light-boats” -and light-vessels. The “light-boat” is a hybrid, being a -combination of the buoy and the lightship, and was devised -to meet special conditions. Thus, the “Gerholmen” light-boat -stationed in the mouth of a Swedish river, where the -current runs exceedingly strongly, resembles a small boat -with a water-tight deck. From the centre of this rises a steel -tripod, at the top of which the lantern is placed. The gas -accumulators are stored within the hull, and are of sufficient -capacity to maintain the light for a round twelvemonth -without attention, as the flashing apparatus is incorporated.</p> - -<p>The Aga light has come to be regarded as one of the greatest -developments in lighthouse engineering, and has been adopted -extensively throughout the world in connection with either<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295">295</a></span> -floating or fixed aids to navigation. The United States have -decided to adopt the system exclusively henceforth, until a -further progressive step is achieved, and several floating -lights of this type have been acquired already to guard wild -and lonely stretches of the coastline.</p> - -<p>Here and there attempts have been made to apply -electricity to inaccessible lights. The most interesting -endeavour in this direction was in connection with the -lighting of the Gedney Channel from the open Atlantic -to New York harbour. This formerly constituted the only -available highway for the big liners, and it is exceedingly -tortuous and treacherous—so much so that vessels arriving -off Sandy Hook in waning daylight invariably anchored -and awaited the dawn before resuming the journey. The -great difficulty in connection with Gedney’s Channel was -the distance of the main lights on shore, the direct range -at one part being over thirteen miles. Consequently the -land lights were of little utility to the pilot.</p> - -<p>The authorities decided to convert the channel into an -electric-lighted waterway. Buoys were laid down on either -side of the thoroughfare. They were of the spar type, -resembling decapitated masts projecting from the water, -and were held in position by mushroom anchors, weighing -4,000 pounds, or nearly 2 tons, apiece. Each buoy was -crowned with a 100 candle-power incandescent electric -lamp, encased within a special globe having a diameter of -5 inches. An electric cable was laid on either side of this -street and connected with each buoy. The first section -was completed in 1888, the electric gleams being shed for -the first time on November 7 of that year. The system -appeared to give such complete satisfaction that it was -extended. Altogether six and a quarter miles of cable -were laid down, which in itself was no easy feat, while -prodigious difficulties were experienced in its maintenance, -owing to the severity of the currents and the treacherous -character of the sea-bed. The lights were controlled from -a central point ashore, and the idea of being able to switch -on and off a chain of aids to navigation by a simple movement<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296">296</a></span> -presented many attractive features. Although navigation -appreciated this improvement, the Great White -Waterway did not prove a complete success. It did not -possess that vital element of complete reliability which is -so essential to navigation.</p> - -<p>Compressed oil-gas has been employed extensively for -unattended floating lights, but it possesses so many shortcomings -that it is being superseded on all sides by acetylene, -with the exception of one or two countries which appear -to be inseparably wedded to this principle. It is expensive -both to install and to maintain, while the “radius of action”—otherwise, -the period during which it may be left without -human attention—is unavoidably brief. For temporary -purposes, such as the indication of a submerged wreck, it -is efficient, while it is also serviceable for accessible positions, -but it is not regarded as being a satisfactory system -for places which human hands cannot reach for months at -a time.</p> - -<p>Crude petroleum in conjunction with the Wigham long-burning -petroleum lamp, wherein the flame is produced from -a moving wick, has been adopted widely. Lights installed -upon this principle may be left for ninety-three days at a -time without anxiety. In many instances the Wigham light -is mounted upon steel boats; in other cases it is attached -to floating wooden structures. The British Admiralty in -particular is partial to this type of light, and it must be confessed -that it has proved highly serviceable and reliable.</p> - -<p>I have described already the general principles and features -of this system. When it is applied to a floating beacon, and -it is desired to save the oil dropping from the drip valve, a -tank is fixed to the deck of the floating structure, and connected -by a flexible pipe to the coupling at the bottom of -the float cylinder. A universal joint is attached to the -connection on the top of the tank to prevent the pipe being -twisted by the swinging and swaying motion of the lamp -on the gimbals. When the lamp is inspected, the oil may -be pumped out of the tank, strained, and used time after -time in the float cylinder.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297">297</a></span> -One of the most interesting of this type of floating boat-lights -is to be seen in Queenstown harbour. The hull is -30 feet in length, and has a beam of 11 feet. On this, -within a conical structure measuring 7½ feet high and 6½ feet -in diameter at the deck, is mounted the lantern. Although -the lamp is exposed to drenching seas and heavy storms, -it has never yet failed, a fact which conclusively points to -its efficiency. It rides well, and the lamp is kept much -drier than the lights on ordinary buoys, according to the -observations of the engineer responsible for its maintenance. -In this case the focus of the light is brought 12 feet above -the level of the sea.</p> - -<p>Probably the most compelling illustration of the utility -of the automatic beacon is offered by the unattended lightship. -The Otter Rock vessel is one of the most interesting -examples of this development. It was designed by Messrs. -D. and C. Stevenson, and comprises a substantial steel hull, -the deck of which is covered so that the interior is absolutely -water-tight. The craft is provided with a central and -heavy bilge keels, so as to reduce rolling to the minimum. -Two heavy steel bulkheads divide the craft into three water-tight -compartments, in the centre of which two large welded-steel -gas tanks are stowed. These are of sufficient capacity -to feed the light for several months without replenishment. -The light is mounted upon a steel tower placed amidships, -which brings the focal plane 25 feet above the water. The -gas is fed from the tanks to the lantern through the tower, -a valve reducing the pressure, while a ladder enables the -attendants to climb to the lantern gallery to adjust the -burner and flame, and to clean the lenses, upon the occasion -of their periodical visits.</p> - -<p>The gas cylinders are charged from the supply-ship -through flexible hoses, the gas being compressed to about -180 pounds per square inch. The light is of sufficient power -and elevation to be seen from a distance of some twelve -miles. The beacon gives not only a visual, but also an -audible warning. On the deck of the boat a bell is mounted, -this being rung not only by the motion of the ship, in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298">298</a></span> -manner of a bell-buoy, but also by the gas on its passage -from the tanks to the lantern, the bell being fitted with two -clappers for this purpose. The gas in passing from the -tank enters a receptacle having a flexible diaphragm, which, -as it becomes filled with gas, is naturally pressed outwards. -On this is mounted a central metal piece, which is connected -to a rod and lever. As the diaphragm is forced outwards, -it moves the rod and actuates the lever, which, when the -diaphragm falls, return to their normal positions. Attached -to this mechanical arrangement is the bell-clapper, which -alternately is lifted and dropped upon the dome of the bell, -thereby causing it to ring. After the gas has performed its -duty in raising the clapper lever and rod, it passes to the -lantern to be consumed. Thus, while the light gleams -brightly and steadily, the bell rings with unerring regularity—about -three times per minute—day and night for months -on a single charge; both must continue in operation until -the supply of gas is expended. The success of this interesting -and novel lightship has been responsible for similar -installations in other similarly wild and exposed positions -where approach is uncertain and often impossible for weeks -at a time.</p> - -<div id="ip_298" class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;"> - <img src="images/i_p298a.jpg" width="398" height="510" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>Photo by permission of Messrs. Edmondsons Ltd., Dublin.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE LANTERN USED IN THE WIGHAM AUTOMATIC PETROLEUM BEACON.</p> - -<p class="captionl">The circular shallow reservoir contains the burning-oil, which feeds the wick as it moves towards -the burner, and also acts as a deck on which the lantern is built. In this ingenious system the -flame is not produced at the end of the wick as in the ordinary lamp, but from the flat side of the wick, -which is moved continuously in a horizontal direction over a small roller. By this means a light of -uniform intensity is obtained, as carbonization cannot occur.</p></div></div> - -<p>One misadventure befell the Otter Rock light-vessel, -which is moored in an open position over the rock of that -name near Islay, although it was not the fault of either the -system or the designing engineers. There was a flaw in one -of the shackles, and while the ship was sawing and tugging -at her anchors during a heavy gale the flaw asserted itself, -the shackle broke, and the lightship got away. She was -recovered with some difficulty, after having drifted about -twenty miles. She was found stove in, having embraced -the rocks during her wayward journey, but otherwise was -unharmed. She was towed into port, repaired, and then -taken back to her station, where she was secured more firmly -than ever, while her chains were closely inspected to make -assurance doubly sure. No repetition of the accident has -occurred since, and the Otter Rock lightship, tethered firmly -to the rock, rides gales and calms, throwing her welcome<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299">299</a></span> -rays and droning her musical warning the whole year round -as steadily and efficiently as if she had a crew aboard.</p> - -<p>A similar lightship was built for the Trinity House -authorities from the designs of their engineer, Sir Thomas -Matthews, for service on the English coast. This boat, -built of steel, measures 65 feet in length, by 18½ feet beam -and 10½ feet depth, with the lantern carried at the point of -an open steel pyramidal structure, rising sufficiently high -above the boat’s deck amidships to bring the focal plane -26 feet above the level of the water, thereby giving it a -visible range of some ten miles. The boat is provided with -two holds, in which the gas reservoirs are placed, the total -gas capacity being about 1,500 cubic feet—enough to keep -the light burning for one hundred days.</p> - -<p>This light is of the revolving type, and the rotation of the -apparatus is accomplished very ingeniously. Before the -gas passes to the burner, it drives a tiny three-cylinder -engine, the crank-shaft of which is connected to the revolving -apparatus through gearing. The speed of the turntable is -kept constant by the aid of a governor, and the apparatus -works so smoothly and perfectly that there is not the -slightest divergence from the rate at which the apparatus -is set. As the gas emerges from the engine, it passes to the -burner to be consumed. By means of a novel apparatus, -should anything befall the little motor or the rotating -mechanism, the light does not drop out of service. In -that event the gas flows directly to the burner, the only -difference being that a fixed instead of a revolving light is -emitted.</p> - -<div id="ip_299" class="figcenter" style="width: 598px;"> - <img src="images/i_p298b.jpg" width="598" height="348" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of Messrs. Edmondsons Ltd., Dublin.</i> -</p> - -<p>THE “6-BAR” FLOATING AUTOMATIC WIGHAM LIGHT IN PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR.</p> - -<p class="captionc">This beacon, burning crude petroleum, burns for thirty days on a single oil charge.</p></div></div> - -<p>When the Scandinavian liner <i>Norge</i>, while on her way to -the United States in July, 1904, fouled the terrible Rockall -and lost 750 of her passengers, the outcry about the absence -of all means of indicating this spot to the navigator vibrated -round the world. Yet it was a useless agitation. Rockall -is a no-man’s land; no nation has planted its flag upon its -cone of granite; no Power cares whether it continues its -harvest of human lives or otherwise. The various countries -appear to think that it is too much off the map to be worthy<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300">300</a></span> -of a moment’s thought; its existence is brought home only -by a holocaust.</p> - -<p>After this heartrending disaster, Messrs. D. and C. -Stevenson adumbrated a promising means of indicating -this awful graveyard to the seafarer. They suggested that -two automatic unattended lightships should be constructed, -and that one should relieve the other every six months. -The project was eminently practicable, but every country -seemed to shirk responsibility in the expense of its adoption. -But Rockall is a unique danger spot; in no other -part of the known world does such a formidable isolated -peak of granite rise from the ocean depths, for it is in mid-Atlantic, -160 miles west of St. Kilda, and 290 miles off the -Scottish mainland. It may be away from the great steamship -lanes of the Atlantic, yet a vast volume of shipping -passes within sight of its curious formation. Seeing that -the foremost maritime Powers defray between them the cost -of maintaining the light off Cape Spartel, surely the dictates -of humanity are sufficiently pressing to secure the indication -of this islet. The maintenance of an unattended -automatic beacon, such as Messrs. Stevenson advocated, -would not impose a severe strain upon the treasuries of the -leading Powers of the world, whose interests are associated -intimately with the North Atlantic.</p> - -<p>The perfection of the unattended lightship, working automatically, -has provided the lighthouse engineer with a -powerful weapon for marking the most exposed and out-of-the-way -danger spots. When the new development is -carried to its uttermost lengths, no graveyard of the ocean, -no matter how remote and inaccessible, need be without -means of warning shipping of its whereabouts.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301">301</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE LIGHT-KEEPER AND HIS LIFE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The life of the guardian of a blazing signpost of the coast -is much the same the whole world over. It is unavoidably -monotonous under the best conditions. Each succeeding -day and night brings a similar round of toil, with very little -variation. There are the same duties to be performed in -strict accordance with routine, and under normal circumstances -there are many idle hours which have to be whiled -away as best one can. On the mainland, especially in the -South of England, France, Germany, and the United States, -the loneliness and monotony are not felt so keenly by the -wardens of the light, as in many instances they are in close -proximity to ports and towns, where a little welcome relaxation -may be obtained during the rest spells; while in the -summer evenings, if the lights should be only a few miles -away from civilization, visitors are frequent. Again, the -keepers as a rule live with their families in cosy solid buildings, -and, having a stretch of garden flanking their homes, -can expend their hours of leisure to advantage.</p> - -<p>On the isolated, lonely rock, however, the conditions are -vastly different. The average person, when regarding on a -calm day the tall slim outlines of a tower rising from the -water, is apt to regard the life of those responsible for keeping -the light going as one enveloped in romance and peace, -far removed from the trials and worries of the maelstrom of -civilization. But twenty-four hours on one of these beacons -completely dispel all romantic impression. The gilt of -fascination wears away quickly, and the visitor recognizes -only too forcibly the terrible desolation of it all, and admires -the little band of men who watch vigilantly over the deep -for the guidance of those who go down to the sea in ships.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302">302</a></span> -The keepers of such stations are marooned as completely -as any castaway on a barren island. In many instances -they cannot even signal to the shore. If anything should go -wrong, they must wait until a ship comes in sight, to communicate -their tidings by flag signals. If the call is urgent, -say for illness, and the passing boat carries a doctor, she will -heave to, and, if conditions permit, will launch a boat to -carry the medical man to the rock to administer aid. If it -is a matter of life or death, the ship will take the man off.</p> - -<p>As may be imagined, upon a sea-rock, owing to the -slender proportions of the tower, the quarters are inevitably -very cramped, with no facilities for the men to stretch their -limbs. The manner in which space is economized in the -small circular apartments is astonishing. The essential -furniture is built to the wall, and liberal cupboard space is -provided, the governing consideration being to provide the -men with as much open space as the restricted circumstances -will permit. The only exercise that the men can obtain in -the open air is upon the narrow shelf forming the landing -platform, or the narrow gallery around the lantern. In the -majority of circumstances it is less than that provided for -the benefit of a prisoner in an exercise yard.</p> - -<p>The lamp is lighted at dusk, and, unless it is a fixed white -light, the clockwork driving the occulting and revolving -mechanism has to be wound up. Seeing that this entails the -lifting of a ton or so up the vertical cylinder in which the -weight travels, this is no mean task in itself.</p> - -<p>Unremitting vigilance has to be maintained while the -lamp is burning. It demands attention from time to time, -while, should anything serious go wrong, the attendant must -bring the reserve lamp into service without a moment’s loss -of time and without interruption of the ray.</p> - -<p>“The light must not go out!” That is the inflexible rule -of all attended lights between the two Poles. Even if it -failed only for a minute, the circumstance would not escape -observation. Some vessel would detect the breakdown; it -would be recorded in the captain’s log-book. When he -touched the first port, intimation would be sent to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303">303</a></span> -organization responsible for the beacon, setting forth the -fact that on such and such a night, at a certain hour, this -light was not showing in accordance with the official light -list, or was giving a warning different from that laid down -for the guidance of the seafarer. An inquiry would be -instituted immediately to ascertain the reason, and the -light-keeper probably would find himself in an awkward -position, although months might have elapsed since the -incident.</p> - -<p>There is nothing haphazard about the control of lights. -The circumstances are too serious to permit the slightest -deviation from hard-and-fast regulations. The passing -mariner is entirely dependent upon these blazing guardians, -maybe from a distance of fifteen miles or more. He has his -chart wherewith he is able to steer his way, but he must -have certain marks to guide him at night, so that he may be -sure of his course and position. Accordingly, every lighthouse -possesses some individual characteristic in regard to -its light. As explained elsewhere, it may be a group flash, -an occulting flash of a distinctive nature, a revolving light -which completes a revolution once in a certain period of -time, or a fixed blaze.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, the men watching over the lights appreciate -the gravity of their responsibility, and are reliable to an -heroic degree. Each is a man picked for the duty, who is -not appalled by loneliness, and is of unimpeachable precision. -Of course, accidents will happen, but dereliction of -duty is criminal, because it may bring about loss of life. -Carelessness on the part of a light-keeper precipitated the -loss of the steamer <i>Victoria</i> when crossing the English -Channel from Newhaven to Dieppe on April 12, 1887. The -French coast, as it was being approached, became shrouded -by the inexorable fog-fiend. The captain lost his way, -although he knew, from the time he had been steaming, that -he must be perilously near the French shore. He listened -for the droning of the fog-siren mounted on Pointe d’Ailly, -but in vain. He sent to the engine-room to ascertain -the number of revolutions the engines had made, and this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304">304</a></span> -convinced him that he must be close inshore, despite the -silence of the fog-signal. Thinking that he might have -strayed some distance east of Dieppe, he brought his vessel -round, and then crawled slowly ahead. But he had scarcely -settled into his forward stride when there was a crash—a -terrible splitting and crunching. The vessel had kept a -true course, and now had hit the very rocks which the captain -had sought to avoid. The passengers, being ready to land, -were got into the boats and pushed through the dense curtain -for land, but some thirty passengers and crew were never -seen again.</p> - -<p>The subsequent inquiry revealed an amazing breach of -duty on the part of those in charge of the light-station. The -head lighthouse-keeper, off duty at the time, was asleep in -bed, but his wife awoke him as she observed the fog settling -upon the water. He dressed hurriedly, and rushed to see -what his companion was doing. This official had failed -lamentably in his duties. Instead of starting the boiler -fires to raise the steam to work the siren upon the first signs -of the approaching enemy, as he should have done, he had -delayed the duty. The result was that an hour was wasted, -and during this interval the unfortunate captain took his -ship upon the rocks. To make matters worse, the keepers -did not perceive the wreck until some two hours after the -disaster, although they admitted that they heard the cries -of people an hour and a half previously, but never suspected -the cause of the turmoil.</p> - -<p>The man on watch during the night maintains a keen -lookout. The faintest signs of a gathering mist are sufficient -to cause him to wake his assistant to manipulate the -fog-signal, even if the precaution proves to be unnecessary. -“It is better to be safe than sorry,” is the lighthouse-keeper’s -motto; so he runs no risks.</p> - -<p>When the gathering brightness of the dawn enables the -form of the tower to be identified from a distance of several -miles, the light is extinguished. Heavy curtains are drawn -across the windows, not only to protect the lenses from the -sun, but also to give a characteristic colour to the lantern.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305">305</a></span> -Thus, by daylight a lantern may appear to be a dull red or -an intense black. To give a brilliant light by night and be -a prominent landmark by day forms the dual duty of the -guardian of the coast.</p> - -<p>When the lantern has cooled, the keepers coming on the -day shift have to clean the lamps and put them in order -for service the following evening. Everything has to be -overhauled and got ready for use at a moment’s notice. -The oil reservoirs have to be examined and charged, and the -panes of glass, with which the lantern is glazed, cleaned and -brightened. The reflectors have to be polished, for they -must be kept in a constant state of mirror-like brilliancy. -All brasswork has to be cleaned and polished until it gleams -like burnished gold, while the rooms must be washed and -kept in the pink of condition, free from the smallest specks -of dust.</p> - -<p>The necessity for extreme cleanliness and spotlessness is -emphasized in every lighthouse. The inspector has a highly-trained, -quick eye for detecting carelessness, and he has one -instinct developed peculiarly—the discovery of dust. He -draws his fingers over everything, and squints quizzically at -an object from all angles. Woe betide the keeper if the -slightest trace of dirt is detected. Then the inspector -closes the other eye, and the keeper receives a squint which -does not augur well for his future. A few sharp, pointed -remarks are rasped out, and it is not long before the relief-boat -comes out with another man.</p> - -<p>The engineers and other representatives of authority are -remorseless. A man is judged from apparently trifling -details. If he permits a door-knob to become sullied, he is -just as likely to overlook the polishing of the lenses, or to -perform some other vital task in a perfunctory manner.</p> - -<p>One of the Stevensons achieved a peculiar notoriety among -the Scottish keepers for his unbending attitude in this connection. -He had a scent for dust and untidiness developed -as keenly as that of a mouse for cheese. When his boat -came alongside a light, and the keeper stepped forward to -extend a helping hand, the eyes of the engineer scanned him<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306">306</a></span> -searchingly. If the man’s appearance were not immaculate, -trouble loomed ahead. This engineer maintained that if a -man were indifferent to his own appearance, and permitted -dust to collect upon his own clothes, he could not be trusted -to maintain the delicate apparatus of a lighthouse in apple-pie -order! What was more to the point, the engineer generally -was correct in his deductions. He spared no effort to -place the most responsible lights in the hands of men above -suspicion in regard to cleanliness. Although, as this -martinet confessed, nothing pained him more than to have -words with any of his keepers, cleanliness had to be maintained.</p> - -<div id="ip_306" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/i_p306a.jpg" width="400" height="540" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the “Syren and Shipping.”</i> -</p> - -<p>THE PUMPS WHEREBY THE OIL IS LIFTED FROM THE LOWEST FLOOR -TO THE LANTERN-ROOM.</p></div></div> - -<p>When the keeper has completed his routine duties, he is -at liberty to spend his leisure according to his inclinations. -As a rule the men turn these periods to advantage. Reading -is a popular recreation, and the authorities maintain a circulating -library, the books being changed with every relief. -But the men could accept twice as much literature as is -available at present. Here a word should be said concerning -the Lighthouse Literature Mission and its work, which is -international. The idea was conceived by Mr. Samuel H. -Strain, and the work is conducted from Belfast, Ireland. -The most conspicuous feature of this organization is that -every penny received is turned to good and useful purpose -in connection with the object. The founder conducts it -without monetary reward, so that the item of “operating” -charges does not swamp the greater proportion of receipts, -as is the case with so many so-called missions in other fields. -There are few organizations which are so deserving of -financial support, because this mission brings welcome relaxation -to a hard-worked community whose vigil secures the -safety of those who travel on the sea. The labours of Mr. -Strain are highly appreciated by those who keep watch and -ward in seagirt prisons, and the mission deserves far -stauncher support from the philanthropic than it receives -at present. Sympathizers with the loneliness of the lighthouse-keeper -are prone to think that these men are in dire -need of spiritual pabulum, and are apt to send literature of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307">307</a></span> -an emphatic goody-goody nature. But the keeper of the -light is as human as the clerk in the city. He is so accustomed -to the company of Nature, and has cultivated such -a deep respect for the Master of the Universe during his -spells of duty, that he welcomes a diversion therefrom in his -hours of leisure. A humorous paper is more welcome than -a tract on the evils of drink.</p> - -<p>When the weather is favourable the men seek a little -relaxation in fishing, but here again they have to suffer -considerable denial, as the tackle invariably becomes inextricably -entangled with the rocks, so that the losses exceed -the prizes. In the United States the greater number of -the keepers maintain a garden well stocked with vegetables -and flowers. The tending of these charges carries the minds -of the men from their work completely, and for the opportunity -to practise this hobby they are indebted to the kindness -of the Government, which supplies seeds free of charge.</p> - -<p>It is when the gale is raging tumultuously that the men -in the tower are compelled to realize their position. The -waves pound the rock and building so ceaselessly and -relentlessly that the latter trembles and shakes like a leaf. -At times the din is so deafening that the men cannot converse; -they are compelled to communicate with each other -by signs. The waves pick up stones and hurl them with -terrific force against the lantern. Occasionally the elements -triumph in their assault, and the missiles shatter the glass. -To step out on the gallery in the teeth of a blizzard to clear -the snow away demands no little courage. As the man -emerges upon the narrow platform, he is engulfed in the -swirling flakes, and often is pinned against the masonry so -tightly by the wind that he cannot move a limb; at other -times he is swept almost off his feet. While engaged in his -freezing task, he also runs the risk of being drenched by a -rising comber.</p> - -<div id="ip_307" class="figcenter" style="width: 552px;"> - <img src="images/i_p306b.jpg" width="552" height="345" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the “Syren and Shipping.”</i> -</p> - -<p>COMBINED KITCHEN AND LIVING-ROOM IN THE LIGHTHOUSE.</p></div></div> - -<p>The men on the lonely, exposed Tillamook Rock, off the -Oregon coast, have had more than one occasion to respect -the storm-fiend. One night, while a fearful gale was raging, -a huge mass of rock was torn away from the islet, snatched<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308">308</a></span> -by the waves, and thrown high into the air. It fell with -terrific force upon the dome of the lantern, splintering the -roof and smashing the light, so that no welcome rays could -be thrown from the tower again that night. The keepers -at once set to work with the fog-signal, and during the hours -of darkness worked like slaves, blaring out a warning by -sound which they were unable to give visually.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, such an experience as befell the keepers -of the American Thimble Shoal light is very rare. This -beacon marks the shoal of that name, and is, or rather was, -a screw-pile iron lighthouse, marking 11 feet of water at the -entrance to Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, U.S.A. On December -27, 1909, the keepers were immersed in their tasks, when -there was a terrible crash followed by a dismal rending and -splitting. The building shivered from top to bottom. The -keepers were thrown off their feet, and when they regained -their wits they found that the schooner <i>Malcolm Baxter -Junior</i>, while being towed by a tug, had blundered into -them, and had carried a considerable portion of the building -away. The impact upset the light; the scattered oil burst -into flame, and within a few minutes the lighthouse was -blazing like a gigantic bonfire. The keepers stuck to their -posts, and endeavoured frantically to extinguish the outbreak, -but their efforts were too puny to make any impression. -At last, when a foothold was no longer possible with -safety, and under extreme pressure, they abandoned their -charge. When the flames had completed their destructive -work the lighthouse presented a sorry sight, being a mass of -broken and twisted ironwork. A wooden tower was erected -with all despatch, and a fog-signal was installed, so that -the men could carry on their duties while the reconstruction -of the station was hurried forward.</p> - -<p>The keepers turn their hands to strange occupations. -Fretwork, wood-carving, poker-work, and similar hobbies, -are practised freely. A few devote their leisure to intellectual -improvement to fit them for other walks in life. -The keeper of Windward Point, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, -devoted his energies to studying, and obtaining diplomas in,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309">309</a></span> -mechano-therapy and suggestive therapeutics, as well as -becoming proficient in Esperanto. The keepers of two -other American lights set themselves to the mastery of -jurisprudence, and in due course resigned their positions -and rented offices in the city, where in the course of a few -years they built up very remunerative legal practices. As -a rule the lighthouse-keeper is an expert handy-man, as he -is compelled to complete a whole list of duties in addition -to maintaining the lights. In the summer the metal and -wooden lights have to be given a coat of paint, while plumbing -and other displays of skill in metal have to be carried -out, even if only temporarily.</p> - -<p>The calling is exceedingly healthy, which accounts for the -immunity from illness which these men enjoy. Also, as a -rule, the land-lights are set amidst wild romantic surroundings. -Some years ago a number of American families, in -the search for a quiet, health-restoring rest, were in the habit -of spending their vacations at lighthouses, to the financial -profit of the keepers. Eventually, however, the authorities, -fearing that the keeper might be distracted from his duties, -issued a summary order forbidding this practice, much to -the disgust of the men, and “attractive lighthouse apartments” -became a thing of the past. In Great Britain an -order was issued that “no ale or other intoxicating liquor -be allowed to be sold in any lighthouse.” The precise -reason for this strange ordinance is not quite clear, but it -is significant to note that it came into force immediately -after the disastrous fire at the Leasowe lighthouse, on the -Wirral shore.</p> - -<p>The lighthouse invariably is an object of attraction among -the general public, but this interest seldom goes to the -length narrated by a keeper of one of the West Indian -lights. One night two of the men at this particular station -decided to hunt for red crabs on the beach below. They -started off with a hurricane lamp, but were astonished, when -they gained the foreshore, to see a large sloop hard and fast -on the reef, although the night was beautifully clear and the -light was burning brilliantly. With much effort the keepers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310">310</a></span> -got out their dory, put off to the wreck, and endeavoured -to get the sloop out of her uncomfortable position, but, -finding her too well fixed, took off the passengers. The -survivors were housed in the keepers’ quarters until next -morning, when they were succoured. The head-keeper -asked the captain how he managed to get into such a position, -and to his surprise learned that, as the passengers were -anxious to obtain a clear close view of the light, the master -had stood inshore, not knowing that the reef over which -vigil was mounted ran out far into the water. That navigator -paid dearly for his attempt to satisfy curiosity. His -sloop broke up, since she was impaled too firmly to be -salvaged.</p> - -<p>It is not often that the utter loneliness and monotony of -the daily round unhinges a keeper’s mind, but this awful -fate overtook the warden of a somewhat isolated American -light. The man had served with Admiral Dewey off Manila, -and upon his return home the Government placed him in -charge of a station as an occupation for the evening of his -life, and as a recompense for faithful service. He settled -down with his wife and family, but the isolation soon began -to affect his brain. For days he would absent himself from -the light, which would soon have failed had it not been for -the unswerving devotion of his wife and the assistance of -one of two friends living in the locality. They spared no -effort to keep the beacon burning, lest the authorities might -hear about the keeper’s strange behaviour, and deprive -him of his charge, and, incidentally, of his livelihood. In -due course the incident did reach the authorities, and, not -knowing what was the matter with the man, they took -action accordingly. As the keeper entered the station after -one of his inexplicable expeditions of a fortnight’s duration, -he was arrested for desertion. He was examined promptly -by two doctors, who found him hopelessly insane, and was -incarcerated in an asylum, where in the course of a few days -he became a raving lunatic.</p> - -<p>Often the keepers, although only condemned to imprisonment -for a certain period at a time, have to tolerate a longer<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311">311</a></span> -stay, owing to the relief-boat being unable to approach them. -In some instances the delay may run into five weeks or -more. During the winter the relief of the Eddystone, Longships, -Wolf, Fastnet, Skerryvore, and Dhu-Heartach lights -is always a matter of extreme uncertainty. Although the -men have to provide themselves with supplies, a reserve is -maintained at the station by the authorities for such emergencies. -Even some of the land stations are not approachable -readily. There is the Punta Gorda light-station on -the Californian coast, the situation of which is wild and forbidding. -There is a landing about eight miles above the -station, but it is extremely precarious. Still, unless a certain -element of risk is accepted in coming ashore here, it is -necessary to face a tramp or stage journey of nearly fifty -miles across country in order to gain the lighthouse.</p> - -<p>The lighthouses in the Red Sea are, perhaps, among the -most unenviable and trying in the world. This stretch of -water, lying between two blistered coasts of sand, is no more -or less than an oven, where even the strongest constitution -finds it difficult to hold out for long. Moreover, the absence -of civilization, owing to the extreme aridity of the country, -renders the life exceptionally depressing. In the summer -the heat is wellnigh intolerable. The thermometer hovers -between 95° and 110° F. in the shade throughout the twenty-four -hours, so that night brings no relief to the oppressiveness.</p> - -<p>At some of the stations the men seek a little diversion, -and incidentally add occasionally to their pocket-money, -by shark-catching, which is a tolerably profitable pursuit, -since these waters are thickly infested with this fish. The -jawbone and backbone invariably find ready purchasers, -the former being mounted as a curiosity, while the backbone -forms a novel and serviceable walking-stick.</p> - -<p>One method of trapping these monsters which affords -keen delight was related to me. The requirements are an -electric battery, some rope, a few feet of electric wire, a -cartridge, and an empty box, with a chunk or two of bad -meat. The cartridge is fitted with an electric primer, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312">312</a></span> -wire of which stretches to the battery. This cartridge is -buried in a hunk of meat, the whole being dangled from a -box—an empty cask is better—which serves as a float, -while a rope is stretched from the box to the shore, with the -electric wire spirally wound round it. A short length of -chain is preferable, if available, to attach the bait to the -float, but a short piece of rope will do. This novel line is -thrown into the water, and the man keeps his eye on the -float, with one finger on the battery. The hungry shark, -espying the tempting morsel, makes a grab and swallows -it, but the chain prevents him tearing away with it. The -pull causes the float to disappear, the man’s finger presses -the button, and the trick is done. There is an explosion, -and pieces of shark and showers of water fly into the air. -The incident is all over too quickly for the fish to marvel -about the strange indigestibility of the tainted meat he -grabbed so greedily. The men enjoy this sport hugely when -it can be followed, as they regard the shark with intense -detestation.</p> - -<div id="ip_312" class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"> - <img src="images/i_p312a.jpg" width="393" height="567" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of the “Syren and Shipping.”</i> -</p> - -<p>KEEPER CLEANING THE LAMP AFTER IT HAS COOLED DOWN.</p></div></div> - -<p>Despite the vigilance of the various Powers, slave-running -is still a lucrative business on these forbidding coasts. Now -and again a forced labourer gets away from his taskmaster, -and comes panting into the lighthouse territory. This is -sanctuary to the hapless wretch, and although the keepers -invariably receive a call from the runaway’s master, he -meets with scant courtesy, while his demand for the surrender -of the fugitive is answered by a point-blank refusal. -The slave-driver may storm, threaten, and abuse, to his -heart’s content, and, as he is generally a past-master in -Arabian invective, the keepers have to listen to a pretty -tune. But the slave is kept in the lighthouse until the -relief-tender makes its periodical call, when he is taken back -to Suez and liberated.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, owing to the extreme care that is manifested -by the authorities, mishaps at a lighthouse are few and far -between. The men are supplied with rules and regulations -which are drawn up with an eye for every possible emergency. -Yet accidents will happen, due in the majority of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313">313</a></span> -instances to familiarity bred of contempt. The majority -of these calamities occur in connection with the explosive -fog-signalling apparatus, although every device is adopted -to safeguard the men. At one of the Scottish stations a -keeper was manipulating the fog-signal, but, flying in the -face of instructions, he caused the charge to explode prematurely. -The man escaped injury, but the detonation -shattered several panes of glass in the lantern.</p> - -<p>One of the keepers of the Rathlin light, on Altacarry -Head, was not so fortunate. The White Star Canadian -liner <i>Megantic</i> was rounding the corner of Ireland to enter -the last lap of the homeward journey one Saturday evening, -when the captain’s attention was arrested by a signal of -distress flying from the lighthouse. The interpretation of -the signal revealed the fact that a doctor was wanted, so, -easing up the ship, he lowered a boat, and the doctor was -sent away to the island. Upon landing he found one of the -men in dire straits. He had been cleaning the fog-gun, -when a charge, which had been left in the weapon inadvertently -upon the last occasion it was used, exploded. -The man’s arm had been wrenched off, and he was burned -terribly. It was a stroke of luck that the liner hove in -sight at the moment she did. There was no chance of extending -succour to the injured man on the spot, and he would -have died before a doctor could have been summoned by -boat from Ballycastle, nine miles away. The surgeon -bound up the man’s injuries, lowered him into his boat, and, -on regaining the liner, placed him in the hospital, where he -was tended until the vessel’s arrival in Liverpool, where he -was landed and placed in hospital.</p> - -<div id="ip_313" class="figcenter" style="width: 541px;"> - <img src="images/i_p312b.jpg" width="541" height="344" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="captionr"> -<i>By permission of “Syren and Shipping.”</i> -</p> - -<p>A LIGHTHOUSE BEDROOM.</p> - -<p class="captionc">Owing to the limited space the furniture is reduced to the minimum, the bunks being built against the wall.</p></div></div> - -<p>More remarkable was the accident which happened at -the Flannen Islands light-station in 1900; it remains an -unsolved mystery to this day. This is one of Scotland’s -lonely lights, mounting guard over a group of islets fifteen -miles off the Hebrides. On December 26 the relief-tender -approached the station on her usual fortnightly visit, but, to -the amazement of those on board, no signs of the keepers or -the usual signals were to be seen, while the lantern was not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314">314</a></span> -dressed in its daylight garb. The crew landed hurriedly, -wondering what was amiss. They found the lighthouse -absolutely deserted; not a sign of any of the three keepers -was to be seen or heard. They examined the log, and found -that the light had not been burning for some days, the last -entry being made about 4 a.m. nearly a week previously. -The rock was searched, but yielded no clue to the mystery -of the complete disappearance of the men. The light had not -been abandoned; it had simply burned itself out. It was a -fortunate circumstance that very little shipping frequents -these seas during the winter, or there would have been one -or two marine disasters, as the islands are often wrapped -in fog.</p> - -<p>It is surmised that one of the men ventured outside on to -a rocky ledge in the early hours of the morning. According -to the log, a vicious storm was raging at the time, and probably -in the darkness the man was swept off his feet and -carried into the sea. The second keeper on duty, marvelling -at the non-return of his assistant, evidently had roused -his other companion, and the two had instituted a search in -the storm, only in turn to be caught by a wave and carried -away.</p> - -<p>In Great Britain, since 1860, men only have been employed -by the Trinity House Brethren for the maintenance -of the lights, but in the United States women still are engaged -in this duty. Some of the British lights have been -controlled by one family through two or three generations. -It was only a few years ago that a Darling retired from the -vigil on the Longstones of Farne Islands, the scene of Grace -Darling’s heroism, while for a century and a half one family -kept the South Foreland light faithfully. The Casquets -light off Alderney, in the Channel Islands, was maintained -by one family, some of the children spending the whole of -their lives on the rock, son succeeding father at the post of -duty.</p> - -<p>On the American coast, however, women are more extensively -employed. Seeing that many of the lights are burned -in a low tower projecting from the dwelling-house, this circumstance<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315">315</a></span> -may be readily understood, as the duties beyond -the maintenance of the light are not exacting. One of the -most notable instances, however, is the Point Pino light at -the entrance to Monterey Bay, on the Californian coast, the -guardianship of which has been in feminine hands for the -past thirty years. For something approaching half a century -a woman maintained the Michigan City harbour light -on the Great Lake of that name. Indeed, the associations -were so deep-rooted and long that the beacon became -popularly known as “Miss Colfax’s light,” after the name -of its keeper. Even when she attained the age of eighty -years she was as active and attentive to her charge as on -the day, in 1861, when she first assumed responsibility for -its safe-keeping.</p> - -<p>In those times there was a beacon established on the end -of the wooden pier, which railed off an area of the restless -lake for the purposes of the inland port. Those were strenuous -days. Her home was on shore, and every night and -morning she tramped the long arm of woodwork to light and -extinguish the lamp. Lard-oil was used, and during the -winter the food for the lamp had to be heated to bring it -into a fluid condition before she set out from home. It was -no easy matter struggling along on a blusterous, gusty -evening, with a pail of hot oil in one hand and a lamp in the -other, over a narrow plank. Often, when a gale was raging, -progress was so slow that by the time the beacon was -reached the oil had cooled and congealed, rendering it a -difficult matter to induce the lamp to burn. Once set going, -however, it was safe for the night, as the heat radiated from -the burner kept the lard melted. In addition to this lamp, -there was another light in the tower projecting from the -roof of her house, which had to be maintained, and this, -being the main light, was the more important of the two.</p> - -<p>In 1886 the pier tower was taken out of her hands for -ever. A furious gale, such as is peculiar to these inland seas, -and which cannot be rivalled on the ocean for fury, was -raging. At dusk she started on her usual journey. Time -after time she was wellnigh swept off her feet, so that she<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316">316</a></span> -staggered rather than walked, for the spray and sand flecking -her face nearly blinded her. When she gained the tower -she paused, and observed that it was trembling violently. -Undismayed, she ascended, lit the light, and tramped back -to the shore. Scarcely had she gained the mainland, when, -glancing seawards, she saw the light sway from side to side -for a second or two, and then make a dive into the water. A -few moments later a crash reverberated above the noise of -the storm: the decrepit pier had succumbed at last. Hers -was a lucky escape, but she hurried home, and sat by the -main light gleaming from her roof all that night, apprehensive -that some vessel might endeavour to make the harbour and -come to grief. When the pier was rebuilt, a new beacon was -placed on its extremity, but its upkeep was taken over by -the harbour authorities, leaving only the shore light in the -trusty woman’s keeping, the wicks of which for over forty -years were trimmed and lit at dusk, and extinguished with -the dawn, with her own hands.</p> - -<p>During the migratory season of the birds extraordinary -sights are witnessed around the light at night. The brilliant -glare attracts enormous flocks, which flit to and fro. As -the monster flaming spoke swings round, the birds, evidently -blinded by the glare, dash with such fury against the glass -panes of the lantern as to flutter to the floor of the gallery -with broken necks and wings, while large numbers, dazed or -killed, fall into the water. The birds are of all species, and -at times may be picked up by the basketful. Then the -light-keepers are able to secure a welcome change in their -dietary. Moths, too, often hover in clouds round the light, -and are of such variety that an hour on the gallery would -bring infinite delight and rich harvests to the youthful entomologist -who has to be content to hunt around electric lamps -in quiet streets at night.</p> - -<p>While the lamp is burning, time cannot drag, owing to the -multitude of details which compel the keeper’s constant -attention. The official log has to be kept posted with a host -of facts, such as temperature, barometric readings, weather -conditions as they vary from hour to hour, behaviour of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317">317</a></span> -lamps, etc.; while, when the lighthouse is a marine signal-station -as well, passing ships have to be signalled and -reported. The spell of labour varies from four to five hours -or more. Obviously, the task is more exacting and arduous -in the winter than in summer. During the former season the -lamps have to be lighted as early as 3.15 p.m., and are not -extinguished until eight o’clock the next morning. In the -summer, on the other hand, the lamps may be required for -less than six hours or so. In northern latitudes where the -daylight is continuous owing to the midnight sun, the light -scarcely seems necessary. Yet it is kept burning during the -scheduled hours of darkness.</p> - -<p>Thus, night in and night out the whole year round, a -comparatively small band of faithful toilers keeps alert vigil -over the dangers of the deep, for the benefit of those who -“go down to the sea in ships, and do their business in great -waters.” The safety of thousands of human lives and of -millions sterling of merchandise is vested in their keeping. -The resources of the shipbuilder, the staunchness of the -ship, the skill and knowledge of the captain—all would count -for nothing were it not for the persistent, steady glare of the -fixed, the twinkling of the occulting, or the rhythmic, -monotonous turning spokes of the revolving light, thrown -over the waste of waters from the lighthouse and the -lightship.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318">318</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="index"> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> - -<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">Aberbrothock, Abbot of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Acetylene: as illuminant, Daléngas, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">systems for floating lighthouses, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285–95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cost of lighting by, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dissolved, French system of using, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use in Sweden, <a href="#Page_291">291–94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Acetylene gun, the, <a href="#Page_68">68–71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Admiralty, the: adoption of the siren, <a href="#Page_60">60–61</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of the Wigham light, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Adriatic shoreline, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Aga” principle of lighting, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adopted by the United States, <a href="#Page_294">294–95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ailly, Pointe d’, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ailsa Crag, system of fog-signalling, <a href="#Page_63">63–65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alaska: trade of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">controlled by the Lighthouse Board, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unattended lighthouses, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coastline <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alderney coastline, <a href="#Page_12">12–13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alexander, Lieutenant B. S., the Minot’s ledge-light, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alexandria, Pharos of, <a href="#Page_2">2–3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Allerton Point lighthouse, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Altacarry Head, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambrose Channel, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">American Thimble Shoal lighthouse, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amour Point light, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anderson, Lieutenant-Colonel William P., <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Anglo-Saxon</i>, Allan liner, wreck, <a href="#Page_163">163–64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anticosti, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antifer, Cap d’, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antipodes, the, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arbroath, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arena Point, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Argand burner, the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Argyll, Duke of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lays foundation-stone of Skerryvore, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ar-men light, Finisterre, <a href="#Page_20">20–24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arthur, Port, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Assyrian</i>, the, wreck, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Astoria, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Auckland coastline, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> -<li class="isub1">harbour, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Islands, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Auer, Dr. von, the incandescent mantle, <a href="#Page_47">47–48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Australia: lighthouses of, <a href="#Page_229">229–39</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unattended lighthouses, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Austria, lighthouses, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bache, General Hartmann, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Brandywine Shoal light, <a href="#Page_200">200–201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Back lights,” <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ballantyne, A., the Tillamook Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_185">185–95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ballycastle, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baltic Sea, unattended lighthouses of the, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bar lightship, Mersey, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barnard, General, the Minot’s Ledge light, <a href="#Page_178">178–82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barra Head, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barra Island, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barsier rock, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bauld Cape light, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Bay of the Dead,” Finisterre, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beachy Head lighthouse, <a href="#Page_24">24–27</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Belfast, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Bell_Rock_lighthouse"></a>Bell Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lighting, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fog-signals, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the reef, <a href="#Page_96">96–97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bell-buoys, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Belle Ile, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the beacons, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Northern light, <a href="#Page_170">170–71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Southern light, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the auxiliary light, <a href="#Page_169">169–70</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">isolation of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Belle Ile, Straits of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bells: on lighthouses, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">submarine, <a href="#Page_249">249–50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Biscay, Bay of, gales, <a href="#Page_3">3–4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bishop Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81–87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Black Prince, the, in Gascony, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Black Sea, lighthouses on the, <a href="#Page_18">18–19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blau liquid gas, <a href="#Page_48">48–49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Blowing-holes,” <a href="#Page_62">62–63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bluff, the, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bois Blanc Island, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bordeaux, trade of, <a href="#Page_3">3–4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boston Harbour: lighting, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33–4</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319">319</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">Minot’s Ledge light, <a href="#Page_176">176–82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bothnia, Gulf of, unattended lighthouses, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bounty Islands, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bourdelles, M., investigations, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brandywine Shoal light, <a href="#Page_200">200–201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brebner, Alexander, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Breeches-buoy,” used at Tillamook Rock, <a href="#Page_187">187–89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bréhat, Heaux de, Reynaud’s tower, <a href="#Page_149">149–53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bréhat, Isle of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bremerhaven, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brett, Cape, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brewster, Sir David, lighting methods, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bridges and Roads, Department of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bristol Channel: the Flat Holme light, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unattended lighthouses, <a href="#Page_278">278–79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">British Columbia coastline, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brittany coastline, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brothers light, the, <a href="#Page_234">234–35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bull Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bullivant cableways, <a href="#Page_25">25–26</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bungaree Norah. <i>See</i> <a href="#Norah_Head_lighthouse">Norah Head</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Buoys: bell and whistle, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gas-buoys, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Willson, <a href="#Page_286">286–89</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">combined light and whistling, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Büsun, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Byron Bay, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Byron Cape, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cabrillo Point light, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Calf Rock light, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">California coastline, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Campbell, General, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Campbell Island, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Canadian Marine Department, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">systems of building, <a href="#Page_18">18–19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fog-signalling apparatus, <a href="#Page_66">66–68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lighting of the coastline, <a href="#Page_161">161–75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lighting of the Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_208">208–17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">floating lighthouses, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caribou Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_216">216–17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carmel Head, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carolina, North, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carrington, W. H. T., <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Casquets lighthouse: the approach to, <a href="#Page_12">12–13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keepers of the, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Castle Point lighthouse, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Casuarina Island, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Catoptric system of lighting, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Centre Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chance Bros. and Co.: systems of lighting, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the hyperradiant method, <a href="#Page_38">38–39</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lenses, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">clockwork mechanism, <a href="#Page_43">43–44</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the incandescent mantle, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">works carried out by, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Channel Islands coastline, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Charles, Cape, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chatham Island, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Chauffer</i>, the, <a href="#Page_4">4–6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chesapeake Bay lights, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chicken Rock light, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">China, coast-lighting, <a href="#Page_258">258–59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clear, Cape, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coffin Island, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cohasset Rocks, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Colchester Reef lighthouse, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Colfax: “Miss Colfax’s light,” <a href="#Page_315">315–16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Collinson, Sir Richard, rocket system invented by, <a href="#Page_58">58–59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Colossus,” the Rothersand caisson, <a href="#Page_138">138–9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Colton family, the, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Columbia River, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Colza oil as illuminant, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Concrete, reinforced, use of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cook’s Strait, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cordouan, rocks of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cordouan, Tour de, <a href="#Page_4">4–5</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cornish plunderers of the Wolf Rock, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corunna lighthouse, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Couedie, Cap de, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Courtenay, whistling device, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Creach, electric light at, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Daboll, C. L., invention of the trumpet fog-signal, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dalén, Gustaf: the sun-valve, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">system of lighting, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unattended lights, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">honour for, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> note;</li> -<li class="isub1">experiments, <a href="#Page_292">292–93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Danger Point, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Darling, Grace, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Daudet, Alphonse, “Phares de Sanguinaires,” <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Delaware Bay, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Denmark, coastline, lighting, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Detroit River, Lower, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Deviline” toy whistle, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dewey, Admiral, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dhu-Heartach lighthouse, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113–20</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diamond Shoal, dangers of, <a href="#Page_205">205–6</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the lightship, <a href="#Page_251">251–53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Diaphone,” the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dieppe, <a href="#Page_303">303–304</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Differential arc, use of, <a href="#Page_227">227–28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dioptric system of lighting, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Disappointment Cape lighthouse, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Distances, table of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Divergence,” <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dog Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doty burner, the, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Double-shell” principle of construction, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Douglass, Sir James: design for the new Eddystone, <a href="#Page_78">78–80</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320">320</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">preservation of the Bishop Rock, <a href="#Page_86">86–87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">system of lighting, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Douglass, William, and the Fastnet, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dover Harbour lightship, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dover, the pharos at, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doyle Fort, <a href="#Page_271">271–74</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Drummond Castle</i>, wreck, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dues, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Duluth, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Duncansby Head, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dunedin, N.Z., <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dungeness light, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dunkirk, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Earraid, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">East Cape, N.Z., <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">East Indies Archipelago, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eddystone lighthouse: lighting of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fog-signals, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Winstanley construction, <a href="#Page_73">73–4</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">John Rudyerd’s lighthouse, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Smeaton’s work, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Douglass tower, <a href="#Page_78">78–80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keepers of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Eddystones,” <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Edinburgh, Duke of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Egmont, Cape, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electricity: as luminant, <a href="#Page_50">50–51</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295–96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">used in operation of derrick, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Eider</i> lightship, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Erie, Lake, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Estevan Point light, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fair Isle lighthouse, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Family of Engineers (A),” <a href="#Page_8">8–9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Faraday, Professor, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Farallon Beacon, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Farallon Isles, fog-signalling on, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Farne Islands, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Faro, the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fastnet lighthouse, <a href="#Page_121">121–31</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lighting, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keepers, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ferro-concrete, use in construction, <a href="#Page_18">18–19</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Feu-éclair</i>, the, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Finisterre, Cape, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Ar-men light, <a href="#Page_20">20–24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fire Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fire Island lightship, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fisher’s Island Sound, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flamborough Head light, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Flannen_Islands_lighthouse"></a>Flannen Islands lighthouse, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">disappearance of keepers, <a href="#Page_313">313–14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flat Holme light, the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Florida coastline, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Focal point,” <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fog-signals: discharge of guns, <a href="#Page_57">57–58</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rockets, <a href="#Page_58">58–59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explosion of gun-cotton, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Daboll trumpet, <a href="#Page_59">59–60</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the siren, <a href="#Page_60">60–62</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">blowing-holes, <a href="#Page_62">62–63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">installation on Ailsa Crag, <a href="#Page_63">63–66</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">diaphone on Ailsa Crag, <a href="#Page_66">66–68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the acetylene gun, <a href="#Page_68">68–71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">diaphone at Cape Race, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Belle Ile diaphone, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foix, Louis de, <a href="#Page_4">4–5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Forfarshire</i>, the, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Forteau Bay, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Forth, Firth of, lighthouses in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218–19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fourteen Foot Bank, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143–47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foveaux Strait, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fowey Rocks lights, <a href="#Page_201">201–3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">French coast: lighting of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lightships, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">French Lighthouse Commission (1811), <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fresnel, Augustin: system of lighting, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adopted by the United States, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gap Rock lighthouse and signal-station, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gas Accumulator Company, of Stockholm, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gas as illuminant, the incandescent mantle, <a href="#Page_47">47–48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gasfeten tower, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gedney’s Channel, lighting of, <a href="#Page_295">295–96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">General Superintendent of Lights, office of, <a href="#Page_197">197–98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Georgian Bay, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gerholmen light-boat, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Germany: coastline of, lighting, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50–51</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the lightship service, <a href="#Page_249">249–50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gironde lighthouse, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gironde, the, rocks of the estuary, <a href="#Page_3">3–4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goodwin Sands, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244–45</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grand Banks, the, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grande Braye Rock, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grand Trunk Pacific, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Granite, use of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Great Lakes of North America: lighting of the, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208–17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Lighthouse Board, control of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">floating lighthouses, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Green Cape lighthouse, <a href="#Page_232">232–33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Grouting,” <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guantanamo Bay, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guernsey coast lighthouse, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unattended lights, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gun-cotton, explosion of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Halifax Harbour: lights, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the “Outer Automatic,” <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Halpin, George, the Fastnet lighthouse, <a href="#Page_121">121–23</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321">321</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Hand Deeps, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hanois lighthouse, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hargreaves, Riley and Co., <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harkort, Society of, Duisburg, <a href="#Page_133">133–34</a>:</li> -<li class="isub1">the Rothersand contract, <a href="#Page_136">136–43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hatteras, Cape: coastline, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251–53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sandbanks, <a href="#Page_205">205–6</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hauraki Gulf, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hawaiian Islands, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hebrides, lighthouses of the, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Heligoland lighthouse, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of the rocket system, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the electric installation, <a href="#Page_224">224–26</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hellespont, Sigeum lighthouse, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Henlopen Cape, light, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hennebique system, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Henry, Cape, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199–200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Héve, Cape, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hinemoa</i>, New Zealand Government steamer, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hoheweg lighthouse, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hole-in-the-Wall, Vancouver, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Holland coastline, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Holmes, Professor, fog-horns, <a href="#Page_60">60–62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Holophotal revolving apparatus, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hong-Kong, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Hoo-doo,” <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horaine, plateau of, <a href="#Page_153">153–56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horn, Cape, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hornum light, the electric installation, <a href="#Page_226">226–28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Howe, Cape, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Huddart Parker</i>, liner, wreck, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hudson Bay coastline, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hugo, Victor, “The Toilers of the Sea,” <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hunting Island tower, South Carolina, <a href="#Page_19">19–20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Huron, Lake, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hynish harbour, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Hyperradiant,” the, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the quicksilver trough, <a href="#Page_42">42–43</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Ice-breakers,” <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Ice-stoves,” <a href="#Page_200">200–201</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inchcape. <i>See</i> <a href="#Bell_Rock_lighthouse">Bell Rock</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ingrey, Charles, scheme for Ailsa Crag, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Invercargill, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iona, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ireland, Congested Districts Board beacons, <a href="#Page_282">282–83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Irish lights, Commissioners of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Fastnet, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron, use in construction, <a href="#Page_19">19–20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Islay, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jamaica coastline, lighting, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Japan, coastline, lighthouses, <a href="#Page_9">9–10</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257–58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Java, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jersey coastline, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jument of Ushant, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Karachi, unattended light, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kavanagh, James, the Fastnet, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Kingdom of Heaven,” <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Labrador coastline, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lagerholmen lighthouse, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lampaul, Bay of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Land’s End coastline, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lard-oil as fuel, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leasowe lighthouse, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fire at, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lenses, preparation, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lewes, Delaware, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lewis, Isle of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lewis, Winslow, invention of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Light-boats,” <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lighthouse Board, U.S.A., <a href="#Page_178">178–79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lighthouse dues, origin, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">levy of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lighthouse Literature Mission, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lighthouses, construction of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wooden towers, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">electric, of the world, <a href="#Page_218">218–28</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unattended, <a href="#Page_267">267–83</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">floating, <a href="#Page_284">284–300</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lighting: candles, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Fresnel system, <a href="#Page_28">28–33</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">holophotal revolving apparatus, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hyperradiants, <a href="#Page_33">33–41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sperm-oil, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">colza-oil, <a href="#Page_46">46–47</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lard-oil, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">petroleum, <a href="#Page_47">47–48</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296–98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">paraffin, <a href="#Page_47">47–48</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">oil-gas, <a href="#Page_48">48–49</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">various gases, <a href="#Page_49">49–50</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">electric lighting, <a href="#Page_50">50–51</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295–96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">acetylene system, <a href="#Page_69">69–71</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Light-keepers, life of the, <a href="#Page_301">301–17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lights: wood or coal in open braziers, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tallow candles, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">indentification of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">classification of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44–45</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">“divergence,” <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">focal point, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">white and coloured, <a href="#Page_45">45–46</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">candle-power, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">subsidiary, <a href="#Page_53">53–55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">duration of flash in revolving, <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lightships: the Stevenson unattended, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">maintenance of, <a href="#Page_240">240–41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description, <a href="#Page_241">241–42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Minquiers light, <a href="#Page_243">243–44</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">average crew for, <a href="#Page_244">244–45</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">incidents, <a href="#Page_244">244–55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">illuminating apparatus, <a href="#Page_255">255–57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Light valve,” the Dalén, <a href="#Page_275">275–78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lipson’s Reef, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Little Brewster Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_196">196–197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lizard Head, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lizard lighthouse, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322">322</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Lloyd’s, signalling-station at the Fastnet, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Longfellow, lines to Minot’s Ledge light, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Longships light, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Longstones lighthouse, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Louis XIV. and the Eddystone, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lundy Island, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lupata</i>, sailing-ship, wreck, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lusitania</i>, French emigrant steamer, wreck, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ly-ce-moon</i>, steamer, wreck, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mackinac, Strait of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Macquarie_tower"></a>Macquarie, tower, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magellan, Straits of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unattended lighthouses, <a href="#Page_274">274–75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Malacca Straits lighthouse, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">One Fathom Bank, <a href="#Page_259">259–64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Malay Peninsula, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Malcolm Baxter Junior</i>, schooner, collision with the lighthouse, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Man, Isle of, Chicken Rock light, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Manacles, wrecks on the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Manilla, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Manora breakwater, the Wigham light, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Manora Point light, Karachi, <a href="#Page_39">39–41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maria Van Diemen, Cape, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marine and Fisheries, Department of, Canada, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marine Department, New Zealand, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Matthews, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">light designed by, <a href="#Page_278">278–79</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - -<li class="indx">May, Isle of, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218–23</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Megantic</i>, White Star liner, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Meldrum, Sir John, the North Foreland lighthouse, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mendocino, Cape, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_204">204–5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ménier, Henri, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mercury float, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Meriten (De), dynamos, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mersey lightship, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mew Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mexico, Gulf of, coastline, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Michigan City Harbour light, <a href="#Page_315">315–16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Michigan Lake, lighting of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Minches, the, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Minnehaha</i>, wreck of the, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Minot’s Ledge light, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Captain Swift’s tower, <a href="#Page_176">176–78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">General Barnard’s structure, <a href="#Page_178">178–82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Minquiers lightship, <a href="#Page_243">243–44</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mohegan</i> wreck, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moko Hinou, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monach Island light, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Monolithic” method of construction, <a href="#Page_16">16–19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Montagu Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_30">30–31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monterey Bay, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Morocco, Cape Spartel light, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moye system of lighting, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Muckle Flugga, <a href="#Page_109">109–112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mull, Isle of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mull of Kintyre, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Murray, Hon. A., <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nantucket Shoals lightship, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Navesink lighthouse, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Needles light, the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">New Jersey coastline, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">New London, Connecticut, Race Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_203">203–4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">New South Wales, lighthouses of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232–33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">New York Harbour: lighting, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lightships, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">New Zealand: system of lighting, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lighthouses of, <a href="#Page_229">229–30</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233–35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the lighthouse-keepers, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unattended lighthouses, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Newfoundland coastline, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Newhaven, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“No. 87” lightship, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Norah_Head_lighthouse"></a>Norah Head lighthouse, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Norderney lightship, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nore lightship, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Norge</i> liner, wreck, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Norman Cape light, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">North Cape, New Zealand, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">North Foreland light, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">North German Lloyd Atlantic liners, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx">North Island, New Zealand, coastline, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">North Ronaldshay lighthouse, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">North Unst lighthouse, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110–12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Northern lighthouses, Commissioners of, <a href="#Page_8">8–10</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100–02</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">North-West lightship (Mersey), <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nova Scotia: Sable Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">floating lighthouses, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nuremberg, tests carried out at, <a href="#Page_225">225–26</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Oil-gas, compressed, use of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">One Fathom Bank lighthouse, <a href="#Page_259">259–64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“One-tenth flash,” <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ontario Lake, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oregon coastline, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orkneys coastline, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Otter Rock lightship, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297–99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ouessant, Ile d’. <i>See</i> <a href="#Ushant">Ushant</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Outer Automatic,” Halifax Harbour, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Outer Diamond Shoal lightship, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323">323</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Outer Minot light, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Panama Canal, unattended lighthouses, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Panels,” system of dividing the light by, <a href="#Page_31">31–32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paraffin, use of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paris Exhibition of 1867, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Paris</i>, wreck of the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parry sound, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Patents granted for upkeep of beacons, <a href="#Page_5">5–6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pei Yu-Shan lighthouse, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pencarrow Head lighthouse, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pentland Firth, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pentland Skerries light, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Petroleum gas, use of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296–98</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Phare</i>, the term, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Phares, Service des</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pharos</i>, constructional vessel, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pharos, the, Dover, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Alexandria, <a href="#Page_2">2–3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Philippines coastline, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phœnicians, beacons erected by the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pilgrim Fathers, the, and lighthouses, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pilotage, Board of, Sweden, experiments with acetylene, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293–94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pino Point lighthouse, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pladda, Island of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Planier lighthouse, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Platte Fougère, land-controlled station of, <a href="#Page_269">269–74</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pleasanton, Stephen, <a href="#Page_197">197–98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plenty, Bay of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plymouth Harbour, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plymouth Hoe, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poe, General O. M., Spectacle Reef lighthouse, <a href="#Page_211">211–14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Portland Canal, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Portland, Duke of, lighthouse on the Isle of Man, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Portland stone, used for building Eddystone, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Port of Dublin Corporation, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Potomac, ice-shores of the, <a href="#Page_200">200–201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Potron, Charles Eugène, generosity of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159–60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prince Rupert, port of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pulsometer Engineering Company, Reading, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Punta Gorda light-station, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Puysegur Point, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Queenstown harbour floating light, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Race, Cape, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the lens, <a href="#Page_40">40–41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">clockwork mechanism, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fog-signalling apparatus, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dangers of, <a href="#Page_162">162–64</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the first beacon, <a href="#Page_164">164–65</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the new beacon, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Race Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_203">203–4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ralph the Rover, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rame Head, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rathlin light, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rattray Briggs lighthouse, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ray, Cape, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Red Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Red Sea lighthouses, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rennie, John, the Bell Rock light, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reyes Point, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reynaud, Léonce, tower on the Heaux de Bréhat, <a href="#Page_149">149–53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rhins of Islay, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ribière, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rock Island, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rock of Ages lighthouse, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214–15</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rockall, the, <a href="#Page_299">299–300</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rockets, use of, <a href="#Page_58">58–59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rose of Mull, the, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rothersand lighthouse, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the first attempt, <a href="#Page_132">132–36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">work of the Society Harkort, <a href="#Page_136">136–43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Round Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Royale, Isle, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rudyerd, John, the Eddystone lighthouse, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92–93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Russell Channel, the, <a href="#Page_269">269–70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Russian lighthouse authorities, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rutingen lightship, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sable Island, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description, <a href="#Page_165">165–66</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lighthouses and chief station, <a href="#Page_166">166–67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the west end light, <a href="#Page_167">167–68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the east end light, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Agnes light, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Catherine’s Downs, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Catherine’s lighthouse, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the electric installation, <a href="#Page_223">223–24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Clair, Lake, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. David’s Head, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. John’s, Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Kilda, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Lawrence, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dangers, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Lawrence River:</li> -<li class="isub1">fog-signalling apparatus, <a href="#Page_66">66–68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">entrance, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the ice, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lighting of the, <a href="#Page_172">172–73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Malo Harbour, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Mary’s, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Peter Port lighthouse, <a href="#Page_269">269–70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sambro Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Samoan Islands, American, controlled by the Lighthouse Board, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="indx">San Francisco: bay, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coastline, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sand, lighthouses built on, <a href="#Page_132">132–47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sandbanks, signposts of the, <a href="#Page_240">240–56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sandy Hook lighthouse, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324">324</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Sarnia, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Salara</i>, the, wreck, <a href="#Page_232">232–33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sault Ste. Marie, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scammon’s Harbour, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Schiller</i>, German packet, wreck of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Schukert, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scilly Island, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scotland: lighting, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sea-rock lights of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the coastline, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Scotsman</i>, Dominion liner, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scott, C. W., and the Fastnet, <a href="#Page_123">123–24</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scott, Sir Walter, <em>quoted</em>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Screw-pile lighthouses,” <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200–203</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261–62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sea-rock lighthouses, construction, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Serrin-Berjot lamps, <a href="#Page_221">221–23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Seven Hunters. <i>See</i> <a href="#Flannen_Islands_lighthouse">Flannen Islands</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Seven Stones lightship, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248–49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Seven Wonders of the world, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shark-catching, <a href="#Page_311">311–12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sherman, General, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shetlands coastline, <a href="#Page_108">108–109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sigeum lighthouse, on the Hellespont, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Singapore, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Siren, the, developments, <a href="#Page_59">59–60</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Skerries light, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Skerryvore lighthouse, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100–107</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Slave-running, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Slight, Mr., the modern siren, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smalls, The, <a href="#Page_92">92–93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smeaton, John, the Eddystone lighthouse, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75–78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Smeaton</i>, the, <a href="#Page_97">97–99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smith, Thomas, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Solent, the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sound, aberration of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">South Carolina, lighthouses of, <a href="#Page_19">19–20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">South Foreland lighthouse: lighting, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">electricity adopted, <a href="#Page_218">218–19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keepers of the, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">South Island, N.Z., coastline, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">South Solitary Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">South Stock light, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Southey, ballad of the Bell Rock, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spain, early beacons, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spartel Cape lighthouse, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spectacle Reef lighthouse, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210–14</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215–16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sperm-oil, as luminant, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Spider-web braces,” <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spurn Point lighthouse, <a href="#Page_38">38–39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Standard Oil Co., <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stannard’s Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Start Point, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stephens Island, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, Alan: “Skerryvore,” <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100–107</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">improvements in lighting, <a href="#Page_32">32–33</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">table of distances by, <a href="#Page_51">51–52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, Charles, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, David, “North Unst,” <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, David and Charles: the acetylene gun, <a href="#Page_68">68–71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the unattended light, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Platte Fougère fog-signal, <a href="#Page_270">270–71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Otter Rock light, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">scheme for Rockall, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, David and Thomas: works carried out by, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Chicken Rock light, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">building of the Dhu-Heartach, <a href="#Page_114">114–20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, family of engineers: preeminence of, <a href="#Page_8">8–10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">systems of lighting, <a href="#Page_36">36–38</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adoption of electricity, <a href="#Page_219">219–22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">work in Japan, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">characteristics, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, George, and the Fastnet, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, Robert, and the Bell Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97–100</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Skerryvore, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, Robert Louis, “A Family of Engineers,” <a href="#Page_8">8–9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stewart Island, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stornoway lighthouse, lighting, <a href="#Page_53">53–54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Strain, Samuel H., <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Subsidiary lights, <a href="#Page_53">53–55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Suez, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sugar-Loaf Point lighthouse, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sule Skerry lighthouse, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Sun-valve,” the Dalén, <a href="#Page_275">275–78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Superior, Lake, lighting of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sweden: floating lighthouses, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unattended lighthouses, <a href="#Page_277">277–82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Swift, Captain W. H., the Minot’s Ledge light, <a href="#Page_176">176–78</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sydney lighthouse. <i>See</i> <a href="#Macquarie_tower">Macquarie Tower</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Tararua</i>, steamship, wreck of the, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tay, Firth of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Terawhiti, Cape, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thames lightships, <a href="#Page_240">240–41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thomas, O. P., <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Three Kings Rock, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tillamook Head, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tillamook Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_13">13–15</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183–95</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the keepers, <a href="#Page_307">307–8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tiri-Tiri Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_236">236–38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Torrain Rocks, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tory Island lighthouse, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trade, Board of:<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325">325</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">collection of light dues, <a href="#Page_7">7–8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and the siren, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Mr. Ingrey’s scheme, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adoption of electricity, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trewavas, John R., death of, <a href="#Page_14">14–15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Triangle Island, British Columbia, light, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trinity House Brethren: purchase of patents, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">maintenance of English lights, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adoption of the Daboll trumpet, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and the Eddystone, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and the Wolf Rock, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and the Whiteside light, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and the Fastnet, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adoption of electricity, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the light on the Seven Stones, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trinity House Museum: Smeaton’s clock, <a href="#Page_76">76–77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Bishop Rock fog-bell, <a href="#Page_85">85–86</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Triumph</i>, steamship, wreck, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tyndall, Professor, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tyree, island of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">United States Corps of Engineers, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">United States Lighthouse Board, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coastline lighting, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196–207</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">methods of lighting, <a href="#Page_46">46–47</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inauguration, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of control <a href="#Page_206">206–7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lighting of the Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_208">208–17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lightship service, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adoption of the Aga light, <a href="#Page_294">294–95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">United States Typographical Engineers, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Unst, island of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Ushant"></a>Ushant, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ushant Island, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vancouver, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coastline, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vancouver Island, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Victoria, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Victoria</i>, steamer, wreck, <a href="#Page_303">303–4</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Waipapapa Point lighthouse, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Walker, James, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Bishop Rock light, <a href="#Page_84">84–5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wanganui, N.Z., <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water-gas, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wellington, N.Z., <a href="#Page_233">233–4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Weser River estuary, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">West Indies lighthouses, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">White ant, ravages of the, <a href="#Page_264">264–66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">White Shoal lighthouse, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whiteside light, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whistles on lighthouses, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wigham light, <a href="#Page_279">279–280</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296–97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Willson, Mr. Thomas: the acetylene automatic light, <a href="#Page_285">285–89</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Winchelsea</i>, wreck of the, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Windward Point, Cuba, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Winstanley, Henry: the Eddystone lighthouse, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wireless installation: on the Fastnet, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">station, Sable Island, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Belle Ile, Southern Point, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Eider lightship, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wirral, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wolf Rock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">blowing holes, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87–92</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">relief, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Women as lighthouse-keepers, <a href="#Page_314">314–15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wrath, Cape, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wreckers of the Wolf Rock, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Chinese, <a href="#Page_258">258–59</a></li></ul> -</div></div> - -<p class="p2 center smaller">BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak p1"><a id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> - -<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained.</p> - -<p>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</p> - -<p>Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.</p> - -<p>Ditto marks in the Index have been replaced by the actual text.</p> - -<p>Empty, featureless areas along the side(s) of some illustrations have -been removed by Transcriber. This allowed those illustrations to be -shown larger and with greater detail.</p> - -<p>Special spaces were used to align numbers in tables. Devices that do not -support those spaces may display squares, question marks, or other symbols.</p> - -<p>“Büsun” is a consistent misspelling for “Büsum”.</p> - -<p>In the original <a href="#toc">Table of Contents</a>, the entries for “The Kalkgrundet” and -“The Svinbādan” were printed in the wrong sequence; corrected here.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_22">22</a>: “a wide birth” was printed that way; should be “berth”.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_85">85</a>: According to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_Rock,_Isles_of_Scilly">Wikipedia</a>, -the Bishop lighthouse was completed in 1858, not 1878.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_233">233</a>: “Ly-ce-moon” likely is a misprint for “Ly-ee-moon”.</p> -</div></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Lightships and Lighthouses, by Frederick A. 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