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diff --git a/old/52817-0.txt b/old/52817-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3311f82..0000000 --- a/old/52817-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13401 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Lightships and Lighthouses, by Frederick A. Talbot - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Lightships and Lighthouses - -Author: Frederick A. Talbot - -Release Date: August 16, 2016 [EBook #52817] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIGHTSHIPS AND LIGHTHOUSES *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - -LIGHTSHIPS AND LIGHTHOUSES - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of Messrs. Siemens Bros. & Co., Ltd._ - -THE 43,000,000 CANDLE-POWER BEAMS THROWN FROM THE HELIGOLAND LIGHTHOUSE. - -Being projected from a height of 272 feet above the sea, the beacon has -a range of 23 miles, and on a clear night the rays are seen from Büsun, -35 miles away. - - _Frontispiece._ -] - - - - - CONQUESTS OF SCIENCE - - - LIGHTSHIPS AND - LIGHTHOUSES - - BY - FREDERICK A. TALBOT - - AUTHOR OF - “MOVING PICTURES,” “RAILWAY CONQUEST OF THE WORLD,” “THE STEAMSHIP - CONQUEST OF THE WORLD,” ETC. - - _ILLUSTRATED_ - - PHILADELPHIA: J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - LONDON: WILLIAM HEINEMANN - 1913 - - - - -_Printed in England._ - - - - -PREFACE - - -Romances innumerable have been woven around the flaming guardians of -the coast, but it is doubtful whether any purely imaginative work is -so fascinating and absorbing as the plain unvarnished narrative of how -some famous lightship or lighthouse has been brought into existence. -And the story of construction is equalled in every way by that relating -to the operation and maintenance of the light, against all odds, for -the guidance of those who have business upon the ocean. - -This volume is not a history of lightships and lighthouses; neither -is it a technical treatise. Rather my object has been to relate how -the difficulties, peculiar and prodigious, have been overcome by the -builders in their efforts to mark some terrible danger-spots, both on -the mainland and isolated sea-rocks. - -While the lines of the lightship and lighthouse are familiar to all, -popular knowledge concerning the internal apparatus of the building or -ship is somewhat hazy. Therefore I have explained, with technicalities -simplified as much as possible, the equipment of the tower and vessel, -and the methods whereby both visual and audible warnings are given. The -very latest developments in this field of engineering and science are -incorporated, so as to render the subject as comprehensive as possible -within the limits of a single volume. - -In the compilation of this book I have received the heartiest -assistance from those who are prominently associated with the work of -providing adequate aids to navigation, and am particularly indebted -to the engineers to the Commissioners of Northern Lights, Messrs. -D. and C. Stevenson; Lieutenant-Colonel William P. Anderson, the -Engineer-in-Chief to the Lighthouse Department of the Canadian -Government; the various officials of the Lighthouse Board of the -United States of America; the Engineer-in-Chief to the French Service -des Phares; the lighthouse authorities of New South Wales and New -Zealand; Mr. Gustaf Dalén and his assistants; Messrs. Chance Brothers -and Company, Limited, of Birmingham; Messrs. Edmondsons, Limited, of -Dublin; Samuel Strain, Esq., the Director of the Lighthouse Literature -Mission, Belfast; the _Scientific American_, and the _Syren and -Shipping_, etc. - - FREDERICK A. TALBOT. - - _June, 1913._ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. THE ORIGIN OF THE LIGHTHOUSE 1 - - II. BUILDING A LIGHTHOUSE 11 - - III. THE LIGHT AND ILLUMINANTS 28 - - IV. FOG-SIGNALS 57 - - V. THE EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE 72 - - VI. SOME FAMOUS LIGHTS OF ENGLAND 81 - - VII. THE BELL ROCK AND SKERRYVORE LIGHTS 96 - - VIII. THE LONELY LIGHTS OF SCOTLAND 108 - - IX. THE FASTNET, THE OUTPOST OF EUROPE 121 - - X. LIGHTHOUSES BUILT ON SAND 132 - - XI. SOME LIGHT PATROLS OF THE FRENCH COAST 148 - - XII. THE GUARDIAN LIGHTS OF CANADA’S COAST 161 - - XIII. THE MINOT’S LEDGE LIGHT 176 - - XIV. THE TILLAMOOK ROCK LIGHT-STATION 183 - - XV. THE COAST LIGHTS OF THE UNITED STATES 196 - - XVI. THE LAMP-POSTS OF THE GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA 208 - - XVII. THE MOST POWERFUL ELECTRIC LIGHTHOUSES OF THE WORLD 218 - - XVIII. SOME LIGHTHOUSES IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS 229 - - XIX. THE SIGNPOSTS OF THE SANDBANKS 240 - - XX. A FLAMING SENTINEL OF THE MALACCA STRAITS 257 - - XXI. UNATTENDED LIGHTHOUSES 267 - - XXII. FLOATING LIGHTHOUSES 284 - - XXIII. THE LIGHT-KEEPER AND HIS LIFE 301 - - INDEX 318 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FACING PAGE - - The 43,000,000 Candle-Power Beams thrown from the Heligoland - Lighthouse _Frontispiece_ - - How the Beachy Head Lighthouse was built 6 - - Workmen returning by the Aerial Cableway to the Top of Beachy - Head 7 - - The Sanganeb Reef Lighthouse in the Red Sea 14 - - The Alcatraz Lighthouse under Construction 15 - - The Alcatraz Lighthouse completed 15 - - The Thimble Shoals Light 22 - - Setting the Last Stone of the Beachy Head Lighthouse 23 - - The Hyperradial Apparatus for the Manora Point Light, Karachi, - India 48 - - First Order Triple Flashing Light of 920 Millimetres Focal - Distance for Chilang Lighthouse, China 49 - - Looking up the Lantern of the Needles Lighthouse 52 - - Fixed Apparatus of the Fourth Order for Sarawak 53 - - A Modern Lighthouse Siren Plant 58 - - The Sirens of the Lizard 59 - - The Acetylene Fog-Gun 64 - - The Rattray Head Lighthouse 65 - - Sule Skerry Light 65 - - The Eddystone, the Most Famous Lighthouse of England 76 - - A Thrilling Experience 77 - - The “Bishop,” the Western Outpost of England 82 - - The Wolf Rock Lighthouse 83 - - The Longships Light 88 - - The Godrevy Light, Scilly Islands 89 - - The Chicken Rock Lighthouse, off the Isle of Man 92 - - How the Skerryvore is built 93 - - The Skerryvore, Scotland’s Most Famous Lighthouse 102 - - Barra Head Lighthouse, Scotland 103 - - The Homes of the Keepers of the Skerryvore and Dhu-Heartach - Lights 103 - - The Dhu-Heartach Lighthouse 110 - - The North Unst, Britain’s most Northerly Lighthouse 111 - - The North Unst Light 116 - - Landing Water at the North Unst 116 - - The Flannen Islands Light-Station 117 - - Building the Fastnet Rock Lighthouse 122 - - Building the Fastnet Tower 123 - - Erecting the Fastnet Lantern 123 - - The Fastnet, the Outpost of Europe 128 - - The Lantern of the Fastnet Rock Lighthouse 129 - - The Rothersand Lighthouse 136 - - The Fourteen-Foot Bank Lighthouse, built on Sand 137 - - The Heaux de Bréhat Light 150 - - Fitting the Lantern of La Jument Light 151 - - Preparing the Foundations of the Jument Tower 154 - - The Jument Light recently erected off Ushant 155 - - The Cape Race Lighthouse, Newfoundland 162 - - Cann Island Lighthouse, on the East Coast of Newfoundland 163 - - The Light at the Southern End of Belle Ile 166 - - The North Belle Ile Lighthouse 167 - - A Magnificent Canadian Light on the Pacific Coast 168 - - The West End Guardian of Sable Island 168 - - St. Esprit Island Light, Nova Scotia 169 - - The Gull Island Light, Newfoundland 169 - - The Batiscan Front Range Lighthouse, River St. Lawrence 170 - - Isle St. Thérèse Upper Range Back Lighthouse, River St. Lawrence 170 - - Upper Traverse Lighthouse in the River St. Lawrence 171 - - An “Ice Shove” upon the Back Range Light in Lake St. Peter 171 - - The Minot’s Ledge Light 178 - - Tender landing Building Material upon the Tillamook Rock 179 - - The Tillamook Rock Light-Station from the South 186 - - The Conquest of the Tillamook 187 - - The Terrible Tillamook Rock 187 - - Famous United States Lighthouses of Two Centuries 192 - - The Race Rock Light 193 - - The Carquinez Strait Light 198 - - A Church as a Lighthouse 199 - - The Bonita Point Lighthouse off the Californian Coast 202 - - Point Pinos Light-Station, California 203 - - The Farallon Rock and Light 204 - - The Farallon Lighthouse off San Francisco 204 - - The Punta Gorda Light-Station, California 205 - - A Lighthouse on the Great Lakes in the Grip of Winter 210 - - Building the Barre à Boulard Light in the River St. Lawrence 211 - - Colchester Reef Lighthouse, Lake Erie 214 - - The Latest Development in Lighthouse Engineering 215 - - The Electric Searchlights of the Heligoland Lighthouse 222 - - The Heligoland Lighthouse 223 - - Green Cape Lighthouse, New South Wales 232 - - The Sentinel of Sugar Loaf Point, New South Wales 232 - - “Bungaree Norah” Station, New South Wales 232 - - The Cape Byron Lighthouse, New South Wales 233 - - The Macquarie Lighthouse, South Head of Sydney Harbour 233 - - Painting the Troubridge Lighthouse, South Australia 234 - - Green Point Lighthouse, Natal 235 - - The Pacific Outpost of the United States of America 235 - - The _Seven Stones_ Lightship 242 - - The _San Francisco_ Lightship 243 - - The _Norderney_ Lightship 250 - - The _Fire Island_ Lightship, the Atlantic Outpost of the United - States 251 - - Completing the One-Fathom Bank Lighthouse in the Malacca - Straits 262 - - The One-Fathom Bank Lighthouse, Malacca Straits, in Course of - Erection 263 - - The Platte Fougère Lighthouse under Construction 268 - - The Platte Fougère Lighthouse 269 - - Setting the Compressed-Air Reservoir at Fort Doyle 270 - - The Fort Doyle Siren 271 - - An Unattended Beacon Light placed upon a Wild Part of the - Scottish Coast 272 - - The Gasfeten Light: a Lonely Beacon in Swedish Waters 273 - - The Dalén “Sun-Valve,” the Most Wonderful Invention of - Modern Lighthouse Engineering 274 - - The Gas Accumulators Employed with the Dalén Automatic System 275 - - The Lagerholmen Lighthouse 278 - - An Unattended Beacon Light in the Straits of Magellan 279 - - An Automatic Lightboat 279 - - The Wigham Thirty-One Day Unattended Petroleum Light 280 - - Willson Automatic Gas and Whistling Light off Egg Island, Nova - Scotia 281 - - The “Outer Automatic” Combined Gas and Whistling Light, - Halifax, Nova Scotia 281 - - The _Svinbādan_ Unattended Lightship in Swedish Waters 292 - - The _Kalkgrundet_, Sweden’s Latest Automatic Lightship 293 - - The Lantern used in the Wigham Automatic Petroleum Beacon 298 - - The “6-Bar” Floating Wigham Light in Portsmouth Harbour 299 - - The Pumps whereby the Oil is lifted from the Lowest Floor to - the Lantern Room 306 - - Combined Kitchen and Living-Room in the Lighthouse 307 - - Keeper cleaning the Lamp after it has cooled down 312 - - A Lighthouse Bedroom 313 - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE ORIGIN OF THE LIGHTHOUSE - - -The mariner, in pursuit of his daily business, is exposed to dangers -innumerable. In mid-ocean, for the most part, he need not fear them -particularly, because he has plenty of sea-room in which to navigate -his ship, and in case of thick fog he can ease up until this dreaded -enemy lifts or disperses. But in crowded coastal waters his position -is often precarious, for he may be menaced by lurking shoals or hidden -reefs, which betray little or no indication of their whereabouts, and -which may be crossed with apparent safety. If the ship blunders on in -ignorance, it is brought up with a thud as it buries its nose in the -sucking sand, or gives a mighty shiver as it scrapes over the rocky -teeth, perhaps to be clasped as in a vice, or to be battered and broken -so fearfully that, when at last it tears itself free and slips off into -deep water, it can only founder immediately. Here, if fog blots out the -scene, the ship is in danger of being lured to certain destruction by -currents and other natural forces, since the captain is condemned to a -helplessness as complete as of a blind man in a busy street. - -It is not surprising, then, that the captain, as he approaches or -wanders along a tortuous shoreline, scans the waters eagerly for a -glimpse of the guardian monitor, which, as he knows from his reckonings -and chart, should come within sight to guide him on his way. The -danger-signal may be one of many kinds--a misty, star-like glimmer -thrown from a buoy dancing on the waves, the radiant orb from a -lightship bobbing up and down and swinging rhythmically to and fro, a -fixed flare-light, or dazzling, spoke-like rays revolving across the -sky. If sight be impossible owing to fog, he must depend upon his ear -for the measured tolling of a bell, the shriek of a whistle, the deep -blare of a siren, or the sharp report of an explosive. When he has -picked up one or other of these warnings, he feels more at ease, and -proceeds upon his way, eyes and ears keenly strained for warning of the -next danger ahead. - -The lighthouse is the greatest blessing that has been bestowed upon -navigation. It renders advance through the waters at night as safe -and as simple as in the brilliancy of the midday sun. But for these -beacons the safe movement of ships at night or during fog along the -crowded steamship highways which surround the serrated shores of the -five continents would be impossible. It is only natural, therefore, -that the various nations of the world should strenuously endeavour to -light their coasts so adequately that the ship may proceed at night as -safely and as comfortably as a man may walk down an illuminated city -thoroughfare. - -Whence came the idea of lighting the coastline with flaring beacons? It -is impossible to say. They have been handed down to modern civilization -through the mists of time. The first authentic lighthouse was Sigeum, -on the Hellespont, which undoubtedly antedates the famous Pharos of -Alexandria. The latter was a massive square tower, 400 feet high, and -was known as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It was built about -331 B.C. The warning light was emitted from a huge wood fire, which -was kept burning at the summit continuously during the night; the -illumination is stated to have been visible for a distance of forty -miles, but modern knowledge disputes this range. The precise design -of this wonderful tower is unknown, but it must have been a huge -structure, inasmuch as it is computed to have cost the equivalent in -modern money of over £200,000, or $1,000,000. - -For sixteen hundred years it guided the navigators among the waters -from which it reared its smoking crest, and then it disappeared. -How, no one knows, although it is surmised that it was razed by an -earthquake; but, although it was swept from sight, its memory has been -preserved, and the French, Italian, and Spanish nations use its name in -connection with the lighthouse, which in France is called _phare_; in -the other two countries mentioned, _faro_. - -The Romans in their conquest of Gaul and Britain brought the lighthouse -with them, and several remains of their efforts in this direction are -to be found in England, notably the pharos at Dover. - -In all probability, however, the lighthouse in its most primitive form -is at least as old as the earliest books of the Bible. Undoubtedly it -sprang from the practice of guiding the incoming boatman to his home -by means of a blazing bonfire set up in a conspicuous position near -by. Such a guide is a perfectly obvious device, which even to-day is -practised by certain savage tribes. - -When the Phœnicians traded in tin with the ancient Britons of Cornwall, -their boats continually traversed the rough waters washing the western -coasts of Spain, where, for the safer passage of their sailors, -doubtless, they erected beacons upon prominent headlands. The oldest -lighthouse in the world to-day, which in some quarters is held to be -of Phœnician origin, is that at Corunna, a few miles north of Cape -Finisterre. Other authorities maintain that it was built during the -reign of the Roman Emperor Trajan. In 1634 it was reconstructed, and is -still in existence. - -At the mouth of the Gironde is another highly interesting link with -past efforts and triumphs in lighthouse engineering. The Gironde -River empties itself into the Bay of Biscay through a wide estuary, -in the centre of which is a bunch of rocks offering a terrible menace -to vessels. This situation achieved an unenviable reputation in the -days when ships first ventured out to sea. Being exposed to the broad -Atlantic, it receives the full force of the gales which rage in the -Bay of Biscay, and which make of the Gironde River estuary a fearful -trap. The trading town of Bordeaux suffered severely from the ill fame -attached to the mouth of the waterway upon which it was dependent, -for both the sea and the roads exacted a heavy toll among the ships -which traded with the famous wine capital of Gascony. How many fine -vessels struck the rocks of Cordouan and went to pieces within sight -of land, history does not record, but the casualties became so numerous -that at last the firms trading with Bordeaux refused to venture into -the Gironde unless a light were placed on the reef to guide their -captains. Alarmed at the prospect of losing their remunerative traffic, -the citizens of Bordeaux built a tower upon the deadly reef, with a -beacon which they kept stoked with wood, four men being reserved for -its service. In return the authorities exacted a tax from each vessel -arriving and leaving the port, in order to defray the expense thus -incurred. Probably from this action originated the custom of lighthouse -dues. - -This bonfire served its purposes until the Black Prince brought Gascony -under his power. He demolished the primitive beacon, and erected in its -place another tower, 40 feet high, on which the _chauffer_ was placed, -a hermit being entrusted with the maintenance of the light at night. -Near the lighthouse--if such it can be called--a chapel was built, -around which a few fishermen erected their dwellings. When the hermit -died, no one offered to take his place. The beacon went untended, the -fishermen departed, and the reef once more was allowed to claim its -victims from shipping venturing into the estuary. - -In 1584 an eminent French architect, Louis de Foix, secured the -requisite concession to build a new structure. He evolved the fantastic -idea of a single building which should comprise a beacon, a church and -a royal residence in one. For nearly twenty-seven years he laboured -upon the rock, exposed to the elements, before he (or rather his -successor) was able to throw the welcome warning rays from the summit -of his creation. This was certainly the most remarkable lighthouse -that has ever been set up. It was richly decorated and artistically -embellished, and the tower was in reality a series of galleries rising -tier upon tier. At the base was a circular stone platform, 134 feet in -diameter, flanked by an elegant parapet surrounding the light-keepers’ -abode. This lower structure was intended to form a kind of breakwater -which should protect the main building from the force of the waves. -On the first floor was a magnificent entrance hall, leading to the -King’s apartment, a _salon_ finely decorated with pillars and mural -sculptures. Above was a beautiful chapel with a lofty roof supported by -carved Corinthian columns. Finally came the beacon, which at that date -was about 100 feet above the sea-level. - -Access to the successive floors was provided by a beautiful spiral -staircase, the newels of which were flanked by busts of the two -French Kings, Henry III. and Henry IV., and of the designer de Foix. -The architect died not long before his work was completed, but the -directions he left behind him were so explicit that no difficulty was -experienced in consummating his ideas, and the Tour de Cordouan shed -its beneficial light for the first time over the waters of the Bay of -Biscay in 1611. So strongly was the building founded that it has defied -the attacks of Nature to this day, although it did not escape those of -the vandals of the French Revolution, who penetrated the tower, where -the busts of the two Henrys at once excited their passion. The symbols -of monarchy were promptly hurled to the floor, and other damage was -inflicted. When order was restored, the busts were replaced, and all -the carvings which had suffered mutilation from mob law were restored. -At the same time, in accordance with the spirit of progress, the tower -was modified to bring it into line with modern lighting principles; -it was extended to a height of 197 feet, and was crowned with an -up-to-date light, visible twenty-seven miles out to sea. For more than -three centuries it has fulfilled its designed purpose, and still ranks -as the most magnificent lighthouse that ever has been built. Its cost -is not recorded, but it must necessarily have been enormous. - -In Great Britain the seafarer’s warning light followed the lines of -those in vogue upon the older part of the Continent, consisting chiefly -of wood and coal fires mounted on conspicuous lofty points around the -coast. These braziers were maintained both by public and by private -enterprise. Patents were granted to certain individuals for the upkeep -of beacons in England and Scotland, and from time to time the holders -of these rights came into conflict with the public authority which was -created subsequently for the maintenance of various aids to navigation -around the coasts. In England these monopolies were not extinguished -until 1836, when the Brethren of Trinity House were empowered, by -special Act of Parliament, to purchase the lights which had been -provided both by the Crown and by private interests, so as to bring the -control under one corporation. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo by permission of Messrs. Bullivant & Co., Ltd._ - -HOW THE BEACHY HEAD LIGHTHOUSE WAS BUILT. - -To facilitate erection a cableway was stretched between the top of -Beachy Head and a staging placed beside the site of the tower in the -water. A stone is being sent down.] - -The _chauffer_, however, was an unsatisfactory as well as an expensive -type of beacon. Some of these grates consumed as many as 400 tons of -coal per annum--more than a ton of coal per night--in addition to vast -quantities of wood. Being completely exposed, they were subject to the -caprices of the wind. When a gale blew off the land, the light on the -sea side was of great relative brilliancy; but when off the water, -the side of the fire facing the sea would be quite black, whereas on -the landward side the fire bars were almost melting under the fierce -heat generated by the intense draughts. This was the greater drawback, -because it was, of course, precisely when the wind was making a lee -shore below the beacon that the more brilliant light was required. - -When the Pilgrim Fathers made their historic trek to the United States, -they took Old World ideas with them. The first light provided on the -North American continent was at Point Allerton, the most prominent -headland near the entrance to Boston Harbour, where 400 boatloads of -stone were devoted to the erection of a tower capped with a large -basket of iron in which “fier-bales of pitch and ocum” were burned. -This beacon served the purpose of guiding navigators into and out of -Boston Harbour for several years. - -When, however, the shortcomings of the exposed fire were realized, -attempts were made to evolve a lighting system, which does in reality -constitute the foundation of modern practice. But the beacon fire held -its own for many years after the new principle came into vogue, the -last coal fire in England being the Flat Holme Light, in the Bristol -Channel, which was not superseded until 1822. - -In Scotland the coal fire survived until 1816, one of the most -important of these beacons being that on the Isle of May, in the -Firth of Forth, which fulfilled its function for 181 years. This was -a lofty tower, erected in 1636, on which a primitive type of pulley -was installed for the purpose of raising the fuel to the level of the -brazier, while three men were deputed to the task of stoking the fire. -It was one of the private erections, and the owner of the Isle of May, -the Duke of Portland, in return for maintaining the light, was allowed -to exact a toll from passing vessels. When the welfare of the Scottish -aids to navigation was placed under the control of the Commissioners -of Northern Lighthouses, this body, realizing the importance of the -position, wished to erect upon the island a commanding lighthouse -illuminated with oil lamps; but it was necessary first to buy out the -owner’s rights, and an Act of Parliament was passed authorizing this -action, together with the purchase of the island and the right to levy -tolls, at an expenditure of £60,000, or $300,000. In 1816 the coal fire -was finally extinguished. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo by permission of Messrs. Bullivant & Co., Ltd._ - -WORKMEN RETURNING BY THE AERIAL CABLEWAY TO THE TOP OF BEACHY HEAD.] - -The English lights are maintained by the Brethren of Trinity House, and -their cost is defrayed by passing shipping. This corporation received -its first charter during the reign of Henry VIII. Trinity House, as -it is called colloquially, also possesses certain powers over the -Commissioners of Northern Lights and the Commissioners of Irish Lights, -and is itself under the sway, in regard to certain powers, such as the -levy of light dues, of the Board of Trade. This system of compelling -shipowners to maintain the coast lights is somewhat anomalous; it -possesses many drawbacks, and has provoked quaint situations at times. -Thus, when the _Mohegan_ and the _Paris_ were wrecked on the Manacles -within the space of a few months, the outcry for better lighting -of this part of the Devon and Cornish coasts was loud and bitter. -The shipowners clamoured for more protection, but at the same time, -knowing that they would have to foot the bill, maintained that further -lighting was unnecessary. - -The British Isles might very well emulate the example of the United -States, France, Canada, and other countries, which regard coast -lighting as a work of humanity, for the benefit of one and all, and -so defray the cost out of the Government revenues. Some years ago, -when an International Conference was held to discuss this question, -some of the representatives suggested that those nations which give -their lighthouse services free to the world should distinguish against -British shipping, and levy light-dues upon British ships, with a view -to compelling the abolition of the tax upon foreign vessels visiting -British ports. Fortunately, the threat was not carried into execution. - -The design and construction of lighthouses have developed into a highly -specialized branch of engineering. Among the many illustrious names -associated with this phase of enterprise--de Foix, Rudyerd, Smeaton, -Walker, Douglass, Alexander, and Ribière--the Stevenson family stands -pre-eminent. Ever since the maintenance of the Scottish coast lights -was handed over to the Northern Commissioners, the engineering chair -has remained in the hands of this family, the names of whose members -are identified with many lights that have become famous throughout the -world for their daring nature, design, and construction. Moreover, -the family’s contributions to the science of this privileged craft -have been of incalculable value. Robert Louis Stevenson has written a -fascinating story around their exploits in “A Family of Engineers.” - -It was at first intended that the great author himself should follow -in the footsteps of his forbears. He completed his apprenticeship at -the drawing-table under his father and uncle, and became initiated into -the mysteries of the craft. At the outset he apparently had visions of -becoming numbered among those of his family who had achieved eminence -in lighthouse construction, and he often accompanied his father or -uncle on their periodical rounds of inspection. Probably the rough and -tumble life in a small tender among the wild seas of Scotland, the -excitement of landing upon dangerous rocks, the aspect of loneliness -revealed by acquaintance with the keepers, and the following of the -growth of a new tower from its foundations, stirred his imagination, so -that the dormant literary instinct, which, like that of engineering, -he had inherited, became fired. Mathematical formulæ, figures, and -drawings, wrestled for a time with imagination and letters, but the -call of the literary heritage proved triumphant, and, unlike his -grandfather, who combined literature with lighthouse construction, and -who, indeed, was a polished author, as his stirring story of the “Bell -Rock Lighthouse” conclusively shows, he finally threw in his lot with -letters. - -The fact that for more than a century one family has held the exacting -position of chief engineer to the Northern Commissioners, and has -been responsible for the lights around Scotland’s troublous coasts, -is unique in the annals of engineering. Each generation has been -identified with some notable enterprise in this field. Thomas Smith, -the father-in-law of Robert Stevenson, founded the service, and was -the first engineer to the Commissioners. Robert Stevenson assumed his -mantle and produced the “Bell Rock.” His son, Alan Stevenson, was the -creator of the “Skerryvore.” The next in the chain, David Stevenson, -built the “North Unst.” David and Thomas Stevenson, who followed, -contributed the “Dhu-Heartach” and the “Chicken Rock” lights; while -the present generation, David and Charles, have erected such works as -“Rattray Briggs,” “Sule Skerry,” and the Flannen Islands lighthouses. -In addition, the latter have developed lighthouse engineering in -many novel directions, such as the unattended Otter Rock lightship, -the unattended Guernsey lighthouse, and the automatic, acetylene, -fog-signal gun, which are described elsewhere in this volume. - -Some forty years ago the Stevensons also drew up the scheme and -designed the first lighthouses for guarding the coasts of Japan. -The essential optical apparatus and other fittings were built and -temporarily erected in England, then dismantled and shipped to the -East, to be set up in their designed places. The Japanese did not fail -to manifest their characteristic trait in connection with lighthouses -as with other branches of engineering. The structures produced by the -Scottish engineers fulfilled the requirements so perfectly, and were -such excellent models, as to be considered a first-class foundation for -the Japanese lighthouse service. The native engineers took these lights -as their pattern, and, unaided, extended their coast lighting system -upon the lines laid down by the Stevensons. Since that date Japan -has never gone outside her own borders for assistance in lighthouse -engineering. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -BUILDING A LIGHTHOUSE - - -Obviously, the task of erecting a lighthouse varies considerably with -the situation. On the mainland construction is straightforward, and -offers little more difficulty than the building of a house. The work -assumes its most romantic and fascinating form when it is associated -with a small rocky islet out to sea, such as the Eddystone, Skerryvore, -or Minot’s Ledge; or with a treacherous, exposed stretch of sand, -such as that upon which the Rothersand light is raised. Under such -conditions the operation is truly herculean, and the ingenuity and -resource of the engineer are taxed to a superlative degree; then he -is pitted against Nature in her most awful guise. Wind and wave, -moreover, are such formidable and relentless antagonists that for -the most momentary failure of vigilance and care the full penalty -is exacted. Then there are the fiercely scurrying currents, tides, -breakers, and surf, against which battle must be waged, with the odds -so overwhelmingly ranged against frail human endeavour that advance -can only be made by inches. The lighthouse engineer must possess the -patience of a Job, the tenacity of a limpet, a determination which -cannot be measured, and a perseverance which defies galling delays and -repeated rebuffs. Perils of an extreme character beset him on every -hand; thrilling escape and sensational incident are inseparable from -his calling. - -The first step is the survey of the site, the determination of the -character of the rock and of its general configuration, and the takings -of levels and measurements for the foundations. When the rugged hump is -only a few feet in diameter little latitude is afforded the engineer -for selection, but in instances where the islet is of appreciable area -some little time may be occupied in deciding just where the structure -shall be placed. It seems a simple enough task to determine; one -capable of solution within a few minutes, and so for the most part it -is--not from choice, but necessity--when once the surface of the rock -is gained. The paramount difficulty is to secure a landing upon the -site. The islet is certain to be the centre of madly surging currents, -eddies, and surf, demanding wary approach in a small boat, while the -search for a suitable point upon which to plant a foot is invariably -perplexing. Somehow, the majority of these bleak, wave-swept rocks -have only one little place where a landing may be made, and that only -at certain infrequent periods, the discovery of which in the first -instance often taxes the engineer sorely. - -Often weeks will be expended in reconnoitring the position, awaiting -a favourable wind and a placid sea. Time to the surveyor must be -no object. He is the sport of the elements, and he must curb his -impatience. To do otherwise is to court disaster. The actual operations -on the rock may only occupy twenty minutes or so, but the task of -landing is equalled by that of getting off again--the latter frequently -a more hazardous job than the former. - -The west coast of Scotland is dreaded, if such a term may be used, by -the engineer, because the survey inevitably is associated with bitter -disappointments and maddening delays owing to the caprices of the -ocean. This is not surprising when it is remembered that this coastline -is of a cruel, forbidding character and is exposed to the full reach of -the Atlantic, with its puzzling swell and vicious currents. The same -applies to the west coast of Ireland and the open parts of the South -of England. The Casquets, off the coast of Alderney, are particularly -difficult of approach, as they are washed on all sides by wild races of -water. There is only one little cove where a landing may be effected -by stepping directly from a boat, and this place can be approached -only in the calmest weather and when the wind is blowing in a certain -direction. On one occasion, when I had received permission to visit -the lighthouse, I frittered away three weeks in Alderney awaiting a -favourable opportunity to go out, and then gave up the attempt in -disgust. As it happened, another month elapsed before the rock was -approachable to make the relief. - -When the United States Lighthouse Board sanctioned the construction -of the Tillamook lighthouse on the rock of that name, off the Oregon -coast, the engineer in charge of the survey was compelled to wait -six months before he could venture to approach the island. In this -instance, however, his time was not wasted entirely, as there were many -preparations to be completed on the mainland to facilitate construction -when it should be commenced. Early in June, 1879, the weather -moderated, and the Pacific assumed an aspect in keeping with its name. -Stimulated by the prospect of carrying out his appointed task, the -engineer pushed off in a boat, but, to his chagrin, when he drew near -the rock he found the prospects of landing to be hopeless. He cruised -about, reconnoitring generally from the water, and then returned to -shore somewhat disgusted. - -A fortnight later he was instructed to take up his position at Astoria, -to keep a sharp eye on the weather, to take the first chance that -presented itself of gaining the rock, and not to return to headquarters -until he had made a landing. He fretted and fumed day after day, and -at last pushed off with a gang of men when the sea where it lapped -the beach of the mainland was as smooth as a lake; but as they drew -near the Tillamook it was the same old story. A treacherous swell -was running, the waves were curling wickedly and fussily around the -islet; but the engineer had made up his mind that he would be balked -no longer, so the boat was pulled in warily, in the face of terrible -risk, and two sailors were ordered to get ashore by hook or by crook. -The boat swung to and fro in the swell. Time after time it was carried -forward to the landing spot by a wave, and then, just as the men were -ready to jump, the receding waters would throw it back. At last, as -it swung by the spot, the two men gave a leap and landed safely. The -next proceeding was to pass instruments ashore, but the swell, as if -incensed at the partial success achieved, grew more boisterous, and the -boat had to back away from the rock. The men who had landed, and who -had not moved a yard from the spot they had gained, became frightened -at this manœuvre, and, fearing that they might be marooned, jumped into -the sea, and were pulled into the boat by means of their life-lines, -without having accomplished a stroke. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -THE SANGANEB REEF LIGHTHOUSE IN THE RED SEA. - -It indicates a treacherous coral reef, 703 miles from Suez. It is an -iron tower 180 feet high, with a white flashing light having a range of -19 miles.] - -The engineer chafed under these disappointments, and himself determined -to incur the risk of landing at all hazards. With his tape-line in -his pocket, he set out once more a few days later, and in a surf-boat -pulled steadily into the froth and foam around the rock; while the men -sawed to and fro the landing-place, he crouched in the bow, watching -his opportunity. Presently, the boat steadying itself for a moment, he -made a spring and reached the rock. He could not get his instruments -ashore, so without loss of time he ran his line from point to point as -rapidly as he could, jotted down hurried notes, and, when the swell was -growing restive again, hailed the boat, and at a favourable moment, as -it manœuvred round, jumped into it. - -The details he had secured, though hastily prepared, were sufficient -for the purpose. His report was considered and the character of the -beacon decided. There was some discussion as to the most favourable -situation for the light upon the rock, so a more detailed survey -was demanded to settle this problem. This task was entrusted to an -Englishman, Mr. John R. Trewavas, who was familiar with work under such -conditions. He was a master-mason of Portland and had been engaged -upon the construction of the Wolf Rock, one of the most notable and -difficult works of its kind in the history of lighthouse engineering. - -He pushed off to the rock on September 18, 1879, in a surf-boat, only -to find the usual state of things prevailing. The boat was run in, and, -emulating the first engineer’s feat, he cleared the water and landed -on the steep, rocky slope; but it was wet and slippery, and his feet -played him false. He stumbled, and stooped to regain his balance, but -just then a roller curled in, snatched him up and threw him into -the whirlpool of currents. Life-lines were thrown, and the surf-boat -struggled desperately to get near him, but he was dragged down by the -undertow and never seen again. This fatality scared his companions, -who returned hastily to the mainland. The recital of their dramatic -story stirred the public to such a pitch that the authorities were -frantically urged to abandon the project of lighting the Tillamook. - -Mr. David Stevenson related to me an exciting twenty minutes which -befell him and his brother while surveying a rock off the west coast -of Scotland. They had been waiting patiently for a favourable moment -to effect a landing, and when at last it appeared they drew in and -clambered ashore. But they could not advance another inch. The rock was -jagged and broken, while its surface was as slippery as ice owing to a -thick covering of slimy seaweed whereon boots could not possibly secure -a hold. Having gained the rock with so much difficulty, they were not -going away empty-handed. As they could not stand in their boots, they -promptly removed them, and, taking their line and levels, picked their -way gingerly over the jagged, slippery surface in their stockinged -feet. Movement certainly was exceedingly uncomfortable, because their -toes displayed an uncanny readiness to find every needle-point on the -islet; but the wool of their footwear enabled them to obtain a firm -grip upon the treacherous surface, without the risk of being upset and -having a limb battered or broken in the process. Twenty minutes were -spent in making investigations under these disconcerting conditions, -but the time was adequate to provide all the details required. When -they had completed the survey and had regained their boat--a matter of -no little difficulty in the circumstances--their feet bore sad traces -of the ordeal through which they had passed. However, their one concern -was the completion of the survey; that had been made successfully and -was well worth the toll exacted in the form of physical discomfort. - -[Illustration: THE ALCATRAZ LIGHTHOUSE UNDER CONSTRUCTION. - -THE ALCATRAZ LIGHTHOUSE COMPLETED. - -This tower off the Californian coast is one of the latest works of the -American Lighthouse Department. It has a range of 21 miles.] - -As a rule, on a wave-swept rock which only shows itself at short -intervals during the day, the preparation of the foundations is not -an exacting task. A little paring with chisels and dynamite may be -requisite here and there, but invariably the engineer takes the exposed -surface as the basis for his work. The sea has eaten away all the -soft, friable material in its ceaseless erosion, leaving an excellent -foundation to which the superstructure can be keyed to become as solid -as the rock itself. - -When the beacon is to be erected upon a sandy bottom, the engineer’s -work becomes more baffling, as he is compelled to carry his underwater -work down to a point where a stable foundation may be secured. When -the Leasowe lighthouse was built on the sandy Wirral shore, the -builders were puzzled by the lack of a suitable foundation for the -masonry tower. An ingenious way out of the difficulty was effected. -In the vicinity an incoming ship, laden with a cargo of cotton, had -gone ashore and had become a total wreck. The cotton was useless for -its intended purpose, so the bales were salvaged and dumped into the -sand at the point where the lighthouse was to be erected. The fleecy -mass settled into the sand, and under compression became as solid as a -rock, while its permanency was assured by its complete submersion. The -stability of this strange foundation may be gathered from the fact that -the tower erected thereon stood, and shed its welcome light regularly -every night, for about a century and a half, only being extinguished -two or three years ago as it was no longer required. - -In the Old World, and, indeed, in the great majority of instances, -the lighthouse is what is described as a “monolithic structure,” -being built of courses of masonry, the blocks of which are dovetailed -together not only laterally, but also perpendicularly, so that, when -completed, the tower comprises a solid mass with each stone jointed -to its fellow on four or five of its six sides. This method was first -tried in connection with the Hanois lighthouse, off the Guernsey coast, -and was found so successful that it has been adopted universally in all -lighthouses which are exposed to the action of the waves. - -The upper face and one end of each block are provided with projections, -while the lower face and the other end are given indentations. -Thus, when the block is set in position, the projections fit into -corresponding indentations in the adjacent blocks, while the -indentations receive the projections from two other neighbouring -pieces. The whole is locked together by the aid of hydraulic cement. -Consequently the waves, or any other agency, cannot possibly dislodge -a stone without breaking the dovetails or smashing the stone itself. -For the bottom layer, of course, the surface of the rock is pared away -sufficiently to receive the stone, which is bedded in cement adhering -to both the rock and the superimposed block. A hole is then drilled -through the latter deep into the rock beneath, into which a steel rod -or bolt is driven well home, and the hole is sealed up with cement -forced in under such pressure as to penetrate every interstice and -crevice. - -The iron supports constitute the roots, as it were, of the tower, -penetrating deep into the heart of the rock to secure a firm grip, -while the tower itself resembles, in its general appearance, a -symmetrical tree trunk, this form offering the minimum of resistance to -the waves. The lower part of the tower is made completely solid by the -dovetailing of the integral blocks, and is cylindrical in shape up to a -certain predetermined level which varies according to the surrounding -conditions and the situation of the light. Some years ago the -lighthouse assumed its trunk-like shape at the bottom course, rising -in a graceful concave curve to the lantern; but this method has been -abandoned, inasmuch as, owing to the decreasing diameter of the tower -as it rose course by course above its foundations, the lowest outer -rings of masonry did not have to withstand any of the superimposed -weight, which naturally bears in a vertical line. By carrying the -lower part to a certain height in the form of a cylinder, and then -commencing the concave curve of the tower, the pressure of the latter -is imposed equally upon the whole of its foundations. The latter may be -stepped--_i.e._, one tier of stones may project a little beyond that of -the one immediately above--but this arrangement is adopted in order to -break the smashing force of the waves. - -The conditions attending the actual building operations upon the -rock, which may be accessible only for an hour or two per day in calm -weather, prevent the blocks of granite being shaped and trimmed upon -the site. Accordingly, the lighthouse in the first place is erected -piecemeal on shore. A horizontal course of stones is laid to see that -each dovetail fits tightly and dead true. The next course is laid upon -this, and so on for perhaps eight or ten courses, the trimming and -finicking being accomplished as the work proceeds. Each projection has -to be only just big enough to enter its relative indentation, while -the latter must be exactly of the requisite dimensions to receive the -projection, and no more. Each stone is then given an identification -mark, so that the masons on the rock may perceive at a glance its -precise position in a course, and to what ring of stones it belongs. -Therefore the mason at the site has no anxiety about a stone fitting -accurately; he has merely to set it in position upon its bed of cement. - -On shore--generally in the quarry yard--when a series of courses -have been temporarily built up in this manner and have received the -critical approbation of the resident engineer, the topmost course is -removed and retained, while the other blocks are despatched to the -site. This topmost course forms the bottom ring in the next section -of the lighthouse which is built up in the yard, and the topmost -course of this section in turn is held to form the bottom course of -the succeeding part of the tower, and so on from foundation to lantern -parapet. - -During the past two or three years reinforced concrete has been -employed to a certain extent for lighthouse construction, but granite -of the finest and hardest quality still remains the material _par -excellence_ for towers erected in exposed, sea-swept positions. The -Russian lighthouse authorities have adopted the ferro-concrete system -in regard to one or two shore lights, especially on the Black Sea, -while another fine structure upon this principle was built by the -French _Service des Phares_ in 1905 at the entrance to the River -Gironde. The system has also been adopted by the Canadian lighthouse -authorities; one or two recent notable lights under their jurisdiction -have been constructed in this material, although on somewhat different -lines from those almost invariably followed, so far as the general -design is concerned. - -While the masonry or monolithic structure is the most durable and -substantial structure, it is also the most expensive. In many parts of -the world, notably along the Atlantic coastline of the United States, -what are known as “screw-pile lighthouses” are used. These buildings -vary in form, some resembling a huge beacon, such as indicates the -entrance to a river, while others convey the impression of being -bungalows or pavilions on stilts. The legs are stout, cylindrical, iron -members, the lower ends of which are shaped somewhat after the manner -of an auger, whereby they may be screwed into the sea-bed--hence the -name. This system has been employed for beacons over dangerous shoals; -and while they are somewhat squat, low-lying lights, they have proved -to be highly serviceable. - -Iron has been employed also for lighthouse constructional work, -the system in this case being a combination of the screw pile -and the tower, the latter, extending from a platform whereon the -living-quarters are placed and mounted clear of the water, on piles, -being a huge cylindrical pipe crowned by the lantern. One of the -most interesting and novel of these iron lighthouses is the Hunting -Island tower off the coast of South Carolina. In general design it -resembles the ordinary lighthouse wrought in masonry, and it is 121½ -feet in height from the ground to the focal plane. It is built of iron -throughout, the shell being in the form of panels, each of which weighs -1,200 pounds. - -This type of tower was selected owing to the severe erosion of the sea -at the point where it is placed. When it was erected in 1875, at a cost -of £20,400, or $102,000, it was planted a quarter of a mile back from -the sea. This action was severely criticized at the time, it being -maintained that the light was set too far from the water’s edge to -be of practical value; but the hungry ocean disappointed the critics, -because in the course of a few years the intervening strip of shore -disappeared, and the necessity of demolishing the light and re-erecting -it farther inland arose. On this occasion the engineers determined to -postpone a second removal for some time. The tower was re-erected at -a point one and a quarter miles inland, and the sum of £10,200, or -$51,000, was expended upon the undertaking. The iron system, which -was adopted, proved its value in this work of removal piece by piece, -because, had the tower been carried out in masonry, it would have been -cheaper to set up a new light, as was done at Cape Henry. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SECTIONAL DIAGRAM OF THE AR-MEN LIGHTHOUSE, -SHOWING YEARLY PROGRESS IN CONSTRUCTION. - -It guards the “Bay of the Dead,” off Cape Finisterre. Commenced in -1867, it was not finished until 1881.] - -Some of the American coast lights are of the most primitive and -odd-looking character, comprising merely a lofty skeleton of ironwork. -The lamp is a head-light, such as is carried by railway engines, fitted -with a parabolic reflector. Every morning the lamp is lowered, cleaned, -and stored in a shack at the foot of the pyramid, to be lighted and -hauled into position at dusk. This is the most economical form of -lighthouse which has been devised, the total cost of the installation -being only about £2,500, or $12,500, while the maintenance charges -are equally low. Lights of this description are employed for the most -part in connection with the lighting of waterways, constituting what -is known as the “back-light” in a range or group of lights studded -along the river to guide the navigator through its twists and shallows, -instead of buoying of the channel. - -The task of constructing a sea-rock lighthouse is as tedious and -protracted an enterprise as one could conceive, because the engineer -and his workmen are entirely at the mercy of the weather. Each great -work has bristled with its particular difficulties; each has presented -its individual problems for solution. Few modern lighthouses, however, -have so baffled the engineer and have occupied such a number of years -in completion, as the Ar-men light off Cape Finisterre. This tower -was commenced in 1867, but so great and so many were the difficulties -involved in its erection that the light was not first thrown over the -Atlantic from its lantern until 1881. - -This light is situated at one of the most dreaded parts of a sinister -coast. At this spot a number of granite points thrust themselves -at times above the water in an indentation which has received the -lugubrious name Bay of the Dead. The title is well deserved, for it -is impossible to say how many ships have gone down through fouling -these greedy fangs, or how many lives have been lost in its vicinity. -The waters around the spot are a seething race of currents, eddies, -and whirlpools. It is an ocean graveyard in very truth, and although -mariners are only too cognizant of its terrible character, and -endeavour to give this corner of the European mainland a wide birth, -yet storms and fogs upset the calculations of the most careful -navigators. - -[Illustration: THE THIMBLE SHOALS LIGHT. - -A typical example of the American iron screw pile system. A vessel ran -into this beacon and wrecked it; the ruins caught fire, and the keepers -only escaped in the nick of time.] - -As the streams of traffic across the Bay of Biscay grew denser and -denser, it became imperative to provide a guardian light at this -spot, and the engineers embarked upon their task. They knew well that -they were faced with a daring and trying enterprise, and weeks were -spent in these troubled waters seeking for the most favourable site. -As a result of their elaborate surveys, they decided that the rock -of Ar-men offered the only suitable situation; but what a precarious -foundation upon which to lift a massive masonry tower! The hump is only -25 feet wide by 50 feet in length; no more than three little pinnacles -projected above the sea-level, and at low-tide less than 5 feet of the -tough gneiss were exposed. Nor was this the most adverse feature. The -rock is in the centre of the bad waters, and is swept from end to end, -under all conditions of weather, by the furious swell. Some idea of the -prospect confronting the engineers may be gathered from the fact that a -whole year was spent in the effort to make one landing to take levels. - -When construction was taken in hand the outlook was even more -appalling. It was as if the sea recognized that its day of plunder was -to draw to a close. The workmen were brought, with all materials -and appliances, to the nearest strategical point on the mainland, -where a depot was established. Yet in the course of two years the -workmen, although they strove day after day to land upon the rock, -only succeeded twenty-three times, while during this period only -twenty-six hours’ work was accomplished! It is not surprising that, -when the men did land, they toiled like Trojans to make the most of the -brief interval. The sum of their work in this time was the planting -of the lighthouse’s roots in the form of fifty-five circular bars, -each 2 inches in diameter and spaced 3¼ feet apart at a depth of about -12 inches in the granite mass. By the end of 1870 the cylindrical -foundation had crept a few feet above the highest projection; this -plinth was 24 feet in diameter, 18 feet in height, and was solid -throughout. A greater diameter was impossible as the wall was brought -almost to the edge of the rock. - -By dint of great effort this part of the work was completed by the end -of 1874, which year, by the way, showed the greatest advance that had -been attained in a single twelvemonth. As much of the foundations was -completed in this year as had been achieved during the three previous -years. Although the heavy gales pounded the structure mercilessly, so -well was the masonry laid that it offered quite effective resistance. -Upon this plinth was placed the base of the tower. This likewise is 24 -feet in diameter, and about 10 feet in height. It is also of massive -construction, being solid except for a central cylindrical space which -is capable of receiving some 5 tons of coal. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of Messrs. Bullivant & Co., Ltd._ - -SETTING THE LAST STONE OF THE BEACHY HEAD LIGHTHOUSE.] - -The base was completed in a single year, and in 1876 the erection -of the tower proper was commenced, together with the completion of -the approaching stairway leading from the water-level to the base of -the structure. The latter, divided into seven stories, rises in the -form of a slender cone, tapering from a diameter of 21½ feet at the -bottom to 16½ feet at the top beneath the lantern. Some idea of the -massive character of the work which was demanded in order to resist -the intense fury of the waves may be realized when it is mentioned -that the wall at the first and second floors is 5½ feet in thickness, -leaving a diameter of 10 feet for the apartment on the first floor, -which is devoted to the storage of water, and of 7 feet for that on -the second floor, which contains the oil reservoirs for the lamps. -The living-rooms have a diameter of 11 feet, this increased space -being obtained by reducing the thickness of the wall to 2½ feet. The -erection of the superstructure went forward steadily, five years being -occupied in carrying the masonry from the base to the lantern gallery, -so that in 1881 for the first time powerful warning was given of a -danger dreaded, and often unavoidable, from the time when ships first -sailed these seas. Fifteen years’ labour and peril on the part of the -engineers and their assistants were crowned with success. - -Whereas the Ar-men light off Cape Finisterre demanded fifteen years -for its completion, the construction of the Beachy Head lighthouse off -the South of England coast was completed within a few months. It is -true that the conditions were vastly dissimilar, but the Sussex shore -is exposed to the full brunt of the south-westerly and south-easterly -gales. This lighthouse thrusts its slender lines from the water, -its foundations being sunk into the chalk bed of the Channel, 550 -feet from the base of the towering white cliffs, which constitute a -striking background. This beacon was brought into service in 1902, its -construction having occupied about two years. The light formerly was -placed on the crown of the precipice behind, but, being then some 285 -feet above the water, was far from being satisfactory, as its rays -were frequently blotted out by the ruffle of mist which gathers around -Beachy Head on the approach of evening. - -Indeed, this is one of the great objections to placing a light upon a -lofty headland. In such a position it does not serve as an aid, but -more often than not as a danger, to navigation, owing to the light -being invisible at the time when its assistance is required and sought -most urgently. Consequently lighthouse engineers endeavour to set their -towers at such a level that the light is not raised more than from -160 to 200 feet above the water. In the case of Beachy Head, a further -reason for a new structure was the disintegration of the cliff upon -which the light stood, under the terrific poundings of the sea, huge -falls of chalk having occurred from time to time, which imperilled the -safety of the building. - -When the new lighthouse was taken in hand, investigation of the -sea-bed revealed an excellent foundation in the dense hard chalk, and -accordingly a hole 10 feet deep was excavated out of the solid mass -to receive the footings of the building. As the site is submerged to -a great depth at high-tide, the first operation was the erection of -a circular dam carried to a sufficient height to enable the men to -toil within. By this arrangement the working spells were lengthened -considerably, labour only being suspended at high-tide. When the sea -ebbed below the edge of the dam, the water within was pumped out, -leaving a dry clear space for the workmen. Excavation had to be carried -out with pickaxe and shovel, blasting not being permitted for fear of -shattering and splitting up the mass forming the crust of the sea-bed. - -Beside the site a substantial iron staging was erected, and from -this point to the top of the cliffs behind a Bullivant cableway was -stretched, up and down which the various requirements were carried, -together with the workmen. This cableway, designed by Mr. W. T. H. -Carrington, M.I.C.E., consulting engineer to Messrs. Bullivant and Co., -Ltd., facilitated rapid and economical construction very appreciably. -The span was about 600 feet between the erecting stage and the cliff -summit, and there were two fixed ropes stretched parallel from point -to point. One rope, 6 inches in diameter, had a breaking strain of 120 -tons; the second, 5½ inches thick, had a breaking strain of 100 tons. -At the seaward end the cables were anchored into the solid chalk. -Everything required for the constructional operations was handled by -this carrying system, and when it is recalled that some of the blocks -for the lower courses weighed from 4½ to 5 tons, it will be recognized -that such a method of handling these ungainly loads, with the care -that was demanded to preserve the edges and faces from injury, solved -an abstruse problem completely. - -The base of the tower, the diameter of which is 47 feet, is solid to -a height of 48 feet, except for a central circular space for storing -drinking water. It was designed by Sir Thomas Matthews, M.I.C.E., the -Engineer-in-Chief to the Trinity Brethren, and is a graceful building, -the tower rising in a curve which is described as a “concave elliptic -frustum.” From the base to the lantern gallery is 123½ feet, and 3,660 -tons of Cornish granite were used in its construction. The over-all -height to the top of the lantern is 153 feet. The building is provided -with eight floors, comprising the living and sleeping quarters for -the keepers, storage of oil, and other necessaries. The light, of -the dioptric order, is of 83,000 candle-power, and the two white -flashes given every fifteen seconds are distinguishable for a distance -of seventeen miles, which is the average range of modern British -lighthouses. - -Although the constructional work was frequently interrupted by rough -weather, every advantage was taken of calm periods. While from the -point of daring engineering it does not compare with many of the other -great lights of the world, yet it certainly ranks as a fine example -of the lighthouse builder’s skill. Owing to the elaborate precautions -observed, the achievement was not marred by a single fatality, although -there were many thrilling moments, the sole result of which, however, -was the loss of tools and sections of the plant, which in the majority -of cases were recovered when the tide fell. The most serious accident -was a crushed toe, which befell one of the masons when a stone was -being bedded. - -Although the lighthouse is subjected to the full fury of wind and wave, -if skilfully erected it will withstand the ravages of both without -creating the slightest apprehensions in the engineer’s mind. The stones -are prepared so carefully that they fit one another like the proverbial -glove, while the cement fills every nook and cranny. Occasionally, -however, the cement will succumb to the natural disintegrating forces, -and, becoming detached, reveal a point vulnerable to attack. The air -within the interstice becomes compressed by the surging water, and -thereby the fabric is liable to be shattered. Some years ago one or -two of the lighthouses guarding the Great Lakes of North America -were found to have become weakened from this cause. A novel remedy -was evolved by an ingenious engineer. He provided each tottering -lighthouse with an iron overcoat, enveloping it from top to bottom. -The metal was not laid directly upon the masonry, but was so placed -as to leave about a quarter of an inch between the inner face of the -metal and the surface of the masonry. Liquid cement was then admitted -under pressure--“grouting” it is called--into this annular space, -and penetrating every crack and crevice in the masonry, and adhering -both to the metal and the stonework, it practically formed another -intermediate jacket, binding the two so firmly together as to make them -virtually one. This novel procedure absolutely restored the menaced -building to its original homogeneity and rigidity, so that it became as -sound as the day on which it was built. - -Nowadays, owing to the skill in designing and the workmanship -displayed, one never hears of a modern lighthouse collapsing. Expense -is no object; the engineer does not endeavour to thwart the elements, -but follows a design wherein the minimum of resistance is offered to -them. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE LIGHT AND ILLUMINANTS - - -While it is the tower that probably creates the deepest impression -upon the popular mind, owing to the round of difficulties overcome -associated with its erection, yet, after all, it is the light which -is the vital thing to the navigator. To him symmetry of outline in -the tower, the searching problems that had to be solved before it was -planted in a forbidding spot, the risks that were incurred in its -erection--these are minor details. His one concern is the light thrown -from the topmost height, warning him to keep off a dangerous spot and -by its characteristic enabling him to determine his position. - -I have described the earliest type of light, the open wood or coal -fire blazing on an eminence. In due course the brazier gave way to -tallow candles. This was an advance, certainly, but the range of the -naked light was extremely limited. Consequently efforts were made to -intensify it and to throw it in the desired direction. The first step -was made with a reflector placed behind the illuminant, similar to that -used with the cheap wall-lamp so common in village workshops. This, in -its improved form, is known as the “catoptric system,” the reflector -being of parabolic shape, with the light so disposed that all its rays -(both horizontal and vertical) are reflected in one direction by the -aid of a highly polished surface. While the catoptric system is still -used on some light-vessels, its application to important lighthouses -has fallen into desuetude, as it has been superseded by vastly improved -methods. But the reflector, made either of silvered glass set in a -plaster-of-Paris mould or of brightly polished metallic surfaces, -held the field until the great invention of Augustin Fresnel, which -completely revolutionized the science of lighthouse optics. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--FIXED APPARATUS OF 360 DEGREES. - -Shows one ray throughout the complete circle. - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -Fresnel was appointed a member of the French Lighthouse Commission in -1811, and he realized the shortcomings of the existing catoptric method -only too well. Everyone knows that when a lamp is lighted the luminous -rays are diffused on every side, horizontally as well as vertically. In -lighthouse operations the beam has to be thrown in a horizontal line -only, while the light which is shed towards the top and bottom must be -diverted, so that the proportion of waste luminosity may be reduced to -the minimum. While the parabolic reflector achieved this end partially, -it was far from being satisfactory, and Fresnel set to work to condense -the whole of the rays into a horizontal beam. Buffon, a contemporary -investigator, as well as Sir David Brewster, had suggested that the end -might be met by building up a lens in separate concentric rings, but -neither reduced his theories to practice. - -Fresnel invented a very simple system. He took a central piece of -glass, which may be described as a bull’s-eye, and around this -disposed a number of concentric rings of glass. But these rings -projected beyond one another. Each constituted the edge of a lens -which, while its radius differed from that of its neighbour, owing to -its position, yet was of the same focus in regard to the source of -illumination. The parts were shaped with extreme care and were united -in position by the aid of fish glue, the whole being mounted in a -metal frame. The advantage of the system was apparent in the first -demonstrations. The lenses being comparatively thin, only one-tenth of -the light passing through was absorbed, whereas in the old parabolic -reflectors one-half of the light was lost. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--SINGLE FLASHING APPARATUS (ONE PANEL AND -MIRROR). - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -This revolutionary development was perfected in 1822, and in the -following year it was submitted to its first practical application -on the tower of Cordouan in the Gironde. Several modifications were -made by the inventor for the purpose of adapting his system to varying -conditions. One of the most important was the disposition of lenses -and mirrors above the optical apparatus for the purpose of collecting -and driving back the rays which were sent out vertically from the -illuminant, so that they might be mingled with the horizontal beam, -thereby reinforcing it. At a later date similar equiangular prisms -were placed below the horizontal beam so as to catch the light thrown -downwards from the luminous source, the result being that finally none, -or very little, of the light emitted by the illuminant was lost, except -by absorption in the process of bending the rays into the desired -direction. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--A TWENTY-FOUR PANEL LIGHT, WHICH WAS INTRODUCED -INTO CERTAIN FRENCH LIGHTHOUSES.] - -In this ingenious manner the circle of light is divided into sections, -called “panels,” each of which comprises its bull’s-eye and its -group of concentric rings and prisms. The extent of this division -varies appreciably, as many as sixteen panels being utilized in some -instances. In this direction, however, subdivision can be carried too -far. Thus, in some of the French lighthouses no less than twenty-four -panels were introduced. The disadvantage is obvious. The total volume -of light emitted from the luminous source has to be divided into -twenty-four parts, one for each panel. But the fewer the panels, the -more light is thrown through each, and the correspondingly greater -power of the beam. Thus, in a four-panel light each beam will be six -times as powerful as that thrown from a twenty-four panel apparatus of -the same type. - -Fresnel also introduced the system of revolving the optical apparatus, -and by the introduction of suitable devices was able to give the light -a flashing characteristic, so that it became possible to provide -a means of identifying a light from a distance entirely by the -peculiarity of its flash. The French authorities were so impressed with -the wonderful improvement produced by Fresnel’s epoch-making invention -that it was adopted immediately for all French lights. Great Britain -followed suit a few years later, while other countries embraced the -system subsequently, so that the Fresnel lens eventually came into -universal use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--A FOUR-PANEL LIGHT. - -The ray thrown through each panel is six times as powerful as the beam -thrown through a twenty-four panel apparatus.] - -But the Frenchman’s ingenious invention has been developed out of -recognition. To-day only the fundamental basis is retained. Marked -improvements were made by Mr. Alan Stevenson, the famous Scottish -lighthouse engineer. In fact, he carried the idea to a far greater -degree than Fresnel ever contemplated, and in some instances even -anticipated the latter’s subsequent modifications and improvements. -This was demonstrated more particularly in the holophotal revolving -apparatus, the first example of which he designed for the North -Ronaldshay lighthouse in 1850, a similar apparatus being devised some -years later by Fresnel. In 1862 another great improvement was made by -Mr. J. T. Chance, of the well-known lighthouse engineering firm of -Birmingham, which proved so successful that it was incorporated for -first and third order apparatuses in the New Zealand lights designed by -Messrs. Stevenson in the same year. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--SINGLE APPARATUS IN FOUR PANELS. - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -The French and British investigators, however, were not having things -entirely their own way. The United States played a part in these -developments, although they did not enter very successfully into the -problem. The first lighthouse at Boston Harbour carried candles until -superseded by an ordinary lamp, which was hung in the lantern in much -the same way as it might have been suspended behind the window of a -private dwelling. An inventor, Mr. Winslow Lewis, who confessed that -he knew nothing about lighthouse optics, patented what he called a -“magnifying and reflecting lantern” for lighthouse work, which he -claimed was a lamp, a reflector, and a magnifier, all in one. It was as -crude a device as has ever emanated from an inventive brain, but the -designer succeeded in impressing the Government so effectively that -they gave him £4,000, or $20,000, for his invention. The reflector was -wrought of thin copper with a silvered surface, while the magnifier, -the essence of the invention, was what he called a “lens,” but which -in reality comprised only a circular transparent mass, 9 inches in -diameter, and varying from 2½ to 4 inches in thickness, made of -bottle-green glass. The Government considered that it had acquired a -valuable invention, and was somewhat dismayed by the blunt opinion -of one of its inspectors who held contrary views concerning the -magnifier, inasmuch as he reported cynically that its only merit was -that it made “a bad light worse.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--DOUBLE FLASHING APPARATUS: TWO PANELS AND -MIRROR. - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--DOUBLE FLASHING APPARATUS: TWO GROUPS EACH OF -TWO PANELS. - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -The inventor did not manifest any antagonism to this criticism, but -immediately pointed out the great economy in the consumption of oil -that was arising from the use of his idea. Indeed, he prosecuted his -claims so successfully that he clinched a profitable bargain to himself -with the Government. His apparatus had been fitted to thirty-four -lights, and he contracted to maintain them on the basis of receiving -one-half of the oil previously consumed by the lamps which his -invention superseded. This arrangement was in vogue for five years, -when it was renewed, with the difference that on this occasion the -Government, concluding that the inventor was making too much out of -the transaction, reduced the allowance to one-third. Subsequently the -invention received higher commendation from the officials than that -advanced by the critical inspector, although it must be pointed out -that meanwhile the magnifying bull’s-eye had been abandoned, and a -new type of reflector introduced, so that the sole remaining feature -of the wonderful invention was the lamp. Even that had been modified. -When the Lighthouse Board was established in 1852 it abolished the -much-discussed invention, and introduced the Fresnel system, bringing -the United States into line with the rest of the world. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--TRIPLE FLASHING APPARATUS: THREE PANELS AND -MIRROR. - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -One feature of the subject cannot fail to arrest attention. This -is the possibility of producing a variety of combinations by the -aid of the lenses to fulfil different requirements. The Fresnel, -Stevenson, and Chance developments in the science of lighthouse optics -facilitated this work very significantly. Accordingly, to-day a -variety of lights, evolved from the variations in the mounting of the -lenses, is in vogue. For purposes of identification they have been -divided into a number of classifications, and, for the convenience -of the navigator, are described as lights of the first order, second -order, and so on. Broadly speaking, there are seven main groups, or -orders, the rating only applying to dioptric or catadioptric lights, -indicating the bending of the luminous rays in the desired direction, -either by refraction and reflection through the medium of prisms, or a -combination of both. Actually there is a distinction between these two, -the true dioptric system referring only to refraction, where the ray is -bent in the desired direction by a glass agent, known as a “refracting -prism.” In the catadioptric system, on the other hand, both methods are -employed, since the prism performs the dual purpose of reflecting and -refracting the rays. However, in modern lighthouse parlance both are -grouped under the one distinction “dioptric.” - -The rating or classification of the lights varies according to the -inside radius or focal distance of the lens--in other words, the -distance from the centre of the light to the inner surface of the lens. -The main groups are as follows: - - Hyperradial, 1,330 millimetres (52·3 inches) focal distance. - 1st order, 920 ” (36·2 ” ) ” - 2nd ” 700 ” (27·6 ” ) ” - 3rd ” 500 ” (19·7 ” ) ” - 3½ ” 375 ” (14·7 ” ) ” - 4th ” 250 ” ( 9·8 ” ) ” - 5th ” 187·5 ” ( 7·4 ” ) ” - 6th ” 150 ” ( 5·9 ” ) ” - -The most powerful apparatus used to-day, however, is that known as the -“hyperradiant,” and it is the largest which has yet been devised. For -this, lighthouse engineering is indebted to Messrs. Stevenson, the -engineers to the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses. It was first -suggested as far back as 1869, and experiments were carried out which -emphasized the fact that such an apparatus was required, since it -was found that when large gas-burners were used much of the light in -revolving apparatuses was out of focus and escaped condensation. The -Scottish engineers thereupon suggested that an apparatus should be -used having a focal distance of 1,330 millimetres, or 52·3 inches. In -fact, they went farther and suggested even larger apparatuses, but this -idea has not matured. But it was not until 1885 that Messrs. Stevenson -had such a system manufactured, and then it was tested at the South -Foreland beside the powerful lenses which had just been built for -the new Eddystone and the Mew Island lighthouses. The merits of the -theories advanced by Messrs. Stevenson were then completely proved, for -it was found that with a ten-ring gas-burner the hyperradiant apparatus -threw a light nearly twice as powerful as that given by the rival -lenses with the same burner. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--QUADRUPLE FLASHING APPARATUS: FOUR PANELS. - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -At the present moment the hyperradiant is regarded as the _ultima -thule_ of lighthouse optical engineering, and Messrs. Chance Brothers -and Co., of Birmingham, have built some very magnificent apparatuses of -this order. At present there are not more than a dozen such powerful -lights in operation. Three are on the English coast, at Bishop Rock, -Spurn Point, and Round Island, respectively; two in Scotland, at -Fair Isle and Sule Skerry; two in Ireland, at Bull Rock and Tory -Island; one in France, at Cap d’Antifer; one in China, at Pei Yu-shan; -one in India, at Manora Point, Karachi; and the Cape Race light in -Newfoundland. The hyperradiant apparatus is a massive cage of glass, -standing some 12 feet in height, and, as may be supposed, is extremely -expensive. - -There is another point in lighthouse optics which demands explanation. -This is the term “divergence,” which plays an important part in the -duration of the flash. In speaking about focus, the engineer follows -somewhat in Euclid’s footsteps in regard to the definition of a point; -in a way it is equally imaginary. The focal point does not mean the -whole of the flame, but the centre of the luminous source, and, as is -obvious, it is impossible to secure a flame without dimensions. It may -be an attenuated, round, oval, or fan-shaped light--the result is the -same. The focal point is the theoretical centre of the luminous source, -and the rays, coming from the top, sides, and bottom of the flame -cannot come from the true focus. If they did, all the light from one -panel would be emitted in absolutely parallel lines, and therefore in a -revolving apparatus the beam would pass any given point on the horizon -in an infinitely short period of time--to be precise, instantaneously. -But the ex-focal rays of the flame, in passing through the lens, emerge -at an angle to those coming from the absolute centre, so that the whole -beam becomes “diverged,” and throws a cone of light from the lens. -Consequently the beam occupies an appreciable period of time in passing -a given point on the horizon. - -As may be supposed, the intricate character of the lenses constituting -the optical apparatus of the modern lighthouse demands the highest -skill and infinite care in their preparation, while the composition -of the glass itself is a closely guarded secret. There are less than -half a dozen firms in the world engaged in this delicate and highly -specialized work, of which France claims three, Germany one, and -Great Britain one. All the lighthouse authorities of the various -nations have to secure their requirements from one or other of these -organizations. The industry commenced in France, and for many years the -French reigned supreme. Then it contrived to make its entrance into -England, and was taken up by the family of Chance in Birmingham, who -soon proved themselves equal to their French leaders. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--RED AND WHITE FLASHING APPARATUS. - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -The British firm has established a unique reputation, as it has been -responsible for the majority of the great lights of the world, some of -which are not only of huge dimensions and weight, but also of novel -form. The hyperradial apparatuses which have been placed recently in -the towers of Manora Point and Cape Race probably rank as the most -powerful and the finest in existence. These are used in conjunction -with the petroleum vapour incandescent burner. The Cape Race light, -for instance, comprises a revolving optic of four panels, subtending -a horizontal angle of 90 degrees, with a vertical angle of 121½ -degrees. Each lens comprises the central disc, or bull’s-eye, around -which are placed nine rings of glass, giving a total refracting angle -of 57 degrees. In order to bend the vertical rays into a horizontal -path twenty-two catadioptric reflecting prisms are disposed above -the lens, while below are thirteen similar prisms. The total amount -of glass worked into the four panels is about 6,720 pounds, and the -prisms are mounted in gun-metal frames, which weigh approximately -4,800 pounds, so that the total weight of the glass portion and its -mounting alone, standing some 12 feet in height, is over 11,500 pounds. -The installation completed for the equipment of the Manora Point -lighthouse, Karachi, is very similar. - -In some cases the demand for a powerful light has been met with a -system differing from the “hyperradiant.” The lenses and respective -groups of refractors are superimposed, each tier having its individual -burner and flues for carrying off the products of combustion. In this -way we have the biform, comprising two such panels arranged one above -the other, as in the Fastnet and Eddystone lights; and the quadriform, -wherein four tiers are built one above the other, as installed at the -Mew Island light in Ireland. The advantage of this arrangement is that -a beam of great intensity is secured with a lantern of comparatively -small diameter. - -The French authorities adopted a modification of this system. Instead -of placing two lenses and refractors one above the other, they ranged -them side by side, the effect being analogous to a couple of squinting -eyes, the panels being parallel and therefore throwing out parallel -beams. But these adaptations have not come into extensive use, as -they have been superseded by more simple means of achieving similar -requirements with an even more powerful ray. The hyperradiant stands -as the finest type of apparatus yet devised, and therefore is employed -when an extremely powerful light is required. - -While the design and arrangement of the optical apparatus is certainly -a most vital and delicate task, the mounting thereof upon a substantial -support in such a way that it may perform its work with the highest -efficiency is equally imperative, since the finest apparatus might be -very adversely affected by being improperly mounted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--APPARATUS SHOWING A DOUBLE FLASH, FOLLOWED BY -A SINGLE FLASH. - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -Obviously, owing to the great weight of the glass, the support must -be heavy and substantial. A massive cast-iron pedestal is employed -for this purpose. When the light is of the revolving character, means -have to be incorporated to secure the requisite rotation. In the early -days the turntable upon which the lens is mounted ran upon rollers, -but now a very much better system is universally employed. This has -been brought to a high standard of perfection by Messrs. Chance of -Birmingham, who have carried out unceasing experiments in this field. -The objection to rollers was the enormous friction that was set up, -and the great effort that was required, not only to set the lenses -revolving, but to keep them rotating at a steady pace. In the modern -apparatus the rollers are superseded by an iron trough filled with -mercury, upon which floats the turntable carrying the lenses. When -the apparatus is properly built and balanced, the friction is so -slight that the turntable can be set in motion by the little finger, -notwithstanding that several tons have to be moved. Although the -optical part of the apparatus floats upon the bed of quicksilver in -the same way as a cork lifebelt floats upon water, it is provided with -rollers which serve to hold the whole apparatus steady and to overcome -any oscillation. - -In the case of an immense apparatus such as a hyperradiant lens, -which, together with the turntable, may have a total weight of 17,000 -pounds, an enormous quantity of mercury is required. The trough of the -Cape Race hyperradiant light carries 950 pounds of quicksilver, upon -which the lantern is floated. In such an instance, also, the pedestal -is a weighty part of the apparatus, representing in this case about -26,800 pounds, so that the complete apparatus utilized to throw the -1,100,000 candle-power beam from the guardian of the Newfoundland coast -aggregates, when in working order, some 44,000 pounds, or approximately -20 tons. - -Within the base of the pedestal is mounted the mechanism for rotating -the optical apparatus. This is of the clockwork type driven by a -weight. The latter moves up and down a tube which extends vertically -to a certain depth through the centre of the tower. The weight of the -driving force and the depth of its fall naturally vary according to -the character of the light. In the Cape Race light the weight is of -900 pounds, and it falls 14½ feet per hour. Similarly, the length of -time which the clock will run on one winding fluctuates. As a rule it -requires to be rewound once every sixty or ninety minutes. A longer run -is not recommended, as it would demand a longer weight-tube, while many -authorities prefer the frequent winding, as the man on duty is kept -on the alert thereby. As the weight approaches the bottom of its tube -it sets an electric bell or gong in action, which serves to warn the -light-keeper that the mechanism demands rewinding. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIGHTS, SHOWING -THE RESPECTIVE RADIUS OR FOCAL DISTANCE OF LENS FROM 150 TO 1,330 -MILLIMETRES. - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -The weight and clockwork mechanism perfected by Messrs. Chance is -regarded as one of the best in service. The rotation is perfect and -even, owing to the governing system incorporated, while the steel wire -carrying the weight is preferable to the chain, which is subject to -wear and is noisy in action. In the Chance clockwork gear the weight -is just sufficient to start the apparatus from a state of rest, the -advantage of such a method being that, should the apparatus be stopped -in its revolution from any untoward incident, it is able to restart -itself. - -Of course, the clockwork mechanism is required only in those cases -where the lenticular apparatus has to be revolved. This introduces -the question of avoiding confusion between lights. When beacons were -first brought into service, the lights were of the fixed type, and the -navigator, although warned by the glare to keep away from the spot -so marked, was given no information as to his position. Accordingly, -lighthouse engineers sought to assist him in this direction during -the blackness of the night by providing a ready visual means of -identification. Owing to the ingenuity which has been displayed, it -has been rendered possible to ring the changes upon a light very -extensively. - -These may be subdivided broadly as follows: - - +--------------------+---------+-------------------------------------+ - | Type of Light. | Symbol. | Characteristics. | - +--------------------+---------+-------------------------------------+ - | Fixed | F. | A steady continuous light. | - | | | | - | Flashing | Fl. | A revolving light showing a single | - | | | flash at regular intervals, or a | - | | | fixed light with total eclipses. | - | | | | - | Fixed and flashing | F.Fl. | A fixed light varied at regular | - | | | intervals by a single flash of | - | | | greater brilliancy. | - | | | | - | Group flashing | Gp.Fl. | Various combinations of flashes | - | | | shown at regular intervals. | - | | | | - | Occulting | Occ. | A steady light suddenly and totally | - | | | eclipsed at regular intervals. | - | | | | - | Group occulting | Gp.Occ. | A steady light suddenly and totally | - | | | eclipsed by a group of two | - | | | or more eclipses. | - +--------------------+---------+-------------------------------------+ - -In the foregoing classifications only a white light is used. But it may -so happen that the lighthouse, owing to its position and the dangerous -character of the spot which it marks, carries a light which changes -colour from white to red or green, which are shown alternately in -various combinations. These characteristics are indicated as follows: - - +--------------------+------------+----------------------------------+ - | Type of Light. | Symbol. | Characteristics. | - +--------------------+------------+----------------------------------+ - | | | | - | Alternating | Alt. | White and colour alternating. | - | | | | - | Alternating | Alt.Fl. | Flashing alternations by | - | flashing | | revolving mechanism. | - | | | | - | Alternating fixed | Alt.F.Fl. | Fixed and flashing alternating. | - | and flashing | | | - | | | | - | Alternating group | Alt.Gp.Fl. | Group flashing alternating. | - | flashing | | | - | | | | - | Alternating | Alt.Occ. | Occulting alternately with | - | occulting | | white and coloured | - +--------------------+------------+----------------------------------+ - -In timing a revolving or flashing light, the cycle is taken from the -beginning of one flash to the beginning of the next. In these readings -the flash is always shorter than the duration of the eclipse, while -an occultation is shorter than, or equal to, the length of the light -interval. Since flashing and occulting may be carried out with a -fixed light suddenly extinguished or eclipsed, the characterization -is determined solely according to the relative duration of light -and darkness, irrespective of the type of apparatus employed or the -relative brilliancy. There is one peculiarity of the flashing light -which may be remarked. At short distances and in clear weather a faint -continuous light may be shown. - -Hand in hand with the development of the optical apparatus has been -the wonderful improvement in regard to the illuminants and the methods -of producing a brilliant clear flame. The fuel first used upon the -introduction of the oil lamp was sperm or colza oil, the former being -obtained from the whale, and the latter from seeds and a wild-cabbage. -Both were very expensive, so that the maintenance of a light was -costly--so much so that the United States authorities devoted their -efforts to the perfection of a high-class lard-oil. This proved highly -satisfactory, possessing only one drawback. In winter it congealed so -much under the low temperature that it had to be heated before it -could be placed in the lamp; but once the light was set going, the heat -radiated from the burner served to keep the oil sufficiently fluid to -enable it to mount the wick to the point of combustion under capillary -action. - -So far as the American authorities were concerned, the advantages of -lard-oil sufficed to bring a cheaper medium than colza-oil into vogue. -A company, which had been induced by the Government to install an -elaborate and expensive plant for the production of colza-oil, after -prolonged experiment and efforts to reduce the cost of production, -announced that it could not compete with the lard-oil, and suggested -that the latter should be employed in preference to the colza. The -Government agreed, but, to compensate the company for its trouble, -purchased the plant which the latter had laid down. - -The advances in the processes for refining petroleum, and the -exploitation of the extensive resources of the latter, led to -“earth-oil,” in some form or other, being employed for lighthouse -purposes. The attempt was facilitated by the invention and improvement -of the Argand burner, whereby a brilliant white annular sheet of flame -is produced. Various lighthouse engineers devoted their attention to -the improvement of this burner in conjunction with paraffin. Their -results were completely successful, and at last paraffin became -universally utilized as the cheapest and most efficient illuminant -known. - -The general method of feeding the lamps was to pump the oil from a low -level to the burner, thereby producing practically a pressure-feed -system in preference to the capillary action which is used in the -ordinary household lamp. By increasing the number of rings the -intensity of the flame was increased, until at last it was thought that -with this development perfection had been attained so far as lamps were -concerned. - -Then came another radical revolution. The invention of the incandescent -gas mantle by Dr. von Auer, and the complete change that it wrought -in connection with gas lighting, induced lighthouse engineers to -experiment in this field. As they could not use coal-gas, they devoted -their investigations to the perfection of a gas from petroleum, which -should be capable of combustion with the incandescent burner. Many -years were devoted to these experiments, and many petroleum vapour -systems were devised. One of the best known, most successful, and most -scientifically perfect, is the Chance incandescent light. This burner -is used in many of the most powerful lights of the world and has given -complete satisfaction. The mantle varies in size with the size and -type of the light, ranging from 35 to 85 millimetres in diameter, the -latter, in conjunction with a hyperradial apparatus, producing a light -exceeding 1,000,000 candle-power. - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd._ - -THE HYPERRADIAL APPARATUS FOR THE MANORA POINT LIGHT, KARACHI, INDIA. - -Of 1,330 millimetres focus, this is the most powerful and largest -lighthouse apparatus made.] - -Not only was a far more powerful light obtained in this manner with -the assistance of the petroleum vapour burner and incandescent mantle, -but the cost of maintaining the light was reduced, owing to the great -economy in oil consumption that was effected thereby, the largest -mantle and burner--85 millimetres--burning only 2½ pints of oil per -hour. The light thus obtained, while being vastly superior to that -derived from a six-wick oil-burner, enables a saving of nearly £48, or -$240, per annum to be recorded, taking the cost of the petroleum at -1s., or 25 cents, per gallon delivered to the lighthouse. - -While petroleum is generally used, some countries have adopted other -oil fuels for small permanent lights. Thus, in Germany compressed -oil-gas, water-gas associated with benzine vapour, and Blau liquid gas, -are utilized. The last-named is coming very extensively into vogue, -also, in Holland, Denmark, and Austria. Blau gas has the advantage -that it can be transported in small steel tanks under extremely high -pressure--up to 100 atmospheres, or approximately 1,400 pounds per -square inch. It is an extract of oil-gas produced at a low pressure in -the gas retorts, and then compressed so severely that it liquefies. The -fuel, as it is drawn from the cylinder in which it is stored, has the -pressure reduced by means of a valve, so that it reaches the burner -in a gaseous form at a pressure equivalent to that of the coal-gas used -in private houses, and is burned in the same way with an incandescent -mantle. The advantage of this method lies in the facility with which -large volumes of gas may be transported, a steel cylinder containing -7,500 cubic feet weighing only 132 pounds. It is also inexpensive, a -bottle of the foregoing capacity costing only 12s. 6d., or $3. In some -cases the incandescent mantles, the average life of which is about a -fortnight, are of large diameter, running up to 100 millimetres, or -about 4 inches. - -Recently Mr. Gustaf Dalén, of the Gas Accumulator Company of Stockholm, -the inventor of the Dalén flasher and sun-valve, which are described -elsewhere, has introduced a new illuminant, which is coming into vogue, -especially on the Continent. This is called “Daléngas,” and is a -mixture of 9 per cent. dissolved acetylene and 91 per cent. atmospheric -air. Here the dissolved acetylene gas is conducted from a storage -reservoir or high-pressure gas cylinder, of special construction, to -a governor, where the pressure is reduced, and then to the mixing -apparatus, where the acetylene gas is associated with the air in the -above proportions. The idea of this combination and method is to enable -an acetylene gas mixture to be used with the ordinary incandescent -mantles. - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd._ - -FIRST ORDER TRIPLE FLASHING LIGHT OF 920 MILLIMETRES FOCAL DISTANCE FOR -CHILANG LIGHTHOUSE, CHINA.] - -The advantage of the Daléngas, according to present experience, is -the increased candle-power that is obtainable as compared with other -systems, the superiority being about 75 per cent. under ordinary -conditions. With the largest Fresnel lenses a lighting power of 200,000 -Hefner candle-power is secured, while with revolving lenses of the -latest type a beam of 3,000,000 candle-power can be obtained. The flame -is small, and thus becomes concentrated more in the focus of the lens, -so that the divergence of the light may be diminished if desired. When -a light of a certain range is to be installed, the optical apparatus -can be made smaller for Daléngas than for other illuminants, and the -cost is reduced correspondingly. Similarly, if the system is introduced -into an existing light, the latter can be made appreciably more -powerful, without changing the optical apparatus or affecting the -divergence. - -In this system the gas is conducted into the lens apparatus from above, -and the lighting arrangement is quite independent of, and does not -interfere in any way with, the revolving apparatus, while the time -spent in changing the mantle is less than half a minute. - -All combustible gases, mixed with air in certain proportions, may -produce more or less violent detonations when fired. But the quantity -of mixed gas in this instance is confined in the length of piping -between the burner and the mixing apparatus, and this quantity is so -small that an explosion cannot be dangerous. In fact, all such danger -has been guarded against completely--is, indeed, impossible in any -circumstances. - -Electric light has been adopted in one or two cases; but while the -foremost authorities agree that it throws the best, most brilliant and -most powerful beam of light, the system is generally impracticable -on account of its great cost. When tests with this light were made -some years ago in comparison with the light thrown from oil burners, -it was claimed that the latter, owing to its reddish-yellow tinge, -was the most suitable from the all-round point of view, and that it -could penetrate to a greater distance in foggy weather. I have been -informed by several authorities, who have gone more deeply into this -question since, that this is a fallacy, and that the advantage rests -completely with electric light. Experience in Germany, which has two -magnificent electric lighthouses, and in Scotland, certainly supports -this contention, and I have been assured that the sole reason why -electric lighting has not been adopted more widely is the heavy cost, -both of installation and of maintenance. When electric lighting is -rendered cheaper and is brought more to the level of existing lighting -arrangements, one may expect another complete change in lighthouse -practice. In this direction, as explained in another chapter, the -Germans have carried out practical experiments in their characteristic -manner, and have brought the cost of maintaining a most powerful -electric light to the minimum. - -One very great advantage of the electric light is the ease with which -the power of the beam may be increased during thick weather, so as to -secure penetration to the greatest distance, and decreased to suit -easier conditions in clear weather. - -This point raises the question, “From how far can a light be seen out -at sea?” This factor is influenced by climatic conditions, and also by -the curvature of the earth. The higher the light, or the spectator, -or both, is elevated above the water, the greater the distance from -which the light can be seen. The table on p. 52, prepared by Mr. -Alan Stevenson, the eminent Scottish lighthouse engineer, gives the -distances at which objects can be seen at sea, according to the -respective elevations of the object and the eye of the observer. - -For instance, the passenger on a liner the boat-deck of which is 40 -feet above the water, approaching the English Channel, will sight -the Bishop Rock light from a distance of about 22 miles, because the -focal plane--that is, the bull’s-eye of the lens--is 163 feet above -the water, which, according to the following table, equals about 14½ -miles, to which must be added the height of the boat’s deck, 40 feet -representing 7·25 miles. Similarly, the ray of the Belle Ile light -will come into view when the vessel is 32½ miles distant--height of -focal plane of light, 470 feet = 25 miles, + eye of observer on board -the liner, 45 feet = 7·69 miles; while the Navesink light, being 246 -feet above the water, may be picked up by the captain of a liner from -a distance of 28 miles. The range of many lights, however, owing to -the curvature of the earth, is greatly in excess of their geographical -range, and with the most powerful lights the glare of the luminous -beams sweeping the clouds overhead may be seen for a full hour or more -before the ray itself comes into view. - -TABLE OF DISTANCES AT WHICH OBJECTS CAN BE SEEN AT SEA, ACCORDING -TO THEIR RESPECTIVE ELEVATIONS AND THE ELEVATION OF THE EYE OF THE -OBSERVER. - - +------------+--------------------+-----------------+ - | Heights in | Distances in | Distances in | - | Feet. | Statute or English | Geographical or | - | | Miles. | Nautical Miles. | - +------------+--------------------+-----------------+ - | 5 | 2·958 | 2·565 | - | 10 | 4·184 | 3·628 | - | 15 | 5·123 | 4·443 | - | 20 | 5·916 | 5·130 | - | 25 | 6·614 | 5·736 | - | 30 | 7·245 | 6·283 | - | 35 | 7·826 | 6·787 | - | 40 | 8·366 | 7·255 | - | 45 | 8·874 | 7·696 | - | 50 | 9·354 | 8·112 | - | 55 | 9·811 | 8·509 | - | 60 | 10·246 | 8·886 | - | 65 | 10·665 | 9·249 | - | 70 | 11·067 | 9·598 | - | 75 | 11·456 | 9·935 | - | 80 | 11·832 | 10·260 | - | 85 | 12·196 | 10·570 | - | 90 | 12·549 | 10·880 | - | 95 | 12·893 | 11·180 | - | 100 | 13·228 | 11·470 | - | 110 | 13·874 | 12·030 | - | 120 | 14·490 | 12·560 | - | 130 | 15·083 | 13·080 | - | 140 | 15·652 | 13·570 | - | 150 | 16·201 | 14·220 | - | 200 | 18·708 | 16·220 | - | 250 | 20·916 | 18·14 | - | 300 | 22·912 | 19·87 | - | 350 | 24·748 | 21·46 | - | 400 | 26·457 | 22·94 | - | 450 | 28·062 | 24·30 | - | 500 | 29·580 | 25·65 | - | 550 | 31·024 | 26·90 | - | 600 | 32·403 | 28·10 | - | 650 | 33·726 | 29·25 | - | 700 | 35·000 | 30·28 | - | 800 | 37·416 | 32·45 | - | 900 | 39·836 | 34·54 | - | 1,000 | 41·833 | 36·28 | - +------------+--------------------+-----------------+ - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the “Syren and Shipping.”_ - -LOOKING UP THE LANTERN OF THE NEEDLES LIGHTHOUSE.] - -So far as the candle-power of any light is concerned, the method of -determining this factor, varying according to the calculating methods -adopted, is somewhat misleading. So far as Great Britain is concerned, -the practice of setting out the candle-power of any light in the -official list has been abandoned, the authorities merely stating that -such and such a light is of great power. The United States and Canada, -on the other hand, indicate the approximate candle-power. - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd._ - -FIXED APPARATUS OF THE FOURTH ORDER FOR SARAWAK. - -The focal distance is 250 millimetres, and the diameter of lantern -inside glazing 6 feet 7¾ inches.] - -By combining and arranging the integral parts of the optical apparatus, -the lighthouse engineer is able to accomplish many astonishing results. -Thus, while the various types generally follow accepted broad lines, -coinciding with the order which they represent, here and there some -very striking divergences are made. The Bell Rock light is perhaps -the most interesting example in this direction. It was designed by -Messrs. D. and T. Stevenson, and built by Messrs. Chance Brothers -and Co. The light is alternating, the colours being white and red. -Externally the optical apparatus appears to be bizarre, yet it is one -of the most perfect which has ever been installed. In its design and -construction almost all the known lighthouse optical elements are -incorporated, including the equiangular refractor, the reflecting -prism, the double-reflecting prism, and the dioptric mirror. Another -noteworthy fact is that, by an exceedingly ingenious arrangement, the -absorption of the rays by the glass used in producing the red flashes -is neutralized to such a vast degree that the white and red flashes are -of equal intensity. - -The subsidiary light is another striking feature which the lighthouse -engineer has introduced. For instance, a light may be shown from a -dangerous reef, and give the mariner all the warning desired. But -some distance away may lurk another isolated rock, which it is just -as imperative to indicate, and yet on which another tower cannot be -erected. This necessity is met by the subsidiary light. A portion -of the light from the main apparatus is deflected and thrown to the -desired spot by an ingenious arrangement of the prisms. On the west -coast of Scotland, at Stornoway, a stream of light used to be deflected -from the lantern in a vertical direction down the tower, and there -bent at right angles, to be thrown through a lower window and fall upon -a prism placed on the crest of a rock several hundred feet distant. -From the deck of a vessel, the effect of the light striking the prism -was akin to that produced by a beacon. Similarly in the case of St. -Catherine’s light in the Isle of Wight: a portion of the light, which -would otherwise be wasted over the area on the landward side, is -carried vertically down the tower by a disposal of lenses and prisms, -and is projected horizontally through a small window, after being -coloured into a red ray by passing through some glass of the desired -tint, to mark a danger spot some distance away. This method, however, -is not favoured now, as the peril can be more efficiently marked by -means of an independent beacon, a system which has become feasible -owing to the vast improvements that have been made in automatic lights -requiring no attention for several weeks or months at a time. - -But in those instances where the latter expedient is not adopted, the -practice is to cover the danger with a ray thrown from an entirely -different light. When the present Eddystone tower was completed, a -“low-light room,” as it is called, was incorporated, and a low-powered -light was thrown from two Argand burners and reflectors through a -window to mark a dangerous reef some three miles distant. But perhaps -the best example of a subsidiary light is that which was carried out -by Messrs. Chance in connection with the Cap de Couedie lighthouse. In -this instance two dangers had to be indicated in a subsidiary manner, -one being covered with a red, the other with a green, ray. The red -sector marks a danger spot known as Lipson’s Reef, lying 8¾ miles -distant, while the green light indicates Casuarina Island, 1¾ miles -away. This installation, it may be pointed out, has proved highly -successful, and certainly is very economical. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--THE MEANS WHEREBY THE RAYS ARE DEFLECTED FROM -THE MAIN LIGHT TO FORM A SUBSIDIARY LIGHT. - -(_By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. and Co., Ltd._)] - -There is another point which deserves mention--the duration of the -flash in a revolving light. There was considerable discussion and -difference of opinion upon this question some years ago. It was -maintained that the shorter the duration of the flash, and the more -rapidly it were thrown, the better it would be for the mariner. The -Scottish engineers realized the significance of this problem, and, -despite the hostile criticism of contemporary engineers, adopted a -specific principle which was to give a flash of two and three-quarter -seconds’ duration. Subsequently it was reduced to one second. The -introduction of the mercury float enabled the optical apparatus to be -revolved faster, and also facilitated the reduction in the number of -panels or faces, so that ultimately the Scottish engineers reduced the -flash to one of four-tenths of a second. - -When Mr. Bourdelles devised the mercury float which enabled rotation to -be accelerated, the French authorities rushed to the opposite extreme. -They reduced the faces to four, and arranged for the apparatus to -be revolved at a high speed, so that the duration of the flash was -only one-tenth of a second at rapidly-recurring intervals. This type -of light was called the _feu-éclair_, and was adopted as a result -of prolonged laboratory investigation. But this was an instance -where laboratory experiments and scientific reasoning failed to go -hand in glove with practical experience and navigation, where the -mariner has to contend with all sorts and conditions of weather. The -seafarer expressed his opinion of the one-tenth of a second flash -in uncomplimentary terms, displaying an indifferent appreciation of -artificially-produced sheet-lightning. - -Eventually there was a general agreement, among all those countries -which had investigated the problem closely, that a flash of about -three-tenths of a second was the most satisfactory, and this has -since become tacitly standardized. The French authorities recognized -the fallacy of their idea, and soon came into line with the other -countries. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -FOG-SIGNALS - - -Notwithstanding the wonderful ingenuity that is displayed in the -concentration of light into powerful beams, these all count for nothing -when fog settles upon the sea. The ray of 1,000,000 candle-power is -almost as futile then as the glimmer from a tallow dip. - -Fog is the peril of the sea which the mariner dreads more than any -other. The blanket of mist, descending upon the water, not only shuts -everything from sight, but deadens every sound as well. The sea is -absolutely calm, so that no intimation of danger ahead is conveyed by -the breaking of the waves upon rock, shoal, sandbank, or iron-bound -coast. - -It is in times of fog that the navigator must be given the greatest -protection. As this is impossible to accomplish visually, appeal must -be made to his ear. In the early days of lighthouse engineering the -methods of conveying audible warning were very crude. The discharge -of a gun was the most popular, but it was neither serviceable nor -reliable, and was made upon somewhat haphazard lines. Thus, in the -case of a dangerous headland on the North American coast, which the -Boston steamer had to round on its journey, the keepers mounted guard -at the probable time of the vessel’s arrival off this point. They -listened eagerly for the steamer’s whistle, and when it came screaming -over the water they began hurriedly firing a carronade, keeping up -the blank-cartridge bombardment until another shriek told them that -those on the vessel had heard their signals. Sometimes the whistle -was heard from a distance of six miles; at others from not more than -two miles away. It depended upon circumstances. Obviously, such a -primitive system was attended with considerable danger, as an accident -was liable to happen to the men in their feverish haste to load and -discharge the gun, while the plight of the boat was far from being -enviable at times. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd._ - -A MODERN LIGHTHOUSE SIREN PLANT. - -Showing gas engines and air-compressors in duplicate, with siren at -side.] - -In the early days every lighthouse tower was provided with a heavy -bell. Indeed, the ponderous dome of metal projecting from the lantern -gallery was considered indispensable. The bell varied in weight from -1,200 to 2,240 pounds, was fitted with a massive clapper, and when -struck emitted a deep musical note. In order to enable the seafarer -to gain some idea of his whereabouts, the fog-signals were given a -sound-characteristic somewhat upon the lines of those in connection -with the light. Thus, one lighthouse would give one stroke every ten -seconds; another would give two strokes in quick succession, followed -by a long silence, and so on. This system suffers from the severe -handicap that the sound does not travel very far during foggy weather. - -Another ingenious engineer recommended the utilization of the -locomotive whistle, giving a high-toned, ear-piercing shriek, but -the same objection as attended the use of the bell prevailed: the -sound could not be heard more than a short distance away. The British -lighthouse authorities submitted the idea to a series of searching -investigations to ascertain its possibilities, but eventually were -compelled to conclude that it was not superior to, if as good as, the -other systems then in vogue. The United States authorities, as a result -of their independent experiments, expressed a similar opinion; but in -Canada practical application gave this whistle a favourable verdict. - -Rockets also have been adopted, and are highly successful. Indeed, this -method of conveying audible warning prevails still in many countries. -The practicability of such a means of throwing sound over a wide area -was advanced by Sir Richard Collinson, when Deputy-Master of Trinity -House, and his idea comprised the insertion of a gun-cotton charge, -timed to explode at a given height, in the head of the rocket. The -height could be varied up to about 1,000 feet, and the weight of -the charge fluctuated according to requirements. The rocket system -was tested very severely, and in some instances the report was heard -as many as twenty-five miles away. It received the approbation of -Professor Tyndall, and, although superior methods of signalling have -been devised since, there remain one or two lighthouse stations where -it is considered to be the most satisfactory fog-signalling device, -notably the station on the island of Heligoland, where the rocket is -hurled into the air to explode at a height of nearly 700 feet. - -In many lighthouses the detonation of gun-cotton constitutes the means -of conveying warning to passing vessels, but is accomplished in a -different manner. The charge, instead of being sent into the air to -be exploded, is attached to a special device which is supported upon -a simple frame at a point above the lantern, so that no damage may -be inflicted upon the glass of the latter from the concussion. The -apparatus is fitted with a safety device which prevents premature -explosion, so that the keeper is preserved from personal injury, and, -unless culpable negligence is manifested, the charge cannot be ignited -until it has been raised to its designed position. The report is of -great volume, and as a rule can be heard a considerable distance; but -in this, as in all other cases, the atmosphere plays many strange -tricks. Still, it has not been superseded yet for isolated sea-rock -lighthouses, such as the Eddystone, Skerryvore, and Bell Rock, where -there is lack of adequate space for the installation of any other -equally efficient fog-signalling facilities. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Paul, Penzance._ - -THE SIRENS OF THE LIZARD. - -Owing to the importance of the Lizard Station and the fact that the -coast often is obscured by fog, a powerful fog-signalling station is -imperative.] - -In the early seventies an American investigator, Mr. C. L. Daboll, -contrived an entirely new system, which developed into the foundation -of one of the most successful fog-signalling devices for lighthouses -which has been discovered--the siren. The Daboll invention was a huge -trumpet, recalling a mammoth phonograph horn. It was 17 feet in length, -and its mouth was 38 inches in diameter. In the lower end of this -trumpet--the throat--was placed a tongue of steel measuring 10 inches -in length and secured at one end to form a reed. It was blown by air -compressed in a reservoir to the desired degree, and then permitted to -escape through the trumpet. The mad rush of the expanding air through -the constricted passage set the reed vibrating violently, causing the -emission of a penetrating, discordant bellow. When Daboll commenced his -experiments, he suffered from the lack of a suitable mechanical means -for compressing the air, and made shift with a donkey for this purpose -until the hot-air engine was improved, when the latter was substituted. - -Trinity House adopted the idea and found it serviceable; but the -Canadian authorities, after four years’ experiment, dissented from this -view, remarking that the trumpet was expensive to maintain, unreliable -in working, and liable to break down when most urgently needed. In -fact, they characterized the Daboll trumpets which they had installed -as “sources of danger instead of aids to navigation.” - -From the trumpet to the siren was not a very big step. The history -of the latter’s invention is somewhat obscure, but it was brought -before the United States Government in a primitive form. The American -engineers, recognizing its latent possibilities, took it up, and -endeavoured to improve it to such a degree as to render it suitable -for lighthouse work. Their efforts were only partially successful. -The solution of the many difficulties attending its perfection -was effected in Great Britain by Professor Frederick Hale Holmes, -whose magneto-electric machine brought electricity within reach -of the lighthouse as an illuminant, and it was due to the efforts -of this scientist that the siren became one of the most efficient -sound-producing instruments which have been discovered for this class -of work. - -The reason that made Professor Holmes bring his energies and knowledge -to bear upon this subject was somewhat curious. The siren in its -first form made its way from the United States to Great Britain. The -British Admiralty realized the power and penetration of its sound, -and forthwith adopted it in the navy, operating it by steam instead -of by air. At this there arose a great outcry from the mercantile -marine. Captains argued that the similarity of the signals confused -and often misled them, as they could not tell in the fog whether the -sound proceeded from a warship or a lighthouse. The Board of Trade was -forced to intervene, but, as it had no jurisdiction over the Admiralty, -it sought to extricate itself from an awkward situation by inviting -Professor Holmes to perfect a siren which would emit a distinctive -sound. His efforts were crowned with complete success. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--THE FIXED (A) AND REVOLVING (B) PARTS OF THE -SIREN.] - -Professor Holmes exhibited his wonderful device at the Paris Exhibition -of 1867. He installed it in working order, and the visitors displayed -an anxiety to hear it. It was brought into action, and those around -never forgot the experience. It was the most diabolical ear-splitting -noise which had been heard, and, apprehensive that serious results -might arise from its demonstration when the buildings were thronged -with sight-seers, the authorities refused to permit it to be sounded -again. The humorous illustrated papers did not suffer such a golden -opportunity to escape. Grotesque and laughable cartoons appeared -depicting the curious effects produced by the blast of the instrument, -one showing the various statues being frightened off their pedestals -proving exceptionally popular. - -The siren in its simplest form is an enlarged edition of the “Deviline” -toy whistle. There is a Daboll trumpet with a small throat, in which -is placed horizontally, not a reed, but a metal disc, so as to fill -the whole circular space of the throat. The sheet of metal is pierced -with a number of radial slits. Behind this disc is a second plate of -a similar character, and likewise pierced with radial slits of the -same size, shape and number; but whereas the first disc is fixed, the -second is mounted on a spindle. The free disc rotates at high speed, -so that the twelve jets of air which are driven through the throat are -interrupted intermittently by the blanks of the revolving disc coming -over the openings in the fixed disc, while when the two slits are in -line the air has a free passage. If the revolving disc completes 3,000 -revolutions per minute, and there are twelve slits in the discs, then a -total of 36,000 vibrations per minute is produced while the instrument -is in operation. The speed of the revolving disc, as well as the number -and size of the openings, varies according to the size and class of the -siren; but in any case an intensely powerful, dense and penetrating -musical tone is emitted, which can be heard a considerable distance -away. The blast of a high-powered large siren has been heard at a -distance of twenty to thirty miles in clear weather, though of course -in thick weather its range is reduced. - -While Professor Holmes was experimenting with this device, another -investigator, Mr. Slight, of Trinity House, was wrestling with the same -problem. Indeed, he may be described as the inventor of the modern -siren. Although he effected only an apparently slight modification, -it was the touch which rendered the instrument perfect, while it also -removed the possibility of a breakdown at a critical moment, as he -rendered the moving part freer in its working and eliminated the severe -strains to which it was subjected. The improvement was appreciated by -Professor Holmes, who adopted it immediately. - -While these indefatigable efforts were in progress, ingenious attempts -were made to press Nature herself into operation. As is well known, -there are many “blowing-holes” distributed throughout the world, where -the water by erosion has produced a long, narrow cavern in the base -of a rock, with a constricted outlet into the outer air. The waves, -rushing into the cave, compress the air within, which, in its escape at -high velocity through the small vent, produces a bellowing sound. It -was this curious phenomenon which gave the Wolf Rock its name. General -Hartmann Bache, of the United States Engineers, attempted in 1858 to -make use of a blowing-hole on one of the Farallon Isles, lying forty -miles off the entrance to San Francisco Bay. A chimney was built with -bricks above the orifice, through which the air compressed by the waves -below made its escape, and on top of this shaft a locomotive whistle -was placed. The first effort was a dead failure, because the force of -the rush of air was so great that it carried away the chimney; but in -the second attempt success was achieved, and an excellent automatic -whistle blared out night and day almost continuously and was audible -for some distance out to sea. The only drawback was that in foggy -weather, when the most intense sound was required, the signal was dumb -owing to the smoothness of the water. This novel signal was maintained -for some time and then was superseded by a powerful siren. - -One of the most interesting fog-signalling installations in service is -that on the bald formidable hump of rock lying in the estuary of the -Clyde, known as Ailsa Craig. For years this rock constituted a terrible -menace to the crowded shipping of this important marine thoroughfare, -and its victims were numerous. While the Commissioners of Northern -Lighthouses mitigated its terrors as far as possible by the provision -of a powerful light, they recognized the fact that a visual warning -did not meet the situation completely. But the installation of a -fog-signal was a somewhat peculiar problem, owing to the configuration -of the rock. A single station would not meet requirements, because it -was necessary to throw the warning from both sides of the obstruction. -The provision of two sound-stations would have been an expensive -matter, even if it had been feasible, which it was not, owing to the -precipitous nature of the cliffs. - -An ingenious solution was advanced by Mr. Charles Ingrey, C.E. He -proposed to erect a central power-station and to control the sounding -of two sirens, placed on opposite sides of the island, therefrom, -the compressed air being led through underground piping. The plans -were submitted to Messrs. Stevenson, the engineers to the Northern -Lighthouse Board, who, after examining the proposal thoroughly, gave -it their approval. But when it came to obtaining the sanction for -the requisite expenditure from the Board of Trade, that august body, -despite the fact that the project had been investigated and had -received the approbation of the engineers to the Northern Lighthouse -Commissioners, declined to permit public money to be expended upon -an untried scheme. Such is the way in which pioneering effort and -ingenuity are stifled by Government departments. - -[Illustration: THE ACETYLENE FOG-GUN. - -The latest ingenious device for giving both audible and visual warning -automatically.] - -Many another engineer would have abandoned the project after such -a rebuff, but Mr. Ingrey without any delay laid down a complete -installation upon the lines he contemplated on the island of Pladda, -where a Holmes fog-horn was in service. With the aid of a workman -whom he took from Glasgow, the light-keepers and some farm labourers, -this trial installation was completed, the piping being carried round -the island from the air-compressing plant to the fog-signal. The -work occupied about a fortnight, and then, everything being ready to -convince the sceptical Board of Trade, the inspecting engineers were -treated to a comprehensive and conclusive demonstration. They were -satisfied with what they saw, appreciated the reliability of the idea -and gave the requisite sanction. Forthwith the Ailsa Craig Island -installation was put in hand and duly completed. - -This plant possesses many ingenious features. As the light is derived -from gas distilled from crude oil, a small gas-making plant is -installed on the island, and this is used also for driving a battery -of five eight-horse-power gas-engines--four are used at a time, the -fifth being in reserve--to supply the thirty-horse-power demanded to -operate the fog-signal. The energy thus developed drives two sets of -powerful air-compressors, the four cylinders of which have a bore -of 10 inches by a stroke of 20 inches, the air being compressed to 80 -pounds per square inch and stored in two large air-receivers which hold -194 cubic feet. From this reservoir pipes buried in a trench excavated -from the solid rock extend to the two trumpets, placed on the north -and south sides of the island respectively. The length of piping on -the north side is 3,400 feet, and on the south side 2,500 feet. At -places where the pipe makes a dip, owing to the configuration of the -rock, facilities are provided to draw off any water which may collect. -Extreme care had to be displayed in connecting the lengths of piping, -so that there might be no leakage, in which event, of course, the -pressure of the air would drop and thereby incapacitate the signal. - -[Illustration: THE RATTRAY HEAD LIGHTHOUSE. - -A very exposed Scottish rock tower. It is unique because a full-powered -siren fog-signal is installed therein.] - -Each signal is mounted in a domed house built of concrete, the mouth -of the trumpet extending from the crown of the roof. Within the house -is an air-receiver 9 feet in height by 4½ feet in diameter, of about -140 cubic feet capacity, which receives the compressed air transmitted -through the piping from the compressing-station. It also contains -the automatic apparatus whereby the signal is brought into action -at the stipulated intervals, so as to produce the requisite sound -characteristic. This is a self-winding clockwork mechanism which admits -and cuts off the supply of air to the trumpets, its chief feature -being that the clock is wound up by the compressed air itself, so that -it is entirely free from human control. However, as a breakdown even -with the best-designed and most-carefully-tended machinery cannot be -circumvented entirely, there is a duplicate electrical mechanism, -also automatically controlled from the power-generating station, the -electric cables for which are laid in the pipe trenches. This acts as -an emergency control. - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson._ - -SULE SKERRY LIGHT. - -A lonely light of Scotland. The nearest land is the Butt of Lewis, 30 -miles distant.] - -The two signals are not sounded simultaneously; neither are they -alike nor of the same tone. The north signal gives a single blast of -high tone, lasting five seconds, and then is silent for 175 seconds. -On the south side the siren gives a double note, although there are -three blasts--viz., high, low, high--corresponding to the letter R of -the Morse code. The notes are sounded for two seconds, with similar -intervening periods of silence, and silence for 170 seconds between -the groups. The complete signal from the two stations is given once -in three minutes, the north signal commencing to sound ninety seconds -after the south signal has ceased. The high note corresponds to the -fourth E in the musical compass, there being 38,400 vibrations per -minute; while the low note is tuned to the third D in the musical -compass, with 16,800 vibrations per minute. The notes are purposely -timed more than an octave apart and made discordant, as thereby -the sound is more likely to attract attention and to be readily -distinguished. - -About eighteen minutes are required to bring the apparatus into -operation--that is, to start compressing and to raise the pressure of -the air to the requisite degree--but, as fogs descend upon the Clyde -with startling suddenness, the signals may be started within five -minutes of the fog-alarm. The air-reservoirs are kept charged to the -working pressure, the machinery being run once or twice for a short -time every week for this purpose and to keep the plant in working order. - -Up to this time it had been the practice to place the siren in close -proximity to the air-compressing machinery, but the installation at -Ailsa Craig proves conclusively that this is not essential to success; -also it demonstrates the fact that a number of signals can be operated -reliably and effectively from a central station. Indeed, this Scottish -plant aroused such widespread interest that the Pulsometer Engineering -Company of Reading, who had acquired Professor Holmes’s patents and who -carried out the above installation, received several inquiries from -abroad with regard to its suitability for similar situations. In one -instance the compressed air was to be transmitted for a distance of -nearly four miles. - -While the siren has been adopted and found adequate by the majority -of nations, the Canadian Government has installed a far more powerful -instrument upon the River St. Lawrence, as the ordinary siren signals -originally established near the mouth of the river, although of -great power, were found to be inadequate. The new apparatus, which -is known as the “diaphone,” gives an extraordinarily powerful sound. -It comprises a cylindrical chamber, in the walls of which are cut a -number of parallel slits. Concentrically disposed within the chamber -is a cylindrical hollow piston, with similar slits and a flange at one -end, the whole being enclosed in an outer casing. Air under pressure -is admitted into the outer casing, and drives the piston backwards and -forwards with great rapidity. The result is that the air effects its -escape through the orifices, when they come into line, in intermittent -puffs. - -While the broad principle is not unlike that of the conventional -siren, the main difference is that in the latter there is a rotary -motion, whereas in the diaphone the action is reciprocating. The great -advantage of the latter is that all the vibrations are synchronous, -owing to the symmetrical disposition of the slits, and consequently -the note produced is very pure. The mechanism is so devised that the -piston’s motion is controlled to a nicety, and the sound is constant. -Experience has proved that the best results are obtained by using air -at a pressure of 30 pounds per square inch. The sound thus produced -is intensified to a markedly greater degree by means of a resonator -properly attuned. - -This instrument has displaced the siren among the stations upon the St. -Lawrence River. The general type of apparatus has a piston 4½ inches -in diameter, and uses 11 pounds of air per second during the sounding -of the blast. But at more important stations a far larger and more -powerful class of apparatus is used, the diaphone at Cape Race having a -piston 8½ inches in diameter and using 27 feet of air per second while -sounding. This does not indicate the limit of size, however, since the -builders of this terrible noise-producer are experimenting with an -apparatus having a piston 14 inches in diameter. The sound issuing from -such a huge apparatus would be almost as deafening as the report of a -big gun and should succeed in warning a mariner several miles away. - -The atmosphere, however, plays many strange pranks with the most -powerful sound-producing instruments. To-day, for instance, a -fog-signal may be heard at a distance of ten miles; to-morrow it will -fail to be audible more than a mile away. This aberration of sound is -extraordinary and constitutes one of the unsolved problems of science. -Innumerable investigations have been made with the object of finding -the cause of this erratic action, but no conclusive explanation has -been forthcoming. Another strange trick is that, while a sound may be -audible at distances of two and four miles during a fog, it fails to -strike the ear at three miles. It is as if the sound struck the water -at a range of two miles, bounded high into the air, and again fell upon -the water at four miles, giving a second leap to hit the water again -farther on, in much the same way as a thin flat stone, when thrown -horizontally into the water, will hop, skip, and jump over the surface. -This trick renders the task of the lighthouse engineer additionally -exasperating and taxes his ingenuity to the utmost, as it appears to -baffle completely any attempt towards its elimination. - -Recently another ingenious and novel system has been perfected by -Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson. This is an acetylene gun which acts -automatically. Hitherto an unattended fog-signal--except the bell-buoy -tolled by the movement of the waves, which is far from satisfactory, -or the whistling buoy, which is operated upon the same lines and is -equally ineffective except at very short range--has found little -favour. The objections to the bell and whistle buoys are the faintness -of the sounds, which may be drowned by the noises produced on the ship -herself; while, if the wind is blowing away from the vessel, she may -pass within a few feet of the signal, yet outside its range. Thus it -will be recognized that the fog-gun serves to fill a very important gap -in connection with the warning of seafarers during thick weather. - -As is well known, even a small charge of acetylene, when fired, will -produce a loud report, and this characteristic of the gas induced -Messrs. Stevenson to apply it to a fog-signal. They have developed -the automatic acetylene system of lighting to a very high degree -around the coasts of Scotland, and there are now more than twenty -lights of this class, mostly unattended, in operation, some of which -have been established for many years. These lights have proved highly -satisfactory. There has never been an accident, a freedom which is due -to the fact that Moye’s system is used, wherein the possibilities of -mishap are surmounted very effectively. Accordingly, the engineers saw -no reason why a similar system should not be adapted to the emission of -sound instead of light signals, or, if desired, of both simultaneously. -Their experiments have been crowned with complete success, and, as the -gun uses no more gas than would be consumed if a flashing light system -were used, the cost of operation is very low. - -The general features of the acetylene fog-gun may be observed from the -illustration (facing p. 64). The acetylene, dissolved in acetone, is -contained under pressure in a cylinder, and thence passes through a -reducing valve to an annular space, where it is ignited by an electric -spark. A trumpet is attached to the firing chamber, so that the sound -becomes intensified. If desired, the explosion can be effected at the -burner, so that, in addition to a sound-signal, a flashing light is -given. - -The applications vary according to the circumstances. Suppose there is -an unlighted bell-buoy at the bar of a port. Here the procedure is to -install a gun and light combined, so that the flash of the explosion -may give visual and the report audible warning. Or, should there be a -lighted buoy already in position, its effectiveness may be enhanced -by adding the gun, the detonation alone being employed for warning -purposes. The size of the cylinder containing the dissolved acetylene -may be varied, so that renewal need only be carried out once in one, -two, or more months, according to conditions. If the increasing traffic -around a certain rock demand that the latter should be marked, a -combined sound and light apparatus can be installed. It may be that the -head of a pier which is accessible only at certain times, or a beacon -which can be reached only at rare intervals, may require improved -facilities. In this case the gun can be set up and a cable laid to a -convenient spot which may be approached at all times by an attendant. -Then the latter, by the movement of a switch, can bring the gun -instantly into action upon the alarm of fog, and it will keep firing at -the set intervals until, the fog lifting, the gun is switched off. - -In some cases, where the apparatus is set upon a lonely rock, -a submarine cable may be laid between the marked point and the -control-station. The cable is not a very costly addition. There are -many lights where wages have to be paid merely for a man to bring the -fog-signalling bell machinery into action. In such cases a fog-gun can -be installed and the annual cost of maintenance decreased enormously, -thereby enabling the outlay on the gun to be recouped within a very -short time; while the light may be improved by using the flashes, so -that the warning can be rendered more distinctive. - -The invention is also applicable to lightships, many of which are -manned by four men or more at a large cost per annum. In the majority -of cases an unattended Stevenson lightship--such as described in -another chapter, six of which are in use around the coasts of Scotland, -and which give, not only a first-class light, but, by the aid of -the fog-signal gun, can be made to give an excellent fog-signal as -well--offers a means of reducing the heavy maintenance charges arising -in connection with a manned light-vessel. In many instances existing -lightships can be converted to the automatic system and completed by -the gun. Each case must, of course, be decided upon its merits as -regards the time the gun and light are required to work upon a single -charge of acetylene, but there are no insuperable obstacles to its -utilization. - -Of course, in an isolated station lying perhaps some miles off the -mainland, it may be necessary to keep the gun going night and day in -fog and in clear weather alike. In this case, naturally, the great -number of explosions involves considerable expense; but the inventors -are carrying out experiments with a view to switching the gun on and -off, as required, from a distant point by means of wireless telegraphy, -so as to effect a saving in the expenditure of acetylene when there is -no need on account of fine weather to keep the gun going. Still, it -must not be supposed that the detonations even during clear weather -are altogether abortive, inasmuch as a sound-signal at sea, where -the atmosphere has a long-distance-carrying capacity as a rule, in -conjunction with a light, draws double attention to a danger spot. -Under such circumstances the waste of acetylene gas during periods of -clear weather is more apparent than real. - -The contest against the elements is still being waged, and slowly but -surely engineering science is improving its position, and is hopeful of -rendering audible signals as completely effective as those of a visual -character. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE - - -It is doubtful whether the name of any lighthouse is so familiar -throughout the English-speaking world as the “Eddystone.” Certainly -no other “pillar of fire by night, of cloud by day,” can offer so -romantic a story of dogged engineering perseverance, of heartrending -disappointments, disaster, blasted hopes, and brilliant success. - -Standing out in the English Channel, about sixty miles east of the -Lizard, is a straggling ridge of rocks which stretches for hundreds of -yards across the marine thoroughfare, and also obstructs the western -approach to Plymouth Harbour. But at a point some nine and a half miles -south of Rame Head, on the mainland, the reef rises somewhat abruptly -to the surface, so that at low-water two or three ugly granite knots -are bared, which tell only too poignantly the complete destruction -they could wreak upon a vessel which had the temerity or the ill luck -to scrape over them at high-tide. Even in the calmest weather the -sea curls and eddies viciously around these stones; hence the name -“Eddystones” is derived. - -From the days when trading vessels first used the English Channel the -reef has been a spot of evil fame. How many ships escaped the perils -and dangers of the seven seas only to come to grief on this ridge -within sight of home, or how many lives have been lost upon it, will -never be known. Only the more staggering holocausts, such as the wreck -of the _Winchelsea_, stand out prominently in the annals of history, -but these serve to emphasize the terrible character of the menace -offered. The port of Plymouth, as may be supposed, suffered with -especial severity. - -As British overseas traffic expanded, the idea of indicating the -spot for the benefit of vessels was discussed. The first practical -suggestion was put forward about the year 1664, but thirty-two years -elapsed before any attempt was made to reduce theory to practice. -Then an eccentric English country gentleman, Henry Winstanley, who -dabbled in mechanical engineering upon unorthodox lines, came forward -and offered to build a lighthouse upon the terrible rock. Those who -knew this ambitious amateur were dubious of his success, and wondered -what manifestation his eccentricity would assume on this occasion. Nor -was their scepticism entirely misplaced. Winstanley raised the most -fantastic lighthouse which has ever been known, and which would have -been more at home in a Chinese cemetery than in the English Channel. -It was wrought in wood and most lavishly embellished with carvings and -gilding. - -Four years were occupied in its construction, and the tower was -anchored to the rock by means of long, heavy irons. The light, merely -a flicker, flashed out from this tower in 1699 and for the first time -the proximity of the Eddystones was indicated all round the horizon -by night. Winstanley’s critics were rather free in expressing their -opinion that the tower would come down with the first sou’-wester, but -the eccentric builder was so intensely proud of his achievement as to -venture the statement that it would resist the fiercest gale that ever -blew, and, when such did occur, he hoped that he might be in the tower -at the time. - -Fate gratified his wish, for while he was on the rock in the year 1703 -one of the most terrible tempests that ever have assailed the coasts -of Britain gripped the structure, tore it up by the roots, and hurled -it into the Channel, where it was battered to pieces, its designer -and five keepers going down with the wreck. When the inhabitants of -Plymouth, having vainly scanned the horizon for a sign of the tower on -the following morning, put off to the rock to investigate, they found -only the bent and twisted iron rods by which the tower had been held in -position projecting mournfully into the air from the rock-face. - -Shortly after the demolition of the tower, the reef, as if enraged at -having been denied a number of victims owing to the existence of the -warning light, trapped the _Winchelsea_ as she was swinging up Channel, -and smashed her to atoms, with enormous loss of life. - -Although the first attempt to conquer the Eddystone had terminated so -disastrously, it was not long before another effort was made to mark -the reef. The builder this time was a Cornish labourer’s son, John -Rudyerd, who had established himself in business on Ludgate Hill as a -silk-mercer. In his youth he had studied civil engineering, but his -friends had small opinion of his abilities in this craft. However, -he attacked the problem boldly, and, although his tower was a plain, -business-looking structure, it would have been impossible to conceive -a design capable of meeting the peculiar requirements of the situation -more efficiently. It was a cone, wrought in timber, built upon a stone -and wood foundation anchored to the rock, and of great weight and -strength. The top of the cone was cut off to permit the lantern to be -set in position. The result was that externally the tower resembled -the trunk of an oak-tree, and appeared to be just about as strong. It -offered the minimum of resistance to the waves, which, tumbling upon -the ledge, rose and curled around the tapering form without starting a -timber. - -Rudyerd, indeed, may be considered to be the father of the science of -modern lighthouse designing, because the lines that he evolved have -never been superseded for exposed positions even in these days of -advanced engineering science, greater constructional facilities, and -improved materials. Rudyerd’s ingenuity and skill received a triumphant -vindication when the American engineers set out to build the Minot’s -Ledge and Spectacle Reef lighthouses, inasmuch as these men followed -slavishly in the lines he laid down, and their achievements are -numbered among the great lighthouses of the world to-day. - -Rudyerd built his tower with infinite care, although he was harassed in -his operations by the depredations of French privateers, who haunted -this part of the British coast. On one occasion the whole of the men -were surprised while at their work, and were borne off in triumph as -prisoners of war to France. Louis XIV., however, heard of the capture, -and the privateers, instead of being honoured for the catch, as they -anticipated, were strongly reprimanded and compelled to release their -captures. “Their work is for the benefit of all nations. I am at war -with England, not with humanity,” was the Sovereign’s comment; and -by way of compensation the prisoners were loaded with presents and -reconveyed to the rock, to resume their toil. - -For forty years Rudyerd’s structure defied the elements, and probably -would have been standing to this day had it not possessed one weak -point. It was built of wood instead of stone. Consequently, when a fire -broke out in the lantern on December 4, 1755, the flames, fanned by the -breeze, rapidly made their way downwards. The keepers were impotent and -sought what refuge they could find under projecting crags below, as -the lead which had been employed in construction melted into drops and -rained down on all sides, so that the unfortunate men were exposed to -another and more alarming danger. In fact, one man, while watching the -progress of the fire, was drenched with a shower of molten metal, some -of which, he declared, had entered his open mouth and had penetrated -into his stomach. When rescued he was writhing in fearful agony, but -his story was received with incredulity, his comrades believing that -the experience had turned his brain and that this was merely one of his -delusions. When the man died, a post-mortem examination was made, and -the doctors discovered ample corroboration of the man’s story in the -form of a lump of lead weighing some seven ounces! - -No time was lost in erecting another tower on the rock, for now -it was more imperative than ever that the reef should be lighted -adequately. The third engineer was John Smeaton, who first landed on -the rock to make the surveys on April 5, 1756. He was able to stay -there for only two and a quarter hours before the rising tide drove -him off, but in that brief period he had completed the work necessary -to the preparation of his design. Wood had succumbed to the attacks -of tempest and of fire in turn. He would use a material which would -defy both--Portland stone. He also introduced a slight change in the -design for such structures, and one which has been universally copied, -producing the graceful form of lighthouse with which everyone is so -familiar. Instead of causing the sides to slope upwards in the straight -lines of a cone, such as Rudyerd adopted, Smeaton preferred a slightly -concave curve, so that the tower was given a waist at about half its -height. He also selected the oak-tree as his guide, but one having an -extensive spread of branches, wherein will be found a shape in the -trunk, so far as the broad lines are concerned, which coincides with -the form of Smeaton’s lighthouse. He chose a foundation where the rock -shelved gradually to its highest point, and dropped vertically into the -water upon the opposite side. The face of the rock was roughly trimmed -to permit the foundation-stones of the tower to be laid. The base of -the building was perfectly solid to the entrance level, and each stone -was dovetailed securely into its neighbour. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Paul, Penzance._ - -THE EDDYSTONE, THE MOST FAMOUS LIGHTHOUSE OF ENGLAND. - -To the right is the stump of Smeaton’s historic tower.] - -From the entrance, which was about 15 feet above high-water, a central -well, some 5 feet in diameter, containing a staircase, led to the -storeroom, nearly 30 feet above high-water. Above this was a second -storeroom, a living-room as the third floor, and the bedroom beneath -the lantern. The light was placed about 72 feet above high-water, -and comprised a candelabra having two rings, one smaller than, and -placed within, the other, but raised about a foot above its level, the -two being held firmly in position by means of chains suspended from -the roof and secured to the floor. The rings were adapted to receive -twenty-four lights, each candle weighing about 2¾ ounces. Even candle -manufacture was in its infancy in those days, and periodically the -keepers had to enter the lantern to snuff the wicks. In order to keep -the watchers of the lights on the alert, Smeaton installed a clock of -the grandfather pattern in the tower, and fitted it with a gong, -which struck every half-hour to apprise the men of these duties. This -clock is now one of the most interesting relics in the museum at -Trinity House. - -The first stone of the tower was laid on a Sunday in June, 1757, as -the date on the block indicates; and although work had to be pursued -fitfully and for only a few hours at a time between the tides, in the -early stages, Smeaton seized every opportunity offered by the wind -and sea to push the task forward. For four years the men slaved upon -the rock, and, although the mechanical handling appliances of those -days were primitive, the tower was completed without a single mishap. -The solidity of the structure, and its lines, which, as the engineer -stated, would offer the minimum of resistance to the Atlantic rollers, -but at the same time would insure the utmost stability, aroused -widespread admiration, for it was felt that the engineer had triumphed -over Nature at last. Many people expressed a desire to see how the -tower would weather such a storm as carried away Winstanley’s freakish -building, especially as, in a roaring sou’-wester, the waves hurled -themselves upon the ledge to wreathe and curl upwards to a point far -above the dome, blotting the light from sight. The supreme test came -in 1762, when the lighthouse was subjected to a battering and pounding -far heavier than any that it had previously known. But the tower -emerged from this ordeal unscathed, and Smeaton’s work was accepted as -invulnerable. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Paul, Penzance._ - -A THRILLING EXPERIENCE. - -Landing upon the Eddystone by the crane rope during a rough sea.] - -The lighthouse had been standing for 120 years, when ominous reports -were received by the Trinity Brethren concerning the stability of the -tower. The keepers stated that during severe storms the building shook -alarmingly. A minute inspection of the structure was made, and it was -found that, although the work of Smeaton’s masons was above reproach, -time and weather had left their mark. The tower was becoming decrepit. -The binding cement had decayed, and the air imprisoned and compressed -within the interstices by the waves was disintegrating the structure -slowly but surely. While there was no occasion to apprehend a sudden -collapse, still it was considered advisable to take precautionary -measures in time. Unfortunately, it was not feasible to strengthen -Smeaton’s tower so adequately as to give it a new lease of life, while -lighthouse engineering had made rapid strides in certain details since -it was completed. Another factor to be considered was the desire for a -more elevated light, capable of throwing its rays to a greater distance. - -Under these circumstances it was decided to build a new tower on -another convenient ledge, forming part of the main reef, about 120 feet -distant. Sir James Douglass, the Engineer-in-Chief to Trinity House, -completed the designs and personally superintended their execution. -The Smeaton lines were taken as a basis, with one important exception. -Instead of the curve commencing at the foundations, the latter -comprised a perfect cylindrical monolith of masonry 22 feet in height -by 44 feet in diameter. From this base the tower springs to a height -which brings the focal plane 130 feet above the highest spring-tides. -The top of the base is 30 inches above high-water, and the tower’s -diameter at this point being less than that of its plinth, the set-off -forms an excellent landing-stage when the weather permits. - -The site selected for the Douglass tower being lower than that chosen -by Smeaton, the initial work was more exacting, as the duration -of the working period was reduced. The rock, being gneiss, was -extremely tough, and the preliminary quarrying operations for the -foundation-stones which had to be sunk into the rock were tedious and -difficult, especially as the working area was limited. Each stone was -dovetailed, not only to its neighbour on either side, but below and -above as well. The foundation-stones were dovetailed into the reef, -and were secured still further by the aid of two bolts, each 1½ inches -in diameter, which were passed through the stone and sunk deeply into -the rock below. The exposed position of the reef enabled work to be -continued only fitfully during the calmest weather, for often when wind -and sea were quiet the rock was inaccessible owing to the swell. Upon -the approach of bad weather everything was made fast under the direct -supervision of the engineer--a man who took no chances. - -From the set-off the tower is solid to a height of 25½ feet, except -for two fresh-water tanks sunk in the floor of the entrance-room, -which hold 4,700 gallons. At this point the walls are no less than -8½ feet thick, and the heavy teak door is protected by an outer door -of gun-metal, weighing a ton, both of which are closed during rough -weather. - -The tower has eight floors, exclusive of the entrance; there are two -oilrooms, one above the other, holding 4,300 gallons of oil, above -which is a coal and store room, followed by a second storeroom. Outside -the tower at this level is a crane, by which supplies are hoisted, and -which also facilitates the landing and embarkation of the keepers, who -are swung through the air in a stirrup attached to the crane rope. -Then in turn come the living-room, the “low-light” room, bedroom, -service-room, and finally the lantern. For the erection of the tower, -2,171 blocks of granite, which were previously fitted temporarily in -their respective positions on shore, and none of which weighed less -than 2 tons, were used. When the work was commenced, the engineer -estimated that the task would occupy five years, but on May 18, 1882, -the lamp was lighted by the Duke of Edinburgh, the Master of Trinity -House at the time, the enterprise having occupied only four years. -Some idea may thus be obtained of the energy with which the labour was -pressed forward, once the most trying sections were overcome. - -Whereas the former lights on this rock had been of the fixed type, a -distinctive double flash was now introduced. The optical apparatus -is of the biform dioptric type, emitting a beam of some 300,000 -candle-power intensity, which is visible for seventeen miles. In -addition to this measure of warning, two powerful Argand burners, -with reflectors, were set up in the low-light room for the purpose of -throwing a fixed ray from a point 40 feet below the main flashing beam, -to mark a dangerous reef lying 3½ miles to the north-west, known as -Hand Deeps. - -When the new tower was completed and brought into service, the Smeaton -building was demolished. This task was carried out with extreme care, -inasmuch as the citizens of Plymouth had requested that the historic -Eddystone structure might be re-erected on Plymouth Hoe, on the spot -occupied by the existing Trinity House landmark. The authorities agreed -to this proposal, and the ownership of the Smeaton tower was forthwith -transferred to the people of Plymouth. But demolition was carried out -only to the level of Smeaton’s lower storeroom. The staircase, well and -entrance were filled up with masonry, the top was bevelled off, and in -the centre of the stump an iron pole was planted. While the Plymouth -Hoe relic is but one half of the tower, its re-erection was completed -faithfully, and, moreover, carries the original candelabra which the -famous engineer devised. - -Not only is the Douglass tower a beautiful example of lighthouse -engineering, but it was relatively cheap. The engineer, when he -prepared the designs, estimated that an outlay of £78,000, or $390,000, -would be incurred. As a matter of fact, the building cost only £59,255, -or $296,275, and a saving of £18,000, or $90,000, in a work of this -magnitude is no mean achievement. All things considered, the Eddystone -is one of the cheapest sea-rock lights which has ever been consummated. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -SOME FAMOUS LIGHTS OF ENGLAND - - -The captain of the lordly liner, as he swings down Channel or -approaches the English coast from the broad Atlantic, maintains a -vigilant watch until the light or the slender proportions of the lonely -outpost rising apparently from the ocean’s depths off the south-west -corner of the Scilly Islands, become visible. This is the Bishop Rock, -the western sentinel of the English Channel, mounting guard over as -wicked a stretch of sea as may be found anywhere between the two Poles, -where the maritime traffic is densest and where wrecks, unfortunately, -are only too frequent; for the toll levied by the sea off the Cornish -coast is fearful. - -Among these islands was planted one of the first beacons erected off -the British coasts. At the outset it was merely a wood bonfire, then a -brazier, and finally a lighthouse, which crowned St. Agnes’s height, to -guide the mariner on his way. But to-day the St. Agnes light is no more -than a memory. Two or three years ago the keepers quenched the light in -the misty grey of the dawn for the last time. The vigil which had been -maintained over shipping uninterruptedly through some 230 years was -ended. On a neighbouring point a superior modern light had been planted -which took up the sacred duty. Although established in 1680, the St. -Agnes was not the oldest light in England. This distinction belongs to -the North Foreland light on the East Kentish coast, which was set going -as far back as 1636. This warning was shed from a tower of timber, -lath, and plaster, built by Sir John Meldrum, but it fell a victim to -fire forty-seven years later. The light was reconstructed promptly, and -to-day throws a red and white gleam of 35,000 candle-power, which may -be picked up twenty miles away. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Paul, Penzance._ - -THE “BISHOP,” THE WESTERN OUTPOST OF ENGLAND. - -This tower marks a treacherous reef, rising from the depths of the -Atlantic off the Scilly Islands. Its slim proportions are familiar to -Transatlantic passengers.] - -The south-western extremity of England, however, is far more to be -dreaded than the south-eastern. Here Nature mixed land and water in -an inextricable maze during her moulding process. Deep, tortuous, -wide channels separate rugged granite islets, while long, ugly ridges -creep stealthily out to sea beneath the pall of water, ready to trap -the unsuspecting vessel which ventures too closely. If one were to -take a map of this part of the country, were to dig one leg of a -compass into the Lizard Head, stretching the other so as to reach the -Eddystone light, and then were to describe a circle, the enclosed space -would contain more famous sea-rock lights than a similar area on any -other part of the globe. Within its circumference there would be the -Eddystone, Bishop Rock, Wolf, and Longships, each of which lifts its -cupola above a wave-swept ledge of rocks. - -The need for an adequate indication of the Scillies was felt long -before the Eddystone gained its ill fame. These scattered masses of -granite, numbering about 140 in all, break up the expanse of the -Atlantic about twenty miles south-west of the Cornish mainland. Now, -the maritime traffic flowing in and out of the English Channel is -divided into two broad classes--the coastal and the oversea trade -respectively. The former is able to creep through the dangerous channel -separating the Scillies from the mainland, but the latter has to make a -détour to the south. One fringe of the broken cluster is as dangerous -as the other, so that both streams of trade demand protection. - -On the south side the knots dot the sea in all directions. They are -mere black specks, many only revealing themselves at lowest tides; -others do not betray their existence even then. The outermost ledge -is the Bishop Rock, where disasters have been fearful and numerous. -One of the most terrible catastrophes on record happened here, -when three vessels of Sir Cloudesley Shovel’s fleet went to pieces -in the year 1707, and dragged 2,000 men down with them, including -the Admiral himself. In more recent times, some two or three years -ago, the Atlantic transport liner _Minnehaha_ dragged her lumbering -body over the selfsame attenuated rampart, and was badly damaged -before she could be rescued. As may be supposed, in days gone by the -awful character of the coast brought prosperity to the inhabitants -of Cornwall, who reaped rich harvests from the inhuman practice of -wrecking, in which horrible work the Scilly Islanders were easily -pre-eminent and more successful, since they held the outer lines upon -which the majority of ships came to grief. - -In the forties of last century it was decided that this graveyard -should be marked, but there was one great difficulty. This was the -exposure of the low-lying rock to some 4,000 miles of open Atlantic, -where the rollers rise and fall with a force that turns the waters for -miles around into a seething maelstrom of foam and surf. The aspect -presented at this spot during a stiff south-westerly or westerly gale -is terrifying in the extreme, and it is not surprising that approaching -vessels stand so far off that the tower is often barely discernible -against the background of cloud and banks of mist caused by the spray -hurled into the air from the breakers smashing on the rocks. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Paul, Penzance._ - -THE WOLF ROCK LIGHTHOUSE. - -One of the famous lights of England. Owing to the rocks being exposed -to the full fury of the Atlantic, its erection was attended with -prodigious difficulty.] - -When it was proposed to build a lighthouse upon a crag in the heart -of this vortex, many people who knew the neighbourhood shook their -heads doubtfully. The ledge was so small, the force of the elements -so powerful, that it appeared to be tempting Fate unduly to attempt -the erection of a slim stalk of stonework thereon. Some records of -the wind pressure exerted during the heaviest tempests were taken, -and they showed that the pressure of the wind at times exceeded 7,000 -pounds per square foot. It was decided to provide a structure which -should offer the minimum of resistance to the waves. This assumed the -form of the iron screw-pile tower so common in American waters. The -legs were cast-iron tubes sunk into the solid granite, braced and -stayed by means of wrought-iron rods. The engineers maintained that the -waves would be able to roll unrestrainedly among the piles, instead of -being obstructed, so that the skeleton building would escape the heavy -buffetings which solid masonry would experience. - -But engineering science proved woefully frail when pitted against the -unharnessed forces of Nature. A heavy gale sprang up one night; the -waves rose and fell upon the stilts, broke them up like reeds, and -carried away the whole of the superstructure. The following low-tide -revealed only a few short lengths of broken and bent tubes, around -which the waves bubbled and hissed as if in triumph at their victory. -Thus ended the first attempt to provide the Bishop Rock with a -lighthouse. - -The engineer, though defeated, was not dismayed. As a skeleton -structure was impotent, he would erect a massive masonry tower which -not all the force of the waves could avail to demolish. Although the -reef is about 150 feet in length by 52 feet in width, the engineer, -James Walker, was not afforded much space upon which to place his -creation. He reconnoitred the ridge, and finally chose a small lump -just sufficiently large upon which to effect a foothold. The Smeaton -type of tower was his model, and the surface of the rock was trimmed to -receive the first blocks. This was the greatest difficulty. Unless the -sea were as smooth as a millpond, he was helpless, as the lowest blocks -had to be laid a foot beneath low-water mark. A heavy cofferdam was -erected around the site, and the water within was pumped out, so that -the masons might be able to toil upon a dry rock-face. - -The exposed, isolated character of the spot rendered the housing of -the workmen a problem in itself. They could not be accommodated on the -site; a temporary dwelling on piles for their accommodation could not -be established, as it would come down with the first gale, and housing -on a tender was equally impracticable. There was a small uninhabited -islet within convenient distance of the reef, and on this the -living-quarters and workshops were erected, the men being transported -to and fro whenever the conditions were suitable. Traces of this bygone -industrial activity still remain on the island, but the sea-fowl have -once more claimed it exclusively as their home. The working spells -were brief, as well as being somewhat few and far between, while -the base was being prepared. The granite was brought to the island -depot, fashioned into shape, and then sent to the Bishop for erection. -Granite was used exclusively, and in 1878, after seven years’ arduous -labour, the tower, 120 feet in height, capped by a powerful light, was -completed: the dreaded Bishop Rock was conquered at last. - -When it was first commissioned, four men were deputed to watch this -light, three being on the rock, and the fourth man on leave at St. -Mary’s. The duty was for three months continuous, one man being -relieved every month if possible; but, as a matter of fact, the spell -on the rock often was increased, owing to the weather rendering it -impossible to exchange the men. The character of their duty, under the -terrible assaults of the sea, played havoc with the constitutions and -nerves of the lighthouse-keepers. They became taciturn, and inevitably -fell victims to neurasthenia, owing to their long periods of isolation. -Accordingly the authorities gradually relaxed the spell of duty, -until now it comprises a month on the rock, followed by a fortnight -ashore, while six men, instead of four, are appointed to the station. -The Bishop light demands watchers of iron constitution and prolonged -experience of the rigours of imprisonment upon a lonely rock. The men -appear to suffer most from the fear that one day the seas will regain -the upper hand and carry the slender-looking shaft of masonry away. -When the Atlantic is roused to fury, the din created by the waves -smashing against the tower and reef is so deafening that the keepers -can only converse by signs. - -The attacks which this tower has to withstand are fearful. When the -equinoxes are raging, it is no uncommon circumstance for the waves -to roll up the side of the tower and hurl themselves clean over -the lantern. The enormous force of the water was brought home very -startlingly to the attendants of the light one night, when a more than -usually wicked breaker slid up the curved round face and wrenched the -fog-bell, weighing 550 pounds, from its fastenings on the lantern -gallery. The ponderous piece of metal was dashed on to the reef and -smashed to fragments. A small piece was recovered after the gale, and -is now preserved in the Trinity House museum as an interesting memento -of the night when the Atlantic almost got the upper hand. The nerves of -the men are tried severely, also, by memories of the terrible marine -disasters which have happened on or near the ridge, such as that of the -German packet _Schiller_, which went down in 1875 with the loss of 331 -lives. - -It is not surprising that the ceaseless attacks of the waves should -have left their traces at last. The light had been burning for about -twenty years, when tremors and quakings, similar to those observed -in connection with Smeaton’s Eddystone tower, were reported to the -authorities. Sir James Douglass visited the rock, and made a minute -inspection. It was apparent that the lighthouse demanded extensive -overhauling and strengthening if it were to be preserved. In fact, -this was the only feasible course of action, as there was not -another suitable spot whereon a new structure could be raised. The -Eddystone had been completed, and as the same tackle was available, -the protective work was undertaken at once. In conjunction with this -enterprise, the engineer also advocated an increase in the height of -the tower. - -His plans met with approval, and an ingenious means of strengthening -the existing building was evolved. Virtually it comprised the erection -of a new tower around the old shaft, and connected to the latter, -so as to form one homogeneous structure. In order to strengthen the -foundations, massive blocks of masonry were sunk into the rock, -cemented, and held in position by heavy bolts. From the masons’ point -of view, the task of overhauling was more exciting and dangerous than -that which had attended the erection of the original tower; for the -men had to toil on narrow, swinging platforms, cutting notches in the -face of every stone in the existing structure to receive dovetails on -the blocks of the new outer shell. Thus the latter were dovetailed -to adjacent blocks on five out of their six faces. A massive chain -was slung round the upper part of the tower, from which life-lines -hung down to the men working below. A man was stationed as a lookout. -When he saw a breaker approaching he gave a signal; each man clutched -his life-rope tenaciously and retained his foothold as best he could -on his perilous perch while the water swept over him. Often the men -were submerged by a rushing wave, and when the water subsided shook -themselves like dogs emerging from the water. But the provision of the -life-ropes prevented serious injury and loss of life, although the -masons at times were considerably knocked about. - -The tower has been given an enormous, massive, cylindrical base, -while the shaft is solid to the entrance level, except for the -usual water-tanks. The attachment of the outer shell reinforced it -remarkably, the walls at the entrance being increased to a thickness of -8 feet. The addition of the four extra floors elevated the light by a -further 40 feet, the focal plane now being 163 feet above high-water. -The light, of 622,500 candle-power, visible for eighteen miles, is -a white group-flash, there being two flashes, each of four seconds’ -duration, with an intervening eclipse of five seconds, while the groups -are separated by intervals of forty-seven seconds. - -Off the northern shores of the Scillies, standing in the strait which -provides a short-cut around the toe of England, is another magnificent -tower. This is the Wolf Rock lighthouse, marking the reef of that name, -which lies eight miles off Land’s End in the fairway of the coastal -traffic. The cluster of rocks from which it rises is just as dangerous -as that to the south, and is exposed likewise to the full fury of the -south-westerly gales coming in from the Atlantic. It was one of the -most attractive spots to the old Cornish wreckers, for ships which -lost their way during the fogs which hang about this coast invariably -blundered into the reef, to be smashed to pieces within a very short -time. - -This spot was not so greatly feared by the seafarer when heavy gales -prevailed. There was a hollow rock on the ridge, into which the waves -were driven. In so doing they compressed the air within the space, -which, as it escaped, produced a long, distinctive wail, recalling the -cry of the wolf. It was this natural phenomenon which gave the rock -its name. The harder the wind blew, and the higher the waves rose, -the louder was the reverberating bellow, and, as it could be heard -distinctly above the music of the storm, the navigator was able to -steer clear of the formidable obstruction. On the other hand, during -periods of heavy fog, when the waves were usually quiet, there was -scarcely any perceptible sound. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Paul, Penzance._ - -THE LONGSHIPS LIGHT. - -In the background is the forbidding iron-bound Cornish coast, where -wrecks unfortunately are frequent.] - -The Wolf Rock would be growling to this day had it not been for the -inhuman action of the Cornish plunderers. They detested the weird noise -as cordially as the mariner blessed it. It robbed them of so many rich -hauls that at last they decided to silence the rock for ever. They -filled the cavity with large boulders, which were carried out in boats -from the mainland and dumped overboard. Then the Cornishmen met with a -spell of enhanced prosperity from the increased number of wrecks which -occurred. - -When the exigencies of commerce demanded that the reef should be -guarded, a most fantastic device was prepared. An attempt was made to -restore artificially the natural siren. A fabric wrought in copper -in the form of a huge wolf with distended jaws was contrived, the -designers averring that the air would rush in and produce a distinctive -whistle. This grotesque danger-signal never reached its destination. -It would have been absolutely useless even had it been placed over the -rock, as the first lively sea would have carried it away, while the -noise produced, if any, would have been inaudible more than a few feet -away. - -The Trinity Brethren at last took the matter up, but their -investigations caused them to doubt the possibility of building a -lighthouse on such a forbidding spot. They did the next best thing. -They drove a thick oak joist into the rock, and attached a coloured -sphere to its upper extremity. This constituted a valuable landmark by -day, but was useless at night. But its life was brief. The first storm -which swept the reef after the erection of the beacon tore it up -by the roots. It was replaced by a heavy mast of wrought-iron, which -suffered a similar fate, as did also a third iron pole 9 inches in -diameter. At last a low conical stump was built upon the ridge, with -the staff and sphere projecting from its centre. This defied wind and -wave successfully for many years. Its permanency impressed the builders -of the Bishop Rock light, who came to the conclusion that, as the small -conical tower held hard and fast, a masonry tower could be given just -as firm a hold. - -When the engineer approached the reef to make his surveys, he found -the water boiling and bubbling madly, and it was some time before he -could get a foothold. He completed his examination, and then found, to -his dismay, that the boat could not approach to take him off. He could -not stay where he was, as the tide, which was rising, would engulf the -reef within a short time, so he resorted to a bold expedient. He had -taken the precaution to bring a life-line with him, so that he was -in touch with the boat. He looped this round his waist securely, and -then, telling the men to pull as hard as they could, he plunged into -the water. In this manner he was dragged through the furious surf and -pulled into the boat, thoroughly drenched, but otherwise none the worse -for his adventure. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Paul, Penzance._ - -THE GODREVY LIGHT, SCILLY ISLANDS. - -It marks a forbidding clump of rocks, landing on which is always -exciting.] - -The work was begun in 1862, when the masons were despatched to the -rock to prepare the face for the reception of the bottom masonry -blocks. The tedious and exceptionally dangerous character of the work -was emphasized very forcibly upon those engaged in the task. It was -seldom that the water was sufficiently placid to enable a landing to -be made. Then, as the working spell was very brief, being restricted -to low-tide, the men could pause only for a few minutes at a time, -and even during these were menaced by the breakers. During the first -working season only eighty-three hours of labour were possible--a fact -which conveys a graphic idea of the exposed character of the site, its -difficulty of access, and the short time available for work between the -tides. - -While excavations were under way, the preparation of a landing-stage -was taken in hand. As only small blocks of stone could be used, -naturally it occupied a considerable time. It was, however, essential, -in order to permit the erection of a derrick by which the heavy blocks -for the tower could be lifted from the construction boat to the rock. -On the rock-face itself the masons toiled strenuously, chipping, -scraping, and paring away all the faulty pieces of gneiss, so that a -firm, solid foundation was secured, into which the bottom course of -stones was dovetailed and anchored. - -Owing to the frequency with which the rock was swept by the seas, -special precautions had to be adopted to insure the safety of the -workmen. Iron dogs were driven into the rock at frequent points, -to which ropes were fastened and allowed to trail across the rock, -each mason being urged to keep one of these life-lines always within -arm’s length. As an additional precaution he was compelled to wear a -lifebelt, which, although it hampered free movement somewhat, yet gave -the wearer, if he lost his foothold or were thrown into the water, -a chance of keeping afloat until the lifeboat standing by was able -to reach him. A Cornish fisherman, who was familiar with the seas on -this part of the coast, and who could judge a breaking wave from a -distance, acted as a lookout. When he saw a comber about to creep over -the rock, he gave a signal, when the workmen clutched their life-lines, -and, with feet firmly planted and the ropes drawn taut, or throwing -themselves prostrate, with heads pointed to the advancing wave, allowed -the breaker to roll over them and expend its violence harmlessly. Time -after time the masons were buried beneath huge tumbling hills of water. -Work under such conditions was decidedly irksome, and progress was very -appreciably retarded, but the safety of the workmen was, of course, -the pre-eminent consideration. Curiously enough, these men who face -the perils, privations, and exciting incessant dangers, incidental to -lighthouse building, are extremely superstitious. If an undertaking -such as the Wolf were attended by a disaster and loss of life in -its initial stages, the completion of the task might be seriously -jeopardized. The rock would be regarded as a “hoo-doo,” and would be -shunned like a fever-stricken city. Therefore the engineer will go to -any lengths to secure, so far as is humanly possible, the preservation -of the lives and limbs of those in his employ. This is the chief reason -why the erection of these wonderful towers has been attended by so few -accidents or fatalities, while the men fitted for the task are so few -that the engineer cannot afford to disturb their peace of mind. - -The Wolf tower follows the generally accepted lines, and is solid at -the base. It is wrought throughout of granite, the stones being joggled -together. One ingenious measure was adopted in connection with the -lower courses in order to prevent the action of the waves from breaking -up the cement in the exposed joints and setting up disintegration. The -upper surface of each stone is given a wide rabbet, and the stone above -fits into the recess so that the horizontal joint between the two is -covered by the outer fillet, thereby protecting it completely. This -practice was followed throughout all the lower courses to a height of -39 feet, and the security thus obtained is reflected by the strength of -the tower to-day after half a century’s wear. - -Work proceeded so slowly in the early stages, owing to the abnormal -conditions, that by the end of 1864 only thirty-seven stones in the -second course of masonry were laid. In the meantime, however, the -landing-stage had been practically completed, and the erection of the -crane enabled the blocks for the tower to be transferred to the rock -with greater ease and rapidity. The tower, 135 feet in height, was -completed on July 19, 1869, while the light was brought into service -early in the following year. Eight years were expended upon the -enterprise, and during this period 296 landings were effected upon the -rock and 1,814 hours of labour were consummated. This is equal to about -101 working days of ten hours each, or, on the average, less than one -hour every day of the years occupied in the undertaking. The lantern -throws a powerful white light, which in clear weather may be seen from -twenty to twenty-five miles away. The cost of the enterprise was -£62,726, or $313,630--nearly twice that of the first Bishop Rock light. - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson._ - -THE CHICKEN ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, OFF THE ISLE OF MAN. - -It marks a dangerous reef. The revolving light of 143,000 candle-power -is visible for sixteen miles. Although the lantern is 143 feet above -the water, the waves frequently engulf it.] - -Another gaunt structure rears itself from a reef a few miles to the -north-west of the Wolf, and a short distance off the Land’s End. This -is the Longships light. The name itself suggests a light-vessel, and -a stranger is surprised to learn that it is an imposing building, -worthy of comparison with the two other structures already described -which guard the Scillies. Although it is within a short distance of -the mainland, its exposed situation rendered its construction as -exasperatingly difficult as that of both the Bishop and Wolf lights. A -few miles farther north another powerful light indicates the “Kingdom -of Heaven,” as the black hump of Lundy Island, rising out of the -Bristol Channel, is colloquially called, from the name of its clerical -owner. - -On the opposite side and due north of this bight, the Pembrokeshire -coast breaks off abruptly at St. David’s Head, only to reappear out -at sea in some twenty little rugged islets known as The Smalls. They -occur some twenty-one miles off the mainland, and for years they played -havoc with the shipping plying between North of England ports and -the Bristol Channel. These rocks--for they are little else--were the -private property of a Liverpool gentleman, who became so distracted -by the frequency of disaster that, in 1773, he decided to crown -them with a beacon. He selected a musical instrument manufacturer -named Whiteside as his engineer, and this amateur mechanic, after an -inspection, decided to place the warning light on a tiny crag which -projected about 5 feet above high-water. It is somewhat strange that -the adequate safeguarding of two devastating parts of the south-western -coast of England should have been placed in the hands of men who were -not professional engineers. Rudyerd, the silk-mercer, was responsible -for the second Eddystone, and here was an instrument-maker taking -over one of the most difficult enterprises it was possible to find. -Yet both these amateur engineers inscribed their names ineffaceably -upon two of the most evil spots around the coasts of the British -Islands. Rudyerd gave us the true conical design, which has never -been superseded for strength and stability; while Whiteside evolved a -skeleton tower which braved the most tempestuous seas for some eighty -years. In the first instance the latter carried out his work in iron, -thinking that metal would prove irresistible, but within a short time -he replaced it with heavy legs of oak. The frail-looking structure was -submitted to storms of almost seismic violence, but it withstood them -all for over half a century, when a peculiarly vicious wave, as it -rolled between the supports, suddenly flew upwards, driving the floor -of the keepers’ quarters into the roof. It was an exceptional accident, -which no engineer could have foreseen. When the Trinity House Brethren -took over the light, their chief engineer, Mr. James Walker, looked -upon the erection as such a fine piece of work that the damage was -repaired, and the Whiteside light gleamed for a further twenty years -before it gave place to the present graceful stone building. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -HOW THE SKERRYVORE IS BUILT. - -In the centre, a vertical section. At sides, transverse sections at -different masonry courses, showing method of laying the stones.] - -It was a grim episode at this light which brought about the practice -of appointing three men at least to a sea light-station. When first -completed, The Smalls was provided with only two keepers, and on one -occasion one of the two died. His companion refrained from committing -the body to the sea, lest he might be suspected of foul-play, so he -constructed a rough shell, in which he placed the body of his dead -chum, and stood the grisly burden on end beside his flag of distress -on the gallery outside the lantern. As the spell of duty in those days -was four months, it was some time before the relief came out. Then -they discovered a shattered human wreck tending the lights, who had -never neglected his duty under the onerous and weird conditions, but -who nevertheless had become broken down and aged under the terrible -ordeal. After this experience three men instead of two were placed on -duty at all such exposed and inaccessible lights. It may be recalled -that Alphonse Daudet tells a similar creepy story which was related -to him by a light-keeper on the rugged Corsican coast, and which he -narrates in the “Phares des Sanguinaires.” A similar experience is -also associated with Rudyerd’s Eddystone light. - -Off the North Welsh coast there are the famous lights of the South -Stack and the Skerries, the latter rising out of the water on a -dangerous cluster of rocks off Carmel Head. The Isle of Man also -possesses a magnificent specimen of lighthouse engineering in the -Chicken Rock light, the work of the brothers Stevenson, which, although -in the Irish Sea, comes within the jurisdiction of the Commissioners -of Northern Lights. This tower stands on a reef which is submerged by -6 feet of water even at high neap-tides. When a gale is raging and the -spring-tides are at their highest, the waves frequently engulf the -lantern, although it is perched 143 feet above the water. The light is -of 143,000 candle-power, of the revolving type, and visible for sixteen -miles in clear weather. - -Entering the English Channel from the Scillies, the voyager observes -the powerful Lizard light gleaming like two brilliant white stars from -a prominent elevated point on the cliff. Formerly three lights were -shown, but two were found to meet the necessities of the situation -adequately. The steamship lane lies across the chord of the arc -formed by the coastline between the Lizard and Start Point, leaving -the Eddystone to the north. The next important light is the Needles, -at the entrance to the Solent. A few miles farther on the brilliant -spoke-light flashes of St. Catherine’s, described in another chapter, -compel attention. No other light after this is seen until Beachy Head -is approached. Another dreary stretch brings the vessel abeam the nose -of Kentish coast known as Dungeness, a particularly notorious danger -spot. Here there is a continual struggle between the engineers and the -sea. While the waves gnaw into the coastline at other neighbouring -places, here they surrender their capture, so that the headland is -persistently creeping farther and farther out to sea. It is lighted, -and has been guarded for years, but the tower is left at a constantly -increasing distance from the water’s edge. The light has been moved -once or twice, so as to fulfil its purpose to the best advantage, but -the engineer will be kept on the alert until the currents change their -courses and refrain from piling up further drift at this point. This -light, coming as it does at the entrance to the bottle-neck of the -English Channel, is of prime importance to navigation, because vessels, -after they have rounded the South Foreland, make a bee-line for this -headland. - -Since the eastern coast of England is flanked by sandbanks and shoals, -the lighthouse is not in powerful evidence, the aids to navigation -consisting chiefly of light-vessels, which are distributed liberally -so as to patrol completely a treacherous stretch of shoals. Northwards -the sandy, low-lying wastes give way to towering cliffs, amongst which -Flamborough Head and its light are conspicuous. At the far northern -limit of the operations of Trinity House comes the Longstones, mounting -guard over the terrible Farne Islands and their rocky outposts. Who has -not heard of the heroism of Grace Darling, the light-keeper’s daughter, -and the thrilling rescue, in the teeth of a hurricane, of the exhausted -survivors of the _Forfarshire_? - -Complaints have been made often regarding the paucity of powerful -lights around the coast of England, but the criticism scarcely is -deserved. All the prominent and most dangerous spots are lighted -adequately, and, as may be recognized, the provision of these lights -has proved an exacting and costly enterprise. What England may lack in -numbers in this particular field of engineering is compensated for by -the daring nature of the works completed, which are regarded throughout -the world as marvellous achievements. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE BELL ROCK AND SKERRYVORE LIGHTS - - -At first sight it seems somewhat remarkable--some might feel disposed -to challenge the assertion--that so small a country as Scotland -should stand pre-eminent among the nations of the world as being that -possessed of the greatest number of imposing sea-rock lights. But such -is the case. Moreover, North Britain offers some of the finest and most -impressive specimens of the lighthouse builder’s resource and skill to -be found in any part of the globe. - -When the responsibility for lighting the Scottish coasts was handed -over to the Commissioners for Northern Lighthouses, one of their first -tasks was the adequate illumination of the wave-swept Inchcape or Bell -Rock, which lies some twelve miles off the Scottish mainland in the -busy portal of the Firth of Tay. At that time this sinister menace -to navigation was not marked in any way whatever, and apparently had -remained in this unprotected condition ever since the notorious pirate, -Ralph the Rover, cut away the buoy-bell which had been placed upon it -by the Abbot of Aberbrothock, as narrated in Southey’s famous ballad. - -The rock, or rather reef--inasmuch as it measures 2,000 feet from end -to end, and lies athwart the fairway--is submerged completely to a -depth of 16 feet at high spring-tides, while at lowest water only some -4 feet of its crest are laid bare here and there. This is not all. The -ledge is the summit of a dangerous, slowly-rising submarine hillock, -where, for a distance of about 100 yards on either side, the lead -sounds only 3 fathoms. Wrecks were so numerous and terrible at this -spot that the protection of the seafaring community became imperative, -and the newly-appointed guardians of the Scottish coast lost no time -in justifying the trust reposed in them, but erected a first-class -light. The Eddystone had been conquered, and, although the conditions -were dissimilar and the enterprise bolder, no tangible reason against -its imitation was advanced. - -The engineer John Rennie was entrusted with the work, while Robert -Stevenson was appointed as his assistant. The rock was surveyed, and -a tower similar in its broad lines to that evolved by Smeaton for the -Eddystone was elaborated, and the authority for its construction given -in the year 1806. - -Work upon the rock in the earliest stages was confined to the calmest -days of the summer season, when the tides were lowest, the water was -smoothest, and the wind in its calmest mood. Under such conditions the -men were able to stay on the site for about five hours. The engineer -hoped against hope that the elements would be kind to him, and that he -would be able to complete the preliminary work upon the rock in one -season. - -The constructional plans were prepared carefully, so that advantage -might be taken of every promising opportunity. One distinct drawback -was the necessity to establish a depot some distance from the erecting -site. Those were the days before steam navigation, and the capricious -sailing craft offered the only means of maintaining communication -between rock and shore, and for the conveyance of men and material -to and fro. The year 1807 was devoted to the construction of vessels -for the work, and to the establishment of workshops with machinery -and other facilities at Arbroath, the nearest suitable point on the -mainland to the rock. A temporary beacon was placed on the reef, while -adjacent to the site selected for the tower a smith’s forge was made -fast, so as to withstand the dragging motion of the waves when the -rock was submerged. The men were housed on the _Smeaton_, which during -the spells of work on the rock rode at anchor a short distance away in -deep water. The arrangements stipulated that three boats, which were -employed to bring the men from the vessel to the rock, should always -be moored at the landing-place, so that, in the event of the weather -changing for the worse, the masons, forced to cease work suddenly, -might regain the _Smeaton_ safely in one trip, the three boats being -able to convey thirty men, which constituted the average complement on -the rock. - -While the preparations were proceeding ashore, a little body of workers -toiled, whenever possible, at clearing the face of the rock and -carrying out the requisite excavation work. While this was in progress -a disaster was averted very narrowly, which would have jeopardized the -completion of the tower, owing to the superstitious natures of the men -engaged. On September 2, 1807, the _Smeaton_, as usual, had brought out -some thirty masons, had landed them safely on the rock, and was riding -at anchor. - -Suddenly the wind freshened, and the engineer on the rock grew -apprehensive of the _Smeaton_ dragging her cables. A party at once put -off from the rock in one of the three boats and regained the ship, but -were scarcely aboard when the cables parted, and the vessel, caught by -the wind and tide, made off. Before the men regained control of her -she had drifted some three miles to leeward. Meantime on the rock the -situation was growing serious. Only Mr. Stevenson, who was supervising -operations on the spot, and the landing-master were aware of its -gravity. The masons were so busy hewing, boring and chiselling, that -they had not noticed the _Smeaton’s_ drift. But the engineer, observing -the flowing of the tide, realized that the rock must be submerged -before the ship could be brought up again. He racked his brains to find -some means of getting his gang of men off safely in the nick of time, -but it was a searching problem to solve with only two boats, which, at -the utmost, could carry twenty-four persons. To make matters worse, one -of those mists which are so peculiar to the Scottish coast began to -settle down, blotting everything from sight. - -The water rose higher. The men toiling on the lowest levels receded -higher and higher before the advancing tide, though still too deeply -occupied in their labours to bestow a thought upon the _Smeaton_. -At last the smith’s forge was quenched, and this was the general -signal to the men to prepare to leave the rock. Tools were collected, -and the party strode towards the landing-stage to enter the boats. -Conceive their consternation when they saw that one boat was missing! -When they glanced over the water the _Smeaton_ was not riding in her -usual place--in fact, was nowhere to be seen! One and all gathered -around the engineer to learn the reason for this remarkable breach in -the arrangements for their safety, and yet all were too dumbfounded -to question or protest. As for the luckless engineer, he was at his -wits’ end and could not offer a word of explanation to the inquiring -looks that besieged him. One and all, as the water lapped their feet, -realized the hopelessness of the position. Suddenly, when they were -beginning to despair, one of the men described the phantom form of a -vessel making for the rock. “A boat!” he shouted in exultation. Sure -enough the shadow matured into the familiar form of the Tay pilot-boat, -the master of which, observing the workmen on the rock, the rising -tide, and the absence of the _Smeaton_, had realized that something -must have gone wrong, and approached the rock to make inquiries. He -came up at the critical moment. The men were drenched, and, their -feelings having been strung to a high pitch with anxiety, they nearly -collapsed at the arrival of this unexpected assistance. The pilot-boat, -after taking off the men, awaited the return of the _Smeaton_, which -took them on board about midnight. - -This narrow escape so terrified the men that on the following day the -engineer found only eight of his staff of thirty-two, who were willing -to venture upon the rock again. When this gang returned in the evening, -their safety appeared to restore courage to their companions, so that -next day all expressed their readiness to resume their tasks. - -The fitful character of the work did not leave its mark so distinctly -as might be supposed. Whenever there was a chance, the men worked with -an amazing will and zeal; and although the first stone of the tower was -not laid until July 10, 1808, three courses of masonry were completed -when the undertaking was suspended at the end of November for the -winter. The succeeding season’s toil saw the addition of about 27 feet -more of the tower, which was finally completed by the close of 1810. -The building was 120 feet in height, and the light was shown for the -first time on February 1, 1811. - -In view of the difficulties which had to be surmounted, this “ruddy -gem of changeful light,” as it is described by Sir Walter Scott, was -not particularly costly. By the time it was brought into commission, -£61,330, or $306,650, had been expended. In 1902, after nearly a -century’s service, the tower was provided with a new light-room, so as -to bring it into conformity with modern practice. - -While the Bell Rock tower stands as a monument to the engineering -ability of Robert Stevenson, the Skerryvore, on the western coast, is -a striking tribute to the genius of his son, Alan. For forty years or -more previous to 1844 one ship at least had been caught and shattered -every year on this tumbled mass of gneiss. From the navigator’s point -of view, the danger of this spot lay chiefly in the fact that it was so -widely scattered. The ridge runs like a broken backbone for a distance -of some eight miles in a west-south-westerly direction, and it is -flanked on each side by isolated rocks which jut from a badly-broken -sea-bed. The whole mass lies some distance out to sea, being ten miles -south-west of Tyree and twenty-four miles west of Iona. In rough -weather the whole of the rocks are covered, and the waves, beating -heavily on the mass, convert the scene into one of indescribable tumult. - -The Commissioners of Northern Lights acknowledged the urgent need of -a light upon this ridge, but it was realized that its erection would -represent the most daring feat of lighthouse engineering that had been -attempted up to this time. There was only one point where a tower -could be placed, and this was so exposed that the safe handling of the -men and materials constituted a grave responsibility. The rock has to -withstand the full impetus of the Atlantic waves, gathered in their -3,000 miles’ roll, and investigations revealed the fact that they bear -down upon the Skerryvore with a force equal to some 3 tons per square -foot. It was apparent that any masonry tower must be of prodigious -strength to resist such a battering, while at the same time a lofty -stack was imperative, because the light not only would have to mount -guard over the rock upon which it stood, but also over a vast stretch -of dangerous water on either side. - -After he had completed the Bell Rock light, Robert Stevenson attacked -the problem of the Skerryvore. In order to realize the magnitude of the -undertaking, some of the Commissioners accompanied the engineer, but -the experience of pulling out into the open Atlantic on a day when it -was slightly ruffled somewhat shook their determination to investigate -the reef from close quarters. Sir Walter Scott was a member of the -party, and he has described the journey very graphically. Before they -had gone far the Commissioners on board expressed their willingness to -leave the matter entirely in the hands of their engineer. With grim -Scottish humour, however, Robert Stevenson insisted that the rock -should be gained, so that the Commissioners might be able to grasp the -problem at first hand. - -But after all nothing was done. The difficulties surrounding the work -were only too apparent to the officials. They agreed that the expense -must be prodigious and that the risks to the workmen would be grave. - -In 1834 a second expedition was despatched to the reef under Alan -Stevenson, who had accompanied his father on the previous occasion, -and who now occupied the engineering chair. He surveyed the reef -thoroughly, traversing the dangerous channels around the isolated -humps, of which no less than 130 were counted, at great risk to himself -and his companions. However, he achieved his object. He discovered the -best site for the tower and returned home to prepare his plans. - -His proposals, for those days, certainly were startling. He decided to -follow generally the principles of design, which had been laid down -by his father in regard to the Bell Rock. But he planned something -bigger and more daring. He maintained that a tower 130 feet high, with -a base diameter of 42 feet, tapering in a curve to 16 feet at the top, -was absolutely necessary. It was the loftiest and weightiest work of -its character that had ever been contemplated up to this time, while -the peculiar situation of the reef demanded pioneering work in all -directions. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -THE SKERRYVORE, SCOTLAND’S MOST FAMOUS LIGHTHOUSE. - -The erection of this tower upon a straggling low-lying reef 24 miles -off Iona, and exposed to the full fury of the Atlantic, ranks as one of -the world’s engineering wonders.] - -The confidence of the Commissioners in the ability of their engineer -was so complete that he received the official sanction to begin, and in -1838 the undertaking was commenced. The engineer immediately formulated -his plans of campaign for a stiff struggle with Nature. One of the -greatest difficulties was the necessity to transport men, supplies -and material over a long distance, as the Scottish coast in this -vicinity is wild and sparsely populated. He established his base on the -neighbouring island of Tyree, where barracks for the workmen, and yards -for the preparation of the material, were erected, while another colony -was established on the Isle of Mull for the quarrying of the granite. -A tiny pier or jetty had to be built at this point to facilitate the -shipment of the stone, and at Tyree a small harbour had to be completed -to receive the vessel which was built specially for transportation -purposes between the base and the rock. - -Another preliminary was the provision of accommodation for the masons -upon the reef. The Atlantic swell, which rendered landing on the -ridge precarious and hazardous, did not permit the men to be housed -upon a floating home, as had been the practice in the early days -of the Bell Rock tower. In order to permit the work to go forward -as uninterruptedly as the sea would permit, a peculiar barrack was -erected. It was a house on stilts, the legs being sunk firmly into the -rock, with the living-quarters perched some 40 feet up in the air. The -skeleton type of structure was selected because it did not impede the -natural movement of the waves. It was an ingenious idea, and fulfilled -the purpose of its designer admirably, while the men became -accustomed to their strange home after a time. For two years it -withstood the seas without incident, and the engineer and men came to -regard the eyrie as safe as a house on shore. But one night the little -colony received a shock. The angry Atlantic got one or two of its -trip-hammer blows well home, and smashed the structure to fragments. -Fortunately, at the time it was untenanted. - -The workmen, who were on shore waiting to go out to the rock to resume -their toil, were downcast at this unexpected disaster, but the engineer -was not at all ruffled. He promptly sent to Glasgow for further -material, and lost no time in rebuilding the quaint barrack upon new -and stronger lines. This erection defied the waves successfully until -its demolition after the Skerryvore was finished. - -Residence in this tower was eerie. The men climbed the ladder -and entered a small room, which served the purposes of kitchen, -dining-room, and parlour. It was barely 12 feet across--quarters -somewhat cramped for thirty men. When a storm was raging, the waves, -as they combed over the rock, shook the legs violently and scurried -under the floor in seething foam. Now and again a roller, rising higher -than its fellows, broke upon the rock and sent a mass of water against -the flooring to hammer at the door. Above the living-room were the -sleeping-quarters, high and dry, save when a shower of spray fell upon -the roof and walls like heavy hail, and occasionally percolated the -joints of the woodwork. The men, however, were not perturbed. Sleeping, -even under such conditions, was far preferable to doubtful rest in a -bunk upon an attendant vessel, rolling and pitching with the motion of -the sea. They had had a surfeit of such experience during the first -season’s work, while the barrack was under erection. - -[Illustration: BARRA HEAD LIGHTHOUSE, SCOTLAND. - -The tower is 60 feet in height, but owing to its position on the -cliffs, the white occulting light is 683 feet above high water, and is -visible 33 miles.] - -[Illustration: - - By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission. - -THE HOMES OF THE KEEPERS OF THE SKERRYVORE AND DHU-HEARTACH LIGHTS. - -On the Island of Tiree, Argyllshire, 10 miles away.] - -Yet the men could not grumble. The engineer responsible for the work -shared their privations and discomforts, for Alan Stevenson clung to -the rock night and day while work was in progress, and he has given a -very vivid impression of life in this quaint home on legs. He relates -how he “spent many a weary day and night--at those times when the -sea prevented anyone going down to the rock--anxiously looking for -supplies from the shore, and earnestly looking for a change of weather -favourable for prosecuting the works. For miles around nothing could be -seen but white foaming breakers, and nothing heard but howling winds -and lashing waves. At such seasons much of our time was spent in bed, -for there alone we had effectual shelter from the winds and spray, -which searched every cranny in the walls of the barrack. Our slumbers, -too, were at times fearfully interrupted by the sudden pouring of the -sea over the roof, the rocking of the house on its pillars, and the -spurting of water through the seams of the doors and windows--symptoms -which, to one suddenly aroused from sound sleep, recalled the appalling -fate of the former barrack, which had been engulfed in the foam not -20 yards from our dwelling, and for a moment seemed to summon us to a -similar fate.” - -The work upon the rock was tedious and exasperating in the extreme. The -gneiss was of maddening hardness and obstinacy--“four times as tough -as Aberdeen granite” was the general opinion. The Atlantic, pounding -the rock continuously through the centuries, had faced it smoother than -could any mason with his tools, yet had not left it sufficiently sound -to receive the foundations. In the external layer, which the masons -laboured strenuously to remove with their puny tools, there were cracks -and crevices here and there. The stubborn rock played havoc with the -finest chisels and drills, and clearing had to be effected for the -most part by the aid of gunpowder. This powerful agent, however, could -only be used sparingly and with extreme skill, so that the rock-face -might not be shivered or shattered too severely. Moreover, the men ran -extreme risks, for the rock splintered like glass, and the flying chips -were capable of doing as much damage, when thus impelled, as a bullet. - -While the foundations were being prepared, and until the barrack was -constructed, the men ran other terrible risks every morning and night -in landing upon and leaving the polished surface of the reef. Five -months during the summer was the working season, but even then many -days and weeks were often lost owing to the swell being too great to -permit the rowing-boat to come alongside. The engineer relates that -the work was “a good lesson in the school of patience,” because the -delays were frequent and galling, while every storm which got up and -expended its rage upon the reef left its mark indelibly among the -engineer’s stock-in-trade. Cranes and other material were swept away as -if they were corks; lashings, no matter how strong, were snapped like -pack-threads. Time after time the tender lying alongside had to weigh -anchor hurriedly, and make a spirited run to its haven at Tyree. - -When the barrack was erected, the situation was eased somewhat, but -then the hours became long. Operations being confined to the summer -months, the average working day was from four in the morning until nine -in the evening--seventeen hours--with intervals for meals; but the men -were not averse to the prolonged daily toil, inasmuch as cessation -brought no welcome relaxations, but rather encouraged broodings over -their isolated position, whereas occupation served to keep the mind -engaged. Twice the men had severe frights during the night. On each -occasion a violent storm sprang up after they had gone to bed, and one -or two ugly breakers, getting their blows home, shook the eyrie with -the force of an earthquake. Every man leaped out of his bunk, and one -or two of the more timid, in their fright, hurried down the ladder and -spent the remaining spell of darkness shivering and quaking on the -completed trunk of the lighthouse, deeming it to be safer than the -crazy-looking structure which served as their home. - -Two years were occupied upon the foundations, the first stone being -laid by the Duke of Argyll on July 7, 1840. This eminent personage -evinced a deep interest in the work and the difficulties which had to -be overcome, and as proprietor of the island of Tyree extended to the -Commissioners free permission to quarry any granite they required from -any part of his estate. - -For a height of some 21 feet from the foundation level the tower is -a solid trunk of masonry. Then come the entrance and water-tanks, -followed by nine floors, comprising successively coal-store, workshop, -storeroom, kitchen, two bedrooms, library, oil-store, and light-room, -the whole occupying a height of 130 feet, crowned by the lantern. -As a specimen of lighthouse engineering, the Skerryvore has become -famous throughout the world. The stones forming the solid courses at -the bottom are attached to one another so firmly and ingeniously as -to secure the maximum of strength and solidity, the result being that -nothing short of an earthquake could overthrow the stalk of masonry. - -The erection of the superstructure was by no means free from danger -and excitement. The working space both on the tower itself and around -the base was severely cramped. The men at the latter point had to -keep a vigilant eye upon those working above, since, despite the most -elaborate precautions, falls of tools and other heavy bodies were -by no means infrequent. Notwithstanding its perilous character, the -undertaking was free from accident and fatality, and, although the men -were compelled by force of circumstances to depend mostly upon salt -foodstuffs, the little colony suffered very slightly from the ravages -of dysentery. - -Probably the worst experience was when the men on the rock were -weather-bound for seven weeks during one season. The weather broke -suddenly. Heavy seas and adverse winds raged so furiously that the -steamboat dared not put out of its haven, but remained there with steam -up, patiently waiting for a lull in the storm, during which they might -succour the unfortunate men on the reef. The latter passed a dreary, -pitiable time. Their provisions sank to a very low level, they ran -short of fuel, their sodden clothing was worn to rags, and, what was -far worse from their point of view, their tobacco became exhausted. -The average working man will tolerate extreme discomfort and privation -so long as the friendship of his pipe remains, but the denial of this -companion comes as the last straw. - -The lantern is of special design, and is one of the most powerful -around the Scottish coasts. It is of the revolving class, reaching its -brightest state once every minute, and may be seen from the deck of a -vessel eighteen miles away Six years were occupied in the completion of -the work, and, as may be imagined, the final touches were welcomed with -thankfulness by all those who had been concerned in the enterprise. The -tower contains 4,308 tons of granite, and the total cost was £86,977, -or $434,885, rendering it one of the costliest in the world. This sum, -however, included the purchase of the steam-vessel which now attends -the lighthouse, and the construction of the little harbour at Hynish. - -The lighthouse-keepers live on the island of Tyree, where are provided -substantial, spacious, single-floor, masonry dwellings with gardens -attached. This is practically a small colony in itself, inasmuch as -the accommodation includes, not only that for the keepers of the -Skerryvore, but for the guardians of the Dhu-Heartach light as well. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE LONELY LIGHTS OF SCOTLAND - - -Barren ruggedness, ragged reefs, and towering cliffs form an apt -description of the north and west coasts of Scotland, and he is a -prudent navigator who acknowledges the respect which these shores -demand, by giving them a wide berth. The Norwegian coast is serrated, -the island of Newfoundland may be likened to the battered edge of a -saw, but Scotland is unique in its formation. The coastline is torn -and tattered by bays and firths, with scattered outlying ramparts. The -captain of a “tramp” who has sailed the seven seas once confessed to me -that no stretch of coastline ever gave him the shivers so badly as the -stretch of shore between Duncansby Head and the Mull of Kintyre. - -Certainly a ship “going north about” is menaced every mile of her way -between these two points unless she takes a very circuitous course. -If the weather conditions are favourable and daylight prevails, the -North of Britain may be rounded through the narrow strait washing the -mainland and the Orkney Islands, but the Pentland Firth is not an -attractive short-cut. The ships that run between Scandinavian ports and -North America naturally follow this route, as it is several hundred -miles shorter than that via the North Sea and English Channel; but they -keep a sharp eye on the weather and are extremely cautious. When the -Pentland Firth is uninviting, they may either choose the path between -the Orkneys and the Shetlands, or, to eliminate every element of risk, -may stand well out to sea, and round the most northern stretches of the -Shetlands. These are lonely seas, comparatively speaking, and yet are -well lighted. Although a wicked rock lies in the centre of the eastern -entrance to the Pentland channel, it is indicated by the Pentland -Skerries light. When the mariner in his wisdom pushes still farther -north, he falls within the glare of the rays thrown from the beacon -near Muckle Flugga. This is the northernmost point of the British -Islands, and it is truly forbidding. The rock lies three-quarters of a -mile off the Shetland Islands, and is a huge fang, sheering to a height -of 196 feet above high-water. On the side facing north it rears up so -abruptly that it appears to lean over, while on the opposite side it is -almost as steep. - -The majority of lighthouses have been called into existence by the -claims of commerce purely and simply. But it was not so with the North -Unst lighthouse, as the beacon crowning this pinnacle is called. War -was responsible for its creation, though probably sooner or later the -requirements of peace would have brought about a similar result. While -the armies of France and Britain were fighting the Russians in the -Crimea, the British fleet was hovering about these waters, watching -the mouth of the Baltic, so as to frustrate any attempts on the part -of the Russian fleet to dash around the northern coast of Scotland. -In those days these lonely seas were badly lighted, and the Admiralty -realized only too well the many perils to which the warships were -exposed while cruising about the pitiless coasts of the Orkneys and -Shetlands. Accordingly, the department called upon the Commissioners of -Northern Lighthouses to mark Muckle Flugga. Time was everything, and -the engineers were urged to bring a temporary light into operation with -the least delay. - -The engineers hurriedly evolved a tower which would meet the Government -needs. It was thought that the extreme height of the rock would lend -itself to the erection of a building which, while possible of early -completion, would be adequate for subsequent purposes. The materials -for the light, together with a lantern, and a second building for the -storage of the oil and other requisites, were shipped northward from -Glasgow. Simultaneously the engineers, with another small gang of -men who had already reached the rock, pushed on with the preliminary -preparations, so that when the constructional vessel arrived erection -might go ahead straightforwardly and rapidly. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -THE DHU-HEARTACH LIGHTHOUSE. - -To the left is the lower part of the temporary structure in which the -builders lived while erection was in progress.] - -The engineers tried the rock from all sides to find a safe landing. -This was no light matter, owing to the steepness of the slope even upon -the easiest face of the pinnacle. The attempt represented a mild form -of mountaineering, for the sea had battered away the projection of the -lower-lying levels, and the men found it trying to effect a foothold, -even in stepping from the boat on to the rock. They had to climb hand -over hand up the precipice, with life-lines round their waists, taking -advantage of every narrow ledge. With infinite labour they gained the -summit, and then they found that there was just sufficient space, and -no more, upon which to plant the lighthouse buildings. - -The top was cleared quickly, and then the advance party set to work -to improve the landing-place on the south side of the rock for the -reception of the building materials. A small site was prepared with -great difficulty, as the tough rock offered a stern resistance to the -chisels, drills, and wedges; while in addition the men had to cut steps -in the flank of the rock to facilitate the ascent to the site. - -On September 14, 1854, the constructional vessel _Pharos_ hove in -sight, and, the weather being favourable, the landing of the material -was hurried forward. The men had to become pack-animals for the -time, carrying the loads on their backs. In this manner they tramped -laboriously up and down the cliff-face with material and stores of all -descriptions. The heavier and bulkier parts were hauled up by rope and -tackle, a few feet at a time, and this task was quite as exacting. -In all, 120 tons were conveyed to the top of the crag. Construction -was hastened just as feverishly, and on October 11, 1854, twenty-six -days after the _Pharos_ anchored off Muckle Flugga, the North Unst -light shone out for the first time. This is probably one of the most -brilliant exploits that has ever been consummated in connection with -lighthouse engineering, the merit of which is additionally impressive -from the fact that almost everything had to be accomplished by manual -effort. - -While the light was admittedly of a temporary character, the importance -of the outpost had been appreciated, and it was determined to erect a -permanent light upon the rock for the guidance of those who compass -the North of Scotland in order to pass from and to the North Atlantic. -It was decided to commence the permanent masonry building the -following year, and a gang of men volunteered to stay behind on the -rock throughout the winter to complete all the essential preparations -for the foundations. Accommodation was available for this staff in a -substantial iron shelter, in which they made themselves comfortable for -the winter. - -But it is during this season that the winds from the north, lashing -the sea to fury, create huge rollers which thunder upon the base -of the pinnacle to crawl up its perpendicular face in the form of -broken water and spray. The men standing on the brink often watched -these rollers, but never for a moment thought that one would be able -to leap to a height of nearly 200 feet and sweep over the rock. The -December gales dispelled this illusion very convincingly. One morning -the workmen, while breakfasting in their warm shelter, received a -big surprise. A terrific blow struck the door, which flew open as if -hit by a cannon-ball. It was followed instantly by a three-foot wall -of water. The broken wave rushed round the apartment, seething and -foaming, and then out again. The workmen were dumbfounded, but had -scarcely recovered from the shock when another roll of water came -crashing in and gave the apartment another thorough flushing out. One -of the Scottish workmen vouchsafed the remark that the man responsible -for cleaning the floors that day would be spared his job, but he was -silenced when, a few seconds later, another angry sheet of water -dropped on the roof of the building and threatened to smash it in. - -[Illustration: THE NORTH UNST, BRITAIN’S MOST NORTHERLY LIGHT. - -The tower is perched on the top of a precipitous crag, the light being -260 feet above the sea. Despite this height, the waves often dash over -the lantern.] - -The closing month of that year was particularly boisterous. Time after -time when the sea rose, the lighthouse tower was drenched in water. One -might think it impossible that a wave could get up sufficient impetus -to mount a height of 200 feet; but this experience offered conclusive -testimony to the contrary and to the immense power of the waves when -they have an uninterrupted run over several hundred miles of open ocean. - -In a way, the terrifying experience of these marooned workmen was -invaluable. They reported the bare facts to the engineers upon the -first opportunity, and this intelligence brought about a revision in -the designs for the permanent masonry structure. - -The present North Unst lighthouse is a massive masonry building, -standing in the centre of the small flat space on the top of the -pinnacle, with heavy masonry walls bounding it on all sides. The tower -is 64 feet in height, while the red and white light may be seen from a -distance of twenty-one miles in clear weather. That the winter storms -of 1854 were by no means exceptional has been proved up to the hilt on -several occasions since. When the nor’-wester is roused thoroughly, -the breaking waves curl up the cliff and rush over the lantern. Such a -climb of 260 feet conveys a compelling notion of the force of the sea. -The weight of the water thrown into the air has threatened to overthrow -the massive boundary walls, while now and again the invader leaves -tangible evidences of its power by smashing the windows of the lantern. -Upon one occasion it burst open the heavy door, which weighs the best -part of a ton. - -The light-station is served by four keepers, two on duty -simultaneously, their homes being on the island of Unst, four miles -away. For the conveyance of water, fuel, provisions, and other -requirements, from the landing-stage to the lighthouse 200 feet above, -an inclined railway has been provided on the easier slope, so that the -men are no longer called upon to pack their provisions, like mules, -from the water-level up a steep cliff, as was formerly required. - -Rounding these island dangers, the navigator picks up the light of Cape -Wrath, glimmering from a height of 370 feet above the water-level and -standing at the western corner of the rectangular head of the Scottish -mainland. Going south, he has two passages available--the inner, which -extends through the Minches and inside the Hebrides; or the outer, -which lies beyond the latter rampart. In making the outer passage he -comes within range of the light shining from the summit of a lonely -group of rocks standing some twenty-two miles out to sea off the Isle -of Lewis. These are the Flannen Islands, or Seven Hunters, one of many -similar lonely Scottish stations. The tower is mounted upon the crown -of one of the highest points, and the white group-flashing light is -visible over a radius of twenty-four miles. Farther south the seafarer -picks up and drops the Monach Islands light, likewise lying out in the -Atlantic, some ten miles from the nearest land. Finally, rounding Barra -Head, the most southerly point of the reef lying off Barra Island, the -light from which is cast 580 feet above the water owing to the height -of the cliff, the vessel slips into a huge indentation, where isolated -rocks peep above the Atlantic, one of the most dangerous of which is -indicated by the Skerryvore lighthouse. - -I have described the Skerryvore light in the previous chapter; but -nineteen and a half miles to the south-east of the latter is another -reef, just as exposed, which is as perilous in every respect. Indeed, -it may be said to constitute a greater menace to the navigation of -these waters, since it lies in the cross-roads of the entrance to the -Irish Channel, the Firth of the Clyde, and the Minches. A powerful -light mounts guard on the Rhins of Islay, twenty-seven miles due south, -but between the latter and Skerryvore there are forty-three miles of -coast, as dangerous as the mariner could wish to avoid, with this rock -looming up almost halfway. - -This peril is the Dhu-Heartach, lying out to sea in deep water, -fourteen miles from the nearest point of the mainland. The physical -configuration of the sea-bed at this point is somewhat similar to -that prevailing at Skerryvore. The Ross of Mull tumbles abruptly into -the Atlantic, to reappear out to sea in the form of the Torrin Rocks, -which run for a distance of four and a half miles in the direction of -Dhu-Heartach. Then the reef comes to a sudden stop, to be seen once -more, nine miles farther out, in the rounded hump of Dhu-Heartach, -this being practically the outermost point of the ridge. Being so -isolated and projecting so suddenly from deep water, this ledge claimed -many victims among the vessels frequenting these unlighted waters. The -Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses were assailed for not marking the -danger spot in some form or other. The authorities, however, were fully -alive to the need of such protection, but it was not until 1867 that -they were able to proceed with the erection of a lighthouse. - -The situation is peculiar, and the engineers, Messrs. D. and T. -Stevenson, were faced with a somewhat perplexing problem recalling -those which had arisen in conjunction with the Skerryvore, not -far distant. Indeed, the Dhu-Heartach undertaking might very well -be described as a repetition of those struggles, with a few more -difficulties of a different character thrown in. The rock itself in -reality is a series of islets, or hummocks, surrounding the main -hump, which is 240 feet in length by 130 feet in breadth, the highest -point of the rounded top being 35 feet above high-water at ordinary -spring-tides. On all sides the lead marks very deep water, the result -being that in times of storm and tempest the rollers of the Atlantic, -having a “fetch” of some 3,000 miles or more, thunder upon it with -terrific force, the broken water leaping high into the air. It is very -seldom that the rock can be approached even in a small boat and with a -calm sea, as the hump is invariably encircled in a scarf of ugly surf. -The swell strikes the western face of the rock, is divided, flows round -the northern and southern ends of the obstruction, and reunites on -the eastern side. Consequently the rock is nearly always a centre of -disturbance. - -The distance of the rock from the mainland complicated the issue very -materially. A suitable site had to be prepared on shore as a base, -where the stones could be prepared for shipment, while a special -steam-tender was necessary to run to and fro. The handling of the -workmen had to be carried out upon the lines which were adopted at -Skerryvore--namely, the erection of a barrack upon a skeleton framework -on the rock, where the men might be left safely for days or weeks at -a time. The shore station selected was at Earraid, on the neighbouring -island of Mull, because it was the nearest strategical point to the -work, and because ample supplies of first-class granite were available -in the immediate vicinity, the proprietor, the Duke of Argyll, as in -the previous instance, facilitating the work as far as possible. - -The authority to commence operations was given on March 11, 1867, -and this year was devoted to completing preparations, so that in the -following season work might be started in earnest and carried on -throughout the summer at high pressure. The first task was the erection -of the barrack on the rock. The workmen got ashore for the first time -on June 25, 1867, and, although landing at all times was trying and -perilous, attempts often having to be abandoned owing to the swell, -the engineer succeeded in landing twenty-seven times up to September -3, when work had to be suspended until the following year. Despite -the shortness of the season, the men made appreciable headway. The -iron framework of the barrack was completed to the first tier, while -a good beginning was made upon the rock-face in connection with the -foundations for the lighthouse. When the autumnal gales approached, -everything in connection with the barrack was left secure, the builders -being anxious to ascertain how it would weather the winter gales and -the force and weight of the waves which bore down upon it. - -The engineers finally decided upon a tower 107½ feet in height. After -trying various curves for the outline, they came to the decision that a -parabolic frustum would afford the most serviceable design, as well as -providing the maximum of strength. A diameter of 36 feet was chosen for -the base, tapering gradually and gracefully to one of 16 feet at the -top, with the entrance 32 feet above the base, to which point the cone -was to be solid. - -The arrangements were that work should be resumed in the early spring -of 1868, so as to secure full advantage of the favourable easterly -winds. Accordingly, when the special steam-tender arrived on April 14, -she was loaded up with necessaries and men, ready to proceed to the -site directly the wind should veer round to the desired point of the -compass. But with aggravating persistency it clung to the west and -south-west until the end of June, so that many valuable weeks were -unfortunately lost. Time after time, when there was a lull in the -weather, the steamer put out from Earraid, the engineers determined to -make a dash for the rock, and as many times they were foiled, as the -men could not be got through the surf. One day, however, an hour and -a half was snatched on the rock, and, although no work could be done -in that time, yet the interval was sufficient to enable the engineers -to take a look round and to see how their handiwork had withstood the -heavy gales of the previous winter. There was only one marked evidence -of the Atlantic’s wrath. One section of the iron ring connecting the -heads of the legs of the barrack at a height of 30 feet had been -carried away. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -THE NORTH UNST LIGHT. - -The first light was built in twenty-six days during the Crimean War at -the British Government’s urgent request.] - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -LANDING WATER AT THE NORTH UNST. - -Showing tramway connecting with tower, 200 feet above.] - -On June 29 the wind moderated sufficiently to enable the men to be -landed, but the climatic conditions remained adverse. The wind refused -to swing round to the east; a westerly swell was the luck day after -day. The engineers had to dodge the ocean as best they could, and some -idea of the handicap under which they laboured may be gathered from -the fact that only four landings were made during the sixty-one days -of May and June. July enabled the greatest number of landings to be -effected--thirteen; while during August and September the men only -gained the rock on twenty-one occasions, making a total of thirty-eight -landings in the course of 153 days. - -During this interrupted season, however, the barrack was completed. -It was a massive structure, and resembled a huge iron barrel secured -endwise upon an intricate arrangement of stilts which were heavily -stayed and tied together by diagonals and cross-members. In the two -previous instances where a similar arrangement had been adopted the -temporary dwelling had been wrought in wood, but on this occasion -the engineers decided to adopt iron, as they concluded that a wooden -structure would not fare well against the heavy seas. This was -a fortunate decision, because, as subsequent experience proved, a -wooden barrack would have received very short shrift from the Atlantic -breakers; in fact, probably it would have gone down with the first -sou’-wester. The iron barrack, as the workmen narrated, was pounded and -battered by the waves most unmercifully; but although it suffered at -times, quivering and shaking under the terrific impacts, it weathered -all the onslaughts. - -One interesting incident serves to illustrate the perils to which the -workmen were exposed. A date had been set down when all the men were to -be brought off the rock for the season, as the approach of the equinox -rendered further toil extremely doubtful, and there was no intention of -unduly imperilling them. The engineer’s resident representative, Mr. -Alexander Brebner, went out to the rock on August 20, the day fixed for -the suspension of operations, to inspect the progress that had been -made and to have a last look round. At the time of his arrival the -weather was beautifully calm, and held out every promise of remaining -settled for several days. As the season had been so adverse, he -decided, on his own responsibility, to delay the cessation of toil, so, -with the thirteen men, he remained on the rock, determined to make up -leeway somewhat while the weather held out. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -THE FLANNEN ISLANDS LIGHT STATION. - -One of Scotland’s lonely beacons. It marks a group of islets 15 miles -off the Hebrides. In 1900 the three keepers mysteriously disappeared, -and their fate remains unsolved to this day.] - -But the resident paid the penalty for his disobedience. The little -party retired that night with the stars shining brilliantly overhead -from a cloudless sky, and with the sea like a mirror. In the middle -of the night one and all were roused suddenly from their slumbers. -The wind was roaring, and the breakers were hammering upon the -rock, while the foam and surf rushed violently between the legs of -the barracks. When the men looked out they were confronted with a -terrifying spectacle. The night was black as pitch, but the sea white -as a snow-covered plain, from the crests of the rollers and the surf -playing on and around the rocks. A furious gale had sprung up with the -characteristic suddenness of the Atlantic, and was already raging. The -next morning no one dared to venture outside the iron home, while the -gale, instead of abating, appeared to be increasing in fury. For five -days the men were held fast, and at times their fears got the better of -them. This was particularly the case when, now and again, a more than -ugly wave got up, rolled over the rock, and crashed with full force -against the barrack. The building shook and trembled fearfully, but -its legs were driven too deeply into the rock for it to be overturned, -while the cross-bracing was too intricate for the legs to be snapped -off. Again and again the men were plunged into darkness, as a wall of -water rushed right over the drum, notwithstanding that the roof was 77 -feet above high-water. - -Their fears rose almost to frenzy when a breaker, leaping the rock, -drove full tilt against the floor of the barrack. In this upward rush -of 55 feet the building suffered. The men’s entrance to the home was -by means of a heavy hatch, or trapdoor, which was bolted securely upon -the inside. This particular comber burst in the hatch as if it were no -thicker than the wood of a matchbox, flooding the whole compartment. - -Meantime the engineer-in-chief at Edinburgh had heard of the incident. -He had given strict instructions that the men should be brought off on -August 20, and when the intelligence was communicated to him that his -order had been disobeyed, and that his men were in serious straits, -he became distracted. He knew only too well how the waves bombard -Dhu-Heartach. Mr. David Stevenson related to me how his father paced -the offices during the day, and his own home at night, unable to drown -his thoughts in work or sleep. His worry was intensified as the true -character of the gale came to his ears. He had planned everything -with such care that neither life nor limb of a single workman need -be jeopardized, and here he was confronted with the possibility of -losing fourteen men at one stroke! The iron barrack, although staunchly -constructed, was just as likely as not to succumb to the full brunt of -a very vicious sou’-wester, so there was every excuse for his anxiety. -He gave orders that the steam-tender was to stand by with steam raised, -so as to make a dash for the rock upon the first opportunity. No one -had a moment’s peace until at last the news came through that the -steam-tender had been out to the rock, and with much difficulty had -got hold of the fourteen men and brought them ashore, somewhat scared -and bearing evidences of their experience, but unharmed. Mr. Stevenson -told me that he could not quite say which was worse--the distracted -wanderings of his father, or the expression of his pent-up feelings -when he met the unfortunate resident a few days later, who was taken -severely to task for his flagrant breach of orders, whereby the lives -of the workmen had been imperilled so unnecessarily. - -The year 1869 was kinder to the engineers, and great headway was made. -The men were able to make their first landing on the rock as early -as March 25, and it was accessible up to October 29, when all forces -withdrew from the scene for the winter. During this period sixty -landings were effected, while heavy supplies of masonry and other -materials were shipped to the site. The masons took up their permanent -residence in the barrack on April 26, and did not leave it until -September 3, while they were able to squeeze in 113 days of toil, with -a welcome rest from their labours on Sundays. The excavations for the -foundations were completed speedily, and on June 24 the erection of -the tower was commenced. The stones were brought ready for setting in -position, and were laid so rapidly that by the end of the month two -courses were completed and the third had been well advanced. Then came -a temporary setback. A blusterous summer gale sprang up, and the sea, -after assaulting the rock for two days, succeeded in leaving its mark. -The crane and other tackle at the landing-stage were washed away, while -fourteen stones laid in the third course were uprooted, of which eleven -were seen no more. The water in this case had to leap upwards for 35½ -feet, while the stones which it carried away weighed 2 tons apiece, and -were firmly joggled, so that the wrench which displaced them must have -been terrific indeed. - -If a summer gale could wreak such damage, what was the dreaded equinox -likely to achieve? The engineers were so much impressed that they -thereupon made assurance doubly sure by effecting a modification of the -original plans. When the work was commenced, it was intended to take -the solid part of the tower up to a height of 52 feet 10 inches above -high-water. The effects of this summer gale induced them to continue -the solid section a further 11½ feet, so that the entrance level is 64 -feet 4 inches above high-water mark. The result is that the solid base -of the Dhu-Heartach tower weighs no less than 1,840 tons--more than -one-half the total weight of the structure--and is executed throughout -in massive blocks of grey granite. - -The tower contains six floors above the entrance hall, these, on -ascending the spiral staircase, being as follows: oil-store, kitchen, -provision-store, bedroom, dry-room, and light-room. The masonry part -of the work was completed by the end of the season of 1871, and the -first-order dioptric, fixed, white light was exhibited on November -1, 1872. The focal plane, being 145 feet above the water-level, has -a range of eighteen nautical miles. The total cost of the work was -£76,084, or $380,420, of which sum the shore station was responsible -for £10,300, or $51,500. - -The ocean made an attempt to defeat the workmanship and skill of the -engineers in the very winter following the opening of the lighthouse. -On the lee side of the tower there is a copper lightning-conductor, 1 -inch thick by 1½ inches wide, which is let into a channel cut in the -stonework, so that it comes flush with the face of the building. This -conductor is fixed at intervals of 5 feet in a substantial manner. The -winter storms of 1872 tore some 10 feet out of this channel near the -base of the structure, and wrenched the screws from their sockets; -while at the kitchen window level, which is 92 feet above high-water, -the rod was similarly disturbed for some distance. It will be seen that -the waves which assail Dhu-Heartach are by no means to be despised. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE FASTNET, THE OUTPOST OF EUROPE - - -Four and a half miles out to sea, separated from Cape Clear, the most -south-westerly point of Ireland, by a treacherous channel, rises the -jagged, formidable shape of the Fastnet. To mariners the rock, with its -brilliant shaft of light by night, has developed into more than a mere -beacon. It is the first and last light of the Old World on the eastward -and westward passages across the Atlantic. All passing vessels are -“spoken” from this point to London, New York, and elsewhere. - -It was in the early fifties of the past century that the engineer -conceived the idea of planting a light upon this lonely crag. Maritime -interests had agitated for a beacon for many years previously, since, -although a warning gleam was thrown from the station on Cape Clear, -this ray often was invisible, or partially obscured, owing to the -wreaths of cloud and mist which draped the summit of the headland. -The builder was Mr. George Halpin, engineer to the Port of Dublin -Corporation, which was responsible at that time for the illumination of -the shores of Ireland. - -His task was not to be despised. The Fastnet itself is merely a -pinnacle, rising precipitously to a height of about 100 feet above -low-water, but it is the centre of many dangers. It is flanked on all -sides by needle-points and ridges; the currents run strongly, and the -tides are wicked, rendering approach uncertain even in the smoothest -weather. - -The indefatigable engineer attacked his task boldly. He chose the -highest point of the rock as the site for his tower, which was a -cast-iron cylindrical building, 91 feet in height. The lantern was -equipped with a revolving apparatus which threw a flash of 38,000 -candle-power for fifteen seconds once every two minutes from an -elevation of 148 feet, rotation being obtained through a belt and a -weight-driven clock. Its erection was a tedious undertaking; although -a start was made in 1848, it was not until January 1, 1854, that the -light first cast its welcome rays over the wastes of the Atlantic, by -which time £20,000, or $100,000, had been spent upon the undertaking. - -[Illustration: - - _From the “Scientific American.”_ - -BUILDING THE FASTNET ROCK LIGHTHOUSE. - -Looking down from the top of the rock upon the men setting one of the -solid masonry courses.] - -For ten years Halpin’s work successfully defied the elements, although -at times the keepers grew somewhat apprehensive concerning its -stability. Time after time, during heavy gales, it seemed as if it -must succumb to the storm. The waves curled up the cliff and struck -the tower with staggering force, causing it to tremble like a leaf. -On one occasion a cup of coffee standing upon the table was thrown to -the floor. While the shaft defied the most severe poundings, the cliff -itself gave way, and large masses of rock on which the tower stood were -carried away. One huge chunk, weighing some 3 tons, was detached, and, -as it slipped down, was picked up by the next incoming wave, to be -hurled with terrific force against the tower, but without inflicting -any marked damage. On another occasion a cask containing 60 gallons -of fresh water, which the keepers had made fast to the railing of the -gallery surrounding the lantern, 133 feet above the water, was wrenched -free by a wave which dashed over the rock, and was swept away as if it -were an empty tin. The keepers’ anxiety under these circumstances may -be understood. - -At last, in April, 1865, the consulting engineer to the Corporation -visited the lighthouse in company with Mr. George Stevenson, the famous -Scottish lighthouse builder, to examine the rock thoroughly. The latter -suggested certain recommendations to insure the stability of the tower; -but when the sanction of the Brethren of Trinity House was sought, they -deferred a decision until their own engineer had visited the works, -although they appreciated Mr. Stevenson’s advice. - -Some of the recommendations advanced by Mr. Stevenson were followed -subsequently, and this reluctant recognition of his knowledge -brought its reward. The authorities--now the Commissioners of Irish -Lights--had a fright in 1881. The storms of that winter were among -the heaviest that have ever assailed the British Islands. The Calf -Rock light, which was a similar tower to the Fastnet, and which had -been strengthened upon identical lines, came to grief. The tower was -broken off at the point where the reinforcement ceased. This disaster -naturally aroused many misgivings concerning the luck of the Fastnet. -Had it shared a similar fate during the same gale? To their intense -relief, the Commissioners found that it had issued from the conflict -with no more injuries than a few broken panes of glass. - -The tower withstood the attacks of wind and wave successfully until -1891, when the Commissioners came to the conclusion that it was time -the Fastnet light was improved, to meet the requirements of the -busier mercantile traffic passing the point. Accordingly, Mr. William -Douglass, the engineer to the Commissioners, recommended a new tower, -fitted with the latest form of illumination, so as to bring it into -line with the other leading lights of the world. He advocated a tower -of masonry with the focal plane at an elevation of 159 feet; the shaft, -147 feet high, springing from a position 6 inches below high-water, -with a diameter at the base of 42 feet. The cost of the light was -estimated at £70,000 or $350,000. - -One cannot help admiring the daring of the engineer, since he declined -to be assisted by the rock summit in his purpose. Instead he preferred -the ledge of a chasm on the hardest part of the rock below high-tide, -and directly exposed to the full force of the sea. He maintained that -such a tower, planted on this shelf, would receive the force of the -heaviest seas before they rose to their full height; also by building -the base of the tower in the form of steps, as in the case of a -breakwater, an excellent buffer would be offered to the rollers. - -[Illustration: BUILDING THE FASTNET TOWER. - -Showing derrick for setting the stones into position.] - -[Illustration: - - _The “Scientific American.”_ - -ERECTING THE FASTNET LANTERN. - -This illustration gives a striking idea of its height.] - -The new design came at an opportune moment. Another inspection of the -existing tower by Mr. C. W. Scott, the present engineer-in-chief -to the Commissioners, revealed a parlous state of affairs. Halpin’s -building was on the verge of collapse. Many of the plates in the upper -stories had worked loose under the poundings inflicted by the seas, and -in many instances the bolts holding the fabric together were sheared. -Repairs had to be made hastily to enable the old tower to hold out -until the new lighthouse was erected. - -Before the work was commenced, the designer, as a result of further -investigation, decided to increase the diameter of his tower to 52 feet -at the base. The lowest courses did not comprise complete rings of -masonry, but were anchored at the points where the circle was broken -into the face of the cliff, so as to form an integral part thereof, -as it were. The depth of this partial ringwork is 26 feet, at which -level the first complete ring of masonry was laid. Thenceforward the -tower is solid throughout its thickness for a further height of 30 -feet, except for a central circular space forming the water-tank, which -holds 3,250 gallons of water. From this point the masonry structure -rises gracefully to a height of 88-1/8 feet to the lantern gallery. The -lighthouse is divided into eight floors, affording living-rooms for the -keepers, storerooms for oil, fog-signals, provisions, coal, etc. - -The lighthouse, the landing-stage, and other appurtenances, are -executed in Cornish granite throughout. The blocks were fashioned from -picked stone of fine, close, hard grain, and ranged up to 4 and 5 tons -in weight. The method of construction followed the approved lines of -to-day, in which each stone is dovetailed into its neighbour, above, -below, and on either side. As the stones were cut and fitted in the -Cornish quarries, they were set up and fitted course by course. Then, -when they had met the approbation of the engineer deputed for this -duty, they were numbered and given other identification marks, so that -upon reaching the base at Rock Island, upon the Irish mainland, within -easy reach of the Fastnet, they could be despatched in rotation to the -site, to be set in position. - -It was in August, 1896, that the first little squad of labourers -landed on the Fastnet, under the superintendence of James Kavanagh, -a first-class all-round mason--one of those men who occupy a unique -position when emergency calls. He was just the type of foreman that the -task demanded, careful, daring, a hard worker, zealous, dauntless. Once -he had landed on the rock to prepare the foundations, he seldom left -it; and, what is more, every stone constituting the tower was well and -truly laid by his own hand. It was indeed unfortunate that Kavanagh, -after his momentous round of toil was over, should be stricken down -with apoplexy, to which he succumbed, after virtually years of -imprisonment upon an ill-famed rock, facing discomforts and privations -of all descriptions, and seizing every opportunity to drive the task -forward. It was as if Nature, baffled in her efforts to circumvent -the work of human ingenuity, had taken revenge upon the man who had -laboured mightily to complete her subjection. - -Kavanagh took with him upon the rock a small boiler and steam-winch, -which he set up without delay, to land both workmen and necessaries. -He lost no time in cutting away at the toe of the cliff, to admit the -first partial ring of stones. It was a ding-dong battle between the -masons and the sea for the first few rounds. The men toiled heroically -with their chisels between the coming of the rollers, with one eye -on the water and the other on a handy life-line, which they grabbed -when the Atlantic endeavoured to steal a march upon them. On some -days splendid progress was made; on others the masons never drove the -chisels once into the rock-face. - -Landing was an exciting experience in itself. The tender, naturally, -could not draw right in, owing to the swell and other dangers. She -stood off a little way, and there anchored. When men were coming to or -going from the rock, the rope was run out from the derrick. To this -was attached a kind of double stirrup, not unlike a child’s swing. The -men took up their position, two at a time, on these stirrups, standing -face to face. At the command, “Lower away!” or “Heave ho!” the derrick -winch commenced to grunt and rattle, and the men were whisked into -mid-air, clutching tightly to their frail, cramped hold, and steadied -in their aerial journey by another rope extending to the rowing-boat -below. It was an exciting trip while it lasted, and at first glimpse -appeared to be dangerous, so much so that on one or two occasions the -courage of raw hands broke down at the last moment, and they hesitated -to trust themselves to such a flimsy-looking vehicle. - -Bringing the stones ashore was even more difficult. It was imperative -that the edges and corners of the blocks should be protected from -blows which might chip and scar them, thereby impairing their true -fit, and possibly allowing the sea to get a purchase in its efforts -to destroy. Accordingly, the blocks were packed in skeleton crates, -with substantial wooden battens completely protecting the vital parts. -It was impossible to swing them singly direct through the air from -steamer to rock, and it was inadvisable to transfer them first to a -rowing-boat; so an ingenious alternative method was perfected. The -tender was brought as near the rock as possible, and the derrick boom -was swung out, so that a hook carried at the end of the rope could be -attached to the stone, which rested on rollers upon the tender’s deck -leading to an open doorway in the taffrail. When the rope was secured, -the word was given to haul in the derrick rope slowly and gently. This -brought the stone gradually to the vessel’s side, when it was permitted -to fall into the water where it could suffer no injury. The derrick -rope meanwhile was wound in, and the stone, still submerged, at last -brought to rest against the side of the tower. - -A vertical series of wooden battens had been attached to the outside of -the building, so as to form a slide up which the blocks could be hauled -to the required level. Of course, as the tower increased in height, the -latter part of the operation had to be varied, owing to the concave -curve of the structure. Then the stone had to complete its final stage -through the air, being steadied in its ascent by a rope held below to -prevent it swinging and coming to grief against the completed part of -the shaft. In this manner 2,074 stones, representing a dead-weight of -4,633 tons, were landed and set in position. - -Work was painfully slow and tedious at times, owing to adverse weather. -Although the men on the rock were condemned inevitably to periods of -idleness, they were made as comfortable as conditions would permit, so -as to remove any longing on their part to return to the mainland for a -change. This was a necessary precaution. Although the men might leave -the rock in perfectly calm weather, the Atlantic is so fickle that -an interval of two or three hours was quite sufficient to permit the -wind to freshen, and the swell to grow restive, to such a degree as to -render a return to the rock impossible for several days. Owing to the -cramped nature of the quarters on the rock, elaborate care had to be -exercised to protect the men from the ravages of disease. The toilers -had to board themselves, and the authorities demanded that each man -should maintain a fortnight’s reserve supply of provisions upon the -rock to tide him over a spell of bad weather. This rule was enforced -very rigidly, any infringement of it being attended with instant -dismissal. For emergency purposes the Commissioners maintained a small -stock of salt beef, pork, tinned meats, tea, sugar, milk, biscuits, -and so forth, on the rock, from which the men could replenish their -larders. The foreman acted as a kind of medical officer of health, as -well as fulfilling his other duties. He was supplied with a ship’s -medicine-chest, plenty of bandages, liniment, and antiseptics, in case -of accident. At five o’clock every morning the men were compelled to -tumble out of their bunks, to indulge in a thorough wash, to turn their -bedding into the air when the weather was agreeable, and to wash out -their quarters. The strictest supervision was maintained over matters -pertaining to sanitation, and, thanks to these elaborate precautions, -cases of sickness were very few. - -Extreme care was observed in the building operations, so that no -workman might be exposed to any unnecessary risks, although the task -at times bristled with unavoidable perils. As a matter of fact, the -whole enterprise was attended by only three accidents on the rock. One -man was cutting a tram-rail, when a piece of steel flew into one eye, -completely blinding it. Another suffered a similar calamity from a chip -of stone while quarrying. The third man met misfortune while at work -at the windlass of the derrick. As a breaker rolled in, his companion -dropped his handle, with the result that the other workman was knocked -down and had one leg broken. There was a true Hibernian flavour about -this last-named accident, in keeping with the setting in which it -occurred. The man was incapacitated for some months, and then brought -an action for compensation, claiming that he had been rendered unfit -for any further manual labour. The sympathetic court solaced him with -an award of £350, or $1,750. The amazement and disgust of the engineer -may be imagined when, three months after the action, he suddenly -espied the supposedly totally incapacitated workman assisting in the -transference of coal from a barge to the tender! - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of the “Scientific American.”_ - -THE FASTNET, THE OUTPOST OF EUROPE. - -On the top of the rock is the first light, opened in 1854. At the side -is the present noble tower, completed in 1906. The flashing beam of -750,000 candle-power has a range of 20 miles.] - -As the tower grew above the existing building, which it was to exceed -in height, it obscured the light thrown from the latter in a certain -direction. At this juncture, accordingly, a temporary scaffolding was -erected upon the summit of the new shaft, on which were rigged two -ordinary lightship lights, and these were kept going until the new -lantern was completed. The last stone was set on June 3, 1903, after -some four years’ labour. - -During the winter everything was brought virtually to a standstill, -owing to the succession of gales, but the men on the rock never -missed an opportunity to advance the undertaking. Kavanagh, the -foreman, absolutely refused to go ashore so long as any work could be -completed. Often he remained on the Fastnet the whole year round, and -never was away for more than two months in the year, when work was -impossible. Other workmen, when they had lived down the first feelings -of loneliness, became imbued with the same spirit, and appeared loth -to forsake the scene of their labours even for a day or two. When -the men settled down to their toil, it was very seldom that a wish was -expressed to be taken ashore more than once in three months. - -The lantern was undertaken directly the stonework was completed. The -landing of this apparatus was an exciting task, for, the season being -advanced, it was decided to run unusual risks, lest the rock should -become unapproachable. It was accomplished successfully, and the -various parts were stored on the rock in what was considered a safe -place. The weather looked fine and gave no signs of breaking; yet two -hours after all had been inspected and secured for the night a terrific -gale sprang up, and the rock was enveloped in water, which dashed right -over it. The waves caught some of the lantern apparatus and smashed -it; other parts were carried away and never seen again. This was an -unexpected catastrophe. The remaining damaged parts of the apparatus -were sent back to Birmingham to be overhauled and the missing portions -replaced. - -As there was no possibility of being able to complete the lantern that -winter, and the authorities did not like to entrust the marking of -the rock solely to the temporary lightship lights--the lantern of the -Halpin tower had been taken down meanwhile--it was thereupon decided to -erect the dismantled old lamp in the new tower for the time being. - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd._ - -THE LANTERN OF THE FASTNET ROCK LIGHTHOUSE. - -It consists of two tiers each of four panels of 920 millimetres focal -distance.] - -The next summer the new apparatus was got on to the rock and erected -safely. The light is of the dioptric type, derived from a series of -incandescent burners, giving a total power of 1,200 candles. This part -of the installation is the invention of the chief engineer to the -Commissioners, Mr. C. W. Scott, and it has proved to be one of the most -perfect and economical devices of this type yet submitted to practical -operations. The oil is vaporized by being passed through a spraying -device under pressure, similar to the forced carburation in automobile -practice, and the gas is fed to the Bunsen burners. The lenses, -together with their revolving apparatus, weigh 13,440 pounds, and -rotate upon a bed of mercury under the fall of a weight of 290 pounds, -which descends 40 feet per hour, this being sufficient to secure -three complete revolutions per minute. In case the incandescent gas -installation should break down from any cause, a four-wick oil-burner -is held in reserve, and can be brought into action instantly. The -power of the rays thrown from the 1,200 candle-power burners is -intensified by the lenses to some 750,000 candle-power, of extremely -white brilliancy, recalling the beam thrown by an electric searchlight. -The flash, of three-twenty-fifths of a second’s duration, recurs every -five seconds, and on a clear night the light is readily distinguishable -from a distance of twenty miles, while its reflection in the sky may be -observed from a considerably greater distance. - -The erection of this lighthouse was not without one humorous incident. -While the lantern apparatus was being set in position, a plumber was -sent to the rock. He spent one day and night there, a period that -proved to be more than enough for him. The murmuring of the waves lost -all their musical glamour for him when he was imprisoned on a wild, -isolated, wind-and-wave-swept eyrie. He did not get a wink of sleep, -and was scared nearly out of his wits. When morning broke, and the -men were turned out of their bunks, the plumber expressed his fixed -determination to return to the shore at once. His companions laughed at -his fears, ridiculed his anxieties, coaxed and upbraided him in turn. -It was of no avail. He would not do another stroke of work. Realizing -the hopelessness of such a workman, the engineer in charge signalled -the mainland for assistance. The steamer could not put out, but the -lifeboat, not understanding the import of such an unusual call, made -the dangerous pull to the rock, to ascertain what was the matter. When -they found that it was to take off a scared workman, their feelings -may be imagined. The demoralized plumber was bundled into the lifeboat -and rowed back to shore. The blood did not return to his face, nor did -he collect his scattered wits, until he planted his two feet firmly on -the mainland, when he very vehemently and picturesquely expressed his -determination never to accept a job in such a forsaken place again. - -The old tower was reduced to the level of its solid base, and converted -into an oil-store. The finishing touches were applied to the new -tower, and on June 27, 1906, the scintillating and penetrating ray of -the present Fastnet was shown for the first time. It is a magnificent -light, and, being the latest expression of British lighthouse -engineering upon a large scale, compels more than passing interest. -The light is fully in keeping with the importance of the spot it -marks, and the £84,000, or $420,000, which it cost has been laid out -to excellent purpose. The light and fog-signal station is tended by -six keepers, four being on the rock simultaneously, and two ashore. -The latter constitute the relief, which is made twice a month if the -weather permits, the service being one month on the rock, followed by -a fortnight on shore. One keeper has day duty, maintaining a lookout -for fog and to signal passing ships; two are on duty at night, the one -having charge of the light and its operation, while his comrade devotes -his attention to signalling ships and watching the weather. When a mist -creeps over the light, the fourth keeper is called up to manipulate -the explosive fog-signal. The lighthouse, being an important landfall, -is a signalling-station for Lloyd’s, and is also fitted with wireless -telegraphy, wherewith the movements of outgoing and incoming vessels -are reported to the mainland for notification to all parts of the -world. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -LIGHTHOUSES BUILT ON SAND - - -While the greater number of the most famous sea-lights have been -erected upon the solid foundation offered by rock, in one or two -instances notable works have been consummated upon sand. The two most -remarkable achievements in this particular field of enterprise are the -Rothersand lighthouse, off the coast of Germany, in the North Sea, and -the Fourteen Foot Bank, in Delaware Bay, U.S.A. - -The Rothersand light became necessary owing to the expansion of the -German mercantile marine and the development of the ports of the -Weser and Elbe. The estuary of the Weser River is hemmed in by shoals -and sandbanks, similar to those found at the entrance to Liverpool, -London, and New York, rendering navigation extremely hazardous under -the most favourable circumstances. Bremerhaven, on the Weser, had been -selected as the home port for the North German Lloyd Atlantic liners, -but it was threatened with abandonment unless the entrance to the -waterway should undergo improvement. It was of no avail to dredge a -deep channel through the treacherous ridges of sand, if the general -proximity of the shoal were left unmarked. Consequently, in order to -secure the interests of Bremerhaven, it was decided by the three border -States--Prussia, Oldenburg, and Bremen--to provide a powerful light at -this danger-point. The financial problem was solved by the agreement to -levy a special tax upon all vessels entering the Weser, to defray the -cost of providing the safeguard. - -The undertaking was somewhat formidable. The shoal, being of soft -sand, was liable to erosion and movement, owing to fluctuating and -changing currents. Then, again, the proposed site, some thirty miles -from Bremerhaven and about halfway between that port and the island -of Heligoland, was exposed to the assaults of the North Sea, where -even slight breezes ruffle the water considerably. From the soundings -and observations that were made, it was evident that the foundations -would have to be carried down to a great depth, and that ordinary -systems of construction were quite impracticable. At this juncture the -Society Harkort of Duisburg, which had accumulated great experience in -subaqueous work, was approached and asked if it would undertake the -enterprise at its own risk. This was tantamount to a “no cure, no pay” -proposal. If they succeeded, they would be rewarded for their labours; -if they failed, they would have to face a heavy loss. - -This firm, after careful deliberation, allowed that the work could -be accomplished, but in one way only. This was to construct a huge -caisson--practically a gigantic barrel of steel--on shore, to launch -and tow it to the site, and there to lower it until it rested on the -bottom. Then, by a removal of the sand from beneath this caisson, it -could be sunk to a great depth, and, the interior being filled with -concrete, a huge artificial core of rock would be created, capable of -supporting a tower. This system is employed extensively in connection -with bridge-building operations, and the firm entertained no doubts -concerning its feasibility at Rothersand. The society accordingly -prepared its designs, and advanced an estimate for the cost of the work. - -At this juncture an unexpected competitor appeared on the scene. One of -the engineers engaged in the preparation of the Harkort designs severed -his connection with that firm, and, securing the collaboration of two -engineering colleagues, established a rival concern, which tendered for -the contract. They would follow the same lines, but would complete it -for £22,750, or $113,750, instead of £24,025, or $120,125, asked by the -Duisburg firm. The lower price was accepted, the more readily since it -included the foundations, whereas the Society Harkort set these down as -an extra. Naturally, the society was somewhat chagrined at this turn of -events, after all the trouble and care it had taken to discover the -most satisfactory solution of the problem, but subsequently it had good -reason not to regret its loss. - -The new engineers set to work and during the winter of 1880-81 -constructed a huge caisson, which was launched and on May 22 of the -latter year started down the Weser in charge of tugs. Then came a whole -string of accidents. One night the unwieldy fabric got adrift and -drove its nose into a sandbank, where it settled down with the tide. -The towing cables were attached once more, and after a great struggle -the structure was extricated on the next high-tide, and resumed its -journey. Reaching the site without further incident, it was lowered by -admitting the water within the barrel. But this task being accomplished -somewhat crudely, the water rushed in with such force that the caisson -commenced to spin round like a top, as well as bobbing up and down -like an angler’s float. It threatened to topple over and founder every -moment, but, luckily keeping upright, finally touched bottom. Lowering -was completed. Night having approached, workmen made themselves -comfortable on the caisson, while the constructional steamer stood off -and cast its anchor. - -The men on the caisson, however, experienced one of the most -sensational nights in their lives. As the tide rose, they found their -novel home to be behaving somewhat curiously. It moved, and then heeled -over. This was an alarming state of affairs, especially as the list -gradually became worse and worse. They shouted frantically for help, -but, a heavy fog having descended upon the shoal, their cries were -absorbed by the white pall. At last the caisson careened over to such -a degree that the men could not keep their feet, while the depressed -edge was in danger of being submerged. The men crawled to the opposite -or elevated side, and held on for their lives, expecting every moment -that the structure would give a heave and roll over. It was a terribly -anxious time for them, and at last, when the constructional steamer -came alongside in the morning, they scuttled down the ropes from their -perilous perch to the deck below, thankful for having escaped, as they -thought, a certain watery grave. - -The engineers spared no effort to save their work. They were harassed -at every tide because the water rose above the depressed edge and -flooded the interior. With all speed the wall at this point was -increased in height, so as to prevent inundation. Then, stormy weather -having cut away the sand under the elevated side, the structure -gradually righted itself. When it had regained its vertical position, -it was found that no serious damage had been done, but rather that the -engineers had profited, inasmuch as the caisson had buried itself some -16 feet into the sand. - -Winter was approaching, and so the engineers crowded on every man and -effort possible, in order to get the structure sunk to the requisite -level before work would have to be abandoned for the season. They -departed from the engineer’s axiom, “Make haste slowly,” and paid the -penalty. When the bad weather broke, compelling the return of all the -workmen to shore, the fabric was left insecure. The lower part had been -given its filling of concrete, but above a certain level the fabric -depended only upon the iron shell of the cylinder. It was stiffened -as much as possible with cross-timbers and bracing, but the elements -soon made short work of this puny defence. The North Sea, in common -with the other large stretches of water throughout the world, was -swept by terrible storms that winter, and one morning, when the sea -was scanned from shore through glasses, strange to say the caisson was -nowhere to be seen. All sorts of rumours were circulated to account -for its disappearance, among others being a sensational theory that -the caisson, having reached swampy ground while being sunk, had simply -dropped suddenly into the submarine quagmire, and had been swallowed -up completely. But the divers, when they could get out to the site and -could venture into the ocean depths, returned to the surface with a -very different story. The waves had snapped off the top of the caisson -at the upper level of the concrete within, and had carried it away. -Thus ended summarily the first attempt to build a lighthouse upon the -red sand at the entrance to the River Weser. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo by permission of the North German Lloyd S.S. Co._ - -THE ROTHERSAND LIGHTHOUSE. - -This magnificent light marks a dangerous shoal in the estuary of the -Weser. The masonry tower is built upon a massive concrete caisson -driven deeply into the sand.] - -The project, however, was not abandoned. The Society Harkort was -approached once more, and requested to undertake the work upon its -own terms. The invitation was accepted, but the firm, realizing the -abnormal risks incidental to the enterprise, revised their price, so -as to provide for contingencies. It demanded a sum of £42,650, or -$213,250, in return for which it undertook to supply a fully-equipped -lighthouse less the illuminating apparatus. The terms were accepted, -but the responsible authorities, having suffered a heavy loss from -the first failure, decided to protect themselves against a similar -disaster, so exacted a bond for £12,000, or $60,000, to be returned -when the work should be completed and accepted by the Government. The -Society Harkort, on its part, reserved the right to withdraw from the -undertaking in the event of the caisson sharing the fate which overtook -the first structure. - -The contracts were signed in September, 1882, and the task was -commenced. The first disaster was a blessing in disguise, for the new -engineers were able to turn the mistakes of their predecessors to -advantage. They designed a caisson of oval shape, with pointed ends, -measuring 46 feet in length by 36 feet wide. It was an elaborate, -staunch structure, towering to a height of 60¾ feet when launched. At -a height of 8 feet from the bottom edge was a massive flooring built -of iron. The space below constituted the area in which the men were to -work upon the sea-bed, excavating the sand under compressed air, while -the lower rim was a cutting edge, so as to facilitate the sinking of -the mass as the sand was removed. The upper part of the caisson was -divided into four floors, each of which was set aside for a specific -purpose. The lowest was the concrete-mixing chamber; that above carried -the machinery and boilers; the third floor formed the living-quarters -for the men who worked and slept on the structure; while the top floor -formed a deck, and carried two powerful cranes whereby the material -was lifted from the boats which drew alongside. Of course, when the -caisson had been lowered into the water and was eating its way deeper -and deeper into the sand, these platforms had to be moved higher and -higher from time to time, as the base of the tun became filled with -concrete, the outer walls of the fabric being increased to keep the top -well above high-water mark. - -When the caisson was completed on shore and sent into the water, it -was an impressive-looking monster. The shell itself weighed 245½ tons, -and with the various accessories aboard the weight was brought up to -some 335 tons. It then had to be loaded down to the required depth for -towing, for which purpose ballast in the form of pig-iron, concrete, -and bricks, to the extent of another 245 tons, was stowed aboard, while -delicate precautions were taken to maintain stability. The combined -efforts of 120 men, working day and night for 127 days, were required -to erect this caisson, and on April 1, 1883, it was ready for its -transportation to the site. - -The towing operation was extremely difficult, and the voyage out was -full of exciting incident. It was possible to advance only on the -ebb-tide, and the towing cables, 5 inches in diameter, were specially -manufactured for the operation. Two of the most powerful tugs owned -by the North German Lloyd Steamship Company were requisitioned, three -other steamers engaged in the conveyance of requirements between tower -and shore accompanying the procession. Although the engineers were -ready, the weather, with aggravating persistence, refused to clear -sufficiently to produce the smooth sea and calm demanded for the -safe journey of the ungainly craft. Day after day slipped by, with -eighty men on the alert, and with fires banked and steam raised on -the vessels, ready to weigh anchor at the first favourable moment. -Fifty-five days passed before the weather bureau recommended that the -conditions were suitable. Under the foregoing circumstances the expense -of this delay may be realized. - -[Illustration: THE FOURTEEN-FOOT BANK LIGHTHOUSE, BUILT ON SAND. - -The erection of this structure constitutes a brilliant achievement in -United States lighthouse engineering.] - -Directly the intimation was conveyed that the tow could be attempted, -there was a scene of indescribable activity and bustle in the -Bremerhaven dock, where the caisson was moored. Full steam was raised -on the tugs, and at half-past three in the morning of May 26 the mighty -steel barrel moved out of the dock. The towing ropes were hitched on, -and very slowly the “Colossus,” as the caisson was named, moved down -the harbour, accompanied by the whole fleet of nine vessels engaged -in construction work, so that the procession was imposing. It dropped -down the river without incident, when, the tide turning, anchor was -cast, and all was made fast until another advance could be made at -four o’clock in the afternoon. But the rising tide was stronger than -had been anticipated, and trouble was soon encountered. The caisson, -pressed by the current, dragged and strained at the two tugs by which -she was being towed, causing them to slip their anchors. It was an -anxious moment. The two vessels could not hold the “Colossus”; in fact, -they were being towed backwards by it. Hurriedly another tug was called -up, and helped in the effort; but although the three steamers put on -full steam ahead, they failed to keep the mass in check. Another tug -was signalled, and then, under the combined effort of 350 horse-power, -driving for all it was worth against the current, the four vessels -mastered the swing of the scurrying water, and had the “Colossus” under -control. - -A little later the procession continued on its way to the North -Sea, but when the boats came up with the Hoheweg lighthouse further -disquieting news was received. The keepers signalled that the barometer -was falling, and that a thunderstorm was hurrying across the North -Sea from England. Anchors were thrown out hurriedly, and everything -made snug and tight for the approaching storm. It burst with fearful -severity. The waves got up, the wind blew with fiendish velocity in -terrifying gusts, and the rain tumbled down in sheets. The engineers -were on tenterhooks the whole hour and a half the storm raged, as they -foresaw lively times if the unmanageable hulk broke loose. But the -“Colossus” rode the gale as quietly as if moored to a wharf in dock. -The storm, however, upset all calculations for the day. There was no -possibility of getting the caisson out and sunk before nightfall, so -the engineers prepared to pass the night at anchor, and to start off -again with the dawn. The weather, ruffled by the thunderstorm, refused -to settle down until a further day and night had been wasted. Then, at -7.30 in the morning, on a favourable tide, anchors were weighed, and, -steaming hard through a broken sea, the tugs conveyed the caisson on -its journey. At last the procession reached the buoy marking the site. -The caisson was brought to rest, the water was admitted gently through -the valves, and slowly, steadily, and vertically, the shell sank lower -and lower, until a scarcely perceptible shock conveyed the intimation -that it had touched bottom. - -The most anxious part of the task was consummated with complete -success: the caisson had been got to the site and sunk. Then the task -of burying it deeply and irremovably in the sand was hurried forward. -Workmen descended into the space beneath the bottom floor and the -sea-bed. Under compressed air they excavated the sand within the -area to permit the cutting edge to sink lower and lower. The sand, -as removed, was lifted to the top of the “Colossus” and discharged -overboard. Meanwhile the concrete-mixing machine got busy, and the -stone heart of the tun was fashioned rapidly. Under this increasing -weight the sinking operation was assisted very appreciably. By the -middle of October the work had been advanced to such a stage that -the total weight of the structure had been increased to over 3,350 -tons, and the top deck of the caisson, which had grown in height by -the attaching of successive rings of plates, was about 99 feet above -the cutting edge, which had buried itself to a depth of 51 feet below -low-water. Then work had to be abandoned, as the autumnal gales -sprang up. The whole of the staff, with the exception of two men, -who mounted guard over the work, were taken back to Bremerhaven. The -gales increased in fury, culminating in a tempest similar to that -which had destroyed the first caisson. Remembering the fate of that -enterprise under such fearful pounding from wind and wave, the Harkort -engineers naturally were somewhat anxious concerning the welfare of -their handiwork under identical conditions. But the new creation was -overwhelmingly strong where its predecessor was weak, although the -seas, baffled in their efforts to upset the caisson, did not fail to -leave their mark by knocking the superstructure and scaffolding about -somewhat, as well as carrying away a few weighty pieces of the top -hamper. - -Work was resumed in February, 1884, and continued more or less -regularly until November. Interruptions were of frequent occurrence, so -that only about one-quarter of the time available could be turned to -useful account. The structure which had been towed out of Bremerhaven -a year previously had disappeared from sight, the rim of the barrel -built on dry land being about 4 feet below water; but, of course, -as the work proceeded and the caisson sank, its walls were extended -upwards, as already explained. When the structure had been sunk to -its designed depth, the steel shell was 107½ feet in height, from the -cutting edge to the top projecting above the water, and nearly 40 -feet of its height was buried in the Rothersand. To sink it to this -level required the removal of 3,000 cubic yards of sand from beneath -the bottom floor of the structure; while 49,100 tons of material were -brought out from Bremerhaven and built into the steel shell to render -it a solid elliptical mass, with the exception of a short central -hollow space which has a narrow conduit connection with the outer sea, -and which, fitted with a float, acts as a tide-gauge which may be read -in the lighthouse. From this massive concrete pedestal rises the tower -proper, which at the base is circular, with a diameter of 33¾ feet. -This base rises in the form of a graceful concave curve to a height of -26 feet, and is solid except for two water-tanks. At the entrance level -the tower is 23 feet in diameter. Above this are disposed four floors, -comprising the cellar, storeroom, kitchen, and living-quarters for the -men, crowned by the lantern, the gallery of which is 80½ feet above -low-water. - -The external appearance of this interesting lighthouse is somewhat -different from the general conception of such a building. Instead of -being merely a circular top and lantern, there are three semicircular -turret-like projections on the dwelling-room and lantern levels, which -serve for directing and warning lights as well as for a lookout station. - -The fickle character of the North Sea where it rolls over the -Rothersand is reflected by an experience which befell the Harkort -engineer and the superintendent of erection for the authorities, who -wished to complete his duty of inspection. The finishing touches were -being applied, a squad of twelve workmen being in the tower to continue -the work during the winter. The early December day was fair and the -sea smooth, as well as giving every indication of remaining quiescent -for some hours. The superintendent had arranged to spend his Christmas -holidays with some friends, and desired to complete his duty in good -time, so that his sojourn might be free from care. The two started off -in the steamer, and landed without effort. But while they were engaged -in their work of inspection the wind and sea freshened, so that a boat -could not be sent from the steamer to take them off. It was an amusing -situation which was keenly enjoyed at Bremerhaven; but all would be -right on the morrow, said everyone. But the next day the weather was -worse, and continued so for day after day. When a fortnight had passed -without it being possible to succour the weather-bound engineers, -amusement gave way to anxiety, more especially as a signal was flying -from the tower which conveyed the unwelcome intelligence that one of -the workmen had fallen ill. The feelings of the superintendent may -be imagined. He had visions of spending his Yuletide in a draughty, -half-finished lighthouse tower, where comfort was conspicuous by its -absence, and where seasonal fare such as he had been anticipating -keenly was unknown. But on December 21 the constructional engineers, -having grown impatient with the weather, sent out one of their boats, -with instructions to bring everyone ashore at all hazards. The waves -were running high and the wind was gusty, but the steamer anchored as -near the lighthouse as she dared, and by means of her boats, which were -in momentary danger of being swamped, brought off the two engineers as -well as all the workmen except two. The latter remained behind as a -guard, and, being given a good stock of seasonal provisions and other -necessities, were left in their splendid isolation. The superintendent, -after all, was able to enjoy his Christmas holidays. - -The succeeding spring brought a resumption of toil, and by September -the tower was completed except for the illuminating apparatus. One -feature was observed during construction and had to receive attention. -The free swing of the currents and tides, being obstructed by the -tower, had commenced heavy erosion, big hollows being scooped out -of the soft sea-bed around the caisson. As it was quite possible -that in the course of time this scouring might imperil the safety -of the building, protective works had to be undertaken. These were -of an elaborate character, and comprised the sinking of mattresses, -fashioned from brushwood, around the foundations, upon which were -dumped boatloads of broken stone. This mattress had to be nearly 50 -feet in width, and in some places about 15 feet in thickness. For -this protective work alone some 176,550 cubic feet of brushwood, and -600 tons of block-stone to hold it down, were used. These measures, -however, effectually overcame the danger of erosion. - -On November 1, 1885, the light was shown for the first time, and the -greatest peril at the entrance to the Weser was indicated far and wide -by night and day. It was a magnificent achievement, carried through in -the face of enormous difficulties, sensational incidents innumerable, -and upon a foundation of disaster. The lighthouse is as firm as if -it were anchored upon a solid granite rock, instead of having its -roots thrust deep into treacherous shifting sand, and constitutes an -imperishable monument to German engineering ability; while, all things -considered, the cost was low, being only £43,400, or $217,000, in all. -The light is electric, the power being supplied from a station on -shore, and fed to the lighthouse through a submarine cable; the keepers -are also in submarine telegraphic communication with the mainland. - -When the United States set out to build a similar structure in the -spacious Delaware Bay, they were confronted with a prospect just as -forbidding, and a task in every way as difficult, as that offered in -connection with the Rothersand. There is a dangerous shoal about twenty -miles off the land, where the Atlantic beats with furious rage, and -where vessels were apt to stick hard and fast. It was described as -“Fourteen Foot Bank” by mariners, from the depth of the water flowing -over the shoal, and this colloquialism has provided the name for the -present guardian light. The open situation did not augur favourably for -the completion of a lighthouse at this spot, but the American engineers -were resolved to make the attempt. Accordingly, plans were prepared for -a construction upon the caisson principle, which was the only method -promising success. - -The preliminary step was the fabrication of a caisson. The first part -was more like a raft with sides. It was about 40 feet square, 5 feet -thick, and with walls 7 feet deep. It was built of timber, the staves -being 12 inches square, and upside down--that is, with the floor -uppermost--on a building-slip, as if it were a ship, and was launched -into the water upon similar lines. The sides and top were lined, so as -to secure water-tightness. In the centre there was a circular space 5 -feet in diameter to form the air-shaft. - -As the structure was built upside down, the rim was brought to the -lowermost position, and this formed the cutting edge, which was to be -sunk into the sand. On this floating platform a circular iron cylinder -was erected. This tube was 35 feet in diameter, and was built up in -plates, 6 feet in width by 1½ inches thick. When three rings of iron -were set up the cylinder was 18 feet in height. In order to sink it to -a depth of 15½ feet into the water for towing purposes, it was charged -with a layer of concrete, 9 inches in thickness, to serve as ballast, -and in this condition the caisson weighed 400 tons. - -This huge barrel was built at Lewes, Delaware, and when it was launched -two powerful steam-tugs set out to drag it to the shoal, twenty miles -away. As the tide rises and falls a matter of 6 feet in these waters, -and the currents are somewhat wicked, the engineers displayed no undue -haste. They waited for the first favourable opportunity, and seized it. -But it took the two tugs some six hours to reach the site; an average -speed of about three and a half miles per hour cannot be construed into -fast travelling. - -When the mighty caisson had been warped and nudged dead into position -over the desired spot, water was admitted. With a gurgling and hissing -the hulk sank slowly into the sea. At last a slight jolt, which -quivered through the mass, signified that the structure was resting on -the bottom. The engineers gave a sigh of relief, but the next instant -changed it to a cry of dismay. The caisson began to heel over to one -side. Was it going to capsize? That was the absorbing fear. It canted -more and more, until at last it had a list of 12 degrees. _It had not -sunk vertically!_ There was less than 16 inches of water between the -sea-level and the rim when the caisson first jarred against the sand, -and if it careened over too far the water certainly would rush in, -roll the whole tub over, and tumble it hither and thither over the -sea-bed. The engineers watched that caisson as closely as a cat watches -a mouse-hole. Presently it eased up, and then, as the tide rose some -six hours later, it began to right itself. The engineers were relieved -once more. The danger was over. But their self-satisfaction was soon -upset as the tide began to ebb, because again the cylinder gradually -fell over on its side. The cause of this strange behaviour flashed upon -them. The surface of the sandbank was not level! The mass in sinking -had touched bottom on the highest point of the shoal, and was trying to -find its own level. - -Without any further delay, the engineers decided upon an ingenious -means of correcting this erratic and dangerous action. The tugs were -despatched hurriedly to Lewes to bring out cargoes of broken stone, -which had been delivered for the preparation of the concrete. While -the steamers pursued their errand, the engineers fashioned large -pockets on the elevated section of the structure, into which the stone -upon its arrival was placed. Gradually but surely the caisson not only -was corrected, but the weighted end was induced to settle into the -sand, until the opposite free edge in its turn was resting upon the -shoal. - -In this manner all danger of further canting now was removed. As the -rim had been brought perilously near the water-level, and there was -a possibility of flooding from a rough sea, the walls of the caisson -were extended vertically with all haste; meanwhile two additional -rings of iron were placed in position, and the top was brought about -20 feet above the water. While this work was in progress the structure -gradually bit farther and farther into the sand, until at last it -secured a firm hold. - -At the earliest possible moment the air-compressors were set to work, -and air was driven into the space between the cutting edge and the -roof, in which the men were to work. This space was 40 feet square and -7 feet deep. The greater pressure of the air drove the water out from -this space, and the men were able to enter through the air-lock and to -work upon a dry surface, isolated from the surrounding sea by the fence -formed by the cutting edge. - -The men toiled in eight-hour shifts continuously, removing the sand -within the space and sending it upwards to be discharged overboard. -As the area was excavated, the cutting edge sank deeper and deeper, -so that the structure became more and more firmly embedded. There -was apprehension that the obstruction offered by the caisson to the -movement of the currents might set up undermining around the cylinder, -as in the case of the Rothersand; but the engineers arrested any -tendency in this direction by dumping large pieces of stone overboard -around the tub. Some 6,000 tons of stone were used for this purpose, so -that the caisson has an impregnable protection. - -As the structure sank lower and lower, owing to the excavation, -concrete was dumped around the air-tube above the floor of the space -in which the men were labouring, while successive rings of iron were -added to the top of the cylinder. The men worked with great gusto in -their novel situation, and, the task being prosecuted uninterruptedly -throughout the day and night, the cylinder sank from 12 to 24 inches -during the twenty-four hours. This labour was maintained until the -cutting edge of the caisson was 33 feet below the surface of the shoal, -when the engineers called halt. They considered that the task had been -continued to a sufficient depth to secure the requisite rigidity for -their lighthouse. The men left the working chamber, which was then -tightly underrammed with sand, so as to form a solid foundation, while -the air-shaft was filled up with rammed sand and sealed with a thick -plug of concrete. The wall of the iron cylinder had been intermittently -increased in height by the addition of successive rings of plates, -until the rim was 70 feet above the cutting edge and projected about -30 feet above the water at low-tide. From the bottom to a height of 40 -feet it is virtually a solid mass of concrete, protected by a skin of -iron 1½ inches thick. Further concrete was added, bringing the solid -section to within 10 feet of the rim, so that the concrete heart is -about 53 feet in height and 35 feet in diameter. It is a solid circular -rock sunk into the sand, and as firm and free from vibration as a -granite core. - -Upon this foundation a house for the light-keepers, crowned by a tower, -was erected, the focal plane being 59 feet above mean high-water. It is -fitted with a light of the fourth order, visible for thirteen miles. - -One of the most important features in connection with the Fourteen Foot -Bank light was its small cost, which was below the estimate, especially -when it is compared with the German work. The United States Government -appropriated a sum of £35,000, or $175,000, for the undertaking, but -the total expenditure was less than £25,000, or $125,000, so that a sum -of £10,000, or $50,000, was handed back to the Treasury--a most unusual -event in connection with Government contracts. The lighthouse was -finished and brought into service in 1886. - -The success of this novel enterprise prompted the authorities to -essay a more daring project--the erection of a lighthouse upon the -caisson principle on the Outer Diamond Shoal, off Cape Hatteras, North -Carolina. But the storms encountered off this inhospitable coast have -proved too overpowering for the engineer. Numerous attempts have been -made, but disaster has been their invariable fate. The Diamond Shoal -refuses to be indicated by anything except a lightship. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -SOME LIGHT PATROLS OF THE FRENCH COAST - - -In the matter of safeguarding its shores the French nation has -displayed considerable enterprise, and its engineers have added some -magnificent contributions to this field of engineering. The maintenance -and welfare of these aids to navigation is placed in the hands of the -Service des Phares, which is controlled by the Department of Bridges -and Roads. The French scheme is the disposition of the lights along the -shore in such a way that their ranges overlap on either side, so that, -as one passes along the coast, before one ray is dropped the next is -picked up. Electricity is employed extensively as the illuminant, so -that the lights are of great power and twinkle like brilliant white -stars on a clear night. - -While the majority of these guides are erected on the mainland, others -rise from islands lying off the coast, which, by their position in deep -water, render navigation hazardous. The finest expressions of French -lighthouse engineering are to be found along the rugged islet-dotted -coast of the huge indentation in which lie the Channel Islands--the -cruel coast of Brittany. It was off the western extremity of Brittany, -which thrusts itself well out into the Atlantic Ocean, forming the -point generally known as Ushant, that the _Drummond Castle_ lost her -way, to pull up with a fatal crash against one of the jagged reefs -stretching to seaward. While this wreck was but one of many in these -troubled waters, it sent a thrill round the world, owing to the -terrible loss of life with which it was accompanied. - -It is not surprising, therefore, that the French Government has -endeavoured to remove the evil notoriety which this coast has reaped, -and to render it as safe as the other stretches lying to the north and -south. The conditions, however, are against the engineer, as the nose -of the mainland projects well into the ocean, and receives the full -brunt of its attacks when gales rage, so that a foothold is precarious. - -When the question of lighting this inhospitable stretch of coast arose, -the French authorities debated whether it would not be easier, cheaper, -and more satisfactory, to place the lighthouses on the mainland at a -sufficient altitude, and to fit them with adequately powerful lights -to indicate the outlying reefs. The general opinion was in favour of -such a practice. So when Léonce Reynaud proposed to mark the Heaux de -Bréhat with a magnificent tower, there was considerable opposition. The -critics maintained that it was a flagrant temptation of Fate to attempt -the conquest of such an evil wave-swept rock, the head of which was -barely visible above high-water, and was of such small dimensions that -work would be possible for only a few hours daily and then by no more -than a mere handful of men. - -The engineer was confident that he could surmount all difficulties in -construction, and that he would be able to erect a tower which would -defy wind and wave, so he gained the day and received the requisite -sanction to proceed with his undertaking. He had surveyed the rock -and its surroundings thoroughly; had discovered the velocity of the -currents, and their varying directions under all conditions of weather. -They tore along at about nine and a half miles an hour, and this speed -was augmented considerably in rough weather. He selected the site for -the lighthouse about nine miles from the Isle of Bréhat, where landing -would have to be made at low-water, owing to the water rushing first -from the island to the rock, and then in the opposite direction, -according to the movements of the tides. - -The Isle of Bréhat was made the base for operations. It is freely -indented, and one of the coves was found to form an excellent little -harbour. A rough stone jetty was run out for a length of 170 feet, and -while one fleet of boats was retained to convey material from the -island to the rock, another was kept to bring supplies to the island -for preparation, and the support of the men, whose quarters were -established at this depot. Sixty men were employed on the work. They -dressed the granite stones and prepared the woodwork as it arrived in -the raw condition, ample workshops being provided for these purposes. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo by permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -THE HEAUX DE BRÉHAT LIGHT. - -A striking tower built by Léonce Reynaud off the exposed Brittany -coast. It is 159 feet high and took six years to complete.] - -The face of the rock was cleaned off during the brief intervals when -it was bared by the sea, and rough stones and masonry were laid in -concrete and continued solidly to a point 13 feet above high-water. -Around this confined platform quarters were built for the handful of -men who stayed on the rock during the periods of calm weather, as too -much time was lost in travelling to and from the island, while there -were risks of landing being interrupted by the swell. A temporary light -was also placed in position while constructional work was proceeding, -to warn navigation. The facilities also included a small forge for -the fashioning upon the spot of the iron dogs and bolts whereby the -stones were clamped together, and this proved highly convenient, -except for one thing: when the water was somewhat rough and playful, -the waves, striking the rock, flew into the air, soused the forge, and -extinguished the fire. - -The preparations of the foundations proved exceedingly tedious. The -rock is a very hard black porphyry, but the surface was so scarred -with fissures and deep cracks that the whole of the upper surface had -to be cleaned off, so as to remove all rotten and splintered rock in -order to secure a firm, solid foundation. Then a circle 38 feet in -diameter was marked off, and masons cut away all the rock around this -line to a depth of about 20 inches and of sufficient width to take -the stones--a trench, as it were. This work had to be executed during -the short period of low-water, and a special schedule was prepared -to insure the men concentrating the whole of their energies upon the -task when opportunity offered. As the ebbing tide began to bare the -space, the workmen were called, and they followed the receding water, -never leaving the spot for meals, but toiling continuously until -the returning tide drove them off. As a rule the men were sufficiently -fleet to get clear untouched, although they delayed their retreat until -the very last moment; but at other times the sea was a trifle quicker, -and the men received an unexpected douche from a scurrying wave. - -When this trench had been cleared out and the face levelled, the outer -ring of stones was laid and secured firmly in position. The inner -space of the rock was left in its roughly trimmed condition, and was -then buried beneath cement and rock to the level of the outer ring of -stones, forming a platform ready to receive the mass of the tower. The -outer ring was the main consideration, and the work had to be finished -in such a manner that a tight joint was made with the rock, to resist -the penetration of the water. When the men were compelled to lay down -their tools for the coming tide, they hastily applied a thick covering -of quick-drying cement to the work completed, thereby protecting it -against the disintegrating and percolating action of the sea. - -Ere the work had started thoroughly, the engineer was faced with a -trouble which he had not anticipated. The men were left to attend to -their own desires in the way of provisions. This haphazard arrangement -had the inevitable sequel. Some of the men were stricken down with -scurvy, and the disease promised to secure a firm hold, when the -engineer stepped in with a firm hand. He established a canteen, the -contractor of which was compelled to maintain a supply of varied -provisions for six months at least, lest the little colony should -become isolated by rough weather. A regular varied bill of fare -was imposed upon the workmen, who were compelled to purchase their -requirements from the canteen. By this firm and timely action the -disease was stamped out. The engineer also enforced other stringent -regulations in the interests of health. The men were compelled to bathe -once a week, and had to turn their sleeping-blankets into the open air -every day; while the quarters had to be washed out and the walls given -a dressing of limewash at frequent intervals. - -[Illustration: FITTING THE LANTERN OF LA JUMENT LIGHT.] - -When the visitor approaches the tower for the first time, he cannot -fail to be impressed by its unusual design. It appears as if a former -tower of great diameter had been decapitated, and another more slender -building placed upon its butt. This is due to the ingenious idea -adopted by Reynaud. The lower part of the tower rises like the trunk -of a tree from the base, which is a solid plinth, to a height of 39 -feet above highest spring-tides. At the top this lower tower is 28 feet -in diameter, as compared with 38 feet at the base. Here the butt is -levelled off, and from its surface rises the lighthouse proper, in the -form of a slightly tapering cone, leaving a narrow gallery around the -superimposed structure to serve as a “set-off” and landing or entrance -platform. - -In carrying out his work, Reynaud followed a principle quite divergent -from the prevailing practice in lighthouse construction. He did not -attach every stone irremovably to its neighbours, but merely made -fast the masonry at varying points, where the mass of water might be -expected to expend the greater part of its violence. The method he -adopted is very simple. Keystones are introduced at selected points in -each course, and these are driven up and held tight by granite plugs -and wedges. The principle was assailed at the time as being deficient -in strength, but no apprehensions ever have arisen concerning the -safety of the tower, so that the engineer’s daring ingenuity has been -completely justified. - -Considering the isolation of the rock and its wind-swept position, -it was built in a very short time. The whole of the year 1834 was -devoted to the survey of the rock, close observations of the prevailing -meteorological conditions, and the preparation of the design. The -succeeding year was confined to the establishment of the workmen’s -quarters, the cutting of the annular trench in the rock, and the -setting of the masonry course. The erection of the superstructure -occupied nearly four years, the work being completed and the light -exhibited in 1859, according to the inscription. The tower is 159 feet -in height, and the light has a range of eighteen miles. - -Since the Heaux de Bréhat was conquered so successfully, French -lighthouse engineering skill has been manifested actively around the -ill-famed Brittany coast, which now is robbed of the greater part of -its dangers. Reynaud’s work, however, did not bring complete safety to -the waters from which it lifts its imposing form. Four miles off the -self-same island is the plateau of Horaine. This is a chain of rocks, -the greatest peril of which is that at high-tide nothing whatever of -them is seen, and their existence is betrayed only by the agitated and -broken waves rushing over them with fearful force. As the tide falls -the water becomes more tormented, and is torn into flying foam, until, -when it has almost ebbed, these jagged fangs may be seen projecting -above the surf. Bearing in mind these terrible characteristics, it is -not surprising that time after time vessels which had been driven out -of their course by tempestuous weather, or had got lost in a dense fog, -blundered into this death-trap and were lost. - -The French Government was sorely puzzled as to how to overcome this -danger. The engineers fought the elements valiantly for forty years -in an effort to crown Horaine with a beacon, but time after time they -were defeated. Landing on the reef is highly dangerous. The rocks are -surrounded by surging, eddying currents, running at anything from six -miles upwards per hour, while the slightest ruffle of wind is quite -sufficient to stir up the water so as to fling it swirling over the -rocks even at lowest tide. Once or twice, when a period of abnormal -calm prevailed, the engineers struggled on to the rock and hurriedly -built a substantial masonry beacon, but its life was always brief. -The first two or three gales which pounded and roared over the chain -invariably scattered the handiwork of man in all directions. - -Then another expedient was attempted. A party landed upon the ridge, -drove a hole into the solid rock, and there set a vertical iron girder -4 inches in thickness, trusting that it would hold fast and indicate -the reef sufficiently during the day. But its life was short. A gale -came along and snapped the post in twain, leaving a twisted, bent -stump, some 36 inches long, remaining on the rock. - -[Illustration: PREPARING THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE JUMENT LIGHT. - -This illustration conveys an idea of the difficulties encountered in -connection with this work.] - -In 1890 another bold effort to subjugate the ridge was made. An -hexagonal structure was designed, and it was determined to plant this -on the rock by hook or by crook, and so firmly as to resist the most -powerful hammerings to which it could be subjected by the waves. Six -holes were bored into the rock surface to form the corners of the -hexagon. But before commencing the work proper it was decided to insert -an iron post, 6½ inches thick, into one of the holes, and to leave it -to see what would happen. Time after time it was inspected, and was -found to be safe and sound. Two years had slipped by, practically, -since the post was planted, and it was still intact. The engineers -thought they had triumphed, and were preparing their plans, when the -news came that a heavy storm, which had swept the coast, had broken the -pillar off flush with the rock. - -This necessitated another change in the designs and the plan of -campaign. After further discussion it was decided to proceed right -away with a masonry tower, although the engineers were prepared for -a mighty tussle. The surveys showed that, as the rock upon which the -building was to be erected was covered by 10 feet of water during the -highest spring-tides, work upon the foundations would be confined to -the lowest neap-tides, when about 4 feet of the rock were exposed. But -the tide sinks to the very low level desired infrequently--about four -days in every month. Even then work would be possible for only about -an hour per day--four hours per month! The prospect certainly was far -from being attractive, especially as even to accomplish this meed of -toil the calmest weather and smoothest sea were imperative, and it -was scarcely to be expected that everything would be in favour of the -engineers at one and the same time. - -Another adverse feature was only too apparent. If unpropitious weather -prevailed just after an hour or two’s work had been completed, the -chances were a thousand to one that it would be swept away. But this -was a contingency which had to be faced. The engineer could only do the -utmost humanly possible to secure his work, and then must trust to luck. - -With infinite difficulty a small corps of daring workmen and appliances -of the simplest description, together with materials, were got out to -the rock upon the first favourable day when there was a very low tide. -An outer wall of bricks was built piecemeal, and the space within -was filled with concrete. This stood, and so the engineer secured a -level plinth upon which to place his tower. He selected an octagonal -building, the angles of which touch the circumference of a circle -20 feet in diameter described on the rock. It was to be 50 feet in -height, bringing the warning light about 40 feet above high-water. -The beacon was to be a concrete monolithic structure at least for the -greater part of its height, as the light was to be of the unattended -class. Accordingly, the mould was formed by setting a cast-iron post, -18 inches in height, at each corner of the octagon, this support being -anchored into the solid rock beneath. These posts contained grooves to -admit sliding wooden uprights, which were to be firmly wedged, these -joists being inclined to take the angle, or batter, proposed for the -tower. Heavy transverse pieces of timber were laid between these posts, -forming a capacious octagonal box, into which the concrete was poured. -As the filling process behind the wooden wall advanced, angle pieces of -steel were superimposed and bolted up. - -[Illustration: THE JUMENT LIGHT RECENTLY ERECTED OFF USHANT. - -This beacon was built with a legacy left by M. Potron, a distinguished -French traveller, in the interests of humanity.] - -The security of the structure occupied the sole attention of the -engineer. When work had to cease, and the boat put off with the workmen -after a spell of toil, the engineer would watch the rising tide and -the waves sweeping over his structure, until at last it disappeared -from sight. As the tide fell he followed the receding waters just as -eagerly, and gave a sigh of relief when he saw that the tower was still -withstanding the blind forces of Nature. In the early stages an effort -to protect the work, when the men had to retreat before the rising -tide, was made by covering it with a heavy piece of sailcloth, lashed -down and weighted in position with huge masses of pig-iron. This served -its purpose for a time, but finally the sea got the upper hand, tore -the canvas from its lashings, and carried it away, together with the -whole of its weights. Then a wooden protective device was employed, and -this likewise held out until a particularly unfriendly September gale -smashed it to matchwood, as well as damaging the concrete slightly here -and there. - -The men took their tools and materials with them on every visit, and, -as the tower rose, the working spells between the tides became longer -and longer, until, when a point above high-water was reached, work was -continued throughout the day whenever the rock was approachable. A -small wooden platform was erected on one side, on which the concrete -was mixed, while on the other there was a little shelf with a small -cistern, which was filled with water from the boats below, through the -agency of a pump. A jury derrick was rigged up to lift the material and -men to the working level. As the tower rose in height, the wooden mould -had to be dismembered and re-erected upon the new level, this operation -being repeated no less than forty times until the desired height was -gained. Work was exasperatingly slow and intermittent, while it had to -be suspended entirely for about six or seven months, as no one dared -to venture near the rock in winter. Taken on the whole, it was one of -the most anxious and difficult pieces of the work of this character -which the French Government has ever undertaken, while the working area -was so confined that less than a dozen men could toil simultaneously -without getting in one another’s way. - -Recently the Brittany coast has been further protected by another -magnificent beacon, the Jument lighthouse, off Ushant. This awful spot -has long been marked by a very powerful electric light at Creach, which -may be seen over twenty miles away, and, together with its fellow -on the opposite end of the island, may be said to guide the crowded -shipping around this promontory very effectively. But foggy weather -reduces the mariner to helplessness, as the sea for two miles round -the island is studded with reefs, ridges and rocky humps of a very -formidable character, so that vessels have to keep well beyond this -zone. When the light is obscured, safe travelling is possible only by -going very slowly and making liberal use of the lead, while the captain -must keep a sharp eye upon the rapid currents which set inshore if he -would not be thrown upon the rocks he is seeking sedulously to avoid. - -The French Government, with its characteristic thoroughness, determined -to secure the complete indication of the Ushant and all its dangers by -a carefully-conceived and comprehensive chain of lights distributed -over the dangerous area. The urgency of such a scheme is obvious -when it is remembered that it is computed that 24,000 vessels of all -classes pass Ushant in the course of the year. At the same time the -sea’s harvest of vessels and lives off this rocky shore every year is -appallingly heavy. The only handicap to the immediate completion of the -Government’s humane project is the extreme difficulty of the work and -its prodigious cost. - -Fortunately, through the extreme generosity of a French traveller--M. -Potron--it was rendered possible to commence the scheme. Upon his -death, and according to the terms of his will, dated January 9, 1904, -this gentleman left 400,000 francs--£16,000, or $80,000--for the -erection of a lighthouse of the latest type and with the most powerful -lighting apparatus off the coast washed by the open Atlantic, and even -suggested that a site off Ushant would be found the most beneficial to -humanity. After consultation between his executor, residuary legatee, -and the Government, a rock known as La Jument, off the south of the -Ile d’Ouessant (Ushant) was selected for the site of his monument. The -lighthouse engineers advocated a tower 118 feet in height, with a light -of the latest type and a modern fog-signalling apparatus. This proposal -was accepted, and was sanctioned on November 18, 1904, by the parties -concerned. - -Headquarters were established in the Bay of Lampaul, on Ushant -Island, which immediately faces the site, and by the end of 1904 -the preparations were well advanced. A steamboat, a launch and a -lifeboat were secured, the first-named for the purpose of maintaining -communication with the mainland and to bring in supplies, together -with suitable craft for transporting material and provisions to the -rock. The situation of the ledge and its exposure to the worst weather -rendered approach very difficult. The danger spot itself is completely -covered at high-tide, and only projects 4 feet at low-water. So far -as the foundations were concerned, work was only possible for a few -hours at a time. During the closing months of 1904 seventeen landings -were made and fifty-two hours in all spent upon the rock, while in the -succeeding year the men landed fifty-nine times, to put in an aggregate -of 206½ hours. - -The current rushes round the reef with a velocity of some ten miles per -hour, varying its direction according to the movements of the tides. -Investigation proved the existence of a small space of water on one -side where the boats could approach and moor safely in an eddy. The men -were brought out in the steamer, which also towed the launch and the -lifeboat. The latter was kept in readiness alongside the rock while -the men were at work, in case of emergency. A sharp eye had to be kept -upon the weather while the handful of men laboured hastily preparing -the face of the rock, and at the first signs of a threatening sky or -increased movement in the swell the steamer blew its siren, the men -scrambled aboard, and were hurried back to the island. - -The year 1906 was one of bad weather, rendering frequent approach -impossible. During this season the men landed only thirty-nine times -and toiled for 152 hours, while the sum of their achievement was the -least throughout the whole seven years which the tower occupied in -its erection. The building is solid for about 30 feet above the rock, -and in 1908 the construction of the tower proper was commenced. The -base is circular, with a diameter of 33¾ feet; but the tower itself is -of octagonal form, with a diameter at the base of 28 feet, tapering -slightly to the top. - -One notable feature in connection with the work was the utilization -of electricity for the operation of the derrick, which was driven by -a petrol motor coupled thereto. This was supplemented in times of -pressure with another derrick, driven by current generated on the -steamer, from which a cable trailed to the rock. Altogether 4,180 tons -of masonry were transported to the rock and set in position. During -the seven years the work was in progress, from the first landing to -the final withdrawal of the workmen, 449 landings were made and 2,937 -hours of work put in. The largest annual aggregate of labour was -in 1911, when 70 landings were made and 400 hours turned to useful -purpose. The tower, which is of imposing appearance, has six floors for -the convenience of the keeper, stores, etc. The apartment immediately -beneath the lantern contains the fog-signalling apparatus, which -comprises a siren driven by air which is compressed for the purpose by -means of a fourteen horse-power petrol motor. The signal is as follows: -Three blasts of one and a half seconds’ duration with intervening -intervals of one and a half seconds, followed by a silent period of -fifty-two and a half seconds, one cycle thus being emitted every -minute. The light, which is thrown from an elevation of 110¼ feet above -high-water, throws groups of three red flashes at intervals of fifteen -seconds, and has a maximum range of twenty miles in very clear weather. - -In accordance with the terms of the donor’s will, the light is named -after the rock upon which it stands, and therefore is known as the -Jument of Ushant lighthouse. The benefactor’s second wish is also -respected in the inscription wrought in the solid granite, which -translated runs: “This lighthouse was built with the legacy of Charles -Eugène Potron, traveller, and member of the Geographical Society of -Paris.” The sum set aside by this benefactor of humanity, however, did -not defray the entire cost of the lighthouse. As a matter of fact, -the total outlay on the undertaking was more than twice the sum left -for the purpose, totalling 850,000 francs--£34,000, or $170,000. The -Government decided that the munificence of its citizen offered the -opportunity to carry out the first instalment of the scheme it had -in view upon the most complete lines--hence the heavy disbursement. -Nevertheless the origin of the Jument lighthouse is almost -unprecedented in the annals of lighthouse engineering, and it probably -ranks as the first important light which has been built in accordance -with the terms, and with funds, left by a will. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE GUARDIAN LIGHTS OF CANADA’S COAST - - -The phenomenal commercial expansion of the Dominion of Canada, which -has brought about an amazing development in the maritime traffic with -that country on both its seaboards, naturally has been responsible -for the display of striking activity in the provision of aids to -navigation. Both the Atlantic and Pacific coastlines bristle with -dangers of a most terrible nature; the innumerable islands and -precipitous flanks of rock recall the wild ruggedness of the western -coast of Scotland or the forbidding Atlantic shoreline of France and -Spain. - -When the ships of Britain first traded with Canadian shores, shipwrecks -and ocean tragedies were numerous; there is no escape for a ship which -is caught on those pitiless coasts. The early settlers, therefore, did -not hesitate to provide ways and means of guiding navigators to safety. -Their first lights were primitive, comprising bonfires fed with wood, -of which ample supplies abounded, pitched on prominent headlands; and -these flickering rays, when not obscured by smoke and fog, served to -speed the ship safely on her way. - -The British pioneers, naturally, did not hesitate to improve upon -these uncertain crude methods of warning, in course of time, by -the erection of more substantial lights. These for the most part -comprised timber-frame dwellings, used by the family entrusted with -the maintenance of the light, from the roof of which a wooden tower -extended, similar in design to the buildings favoured for a similar -purpose in the United States. Many lights of this class are still -doing faithful service to-day, and although one might anticipate the -destruction of such a beacon from fire, yet, owing to the unremitting -care displayed by the families associated with the upkeep thereof, -this awful fiend has not been responsible for the temporary extinction -of many lights in the country’s history. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo by permission of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson._ - -THE CAPE RACE LIGHTHOUSE, NEWFOUNDLAND. - -One of the finest and most powerful beacons in the world. It is -filled with the hyperradiant apparatus, and the ray is of 1,100,000 -candle-power.] - -One of the oldest, if not the first light to be established, was that -on Sambro Island, to indicate the entrance into Halifax Harbour, Nova -Scotia. This signpost of the sea was set up in 1758, and fulfilled its -purpose for 148 years, when it was reconstructed and fitted with the -most up-to-date appliances. The white flash now bursts forth, at an -elevation of 140 feet above mean high-water, from the top of a white -octagonal stone and concrete tower, and is visible from a distance -of seventeen miles. When it is blotted out by fog, a powerful signal -is given once every ten minutes by a cotton-powder charge. Mariners, -however, are cautioned against attempting to make Sambro in fog, as the -shore is wild and cruel. This explosive signal is emitted rather to -communicate a timely warning to vessels which have lost their way. - -The two most dangerous spots in the approach to Canada, however, -lie off the mainland. One is the irregular triangular island of -Newfoundland; the other is a low-lying stretch of sand known as Sable -Island. Both are amongst the most ill-famed graveyards in the North -Atlantic, where hundreds of ships have gone to their doom. Even to-day, -although both are well protected by lights, wrecks are by no means -uncommon. Sable Island is stalked by the ghosts of scores of seafarers -who have been the victims of some ghastly ocean tragedy upon its banks. - -The island of Newfoundland lies in the jaw of the River St. Lawrence, -with two narrow passages leading between the Gulf behind and the broad -Atlantic. Both straits offer dangers to navigation, although in this -respect that of Belle Ile, whereby the northern corner of the island -is rounded, is the worse offender. Yet the most dangerous corner of -the island is, not where the waterways are hemmed in, but that tongue -which thrusts itself far out to sea, to terminate in the bluff headland -of Cape Race. This shoreline is as serrated as a fine saw, being a -succession of indentations and steep promontories, with submerged -reefs running far out to sea. To the south lies that great submerged -tableland, invariably curtained in fog, where mighty icebergs that -have come down from the north pound and grate themselves to pieces, -which throughout the shipping world is regarded with dread--the Grand -Banks. This south-eastward corner of the island, by being thrust so -far outwards, brings the rocky headlands into the path of the vessels -plying between Europe, Canada, and New York. - -The shortest route between the Old and New World extends across the -northern half of the Banks, with a slight swing southwards to avoid -Cape Race. So far as the great liners are concerned, they are spared -this peril, inasmuch as their prescribed lanes give the cruel coast -a wide berth; but all other shipping has either to swing round the -headland to enter the Gulf of St. Lawrence, or strike farther north and -pass through the Strait of Belle Ile. The latter route, however, is -available for only five months in the year; the greater volume of the -traffic skirts the southern shores of the island. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -CANN ISLAND LIGHTHOUSE ON THE EAST COAST OF NEWFOUNDLAND. - -This is a typical example of a wooden frame building. The tower -projects from the roof of the home of the lighthouse-keeper and his -family.] - -Under these circumstances Cape Race is to the western side of the -Atlantic what the Fastnet and Bishop Rocks are to the eastern -boundaries of this ocean. Even if the wild character of the coast were -not sufficient justification for a light, the currents experienced -off these shores, which are of high velocity and violently broken up -by the indentations and protuberances, would demand the provision -of a beacon. Over one hundred vessels of all descriptions have been -smashed to pieces in the vicinity of Cape Race alone. The Allan liner -_Anglo-Saxon_ crashed into the cliffs and went down in 1864 with 290 -souls. In this instance the death-roll would have been far heavier had -it not been for the pluck and grit of the lighthouse-keepers, who, -observing the wreck, hurried to the water’s edge, lowered themselves -with ropes from the heights above, and, stumbling, groping, and feeling -their way through the darkness, at imminent risk to their own limbs and -lives, rescued 130 of the luckless passengers and crew from the wreck, -who were huddled on a ledge under the cliffs, hungry, shivering with -cold, and too exhausted to assist themselves. The light-keepers and -men from the telegraph-station had to lift these helpless survivors one -by one to the top of the precipice, a task demanding herculean effort, -patience, and intrepidity, and to lead and help them to the lighthouse, -where they were tended until a steamer, answering the telegraphic call -for help, came round from St. John’s and took the hapless people off. - -In 1901 the _Assyrian_ ran ashore in calm weather, and was too firmly -jammed on a reef to extricate herself. A week later another fine vessel -and cargo worth £80,000, or $400,000, was battered to pulp by the -waves, the lighthouse-keepers once more, at great risk to themselves, -putting out and rescuing those on board in the nick of time. Ere the -excitement of this wreck had died down, a French emigrant steamer, the -_Lusitania_, ran full-tilt on to a reef, and but for the timely aid -rendered by the lighthouse-keepers and the fisherfolk 550 people would -have been drowned. More fearful catastrophes have been enacted within -hail of the lights at Cape Race and Cape Ray, hard by to the west, and -more millions sterling of cargo and ship have been shattered and lost -here than upon any other corresponding stretch of coast in the world. -The most noticeable point in connection with these disasters is the -large number of big boats which have ended their careers abruptly off -this spot, although the rocks have claimed a big share of small fry as -well. - -The first beacon was placed on the headland in 1856. It was a -cylindrical tower, built up of cast-iron plates, erected near the edge -of the cliff, which is 87 feet high. The tower itself being 38 feet in -height, the focal plane of the beam was at an elevation of 125 feet -above the sea. It was erected jointly by the British and Newfoundland -Government authorities, although the maintenance thereof was entrusted -to Great Britain. In return for the provision of this warning, a tax -of one-sixteenth of a penny, or an eighth of a cent, per ton, was -collected in England from vessels passing the light. The beacon was not -particularly powerful, the ray being only of some 6,000 candle-power. - -Some years ago the lighthouse was handed over to the Canadian -Government to be included in its service, together with the balance of -the fund which had accrued from the levy of the special tax. This sum -represented £20,579, or $102,895. The Canadian Government abolished the -light-due, and the surplus funds were absorbed into the general revenue -of the country. - -The new owners, realizing the importance of the light, subsequently -decided to provide a new beacon of greater power to meet the demands -of shipping, which had increased amazingly. In 1907 this structure -was completed. It is a cylindrical tower, carried out in reinforced -concrete, 100 feet in height, surmounted by a lantern of the first -order with hyperradial apparatus. This is the largest type of optical -apparatus in use at the present time, and the ray of light produced by -an incandescent oil-burner and mantle is of 1,100,000 candle-power, -shed from an elevation of 195 feet above the water. The warning flash -of a quarter of a second every seven and a half seconds is visible from -a distance of nineteen miles. In addition, the fog-signalling apparatus -was brought up to date. The steam-whistle, which had sufficed up to -the date of reconstruction, was replaced by a diaphone of the greatest -power installed up to that time. This is set up about 250 feet south -of the lighthouse, with which it is connected by a covered passage. -The air required to emit the warning blast, lasting three and a half -seconds once in every half-minute, is compressed by the aid of steam. -By day the lighthouse is readily distinguishable from its red and white -vertical stripes, red lantern, and white dwelling with red roof, in -which the keepers have their quarters. To-day the station ranks as -one of the finest in the world, complying in every respect with the -requisitions for one of a first-class character. - -Sable Island is perhaps an even more evil spot in the North Atlantic -than the ill-famed Newfoundland coast. It is a bleak, inhospitable, -crescent-shaped collection of sand-dunes, eighty-five miles due east of -Nova Scotia and lying right in the steamship tracks. A more uninviting -stretch of dry land could not be conceived. Little grows here beyond -a special kind of brush, which appears to flourish in sea-swept -billows of sand. But the obstacle is formidable, being twenty-two -miles in length by a mile in width at its broadest part. This does -not constitute the extent of its dangers--far from it. The island is -slowly but surely being swallowed up by the restless, hissing sea, -with the result that, when one stands on the almost indistinguishable -line where sea meets land, an aspect of white ruffs of foam curl in -all directions as far as the eye can see, where the surf is thundering -over the shoals. I have related the toll that this island of the dead -has exacted from shipping,[A] and now confine myself to describing -the means that have been provided to warn the mariner off its bars. -The Canadian Government maintains two lighthouses, at the western -and eastern extremities respectively, and those entrusted with their -safe-keeping have as lonely an existence as may be conceived. The -welcome face of a stranger never brightens their lives, except when the -relief-boat draws in as far as it dares in the calmest weather, or when -some luckless wretches are snatched from a vessel which has fallen into -the toils of the sand and is doomed. The sea-birds and seals are their -sole companions on this lonely outpost. - - [A] “The Steamship Conquest of the World,” chapter xxi., p. 299. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo by courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson._ - -THE LIGHT AT THE SOUTHERN END OF BELLE ILE. - -This Canadian beacon throws its rays from a height of 470 feet. In -foggy weather the headland often is obscured by fog, so an auxiliary -light has been provided 346 feet below.] - -The necessity of indicating this death-trap to the mariner was realized -at the end of the seventeenth century, but it was not until 1802 that a -forward step was taken to ease the plight of those who were thrown upon -its shores. Then the province of Nova Scotia voted a sum of £400 or -$2,000, per annum, for the maintenance of a fully-equipped life-saving -station. This sum was too slender to fulfil the purposes conceived, but -in 1827 the Imperial Government, recognizing the humane character of -the enterprise, voted a similar appropriation, which is paid regularly, -or was up to a few years ago, towards its support. When the Dominion of -Canada became an accomplished fact in 1867, by the confederation of the -provinces, the matter was taken up whole-heartedly, and since that date -enormous sums have been expended upon the island for the protection -of shipping and the mitigation of the sufferings of those cast upon its -inhospitable shores. At the present time three life-saving stations and -six relief stations, equipped with the best modern apparatuses, are -maintained, connected by telephone and equipped with a staff of about -twenty men. When the gales are raging and the island is encircled in -a broad band of maddened spray stretching to the horizon, these men -are out patrolling the shore, ready to man the lifeboat upon the first -signals of distress. The life of these lonely workers now is lightened -very appreciably, as the island is fitted with a wireless station, -wherewith the men are able to talk through space with the mainland and -with passing vessels. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo by courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson._ - -THE NORTH BELLE ILE LIGHTHOUSE. - -The warning flash, thrown from a height of 137 feet, can be seen from a -distance of 17 miles.] - -The west end light has passed through many vicissitudes, and the -keepers have experienced innumerable thrills. At this point the ocean -is devouring the island rapidly. In 1873 the tower was raised in what -was considered a safe position. It was placed some distance from the -water’s edge on a favourable knoll, and thought to be immune from -the gnawing of the sea for many years to come. But Nature disposed -otherwise. The awful winter of 1881 played havoc with the island. One -mighty gale carried away a solid chunk 70 feet wide by nearly 1,400 -feet long. When the summer came, and an inspection was made, fears -were entertained concerning the safety of the lighthouse. The keepers -had observed violent tremblings, for the tower vibrated considerably -under the smashing blows of the waves. Nothing could be done that -summer, and it was hoped that the succeeding winter would be milder, -to enable plans to be prepared for the construction of a new tower in -a safer position. The keepers, however, were urged to keep a sharp eye -on developments, and to be prepared for any emergency. The winter of -1882 proved to be worse than that of the previous year, and the island -suffered more than ever. The keepers and their isolated comrades viewed -the advance of the waves with ill-disguised alarm. Would the island -around the light hold out until the spring? That was the uppermost -thought. Every gale brought the waves nearer, and at last it was -recognized that one good gale would finish matters. So the men prepared -for the emergency. The demolition of the tower commenced, a race -between the waters and human labour. The men worked well and had just -got the superstructure away, when there was a creak, a groan, and a -crash! The foundations, which had been undermined, disappeared into the -Atlantic. In less than ten years the hungry ocean had carried a mile of -Sable Island away. - -[Illustration: - - _By kind permission of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson._ - -A MAGNIFICENT CANADIAN LIGHT ON THE PACIFIC COAST. - -An octagonal tower, 127 feet high, built of ferro-concrete.] - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -THE WEST END GUARDIAN OF SABLE ISLAND, THE GRAVEYARD OF THE ATLANTIC. - -This tower replaces the structure demolished by the waves.] - -In 1888 the present magnificent lighthouse was brought into service. -It is a ferro-concrete tower of octagonal shape rising from a massive -plinth of the same form, and is provided with four equidistantly-spaced -wing buttresses to hold the structure more rigid in rough weather. -The building is set on a knoll rising 20 feet above the water, and -about 2,100 yards east of the extremity of the western dry spit of -land, so that the Atlantic will have to gnaw a considerable distance -before it will render the position of this light untenable. The tower -is 97 feet in height, bringing the white ray 118 feet above the level -of the sea. The light is of the group revolving type, thrown once -every three minutes. The warning is made up of three flashes, with an -eclipse of thirty seconds between each flash, followed by darkness for -ninety seconds, and may be seen sixteen miles away. While the beacon -mounts guard over the main end of the island on one side, there is a -dangerous submerged bar which runs north-westwards and westwards for -seventeen miles. The light at the east end, which was erected in 1873, -is likewise carried on an octagonal tower 81 feet high, but, being set -upon a more commanding position, the beam is elevated to 123 feet. It -is erected five miles south-westwards of the extreme tip of the island, -and gives a white flash at intervals of three seconds, followed by an -eclipse of fifteen seconds; it may be picked up seventeen miles away. -Similarly, this light mounts guard over a submerged sand-bar, which -extends eastwards for at least fourteen miles. - -During the late summer and autumn the majority of the vessels plying -between ports on the St. Lawrence and Europe take the shorter route -round the northern corner of Newfoundland through the Straits -of Belle Ile. This is a highly dangerous passage, inasmuch as the -narrow streak of water, seventy miles in length, with a maximum width -of eleven miles, separating the frowning coasts of Newfoundland -and Labrador, is strewn with menaces, the most formidable of which -is Belle Ile, which lies right in the centre of the entrance from -the ocean. The island is really a lofty hump of rock, twenty-one -miles in circumference, with the shores for the most part dropping -precipitously into the water. It is an extremely lonely spot, and, -naturally, is feared by the mariner. His apprehensions, however, have -been considerably relieved, because the channel is brilliantly lighted -by several powerful lights visible from twelve to twenty-eight miles, -while another is being established. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -ST. ESPRIT ISLAND LIGHT, NOVA SCOTIA. - -Its white revolving light is visible for 14 miles.] - -[Illustration: THE GULL ISLAND LIGHT, NEWFOUNDLAND. - -A very lonely beacon, visible for 27 miles.] - -The beacons are distributed along the shores of Newfoundland, Belle -Ile, and Labrador, one powerful light being placed on Cape Bauld, the -northernmost point of Newfoundland, and another on Cape Norman, another -promontory to the west. These two lights are visible from twenty and -sixteen miles respectively, while on the opposite side of the strait -is Amour Point light, guarding the south-east side of Forteau Bay on -the Labrador shore, which has a range of eighteen miles. Cape Bauld -is the most important mainland beacon, inasmuch as it indicates the -entrance to the Belle Ile Straits. Belle Ile is well protected at its -two extreme tips, the principal light being at the southern end. The -necessity of guiding ships between the island and Newfoundland was -recognized half a century ago, for this light was erected in 1858. It -is perched on the summit of the cliff, 400 feet above the sea, the -occulting light of ten seconds’ duration and five seconds’ eclipse -being thrown from an altitude of 470 feet, rendering it distinguishable -twenty-eight miles away. Unfortunately, however, the extreme elevation -of the light often causes it to be enshrouded in impenetrable banks of -clouds, which drape the headland; so in 1880 an auxiliary light was -established, 346 feet below the upper light. This beam is similar in -character to the one above, and, from its elevation of 124 feet above -the water, it may be picked up from seventeen miles out. Consequently, -in foggy weather the lower light may be seen when the upper beacon is -obscured. This is one of the most important points on the coast, being -a marine telegraph, signal, and ice-report station, while it is also -fitted with wireless telegraphy. An interesting feature in connection -with this light is that it was kept going for three generations by one -family, the Coltons, whose name is legendary in Quebec, and some of -whom were born and died on Belle Ile. - -[Illustration: THE BATISCAN FRONT RANGE LIGHTHOUSE, RIVER ST. LAWRENCE. - -_By courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson._] - -[Illustration: ISLE ST. THÉRÈSE UPPER RANGE BACK LIGHTHOUSE, RIVER ST. -LAWRENCE. - -_By courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson._] - -The second light, on the northern extremity of the island, to indicate -the northern entrance into the straits, is of recent date, having -been brought into operation in 1905. It is a tower of iron, encased -in a white octagonal reinforced concrete covering capped with a red -polygonal-shaped lantern throwing a flash of half a second once every -eleven seconds from a height of 137 feet, visible from a distance of -seventeen miles. - -Fogs and mists are two great perils peculiar to this northern waterway, -so the splendid lighting arrangements are supported by excellent and -powerful fog-signals. The northern light has a diaphone giving a blare -lasting three and a half seconds every minute, while the southern -station has a siren giving a double tone. First there is a low note of -two and a half seconds followed by silence for two and a half seconds; -then a high note of two and a half seconds and a silent interval of -112½ seconds. This signal is emitted from a point midway between the -upper and lower lights, the air for the blast being compressed by -water-power. Another humane provision is the depot at the southern -station, which is kept stocked with food supplies for the benefit of -shipwrecked mariners. In 1898 a freighter carrying a deck-load of 400 -oxen went ashore beneath this light and became a hopeless wreck. The -crew, realizing the impossibility of saving the animals, fired the -ship, so that the animals were suffocated and bruised, thereby sparing -the inhabitants of the island a deadly risk, and solving the difficult -problem which otherwise would have arisen, had the brutes been drowned -in the ordinary way and their decomposing carcasses cast up on the -beach. In the following year the Dominion liner _Scotsman_ crashed on -to the rocks near the same spot, and likewise became a total loss, with -a death-roll of nine. By dint of great effort the survivors scrambled -ashore, and had a weary trudge of nine miles over a broken, rock-strewn -wilderness to gain the lighthouse station and assistance, arriving in a -famished and exhausted condition, to be tended by the light-keepers and -their families. - -Belle Ile is a lonely station in the fullest sense of the word, -although the keepers are better off now than they were a few years -ago. The straits are busy in the summer, being crowded with shipping, -but with the coming of November all life disappears, and the liners -do not return until the following May or June. The rock is cut off -from the mainland by the masses of ice which pile up in the estuary, -together with the crowds of icebergs which come down from Greenland. -For six months the guardians of the light are isolated from the world -at large, although they have a slender link of communication in the -submarine cable. But the storms and stress of winter often rupture this -line, and, as the wireless installation is closed down when navigation -ceases, the keepers and their families settle down to a silent, weary -vigil, knowing nothing of the rest of the world, and all but forgotten -by civilization, because an interruption in the cable cannot be -repaired until the ice disappears. - -[Illustration: UPPER TRAVERSE LIGHTHOUSE IN THE RIVER ST. LAWRENCE.] - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson._ - -AN “ICE SHOVE” UPON THE BACK RANGE LIGHT IN LAKE ST. PETER. - -This photo gives a striking idea of the trouble experienced with ice in -Canadian waters.] - -Even when the Gulf of the St. Lawrence is entered, the navigator is not -free from peril. The waterway is littered with rocks and islands. Among -these are Coffin Island and Anticosti, the latter being the private -property of M. Henri Ménier, the French chocolate magnate. For many -years the St. Lawrence was a byword to navigation, and wrecks were -numerous. It was shunned by navigators and abhorred by underwriters. -Even to this day the latter regard it askance, and the insurance rates -are high upon vessels trading in these waters. Through the efforts -of the Department of Marine and Fisheries, the Dominion Government -is removing this stigma from their great marine avenue, and their -engineer-in-chief. Lieutenant-Colonel William P. Anderson, to whom I am -indebted for much information concerning the guardians of the Canadian -coasts, has displayed commendable enterprise and ingenuity in combating -the natural odds pitted against human endeavour to render the coasts of -the country more friendly to navigation. - -In the St. Lawrence the great foe is ice. Its onslaughts are terrific, -and none but the strongest works has a chance to survive the enormous -pressure exerted when the ice is on the run after the break of winter. -As is well known, for some five months in the year the river is frozen -so thick and solid that it will support a train. Naturally, when this -armour collapses, and the floes are hurled seawards by the current, -they concentrate their destructive energies upon any obstacles in -their way, piling up in huge masses weighing thousands of tons. It is -no uncommon circumstance for the floes to pack in a jagged heap 50 -feet high, while all the time there is a continual push against the -obstruction. - -Under these circumstances extreme ingenuity has to be displayed in -the erection of the fixed lights. The floating lights, such as buoys, -escape this peril, as they are picked up when navigation ceases, to be -housed in quarters on dry land, and replaced when the river is open -once more. Yet it is not only the ice in itself which causes trouble. -The level of the river rises when the ice is running, and this pressure -alone is enormous, while the scouring action about the foundations -is terrific. The type of structure adopted varies with the situation -and character of the light. The beacons for the aid of navigation, in -common with the practice upon American waterways, are divided into -groups or ranges, and the captain picks out his channel by keeping -these lights and marks in various lines. Maybe four or five lights have -to be brought into line, and accordingly the height of the unit of each -range varies from its fellow. Thus, the front light will be low, that -behind a little higher, and so on, until the last light in the group, -or “back light” of the range, as it is called, is a lofty structure. - -In some places the light is placed in mid-stream, and perhaps -mounted upon a massive, high, steel caisson, resting upon a concrete -foundation, thereby proving immovable to the most powerful of -ice-shoves. Or a large pier carried out in ferro-concrete and pyramidal -in shape is used. In the case of the back light there is a skeleton -tower, which structure is employed to gain the necessary height. -This is carried upon a high, huge, solid plinth of concrete, even -if built against the bank. The frazil ice dams the channel, causing -the water to rise, and unless the foregoing precautions were adopted -widespread damage would result. All the lights between the gulf and -Montreal have to be protected in this manner, so that it will be seen -that the adequate lighting of this waterway bristles with engineering -difficulties of no light character, and is expensive. - -The Canadian Government also is responsible, to a certain extent, -for the lighting of the Great Lakes, which is described in another -chapter, where similar difficulties prevail. It has also a long -stretch of the most rugged part of the Pacific coast to patrol, -aggregating about 600 miles between Victoria and Vancouver to the -Portland Canal, where Canadian meets Alaskan territory. This is a -wicked coast, broken and battered, as well as flanked by an outer -barrier of islands, recalling the Scandinavian Peninsula in its general -topographical characteristics. During the past few years the necessity -of lighting this seaboard adequately has become more pronounced, owing -to the creation of the new port of Prince Rupert, a few miles below -Alaskan territory, where the Grand Trunk Pacific reaches down to -the western sea, and the growing sea-borne traffic with Alaska. The -fact that a large portion of this navigation is maintained through -the inside passages, bristling with sharp turns, narrow defiles, and -jagged headlands, which for the most part are wrapped generally in -fog, renders the lighting problem more intricate. Probably the most -important light, and certainly the loftiest on the Pacific seacoast -north of the Equator, is that on the summit of Triangle Island, -British Columbia. It was built in 1910, and although the lantern itself -is only 46 feet in height, the elevation of the headland brings the -white group-flashing light of 1,000,000 candle-power 700 feet above -the sea, giving it a range of thirty-four miles. Four flashes are -emitted during each ten seconds, each flash lasting 0·28 second with -intervening eclipses each of 1·28 seconds, with an eclipse between each -group of 5·94 seconds. - -Lieutenant-Colonel Anderson has introduced a new type of reinforced -concrete lighthouse with flying buttresses. The latter are not required -for strength, but are utilized to give greater stiffness to the tower, -as a column 100 feet or more in height, no matter how strongly it may -be built, must vibrate and swing in high winds. Yet it is desirable -to keep the lantern as steady as possible, and this is achieved much -more completely upon the above principle. The engineer-in-chief of -the lighthouse authority of the Canadian Government considers this -method of construction to be the last word in lighthouse building, and -has completed some notable works upon these lines. Perhaps the most -important is the Estevan Point light, on the west coast of Vancouver, -at a place known as Hole-in-the-Wall. The tower, of octagonal, tapering -form, is 127 feet in height, and throws a white group-flashing light, -comprising three flashes each of 9·3 seconds with two eclipses, each of -1·37 seconds, and a final eclipse of 6·36 seconds between each group, -seventeen miles out to sea. The surroundings of this station are most -romantic. Landing anywhere in its vicinity is extremely difficult and -dangerous, and the engineer had to select a point about two miles -distant for this purpose. From this place a road and tramway have been -laid through a grand primeval forest, such as is to be found only upon -Vancouver Island, wherein roams a drove of magnificent wild cattle. - -While the Canadian coast cannot point to any lighthouse work comparing -with the Eddystone, Skerryvore, or Heaux de Bréhat, yet its most -powerful beacons are of a commanding character, representing as they -do the latest and best in connection with coast lighting. There is an -enormous stretch of difficult shore to patrol, along which has to -be guided an immense volume of valuable shipping. In addition to the -attended lights, the Government has been extremely enterprising in the -adoption of unattended beacons (described in another chapter), miles -of lonely, inhospitable shore being guarded in this way. Although the -development in this direction is of comparatively recent date, the -protection of maritime trade is being carried out in accordance with -a comprehensive policy, so that within a few years the coasts of the -Dominion will be rendered as safe to the shipping of the world as human -ingenuity can contrive. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE MINOT’S LEDGE LIGHT - - -Lovers of Longfellow will recall the poet’s song to the lighthouse, -but how many of his admirers know to what beacon these stirring lines -refer? When they were penned the author had in his mind’s eye an -example of the engineer’s handiwork which ranks as one of the finest -sea-rock lights in existence, worthy of comparison with the most famous -of similar structures scattered throughout the waters washing the Old -World. - -This is the far-famed Minot’s Ledge light, warning the seafarer making -to and from Boston Bay of the terrible peril which lurks beneath the -waves on the southern side of the entrance to this busy indentation. -“Like the great giant Christopher it stands,” a powerful monument to -engineering genius, dogged perseverance against overwhelming odds, and -a grim, bitter contest lasting five weary years between the implacable -elements and human endeavour. The Minot Ledge is one of those jagged -reefs which thrust themselves far out into the sea, studded with -pinnacles and chisel-like edges, which never, or very seldom, protrude -above the waves. Ship after ship fouled this danger spot, either to be -sunk or to be so badly crippled that it barely could contrive to crawl -to safety. - -The prosperity of Boston was threatened by this peril to shipping, and -therefore it is not surprising that a resolution was passed to devise -some ways and means of indicating its presence to those who go down -to the sea in ships. The solution was offered in a skeleton structure -fashioned from iron, which was designed by Captain W. H. Swift, of the -United States Topographical Engineers. He searched the reef through and -through to ascertain the point where the beacon should be placed so as -to prove of the greatest value. This in itself was no simple matter, -inasmuch as Minot’s Ledge is but one of a great area of wicked crags, -which collectively are known as the Cohasset Rocks, and which straggle -over the sea-bed in all directions. After the position had been -reconnoitred thoroughly, and sounding and levels had been taken, the -engineer decided that the most seaward rock of the group, known as the -Outer Minot, would be the most strategical position, and accordingly he -planned to erect his beacon thereon. - -It was a daring proposal, because the reef at the point selected only -exposes some 25 feet of its mass above the falling tide, and then the -highest point of the rock scarcely thrusts itself 3½ feet into the air. -It was realized that the periods of working between the tides would -inevitably be very brief, while even then, owing to the open position -of the ridge, a landing would only be possible in very smooth weather, -and the men would have to suffer exposure to the fury of the waves as -they dashed over the ledge. - -Captain Swift decided upon a skeleton iron structure, not only because -it would be quicker to erect and would cost less, but because it -would offer the least resistance to the waves, which would be free to -expend their energy among the stilts. The task was taken in hand at -the first favourable opportunity, and, the system lending itself to -rapid construction, marked progress was made every time the workmen -succeeded in getting on the ledge. The lantern and keepers’ quarters -were supported upon nine piles, 60 feet above the rock. The legs were -so disposed that eight described the circumference of a circle, while -the ninth constituted the axis. - -This tower was completed in 1848, and for the first time the navigator -making these treacherous waters received a powerful warning to keep -clear of Minot’s Ledge. For three years the beacon survived the -battering of wind and wave, but its welcome beam was last seen on the -night of April 16, 1851. In the spring of that year a gale of terrific -fury beat upon the Massachusetts coast. The wind freshened on April -13; the next day it rose to its full force, and did not abate for -four days. The good people of Boston grew apprehensive concerning the -plight of the two keepers of the lonely Minot’s light, but, however -willing they might have been to have put out to the beacon, they were -absolutely impotent before the ferocity of the elements. Time after -time the light vanished from sight as it was enveloped in an angry -curling mountain of water. On April 17 the doleful tolling of the -lighthouse bell was heard, but the light was never seen again. The -structure had slipped completely from sight, together with its faithful -keepers, swallowed by the hungry Atlantic. Evidently the wail of the -bell was a last plea for assistance, because no doubt the lighthouse -had bowed to the storm and was tottering when the tolling rang out. But -the call brought no help; it was the funeral knell of the guardians of -the beacon. When the sea went down a boat pushed off to the ledge, and -all that was seen were a few bent piles. Captain Swift had done his -work well. The waves could not tear his beacon up by the roots, so had -snapped off the piles like carrots, and had carried away the lantern. - -[Illustration: THE MINOT’S LEDGE LIGHT. - -Marking the rock off Boston Harbour, it is one of the greatest works -completed by the lighthouse builders of the United States. It forms the -theme of Longfellow’s well-known poem.] - -This sensational disaster, after a brief existence of three years, -did not augur well for the permanence of a light upon this precarious -ledge. The Outer Minot appeared to be determined to continue its -plunder of ships, cargoes, and lives, untrammelled. Accordingly, for -three years no effort was made to bring about its subjugation. - -In 1855 General Barnard, one of the most illustrious engineers which -the United States has ever produced, brought forward the plans for a -structure which he thought would resist the most formidable attacks of -wind and wave. He took Rudyerd’s famous Eddystone tower as his pattern. -This was perhaps the strongest design that could be carried out against -the sea, having one weak point only--it was built of wood. General -Barnard contemplated a similar structure for Minot’s Ledge, but in -masonry. - -The Lighthouse Board, which had recently been inaugurated to control -the lighthouses around the coasts of the country, examined the idea -minutely, and submitted the design to the most expert criticism and -discussion, but all were so impressed with its outstanding features -that they decided to support it whole-heartedly. A minute survey of the -rock was prepared, and the plans were straight away perfected for the -preparation of the masonry on shore. So carefully was this work carried -out, that, with the exception of a few blocks of masonry constituting -the foundations, which had to be prepared on the site, and some slight -variations in the method of construction, the original ideas were -fulfilled. - -Work was commenced in 1855, the building operations being placed in the -hands of B. S. Alexander, at that time Lieutenant of Engineers, and -the successful completion of the work was due in a very great measure -to his ability and ingenuity, because the whole undertaking was placed -in his hands and he had to overcome difficulties at every turn as they -arose. - -The builder was handicapped in every way. First there was the brief -period in which operations could be carried out upon the site, the -working season extending only from April 1 to September 15 in each -year. This is not to say that the masons were able to toil upon the -rock continuously every day during this interval--far from it. In order -to get the foundations laid there were three essentials--a perfectly -smooth sea, a dead calm, and low spring-tides. Needless to say, it was -on very rare occasions indeed that these three requirements were in -harmony. As a matter of fact, they could occur only about six times -during every lunar month--three times during full moon, and three at -the change. Even then, either the wind or the sea intervened to nullify -the benefits arising from the lowest tides. So much so that, although -work commenced at daybreak on Sunday, July 1, 1855, only 130 working -hours were possible upon the rock before labours ceased for the season -in the middle of the following September. - -[Illustration: TENDER LANDING BUILDING MATERIAL UPON THE TILLAMOOK ROCK. - -A derrick has been provided to facilitate these operations, while a -stairway leads from the landing point to the lighthouse.] - -On gaining the rock, Lieutenant Alexander decided to make use of -the holes which had been driven into the granitic mass by Captain -Swift to receive the piles of the previous structure. The twisted -and broken pieces of iron were withdrawn and the holes cleaned out. -Simultaneously the upper surface of the rock was pared and trimmed by -the aid of chisels, which was no easy task, because at times the masons -were compelled to manipulate their tools as best they could in two -or three feet of water. This preparation of the rock to receive the -base constituted one of the most notable features of the work. In the -greater number of other outstanding achievements upon sea-rocks the -surface of the latter has been above the waves at lowest spring-tides, -whereas in this case a great part of the foundation work was -continuously submerged. - -This preparation of the rock-face necessitated the final trimming and -shaping upon the site of many of the masonry blocks forming the root of -the tower. They could not possibly be prepared ashore to bring about -the tight fit which was imperative. Accordingly, all but the bottom -faces of the blocks were prepared in the depot on the mainland, and -they were then shipped to the ledge for final paring and trimming. - -The attachment of the bottom courses to the rock-face was carried -out very ingeniously. Bags of sand were brought on to the rock and -laid around the spot upon which a particular block of stone was to be -laid. The sacks, being filled with sand, were pliable, so that, when -deposited, they adapted themselves to the contour of the ledge, and -prevented the water making its way in under the rampart. The water -within this small dam was then removed, sponges being used in the -final emptying task, so as to suck out the salt sea from the cracks -and crevices, leaving the surface on which the block of stone was to -be laid quite dry. A film of cement was then trowelled upon the rock -surface, and upon this was laid a sheet of muslin. The inclusion of the -muslin was a wise precaution, because while the work was in progress -a wandering wave was liable to curl over the rock, swamping the small -dried space, when, but for the presence of the muslin, the cement -would have been carried away. At the same time the cement was able to -penetrate the meshes of the muslin when the stone was deposited, so as -to grip the surface of the latter and to hold it tightly in position. - -Under such abnormal conditions of working the masons had many exciting -moments. No matter how smooth was the sea, several renegade waves -would plunge over the ledge. The masons had to be prepared for these -unwelcome visitors, and precautions had to be introduced to prevent -them being washed off their slender foothold. A substantial iron -staging was erected over the working area on the rock, to facilitate -the handling of the building material. A number of ropes were attached -to this staging, the free ends of which dangled beside the workmen. -These were the life-lines, one being provided for each man. A lookout -was posted, who, when he saw a wave approaching and bent upon sweeping -the rock, gave a shrill signal. Instantly each workman dropped his -tools, clutched his life-line tightly, threw himself prostrate on the -rock, and allowed the wave to pass over him. The situation certainly -was uncomfortable, and the men often toiled in soddened clothes, but -an involuntary bath was preferable to the loss of a life or to broken -limbs. - -Work advanced so slowly that during the first two years, which were -devoted to the excavation of the pit and the preparations of the -rock-face, only 287 hours’ work were accomplished. In the third year -this task was completed, and four stones laid in a further 130 hours -21 minutes. By the end of the working season of 1859 twenty-six -courses were finished, so that, while the volume of work fulfilled in -1,102 hours 21 minutes, and spread over five years, certainly was not -imposing, it was remarkable under the circumstances. - -The stones for the foundations were sent from shore with the indication --3’ 5”, -2’ 9”, -1’ 3”, and so on, indicating that these stones were -prepared for positions 3 feet 5 inches, 2 feet 9 inches, and so on, -below zero. And the zero mark was 21 inches below water! Above the zero -mark the stones were prefixed by a “plus” sign. - -The shaft is purely conical, and solid except for a central well -extending from the foundations up to the level of the entrance. The -successive courses of stones were secured to one another, and each -stone was attached to its neighbour in the ring by the aid of heavy -iron dogs, so that the lower part of the shaft forms a practically -solid homogenous mass. What are known as continuous “dowels” were -sunk through each course of masonry into the holes in the solid -rock prepared by Captain Swift for his skeleton light, this further -attachment of the mass to the ledge being continued until the twelfth -course was gained. Thus additional security is obtained by anchoring -the tower firmly to the reef. - -The solid portion of the building is 40 feet in height from the level -of the first complete ring of stones, and the tower is 80 feet high -to the lantern gallery. The over-all height to the top of the lantern -cupola is 102¾ feet, while the focal plane is 84½ feet above mean -high-water. The first stone was laid on July 9, 1857, while the masons -completed their duties on June 29, 1860, so that five years were -occupied upon the work. In erection 3,514 tons of rough and 2,367 tons -of hammered stone, in addition to 1,079 numbered stones, were used, and -the total cost, including the light-keepers’ houses on the mainland, -was £60,000, or $300,000, so that it ranks among the more costly lights -which have been provided for the seafarer’s benefit. - -On November 15, 1860, nine and a half years after the destruction of -the first beacon, the light was once more thrown from Minot’s Ledge for -the benefit of passing ships. The light is of the second order, visible -fourteen and three-quarter miles out to sea, and is of the flashing -type, signalling “143” every thirty seconds thus--one flash followed by -three seconds’ darkness, four flashes with three seconds’ eclipse, and -three flashes with an interval of fifteen seconds’ darkness. - -The tower has been subjected to repeated prodigious assaults, the -north-east gales in particular thundering upon this reef with -tremendous fury, but it has withstood all attacks with complete -success. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE TILLAMOOK ROCK LIGHT-STATION - - -While the Northern Pacific Ocean is the loneliest stretch of salt water -in the world, yet it possesses one or two busy corners. Prominent among -the latter is that where it washes the shores of the United States -around the entrance to the mighty Columbia River. The estuary is wide, -and, although navigation is handicapped by a bar, it is well protected. -But coming up from the south there is a stretch of terribly forbidding -coastline, with the cliffs at places towering 1,500 feet or more into -the air and dropping sheer into the water. Rock-slides are of frequent -occurrence, and the beach is littered with heavy falls from above. Here -and there protuberances rise from the sea, formed of rock sufficiently -dense and hard to withstand more effectively the process of erosion, -only to constitute fearful menaces to navigation. Often the mainland -is completely obscured, either by streaks of mist or heavy clouds of -smoke produced by forest fires, which in the dry season rage with great -violence. A ship caught within the toils of this stern coast has no -possible chance of escape, while the crew would find it difficult to -get ashore, inasmuch as at places there is not a single landing-place -within a distance of twenty miles. - -Owing to the coast being frequently blotted from view, and to the fact -that this stretch of sea is swept by furious storms, the plight of -the mariner making to or from the Columbia River became exceedingly -precarious. The worst tragedy of these waters was enacted on the dark -and stormy night of January 3, 1881, when the sailing-ship _Lupata_ -lost her way and went to pieces on the rocks off Tillamook Head. - -Under these circumstances it is not surprising that an outcry arose -for protection along this lonely reach of Oregon’s jagged shoreline. -The authorities responded to the agitation by the promise to erect -a lighthouse, once they should have decided the site, which was the -really perplexing question. In the first instance it was thought that -its location upon the mainland would suffice, but a survey betrayed -the futility of such a choice. The light would be too elevated to be -of any service; for the greater part of its time it would be rendered -invisible by land fogs. Then, again, it would mean cutting a road for a -distance of twenty miles through heavy, undulating country and primeval -forest to gain the point, as the verdant sea of green timber extends to -the very brink of the cliffs. - -After prolonged consideration, it was decided to erect the light upon -the Tillamook Rock. This is a hard mass of basalt, rising boldly from -the water to a height of 120 feet, which, when viewed from one side, -presented the appearance of a clenched fist. It stands about a mile -off the mainland, twenty miles south of the Columbia River mouth, and -drops plumb into the sea, where the lead gives readings ranging from -96 to 240 feet. The whole area of the rock is less than one acre, and -it is split almost in two; another isolated knot of basalt, upon which -the seas break heavily when a storm is raging, rears its shaggy head -into the air near by at low-tide. The only possible landing-point is -on the east side, where there is a beach sloping upwards sharply from -the water to the crest. When the ocean is roused the sight certainly is -terrifying. The waves fall with shivering force upon the base of the -rock, to rush up its ragged sides and sweep right over its crest in a -dense curtain of angrily frothing water and whipping spray. - -Despite its fearsome character, this rock constituted the most -serviceable situation for a light, for the reason that, being a mile -from the shore, it was free from land fogs and clouds. The decision -of the authorities depended upon three factors only--that a landing -could be made, the rock occupied, and the requisite building materials -unloaded. The introduction of such a saving clause was politic, -because at first it seemed as if the rock would defy the gaining of -a foothold. The ghastly failure attending the survey, as described in -a previous chapter, brought public opinion into dead opposition to -the project, and many fearsome stories were circulated sedulously up -and down the coast and among the towns fringing the Columbia River -concerning the perils, hardships, and terrible death-roll, which would -attend any attempt to place a beacon on this rock. - -After the disaster the authorities pressed forward the enterprise with -greater vigour than ever, so as to get work well under way before -public opinion would be able to make its influence felt upon the -unsophisticated minds of workmen required to carry out the undertaking. -A daring, determined, and energetic leader was secured in Mr. A. -Ballantyne, and he was deputed to rally a force of eight or more highly -skilled quarrymen with whom to proceed to Astoria, where the land -headquarters were to be established. He was informed that upon arrival -at this point he would find everything in readiness for his immediate -departure to the rock, with all essentials to enable him to commence -work at once and to provide quarters for the workmen, who would be -compelled to suffer isolation and a certain amount of discomfort for -weeks at a time. It was impossible to take more than a handful of men -at first, owing to the difficulty of landing provisions. - -Mr. Ballantyne started off with his small picked force, reached -Astoria on September 24, 1879, and there suffered his first check. The -autumn gales had sprung up, rendering approach to the rock absolutely -hopeless. There was no alternative; he must wait until the weather -moderated. As this might be a question of a few hours, days, or perhaps -a week or two, the chief grew anxious concerning his force. If the men, -having nothing to do, wandered idly about the town, making acquaintance -with all and sundry and listening to gossip, then they could not fail -to be impressed with the extraordinary stories concerning dangers, -hardships, perils, and adventures; would conclude that the Tillamook -was a “hoodoo” rock; and would desert him promptly. To guard against -this contingency, the quarrymen were hurried off and temporarily housed -in the old light-keeper’s dwelling at the Cape Disappointment light, -some miles away on the northern portal of the estuary, where they were -safe from pernicious influences. - -[Illustration: THE TILLAMOOK ROCK LIGHT STATION FROM THE SOUTH. - -Rising from the sea one mile off the Oregon Coast, it was for years a -terrible danger spot. The light of 160,000 candle-power, 132 feet above -high water, is visible for 18 miles.] - -After twenty-six days of enforced idleness the squad was picked up by a -revenue cutter, which steamed to the rock, and made fast to a buoy that -had been laid previously for mooring the vessels deputed to transport -building materials and other requirements. With extreme difficulty four -men were got on the rock, together with a supply of hammers, drills, -iron ring-bolts, a stove, provisions, supplies, and an abundance of -canvas, with which the advance staff were to erect temporary shelters -and to make themselves as comfortable as they could. While the work -was in progress the wind freshened, the swell rose, and the boat had -to retire hurriedly before the remainder of the force could be landed; -but five days later they were transferred to the rock, together with -further provisions and supplies, as well as a derrick. - -The little party soon received a taste of what life would be in this -lonely spot. Three days after the second landing, and before they had -shaken down to their strange surroundings, a gale sprang up. Heavy seas -pounded the rock, and the waves, mounting its vertical face, threw -themselves over its crest, drenching the workmen and their sleeping -blankets. It was a startling episode, but it became so frequent that -the quarrymen became inured to their fate, and were not perturbed in -any way, except when the Pacific was roused to exceptional fury. - -When the first four men gained the rock it was seen that the landing -of material, especially the heavier incidentals, would constitute the -greatest difficulty. Then an ingenious idea was advanced. Why not rig -a heavy rope between the mast of the vessel and the top of the rock, -draw it taut, and devise a traveller to run to and fro? It was a -practical suggestion and was adopted forthwith. With much difficulty -a 4½-inch rope was towed from the vessel--to the mast of which one -end was secured--to the rock, and grabbed by those in occupation. -This end was anchored firmly, and constituted the track. Then a large -single block was rigged to this main line in such a way that it could -move freely to and fro along the cable. This block was provided with a -heavy hook on which the weights could be slung. Other blocks were fixed -on the vessel and on the rock, while an endless line, passing through -these blocks at each end, and attached to the shank of the hook on the -travelling block, enabled the traveller to be pulled freely and easily -in either direction. - -Both men and supplies were transferred from ship to shore by this -primitive, albeit ingenious, system. The men were carried in a novel -device, described as a “breeches-buoy,” such as is used with the rocket -life-saving apparatus, but of very crude design improvised on the spot. -It was contrived from an ordinary circular rubber life-preserver, to -which a pair of trousers cut short at the knees were lashed tightly. -This was suspended from the block-hook by means of three short lengths -of rope. The trip through the air certainly was novel, and not free -from excitement; indeed, there was just sufficient spice of adventure -about it to appeal to the rough-and-ready, intrepid spirits who -constituted the forces of the lighthouse engineer. Also, owing to the -primitive character of the apparatus, there was just the chance that -something would go wrong when the man was between ship and rock. The -breeches were provided to hold the man in a safe position while in the -air, to guard against a loss of balance and tipping out; while should -anything give way, and the man make an unexpected plunge into the -water, the life-preserver would keep him afloat until a boat could draw -alongside to rescue him. - -[Illustration: THE CONQUEST OF THE TILLAMOOK. - -The top of the crag was blasted off to provide a level space for the -lighthouse.] - -[Illustration: THE TERRIBLE TILLAMOOK ROCK. - -Showing how the menace rises abruptly from the sea on one side.] - -There was another factor which had to be taken into consideration, and -which certainly contributed to the novelty of the trip. As the boat -responded to the action of the waves the rope alternately drew tight -and sagged. When she rolled towards the rock the cable was slackened, -and the man generally had a ducking; the next moment, when the vessel -rolled in the opposite direction, he was whisked unceremoniously and -suddenly into the air. It was like being suspended at the end of a -piece of elastic. The men for the most part enjoyed the fun of the -journey, and considered it a new and exhilarating “divarshun.” Among -themselves the effort was to travel in either direction so as to escape -a cold douche on the journey. When the water was rough, speculation -took the form of guessing how many dips into the water would be made -before either terminus was gained. - -This novel landing method provoked one amusing incident. The -supply-boat came out to the rock one day bringing a new raw hand. -The cableway was rigged up, and the workman prepared for his ride -to the rock. But the man was somewhat corpulent, and could not be -thrust through the preserver. This was an unexpected _contretemps_, -and it seemed as if the superintendent would have to let his recruit -return. But Ballantyne did not worry over trifles, neither did he -relish the idea of losing a hand after having him brought so far, so -he put forward a somewhat daring proposal. He told the captain of the -steamer to lash the workman to the top of the buoy, and they would -pull him ashore all right. The labourer was scared out of his wits at -this suggestion, and resented being handled as if he were a balk of -timber. Why, even the perishable articles were unloaded in casks to -protect them from the wet. He expressed his determination to see them -to perdition before he would make a trip through the air under such -conditions. Ballantyne was somewhat crestfallen at the cold reception -of his brilliant idea, so told the captain to take the workman back to -Astoria, and to ransack the place to discover a buoy which would be big -enough to fit him. - -Two days later the vessel returned with the larger buoy and also the -corpulent quarryman. His second glimpse of the primitive travelling -frightened him worse than ever, and he point blank refused to budge. -In order to reassure the raw hand, Ballantyne hauled the buoy ashore, -and, jumping into it, made a journey, to illustrate that the system was -perfectly safe, and that one need not even get wet. But Ballantyne’s -demonstration was rather unfortunate. The cable was slack, and the -ship rolled heavily. Result: the superintendent was dragged through -the water for nearly the whole distance, and at times nothing of him -could be seen. When he landed on the boat, half-winded and drenched to -the skin, the quarryman was scared more than ever, and announced his -intention to return to Astoria. Ballantyne cajoled, coaxed, argued, -and stormed, in turn, but to no avail. Then another idea came to his -fertile mind. If the man would not travel via the breeches-buoy, -why not send him ashore in a bos’n’s chair? This was rigged up -satisfactorily, and therein the workman consented to go ashore, though -not without the display of considerable trepidation and anxiety to -keep out of the water. They got him on the rock safely, and without so -much as wetting the soles of his feet. The quarryman by his resolute -opposition set up a record. He was the first man to land dry on the -Tillamook. - -Subsequently this novel and, so far as it went, efficient method of -“quick transit” was superseded when the men on the rock got their big -derrick to work. The long arm of this appliance leaned over the water -far enough to pick up the goods direct from the deck of the vessel -moored off the rock. This system was quicker, and enabled the goods to -be got ashore unsoiled. - -The first men to land found the rock in the occupation of sea-lions, -who swarmed its scaly sides in huge numbers, even making their way to -the crest to bask in the sunshine. These tenants at first resented the -white man’s invasion, and were somewhat troublesome; but at last they -recognized that their eviction was certain, so suddenly deserted in a -body to another equally wild spot farther south. - -The first task was the preparation of the site for the building. The -fist-like overhanging crest was attacked to prepare a foundation, -thereby reducing the height from 120 to 91 feet. The rock surface was -scarred and riven in a fantastic manner, owing to the scouring action -of the waves eroding the soft portions leaving the hard rock behind in -the form of needles, scales, and ugly crevices. The outer part of the -rock, moreover, was found to be of an unreliable character, being more -or less rotten, while the core, on the other hand, was intensely hard, -and promised an excellent foundation for the beacon. The superfluous -mass was removed by blasting, this being carried out with extreme care -and in small sections at a time. The largest blasts did not remove -more than 130 cubic yards, or tons, of débris at one time. This slow -blasting, by handfuls as it were, was necessary so as not to shatter or -impair the solidity of the heart of the rock, which was to support the -buildings. - -Drilling and blasting were carried out in the face of great -difficulties. Rain, rough seas, spray, and heavy winds, combined -to thwart the little band of workers toiling strenuously in solemn -loneliness upon this bleak crag. Often days would pass without any -tangible impression being made upon the surface. The drilling holes -would be swamped, and unless care was observed the powder charges ran -the risk of being damped and rendered impotent or uncertain in firing. -In the attack upon the crest the workmen distributed themselves around -the crown. On the precipitous side, as there was not a friendly ledge -on which to secure a foothold to work the drills, bolts were driven -into the rock-face, from which staging was suspended by ropes, and -on this swinging, crazy foothold the men drove their tools with salt -fleece whirling round them. - -Until the men were able to erect more or less permanent quarters, their -plight at times was pitiable. The canvas was cut up and an A-tent was -rigged up. It was a cramped home, measuring 16 feet long by 6 feet -wide, while the ridge pole was only 4½ feet above the ground. This -domicile just held the ten men in their sleeping-blankets. Naturally, -they had to crawl rather than walk about, and, as the shelter served -as a dining-room as well, the little band had to tolerate many -discomforts. When the wind howled round the rock, causing the canvas to -flap violently and threatening to carry it away at every turn, when the -sea swarmed over the rock, and when the heavy rains to which this coast -is subject poured down pitilessly, the men never knew what it was to -have dry clothing or bedding. Cooking was carried on in the open, and -the kitchen arrangements had to be shifted from time to time, according -to the direction of the wind, so that the fire was brought on the lee -side of the shelter. - -The workers were exposed to danger on all sides incessantly, but -fortunately in their chief, Ballantyne, they had one of those men who -appear to be made for such contingencies; who was alert, ready for -any emergency, nursed his staff sedulously, and whose buoyant spirits -dispelled all feelings of gloom, loneliness, or homesickness. The -little band toiled hard and long through the rough autumnal weather, -and the arrival of stern winter did not bring any cessation in their -labours. They fought the rock grimly and ignored hardship. Certainly, -they were cheered by the arrival of the boats with supplies, but -occasionally a fortnight or more would pass without a call being made -at the rock, and often, when a boat did come up and prepare to land -material, it had to slip its anchor hastily to make a frantic run for -safety before the rising swell and the gathering storm. - -Early in January Nature concentrated her forces, as if bent upon a -supreme effort to shake the determination and courage of the little -army striving so valiantly upon the rock. On the night of New Year’s -Day the clouds assumed an ominous appearance, and accordingly the -workmen were not surprised to meet a stormy and rainy reception -when they made their way to their duties the following morning. The -weather grew worse on the third day, the spray enveloping the rock -and drenching the men, while the wind blew so fiercely that they -could scarcely keep their feet. During the next two days it increased -in force, while the sea grew angrier. On the 6th the elements were -raging in torment, and in the afternoon Ballantyne, taking stock of -the meteorological signs, came to the conclusion that the party “were -in for it.” A hurricane, or possibly a tornado, was looming. The -tools were being swung with infinite difficulty, when suddenly came -the signal “Stop work!” Ballantyne urged them to set to at once to -lash everything securely. At six o’clock in the evening the hurricane -burst, and the workmen witnessed a sight such as they had never seen -before. The whole coast was in the grip of a tornado, of which the -Tillamook Rock was the vortex, whereon the elements concentrated their -destructive forces. The huge rollers assumed an uglier appearance than -ever; the broken water rushed up the steep sides into the air, where -it was caught by the whirling wind and dashed on the tiny camp. It was -impossible to escape that savage attack, as it was driven home from -all sides simultaneously. The men took to their permanent quarters in -silence and very gloomy. By midnight the roof was being peppered with -huge masses of rock, which, detached by the waves, were caught up and -thrown clean over the rock. Ballantyne urged the men to stay in their -bunks, to keep up their spirits, and to seek a little rest. - -[Illustration: FAMOUS UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSES OF TWO CENTURIES. - -The rear tower was built on Cape Henry in 1789, with stones shipped -from Great Britain. Owing to the sand thrown up by the sea, another -light had to be provided nearer the water, and was completed in 1879. -The old light is retained as an historic building.] - -But sleep was impossible. The quarrymen were scared out of their -wits, and there was every cause for their dismay. It seemed as if -the very rock itself must succumb to the savage onslaught. The din -was deafening; the rock shivered and trembled as the breakers hurled -themselves upon it. - -It had just turned two. Suddenly one and all sat up in terror. There -was a fearful crash--a rending and splitting, which was heard plainly -above the weird howling of the hurricane. The men tumbled out of their -bunks panic-stricken, and were about to stampede from their shelter -to seek refuge upon a higher ledge. But Ballantyne’s pluck asserted -itself. He, too, had been scared by the awful noise, but he collected -his scattered wits more quickly than did his comrades. He grasped the -situation, and with iron nerve commanded all the men to stick tightly -where they were. An ugly rush seemed imminent, but he stood with his -back to the door, and in plain English dared the men to leave their -cover. Any man who attempted to fight his way to the upper refuge would -be swept overboard by the wind and sea. - -The quarrymen were not cowards, and Ballantyne’s action steadied them. -Then the foreman announced his intention to go out to see what had -happened. He grabbed a storm-lantern and opened the door. Instantly he -was hurled back by the wind and sea, which appeared to be submerging -the rock. For two hours he stood waiting an opportunity to slip out -against the hurricane. At last he succeeded, and in the intense -darkness endeavoured to grope his way over the rock. He had been gone -only a few minutes when he staggered back, battered, shaken, and almost -exhausted. He could not make headway against the gale. So the men sat -down and silently waited the approach of dawn. Then they found that -the rushing waves had fallen upon the building in which all their -supplies were stored, had smashed it to atoms, and had destroyed and -carried away nearly all the provisions, the fresh-water tank, and other -articles, although the requisites for work were left untouched. It was -the break-up of this storehouse which had woke them from their slumbers -and had provoked the panic. - -For ten days the gale raged, being more furious on some days than -others. When it decreased in fury the men were able to settle to their -work for an hour or two, but progress was painfully slow; on other days -not a tool could be picked up. On the 18th the revenue cutter came -out from Astoria to ascertain how the men had weathered the tornado, -and the signal for coal and provisions was answered immediately by -the lowering of a surf-boat. The sailors had a stiff pull to reach -the rock, found that the men still had a scanty supply of hard bread, -coffee, and bacon--this was all--and, taking off the letters, promised -to send supplies immediately. The construction ship also came up; the -captain sent ashore all the provisions he could spare, and undertook to -return at once with a full supply. But another ten days passed before -the sea went down enough to permit these to be landed, together with -five more men. - -[Illustration: THE RACE ROCK LIGHT. - -It marks a dangerous reef in Long Island Sound, where, owing to the -swift currents, construction of the foundations proved very difficult.] - -Nature appeared to capitulate after this terrible assault, and work -proceeded rapidly. The crest of the rock was removed and levelled off, -to form an excellent platform for the reception of the beacon and other -buildings. An inclined tramway was excavated out of the rock-face, -communicating with the landing-stage, to facilitate the haulage of -the light-keepers’ necessities, and then the arrangements for the -completion of the building were hurried forward. - -When the public saw that the work was being accomplished without loss -to life or limb, and that the plucky little party of toilers weathered -the gales, an intense interest was manifested in the undertaking. The -foreman was provided with an international code of signals, and passing -vessels, as an act of courtesy and in recognition of the work that was -being done to further their safety, always stood towards the rock to -render assistance in case it was required. The workmen appreciated this -feeling, and on two occasions, during dense fog, intimated to captains -who had lost their way, and were groping blindly round the rock, that -they were venturing into dangerous waters. The warning was primitive -but effective. It comprised the explosion of giant-powder cartridges -over the sea in the direction whence the ships’ sirens sounded. In both -instances the navigators heard the signals in the nick of time, and -were able to steer clear. - -The lighthouse itself comprises a group of buildings for the keepers, -from which rises a square tower 48 feet in height, bringing the light -132 feet above mean high-water. The dwelling is built of stone, -measures 48 feet by 45 feet, and is one story in height. In addition -there is an extension for housing the powerful siren and its machinery. -The building contains adequate living-quarters, together with storage -rooms and a kitchen. As this light is particularly lonely, four keepers -are stationed on the rock, and their rooms each have a clear length of -12 feet by 10 feet wide. Also, as the rock is so difficult to approach, -and relief may suffer extreme delay from adverse weather, sufficient -provisions are stored to insure full rations for six months. - -The light is of the first order, of 160,000 candle-power, and is -visible at a distance of eighteen miles in clear weather. It is a -brilliant white flashing beam, occurring once every five seconds, the -flash being of two seconds, followed by an eclipse of three seconds. -The fog-siren is likewise of the first order, driven by steam-engines. -This plant is in duplicate, and the signal is given every forty-five -seconds, the blast being of five seconds, followed by silence for forty -seconds. - -The conquest of the Tillamook Rock has been one of the most difficult -tasks that the United States Lighthouse Board ever has accomplished. -The little band of quarrymen who braved danger, hardship, and -privation, effected occupation of the rock on October 21, 1879, and -the light was exhibited for the first time on January 21, 1881, the -total time occupied in the task being 575 days. It has robbed the -dreaded Oregon coast of one of its worst perils, and the money which -was devoted to the provision of this stalwart guardian--£24,698, or -$123,493--was indeed expended to good purpose. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -THE COAST LIGHTS OF THE UNITED STATES - - -Few nations have such a varied coastline to guard as the United States. -On the Atlantic seaboard the northern shore is a shaggy bold rampart of -lofty cliff, hard and pitiless. Farther south the rock gradually gives -way to sandy dunes, which the hungry sea is continually gnawing away -here and piling up somewhere else. Then, as the tropics are entered, -the sand in turn gives way to coral reefs, every whit as formidable as -rock and as treacherous as sand, where the hurricane reigns supreme -and makes its presence felt only too frequently. Across the continent -a similar variation, though not perhaps so intense, is observable on -the Pacific side. The coast range runs parallel with the shore, and -consequently cliff and precipice are common, owing to the lateral spurs -of the range coming to an abrupt termination where land and water meet. - -The result is that no one type of beacon is possible of adoption as -a standard for the whole coastline. The class of structure has to be -modified to meet local conditions, but the battle between destruction -and preservation is none the less bitter and continuous. When ships -began to trade with the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, the -erection of warning lights became imperative. This duty was fulfilled -in the early days by local enterprise, and the first lighthouse on -the continent was built on Little Brewster Island, at the entrance to -Boston Harbour. It was completed about 1716, was a conical masonry -tower, and its cost, which is interesting as being set out to the -uttermost farthing--£2,285 17s. 8½d.--betrays the scrupulous commercial -integrity of the first financiers of the United States. The light was -maintained by the levy of a due of one penny per ton on all incoming -and outgoing vessels, except those engaged in coastal traffic, and was -collected by the same authority which subsequently got into trouble in -the endeavour to collect the tax on tea. This pioneer light is still -in service, although in 1783 it was rebuilt. The light, of the second -order, is 102 feet above mean high-water, and gives a white flash every -thirty seconds, which is visible from a distance of sixteen miles; the -fog-signal is a first-class siren, giving a blast of five seconds, -followed by silence for ten seconds, with a succeeding blast of five -seconds and silence for forty seconds. - -The excellent example thus set by the good people of Boston was -followed by other States and individual authorities along the -coast. This system of local and arbitrary control was by no means -satisfactory, so in 1789 the Federal Government took over the control -of the lighthouse service, and entrusted its safe-keeping to the -Secretary of the Treasury. There were only eight lights to watch when -the cession was effected, but the growth of the country soon increased -the duties of the department. Accordingly, a decree was passed in 1817 -whereby the control was transferred from the Secretary of the Treasury -to the fifth auditor of the same department, Mr. Stephen Pleasanton, -who became known as the General Superintendent of Lights. He assumed -the new office in 1820, taking over fifty-five lights, so that during -the thirty years the aids to navigation had been under the jurisdiction -of the Secretary of the Treasury forty-seven new stations had been -established. - -The new official held the post for thirty-two years, and prosecuted -his work so diligently and systematically that by 1852 the service -had grown to 325 lighthouses, lightships, buoys, and other guides. -The lighthouses were maintained under contract, the contractor for -each light undertaking for a fixed annual sum to keep his charge in a -perfect state of repair, to supply all illuminant, wicks, chimneys, -and stores, that were required, as well as making one visit to the -lighthouse in the course of the year. Subsequently it became necessary -to award the contracts for terms of five years. - -[Illustration: THE CARQUINEZ STRAIT LIGHT. - -An imposing station on the north side of the entrance to the Strait.] - -As time progressed, and the duties of the Superintendent became more -onerous, certain individuals took exception to the idea of such an -important service being entrusted to the charge of one man, vested with -wide discretionary powers. Accordingly, complaints were formulated -liberally, and the superintendent became the butt of venomous attack. -The outcome of this agitation was the formation of a committee, two -members of which were sent upon a mission of inspection to Great -Britain and France, the lighthouse services of which were stated to -be far superior to that of the United States, and more efficiently -controlled. The result of this investigation was the inauguration of -an official department known as the Lighthouse Board, constituted of -capable engineers. In 1852 this authority took over the administration -of the light service, which has remained under its control ever since. -In order to secure the utmost efficiency, the coasts were divided into -districts, each of which is presided over by an accomplished officer of -the United States Corps of Engineers, who is held directly responsible -to the Board at Washington for the lights in his area. So admirably -was the new authority constituted that it has never failed to give the -utmost satisfaction, and the result is that to-day the Lighthouse Board -of the United States is comparable with contemporary authorities in the -Old World. - -In the early days the majority of the lights were placed on the -mainland, and as a rule comprised wooden towers, projecting from -the roof of the keepers’ dwelling, similar in character to some of -the older lights to be found on the coasts of Newfoundland and New -Brunswick in Canada. These buildings were cheap to construct, as they -were carried out upon the timber-frame principle; but they possessed -many disadvantages. The greatest objection arose from the attachment -of the tower to the roof frames of the house. Being exposed to the -full fury of the tempest, the tower in time would become loosened, -and the roof itself distorted, so that the inmates had to suffer the -inconvenience of water penetrating into their rooms. Even the -few masonry towers which were erected were of the most primitive -description, and soon fell victims to the ravages of the weather. - -Accordingly, when the lighthouse administration was placed upon an -efficient footing, the first task was the complete overhaul, and -reconstruction where necessary, of many of the existing lights. Of -the eight beacons which were taken over by the Federal Government in -1789, six have been rebuilt. The only two exceptions are the Sandy -Hook light--a stone tower 88 feet high--and Cape Henlopen, at the -entrance to Delaware Bay, both of which were built in 1764. Naturally, -their illuminating apparatus has been remodelled from time to time, in -accordance with the advances in this field of lighthouse engineering, -but that is the only change which has been effected. - -[Illustration: A CHURCH AS A LIGHTHOUSE. - -A fixed white light, thrown from the tower of St. Philip’s Church, and -visible for 18 miles, forms the rear light of the main channel range in -Charleston Harbour, South Carolina.] - -One lighthouse on the Atlantic coast of the United States possesses a -pathetic and romantic interest. It indicates the treacherous shores -around Cape Henry, and mounts sentinel on the headland at the southerly -side of the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, Virginia. The stranger on the -passing ship, as he scans the dreary bench of sand rising from the -water’s edge at this point, has his attention arrested by two gaunt -towers. The foremost is almost lapped by the water; the other is some -distance to the rear, and upon a higher level. “Two lights, and for -what?” is a natural exclamation. But only one tower--that nearer the -waves--throws its glare by night. Its companion behind has passed its -cycle of utility long since, but it has not been demolished because of -its unique history. It was built in 1789 with bricks and stones brought -from England. In shape it is a tapering octagonal cone, and when first -erected the waves almost washed its base. But the sea, which eats -away the rock and soft soil at some parts, casts this débris ashore -here, so that Cape Henry is slowly but surely thrusting its dismal -tongue of sand farther and farther into the Atlantic. The old tower -fulfilled faithful service until the seventies, when, being considered -too far from the water, it was superseded by the shaft rising from -the sand-dunes below. After a century’s service the old light was -extinguished, to permit the fixed white light of the first order in the -new tower to take its place. - -The new building, completed in 1881, is likewise octagonal in section, -gradually tapering from the base to the lantern gallery. It is built -upon what is described as the “double-shell principle,” there being two -iron cylinders, one within the other. It is 152 feet in height, and the -powerful white beam has a range of twenty miles, while a red beam is -cast from one side to mark a dangerous shoal. As a powerful flashing -white light of a similar character is shed from a tower on Cape Charles -opposite, the mariner has a well-illumined entrance into Chesapeake Bay. - -Ice was one of the great difficulties against which the American -lighthouse builders had to contend, and they laboured valiantly to -mitigate this evil. It caused more damage to their works than wind and -wave of the most terrifying violence. The upper reaches of the great -rivers are encased with thick ice throughout the winter. When the -spring comes round, this brittle armour is broken up, and, caught by -the current, is swept toward the ocean, the floes jostling and crashing -among one another. When the slightest obstruction is offered to their -free movement, the pieces mount one another, forming large hummocks, -and the pressure thus imposed is terrific. The “ice-shove,” when it -assumes large proportions, is quite capable of wreaking widespread -damage. - -When the screw-pile lighthouses came into vogue, this danger was -advanced as one of the greatest objections to the adoption of this -idea. It was pointed out that the ice would pack around the slender -legs, and either snap them, or would bring about such severe distortion -as to imperil the safety of the superstructure. When Major Hartman -Bache undertook the erection of the Brandywine Shoal light in Delaware -Bay, he determined to frustrate the effects of this peril. The light, -being eight miles from the ocean, was right in the path of the -ice-shoves of the Potomac, so the nine iron legs upon which the beacon -is supported--eight in a circle and one central--are protected by what -is known as an “ice-breaker.” This is a pier of thirty iron piles, -which likewise are screwed into the sea-bed. Each pile is 23 feet -long by 5 inches in diameter, and they are connected at their heads, -and at a point just above low-water, by what are known as “spider-web -braces.” The result is that, when a shock is inflicted upon one pile, -it is communicated throughout the entire breaker. This system has -proved entirely successful, and has protected the lighthouse within -completely. The main building, although subjected to heavy attacks by -the piled ice, has never been damaged thereby, although subsequently it -became necessary to strengthen the ice-breaker, because the onslaughts -of several winters had left their mark. - -Off the coast of Florida, and in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, this -type of lighthouse is very strongly in evidence, as it was found to be -the most suitable for the coral sea-bed. The most notable structure -of this class is the Fowey Rocks light, which rises, a flame-crowned -skeleton, from the extreme northern point of the Florida reefs. It is -in an exposed position, where inclement weather is often experienced. -At this point there is not more than 3 feet of water, and the spot is -as bad as a mariner could wish to avoid, for no ship could hope to -escape destruction once it became entangled in these submerged toils. - -The building of this light presented many perplexing difficulties, -the greatest of which was offered by the weather. The structure is -an octagonal pyramid, with the keepers’ quarters on a lower deck, -communication with the lantern being afforded by a winding staircase -encircling a vertical cylinder. The light is 110¼ feet above -high-water, of the fixed type, with red sectors guarding dangerous -shoals in the vicinity, while the white beams can be picked up some -eleven miles away. - -The integral parts of this building were prepared by three different -contractors, were fitted together, and the building set up temporarily, -on the mainland, so as to facilitate erection at the site. The work -was started in 1876, the first move being the provision of a platform -about 80 feet square and 12 feet above low-water, from which to conduct -operations. The lower piles were driven about 10 feet into the live -coral reef. Extreme care was observed during this operation, the pile -after every stroke of the driver being tested with a plumb-line, to -make sure that it was being sent home absolutely vertically. If it -diverged, however slightly, from the perpendicular, the error was -corrected immediately. When the piles had been driven to the requisite -depth, the tops were levelled to the height of the most deeply driven -pile; then the horizontal members were placed in position, followed by -the diagonal bracing. - -[Illustration: THE BONITA POINT LIGHTHOUSE OFF THE CALIFORNIAN COAST. - -While the tower is only 21 feet in height, its position on a lofty -cliff gives the light of 27,000 candle-power a range of 17 miles.] - -This task occupied some two months, and then a spell of bad weather -broke over the coast, interspersed with brief intervals of smooth -seas and calms. As the land depot was four miles away, this involved -frequent journeys to and fro for the workmen, who had to be brought -off the work upon the slightest sign of rough weather. To eliminate -the interruptions arising from this procedure, tents were despatched -to the site and pitched on the wooden platform, so that the men might -reside there. At times their situation was alarming; the heavy seas -rushed and tumbled among the piles beneath the crazy perch, and the men -were always on tenterhooks lest a hurricane, such as is experienced -often in this region, should bear down upon them and carry the whole -colony away. When work was in progress, they did not realize their -lonely, perilous position so much, since their minds were otherwise -occupied; but it was the enforced periods of idleness, often lasting -several days on end, which made them grow despondent, as they were -virtually imprisoned, and there was very little space in which to -obtain exercise. The material was brought out in lighters towed by a -steam-launch, on which steam was kept up day and night, because the -material had to be sent out at any moment when the conditions were -favourable. Again, this “standing by” was imperative, in case a sudden -call for assistance should be given by the little isolated community -when faced with disaster during a storm. When the men got the -keepers’ quarters completed, their minds became easier, as they were -now in possession of a more stable camp. The superstructure advanced at -a rapid rate, and the light was shown for the first time on June 15, -1878. - -Toil of a different character was associated with the building of -the Race Rock lighthouse, eight miles from New London, Connecticut. -This peril is a submerged ledge off Fisher’s Island Sound, and is of -formidable magnitude, since the ledge is at the mouth of the race, -where the waters, according to the tide, sweep along with great -velocity and force, while in heavy weather the waves get up high and -thunder with awful power. The main ledge bristles with ugly sharp -spurs, some of which rise above the main cluster, known as Race Rock, -which is about 3 feet below mean low-water. The situation of this -lurking danger called for the erection of an efficient beacon, though -not demanding a light of the calibre of Minot’s Ledge, because even in -rough weather the water does not mount in the form of thick curtains of -spray. A smaller and different type of light, therefore, was considered -to be adequate for the purpose. - -[Illustration: POINT PINOS LIGHT STATION, CALIFORNIA. - -This mariners’ friend has been tended by a woman for the past 30 years.] - -Even then, however, erection was not an easy matter by any means. -The velocity of the water and the submerged character of the reef -demanded the aid of divers to prepare the ledge-face and to complete -the foundations. The rock was levelled as much as possible by the aid -of small broken stone and riprap. On this a heavy circular stepped -plinth of solid mass-concrete was laid. This foundation is 9 feet in -thickness, and is disposed in four concentric layers, the lowermost of -which is 60 feet in diameter by 3 feet in thickness. The concrete was -laid in huge hoops of iron, of the desired height and diameter for the -respective layers, to prevent the mass from spreading. When this task -was completed, there was a level platform, as solid as the rock itself, -and projecting 8 inches above mean low-water. On this a conical stone -pier was built to a height of 30 feet, by 57 feet in diameter at the -base. The top was crowned with a projecting coping 55 feet in diameter. -The outer face of this pier is composed of massive blocks of stone -backed with concrete; while in its heart are the spaces for cisterns -and cellars. From one side of this pier stretches a short jetty, to -form a landing-place. - -[Illustration: THE FARALLON ROCK AND LIGHT. - -The light of 110,000 candle-power is placed on the highest peak of the -rock, 358 feet above the sea.] - -[Illustration: THE FARALLON LIGHTHOUSE OFF SAN FRANCISCO. - -Owing to the height of the rock, a tower 29 feet high was adequate to -carry the lantern and its equipment.] - -The lighthouse comprises a granite dwelling of two floors for the -accommodation of the keepers, from the centre of the front of which -rises a granite tower, square at the base, but round at the top, to -carry the lantern, the light of which, of the fourth order, is 67 -feet above mean high-water. The warning is an alternate flash of red -and white, with a ten seconds’ dark interval. For the protection of -the base of the pier, the ledge on all sides is covered with a thick -layer of boulders. The work was commenced in 1872, but, owing to its -difficult character, occupied six years. The Race Rock lost its terrors -for all time when the beam flashed out on the night of New Year’s Day, -1879. - -On the Pacific seaboard, while the American lighthouse engineers have -not been so active in regard to engineering work of an impressive -nature, owing to the more slender proportions of the maritime traffic, -they have accomplished some notable triumphs. The Tillamook Rock light, -described in the previous chapter, is the most important, and is to -the Pacific seaboard of the country what the Minot’s Ledge light is -to the Atlantic coast. The majority of the lights on the Pacific are -stationed on the mainland, or contiguous thereto. These beacons are -of more modern construction than those on the Atlantic shore, and in -some instances are very powerful. Pride of place in this respect is -shared between Point Arena and Cape Mendocino. The former, perched on -the cliff-shore of California, has a flashing group of two flashes of -3/8 second in five seconds, with eclipses of 1-1/8 and 4-1/8 seconds -respectively, thrown by its light of 1,000,000 candle-power over the -water for a radius of eighteen miles from a height of 155 feet. Cape -Mendocino light, on the same coastline, has the further distinction -of being the most elevated light on the United States Pacific coast, -the 340,000 candle-power beam being thrown for ten seconds once every -thirty seconds from an elevation of 422 feet. Although the tower -itself is only 20 feet in height, the cliff sheers up for 402 feet. -Consequently the flash may be detected from twenty-eight miles out to -sea in clear weather. - -On the other hand, the Point Cabrillo light, a few miles south, whose -flashing ray is of 650,000 candle-power, is picked up from a distance -of only fourteen miles, because the light is but 84 feet above mean -high-water. The Farallon beacon, comprising a tower 29 feet high -planted on the highest point of Farallon Island, off San Francisco, -comes a good second in point of elevation, as the 110,000 candle-power -flash, occurring for ten seconds once in every minute, is projected -from an altitude of 358 feet, and can be discerned twenty-six miles -away. For many years the Point Reyes light held the distinction of -being the loftiest beacon, since its flash of 160,000 candle-power -once every five seconds is shed from an elevation of 294 feet, but is -now relegated to third place in this respect. Taken on the whole, the -lights scattered along the rugged, lonely Pacific seaboard are far -more powerful than their contemporaries guarding busier shipping on -the eastern coast of the country; but whereas the latter are placed -somewhat close together, the former are spaced far apart. - -[Illustration: THE PUNTA GORDA LIGHT STATION, CALIFORNIA. - -One of the latest built by the United States. Commodious and handsome -buildings are provided for the wardens of this light.] - -There are some points which, while being so extremely perilous to -the mariner as to demand the provision of a lighthouse, yet cannot -be guarded at present. The peculiarity of their situations and their -physical characteristics completely defy the ingenuity, skill, and -resource, of the engineer. Cape Hatteras, perhaps, is the most forcible -illustration of this defeat of science by Nature. The sea-bed for miles -off this point is littered with the most treacherous sandbanks, beside -which the Goodwins of Britain appear insignificant. Every seafarer -knows the Diamond Shoals, and gives them a wider berth than any other -danger spot in the seven seas. For some seven and a half miles out -to sea from the prominent headland, the Atlantic, according to its -mood, bubbles, boils, or rolls calmly, over shoals and serried rows -of submerged banks. The currents are wild and frantic; the storms -which rage off this point are difficult to equal in any other part of -the world; and the number of ships which have gone to pieces or have -been abandoned to their fate in these inhospitable stretches of sea is -incalculable. - -Time after time the engineers have sought to subjugate this danger, -but without avail. The sea-bed is so soft and absorbing that a firm -foundation for a tower defies discovery. One brilliant attempt was made -to sink a caisson, similar to that employed for the famous Rothersand -light in the River Weser. The mammoth structure was built, and with -extreme difficulty was towed out to the selected site. But the seas -roared against this attempt to deprive them of their prey. They -bore down upon the caisson and smashed it to fragments, causing the -engineers to retire from the scene thoroughly discomfited. When a huge -mass, weighing several hundred tons, could be broken up by the maddened -seas so easily, of what avail were the knowledge and effort of man? The -Diamond Shoals still resist conquest. The only means of warning ships -of their presence is a lightship moored well out beyond the pale of -their sucking embrace. - -At the present time the United States Lighthouse Board mounts guard -over 17,695 miles of coastline. This aggregate embraces, not only -the two seaboards of the North American continent, but sections of -the Great Lakes, the Philippines, Alaska, Hawaiian Islands, and the -American Samoan Islands, the total detailed coast or channel line being -no less than 48,881 miles. In order to guide the mariner on his way -through waters over which the Stars and Stripes wave, no less than -12,150 lights of all descriptions are required, demanding the services -of an army of 5,582 men and women; while the cost of maintenance -exceeds £1,200,000, or $6,000,000, per annum. Seeing that the country -levies no tolls for services rendered in this connection, the shipping -community, and humanity in general, owe a deep debt of gratitude to a -powerful nation. - -The United States share with Great Britain, Austria, Belgium, Spain, -France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Sweden, the expense of maintaining -a lighthouse which is situate on the property of none of them. This is -a kind of no man’s, and yet it is every man’s, light. The beacon is not -located in an out-of-the-way part of the world, such as the Arctic Sea, -as might be supposed, but mounts guard over one of the busiest marine -thoroughfares of the globe--the western entrance to the Mediterranean. -This unique light is that of Cape Spartel, on the Moroccan coast. While -it was built at the expense of Morocco, the responsibility for its -maintenance was assumed by the foregoing Powers, in accordance with -the convention of March 12, 1867, which has remained in force since. -There is no other light upon the seven seas which has so many Powers -concerned in its welfare and maintenance. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -THE LAMP-POSTS OF THE GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA - - -On the North American continent the efficient lighting of the coasts -washed by two salt oceans is only one, although the most important, -concern of the United States and Canadian Governments. In addition each -has a long stretch of rugged, tortuous shore hemming in those capacious -depressions draining a vast tract of country, and known generally as -the Great Lakes. These unsalted seas are rightly named, seeing that -they constitute the largest sheets of fresh water on the inhabited -globe. - -The responsibility of safeguarding the navigator as he makes his way -across these wastes is shared equally by the two countries which they -divide, with one exception. This is Lake Michigan, which lies entirely -within the United States. The narrow necks of water which link these -lakes into one long chain likewise are lighted by the two nations. -For some years the Lower Detroit River, connecting Lakes Erie and St. -Clair, was maintained for the most part by the United States, but -the practice was not satisfactory; so, as the result of a conference -between the two Governments, Canada assumed charge of the aids in -certain specified portions of the navigable channel lying entirely in -Canadian waters. The result of this new arrangement has been the better -patrolling of the waterway. - -The water-borne commerce on these lakes, although possible for only -half the year, is tremendous, while navigation is extremely difficult -and beset with innumerable dangers.[B] The different means whereby a -ship is handled and maintained on its course upon the salt-water ocean -are not completely applicable in this case. The greater number of the -boats are freighters and engaged in the transport of ore, which, from -its metallic character, is apt to disturb the compass, rendering it -somewhat unreliable. Nor is the lead of much avail in thick weather, -as the lake-bed varies suddenly from comparative shallowness to great -depths. Navigation on these lakes has been likened to coastal traffic, -only with land on both sides of the mariner, and the intervals when -the ship is out of sight of the shoreline are comparatively brief. -Accordingly, the captain picks his way rather by the aid of landmarks, -and the vessels are fitted with a bowsprit, to give the master a point -whereby to judge his direction. But landmarks, however conspicuous and -trustworthy they may be by day and in clear weather, are useless at -night and in fog, to which latter visitation, by the way, these waters -are extremely susceptible. - - [B] For a full description of the marine traffic on the Great - Lakes, see “The Steamship Conquest of the World,” chapter - ix., p. 119. - -Steamship traffic cannot be carried on with financial success by -daylight and in fair weather only, so it became necessary to distribute -beacons around the indented shores. This procedure was rendered -additionally necessary owing to the formidable character of many of the -dangers besetting navigation, in the form of shoals, projecting ridges, -and submerged reefs, quite as terrifying to the master of a fresh-water -ship as similar dangers on an ocean-swept coast. - -At the same time, however, one would not expect to find examples of -lighthouse engineering comparable with the great sea-rock lights -rearing above the ocean, such as the Minot’s Ledge, Dhu-Heartach, or -Bishop’s Rock. On the other hand, the uninitiated might conclude that -buoys and small lights, such as indicate the entrance to harbours, -would fulfil requirements. So they would but for two or three adverse -factors. These lakes are ravaged at times by storms of great violence, -which burst with startling suddenness. Fogs also are of frequent -occurrence, especially in the spring and autumn, often descending -and lifting instantly like a thick blanket of cloud. But the most -implacable enemy is the ice. The engineer can design a tower which will -withstand the most savage onslaughts of wind and wave with comparative -ease, at, relatively speaking, little expense; but the ice introduces -another factor which scarcely can be calculated. The whole of these -lakes are frozen over during the winter to such a thickness as to defy -all efforts to cut a channel, becoming, in fact, as solid as terra -firma. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -A LIGHTHOUSE ON THE GREAT LAKES IN THE GRIP OF WINTER. - -This tower marks the Racine Reef in 20 feet of water near the entrance -to Racine Harbour on the west coast of Lake Michigan.] - -In the spring this armour cracks and breaks up like glass shattered -with a hammer. It then becomes the sport of the currents, which in -many places sweep and swirl with enormous force round the headlands -and spits projecting into the lake. This action sets the ice moving -in stately majesty, but crushing everything that rears in its way, or -piling and breaking against the obstruction. Ice-shoves, ice-jams, -and ice-runs, are the three forces against which the engineer has to -contend, and at places his efforts are so puny as to be useless. The -ice, if it collects across one of the outlets so as to form a massive -dam reaching to the lake-bed, immediately causes the level of the -lake to rise; and when at last the barrage breaks, then the water is -released in a mad rush. - -Lighthouse building on the Great Lakes demands the highest skill, -incalculable ingenuity, and the soundest of design and workmanship. -Consequently, some of the guardian lights distributed around these -shores, such as Spectacle Reef, the Rock of Ages, Colchester, and Red -Rock lighthouses, are striking evidences of the engineer’s handiwork. -Of course, where the land presses in on either hand, transforming -the waterway into a kind of canal, or where the shore is free from -submerged obstructions, the type of lighthouse on either shore follows -the wooden frame dwelling with a low tower, as it is completely -adequate for the purpose. - -The one erection, however, which commands the greatest attention is -the Spectacle Reef light, which has been called the Eddystone, or -Minot’s Ledge, of the Lakes. In its way it was quite as bold an -undertaking as either of these far-famed works, and in some respects -was far more difficult to carry out, although the builder was spared -the capriciousness and extreme restlessness of tidal waters. Spectacle -Reef lighthouse rears its tapering head from a particularly dangerous -reef in an awkward corner of Lake Huron, where commences the Strait of -Mackinac, leading to Lake Michigan. The spot is dangerous, because it -is covered by about 7 feet of water; awkward, because it occurs about -ten and a half miles off the nearest land, which is Bois Blanc Island. -The reef in reality comprises two shoals, which lie in such relation -to one another as to suggest a pair of spectacles--hence the name. As -it is exposed to 170 miles of open sea on one side, when these waters -are roused the rollers hammer on the reef with terrible violence, while -at times the currents skirl by at a velocity of two or three miles per -hour, and the ice in its movement grinds, piles, and grates itself upon -the reef in impotent fury. When this ice is forced forward with the -push exerted by the currents, the pressure is tremendous and the force -wellnigh irresistible. - -When the lighthouse was projected, it was realized that it would have -to be of massive proportions and provided with adequate measures to -protect it from the assault and battering of the ice. The task was -undertaken by General O. M. Poe, who was engineer-in-chief to General -Sherman on his historic march to the sea. This engineer decided to -take the Minot’s Ledge monolithic structure as his model, seeing -that the latter had withstood the savage onslaughts of the Atlantic. -Fortunately, the foundations were of an excellent character, the reef -being formed of hard limestone. - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson._ - -BUILDING THE BARRE À BOULARD LIGHT IN THE RIVER ST. LAWRENCE. - -Owing to the severity of the ice piling in this waterway, the -structures have to be provided with massive foundations.] - -The engineer selected as the site for the tower a point where the -ridge is submerged by 11 feet of water. Seeing that the base was to be -laid under water, obviously it seemed to be an operation for divers; -but General Poe prepared a superior means of getting the subaqueous -foundations laid. He built a cofferdam around the site, and, as the -work would have to be protected from the winter ice, he built another -cofferdam, entirely for protective purposes, outside the former. The -nearest point on the mainland where he could establish a depot was -Scammon’s Harbour, some sixteen miles away, and here everything in -connection with the work was prepared and shipped to the site ready for -placing in position. - -The protective work comprised a wooden pier, built up of timbers 12 -inches square, 24 feet in height. This structure was divided into a -series of vertical compartments on all four sides, leaving a clear -internal space 48 feet square. The outer compartments or pockets were -filled with stone, to secure solidity and stability. Landing facilities -were provided on this pier, together with quarters for the men engaged -in the construction work. - -In the inner space, containing 48 square feet of still water, the -cofferdam, in which the subaqueous work was to be carried out, was -lowered. This structure was cylindrical in form. It was built up -of staves, banded with heavy hoops of iron, so that in reality it -resembled a huge barrel 36 feet across. It was fashioned at the site, -being built while suspended directly over the spot on which it was to -be lowered. When the tub was finished, loosely twisted oakum, 1½ inches -thick, was nailed all round the lower edge, while a flap of heavy -canvas was secured to the outside bottom rim in such a way as to leave -36 inches dangling free. The exact circular shape of the cofferdam was -insured by liberal cross-bracing from a central vertical post, which -constituted the axis of the barrel, corresponding to the vertical axis -of the tower. While this work was in progress, the face of the rock -was cleared of loose boulders, and then the cofferdam was lowered -bodily with extreme care, so that it descended with unerring accuracy -perpendicularly into the water, to come to rest over the desired spot. -As the surface of the reef was very uneven, the cofferdam stopped when -it reached the highest projection under its edge. Then each stave of -the barrel was driven downwards until it came to rest upon the sea-bed, -and, as the oakum rope was forced down likewise, this served to act -as caulking. The outer flap of canvas, when the cofferdam was driven -right home, spread out on all sides, and lay upon the surface of the -reef. - -Pumps capable of discharging 5,000 gallons per minute then were set -to work, removing the water from within the cofferdam. The oakum -rope seal prevented the water regaining the internal space under the -bottom edge of the tub, while the canvas assisted in securing absolute -water-tightness, because the outer water-pressure forced it into all -the nooks and crevices. - -By these means the workmen were given an absolutely dry space in which -to carry out their erecting work. The face of the reef was cleaned -and levelled off, and the first layer of stones was laid. These were -first fitted temporarily upon a false platform on shore, so that when -they reached the site they could be set at once without finicking. The -bottom layer is 32 feet in diameter, and the tower is solid to a height -of 34 feet above the rock. The stones are each 2 feet in thickness, -and are secured to one another on all sides with wrought-iron bolts, -24 inches long by 2½ inches in diameter; while the tower is anchored -to the rock by cement and bolts 3 feet long, driven through the bottom -course into the real rock beneath, entering the latter to a depth of 21 -inches. Liquid cement was driven into the holes so as to fill up all -the remaining interstices, and this now has become as hard as the stone -itself. - -The exterior of the tower is the frustum of a cone, and at 80 feet -above the base is 18 feet in diameter. The total height of the masonry -is 93 feet, and the focal plane is brought 97¼ feet above the rock, -or 86¼ feet above the water-level. The tower is provided with five -rooms, each 14 feet in diameter, while the entrance is 23 feet above -the water. The undertaking was commenced in May, 1870, and the light -was shown first in June, 1874. As work had been confined to the summer -months, and a fortnight every spring was devoted to preparations, as -well as an equal period in the autumn to making all fast to withstand -the rigours of winter, the total working period was only some twenty -months. - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson._ - -COLCHESTER REEF LIGHTHOUSE, LAKE ERIE. - -An isolated station maintained by the Canadian Government. It is a -fixed light, visible throughout a circle of 16 miles radius.] - -The protection against the ice has proved its value completely. The -ice as it moves becomes crushed against the defence, and then has -its advance impeded by the shoal upon which it grinds and packs, to -form in itself a barrier and ice-breaker against other approaching -ice-fields. This structure was soon submitted to a stern test to prove -its efficacy. In the spring of 1875, when the keepers returned to -the lighthouse--the light, in common with all other beacons guarding -the Great Lakes, is shut down during the winter, when navigation is -closed--they found the tower unapproachable. The ice-shove had jammed, -packed, and been frozen into a solid berg to a height of 30 feet, of -which the tower itself formed the core. The doorway was buried to a -depth of 7 feet, and the keepers had to carve their way with pickaxes -to the entrance. - -Owing to the success of the design for the Spectacle Reef lighthouse, -which ranks as a striking engineering achievement, it was adopted for -the Stannard’s Rock tower. This ledge rises from the water 28 feet -from shore, and the plant and tackle which were employed in connection -with the first-named structure were utilized in this undertaking. The -tower is 191 feet in height, and the light can be seen for about twenty -miles. During the past two or three years the United States Government -has erected two other noble lighthouses in Lakes Superior and Michigan. -The first warns all and sundry off a rock having three ugly pinnacles -projecting above the water, and known as the “Rock of Ages.” This -danger stands right in the steamship tracks between Port Arthur and -Duluth, off the western end of Isle Royale. The engineers selected one -of the pinnacles as the base for the tower, decapitating the projection -to 12 inches above mean low-water, so as to secure a sufficiently -large and level plinth. On this bed a cylindrical foundation pier, of -massive proportions and strength so as to withstand the ice action, was -planted, to support a lofty tower in reinforced concrete. The building -has seven floors, one being set aside for housing the two twenty-four -horse-power oil-engines which are used to drive the air-compressors -for the fog-siren. The light is 125 feet above water-level, and -gives a double flash at ten-second intervals, which can be picked up -twenty-one miles away. This tower was erected in a very short time, -the work, commenced in May, 1907, being completed, except for the -installation of the permanent lens, thirteen months later. The optical -apparatus was fixed and the light shown first on September 15, 1910. - -The second light has been placed on White Shoal, at the north end -of Lake Michigan, and supersedes a lightship which fulfilled all -requirements for many years. The shoal is exceptionally dangerous, and -the crowded character of the shipping demanded the installation of a -more powerful light and fog-signal. The structure is a striking piece -of work, comprising a steel cylindrical tower, or shell, lined on the -inside with brick and faced externally with terra-cotta--an unusual -material for lighthouse construction. The superstructure is built -upon a massive concrete pier, about 70 feet square, rising 20 feet -above water-level, this being borne in turn upon a heavy stone-filled -timber crib laid on a block-stone foundation, the whole being protected -thoroughly with riprap. The lantern is of the second flashing order, -with the focal plane 125 feet above the lake-level, and the 65,000 -candle-power ray is visible twenty-five miles away. The tower is -fitted with a duplicate plant of twenty-four horse-power oil-engines -and air-compressors, operating an eight-inch whistle; and there is -also an electrically-operated submarine bell, the power for which is -generated by an independent oil-engine, the bell being operated from -the engine-room. This station is equipped also with a compressed air -water-supply system and a motor-boat. - -[Illustration: THE LATEST DEVELOPMENT IN LIGHTHOUSE ENGINEERING. - -Building the hexagonal tower on Caribou Island, Lake Superior, upon the -lines evolved by Lieut.-Col. W. P. Anderson, the chief engineer to the -Canadian Lighthouse Department.] - -Owing to the peculiar prevailing conditions, the provision of adequate -beacons upon the Great Lakes is highly expensive. Up to the year -1883 more money had been devoted to the lighting of the shoreline of -Lake Michigan than to the illumination of any ocean or gulf in any -other State in the country. The total expenditure up to the above -year exceeded £470,000, or $2,350,000. The Spectacle Reef light -was considered cheap at £75,000, or $375,000; and the Stannard Rock -lighthouse, owing to the plant and other facilities being available -from the foregoing work, cost £60,000, or $300,000. By the time the -“Rock of Ages” tower threw its light, £27,649, or $138,245, had been -sunk; and the White Shoals lighthouse absorbed £50,000, or $250,000. - -The Canadian Government, too, has completed some notable works upon -the Great Lakes during recent years. In Lake Erie, in the fairway of -passing traffic, is a ledge known as Colchester Reef, on the south-east -edge of which a lighthouse, one of the most isolated in Canadian -waters, has been placed. The circular stone pier is built in 14 feet of -water, and the lighthouse, comprising a two-story dwelling and tower, -supports the beacon 60 feet above the lake. The light is a fixed white, -of the third dioptric order, visible throughout a circle of fourteen -miles radius. - -At the entrance to Parry Sound, on a convenient site offered by the -solid granite mass of Red Rock, a new lighthouse was constructed in -1911. This was the third beacon placed at this point, the two previous -lights dating from 1870 and 1881 respectively. It is a particularly bad -spot, since the waters of Georgian Bay have a free run, so that the -rock experiences the full hammering of the sea. The beacon comprises a -reinforced concrete building, nearly elliptical in section, supported -upon a heavy stone foundation, which is encased in steel, and which is -12 feet high. The tower has a height of 57 feet, bringing the occulting -flash of twelve seconds, with an eclipse of four seconds, 60 feet above -the water. This station is also equipped with a powerful diaphone. The -keepers of this light experience exciting times, as in a furious gale, -such as the lakes only can produce, the waves frequently crash over the -building. - -Another fine light in the stretch of these waters under Canadian -jurisdiction is found about halfway across Lake Superior, where -Caribou Island thrusts its scrub-clothed hump above the water, almost -directly in the path of the vessels running between Sault Ste. Marie -and Sarnia. This magnificent structure, placed on a small islet lying -off the main island, is built in ferro-concrete, in accordance with -Lieutenant-Colonel Anderson’s latest ideas, and was opened for service -in 1912. It is of hexagonal shape, with six flying buttresses, and the -focal plane is brought 99 feet above the water-level, so that the white -flash of half a second may be seen all round from a distance of fifteen -miles. - -The steamship lanes across the Great Lakes are now well lighted. Canada -alone maintains over 460 lights of all descriptions throughout its -waters between the eastern extremity of Lake Ontario and the head of -Lake Superior at Port Arthur. The United States authorities watch over -694 attended and unattended aids to navigation in the same seas, of -which total 152 are scattered around the coastline of Lake Michigan. -The mariner in these fresh-water oceans, consequently, has a round -thousand lights to guide him on his way, and the number is being -steadily increased to keep pace with the growth of the traffic, so that -these seas may become regarded as the safest and best protected in the -world. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -THE MOST POWERFUL ELECTRIC LIGHTHOUSES OF THE WORLD - - -In a previous chapter I have mentioned that, although oil is the most -popular form of illuminant in lighthouse engineering, electricity is -maintained to be preferable, but labours under one heavy disadvantage -which militates against its more general adoption. It is expensive -to install and to maintain. Under these circumstances the system has -been restricted to lights of the most important character, preferably -landfalls or beacons indicating the entrance to a harbour. Thus, we -have the Lizard at the entrance to the English Channel; St. Catherine’s -on the Isle of Wight; the Rothersand at the entrance to the Weser; the -Heligoland flaring over the island of that name; the Isle of May at the -entrance to the Firth of Forth; Cape Héve near Havre; and the Navesink -light on the highlands of the New Jersey coast, to guide the mariner -into New York harbour. - -The first attempt to apply electricity to lighthouse illumination -was made in the year 1859, by the Trinity Brethren, on the strong -recommendations of Professor Faraday, who was then scientific adviser -to the British lighthouse authorities. The South Foreland light was -selected for the experiments, and the magneto-electric machine invented -by Professor Holmes, who subsequently perfected the siren, was used. - -The installation was built with extreme care, as the imperative -necessity of reliability, owing to the peculiar nature of the -application, was recognized very fully. The large wheels made -eighty-five revolutions per minute, and at this speed produced a very -steady light. On a clear night, owing to the elevation of the cliff -the light was visible for over twenty-seven miles, and could be -descried readily from the upper galleries of the lighthouses on the -opposite French shore. In order to determine the relative value of -electric lighting in comparison with the other methods of illumination -then in vogue, another light emitted by an oil-lamp, with reflectors -characteristic of the period, was burned simultaneously from a point -below the top light, so that passing mariners were able to compare the -two systems of illumination under identical conditions. - -The French lighthouse authorities were not dilatory in adopting the -new idea, and electricity was installed in the Cape Héve lighthouse in -1863. The light was brilliant for those times, being approximately of -60,000 candle-power. The French investigators then embarked upon an -elaborate series of experiments, and in 1881 an electric light of about -1,270,000 candle-power was established at the Planier lighthouse, near -Marseilles. The investigations culminated in the great achievement of -M. Bourdelles, who, while engineer-in-chief of the Service des Phares, -designed a new electric installation for the Cape Héve light, of -25,000,000 candle-power. - -Meantime British engineers had not been idle. In 1871 Messrs. -Stevenson, the engineers-in-chief to the Commissioners of Northern -Lighthouses, advocated strongly the establishment of an electric light -upon the Scottish coast; but it was not until 1883 that the Board of -Trade sanctioned the sum necessary to complete such an enterprise, -and suggested that the innovation should be made at the Isle of May -lighthouse, as being the most important on the East Scottish coast. - -This is one of the historic light-stations of Scotland. Lying in -the Firth of Forth, five miles off the Fifeshire shore, the islet -obstructs a busy marine thoroughfare. For 276 years a light has gleamed -from its summit, the change from the coal fire to Argand lamps with -reflectors having been made by Thomas Smith, the first engineer to -the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses, when this body assumed its -control in 1816. Twenty years later it was converted to the dioptric -system, with a first-order fixed light apparatus having a four-wick -burner. This arrangement was in service for half a century, when it -was converted to electricity in conjunction with a dioptric condensing -apparatus. - -The electric installation was designed throughout by Messrs. Stevenson, -and it possesses many ingenious and novel features to this day, while -it was the pioneer of modern electric lighting systems as applied to -lighthouse engineering. Although marked improvements have been effected -in electrical engineering and science since its completion, it still -ranks as one of, if not the, most powerful electric lighthouses in the -world. The beacon is a prominent edifice on the summit of the island. -The building is somewhat pretentious, rather resembling a battlemented -castle than a warning for the mariner, the optical apparatus being -housed in a square turret rising above the main part of the building. -When electric illumination was adopted, the existing accommodation for -three keepers was found insufficient, while a generating-station was -necessary. Instead of extending the old building to accommodate the -additional facilities, a second station was built at a low-lying point -near the sea-level. This contains the engine and generating house, -together with quarters for three more keepers and their families. This -decision was made because at this point, 810 feet away and 175 feet -below the lighthouse, there is a small fresh-water loch whence water -is available for the boilers and condensers, while a marked saving in -the cost of handling fuel as well as of the haulage of the building -materials and machinery was feasible. The current is led from the -power-house to the lighthouse by means of overhead copper conductors. - -Some difficulty was experienced in securing electrical apparatus -suited to the searching exigencies of lighthouse engineering, and the -designers made one stipulation, which at first appeared to baffle -fulfilment. This was the placing of the positive carbon below, instead -of above, so as to enable the strongest light to be thrown upwards, to -be dealt with by the upper part of the dioptric apparatus, whereby it -could be used more effectively. One firm struggled with this problem -for many months, and then was compelled to admit defeat, as time for -further experimenting was unavailable, since the lighthouse was almost -completed. Accordingly, the designing engineers had to revise their -plans, and had to acquire alternate-current De Meriten machines, -which, although more expensive and less powerful than those originally -intended, yet were, and are still, wonderfully steady in working, while -they had previously proved highly efficient for lighthouse service. -Two generators of this description were secured, and they constituted -the largest that had been made up to this period, each plant weighing -about 4½ tons. Each machine has sixty permanent magnets, disposed in -five sets of twelve each, while each magnet is made up of eight steel -plates. The armature makes 600 revolutions per minute, and develops an -average current of 220 ampères. - -The installation is so designed that one-, two-, three-, or -four-fifths, or the whole, of the current can be sent from each unit to -the distributor for transmission to the lantern, or the two machines -may be coupled and the full current from both utilized. The current is -conveyed to the lantern through copper rods 1 inch in diameter, and -this was the first occasion on which such conductors were utilized for -lighthouse work. There are three lamps of a modified Serrin-Berjot -type, one being in service, and the other two held in reserve. By -means of a by-pass, or shunt, a large percentage of the current is -sent direct to the lower carbon, only a sufficient amount to regulate -the carbons being sent through the lamp. The carbons used are about 1½ -inches in diameter, though two-inch carbons can be employed when both -machines are running, and the rate of consumption is 1¼ inches, or, -including waste, 2 inches, per hour. The power of the arc thus obtained -with the current fed from one generator is between 12,000 and 16,000 -candles. In the event of the electric installation breaking down, a -three-wick paraffin oil lamp is kept in reserve, ready for instant -service, and it can be brought into use within three minutes. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of Messrs. Siemens Bros. & Co., Ltd._ - -THE ELECTRIC SEARCHLIGHTS OF THE HELIGOLAND LIGHTHOUSE. - -On the lower level are three projectors spaced 120 degrees apart. Above -is a fourth searchlight revolving three times as rapidly as those -below.] - -The dioptric apparatus, designed by Messrs. Stevenson, and manufactured -by Messrs. Chance Brothers and Co. of Birmingham, is of a novel -character, inasmuch as the condensing principle has been carried to a -pronounced degree. The light characteristic is four brilliant flashes -in quick succession every thirty seconds. The lenticular apparatus -also includes the ingenious idea advocated by Mr. Thomas Stevenson, an -earlier engineer-in-chief to the Northern Commissioners and perhaps the -greatest authority on lighthouse optical engineering, whereby the light -may be dipped during a fog. Thus, in clear weather the strongest part -of the ray may be directed to the horizon, while in thick weather it -can be brought to bear upon a point, say, four or five miles away. The -flashes are produced by a revolving cage of straight vertical prisms, -which enclose the fixed-light apparatus. This cage makes one complete -revolution every minute, the rotary movement being secured through a -train of wheels and a weight, which has a fall of 60 feet in a tube -extending vertically through the centre of the tower, the mechanism -being wound up once an hour by manual effort. - -The beam of light obtained by the aid of electricity is of intense -brilliancy and penetration. Its equivalent in candle-power is somewhat -difficult to determine, because the methods of calculation are -somewhat arbitrary and misleading. By their own method of calculation, -the engineers responsible for the installation rate it at 3,000,000 -candle-power with one generator in use, and 6,000,000 candle-power when -both are going. This is from 300 to 600 times as intense as the oil -light which was superseded. By another method of calculation the beam -is of 26,000,000 candle-power, while another principle of rating brings -it to upwards of 50,000,000 candle-power. In clear weather the light -has a range of twenty-two miles, being indistinguishable at a greater -distance, owing to the curvature of the earth; but the flashes of -light illuminating the clouds overhead may be picked up forty or fifty -miles away. The total cost of electrifying the Isle of May light -was £15,835, or $79,175; while the annual cost of maintenance is over -£1,000, or $5,000. - -The most famous English electric lighthouse is that of St. Catherine’s, -in the Isle of Wight. This point, like the Isle of May, has been a -beacon for centuries. Its creation for this work even antedates its -northern contemporary, because in the fourteenth century a chantry was -built by a benevolent knight on the highest point of St. Catherine’s -Downs, who furthermore provided an endowment for a priest “who should -chant Masses and maintain a burning light at night for the safety of -mariners.” But this protection fell into desuetude. - -The station, however, was revived upon the old site in 1785, but it -had to be abandoned, because it was found to be built at too high -an elevation. It was so often enveloped in fog as to be useless, or -at least unreliable, to the seafarer. A new tower, accordingly, was -erected at a lower level, and brought into service in 1840, the warning -rays being thrown from a height of 134 feet above the water. Oil was -used with a burner of six rings, the light being officially known as a -“fixed oil light of the first class,” while the beam was diffused over -an arc of 240 degrees. In the middle eighties the Brethren of Trinity -House decided to bring it up to date, and selected electricity as the -illuminant, at the same time changing the light from the fixed to the -revolving class, with a five-second flash once every thirty seconds. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of Messrs. Siemens Bros. & Co., Ltd._ - -THE HELIGOLAND LIGHTHOUSE. - -One of the most powerful electric beacons in the world. Its maximum -candle-power is 43,000,000.] - -The installation is not widely dissimilar from that used at the Isle -of May. It comprises two De Meriten dynamos in duplicate, while the -lamps are of the modified Serrin-Berjot type, using carbons, not of -circular section, but with fluted sides. This shape was introduced by -Sir James Douglass, who contended that the former type did not produce -the requisite candle-like steadiness of the flame so essential to -lighthouse illumination. The dioptric apparatus was of the sixteen -panel type, so that the rays were thrown out in sixteen brilliantly -white horizontal spokes. To one approaching the lighthouse at -night-time, the effect in the sky was somewhat curious. It recalled a -huge and illuminated cart wheel or Catherine wheel, lying flat on its -side, throwing its rays to all points of the compass in a steadily -moving circle. This practice had been borrowed from the French, who -went so far as to introduce a twenty-four panel system, and, as in -France, the St. Catherine’s light, when first brought into service, was -not a complete success. The French considered that, by distributing the -light through as many panels as possible, the question of bringing the -flashes into action at short intervals would be facilitated, ignoring -the fact that by so doing the intensity of each ray was impoverished. -In other words, with the twenty-four panel light each panel only -received and threw out one-twenty-fourth part of the volume of light -emitted by the arc. Similarly, in the St. Catherine’s light only -one-sixteenth part of the light produced was thrown through each panel. -A few years ago the optical system was replaced by an apparatus having -fewer panels. The light thrown from the Isle of Wight pharos, with its -beam exceeding 5,000,000 candle-power, represents a marked advance upon -the oil light which it displaced, and certainly it ranks as the most -brilliant light in the English Channel. - -A few years ago another magnificent light was brought into service in -the North Sea by the installation of electricity in the lighthouse -of Heligoland. With characteristic Teuton thoroughness, the Germans -discussed the question of the illuminant for this beacon in all its -bearings, and resolved to introduce the most powerful light possible. -This decision was influenced by the dangerous character of the waters -washing the island, as it is flanked on all sides by highly perilous -ridges and sandbanks, which must become accentuated owing to the heavy -sea-erosion that prevails. - -The German authorities investigated the various electrical -installations that had been laid down for lighthouse work, with a view -to discovering the most suitable system, the advantages and defects -of existing electric lights, and how the drawbacks might be overcome -most successfully. Meantime the famous Siemens firm discovered a means -of grinding glass mirrors into parabolic form, and this discovery was -accepted as the solution to the problem. - -In this type of mirror the back is silvered. The metallic polished -surface is protected completely from mechanical injury and from all -possibility of tarnishing. The inventors claim that mirrors so prepared -are able to compete successfully with lenses and totally reflecting -prisms--in fact, it was maintained that the silvered glass parabolic -mirror possessed the advantages of greater reflecting power and -enhanced accuracy, with less divergence of the beam of light. - -Owing to the perfection of the lenses and prisms system of lighthouse -optics, the introduction of arc lights in conjunction with parabolic -mirrors was received with considerable hesitation. In order to dispel -these doubts, the above-mentioned firm forthwith embarked upon an -elaborate series of comparative tests at Nuremberg to ascertain the -relative value of the two systems, and as a result of these experiments -they concluded that quite as good an effect is obtainable with the arc -and parabolic mirror as with the best examples of any other method. - -Accordingly, the authorities decided to install the system in the -Heligoland lighthouse. They stipulated that the intensity of the beam -of light should be at least 30,000,000 candle-power, with a maximum -current of 100 ampères. The duration of the flash was to be one-tenth -of a second, followed by eclipses of five seconds’ duration. - -The electrical engineering firm entrusted with the contract fulfilled -these conditions by mounting three searchlights spaced 120 degrees -apart upon a rotating platform. That is to say, each light is projected -outwards from a point equal to a third of the circumference of a -circle. The mirror diameter was settled at 75 centimetres (29½ inches) -and the focal length at 250 millimetres (10 inches), the current being -taken at 34 ampères when the table made four revolutions per minute. - -Subsequently a fourth searchlight was introduced into the apparatus, -for the purpose of practical experiments and observations concerning -the duration of the light-flash. This fourth unit was mounted above the -three searchlights, but in the axis itself. It is so disposed that its -flash comes midway between any of the two below, and it is arranged to -rotate three times as quickly as the main group of lights. Accordingly, -the duration of the flash thrown from the fourth searchlight is only -one-third of the flash thrown by the others--that is, one-thirtieth of -a second. This lamp is provided with all the necessary mechanism for -keeping it in steady rotation at the increased speed, and for drawing -current from its feed-cable. - -Before the installation was placed in the lighthouse at Heligoland, -it was submitted to searching tests at the Nuremberg works of the -builders. These trials proved that with a current of only 26 ampères -the average intensity was as high as 34,000,000 candle-power, with a -maximum of nearly 40,000,000 candle-power; while with 34 ampères the -average intensity rose to approximately 40,000,000, with a maximum of -nearly 43,000,000 candle-power. Accordingly, the terms of the contract -were fulfilled completely. - -The searchlights throw their rays from a massive conical tower, the -focal plane of which is 272 feet above sea-level. In average weather -the rays are visible at a distance of twenty-three nautical miles, and -under the most advantageous weather conditions visibility is limited -only by the curvature of the earth, although on a clear night the -light is seen from Büsun, which is about thirty-five miles away. The -Heligoland electric light ranks as a remarkable development in the -application of electricity to lighthouse illumination, but it never has -been duplicated. The cost of maintenance--about £1,400, or $8,000, per -annum--is an insuperable handicap. - -On the other hand, the Hornum electric light, which is the most modern -of its type in Germany, is more economical, although by no means so -powerful. The tower is of cast-steel, and carries two electric lights; -while about half a mile distant is a second tower, which throws a -third electric light. In the main tower, on the ground floor, is -installed the electric generating plant (in duplicate), together with -all accessories, such as switchboards, etc. The floor above is devoted -to housing 100 accumulators, which are charged during the day. This -task can be completed by one generating set in about six hours. A -single charge is sufficient to keep the three lights going for ten or -eleven hours, and the lights are controlled by a simple throw-over -switch. By this arrangement the cost of the maintenance of the light is -reduced very appreciably, as only one keeper is on duty at a time, the -station being equipped with two men, who have proved adequate for the -purpose. - -Above the accumulator-room is the storeroom and a general workshop, -followed by a bedroom and above that the service-room. As only one -keeper is on duty at a time, he is provided with ample devices whereby -he can summon his comrade in times of emergency; the generating -machinery is also controllable from this floor. From the service-room -the lower light-room is entered. This is a secondary or back light -in the range, the front light being in the tower half a mile away. -Each of these two light-rooms is fitted with two 150 candle-power -incandescent electric lights, but only one is burned in each set at a -time: the second is a reserve. Should the light in action fail from -any cause, although the keeper is warned of the occurrence, he does -not have to stir a finger to bring the reserve light into service. -The short-circuit produced by the accident to the light automatically -revolves the table upon which the lamps are mounted, swings the reserve -light into focus, and then sets it going. - -Above the secondary light in the main tower is the principal beacon, -comprising a brilliant rapidly-flashing light, the characteristic of -which is groups of two flashes alternating with four flashes, the cycle -being completed once in thirty seconds. The optical apparatus has been -devised especially for the “differential arc-light,” as it is called, -with a reflecting lens having a focal distance of 250 millimetres -(10 inches), the lens itself being 1,180 millimetres (approximately -47 inches) in diameter. In front of the lens is placed a disperser, -having a diameter of 1,200 millimetres (48 inches) whereby the ray of -light is dispersed through an arc of 10½ degrees. Before the disperser -is the means for producing the characteristic flash. This comprises a -blind, or shutter, which is opened and closed by mechanism adjusted -to requirements; while the rotating mechanism, instead of being -weight-driven, is actuated by an electric motor. - -The “differential arc,” which is utilized in this installation, is -considered by German engineers to be the best system that has yet been -devised for the exacting purposes of lighthouse engineering, and the -description has arisen from the disposition of the carbons. While the -positive carbon is held horizontally, the negative carbon is placed at -an angle of 70 degrees thereto, and only the crater of the positive -carbon is considered for the lighting effect, this being placed in -the focus of the apparatus. The positive carbon is 3/5 inch, and the -negative carbon 2/5 inch, in diameter, although both have a common -length of 19 inches, which is sufficient for nine hours’ service. The -beam emitted is of some 5,000,000 candle-power. This is one of the -cheapest electric stations at present in operation, the annual running -charges averaging less than £300, or $1,500. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -SOME LIGHTHOUSES IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS - - -Although the waters washing the Australian continent are not so thickly -intersected with steamship lanes, and the mercantile traffic is not -so dense there as in the seas of the Northern Hemisphere, yet, owing -to the activity in emigration from Great Britain, as well as to the -increasing prosperity of the various rising industries under the -Southern Cross, they are becoming more crowded with each succeeding -year. The efficient lighting of the coasts is an inevitable corollary -of this expansion. Lighthouse engineering, however, is unavoidably -expensive, especially when sea-rocks demand indication. - -From time to time severe strictures are passed by European shipping -interests upon the apparent lack of coastal lights in Australasian -waters, and the various Government departments concerned with -this responsibility are often accused of parsimony and neglect. -Unfortunately, the greater number of these critics are apt to consider -the situation through European glasses; to take the countries of the -Old World and the United States as a basis for their arguments, and to -ignore local conditions. It has taken a century or more for Europe and -the United States to develop their respective organizations, and in -the majority of instances there are ample funds from which expenses in -this direction may be met, especially when passing shipping is mulcted -a small sum in light-dues for the purpose. When the shipping is heavy, -these levies are certain to represent in the aggregate a large sum -every year. - -From time to time New Zealand has been roundly assailed for its -apparent negligence in the extension of its lighthouse system. It -maintains thirty-four lighthouses and beacons, which represent a -capital outlay of over £200,000, or $1,000,000. The total maintenance -charges average about £16,500, or $82,000, per annum, while the dues -collected from shipping for the maintenance of these aids to navigation -approximate £38,000, or $190,000, per annum. The balance is not -amazing, and certainly is not sufficient to warrant heavy expenditure -towards new lights, as the installation of such warnings nowadays is -highly expensive if they are to conform with modern requirements. If -the demands of the critics were met, and a comprehensive scheme, such -as is advised, were taken in hand, the shipowner would have to pay -to meet the deficiency on the revenue account, and this individual -complains that he is overtaxed already. - -Those Australian States which possess what may be described as a normal -coastline--that is, one fairly free from solitary rocks rising from the -sea some distance from land--are fortunate, since the sea-rock light is -notoriously costly. On the other hand, lights placed on the mainland, -even of the most powerful type, may be completed for a small outlay, -relatively speaking. - -Such a fortunate condition exists in connection with New South Wales. -Here and there off the mainland are small reefs and ridges, but, taken -on the whole, all these danger spots are adequately covered, so that -the State has not been faced with searching problems of a technical -or financial character in this connection. The State boasts only two -“rock” lighthouses, and these obstructions are large enough to be -called “islands.” The one is South Solitary Island, off the coast north -of Sydney; the other is Montague Island, to the south of the port. On -the other hand, the mainland is very well patrolled, some thirty lights -being scattered between Point Danger and Cape Howe, the respective -northern and southern sea-limits of the country. - -Although the light-keepers upon the rocks may consider themselves -somewhat isolated, yet their plight is enviable as compared with that -of some of their comrades in other parts of the world. At Montague -Island the three keepers and their families are housed in comfortable -cottages in close proximity to their ward, and they maintain a small -farm, including a horse, goats, well-stocked gardens, and so forth. The -keepers on South Solitary Island used to be able to vary the monotony -of their daily or nightly round by indulgence in exciting sport. This -assumed the form of rabbit trapping and hunting, as the island was -overrun with these animals. One form of game must have become somewhat -nauseating in time upon the menu of the keepers, but this diversion -is now a thing of the past. A mysterious disease appeared among the -rabbits, and its ravages were so devastating that within a short time -Montague Island knew them no more. - -The lighthouses of New South Wales deserve distinction in one -direction. As specimens of architecture they are magnificent pieces -of work, so that what the towers lack in romance they make up in -attractiveness. The most imposing is the Macquarie tower, or Sydney -lighthouse, mounting guard over the harbour. The first beacon was -erected upon this site as far back as 1816, thereby rendering it the -first lighthouse in the State, and it was fitted with an oil light, -while one or two of the English lights were still open coal fires. In -1883 it was decided to modernize the lighting apparatus, so that a more -powerful beam might be thrown. Electricity was the illuminant selected, -the machinery for the generation of the requisite current being -designed for installation in the original tower. But three-quarters -of a century’s exposure to the elements had rendered this building -somewhat too weak to carry the requisite heavy lenses and machinery, -so a new tower was projected. The old light was kept going while its -successor sprang up alongside; when the latter was completed, the -oil light in the famous old tower was extinguished for ever and the -building demolished. - -The new lighthouse is a fine structure. At the foot of the tower is a -spacious, well-lighted, and artistic one-floor building housing the -electrical machinery as well as the office. The domiciles for the -keepers and the engineers are placed on either side of the spreading -lawn surrounding the station. - -[Illustration: THREE STRIKING GUARDIANS OE THE SHORE OF NEW SOUTH WALES. - -1. Green Cape Lighthouse. 2. The sentinel of Sugar Loaf Point, or Seal -Rocks. 3. “Bungaree Norah” station, one of the loneliest on the coast.] - -The most southerly light upon the New South Wales coastline is that -at Green Cape, a few miles north of Cape Howe. As at the other -stations, three keepers are maintained, being accommodated, with their -families, in roomy cottages; while a small patch of land is turned to -agricultural advantage, cows, horses, etc., being maintained by the -men. The most easterly light on the Australian continent is at Cape -Byron. This light is perched on a dangerous cliff, which drops almost -vertically into the water 371 feet below; but it is within touch of -civilization, a winding road having been cut down the flank of the -promontory on the land side into the neighbouring town of Byron Bay, -so that the tradesmen’s carts are able to make their rounds up the -cliff to satisfy the varied wants of the wardens of the light. One -of the loneliest lights is that on Norah Head--Bungaree Norah it is -called--and this is also the latest light erected by the State, as -it dates from 1903. Although somewhat out of the way, it is not to -be compared with some of the isolated British, Canadian, and United -States lights, being, in fact, no more inaccessible or lonely than most -localities in the Australian Bush. - -Sugar-Loaf Point is one of the most serious danger spots along the -shoreline, but is now well guarded with a fine lighthouse planted on -its summit, the welcome rays of which are visible for many miles out to -sea. The light-keepers here had a surprising discovery one morning in -1910. The _Satara_ fouled the point and was wrecked, though fortunately -her passengers were succoured by passing steamers. On this vessel at -the time of the disaster there was a staghound, and although, when the -rescues were effected, search for the animal was made high and low -on the wreck, no signs of it could be seen. It was given up as lost. -Some days later the lighthouse-keepers ventured to the beach below to -have a look round, and to their astonishment a staghound come bounding -towards them, yelping with joy at the sight of a human face. For a dog -to be in such a lonely spot was a strange circumstance, but at last -it was surmised to be the animal which was missed on the _Satara_. -Apparently the animal clung to the crippled craft for some time, and -then, realizing that the ship was abandoned, dived overboard and swam -ashore. It fraternized with the keepers, and for some time kept them -company at the station. - -One of the worst wrecks which have happened upon the shores of New -South Wales was that of the steamer _Ly-ce-moon_. By some inexplicable -means the ship got out of her course on a fine Sunday night, and came -to grief off Green Cape. The lighthouse-keepers at once hurried to -the rescue, the hapless passengers, as they were got ashore, being -tended at the station until they were removed to their homes. The -lighthouse-keepers worked tremendously hard, but they were not entirely -successful. Although by herculean effort they brought a large number of -people to safety, there is a small fenced enclosure in the Bush behind -the station where lie the remains of some fifty persons who lost their -lives in the wreck, and whose bodies were washed ashore. - -While New South Wales has a comparatively easy length of coastline to -protect, the neighbouring colony of New Zealand, on the other hand, has -a wild, forbidding, and extensive stretch of shore. Up to the present -the Government has concentrated its energies upon the illumination of -the busiest reaches of water, and has planted prominent outposts at -the respective extreme tips of the twin islands. During the financial -year ending March 31, 1912, sixteen wrecks occurred in these seas, -of which six were total losses. The most ill-famed corner appears -to be the large sweeping indentation at the southern end of North -Island, lying between Cape Egmont and Wellington, particularly in the -vicinity of Wanganui, since this stretch of coast claimed five victims. -Cook’s Strait, which is dangerous to navigators, is well protected, -however, the most prominent beacon being that on Stephens Island, its -group-flashes, occurring every thirty seconds, being particularly -powerful, and having a range of thirty-two miles. - -[Illustration: THE CAPE BYRON LIGHTHOUSE, NEW SOUTH WALES.] - -[Illustration: THE MACQUARIE LIGHTHOUSE, SOUTH HEAD OF SYDNEY HARBOUR, -NEW SOUTH WALES. - -The original tower, erected in 1816, was the first lighthouse built in -the State. In 1882 it made way for the present magnificent station.] - -The Marine Department maintains thirty-two coastal lights, of which -twenty-two are on the mainland, and ten situate on islands off the -coast. They are of a varied description, ranging from powerful lights -of the first order to beacons dependent upon dissolved acetylene, -stored in cylinders of sufficient capacity to keep the light gleaming -for sixty days continuously. Some of the places in which the warning -lights are placed are exceedingly lonely and inaccessible, so that the -perfection of the unattended light has solved a complex problem, and -has enabled many terrible stretches of forbidding coast to be well -indicated. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -PAINTING THE TROUBRIDGE LIGHTHOUSE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA. - -Keeping the building in repair is one of the lighthouse-keepers’ -duties. This is especially urgent in the case of an iron structure. -This tower is 78 feet high, the light being visible for 15 miles.] - -The first tower to be brought into service in New Zealand was that -on Pencarrow Head, to indicate the entrance to the inlet in which -Wellington nestles. It shed its rays for the first time on New Year’s -Day, 1859. It is an iron structure, from the top of which a fixed white -light may be picked up by a vessel twenty-seven miles off the coast. -The iron had to be prepared and shaped in England, as there was no -foundry in the islands at that time capable of executing the work. The -building was shipped to New Zealand in sections and erected. To-day, -owing to the growth of the iron industry, the country can supply all -its own needs in this field without difficulty, but in all cases the -lanterns, mechanism, and lenses, have to be acquired in Europe. - -As may be imagined, with such a rugged coastline as New Zealand -possesses, some of the stations are terribly lonely and difficult -of access, owing to the treacherous nature of the waters over which -they mount guard. With the exception of the Brothers light, which -is situated on an exposed rock in Cook’s Strait, three keepers are -maintained at each island lighthouse--one as relief--and at the more -isolated mainland lights. Those of the latter stations which are within -easy reach of civilization have only two keepers. The Brothers light, -which is New Zealand’s most lonely station, has four keepers, three on -the rock at one time, while the fourth is ashore. The spell of service -on the rock is three months, followed by one month’s leave. The wives -and families of the men reside at Wellington. The authorities, -however, do not condemn the light-keeper to one station throughout his -whole term of service. He undergoes frequent transference, so that -all may have a turn at good and bad stations. The duration of the -stay at each light averages about three years, so that there is very -little possibility of these patient, long-suffering stalwarts being -condemned to such a period of loneliness as to provoke taciturnity and -melancholia. - -The keeper of the lighthouse light in New Zealand is as well provided -for as his colleague in any other part of the world. When he enters -the service, he is placed on probation as assistant keeper for six -months, at an annual salary of £90, or $450. Emerging from this ordeal -satisfactorily, he finds his salary increased at once to £100, or -$500, per annum, rising by increments of £10 every two years, until -it reaches £130, or $650, per annum. It remains at this figure until -he is promoted to the position of head-keeper, which post brings -an annual wage of £140, or $700, rising by biennial increments of -£10 to a maximum annual remuneration of £180, or $900. In addition -to the foregoing scale, a keeper receives an extra annual station -allowance of £10 in the case of third-class stations, which are those -on lonely rocks and islands, and £5 in the case of stations which are -not isolated or difficult of access. All keepers in the service live -rent-free, and are supplied with coal and oil, together with the free -use of sufficient land, if available, to prepare gardens, as well as -grazing for two or three cows and a few sheep, etc.; while their stores -and provisions are carried without charge by the Government steamer -_Hinemoa_. This vessel is retained solely for attending upon the -lighthouses and buoys, and visits every light, save in exceptionally -rough weather, once in three months. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -GREEN POINT LIGHTHOUSE, NATAL. - -A well-known South African warning with a range of 23 miles.] - -[Illustration: THE PACIFIC OUTPOST OF THE UNITED STATES. - -The _San Francisco_ Lightship throws a flashing electric beam of 700 -candle-power and is fitted also with the submarine bell.] - -At all the isolated and rock stations landing is a hazardous task, -even under the most favourable conditions. The swell and currents -breaking upon the rocks render it impossible for freight and men to be -landed direct from the steamer to the rock. Consequently all the work -has to be carried out by means of surf-boats, and heavy drenchings -from breaking waves, and exciting moments, are unavoidable. At times -the task assumes exceptional difficulty, and is attended with fatal -mishaps. On June 2, 1899, the _Hinemoa_ stood in towards the East -Cape, the most easterly promontory on the islands, on the southern arm -enclosing the Bay of Plenty. The sea looked wicked, but the relieving -ship decided to go ahead with its work. All went well until a heavy -roller suddenly came in and caught one of the boats at a disadvantage. -The craft was capsized before the crew realized their position, and -the chief officer, with three of his men, was drowned. Such is one of -the penalties which have been exacted by the relentless sea, while -courageous men have been engaged in the risky occupation of keeping the -coast lights shining for the guidance of seafarers. - -The New Zealand shores have been the scenes of some heartrending -catastrophes. The steamship _Tararua_, of 563 tons register, was making -her way from Dunedin to the Bluff, when she crashed on to the reef -which juts seaward from Waipapapa Point. There was no light to warn -the ship--hence the accident. The vessel, battered by sledge-hammer -seas, broke up very rapidly, and 130 passengers lost their lives. If -the point had been guarded, no accident would have happened. Now a -second-order dioptric flashing light of ten seconds guards the reef, -and may be seen from a distance of thirteen and a half miles. Another -calamity was the loss of the _Huddart Parker_ liner on a danger -spot known as the Three Kings Rock. The fearsome character of this -peril has been recognized for many years past, but, as it is to be -marked by a light suited to the locality, it is hoped that its evil -harvest will come to an end. Yet at the same time it must be pointed -out that the provision of a light does not always prevent a wreck -even in the clearest weather, owing to the weakness of human nature. -This was proved by the steamship _Triumph_, of 1,797 tons register. -She left Auckland on the night of November 29, 1883, picked up the -Tiri-Tiri Island light--this fixed star can be seen from a distance of -twenty-four miles--and yet within two hours of her sailing was wrecked -almost under the lighthouse. In this instance gross negligence was -only too palpable, and the court of inquiry, after its investigation -of the wreck, signified its opinion of the carelessness displayed by -suspending the certificate of the master for three years, and that of -the chief officer for six months. - -Apart from Cook’s Strait, the narrow passage between the two islands, -the extreme points of the country are well guarded, the towers for the -most part being located upon the prominent headlands. The southern -extremity of the South Island is a dangerous coast to navigate, since -going east, after the Puysegur Point ten seconds flashing light is -dropped at a distance of nineteen miles from the headland, the vessel’s -course is set to traverse Foveaux Strait, between the mainland and -Stewart Island. In the centre of the neck of water is an ominous -rock, Centre Island, which, however, is well guarded by a first-order -catadioptric fixed light, shining from a wooden tower, the range of -which extends for twenty-two and a half miles, with red arcs marking -the inshore dangers. Overlapping this beacon’s field of patrol is a -light mounted on Dog Island, revolving once in thirty seconds, and -visible for eighteen miles, which in turn meets the Waipapapa light. -Thus the approach to Invercargill is well indicated, and, with the east -coast promontories all protected, the possibility of a repetition of -the _Tararua_ disaster is rendered remote. - -On the extreme northern tip of the sister isle, the headland known -as Cape Maria Van Diemen carries a first-order dioptric light, -revolving once a minute, illuminating a circle of sea having a -radius of twenty-four and a half miles. The adjacent headland at the -opposite corner of this spit, North Cape, has not been protected -hitherto; but this deficiency is now being remedied by the erection -of a second-order, incandescent, group-flashing white light, giving -three flashes in quick succession every half-minute. The brilliant -illumination of this part of the coast is imperative, inasmuch as -shipping bound for and from Auckland has to bear round this heavily -indented and rock-strewn coast. The entrance to Auckland harbour in -particular is disconcerting, but the navigator is assisted by the -friendly guardians placed on Cape Brett, Moko Hinou, and Tiri-Tiri, -which have ranges of thirty and a half, twenty-six, and twenty-four -miles, respectively. The task of the mariner, however, is to be further -simplified by the erection of another powerful light on Chicken -Island, in the Hauraki Gulf, which will overlap the Moko Hinou and -Tiri-Tiri lights. When this light and that at North Cape are placed in -commission, the sea between Cape Maria Van Diemen and Auckland will -be very well lighted, and will offer the ship’s master few causes for -complaint. Two other points are being equipped, Castle Point and Cape -Terawhiti, the former with a second-order, incandescent, group-flashing -white light, flashing at intervals of forty-five seconds, with periods -of darkness lasting eight seconds between each group. - -While the majority of the New Zealand coastal lights are attended, -certain beacons, from their exposed position, come in the category of -unattended lights, as described elsewhere. These burn acetylene gas, -and are replaced with fresh supplies of dissolved acetylene every -three months by the _Hinemoa_. Simultaneously with the provision of -additional beacons the existing lights are being overhauled and fitted -with modern apparatus, rendering them more reliable, economical, and -of greater power. When the service was established, the Doty burner, -using paraffin-oil, was adopted; but the perfection of the incandescent -oil system, and its many advantages over that in vogue, have influenced -the Government towards its adoption. The transformation will be -completed as soon as practicable, the work being in active progress, as -maintenance expenses are reduced appreciably thereby, because kerosene, -a cheaper oil, is used in lieu of paraffin, while, furthermore, less -oil is burned under the incandescent system. - -Before many years have passed, the coasts of New Zealand will be as -adequately protected as is humanly possible by a complete chain of -coastal lights, which is being forged as rapidly as the circumstances -permit. The Government has revised its light-dues in order to meet -the increased expenditure in connection with the lighthouse service. -Vessels arriving from outside the Dominion have to pay oversea -light-dues at the first port of call, and coastal dues at all other -New Zealand ports which they touch; while vessels arriving from the -Chatham, Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, and Bounty Islands also have to -contribute to the funds. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -THE SIGNPOSTS OF THE SANDBANKS - - -Although by dint of great effort and the expenditure of considerable -ingenuity the lighthouse engineer has succeeded in erecting a permanent -masonry tower upon a foundation no more substantial than quicksand, -yet the general method of indicating these menaces is by the aid of -a lightship. In this way the estuaries leading to the great ports -of the world, which are littered with ridges, humps, and mounds, of -mud and sand brought down by the river or thrown up by the sea, are -guarded very completely. There is the Nore lightship at the entrance -to the Thames, the Bar and North-West lightships off the mouth of the -Mersey, Fire Island near the portal to New York, and so on. Similarly, -the whereabouts of huge stretches of sand lying off a coast, which -either defy detection altogether or only partially expose themselves -at low-water, and which constitute certain death-traps, are shown. The -most striking illustrations of this application are supplied by the -Goodwin Sands, the submerged sandy plateau lying off the east coast of -England, and by the serried rows of ridges running seven and a half -miles out to sea from Cape Hatteras, the ill-famed headland of North -Carolina. - -The utilization of the lightship, however, is not restricted by any -means to marking shoals and sandbanks. Here and there are clusters of -rocks obstructing the ocean highway, which from their extremely exposed -character would offer the engineer a searching and expensive problem to -solve, and which, accordingly, are protected by a floating light. But, -taken on the whole, the lightship is used very sparingly. If it is at -all possible to provide a permanent structure, even at an apparently -prohibitive cost, upon a danger spot, this practice is followed in -preference to the mooring of a light-vessel thereto. A masonry tower is -stationary in its resistance to the assaults of the wildest tempest, -but the lightship swings like a cork at the free end of a chain. At -times it drags its anchors, and thereby unconsciously shifts its -position, so that it may throw its light from some distance beyond the -actual area of danger. Again, a lightship, although not costly in the -first instance, is somewhat expensive to maintain. It cannot withstand -the poundings of the waves and the force of the wind for long without -developing some signs of weakness. It may ride over its reef or shoal -for several years, but depreciation is sure to set in, so that at last -it becomes too decrepit to be trusted. Moreover, the number of men -required to man a lightship exceeds the force necessary to maintain a -lighthouse. - -Lightships follow much the same general shape and construction the -whole world over. There is very little opportunity to depart from -well-tried lines; the experience of a century and more has indicated -conclusively the form of hull, as regards both material and shape, best -adapted to the peculiar work which has to be fulfilled. The modern -lightship is essentially a British idea, the first floating beacon -of this description having been built and placed in the mouth of the -Thames as far back as 1713. From this small beginning, which virtually -was an experiment, has grown the large fleet of light-vessels scattered -all over the globe. - -The craft is sturdily built, and, although of clumsy appearance, -is capable of withstanding the onslaughts of the fiercest gales. -Internally it is made as snug as possible, but the opportunities in -this direction are not very extensive, as the beacon is built primarily -to protect ships and lives against accident, and comfort is necessarily -made subordinate to reliability, durability, and serviceability. - -A mere hulk would be the most apt description as applied to the average -lightship. It is intended to cling to one spot through thick and thin, -and not to move about. In the majority of instances the vessel is -without any propelling or sailing accessories. If it should happen to -break its leashes, it then becomes the sport of the waves, as helpless -as a derelict, until its signals of distress are espied and it is -picked up by a passing vessel. Although every precaution is adopted -to preserve the lightship from this mishap, when the waves become -exceptionally heavy and violent the strongest chains are apt to snap -under the sawing and tugging of the vessel. In one or two instances -lively times have been experienced by the handful of men on board, -especially off the wicked stretches of the American seaboard which is -exposed to the attack of hurricane and cyclone. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo, Paul, Penzance._ - -THE “SEVEN-STONES” LIGHTSHIP. - -This vessel, probably occupying the most exposed position around -England, marks a terrible danger spot off the Cornish coast.] - -In her helplessness, the light-vessel depends upon the friendly aid -of any craft. The rescuer may be the alert tender, which, having -received intimation that the floating beacon has got adrift, raises -steam in all haste, hurries out, scours the seas for the wanderer, -recovers and rechains her to the danger spot below. Or it may be that -a passing· steamer sights the breakaway, retrieves and restores her to -the allotted position, making her temporarily secure, and reporting her -condition when passing or entering a port. - -The lightship may be identified easily. There is nothing inspiring -about her lines. Her ugly hull, built for strength and not beauty, -is painted red, black, or white, according to the colour practice -of the country to which she belongs, while on her sides in huge -letters, stretching almost from water-line to taffrail, is the name -of her station, “Nore,” “Seven Stones,” “Norderney,” “Ruytingen,” -“Fire Island,” or whatever it may be. Nor is this the sole means -of identification. From afar the mariner learns her character and -business by a huge skeleton sphere, a triangular cage, or some other -device, carried at the top of the mast or masts. At night a lantern, -entirely surrounding the mast, and large enough to enable a person -to stand upright within to trim the lamps, throws its warning glare -from an elevation about halfway between the deck and the mast-top with -the intensity of 12,000 or more candles. Oil is the illuminant most -generally employed for the purpose, although in one or two instances -electric light is used. - -The specific purpose of the lightship, as already mentioned, is to -warn passing vessels. But the French Government, when they made an -elaborate investigation of their lightship service with a view to its -modernization and elaboration, discovered that at times the floating -signpost fulfils another and unofficial duty. The entrance to St. Malo -Harbour is flanked by an uneven group of rocks lying about midway -between the French coast and the island of Jersey. Though a terrible -spot for mariners, it is one of incalculable value to the sturdy -French and Jersey fishermen, as in the waters around these barriers -rich hauls may be made with the net; indeed, the fishing industry here -affords employment for several score of persons. The French Government -contemplated the withdrawal of the lightship marking the Minquiers, as -these rocks are called, and the substitution in its stead of a number -of powerful automatic buoys which would indicate the exact position -of the most conspicuous dangers, whereas the lightship only indicated -their general whereabouts, compelling mariners to calculate their -distances from the peril, which, by the way, was no easy matter owing -to the short range of the beacon. - -[Illustration: THE “SAN FRANCISCO” LIGHTSHIP. - -This vessel, riding in 18 fathoms, marks the entrance to the Golden -Gate and San Francisco Bay.] - -Before making a decision, the Commission interviewed the French -fishermen to ascertain their views upon the subject. To their intense -surprise, a suggestion which they thought would be received with -unmixed approval was condemned unequivocally. There was not a single -fisherman who could be found to support the buoy system. The unanimity -of the objection aroused suspicions, and further investigation was -made to probe the cause of this unveiled hostility. The answer was -found without effort. The fishermen pushed off in their boats every -night to the grounds, but they did not spend the whole of their time -throwing and hauling their nets. When their luck was in, or they were -satisfied with the catch, one and all pulled for the lightship. There -was not another café within a dozen miles, and fishing is thirsty work. -So the lightship was converted into a nocturnal hostelry. The keepers -charged the glasses, and the captains courageous sipped and quaffed to -a whistling accompaniment, finally indulging in terpsichorean acts on -the lightship’s decks, to give vent to their exuberant spirits. They -did not care whether the light overhead were throwing its yellow beams -over the waters or not. They made merry, and kept up the orgy until the -approaching dawn or the watch showed that it was high time to pull for -the shore with their catches. It was a fortunate circumstance for these -happy-go-lucky spirits that the beacon was not regarded by mariners -as of much utility at night, owing to the feebleness of its light. -If seafarers failed to pick up the Minquiers’s shimmering star, they -attributed the obscurity to the haze. That was all. - -This revelation, needless to say, clinched the Commission’s decision. -To-day four unattended gas-buoys mount vigil over these rocks, and the -rollicking days on the floating _café chantant_ are known no more. - -The average crew for a lightship numbers some seven men under a captain -and mate, who take it in turns to have charge of the vessel, the second -official being responsible during the former’s spell of leave on shore. -The crew is not a man too many, owing to the several and varied duties -to be performed, especially when the storm-fiend is roused or fog pays -a visit. The arrival of the latter demands the foghorn’s mournful -dirge to penetrate the dense white curtain. Some of the vessels -possess a hooter, the unmusical wail of which in its discordance is -almost sufficient to put false teeth on edge, because a blast runs -through the whole chromatic gamut with variations which would startle -a disciple of Tschaikowsky or Wagner. But discordance in this instance -is of incalculable value. The ear of the captain of a passing vessel -is unconsciously arrested; he can distinguish the sound readily, and -by noting its character can identify the particular light-vessel from -which it proceeds, although he cannot get a glimpse of her form. - -The southern coasts of England, owing to the density of the maritime -traffic, especially on both sides of the bottle-neck formed by the -Straits of Dover, are well patrolled by this form of warning which -supplements the lighthouses. Those guarding the dreaded Goodwin Sands -perhaps are the most important. The crew of a vessel in these waters -is busy throughout the day and night even in calm, clear weather, and -the feeling of isolation is not so pronounced, since the continuous -sight of traffic dispels despondency. The Nore light is another station -which encounters very few minutes of rest throughout the complete -revolution of the clock hands; especially is this the case when fog -settles down, rendering the Thames inapproachable, so that incoming -craft have to line up in long queues, ready to dash forward directly -the pall lifts sufficiently for them to see 100 yards ahead. - -There have been some exciting incidents among the lights strung -around the south-eastern toe of England. The vessel outside Dover -harbour appears to be particularly unlucky, or to exercise such a -peculiar magnetism upon passing vessels that they must needs embrace -her. This is the peril that a lightship crew dreads more than any -other. Certainly it seems a sorry trick of Fortune that occasionally -the workers in the cause of humanity should be compelled to fight -desperately for their lives from a blow inflicted by the very interests -they strive might and main to protect. The Dover light was sent to the -bottom twice within a very short time, and in each instance the men -were rescued only in the nick of time. On another occasion a relief -lightship was being towed to a station on the east coast, the acting -vessel being much in need of overhaul and repair. The tug laboured -through the North Sea with her charge, and just before daybreak sighted -the twinkling light which was her goal. She eased up, meaning to -stand by with her charge until the beacon’s round of vigilance should -be over, and the light extinguished before the gathering dawn. Her -crew saw the light grow dimmer, until it was no longer of sufficient -power to penetrate the whitening haze. With the sun just creeping -over the horizon the tug weighed anchor, and, heralding her approach -vociferously on the siren, steamed slowly towards the danger spot. To -the surprise of the captain, there came no answering blare. When he -thought he was alongside the light-vessel he stopped, and the haze -lifted. But there was no sign of the light-vessel; she had vanished -completely. The captain of the tug and the master of the relief-boat -wondered what had happened, but without more ado the relief-ship was -moored in position, and the tug returned home empty-handed. There the -crew heard one of those grim stories sometimes related in the service. -The light-keepers had sighted the tug with the relief-vessel, and were -anticipating keenly their return to civilization, when there was a -crash! A cliff of steel reared above them like a knife-edge; a vessel -had blundered into them, cutting their home in two. The next moment -they were shot pell-mell into the water as their craft sank beneath -their feet. - -On a calm day, when the lightship is riding quietly at anchor, and -the members of the crew, maybe, are beguiling the tedium by fishing, -a passer-by on a liner is apt to consider the life one of quietness -and enjoyment, albeit monotonous. But contrast this placidity with the -hours of storm. Then the ungainly vessel writhes and twists, saws and -rasps at the chains which hold her prisoner. At one moment, with bow -uplifted, she is on the crest of a spray-enveloped roller; the next -instant she drives her dipping nose into the hissing white and green -valley, meanwhile lurching and staggering wildly as she ships a sea, -first on this side and then on that. - -The plight of the lighthouse-keeper in a gale is unenviable, but it is -far and away preferable to that of the lightship crew under similar -circumstances. The tower may bow slightly like a tree before the storm, -and the waves may cause it to shiver at times, but that is the only -movement. On the lightship the crew appear to be tossed, rolled, and -spun, in all directions simultaneously. The deck becomes untenable, but -the men in the performance of their duties have to grope and crawl from -point to point, holding on grimly with both hands when an angry sea -douches them. The spherical ball overhead gyrates in an amazing manner, -as if it were a pendulum bob boxing the compass. The crew have a stiff -struggle, to keep everything below safe and sound, while the waves, -as they come aboard, thump on the deck as if determined to smash it -to splinters, and to drive the whole fabric to the bottom. To be so -unlucky as to be run down by a passing craft under such conditions is -certain death, as there is no hope of rescue in such maddened seas. - -The crew of an English ship emerged badly battered from one heavy gale. -Two or three rollers got aboard, and drove their blows well home, -pulverizing the lifeboat on deck, and tearing up stretches of the -bulwarks by the roots. The crew were flung about like shuttlecocks. One -of the hands was making his way cautiously along the deck, trying to -maintain equilibrium upon an alarming incline, when a breaker struck -him from behind. He grabbed the ratlins to secure himself, but his -hand was wrenched away, and he was flung against the mast, where the -wave left him. He was half stunned by the concussion, but a comrade, -realizing his plight, dashed forward while the vessel rolled over -in the other direction, grabbed the prostrate form by the collar of -its coat, and dragged it into the companion-way. The man’s face was -disfigured, and when bathed it was found to have been cut, or rather -burst, open from the eye to the chin by the force of the blow. - -Bad weather tends to make the crew despondent at times, inasmuch as its -persistency holds them prisoners, so that they cannot get ashore when -the relief day comes round. During some seasons of the year a delay of -ten or twelve days is not uncommon, owing to the weather, but the men -on the relief tender are so used to hard knocks and rough seas that -they do not wait for an absolute calm to achieve their purpose. Heavy -risks are incurred often in order to lighten the lives of those who -guard the deep by bringing them ashore as near to the scheduled date as -possible. - -Another ship that has to mount guard over a dangerous corner of the -coast of England is that which indicates the cluster of rocks lying -between Land’s End and the Scilly Isles, about sixteen miles off the -mainland. For the most part the reef is submerged, but as the water -goes down seven ugly scattered pinnacles thrust themselves into the -air. They are terrible fangs with which to rip out the bottom of a -steamer, and they have accomplished their fell work only too often. The -number of the projections has given its name to the graveyard, which is -known far and wide as the Seven Stones, though the mariner refers to -them simply as The Stones. - -It would be difficult to say offhand which has claimed the greater -number of victims from the mercantile marine--the sucking, glue-like -sands of the Goodwins, or the splitting granite teeth of the Seven -Stones; they run a close race for ill-fame. The latter lie right in the -path of vessels rounding the western toe of England, and the sea-bed -on all sides of them is littered with the shivered timbers of wooden -sailing-ships, the splintered iron and steel of steamers, and the bones -of scores of unfortunate passengers and crews. Although a light of -12,000 candle-power strives to warn the seafarer, now and again there -is a miscalculation, and the intimation is conveyed to the mainland: -“Ship and all hands lost.” - -It was in 1841, owing to the frequency and severity of the disasters -at this spot, that Trinity House decided to guard it with a lightship. -A lighthouse would be preferable, but there is such small foothold -for the engineer, and the position is so fearfully exposed, that -the erection of a masonry tower would prove a costly and tedious -enterprise. So the only feasible alternative was adopted, and the -vessel is kept abreast of modern developments in this phase of coast -lighting. Lying as it does in a somewhat narrow channel, yet open to -the full roll of the terrible westerly gales, it meets the Atlantic -thundering through this constricted passage with awe-inspiring -violence. It has often suffered greatly from the fury of the sea. Once -a wave tumbled aboard, crashed a man against the pump, knocked him half -senseless; picked up the lifeboat and threw it against the deck-house, -and in so doing caught another member of the crew, mauling his thigh -badly in passing. Two out of the seven men forming the crew were thus -put _hors de combat_ by a single wave. The taut little vessel rides in -40 fathoms of water, about one and a half miles eastward of the danger -spot, as even a lightship must not be moored too closely to a ridge, or -she herself would incur the risk of being pounded to fragments. - -The French lighthouse service has a magnificent lightship in the -_Ruytingen_, which rides in 60 feet of water over a treacherous -sandbank outside Dunkirk. It is a steel vessel about 100 feet in -length, and displaces in loaded condition about 387 tons. It is held in -position by massive umbrella-like anchors, weighing some 2 tons, which, -burying themselves in the ground, refuse to drag even under the most -fearful tugs and jerks imposed by a gale, while the chains which hold -the ship in leash are able to give her a run of approximately 1,000 -feet. - -The German coast is as dangerous to approach, owing to the shoals and -banks, as the eastern shores of England, and one or two magnificent -lightships have been built and stationed over the most notorious -danger areas, among which may be mentioned the _Norderney_ and _Eider_ -vessels. The latter is about 133 feet in length by 24 feet wide, and is -fitted with three masts. It throws a fixed white light, which may be -seen on all sides from eight to eleven miles away. This boat is fitted -with every modern device to increase its warning powers and service, -including wireless telegraphy and the submarine bell. - -These two latter inventions have improved the serviceability of the -lightship to a vast degree, inasmuch as the ocean liners and many -freighters are equipped with both these useful handmaids to navigation. -The tolling of the bell under water may be heard for several miles, and -conveys intimation of the approach to danger in foggy weather, when the -siren or other fog-signal is somewhat precarious. - -The _Norderney_ lightship is probably one of the finest craft in -operation upon the seven seas. Before it was designed the German -engineers carried out a thorough inspection of all the most modern -lightships in service in Europe, and from the results of their -investigations contrived this magnificent aid to navigation. The vessel -is about 150 feet in length, and is built of steel. The light is shown -from a lantern fitted with a third-order pendular lens carried at the -top of a hollow steel mast. The illuminant used is Pintsch’s oil-gas, -with incandescent mantle, the fuel being stored in reservoirs stowed in -the hold of the ship; fresh supplies are brought out by the tender at -periodical intervals. Weight-driven clockwork mechanism is employed to -revolve the lantern. The light is one of the most powerful in European -waters, 50,000 candle-power being emitted with an incandescent gas -mantle having a diameter of 30 millimetres (1¼ inches). - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Lighthouse Literature Mission._ - -THE “NORDERNEY” LIGHTSHIP. - -One of the finest in the world.] - -The vessel is also equipped with 200 horse-power oil-engines, driving -an air-compressor for the operation of the fog-siren, the air being -stored in reservoirs in the hold and maintained at the working -pressure, so that the signal may be brought into service at a moment’s -notice. The vessel is also furnished with a Pintsch submarine bell, -driven by compressed air. When not required, this bell is housed -amidships on the spar-deck, and when the occasion arises for its -service it is lowered into the water through an open tube built in -the ship for this purpose. This important light-vessel carries a full -complement of thirteen men, including the captain, mate, and engineer. -The arrangement is, one-third of the crew on shore-leave at a time; but -this does not apply to the winter months, when the full number has to -remain on board, owing to the duties being more arduous and continuous -during that season of the year. - -“Fire Island!” What a thrill the sound of this name sends through the -floating town approaching the New World from Europe. Its effect is -magical among the emigrants who scan the horizon eagerly for the first -glimpse of this outpost of the new home, in which all their hopes -are centred. The sullen red hull of this flush-deck, schooner-rigged -steam-vessel, with her two masts, and name painted in huge white -letters on her flanks, rides in 96 feet of water, nine and three-eighth -miles south of Fire Island lighthouse. A few miles beyond is a similar -craft marking the Nantucket Shoals, whence incoming and outgoing -vessels are reported, while the end of the chain is “No. 87,” -marking the Ambrose Channel off the entrance to New York. - -But the light-vessel controlled by the United States which occupies -the most responsible and perilous post is the _Diamond Shoal_, off -Cape Hatteras. It throws its warning rays from a spot about four and -five-eighth miles beyond the most seaward point of this terrible ocean -graveyard, and is thirteen and five-eighth miles distant from Cape -Hatteras light on the mainland. A long way from the actual danger spot, -you say, but the little squad of men who have to maintain the light -through storm and calm will tell you that the situation, in 180 feet of -water, is quite as near as is pleasant when there is the ever-present -danger of anchors being dragged, or of the craft breaking adrift under -the force of the cyclonic disturbances which ravage this sinister -coast. Even in calm weather the relief-boat has many anxious moments, -owing to the swell and currents, while storms rise with startling -suddenness. While the exchange of men is being made and stores are -being transferred, a keen lookout is kept by the relief-boat hands so -as to be ready to cut and run for the open sea the moment the clouds -begin to collect ominously. In these latitudes the weather is placid -one minute; the next the elements are writhing in fury. - -[Illustration: THE “FIRE ISLAND” LIGHTSHIP, THE ATLANTIC OUTPOST OF THE -UNITED STATES. - -This vessel rides in 96 feet of water, 9¾ miles south of the Fire -Island Lighthouse.] - -Probably this is the most dangerous station on the whole seaboard, -and if any heavy trouble is caused by the tempest, the _Diamond -Shoal_ inevitably bears grim evidence of the conflict. The skill of -the engineers is taxed sorely to devise ways and means of keeping the -vessel in the position she is designed to occupy, but moorings and -anchors must be of great weight and strength to stand up against a wind -blowing eighty miles an hour, with the waves running “mountains high” -and repeatedly sweeping the vessel from stem to stern. After every -battle a careful look round has to be made to determine how far the -vessel has shifted. Being steam-driven, this craft is not condemned to -absolute helplessness when her moorings snap. The crew get her under -control and keep her head pointed in the desired direction, so as to -mitigate the battering of the wind and waves, and not moving more than -is essential for safety. Subsequently the vessel crawls back to her -position, the bearings are taken, and she is anchored firmly once more. - -One hurricane swept Cape Hatteras, and the lightship received its full -energy. The boat strained and groaned at her chains. Suddenly they -snapped. No steam could hold the boat against the assault. She was -picked up, thrown about like an empty box, and carried inshore, luckily -missing the ridges of sand. Had she plumped into one, it would have -gripped her tightly while the waves pounded her to fragments. The crew -were helpless and could only wonder what the end would be, as they saw -the rugged coastline approach nearer and nearer. When they thought all -was over and that their fate was sealed, a big incoming wave snatched -the lightship, hurried her along on its bosom, and dropped her on the -beach, practically uninjured, and safe from further attack. - -When the crew surveyed their position, they found themselves faced with -a difficult proposition. The ship was safe and sound, but on the wrong -side of the shoals, and the question was how to lift her over those -greedy ridges. There was only one method. That was to dig a pit around -her on the beach, let in the water so that she could float, and then to -cut a wide deep trench out to sea so as to regain deep water. It was -feasible, and was attempted. While the pond on the beach was being dug, -a powerful dredger came up, and ploughed its way through the shoals -from deep water to the stranded light-vessel. When the craft was once -more afloat, the dredger carved its way back again, the light-vessel -being taken through the narrow, shallow ditch thus provided, which -was closed up by the running sand as the two boats crept slowly -forward, until at last the shoals were negotiated. The ship was taken -to headquarters, the relief-vessel, which is always kept ready for an -emergency, having taken up her position on the station immediately the -hurricane had blown itself out. - -Under these circumstances it will be realized that the maintenance -of the _Diamond Shoal_ light is by no means a sinecure. When these -adversities are aggravated by the relief-boat being unable to fulfil -its scheduled duty, when week after week slips by without the men -receiving the welcome spell ashore, while they are suffering privations -and experiencing the nerve-shattering pangs of isolation and monotony, -it is not surprising that despondency shows signs of getting the upper -hand among the crew. Melancholia is the malady which is feared most -on a light-vessel such as this, and the men have to pull themselves -together to resist its insidious grip. Probably at times there is half -an inclination to desert the light, but fortunately there is little -fear of this temptation succeeding. The axiom “Never abandon the light” -is too deeply rooted; besides, the men are safer where they are, -although it appears a crazy refuge in rough weather. - -Prolonged imprisonment on the _Diamond Shoal_ precipitated one mutiny. -The crew on duty were awaiting the arrival of the reserve vessel -to take them home; but the weather disposed otherwise. With that -inexplicable persistence, the wind got round to a rough quarter and -kept there tenaciously, never moderating for a few hours, but just -blowing, blowing, blowing, getting up a nasty sea which made the -lightship reel and tumble, while at intervals a comber came aboard to -flush the decks. - -In the course of ten days or so the crew began to fret and fume -at the obstinacy of the elements; when a month slipped by without -bringing any welcome relief, the mate and the engineer incurred the -captain’s dire displeasure by fraternizing and playing cards with -the crew, thereby creating a breach of discipline and etiquette. The -offenders, somewhat overwrought by their continued incarceration, -ignored the captain’s reprimand. This arrant disobedience played -upon his nerves, which similarly were strung up. It did not require -a very big spark to start a conflagration of tempers. The mate and -engineer brooded over the captain’s remarks, and at last they waited -upon him, forcibly ventilated their opinions concerning his lack of -civility and of endeavours to make one and all comfortable under the -trying circumstances, and expressed their determination to tolerate -his overbearing manner no longer. This was the last straw from the -captain’s point of view. Drawing his revolver, he growled that he was -master of the lightship, and that they would have to do as he told -them. There was a tussle, but the firearm was wrenched away from the -master’s hands as being a somewhat too dangerous tool for a man in his -overstrung condition. The crew naturally sided with the officers, and -the captain was kept under surveillance until the relief-vessel came up -some weeks later. - -The moment the crew stepped on dry land, every man, with the exception -of the mate, deserted the ship, thoroughly satiated with the -uncertainty pertaining to watching the Diamond Shoals. They indulged -in a hearty carousal, and were arrested. And the captain, who also -was not averse to enjoyment on shore, having lodged the charge of -mutiny, followed their example. An inquiry was held, and the sequel is -interesting. The captain, having deserted his ship upon reaching port, -was dismissed from the service; the mate, who had provoked the captain, -not only was acquitted of the grave charge, but was promoted to the -command of the light-vessel, because there was one outstanding feature -in his favour which negatived everything else--he had stuck to his post. - -Life on a lightship, although somewhat strenuous, has its interludes. -In fine weather the men have considerable time on their hands, and -while away the hours in various occupations. Fretwork, mat-making, -carpentering, and other hobbies, are followed with keen enjoyment. -Owing to the light attracting flocks of birds during the migratory -seasons, the men often effect valuable captures on the deck, rare -songsters and other specimens falling exhausted into their hands. Cages -are contrived, and the silence of the living-quarters is relieved by -the piping and trilling of the birds when once they have shaken down to -their captivity. Meteorological work, which is practised in some cases, -relieves the round of toil, while contributions to science are made by -investigating the depths of the sea and its bed with small trawls and -other devices, so as to secure data concerning life in the deep, the -vagaries of currents, submarine temperatures, and so forth. - -The lightship, however, is both a safeguard and a menace. When she -is riding quietly at the end of her chains she is an incalculable -boon to the passing mariner, but after a gale the navigator and the -light-keepers are suspicious. The boat may, and indeed probably has, -dragged her anchors somewhat. Now, the seafarer on his chart has the -precise position which the lightship should occupy. Consequently, if -she has shifted and he is unaware of the error, his calculations will -lead him astray. After a tempest the master of a lightship endeavours -to ascertain if his craft has moved, and if he can he takes his -bearings at once. If this is impossible, or if he entertains any doubt -in his mind, he flies a signal, which warns the navigator that the -lightship has moved. Unless the vessel is able to regain her station -under her own steam, she communicates with the shore at once, and a -boat is sent out to reset her. Every time the relief is effected the -officer in charge takes the bearings, so that the lightship may be -truly in the position she is intended to assume, and able to effect her -humane work satisfactorily. - -The evolution of the most efficient illuminating apparatus for the -lightship has been a most perplexing problem to the lighthouse -engineer. What is applicable for the masonry tower is not necessarily -adapted to its floating contemporary, since the conditions are so -dissimilar. The United States service has adopted electric lighting -on all its steam-driven vessels, the current being easily obtainable -in this instance. On the whole, however, oil is the most popular form -of illuminant, the burners--there are several lamps arranged in a -ring round the mast--being fitted with two circular wicks, one within -the other; while behind the lamp an ordinary parabolic reflector is -placed in order to increase the intensity of the light produced. -These reflectors are disposed in such a manner around the mast that -the concentrated beam of light from one lamp just overlaps the rays -which are projected similarly from the lamp placed on either side, the -result being that a fixed white light of equal luminosity throughout -the circle is projected. But, unlike the illuminant in the lighthouse, -the light is not stationary in its vertical plane; it is swung from -side to side and up and down in rhythm with the movement of the vessel. -Under these circumstances, at one moment the light would project a -short ray owing to the declination of the beam in relation to the line -of the water, thereby bringing it below the horizon, while the next -moment, when the ship lurched in the opposite direction, the ray of -light would be thrown into the air and above the horizon. The problem -is to keep the light at one steady angle, irrespective of the motion -of the vessel, and this end is achieved by hanging each reflector -upon gimbals, so that the rolling practically is counteracted, the -reflectors maintaining a constant vertical position. - -Some lights are of the flashing type, and in this instance the -reflectors are disposed in groups. Here the gimbals, carrying the -reflectors, are mounted upon the framework which revolves around the -mast by clockwork mechanism, and are so arranged as to give any type of -distinguishing flash that may be desired. In the most approved types -of modern lightships, however, the dioptric apparatus is incorporated, -means having been discovered to avoid breakage from the rolling motion -of the ship, while the risk of throwing the beam above or below the -horizon according to the rolling of the boat is overcome. In this case -the lamps and reflectors are disposed on a turntable in the lantern, -with the dioptric apparatus mounted very carefully so as to secure -a true balance upon gimbals. The apparatus for revolving the light -is erected in a deck-house, the weight actuating the mechanism being -permitted to rise and fall in a special tube extending from the bottom -of the ship to the deck. The rotary action thus produced is transmitted -from the deck to the lantern above by means of a vertical shaft and -pinion. While ordinary lamps are installed as a rule in the lanterns, -Messrs. Chance Brothers and Co., the Birmingham lighthouse illuminating -engineers, have succeeded in adapting their incandescent oil-vapour -system, which has proved so eminently successful in lighthouses, to -light-vessels, with a very decided increase in the candle-power, and -marked economy in oil consumption and cost of upkeep. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -A FLAMING SENTINEL OF THE MALACCA STRAITS - - -With the development of commerce between Europe, China, and Japan, -following the awakening of the East, it became imperative to render -the seas approaching these countries far safer to navigation. If one -consults the atlas, and follows the routes taken by the great liners -from Britain and the Continent to the Orient, he will see a rampart -forming the boundary between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. -This is the East Indian Archipelago, and it bristles with dangers of -all descriptions to the mercantile traffic flowing to and fro. After -leaving India, the steamships turn their noses towards Singapore, at -the extremity of the Malay Peninsula; but this busy port is shut in on -the south by the attenuated rocky chain of islands forming the Dutch -East Indies, of which Sumatra and Java are the most important. - -The steamship lane lies between Sumatra and the Asian mainland, and -is known as the Straits of Malacca. It is a fearsome neck of water, -studded with islands and sandbanks, some visible above high-water, -others revealed only by the falling tide; while still more never see -daylight at all, yet owing to their shallow position are none the less -perilous. - -In order to foster the growth of the sea-traffic with China, these -unattractive waters demanded full illumination, while the rock-girt -shores of China and Japan were similarly in need of protective -outposts. Japan was particularly enterprising in this forward movement. -The country was emerging from the state of suspended civilization in -which it had reposed so calmly for centuries. The rising forces were -not slow to realize that unless they safeguarded steamship traffic -their ports would wait in vain for the ships from Europe. In fact, the -mercantile interests of the Western world bluntly stated that unless -this course were followed their ships would not come to trade. - -Japan at that time had not capable men at home for the purpose of -completing the first part of a comprehensive coast-lighting scheme, and -it was acknowledged that years must elapse before the country would be -able to walk alone in this field. Accordingly they sought Britain’s -assistance. The Stevenson family, as narrated already, elaborated a -comprehensive scheme, which was accepted. The structures were prepared -in Britain, sent out piecemeal to Japan together with a force of -competent men, and erected at the desired points. - -Upon this foundation the Japanese built up their excellent lighthouse -service. The Eastern pupil, in his own estimation, became as competent -as the Scottish teachers. At all events, Japan has since completed -all works of this description at home and unaided. China followed -suit, but in this instance it was due to British initiative purely and -simply. The British Inspector-General of the Imperial Maritime Customs -took up the question. He appointed an engineer-in-chief, to whom -the construction and repair of the lights were entrusted. The chief -engineer was provided with a coast inspector, upon whom devolved the -responsibility for the personnel and the maintenance of the stations, -he in turn being assisted in his exacting and, at that time, difficult -work by a corps of zealous officers. - -Although the countries concerned and the shipping companies of Europe -appreciated this forward policy, one class of individuals resented -this introduction of Western ideas into Oriental life. This was the -population who lived by wrecking and piracy. They recognized the fact -only too well, that, if brilliant beacons were to be permitted to be -erected freely throughout these troublous seas, their despicable but -remunerative calling would cease. Their solution of the problem assumed -a characteristic Chinese and Malay form; they endeavoured to wreak -their revenge upon the lights. Now and again there were sharp tussles -between the engineering staffs and these high-water brigands, but -firearms well handled by the white men invariably got the better of -the argument. Pirates caught in the attempt to tamper with the lights -received very short shrift. One engineer who had seen service in these -waters related to me that in the early days the amount of lead expended -in protecting a light from these marauders exceeded the quantity of -this metal used in the tower itself. - -The Malacca Straits, from their exceedingly dangerous nature, -constituted a happy hunting-ground for these gentlemen, and the -lighting of these waters was effected as soon as possible. Among the -innumerable menaces abounding, a shoal some sixteen miles west of the -coastline was particularly harassing to mariners. It became known as -One Fathom Bank, and the shallowest part was only about 18 feet below -the surface at high-water. When these waters were guarded first, a -lightship did duty; but the position is so open, and is so exposed to -the full fury of the monsoon, that she frequently dragged her anchors, -so that the warning became somewhat uncertain. - -Accordingly, it was decided to supersede the floating light by a -permanent structure, and a lighthouse on stilts, similar to those -familiar to American waters, was erected in 1874, and emitted a white -flash once a minute. Although this ironwork structure was pounded -mercilessly by the seas, it withstood all assaults completely, and was -only superseded eventually owing to the ever-increasing exigencies of -commerce, which demanded a more powerful and elevated light. - -The present tower was commenced in 1907. The engineers appreciated the -fact that they were being called upon to carry out an undertaking in an -especially trying position. The bank is well out to sea, and when the -monsoon is in full blast waves 8 feet in height thunder upon the shoal, -their ferocity varying according to the state of the tide, which rises -and falls a matter of 14 feet. The difficulties attending the building -of the Rothersand and Fourteen Foot Bank lighthouses under closely -similar conditions were not forgotten, and the prospect of building -a huge caisson on the mainland, and then towing it to the site to be -sunk, was by no means attractive, even if the fullest avail were taken -of the spells of calmest weather. - -Therefore an alternative method of construction, possessing the -qualities of being simpler, quicker, and less expensive, which was -advanced by a well-known firm of engineers in Singapore, Messrs. -Hargreaves, Riley and Co., upon the designs of Mr. O. P. Thomas, -received the closest consideration. This scheme proposed a lighthouse -constructed on piles, with the focal plane 92½ feet above water-level, -wrought in ferro-concrete. - -The project was somewhat novel and daring, because, although this -constructive principle had been adopted previously for stations -upon the mainland, it had never been utilized in connection with -exposed sea-lights. The system recommended was that known as the -Hennebique, which had been employed extensively for buildings, -bridges, sea-defences, and other works. The proposal was investigated -thoroughly by the Hon. A. Murray, M.Inst.C.E., the Colonial Engineer -and Surveyor-General for the Straits Settlements, and, as it met with -his full approval, the work was handed over to the Singapore engineers -to fulfil upon the lines advanced. - -The structure comprises the main building, including the -living-quarters, supported upon piles disposed in two rings, an inner -and an outer, about a central pile, the whole being well braced -together. The shape is octagonal in plan. From the roof of the -living-quarters, to which point the outer piles are carried vertically -from the sea-bed, these members rise with an inward rake, forming an -octagonal pyramid, with the lantern and its room below forming the apex. - -The underwater work was the most difficult, owing to the situation -and the climatic conditions. Seeing that the nearest land is sixteen -miles distant, it was impossible to carry the men to and from the -scene of their labours every day when the weather permitted. A base -was established on the coast for the preparation of materials and as -a point for shipping all requirements to the site, but the men were -accommodated with special facilities upon the spot. Here a temporary -staging was built on piles, on which platform a large hut was erected -to provide quarters for the men, as well as a workshop. - -The piles forming the main support to the building were made 50½ feet -long, and hollow. The concrete, composed of broken granite and Portland -cement, encased a steel skeleton, consisting of four longitudinal round -steel rods, 1¾ inches in diameter, laid at the corners, and laced -together with steel wire 3/16 inch thick. Eight of these piles were -made 18 inches square, while nine were 24 inches square, and each was -fitted with a pointed end to facilitate driving into the sea-bed. - -As these piles were prepared on shore, their transference to the site -was a pretty problem in itself. Ordinary methods of transport were -impracticable. The engineer overcame the difficulty in an ingenious -manner. He built up a raft of barrels, twenty-six of which were lashed -together in two rows, between which the pile was laid flat and evenly. -The raft was built upon peculiar lines, so as to facilitate the -unshipping of the pile when it reached its destination. It was divided -into four sections, each of which could be detached without disturbing -the other three parts. The raft and its pile were towed out to sea by -a steamer, and when the work was gained the raft was cast off, to be -floated under the staging and to the exact point where it was to be -set up. A chain sling was lowered from the platform and attached to -the head of the pile, and the lashings to the first section of the -raft were released, thus permitting the strapped barrels concerned to -float away and to be recovered. The pile was then slowly and carefully -hoisted at the head, the second part of the raft being released when -the pile had gained a certain height. This procedure was repeated -until finally, when the last part of the raft was freed, the pile -hung free, as vertically true as a plumb-line, with the pointed foot -resting on the sand. In order to send it truly into the sea-bed, heavy -timber guides were set up, and as the pile descended it was frequently -tested with the plummet, to see that it was sinking in an absolutely -perpendicular manner. - -[Illustration: COMPLETING THE ONE FATHOM BANK LIGHTHOUSE IN THE MALACCA -STRAITS. - -The keepers live on the lower floors. The upper floor beneath the -lantern is the service room.] - -The piles were sunk into the soft sea-bed by means of water-jets, -which, playing about the foot of the pile, burrowed a hole into which -it could move downwards. A depth of 15 feet had been considered -necessary to secure the desired rigidity, and as a rule the pile could -be driven to this depth in about four hours. When the pile-driving -commenced, however, it was found that the sandbank had undergone a -marked change since the surveys were made. Erosion had been very active -owing to the currents having been checked by the obstructions which -the legs of the staging offered. Under these circumstances a novel -experiment was made upon the site. One of the piles was lengthened -by 14½ feet, to be driven to its limits, just to ascertain how far -it would go into the sand. This in itself was a somewhat daring -undertaking, seeing that the tiny colony on the staging did not possess -the facilities which were available on shore for the work. However, -it was accomplished satisfactorily, and when the pile was sunk it -was found to descend another 13½ feet, where it touched hard rock. -This discovery brought about a modification in the plans. As a solid -foundation could be gained at a depth of 28½ feet, and as the piles -could be lengthened successfully upon the site, it was decided to -extend all the piles to a complete length of 64½ feet, and to drive -them down to the hard bottom. When the piles were all lowered, they -were subjected to four blows from a “monkey” weighing 2½ tons, dropped -from a height of 4 feet. But these four final blows only drove the -piles from ¼ to 7/8 inch farther into the sea-bed, whereas, according -to the specification, a margin of 1 inch was allowed for this test. - -The diameter of the tower at the base is 40 feet, and heavy bracing -is introduced at a point 4 feet below high-water to hold the fabric -together, and to supply the requisite strength and rigidity. At a -height of 21 feet above this main bracing is the floor of the -superstructure, comprising an octagonal two-floor building, surrounded -by an overhanging gallery, built on the cantilever principle, 5 feet in -width, which forms the landing platform. The two floors have a total -height of 24 feet, and constitute the keepers’ home. The roof is flat, -in order to facilitate the collection and conduct of rain-water into -two ferro-concrete cisterns, each holding 1,000 gallons. The lower -floor is devoted to housing stores, oil, etc., while the upper story -forms the living-quarters. The roof is caused to overhang a distance of -4 feet on all sides, thereby providing a flat surface 44 feet across. -From this point the eight main columns of the building slope inwards, -until, at a height of 30 feet, they have a diameter of 18½ feet, where -the lantern is introduced. The lower part of the latter constitutes the -service-room, and leads directly to the lantern above. Access to the -different levels is afforded by means of a teak-wood staircase, while -that leading from the entrance floor to the water for landing purposes -is hinged, so that it may be accommodated to the condition of the tide. - -The lantern, which weighs 17½ tons, is of the modern type, and is -more powerful than that of the 1874 light, which it displaced. The -white light is thrown in groups of flashes every fifteen seconds, -and the warning is visible from the deck of a vessel some fifteen -miles away. The central pier, which carries a great proportion of the -total weight of the tower, and which extends continuously from the -bed-rock foundation to the lantern-room, is solid to the roof of the -living-quarters. Above this point it is hollow, having a bore of 12 -inches, and in this space the weight actuating the revolving mechanism -of the light moves up and down. - -[Illustration: THE ONE FATHOM BANK LIGHTHOUSE, MALACCA STRAITS, IN -COURSE OF ERECTION. - -It is built throughout of ferro-concrete, and is supported on piles -driven into the sand. At the left are the quarters provided for the -lighthouse builders who lived on the spot.] - -Although the idea was novel at the time, the complete success of -the work justified the recommendations of the designers as to the -suitability of this form of construction for open-sea lighthouses. In -this instance the enterprise not only was completed for a less sum -than would have been required for a corresponding lighthouse erected -in masonry upon orthodox lines, but the structure is lighter, was -more rapidly built, and is thoroughly hygienic. The complete weight of -the whole tower is less than 1,000 tons; and from the setting of the -first pile to the lighting of the lamps only fourteen months elapsed, -notwithstanding the fact that work was interrupted and hindered -frequently by inclement weather. Any doubts that were entertained -concerning the ability of the structure to resist the attacks of the -wind and seas encountered in these latitudes was dispelled during -erection, because the monsoons which broke during the period of -erection were abnormally heavy, and submitted the fabric to exceptional -strains and stresses, which it withstood with complete success. - -Another fine light which has been provided for the benefit of the -navigator in these Eastern seas is that on Gap Rock. This is a rugged, -lofty eminence, rising from the sea, thirty-two miles south of -Hong-Kong. Being exposed on all sides, it is difficult to approach, -while at the same time it lies in the path of vessels. A few years ago -the Hong-Kong Government decided to conquer this islet, and to deprive -it of its perils to shipping. With great effort a landing was effected, -and one of the pinnacles was decapitated and levelled off, to form a -spacious platform for landing. The light itself rises from the highest -point of the rock, and its rays are visible through a circle of twenty -miles radius. The Gap Rock light is also a signal-station, being in -telegraphic communication with Hong-Kong. - -Although the days of human hostility to the lighthouse in Eastern -waters have passed, the engineer is confronted by an enemy which is in -every way as destructive. This is the white ant. The ravages of this -insect are so relentless and complete where wood is concerned that -timber towers are quite impracticable. Moreover, this material has to -be used only sparingly for fittings, even in masonry and iron buildings. - -A curious experience with this insidious and implacable foe was related -to me by a lighthouse engineer. He was engaged in the erection of a -new beacon at a remote point on the coast. The lenses and lantern -apparatus, as usual, had been ordered in England, and were despatched -to the East carefully packed in substantial tin-lined cases. In order -to secure the utmost protection during transit, each metallic and -lenticular part was wrapped in tow. Care also was bestowed upon the -sealing of the tin case, since the propensity of the ant to discover -the smallest pinhole so as to reach the interior was emphasized upon -the packers. Accordingly the seams were doubly soldered. - -In due course the cases with their precious contents reached the site -of erection, but unfortunately the season was so far advanced that the -engineer concluded he could not complete the erection of the lantern -before the monsoon broke. As the contents of the cases were preserved -by the tin armour from climatic attacks, he stored the cases securely, -and with his workmen left the place until favourable weather returned. - -Some weeks later the chief and his toilers reappeared upon the scene. -All preparations for setting the optical apparatus were completed. -Imagine the dismay of the engineer when, on opening the case containing -the most important parts of the lantern, he found that it had been -raided by white ants. They had driven their tracks spirally through -the tow, which evidently they had enjoyed, and although this was of -little consequence, the formic acid had played sad havoc with the -bright surfaces of the spindles. In lighthouse engineering the surfaces -of these parts must be as bright and as clean as a mirror to insure -smooth, steady working. But now these spindles were as pitted and -marked as a victim to smallpox. It was a maddening contretemps, since -the only way to restore the vital bright surfaces was to turn them -in the lathe. Such a tool was not available within a hundred or more -miles. Erection had to be delayed, however, until this treatment was -effected. - -Seeing that the tin case was soldered up with such infinite care, the -question arises. How did the ants get into it? To the engineer it -seemed an inscrutable puzzle, but he subjected the case to a minute -examination. Finally he solved the problem. At one corner he found -that a nail, while being driven during the process of nailing up the -heavy outer wooden case at the English factory, had turned slightly, so -that its point had punctured the inner metal case. The ants, too, had -discovered this minute breach, and through it had swarmed to the attack -upon the interior. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -UNATTENDED LIGHTHOUSES - - -During the past fifty years engineering science as applied to -lighthouses has made remarkable advances. This has been due largely -to the indefatigable perseverance and ceaseless labour of the chemist -in regard to illumination. This wonder-worker has given us acetylene, -has evolved means whereby oil-gas may be compressed to a pressure -of several atmospheres with safety, and has discovered other gases -obtainable by inexpensive and simple means. The engineer has not -hesitated to profit from these developments, and has devised highly -ingenious apparatuses whereby these illuminating mediums may be stored -and used, so as to dispense with the human element almost entirely; in -fact, in these instances the latter factor has been reduced to such -a degree that it is only called upon to perform certain perfunctory -operations, such as the recharging of the storage vessels at long -intervals--three, six, or twelve months, according to circumstances. - -This combination has provided the lighthouse engineer with a new, -powerful, and efficient means of overcoming abnormal difficulties. -Many a rock, reef, or stretch of uninhabited coastline has demanded -indication, but has defied such protection from motives of cost, -inaccessibility, or searching problems concerning the accommodation and -relief of the keepers. As I have shown in the course of this volume, -the erection of a first-class lighthouse is a costly undertaking, -and the shipping interests, which in the case of Great Britain and -a few other countries are called upon to pay the bill, naturally -demur, unless the rock or other obstacle is situate in the centre -of the marine thoroughfare, or the approach to a pitiless coast is -extremely hazardous, when the erection of the tower becomes absolutely -imperative. If one were to add up the costs of all the great lights -scattered throughout the seven seas, it would be found that several -millions sterling had been sunk in this humane effort, and yet, -relatively speaking, but a small area of danger in the aggregate is -safeguarded. - -[Illustration: THE PLATTE FOUGÈRE LIGHTHOUSE UNDER CONSTRUCTION. - -This automatic light marks a dangerous reef, off the Guernsey coast, -which is familiar to readers of Victor Hugo’s “Toilers of the Sea.”] - -Then the human factor demands consideration. A colony of four or six -men scarcely could be found willing to suffer isolation from the world -at large and to be deprived of intercourse with their fellow-beings in -the interests of shipping, say, through the Straits of Magellan, around -Cape Horn, among the icy fastnesses of the Northern Labrador coast, or -in Hudson Bay. Life in the lighthouses which guard the busy steamship -lanes is monotonous and nerve-shattering enough, but to maroon men -in such remote places as those mentioned above would be to promote a -wholesale rush of inmates for the lunatic asylums. - -This is where the chemist and the engineer in collaboration have -triumphed. By their joint efforts it is now possible to supply the -most inhospitable shore with a belt of lights equal in every respect -to those mounting sentinel over the more densely populated reaches of -coast in the civilized parts of the globe. The unattended lighthouse -is a modern development born of necessity, which has proved highly -serviceable, effective, and reliable. The passenger, as he lolls -against the taffrail of the steamer ploughing her way carefully through -the lane 375 miles long separating the mainland of South America from -Tierra del Fuego, and watches the faithful star twinkling upon the top -of a frowning cliff and urging the mariner to keep clear, may cherish -a feeling of pity for the man who has to keep that beam shining. But -his commiseration is misplaced. No human hands touch that beacon, -perhaps, for six months or more at a time. It is a triumph of automatic -operation. The same applies to the wicked shores of New Zealand, the -uninviting northern stretches of the Gulf of Bothnia, the iron-bound -coasts of Norway and Sweden, and many another unattractive mainland and -island. - -All the great maritime nations possess several of these silent, -faithful lights, which, although upon their introduction they were -regarded with a certain amount of suspicion, owing to the urgent -necessity of a light never failing in its duty for the guidance of the -seafarer, yet have been proved by the convincing lesson of experience -to be as reliable in every respect as the light which is tended by -human hands. - -So far as Great Britain is concerned, the unattended light has been -brought to a high stage of efficiency and utility by the efforts of -Messrs. David and Charles Stevenson, while in other parts of the world -the apparatus and methods perfected by Mr. Gustaf Dalén of Stockholm -are used extensively. - -The most interesting example of the Stevenson unattended lighthouse is -provided in the English Channel, indicating the entrance to the strait -which leads to the Guernsey capital of St. Peter Port. This was one of -the first of its character to be erected, but the type is now being -adopted widely owing to the success of this initial undertaking. The -Channel Islands have achieved an unsavoury reputation in marine annals, -as they form a graveyard of the Channel; they have claimed their -victims, during recent years at any rate, mostly from the ranks of the -heavy cross-Channel traffic. - -[Illustration: THE PLATTE FOUGÈRE LIGHTHOUSE. - -This beacon, designed by Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson, probably is the -finest unattended lighthouse in existence. On the top of the tower is -the automatically controlled acetylene light.] - -The Russell Channel, leading to St. Peter Port from the north, is -exceedingly dangerous, the sea being littered with granite rocks both -submerged and exposed, of which the Grande Braye, Barsier, and Platte -Fougère, form the outer rampart. Readers of Victor Hugo may gather some -realistic idea of the perilous nature of these waters by perusing “The -Toilers of the Sea,” in which these rocks figure very prominently, -particularly the Platte Fougère. The menace of this corner of the -channel is accentuated by the velocity of the tidal currents which -swing and swirl round the reefs, together with the extreme range of -the tides, which averages about 30 feet. Formerly, in thick weather, -vessels found it almost impossible to pick up the Russell, and often -a captain, by the rip and crash of metal being torn, to his dismay -learned that he had swung too far to the westward. - -[Illustration: SETTING THE COMPRESSED-AIR RESERVOIR AT FORT DOYLE. - -The Platte Fougère automatic light is supplemented by a land station on -the island of Guernsey a mile away.] - -The companies engaged in this traffic repeatedly petitioned the -authorities to mark the entrance to the strait by some adequate means. -A light was not required so keenly as a sound-signal, because in clear -weather navigation was tolerably safe. The proposal was discussed -time after time, but no solution appeared to be forthcoming. To erect -a lighthouse on the outer fringe of the barrier would have entailed -prodigious expenditure, which the island authorities could ill afford, -even if such a scheme were practicable. - -The question was taken up boldly by General Campbell during his -occupation of the post of Governor-General of the Island of -Guernsey, and he pressed forward the scheme vigorously in a resolute -determination to bring about a diminution in the number of maritime -disasters at this point. He approached Messrs. David and Charles -Stevenson, who had considerable experience of similar conditions -around the Scottish coasts, and they, after an elaborate survey of the -site, recommended the erection of a light and fog-signal station upon -the Platte Fougère, which should be controlled from the land a mile -distant. They agreed that the erection of a tower similar to those -generally planted on sea-rocks would be a formidable undertaking and -enormously expensive, owing to the conditions prevailing, but the -station they suggested was quite practicable, and would serve the -purposes equally well. - -Instead of a massive, gracefully-curving tower, measuring some 40 -feet in diameter at the base, these engineers suggested a building of -irregular octagonal shape, measuring 14½ and 17 feet across the faces, -80 feet in height, and carried out in ferro-concrete. They advocated -its erection upon the Platte Fougère, because there the fog-signal -would be brought into the most serviceable position for shipping. A -narrow or thin building was advised, to offer the minimum of surface -to the waves, which break very heavily on these ridges. The wisdom of -this design has been revealed very convincingly since the tower has -been in service. The seas fall on either side, divide and rush round -the building, so that it does not experience the full brunt of their -heavy, smashing blows. As the engineers pointed out, “It is better to -avoid heavy sea pressures, where feasible, in preference to courting -them.” - -Still, the Platte Fougère was not an ideal rock from the engineers’ -point of view, although it is a solid knot of granite. Its head is -visible only at low-water spring-tides, while it is difficult to -approach, even in the smoothest weather, owing to the tides and -currents. Much of the foundation work had to be carried out under -water. The season was unavoidably limited, as the days when both the -wind and the sea are calm in this part of the channel are very few and -far between. - -The tower is solid for a height of 46 feet above the rock, and the base -is formed of Portland cement placed in iron moulds, with iron bars -driven into the solid rock to anchor the concrete firmly. On the side -to which the building is exposed to the heaviest seas, massive beams -of rolled steel are driven into the rock, so as to impart additional -strength to the part of the tower where the greatest strains are likely -to be set up. - -On the entrance level is a compartment containing an electric motor and -air-compressor, while on the floor immediately above is a duplicate -installation. The siren projects through the top of the tower, the -trumpet being so turned as to throw the sounds in a horizontal -direction over the water. On the top of the tower is a small automatic -acetylene gas plant and light, such as the engineers have employed -so successfully in their unattended Scottish light-stations, two -air-receivers, and a water-tank. A new type of burner is used, and a -clockwork mechanism is incorporated to extinguish the light at dawn and -to ignite it at dusk, with a special arrangement to allow for the short -summer nights and the long periods of darkness during the winter. - -[Illustration: THE FORT DOYLE SIREN. - -This installation on the island is maintained so as to take the place -of the automatic lighthouse a mile out to sea, in the remote event of -the latter breaking down.] - -As mentioned above, the station is controlled electrically from a point -on shore. In deciding the latter, it was necessary to discover the most -favourable landing-place for the submarine cable in relation to its -route, and Doyle Fort was selected as meeting all requirements in this -direction. Here a two-floor dwelling has been erected for the keepers, -together with an adjoining engine-house, which measures 32 feet in -length by 20 feet wide. The tower being a mile distant, the designers -had to meet the possibility of the machinery therein breaking down. -Accordingly, at the shore station there is an auxiliary fog-siren and -air-compressing plant, which is brought into use when the sea apparatus -is deranged. - -[Illustration: - - _By courtesy of Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson._ - -AN UNATTENDED BEACON LIGHT PLACED UPON A WILD PART OF THE SCOTTISH -COAST. - -These lights will run for several months without any human attention, -and, by means of ingenious mechanism, light and extinguish themselves -automatically.] - -The machinery includes two oil-engines which drive three-phase -alternators, and an air-compressor for working the land siren when -required. One of the greatest difficulties arose in connection with the -submarine cable which connects the land-station with the sea-tower. -Owing to the broken, rocky nature of the sea-bed, the viciousness of -the currents, and the heavy seas, the cable had to be of exceptional -strength; indeed, it had to be made specially for the purpose. It is -a double-sheathed, steel-armoured cable of the heaviest “rock” type, -being 11 inches in circumference, and weighing 45 tons per nautical -mile. As the current used is three-phase, there are three conductors, -which weigh 1,100 pounds per mile, protected by a thick layer of -gutta-percha averaging 450 pounds per mile. In the centre of the core -are two other wires for switching and telephone purposes respectively. -The laying of the cable was a peculiar and exacting task in itself; -6,504 feet had to be paid out. But by waiting for a very calm day -and slack water this task was achieved without mishap. In the tower -there is a simple switch operated by an electro-magnet, whereby the -motor-driven air-compressors are thrown in and out of action. The -two compressors are used alternately, so as to keep them in thorough -working order; and as they have to be left sometimes for months without -being examined, special attention has been devoted to their lubrication. - -A visit to this lighthouse is a somewhat curious experience. Climbing -the ladder and entering the building, one finds it apparently -abandoned. Not a sound beyond the murmuring of the waves playing about -the rocks below disturbs a silence which is uncannily tense. Suddenly -there is an almost imperceptible click. The keeper at the light-station -has moved his switch, and simultaneously that in the tower has -closed. The electric motors instantly commence to revolve, with a low -grunt at first, but rising quickly to a loud humming as they settle -down to their stride, driving the air-compressors. Then comes the -ear-splitting, deep-toned roar from the siren overhead, attended by -the whirr of machinery in motion. The humming of the motors and the -compressors dies down, and in a few seconds absolute stillness prevails -once more. The sensation is decidedly eerie. It seems impossible that a -silence so intense as to be felt should be interrupted by a click--the -result of a slight movement by an unseen hand a mile away--which gives -forth such a nerve-shattering din as to convey the idea that Bedlam -had been let loose. At the land-station the experience is similarly -weird. The keeper moves his switch which brings the tower machinery -into action. Presently there is the sharp tinkle of an electric bell. -This notifies the keeper that the blast on the tower has been given, -but conclusive evidence of this fact does not arrive until five seconds -later, when the baying of the siren comes rolling over the water. - -A complete check is kept upon the isolated station out at sea. If the -electric bell does not ring out at the appointed period, to notify -the keeper that the siren has emitted its warning note, he knows that -something is amiss. The land-station is brought into service without -delay, the intimation to the mariner to stand clear being thrown from -Doyle Fort once every ninety seconds. The men on shore take it in turns -to mount watch for fog both day and night, and their vigil is checked. -There is an electric alarm, which maintains silence only so long as the -man on duty fulfils his appointed task and records this fact upon his -mechanical register at scheduled intervals. Should he fail to perform -this function, there is a frenzied clanging by the alarm-bell, which -summons the second keeper to duty. - -[Illustration: THE GASFETEN LIGHT: A LONELY BEACON IN SWEDISH WATERS. - -This was the first tower to be fitted with the Dalén “sun-valve” in -conjunction with the Dalén flasher. Several automatic lights of this -type are used to show the way through the Panama Canal.] - -Apparently, the weakest point in the installation is the submarine -cable, but the engineers entertain no apprehensions on this score. It -is too stoutly made and too heavily armoured to rupture very readily. -Experience has proved its efficiency and reliability, while a long -life is anticipated for it. The Platte Fougère unattended lighthouse -has opened up new possibilities for protecting wild coasts. It has -proved conclusively that there is no difficulty in maintaining such -a station and controlling it from a distance so long as automatic -apparatus which has proved its worth is employed. This practical -application should serve to solve many peculiar problems. No longer can -the bogie of expense be put forward as an argument against safeguarding -a notoriously evil length of shoreline or isolated rock, even if the -latter is exposed to the heaviest seas known. The Guernsey installation -was completed for £8,500, or $42,500, and is as serviceable as the -ordinary type of tower, which in this instance would have cost at least -£60,000, or $300,000, to build and equip. From the maintenance point -of view it is equally convincing and economical, inasmuch as only two -keepers are required in the place of the four who otherwise would have -been necessary. - -[Illustration: THE DALÉN “SUN-VALVE,” THE MOST WONDERFUL INVENTION OF -MODERN LIGHTHOUSE ENGINEERING. - -Depending upon the action of daylight alone, it automatically ignites -and extinguishes the light at dusk and dawn respectively.] - -The system which has been devised by Mr. Gustaf Dalén of Stockholm, -and which is exploited by the Gas Accumulator Company of the Swedish -capital, operates with dissolved acetylene. The first light in -Scandinavian waters to be brought into action upon the “Aga” principle, -as it is called, was installed in the Gasfeten tower, an exceedingly -isolated beacon which offered every means of testing it thoroughly. -The idea follows the broad lines of that adopted in connection -with lightships, and, the Gasfeten experiments proving completely -successful, it has been adopted extensively since, not only by the -Swedish authorities for the lighting of lonely waters in the Baltic -Sea and Gulf of Bothnia, but by various other Powers. The Straits of -Magellan are protected in this way, and when one recalls the sparse -population which dwells upon the banks of this short-cut between the -Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and bears in mind the fact that the lights -have to be left to their own automatic action for some months on end, -then one may realize the perfection and reliability of the invention. -The failure of a light in such treacherous waters would be notified -speedily to the authorities responsible for the illumination of this -sea-lane, but no such complaints appear to have been received from -passing vessels. These lonely lights for the most part are of a very -simple character, a result due to local conditions. As a rule they are -planted on lofty eminences--not at too high an elevation, as thereby -they might be rendered useless by headland fogs--at a height varying -between 150 and 250 feet. The base of the tower forms a space for the -accommodation of the gas-accumulators, wherein the illuminating medium -is stored under pressure, surmounted by the lantern which carries the -requisite optical apparatus, and the flasher whereby the characteristic -visual warning is given. - -Although adoption of the flasher enabled the consumption of gas to -be reduced very appreciably, there was one noticeable drawback: the -light had to burn both night and day, unless clockwork mechanism were -introduced to extinguish the light at sunrise and to ignite it at -twilight. Some authorities, however, do not place trust in clockwork -mechanism. Certainly it is liable to fail at a critical moment, and in -the case of an isolated light, several hundred miles from the nearest -base, this would be a serious calamity, intimation of the fact not -being available until several weeks after the disability had been -observed. - -In order to overcome the fallibility of clockwork, and to insure a -still further marked decrease in the consumption of gas, Mr. Gustaf -Dalén devoted his energies to the perfection of a device which -should achieve the self-same end, but be operated by Nature herself. -His efforts were crowned with complete success by the invention of -the “light-valve,” but which has become more widely known as the -“sun-valve.” - -[Illustration: THE GAS ACCUMULATORS EMPLOYED IN THE DALÉN AUTOMATIC -SYSTEM. - -The size of the storage cylinder varies according to the work, -character, and position of the beacon.] - -This device is based upon a well-known principle. If two objects, -fashioned from the same metal, and identical in every respect except -that one is made light-absorbing and the other light-reflecting, are -exposed to daylight, while the former will expand, the latter will -remain unaffected. This result is due to the fact that the one which -absorbs light transforms it into energy. The acting part of the -“sun-valve” therefore is a light-absorber. It consists of a central -rod, the surface of which is coated with lampblack, so that its -light-absorbing qualities are enhanced as much as possible. The lower -part of this rod is connected to a small lever, which opens and shuts -an orifice through which the gas passes to the flasher in the lantern -above. Around this central black copper rod are three other copper -rods, disposed equidistantly. They resemble the former in every respect -except that they have no light-absorbing qualities, but they are given -polished gold surfaces, so that their light-reflecting properties are -raised to the maximum. - -This sun-valve is exposed. At the break of dawn, under the gathering -intensity of daylight, the central black rod absorbs the luminosity, -the amount of which is increased by the light thrown from the -gold-burnished outer rods, and, converting it into energy, expands -longitudinally. In so doing it forces the lever at the base downwards, -closing the opening through which the gas flows to the flasher. In a -short while, when the day has broken fairly and there is no further -need for the beacon’s services, the gas-feed is cut off entirely, only -the pilot burner remaining alight, the gas-supply to this not being -affected by the sun-valve. In order to bring the greatest possible -pressure upon the lever, the blackened rod is so arranged that it can -expand only in one direction--namely, downwards. - -Upon the approach of evening, owing to the daylight becoming weaker, -the blackened rod contracts, and, the pressure upon the lever being -released, the gas commences to flow once more to the burner. It is a -small stream at first, but as the darkness gathers, and the shrinking -continues, the valve opens wider and wider, until at last, when night -has settled down and the copper central rod has fully contracted, the -gas-valve is opened to its fullest extent, permitting the greatest -pressure of gas to flow to the burner, so that the beacon throws its -most brilliant light. This automatic action continues infallibly every -dawn and dusk, and is the simplest and at the same time most reliable -means of economizing gas during the day that has yet been devised. - -There is another feature of this system which must not be overlooked. -Suppose, for some reason or other, that the sea becomes shrouded in -suffused light, such as might arise from the obscuring of the sun by -an overhanging bank of fog or smoke, the beacon comes automatically -into service, as the cutting off of the daylight must bring about a -contraction of the blackened copper rod controlling the valve. - -The central rod can be adjusted to any degree of sensitiveness, by -means of a screw, while protection of the vital parts is insured by -enclosure within a heavy glass cylinder. The first apparatus of this -character was tested by the Swedish authorities in 1907, and proved -so successful that it is now in service at all the exposed unattended -lighthouses in Swedish and Finnish waters; while it has been adopted, -also, very extensively by the United States, more particularly for the -lighting of the lonely stretches of the Alaskan coastline and of the -Panama Canal. - -Of course, the saving of gas which is rendered possible by the use of -the sun-valve varies according to the season of the year. During the -winter, when the nights are long, the saving may not be very marked, -but in the summer, when darkness does not last more than four or five -hours, the economy is very noticeable. According to the experience of -the Swedish authorities, the average saving of gas during the year -varies from 35 to 40 per cent., as compared with similar lights not -fitted with this device. - -But there is another factor which is influenced to a very appreciable -degree by the utilization of the sun-valve. By cutting off the light -when it is not required, the capacity of--_i.e._, the duration of -service upon--one charge is lengthened, and this in the case of an -isolated light is a very important consideration. In fact, with the -“Aga” system wherein the sun-valve is combined with the flasher, it is -possible for the light to work a round twelve months without the least -control or necessity for intermediate inspection, and at as low an -annual charge as £2 15s., or about $14. - -[Illustration: THE LAGERHOLMEN LIGHTHOUSE. - -It marks a lonely dangerous rock in the Baltic Sea, and operates -upon the Aga unattended automatic system, with Dalén flasher and -“sun-valve.”] - -One of the latest unattended installations which have been carried out -upon these lines is the Lagerholmen lighthouse, marking a dangerous -rock in the Baltic Sea. It is a cylindrical tower, with the focal -plane 56 feet 4 inches above sea-level, and the flashing light, with -sun-valve control, has a range of eighteen miles. The geographical -range, however, is only thirteen miles, owing to the comparatively low -height of the tower. - -An interesting and ingenious automatic unattended light has also been -established in an isolated part of the Bristol Channel. It was designed -by Sir Thomas Matthews, the engineer to the Brethren of Trinity House. -This is purely and simply a clockwork-controlled apparatus in which -extreme care has been taken to eliminate the disadvantages incidental -to such mechanism. This type of light was designed to fulfil three -conditions--to give a flashing light; to light up and go out at -the proper times; and to require attention only at long intervals. -Acetylene is the illuminant used, the gas being stored in a reservoir -under high pressure. The gas as it emerges from the supply cylinder is -expanded, so that the pressure at the burner does not exceed 2 pounds -per square inch. - -The outstanding feature of this apparatus is that the clockwork -control cutting off and turning on the gas does not require to be -wound by hand, but is actuated by the mechanism which revolves the -lenses, through a simple set of gearing. The gas as it issues from the -reservoir passes into one of two cylinders. Each of these is provided -with an inlet and an exhaust valve, while the upper end is closed -with a lid of leather, covering the top like the vellum of a drum. -To each leather cover is attached a circular piece of metal, smaller -than the leather diaphragm, and from this in turn extends a vertical -rod, the upper end of which is connected to one end of a centrally -pivoted rocking arm. When the gas enters one cylinder, naturally in -expanding it forces the leather lid upwards, and with it the vertical -rod. This elevates the corresponding end of the rocking arm, and -simultaneously drives down the rod attached to the opposite end -of the beam, which in turn drives down the leather lid of the second -cylinder, and forces out any gas that may be therein. The apparatus -consequently is something like a double pump, owing to the rocking arm -having a seesaw motion. This reciprocating action serves to wind up -the clock, and also to revolve the lenses through spurs and pinions. -The mechanism, however, is controlled completely by the clock whereby -the light is started, inasmuch as without this the apparatus cannot -be set in motion. There are two dials, one of which is divided into -twenty-four divisions, corresponding to the hours of the day, and the -other into twelve divisions, representing the twelve months of the -year. The clocks work together, and the time of lighting up is advanced -or retarded, according to the time of the year, through the clock train -wheels. - -The apparatus is very compact, highly ingenious, and has proved -efficient in service. Although this is the first application of the -idea for rotating the lenses by the gas which feeds the burners, -so far as England is concerned, it has been employed under similar -circumstances in Germany with conspicuous success, in combination -with the Pintsch oil-gas apparatuses, but it lacks the simplicity and -reliability of the sun-valve. - -[Illustration: AN UNATTENDED BEACON LIGHTING THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN. - -This warning, fitted with Dalén flasher and sun-valve, is visited once -in six months.] - -[Illustration: AN AUTOMATIC LIGHT-BOAT. - -This novel warning was constructed for installation at the mouth of a -Swedish river owing to the extreme velocity of the current. Such a boat -may be left unvisited for a year if desired.] - -A different system, which has been adopted widely throughout the -East and in Australian waters, is the Wigham petroleum beacon. This -system possesses many notable features, the most important being -that well-refined petroleum oil is employed. In many parts of the -world carbide of calcium is not readily obtainable, and, moreover, is -somewhat expensive, whereas, on the other hand, oil is comparatively -cheap and available in unlimited quantities. The principle of working -is somewhat novel. The wick is not burned in the manner generally -followed in regard to lamps--viz., at the end, which within a short -time becomes carbonized and brings a marked diminution of the -illuminating power--but it is moved so that the same part is not -exposed continuously to the action of the heat arising from combustion. -It is caused to travel horizontally over a small roller, in a -specially-constructed burner, combustion taking place, therefore, on -its flat side. It is moved slowly and continuously over this roller, -so that it cannot burn through, and in this manner the flame, being -constantly emitted from a fresh surface, is of uniform intensity. - -[Illustration: THE WIGHAM THIRTY-ONE DAY UNATTENDED PETROLEUM LIGHT. - -The type at left shows the lamp carried upon a cast-iron pillar; while -on the right it is mounted upon a lattice tower.] - -The lamp comprises three main parts. There is the lantern, with the -lens and the projecting panes of plate-glass, in the focus of which -the burner is fixed. Then there is the burning-oil reservoir, which -feeds the wick as it moves towards the burner. This reservoir is -circular in shape, somewhat shallow, and serves as a deck on which -the lantern is built up. The third part is the float cylinder, made -of copper, which is attached to the underside of the oil reservoir. -This cylinder is filled with oil, which is kept quite distinct from -the burning oil, and thereon floats a weighted copper drum, to which -one end of the wick is secured by means of a hook. At the lower end of -this cylinder is a micrometer valve, which when opened permits the oil -to drip away at a certain speed. This causes the float to fall with -the oil in the cylinder, and to drag the wick over the burner roller -and down the float cylinder after it, so that a fresh surface of the -wick is presented continuously for combustion. The lamps themselves may -be divided into two broad classes--the single-wick and the three-wick -respectively. The latter obviously emits the more brilliant light, and -is the type which is coming into more extensive use at the present -time. In the latest type a duplex burner is employed, and this has -been found to give a very powerful light with a comparatively low oil -consumption. - -The light is generally carried at the top of a lattice-work steel -tower. A support of this character can be taken to pieces, packed -within small compass, and transported without difficulty, while -erection is simplified and facilitated. Seeing that a large number -of these beacons have been erected on headlands along the wildest -stretches of the African continent and the loneliest coasts of -Australia, where the methods of transport are restricted to coolies -or mules, this method of packing is distinctly advantageous. The lamp -is secured to the top of the tower, with the float cylinder of the lamp -depending from the centre. In this arrangement, as a rule, a small tank -is provided into which a drain-pipe empties the oil dropping from the -drip-valve. In this way the oil may be drawn off, filtered, and used -again in the float cylinder. In some instances the lamp is mounted upon -a cast-iron column, in which case the float cylinder and the oil-drip -tank are placed within the tube, access thereto being obtained through -a door. - -The length of service on one charge varies according to the situation -of the light. If in a very exposed and inaccessible place, it may be -required to burn for two or three months without attention. Taken -on the average, however, a monthly charge has been found to offer -the greatest advantages. But in some places the longer interval is -unavoidable. For instance, the Wigham light which is mounted upon the -extremity of the Manora breakwater at Karachi cannot be approached for -three months at a time during the monsoon. Under these circumstances a -one-hundred-day service is imperative. - -The lenses are of the dioptric order, consisting of six elements built -up into a strong gun-metal framework. The internal diameter naturally -varies with the size and number of the wicks, and ranges from 10 inches -for a 1-1/8 inch single wick, to 15 inches in the case of a 1-5/8 inch -three-wick lamp. In the larger sizes a curved plate-glass pane is -fitted outside the lens as a protection from the action of the weather. -These storm-panes are set in copper doors, so that the glasses may be -easily cleaned and polished when the lamp is being retrimmed. - -[Illustration: WILLSON GAS AND WHISTLING FLOATING LIGHT OFF EGG ISLAND, -NOVA SCOTIA.] - -[Illustration: THE WILLSON “OUTER AUTOMATIC,” HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.] - -The maintenance charges are guided by the local market values -of materials and labour, the item of repairs and renewals being -practically negligible. So far as oil consumption per month is -concerned, this fluctuates according to the type of lamp used, -ranging from 1-1/5 pints per twenty-four hours, or 4·8 gallons per -month, in the case of a 1-1/8-inch single-wick burner, to 2¼ pints -per twenty-four hours, or 8¾ gallons of oil per month, in the case -of the latest 1-5/8-inch duplex-wick burner. American petroleum-oil, -of a specific gravity of about 0·795, gives the best results and -the brightest and clearest flame. Russian and other heavier oils -generally used in lighthouses are unsuitable. In view of the world-wide -operations of the Standard Oil Company, however, no difficulty is -experienced in procuring adequate supplies of this oil anywhere between -the two Poles. - -The oil used in the float cylinder, as mentioned previously, is quite -distinct from the burning oil, and is used only to support the float to -which the wick is attached. As the oil escapes through the drip-valve, -it may be allowed to run to waste, or, what is far preferable, it may -be caught, filtered, and used again for this purpose, to bring about a -reduction in the cost of upkeep. The float cylinder of a thirty-one-day -light, irrespective of the number of wicks, requires the same quantity -of oil for the float cylinder--9½ gallons. - -The advantages of the unattended, automatic light have been appreciated -by the various maritime Powers, and their application is being -developed rapidly. They are inexpensive in first cost, and their -maintenance charges are very low. In Sweden a second-order light, -consuming 6 cubic feet of acetylene gas per hour, throwing a fixed -white light of 4,000 candle-power, and visible for seventeen miles in -clear weather, costs about £15, or $75, per annum; while the smaller -lights, with a 300-millimetre lens and a 12-inch burner emitting 360 -candle-power, may be run for £2, or $10, per annum, the low cost in -this instance being attributable to use of the Dalén flasher and -sun-valve. - -The cost of the acetylene gas averages ¾d., or 1½ cents, per cubic -foot, a result attributable to the fact that Scandinavia is the world’s -largest producer of carbide of calcium. - -The Wigham petroleum system has proved similarly economical and -reliable, and has been installed in some of the wildest corners of -the globe. The Congested Districts Board for Ireland have established -a number of these beacons on the rugged west coast to assist the -fishermen in making their harbours at night. Many are placed in very -exposed positions on headlands, where they are frequently swept by the -full force of the Atlantic gales. The Austrian Government has adopted -the principle for lighting the dangerous coasts of the Adriatic near -Trieste, while the shoreline of Jamaica is safeguarded by more than -sixteen lights of this type. Many of these lights suffered severely -from the effects of the earthquake which overwhelmed the island a few -years ago, but others withstood all the shocks successfully. In this -instance, had expensive and massive lighthouses of the usual type been -erected, the loss would have been considerable, in view of the severity -of this seismic disturbance and the widespread destruction which was -wrought. These lights play a very prominent part in the guarding of -the southern ocean, the Australian shores being protected by over -sixty such beacons, many of which are established in very exposed and -isolated positions off the mainland. - -While the day is still far distant when expensive graceful towers, -carrying immensely powerful lights, will be no longer constructed, the -perfection and utility of the unattended light, in one or other of -its many forms, are assisting tangibly in the solution of the problem -of lighting busy shorelines adequately and inexpensively. Structures -costing tens of thousands sterling in future will be restricted to -important places, especially in connection with sea-rocks, such as -landfalls, or to those some distance from the land, where a fog-signal -station must be maintained, unless the example of the Platte Fougère -land-controlled station becomes adopted. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -FLOATING LIGHTHOUSES - - -Hand in hand with the development of the unattended light for service -on land positions has proceeded the adaptation of the floating -light. This may be described briefly as an enlarged edition of the -lighted buoy, which is such a conspicuous feature of our harbours and -estuaries. Yet it is more than a buoy. It can fulfil all the purposes -of a light-vessel, both as regards the emission of a ray of light or a -distinctive sound, so that both audible and visual warning are given -simultaneously. These lights likewise are automatic in their action, -and, when set going, require no further attention for some time. Nine -months or more are often permitted to pass without human hands touching -them, and they have solved some very abstruse problems in connection -with coast lighting. - -For instance, there is probably no such lonely stretch of coastline as -that of British Columbia and Alaska. There is only one large port north -of Vancouver--Prince Rupert--and this rising hive of maritime activity -is 550 miles distant. The coast is as wild as that of Norway, which, -indeed, it resembles very closely, bristling as it does with fjords and -islands, with rugged cliffs rising abruptly from the water to a height -of several hundred feet. Navigation at night is extremely hazardous, -as the path leads by devious ways through deep channels intersecting -the outer barriers of islands, where fogs hang low and thickly. The -captain has to pick his way carefully, determining his course by timing -the period between the blast of his siren and its echo, as it is -thrown from headland to headland. As the passenger traffic developed, -the masters of the vessels entrusted with so many human lives felt -the increased responsibility keenly, and agitated for more adequate -protection. The erection of lighthouses, even of the most economical -type, would have entailed huge expenditure by both the United States -and Canadian Governments, while the question of maintenance would have -bristled with searching problems. - -Accordingly, it was decided to adopt the floating automatic system, -which had proved eminently satisfactory in other parts of the world. -In this manner a highly successful and inexpensive solution of the -difficulty was found. These buoys have been installed at all the most -treacherous points leading to sounds and canals, as the lochs are -called, and have been found in every way equal to the simplest type -of attended lighthouse. The southern coast of Nova Scotia has been -protected in a similar manner, a chain of automatic lights, spaced ten -miles apart, having been completed, so that this wild, rugged shore -is patrolled very efficiently at the present moment. Other countries -have not been dilatory in adopting the same methods. Consequently, -to-day the automatic floating lighthouse is one of the handiest, most -efficient and reliable devices for assisting navigation that the -lighthouse engineer has at his command. - -The lights assume different forms, this factor being influenced by -position, specific duty, and local conditions. Similarly, the character -of the illuminant employed also varies, acetylene, compressed oil-gas, -petroleum, and electricity, being utilized, according to circumstances. -On the whole, however, acetylene gas appears to be the most favoured -illuminating medium, inasmuch as the preparation of the carbide of -calcium has undergone such marked improvement. - -When Mr. Thomas L. Willson discovered the cheap process for the -manufacture of carbide of calcium upon a commercial scale, and the -new industry became placed upon a firm footing, it was only natural -that the inventor should realize the possibilities of applying the -new illuminant to the assistance of navigation. Acetylene gas gives -a brilliant clear light of intense whiteness, which is capable of -penetrating a great distance. Accordingly, he set to work to devise -a buoy lighted by this gas, and able to carry sufficient storage of -calcium carbide to burn for weeks or months without attention. When -he had completed the first apparatus of this character, he handed it -over to the Marine Department of the Canadian Government for submission -to any test that they might consider expedient, in order to ascertain -the limits of its application. The buoy was set in position and -watched carefully. Periodically it was examined to ascertain whether -overhauling and cleaning were necessary, as well as the behaviour -of the light under all conditions of weather. Captains of vessels -passing the beacon were requested to pronounce their opinions upon the -quality of the light, and their remarks concerning its range, facility -with which it might be picked up, reliability, and so forth, were -carefully marshalled and digested by the authorities. Precisely what -the officials thought of the invention is reflected most convincingly -by the fact that to-day over 300 lights working upon this principle are -stationed in Canadian waters, both upon the storm-bound ocean coasts -and upon the wind-swept shores of the Great Lakes and waterways. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF THE WILLSON AUTOMATIC -FLOATING LIGHT. (See next page.)] - -The Willson buoys are absolutely automatic in their operation. All -the impurities in the gas are removed by passing it through a special -purifier, so that the burner cannot become clogged or the light -impoverished. A charge of 1,300 to 1,500 pounds of carbide is carried -within the apparatus, and the gas is generated _under low pressure_. -The lantern is fitted with a Fresnel lens, so that the light is -condensed into an intensely powerful and penetrating horizontal beam. -One prominent feature is that the candle-power of acetylene gas is -seven times as high as that of compressed oil-gas, while the reservoir -of a given size will contain this equivalent of more light. The -candle-power of these floating lights obviously varies, the largest -size being capable of emitting a beam of 1,000 candle-power, this flame -being the maximum that the lens will stand without breaking. - -The construction and the principle of operation are exceedingly simple, -as may be gathered from reference to Fig. 16. The beacon comprises -a gas generator tube of steel (1), which is supported by the steel -float chamber (2), on the upper side of which is placed the support -(3) carrying the lantern (4). Stability is insured by means of the -counterweight (6) attached to the lower end of the generator tube. -A few feet from the bottom of the latter is a diaphragm (7), fitted -centrally with a conically-seated valve (8) which is mounted on a stem -(9). This extends through the centre of the generator and its head -(10). The upper end of the valve stem carries a hexagonal nut (11), -while the stem itself at this point has a keyway cut into it. A spline -is fitted into the generator head to engage the keyway, and when the -nut (11) is turned to close or to open the valve, the stem itself -cannot move with it, except in two directions only--up or down. The nut -itself cannot be turned too far, in which event it might drop the stem -and valve, as there is a stop-collar (12). Leakage of gas is prevented -by a cap (14), which is screwed into the generator head and sealed with -a rubber washer. This cap is sufficiently long to permit the valve stem -to be raised or lowered so as to adjust the movement of the valve. The -stem of the valve is protected from the carbide by enclosure within -a tube (13), which works through a guide bar (24) bolted to the side -of the generator tube. A grid (23) is fitted in the centre of the -diaphragm (7) and surrounding the valve (8), so as to prevent small -pieces of carbide, which may pass through the grate (16), from falling -into the water, and thereby being wasted. The steel grate upon which -the carbide rests is attached to the inside of the generator, a short -distance above the diaphragm. The grid (23) also acts as a valve seat, -and is provided with a rubber packing (15), which is held in a groove -in the seat, and projects a sufficient distance to make a good joint -with the valve (8) when it is closed, even if the valve happen to be -foul. - -The carbide of calcium, in the form of large crystals measuring about -8 by 4 inches, is placed in the generator tube when the beacon is -immersed in the water, the valve (8) being opened and the valve-cap -(14) screwed down. In the centre of the counterweight (6) is an orifice -through which the water enters from the outside, and passes through -the open valve, to come into contact with the carbide resting upon the -grate. Gas is generated instantly, to ascend through the carbide into -the purifying chamber (5), where all deleterious matter is removed, the -gas escaping thence through the small aperture (17) and pipe (18) to -the lantern, to which the supply-pipe is connected by the aid of the -coupling (19). - -Of course, at times gas is liable to be generated more rapidly than -it can be consumed. What happens? The apparatus is not provided with -facilities to receive the surplus gas. Being unable to escape upwards -through the generator tube, it collects at the bottom, and as the -pressure increases it gradually forces the water away from the carbide, -so that generation ceases, and is not resumed until the surplus gas has -been absorbed, when the water once more is able to come into contact -with the carbide. Thus it will be seen that the gas generation is -controlled automatically, and that it is almost impossible for the gas -pressure within the plant to reach a disruptive degree, owing to the -fact that when it exceeds a certain limit it has a free vent from the -bottom of the device, where the water normally is permitted to enter to -carry out its designed purpose. - -This invention has been utilized for a wide variety of purposes, from -the lighting of harbours, navigable channels, rivers, bays, and so -forth, to that of exposed coasts. The automatic beacon, properly so -called, has a tower, which brings the focal plane to an elevation -varying between 50 and 100 feet, this tower being built of lattice -steelwork attached to the top half of the buoy, with a day mark -surrounding the lantern gallery, access to which is secured by an iron -ladder. This type of light carries a sufficient storage of carbide -in a single charge to keep the light burning continuously for about -forty weeks. In this instance the only modification from that already -described is that the water for the production of the gas is admitted -into the top instead of to the bottom of the generator. When an excess -of gas occurs, the pressure thereof drives the water away from the -carbide until the surplus has been consumed. Another type, somewhat -smaller, carrying a charge sufficient for nearly six months, has proved -highly successful as a coastal light, some thirty beacons of this class -being stationed along the shore of British Columbia. The only trouble -experienced therewith in these waters has been due to frost, which, -solidifying the water around the buoy, has interrupted the designed -functions. - -But probably the most complete and useful type of Willson acetylene -gas beacon is that in which the Courtenay whistling device is -incorporated, so that in thick weather audible warning of the danger -may be extended. In this instance the floating chamber which supports -the superstructure carrying the light and also the generator tube, is -fitted with two further tubes which project from the base like huge -legs. These tubes are open at the bottom, but are closed at the top -except for a connection with a valve-casing, which is fitted with a -ball-valve, and upon which a powerful whistle is bolted. Now, if the -buoy is lowered and anchored in absolutely still water, the water will -rise to the same level within the tubes as it is outside; but when the -buoy is lifted upon the crest of a wave, the level of the water falls, -so that the air space within the tubes is increased. Air enters this -augmented space through the ball-check inlet valve in the valve-casing. -When the beacon falls, naturally the water endeavours to maintain its -level within the tubes, and therefore the air which was admitted into -the space becomes compressed, to be expelled through the only possible -vent--the whistle--thereby producing a very powerful blast. Thirty of -these combined light and whistling buoys have been strung along the -rugged Nova Scotia coast, and have proved highly popular, that outside -Halifax harbour being known colloquially among seafarers as the “Outer -Automatic.” - -Another acetylene system, but working upon a better principle, has been -perfected in Sweden, and, indeed, now has been adopted universally, -owing to its many excellent features. This is the “Aga” light, which -is the invention of Mr. Gustaf Dalén,[C] and which has been brought -to a high stage of commercial success by the Gas Accumulator Company -of Stockholm. I have pointed out the one objection to the Willson -acetylene automatic light--namely, its uselessness when the surrounding -water becomes frozen. While this drawback does not affect its sphere -of utility to a noticeable degree in Canadian waters, it acts somewhat -adversely in other seas where similar conditions prevail, but where -the navigable channels are kept open by ice-breakers, such as, for -instance, in the Baltic Sea. Mr. Dalén recognized this weak point in -any system wherein contact with water is responsible for the generation -of the gas, and accordingly sought for a superior method. Fortunately, -the perfection of a new means of handling acetylene, by French -inventors, offered the complete solution of the problem in a practical -way. The principle of this lies in the use of dissolved acetylene, -which is perfectly safe from explosion, and can be handled with the -greatest facility. The gas can be stored in cylinders similar to those -used for containing oxygen and hydrogen under pressure, gases which -are easier to transport than carbide of calcium, and, what is far more -important, climatic conditions do not exercise the slightest influence -upon it. - - [C] The humane labours of Mr. Dalén received recognition by the - award of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1912. - -Dissolved acetylene may be stored within the cylinder, or accumulator, -as it is called, to a pressure of at least ten atmospheres, and at -this pressure it contains 100 times its own volume of acetylene gas. -The accumulators may be made of any desired size, this factor being -governed by considerations of transport and application, as well as of -the consumption of the burner. - -The perfection of the dissolved acetylene process came as a great boon -to the Swedish lighting authorities, inasmuch as they have probably -the most difficult stretch of coastline in the world to protect. At the -same time, owing to the wild, exposed character of many of the points -which demanded lighting, a perfect, economical, and reliable automatic -system was in urgent demand. Acetylene was an obvious illuminant, -since, while the country is deficient in the essential resources for -the preparation of other fuels, carbide of calcium is very cheap, -Sweden, in fact, being the largest producer of this commodity. The -Swedish Board of Pilotage experimented with acetylene lighting for six -or seven years, submitting every known acetylene lighting system to -searching practical trials, but failed to be sufficiently convinced on -the vital question of reliability. Freezing-up was the most pronounced -shortcoming, but when dissolved acetylene appeared as a commercial -product this disadvantage was removed completely, and acetylene was -adopted. - -[Illustration: THE “KALKGRUNDET,” SWEDEN’S LATEST AUTOMATIC LIGHTSHIP. - -The Dalén Flasher is used, and this undoubtedly is the finest vessel of -its type in the world.] - -Yet dissolved acetylene, though completely successful, possessed one -drawback. It was expensive as compared with oil-gas. Accordingly, there -was great scope for a means of economizing the consumption of the fuel -without interfering with its lighting value and efficiency. At the same -time a superior flashing system was desired. The methods which were -in vogue to this end were satisfactory so far as they went, but they -involved a considerable useless consumption of gas. - -This is where Mr. Gustaf Dalén completed one of his greatest -achievements. He perfected a flashing apparatus wherein the gas passes -to the burner in intermittent puffs, to be ignited by a small invisible -pilot light. The device was tested and proved so successful that it -was adopted throughout the service. In Swedish waters to-day there are -127 aids to navigation operating upon this system, of which five are -lightships. The success of the invention in the land of its origin -attracted other nations to its possibilities. At the present moment -over 700 lights, scattered throughout the world, are working upon this -principle. - -If a beacon throws a fixed light, unless it is of extreme power, it is -liable to be confused with a ship’s mast-light, a fact which was found -to be one of the greatest objections to the fixed white light of the -acetylene aid to navigation. On the other hand, a flashing warning must -be of such a character that it cannot be mistaken for the twinkling -of a brilliant star, or of a light which has nothing to do with -navigation. This is where the “Aga” flasher emphasizes its value. It -throws a short, powerful gleam at brief intervals. The mariner cannot -possibly confuse or misconstrue it; the regularity of the flash arrests -his immediate attention, and its purport may be divined instantly. The -apparatus is simple and highly effective, while it has the advantage -that the periods of light and darkness can be altered in relation to -one another, or grouped, as desired. - -From the maintenance point of view, however, the invention is of far -greater significance. As the gas is consumed only during the light -periods, which are very brief in comparison with the eclipse, the -economy effected is very appreciable. When the apparatus was first -brought within the range of practical application, many authorities, -which had become wedded to the oil-gas lighting system, wherein the -light flashes are of long duration in comparison with the dark periods, -maintained that the Dalén flash was too short to be of any value. They -disregarded the fact that the power of the acetylene-gas flash is about -seven times as intense as that of the oil-gas light. For instance, when -the United States acquired the first Aga light in the autumn of 1908, -the authorities demanded either a characteristic signal comprising ten -seconds of light followed by five seconds of darkness, or flashes and -eclipses of equal duration--five seconds. - -[Illustration: THE “SVINBĀDAN,” UNATTENDED LIGHTSHIP IN SWEDISH WATERS. - -It works upon the Dalén system with flasher, giving a flash of 0·3 -second duration, followed by darkness for 2·7 seconds.] - -There was a prejudice against short, powerful, and oft-repeating -flashes, mainly because their advantages were misunderstood. Practical -experience, however, demonstrated the fact that the period of light -might be reduced very considerably, and, as a result of prolonged -investigations, the Swedish Board of Pilotage adopted a characteristic -comprising 0·3 second light followed by darkness for 2·7 seconds. This -has become known since as the “one-tenth flash,” owing to the luminous -interval occupying one-tenth of the combined period of light and -darkness. It will be seen that, as a result of this arrangement, twenty -flashes are thrown per minute. - -As the flame is lighted for only one-tenth of the signal period, -it will be seen that the saving of gas amounts to 90 per cent., as -compared with the light which is burning constantly. Accordingly, the -gas charge will last ten times as long with the flashing apparatus; -consequently, the accumulator need have only one-tenth of the capacity -of that for a similar beacon which burns constantly. The economy really -is not quite 90 per cent., as a certain volume of gas is consumed by -the pilot flame, which ignites the charge of gas issuing from the -flasher burner. This, however, is an insignificant item, inasmuch as -the quantity of gas burned by the pilot light does not exceed one-third -of a cubic foot per twenty-four hours. - -Not only has this highly ingenious system been adapted to varying types -of buoys, similar in design and range of action to those described in -connection with the Willson apparatus, wherein the light may be left -unattended for as long as twelve months, according to the capacity of -the accumulator, but it has also been applied to “light-boats” and -light-vessels. The “light-boat” is a hybrid, being a combination of the -buoy and the lightship, and was devised to meet special conditions. -Thus, the “Gerholmen” light-boat stationed in the mouth of a Swedish -river, where the current runs exceedingly strongly, resembles a small -boat with a water-tight deck. From the centre of this rises a steel -tripod, at the top of which the lantern is placed. The gas accumulators -are stored within the hull, and are of sufficient capacity to maintain -the light for a round twelvemonth without attention, as the flashing -apparatus is incorporated. - -The Aga light has come to be regarded as one of the greatest -developments in lighthouse engineering, and has been adopted -extensively throughout the world in connection with either floating -or fixed aids to navigation. The United States have decided to adopt -the system exclusively henceforth, until a further progressive step is -achieved, and several floating lights of this type have been acquired -already to guard wild and lonely stretches of the coastline. - -Here and there attempts have been made to apply electricity to -inaccessible lights. The most interesting endeavour in this direction -was in connection with the lighting of the Gedney Channel from the -open Atlantic to New York harbour. This formerly constituted the only -available highway for the big liners, and it is exceedingly tortuous -and treacherous--so much so that vessels arriving off Sandy Hook -in waning daylight invariably anchored and awaited the dawn before -resuming the journey. The great difficulty in connection with Gedney’s -Channel was the distance of the main lights on shore, the direct range -at one part being over thirteen miles. Consequently the land lights -were of little utility to the pilot. - -The authorities decided to convert the channel into an electric-lighted -waterway. Buoys were laid down on either side of the thoroughfare. They -were of the spar type, resembling decapitated masts projecting from -the water, and were held in position by mushroom anchors, weighing -4,000 pounds, or nearly 2 tons, apiece. Each buoy was crowned with -a 100 candle-power incandescent electric lamp, encased within a -special globe having a diameter of 5 inches. An electric cable was -laid on either side of this street and connected with each buoy. The -first section was completed in 1888, the electric gleams being shed -for the first time on November 7 of that year. The system appeared -to give such complete satisfaction that it was extended. Altogether -six and a quarter miles of cable were laid down, which in itself was -no easy feat, while prodigious difficulties were experienced in its -maintenance, owing to the severity of the currents and the treacherous -character of the sea-bed. The lights were controlled from a central -point ashore, and the idea of being able to switch on and off a chain -of aids to navigation by a simple movement presented many attractive -features. Although navigation appreciated this improvement, the Great -White Waterway did not prove a complete success. It did not possess -that vital element of complete reliability which is so essential to -navigation. - -Compressed oil-gas has been employed extensively for unattended -floating lights, but it possesses so many shortcomings that it is being -superseded on all sides by acetylene, with the exception of one or two -countries which appear to be inseparably wedded to this principle. It -is expensive both to install and to maintain, while the “radius of -action”--otherwise, the period during which it may be left without -human attention--is unavoidably brief. For temporary purposes, such as -the indication of a submerged wreck, it is efficient, while it is also -serviceable for accessible positions, but it is not regarded as being -a satisfactory system for places which human hands cannot reach for -months at a time. - -Crude petroleum in conjunction with the Wigham long-burning petroleum -lamp, wherein the flame is produced from a moving wick, has been -adopted widely. Lights installed upon this principle may be left for -ninety-three days at a time without anxiety. In many instances the -Wigham light is mounted upon steel boats; in other cases it is attached -to floating wooden structures. The British Admiralty in particular is -partial to this type of light, and it must be confessed that it has -proved highly serviceable and reliable. - -I have described already the general principles and features of this -system. When it is applied to a floating beacon, and it is desired -to save the oil dropping from the drip valve, a tank is fixed to the -deck of the floating structure, and connected by a flexible pipe to -the coupling at the bottom of the float cylinder. A universal joint is -attached to the connection on the top of the tank to prevent the pipe -being twisted by the swinging and swaying motion of the lamp on the -gimbals. When the lamp is inspected, the oil may be pumped out of the -tank, strained, and used time after time in the float cylinder. - -One of the most interesting of this type of floating boat-lights is -to be seen in Queenstown harbour. The hull is 30 feet in length, and -has a beam of 11 feet. On this, within a conical structure measuring -7½ feet high and 6½ feet in diameter at the deck, is mounted the -lantern. Although the lamp is exposed to drenching seas and heavy -storms, it has never yet failed, a fact which conclusively points to -its efficiency. It rides well, and the lamp is kept much drier than the -lights on ordinary buoys, according to the observations of the engineer -responsible for its maintenance. In this case the focus of the light is -brought 12 feet above the level of the sea. - -Probably the most compelling illustration of the utility of the -automatic beacon is offered by the unattended lightship. The Otter Rock -vessel is one of the most interesting examples of this development. -It was designed by Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson, and comprises a -substantial steel hull, the deck of which is covered so that the -interior is absolutely water-tight. The craft is provided with a -central and heavy bilge keels, so as to reduce rolling to the minimum. -Two heavy steel bulkheads divide the craft into three water-tight -compartments, in the centre of which two large welded-steel gas tanks -are stowed. These are of sufficient capacity to feed the light for -several months without replenishment. The light is mounted upon a steel -tower placed amidships, which brings the focal plane 25 feet above the -water. The gas is fed from the tanks to the lantern through the tower, -a valve reducing the pressure, while a ladder enables the attendants -to climb to the lantern gallery to adjust the burner and flame, and to -clean the lenses, upon the occasion of their periodical visits. - -The gas cylinders are charged from the supply-ship through flexible -hoses, the gas being compressed to about 180 pounds per square inch. -The light is of sufficient power and elevation to be seen from a -distance of some twelve miles. The beacon gives not only a visual, but -also an audible warning. On the deck of the boat a bell is mounted, -this being rung not only by the motion of the ship, in the manner of -a bell-buoy, but also by the gas on its passage from the tanks to the -lantern, the bell being fitted with two clappers for this purpose. The -gas in passing from the tank enters a receptacle having a flexible -diaphragm, which, as it becomes filled with gas, is naturally pressed -outwards. On this is mounted a central metal piece, which is connected -to a rod and lever. As the diaphragm is forced outwards, it moves the -rod and actuates the lever, which, when the diaphragm falls, return -to their normal positions. Attached to this mechanical arrangement -is the bell-clapper, which alternately is lifted and dropped upon -the dome of the bell, thereby causing it to ring. After the gas has -performed its duty in raising the clapper lever and rod, it passes -to the lantern to be consumed. Thus, while the light gleams brightly -and steadily, the bell rings with unerring regularity--about three -times per minute--day and night for months on a single charge; both -must continue in operation until the supply of gas is expended. The -success of this interesting and novel lightship has been responsible -for similar installations in other similarly wild and exposed positions -where approach is uncertain and often impossible for weeks at a time. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo by permission of Messrs. Edmondsons Ltd., Dublin._ - -THE LANTERN USED IN THE WIGHAM AUTOMATIC PETROLEUM BEACON. - -The circular shallow reservoir contains the burning-oil, which feeds -the wick as it moves towards the burner, and also acts as a deck on -which the lantern is built. In this ingenious system the flame is not -produced at the end of the wick as in the ordinary lamp, but from the -flat side of the wick, which is moved continuously in a horizontal -direction over a small roller. By this means a light of uniform -intensity is obtained, as carbonization cannot occur.] - -One misadventure befell the Otter Rock light-vessel, which is moored in -an open position over the rock of that name near Islay, although it was -not the fault of either the system or the designing engineers. There -was a flaw in one of the shackles, and while the ship was sawing and -tugging at her anchors during a heavy gale the flaw asserted itself, -the shackle broke, and the lightship got away. She was recovered with -some difficulty, after having drifted about twenty miles. She was found -stove in, having embraced the rocks during her wayward journey, but -otherwise was unharmed. She was towed into port, repaired, and then -taken back to her station, where she was secured more firmly than ever, -while her chains were closely inspected to make assurance doubly sure. -No repetition of the accident has occurred since, and the Otter Rock -lightship, tethered firmly to the rock, rides gales and calms, throwing -her welcome rays and droning her musical warning the whole year -round as steadily and efficiently as if she had a crew aboard. - -A similar lightship was built for the Trinity House authorities from -the designs of their engineer, Sir Thomas Matthews, for service on the -English coast. This boat, built of steel, measures 65 feet in length, -by 18½ feet beam and 10½ feet depth, with the lantern carried at the -point of an open steel pyramidal structure, rising sufficiently high -above the boat’s deck amidships to bring the focal plane 26 feet above -the level of the water, thereby giving it a visible range of some ten -miles. The boat is provided with two holds, in which the gas reservoirs -are placed, the total gas capacity being about 1,500 cubic feet--enough -to keep the light burning for one hundred days. - -This light is of the revolving type, and the rotation of the apparatus -is accomplished very ingeniously. Before the gas passes to the burner, -it drives a tiny three-cylinder engine, the crank-shaft of which is -connected to the revolving apparatus through gearing. The speed of the -turntable is kept constant by the aid of a governor, and the apparatus -works so smoothly and perfectly that there is not the slightest -divergence from the rate at which the apparatus is set. As the gas -emerges from the engine, it passes to the burner to be consumed. By -means of a novel apparatus, should anything befall the little motor or -the rotating mechanism, the light does not drop out of service. In that -event the gas flows directly to the burner, the only difference being -that a fixed instead of a revolving light is emitted. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of Messrs. Edmondsons Ltd., Dublin._ - -THE “6-BAR” FLOATING AUTOMATIC WIGHAM LIGHT IN PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR. - -This beacon, burning crude petroleum, burns for thirty days on a single -oil charge.] - -When the Scandinavian liner _Norge_, while on her way to the United -States in July, 1904, fouled the terrible Rockall and lost 750 of her -passengers, the outcry about the absence of all means of indicating -this spot to the navigator vibrated round the world. Yet it was a -useless agitation. Rockall is a no-man’s land; no nation has planted -its flag upon its cone of granite; no Power cares whether it continues -its harvest of human lives or otherwise. The various countries appear -to think that it is too much off the map to be worthy of a moment’s -thought; its existence is brought home only by a holocaust. - -After this heartrending disaster, Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson -adumbrated a promising means of indicating this awful graveyard to -the seafarer. They suggested that two automatic unattended lightships -should be constructed, and that one should relieve the other every six -months. The project was eminently practicable, but every country seemed -to shirk responsibility in the expense of its adoption. But Rockall is -a unique danger spot; in no other part of the known world does such a -formidable isolated peak of granite rise from the ocean depths, for -it is in mid-Atlantic, 160 miles west of St. Kilda, and 290 miles off -the Scottish mainland. It may be away from the great steamship lanes -of the Atlantic, yet a vast volume of shipping passes within sight -of its curious formation. Seeing that the foremost maritime Powers -defray between them the cost of maintaining the light off Cape Spartel, -surely the dictates of humanity are sufficiently pressing to secure the -indication of this islet. The maintenance of an unattended automatic -beacon, such as Messrs. Stevenson advocated, would not impose a severe -strain upon the treasuries of the leading Powers of the world, whose -interests are associated intimately with the North Atlantic. - -The perfection of the unattended lightship, working automatically, has -provided the lighthouse engineer with a powerful weapon for marking the -most exposed and out-of-the-way danger spots. When the new development -is carried to its uttermost lengths, no graveyard of the ocean, no -matter how remote and inaccessible, need be without means of warning -shipping of its whereabouts. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -THE LIGHT-KEEPER AND HIS LIFE - - -The life of the guardian of a blazing signpost of the coast is much -the same the whole world over. It is unavoidably monotonous under -the best conditions. Each succeeding day and night brings a similar -round of toil, with very little variation. There are the same duties -to be performed in strict accordance with routine, and under normal -circumstances there are many idle hours which have to be whiled away -as best one can. On the mainland, especially in the South of England, -France, Germany, and the United States, the loneliness and monotony are -not felt so keenly by the wardens of the light, as in many instances -they are in close proximity to ports and towns, where a little welcome -relaxation may be obtained during the rest spells; while in the -summer evenings, if the lights should be only a few miles away from -civilization, visitors are frequent. Again, the keepers as a rule live -with their families in cosy solid buildings, and, having a stretch -of garden flanking their homes, can expend their hours of leisure to -advantage. - -On the isolated, lonely rock, however, the conditions are vastly -different. The average person, when regarding on a calm day the tall -slim outlines of a tower rising from the water, is apt to regard -the life of those responsible for keeping the light going as one -enveloped in romance and peace, far removed from the trials and worries -of the maelstrom of civilization. But twenty-four hours on one of -these beacons completely dispel all romantic impression. The gilt of -fascination wears away quickly, and the visitor recognizes only too -forcibly the terrible desolation of it all, and admires the little band -of men who watch vigilantly over the deep for the guidance of those who -go down to the sea in ships. - -The keepers of such stations are marooned as completely as any castaway -on a barren island. In many instances they cannot even signal to the -shore. If anything should go wrong, they must wait until a ship comes -in sight, to communicate their tidings by flag signals. If the call is -urgent, say for illness, and the passing boat carries a doctor, she -will heave to, and, if conditions permit, will launch a boat to carry -the medical man to the rock to administer aid. If it is a matter of -life or death, the ship will take the man off. - -As may be imagined, upon a sea-rock, owing to the slender proportions -of the tower, the quarters are inevitably very cramped, with no -facilities for the men to stretch their limbs. The manner in which -space is economized in the small circular apartments is astonishing. -The essential furniture is built to the wall, and liberal cupboard -space is provided, the governing consideration being to provide the men -with as much open space as the restricted circumstances will permit. -The only exercise that the men can obtain in the open air is upon the -narrow shelf forming the landing platform, or the narrow gallery around -the lantern. In the majority of circumstances it is less than that -provided for the benefit of a prisoner in an exercise yard. - -The lamp is lighted at dusk, and, unless it is a fixed white light, the -clockwork driving the occulting and revolving mechanism has to be wound -up. Seeing that this entails the lifting of a ton or so up the vertical -cylinder in which the weight travels, this is no mean task in itself. - -Unremitting vigilance has to be maintained while the lamp is burning. -It demands attention from time to time, while, should anything serious -go wrong, the attendant must bring the reserve lamp into service -without a moment’s loss of time and without interruption of the ray. - -“The light must not go out!” That is the inflexible rule of all -attended lights between the two Poles. Even if it failed only for a -minute, the circumstance would not escape observation. Some vessel -would detect the breakdown; it would be recorded in the captain’s -log-book. When he touched the first port, intimation would be sent to -the organization responsible for the beacon, setting forth the fact -that on such and such a night, at a certain hour, this light was not -showing in accordance with the official light list, or was giving a -warning different from that laid down for the guidance of the seafarer. -An inquiry would be instituted immediately to ascertain the reason, and -the light-keeper probably would find himself in an awkward position, -although months might have elapsed since the incident. - -There is nothing haphazard about the control of lights. The -circumstances are too serious to permit the slightest deviation from -hard-and-fast regulations. The passing mariner is entirely dependent -upon these blazing guardians, maybe from a distance of fifteen miles or -more. He has his chart wherewith he is able to steer his way, but he -must have certain marks to guide him at night, so that he may be sure -of his course and position. Accordingly, every lighthouse possesses -some individual characteristic in regard to its light. As explained -elsewhere, it may be a group flash, an occulting flash of a distinctive -nature, a revolving light which completes a revolution once in a -certain period of time, or a fixed blaze. - -Fortunately, the men watching over the lights appreciate the gravity -of their responsibility, and are reliable to an heroic degree. Each -is a man picked for the duty, who is not appalled by loneliness, and -is of unimpeachable precision. Of course, accidents will happen, but -dereliction of duty is criminal, because it may bring about loss of -life. Carelessness on the part of a light-keeper precipitated the -loss of the steamer _Victoria_ when crossing the English Channel from -Newhaven to Dieppe on April 12, 1887. The French coast, as it was being -approached, became shrouded by the inexorable fog-fiend. The captain -lost his way, although he knew, from the time he had been steaming, -that he must be perilously near the French shore. He listened for -the droning of the fog-siren mounted on Pointe d’Ailly, but in vain. -He sent to the engine-room to ascertain the number of revolutions -the engines had made, and this convinced him that he must be close -inshore, despite the silence of the fog-signal. Thinking that he might -have strayed some distance east of Dieppe, he brought his vessel -round, and then crawled slowly ahead. But he had scarcely settled into -his forward stride when there was a crash--a terrible splitting and -crunching. The vessel had kept a true course, and now had hit the very -rocks which the captain had sought to avoid. The passengers, being -ready to land, were got into the boats and pushed through the dense -curtain for land, but some thirty passengers and crew were never seen -again. - -The subsequent inquiry revealed an amazing breach of duty on the part -of those in charge of the light-station. The head lighthouse-keeper, -off duty at the time, was asleep in bed, but his wife awoke him as she -observed the fog settling upon the water. He dressed hurriedly, and -rushed to see what his companion was doing. This official had failed -lamentably in his duties. Instead of starting the boiler fires to raise -the steam to work the siren upon the first signs of the approaching -enemy, as he should have done, he had delayed the duty. The result -was that an hour was wasted, and during this interval the unfortunate -captain took his ship upon the rocks. To make matters worse, the -keepers did not perceive the wreck until some two hours after the -disaster, although they admitted that they heard the cries of people -an hour and a half previously, but never suspected the cause of the -turmoil. - -The man on watch during the night maintains a keen lookout. The -faintest signs of a gathering mist are sufficient to cause him to wake -his assistant to manipulate the fog-signal, even if the precaution -proves to be unnecessary. “It is better to be safe than sorry,” is the -lighthouse-keeper’s motto; so he runs no risks. - -When the gathering brightness of the dawn enables the form of the -tower to be identified from a distance of several miles, the light is -extinguished. Heavy curtains are drawn across the windows, not only -to protect the lenses from the sun, but also to give a characteristic -colour to the lantern. Thus, by daylight a lantern may appear to be a -dull red or an intense black. To give a brilliant light by night and be -a prominent landmark by day forms the dual duty of the guardian of the -coast. - -When the lantern has cooled, the keepers coming on the day shift have -to clean the lamps and put them in order for service the following -evening. Everything has to be overhauled and got ready for use at a -moment’s notice. The oil reservoirs have to be examined and charged, -and the panes of glass, with which the lantern is glazed, cleaned and -brightened. The reflectors have to be polished, for they must be kept -in a constant state of mirror-like brilliancy. All brasswork has to be -cleaned and polished until it gleams like burnished gold, while the -rooms must be washed and kept in the pink of condition, free from the -smallest specks of dust. - -The necessity for extreme cleanliness and spotlessness is emphasized -in every lighthouse. The inspector has a highly-trained, quick -eye for detecting carelessness, and he has one instinct developed -peculiarly--the discovery of dust. He draws his fingers over -everything, and squints quizzically at an object from all angles. Woe -betide the keeper if the slightest trace of dirt is detected. Then the -inspector closes the other eye, and the keeper receives a squint which -does not augur well for his future. A few sharp, pointed remarks are -rasped out, and it is not long before the relief-boat comes out with -another man. - -The engineers and other representatives of authority are remorseless. -A man is judged from apparently trifling details. If he permits a -door-knob to become sullied, he is just as likely to overlook the -polishing of the lenses, or to perform some other vital task in a -perfunctory manner. - -One of the Stevensons achieved a peculiar notoriety among the Scottish -keepers for his unbending attitude in this connection. He had a scent -for dust and untidiness developed as keenly as that of a mouse for -cheese. When his boat came alongside a light, and the keeper stepped -forward to extend a helping hand, the eyes of the engineer scanned -him searchingly. If the man’s appearance were not immaculate, -trouble loomed ahead. This engineer maintained that if a man were -indifferent to his own appearance, and permitted dust to collect upon -his own clothes, he could not be trusted to maintain the delicate -apparatus of a lighthouse in apple-pie order! What was more to the -point, the engineer generally was correct in his deductions. He spared -no effort to place the most responsible lights in the hands of men -above suspicion in regard to cleanliness. Although, as this martinet -confessed, nothing pained him more than to have words with any of his -keepers, cleanliness had to be maintained. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the “Syren and Shipping.”_ - -THE PUMPS WHEREBY THE OIL IS LIFTED FROM THE LOWEST FLOOR TO THE -LANTERN-ROOM.] - -When the keeper has completed his routine duties, he is at liberty to -spend his leisure according to his inclinations. As a rule the men turn -these periods to advantage. Reading is a popular recreation, and the -authorities maintain a circulating library, the books being changed -with every relief. But the men could accept twice as much literature -as is available at present. Here a word should be said concerning the -Lighthouse Literature Mission and its work, which is international. -The idea was conceived by Mr. Samuel H. Strain, and the work is -conducted from Belfast, Ireland. The most conspicuous feature of this -organization is that every penny received is turned to good and useful -purpose in connection with the object. The founder conducts it without -monetary reward, so that the item of “operating” charges does not -swamp the greater proportion of receipts, as is the case with so many -so-called missions in other fields. There are few organizations which -are so deserving of financial support, because this mission brings -welcome relaxation to a hard-worked community whose vigil secures the -safety of those who travel on the sea. The labours of Mr. Strain are -highly appreciated by those who keep watch and ward in seagirt prisons, -and the mission deserves far stauncher support from the philanthropic -than it receives at present. Sympathizers with the loneliness of the -lighthouse-keeper are prone to think that these men are in dire need -of spiritual pabulum, and are apt to send literature of an emphatic -goody-goody nature. But the keeper of the light is as human as the -clerk in the city. He is so accustomed to the company of Nature, and -has cultivated such a deep respect for the Master of the Universe -during his spells of duty, that he welcomes a diversion therefrom in -his hours of leisure. A humorous paper is more welcome than a tract on -the evils of drink. - -When the weather is favourable the men seek a little relaxation in -fishing, but here again they have to suffer considerable denial, as -the tackle invariably becomes inextricably entangled with the rocks, -so that the losses exceed the prizes. In the United States the greater -number of the keepers maintain a garden well stocked with vegetables -and flowers. The tending of these charges carries the minds of the -men from their work completely, and for the opportunity to practise -this hobby they are indebted to the kindness of the Government, which -supplies seeds free of charge. - -It is when the gale is raging tumultuously that the men in the tower -are compelled to realize their position. The waves pound the rock and -building so ceaselessly and relentlessly that the latter trembles -and shakes like a leaf. At times the din is so deafening that the -men cannot converse; they are compelled to communicate with each -other by signs. The waves pick up stones and hurl them with terrific -force against the lantern. Occasionally the elements triumph in their -assault, and the missiles shatter the glass. To step out on the gallery -in the teeth of a blizzard to clear the snow away demands no little -courage. As the man emerges upon the narrow platform, he is engulfed in -the swirling flakes, and often is pinned against the masonry so tightly -by the wind that he cannot move a limb; at other times he is swept -almost off his feet. While engaged in his freezing task, he also runs -the risk of being drenched by a rising comber. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the “Syren and Shipping.”_ - -COMBINED KITCHEN AND LIVING-ROOM IN THE LIGHTHOUSE.] - -The men on the lonely, exposed Tillamook Rock, off the Oregon coast, -have had more than one occasion to respect the storm-fiend. One night, -while a fearful gale was raging, a huge mass of rock was torn away from -the islet, snatched by the waves, and thrown high into the air. It -fell with terrific force upon the dome of the lantern, splintering the -roof and smashing the light, so that no welcome rays could be thrown -from the tower again that night. The keepers at once set to work with -the fog-signal, and during the hours of darkness worked like slaves, -blaring out a warning by sound which they were unable to give visually. - -Fortunately, such an experience as befell the keepers of the American -Thimble Shoal light is very rare. This beacon marks the shoal of that -name, and is, or rather was, a screw-pile iron lighthouse, marking 11 -feet of water at the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, U.S.A. On -December 27, 1909, the keepers were immersed in their tasks, when there -was a terrible crash followed by a dismal rending and splitting. The -building shivered from top to bottom. The keepers were thrown off their -feet, and when they regained their wits they found that the schooner -_Malcolm Baxter Junior_, while being towed by a tug, had blundered into -them, and had carried a considerable portion of the building away. The -impact upset the light; the scattered oil burst into flame, and within -a few minutes the lighthouse was blazing like a gigantic bonfire. The -keepers stuck to their posts, and endeavoured frantically to extinguish -the outbreak, but their efforts were too puny to make any impression. -At last, when a foothold was no longer possible with safety, and under -extreme pressure, they abandoned their charge. When the flames had -completed their destructive work the lighthouse presented a sorry -sight, being a mass of broken and twisted ironwork. A wooden tower was -erected with all despatch, and a fog-signal was installed, so that the -men could carry on their duties while the reconstruction of the station -was hurried forward. - -The keepers turn their hands to strange occupations. Fretwork, -wood-carving, poker-work, and similar hobbies, are practised freely. -A few devote their leisure to intellectual improvement to fit them -for other walks in life. The keeper of Windward Point, Guantanamo -Bay, Cuba, devoted his energies to studying, and obtaining diplomas -in, mechano-therapy and suggestive therapeutics, as well as becoming -proficient in Esperanto. The keepers of two other American lights set -themselves to the mastery of jurisprudence, and in due course resigned -their positions and rented offices in the city, where in the course of -a few years they built up very remunerative legal practices. As a rule -the lighthouse-keeper is an expert handy-man, as he is compelled to -complete a whole list of duties in addition to maintaining the lights. -In the summer the metal and wooden lights have to be given a coat of -paint, while plumbing and other displays of skill in metal have to be -carried out, even if only temporarily. - -The calling is exceedingly healthy, which accounts for the immunity -from illness which these men enjoy. Also, as a rule, the land-lights -are set amidst wild romantic surroundings. Some years ago a number of -American families, in the search for a quiet, health-restoring rest, -were in the habit of spending their vacations at lighthouses, to the -financial profit of the keepers. Eventually, however, the authorities, -fearing that the keeper might be distracted from his duties, issued a -summary order forbidding this practice, much to the disgust of the men, -and “attractive lighthouse apartments” became a thing of the past. In -Great Britain an order was issued that “no ale or other intoxicating -liquor be allowed to be sold in any lighthouse.” The precise reason for -this strange ordinance is not quite clear, but it is significant to -note that it came into force immediately after the disastrous fire at -the Leasowe lighthouse, on the Wirral shore. - -The lighthouse invariably is an object of attraction among the general -public, but this interest seldom goes to the length narrated by a -keeper of one of the West Indian lights. One night two of the men at -this particular station decided to hunt for red crabs on the beach -below. They started off with a hurricane lamp, but were astonished, -when they gained the foreshore, to see a large sloop hard and fast -on the reef, although the night was beautifully clear and the light -was burning brilliantly. With much effort the keepers got out their -dory, put off to the wreck, and endeavoured to get the sloop out of -her uncomfortable position, but, finding her too well fixed, took off -the passengers. The survivors were housed in the keepers’ quarters -until next morning, when they were succoured. The head-keeper asked the -captain how he managed to get into such a position, and to his surprise -learned that, as the passengers were anxious to obtain a clear close -view of the light, the master had stood inshore, not knowing that the -reef over which vigil was mounted ran out far into the water. That -navigator paid dearly for his attempt to satisfy curiosity. His sloop -broke up, since she was impaled too firmly to be salvaged. - -It is not often that the utter loneliness and monotony of the daily -round unhinges a keeper’s mind, but this awful fate overtook the warden -of a somewhat isolated American light. The man had served with Admiral -Dewey off Manila, and upon his return home the Government placed him in -charge of a station as an occupation for the evening of his life, and -as a recompense for faithful service. He settled down with his wife and -family, but the isolation soon began to affect his brain. For days he -would absent himself from the light, which would soon have failed had -it not been for the unswerving devotion of his wife and the assistance -of one of two friends living in the locality. They spared no effort -to keep the beacon burning, lest the authorities might hear about -the keeper’s strange behaviour, and deprive him of his charge, and, -incidentally, of his livelihood. In due course the incident did reach -the authorities, and, not knowing what was the matter with the man, -they took action accordingly. As the keeper entered the station after -one of his inexplicable expeditions of a fortnight’s duration, he was -arrested for desertion. He was examined promptly by two doctors, who -found him hopelessly insane, and was incarcerated in an asylum, where -in the course of a few days he became a raving lunatic. - -Often the keepers, although only condemned to imprisonment for a -certain period at a time, have to tolerate a longer stay, owing to -the relief-boat being unable to approach them. In some instances the -delay may run into five weeks or more. During the winter the relief of -the Eddystone, Longships, Wolf, Fastnet, Skerryvore, and Dhu-Heartach -lights is always a matter of extreme uncertainty. Although the men -have to provide themselves with supplies, a reserve is maintained at -the station by the authorities for such emergencies. Even some of the -land stations are not approachable readily. There is the Punta Gorda -light-station on the Californian coast, the situation of which is wild -and forbidding. There is a landing about eight miles above the station, -but it is extremely precarious. Still, unless a certain element of risk -is accepted in coming ashore here, it is necessary to face a tramp or -stage journey of nearly fifty miles across country in order to gain the -lighthouse. - -The lighthouses in the Red Sea are, perhaps, among the most unenviable -and trying in the world. This stretch of water, lying between two -blistered coasts of sand, is no more or less than an oven, where even -the strongest constitution finds it difficult to hold out for long. -Moreover, the absence of civilization, owing to the extreme aridity of -the country, renders the life exceptionally depressing. In the summer -the heat is wellnigh intolerable. The thermometer hovers between 95° -and 110° F. in the shade throughout the twenty-four hours, so that -night brings no relief to the oppressiveness. - -At some of the stations the men seek a little diversion, and -incidentally add occasionally to their pocket-money, by shark-catching, -which is a tolerably profitable pursuit, since these waters are thickly -infested with this fish. The jawbone and backbone invariably find ready -purchasers, the former being mounted as a curiosity, while the backbone -forms a novel and serviceable walking-stick. - -One method of trapping these monsters which affords keen delight was -related to me. The requirements are an electric battery, some rope, a -few feet of electric wire, a cartridge, and an empty box, with a chunk -or two of bad meat. The cartridge is fitted with an electric primer, -the wire of which stretches to the battery. This cartridge is buried -in a hunk of meat, the whole being dangled from a box--an empty cask is -better--which serves as a float, while a rope is stretched from the box -to the shore, with the electric wire spirally wound round it. A short -length of chain is preferable, if available, to attach the bait to the -float, but a short piece of rope will do. This novel line is thrown -into the water, and the man keeps his eye on the float, with one finger -on the battery. The hungry shark, espying the tempting morsel, makes a -grab and swallows it, but the chain prevents him tearing away with it. -The pull causes the float to disappear, the man’s finger presses the -button, and the trick is done. There is an explosion, and pieces of -shark and showers of water fly into the air. The incident is all over -too quickly for the fish to marvel about the strange indigestibility -of the tainted meat he grabbed so greedily. The men enjoy this sport -hugely when it can be followed, as they regard the shark with intense -detestation. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the “Syren and Shipping.”_ - -KEEPER CLEANING THE LAMP AFTER IT HAS COOLED DOWN.] - -Despite the vigilance of the various Powers, slave-running is still a -lucrative business on these forbidding coasts. Now and again a forced -labourer gets away from his taskmaster, and comes panting into the -lighthouse territory. This is sanctuary to the hapless wretch, and -although the keepers invariably receive a call from the runaway’s -master, he meets with scant courtesy, while his demand for the -surrender of the fugitive is answered by a point-blank refusal. The -slave-driver may storm, threaten, and abuse, to his heart’s content, -and, as he is generally a past-master in Arabian invective, the -keepers have to listen to a pretty tune. But the slave is kept in the -lighthouse until the relief-tender makes its periodical call, when he -is taken back to Suez and liberated. - -Fortunately, owing to the extreme care that is manifested by the -authorities, mishaps at a lighthouse are few and far between. The -men are supplied with rules and regulations which are drawn up with -an eye for every possible emergency. Yet accidents will happen, due -in the majority of instances to familiarity bred of contempt. The -majority of these calamities occur in connection with the explosive -fog-signalling apparatus, although every device is adopted to safeguard -the men. At one of the Scottish stations a keeper was manipulating -the fog-signal, but, flying in the face of instructions, he caused -the charge to explode prematurely. The man escaped injury, but the -detonation shattered several panes of glass in the lantern. - -One of the keepers of the Rathlin light, on Altacarry Head, was not so -fortunate. The White Star Canadian liner _Megantic_ was rounding the -corner of Ireland to enter the last lap of the homeward journey one -Saturday evening, when the captain’s attention was arrested by a signal -of distress flying from the lighthouse. The interpretation of the -signal revealed the fact that a doctor was wanted, so, easing up the -ship, he lowered a boat, and the doctor was sent away to the island. -Upon landing he found one of the men in dire straits. He had been -cleaning the fog-gun, when a charge, which had been left in the weapon -inadvertently upon the last occasion it was used, exploded. The man’s -arm had been wrenched off, and he was burned terribly. It was a stroke -of luck that the liner hove in sight at the moment she did. There was -no chance of extending succour to the injured man on the spot, and he -would have died before a doctor could have been summoned by boat from -Ballycastle, nine miles away. The surgeon bound up the man’s injuries, -lowered him into his boat, and, on regaining the liner, placed him -in the hospital, where he was tended until the vessel’s arrival in -Liverpool, where he was landed and placed in hospital. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of “Syren and Shipping.”_ - -A LIGHTHOUSE BEDROOM. - -Owing to the limited space the furniture is reduced to the minimum, the -bunks being built against the wall.] - -More remarkable was the accident which happened at the Flannen Islands -light-station in 1900; it remains an unsolved mystery to this day. This -is one of Scotland’s lonely lights, mounting guard over a group of -islets fifteen miles off the Hebrides. On December 26 the relief-tender -approached the station on her usual fortnightly visit, but, to the -amazement of those on board, no signs of the keepers or the usual -signals were to be seen, while the lantern was not dressed in its -daylight garb. The crew landed hurriedly, wondering what was amiss. -They found the lighthouse absolutely deserted; not a sign of any of the -three keepers was to be seen or heard. They examined the log, and found -that the light had not been burning for some days, the last entry being -made about 4 a.m. nearly a week previously. The rock was searched, but -yielded no clue to the mystery of the complete disappearance of the -men. The light had not been abandoned; it had simply burned itself out. -It was a fortunate circumstance that very little shipping frequents -these seas during the winter, or there would have been one or two -marine disasters, as the islands are often wrapped in fog. - -It is surmised that one of the men ventured outside on to a rocky ledge -in the early hours of the morning. According to the log, a vicious -storm was raging at the time, and probably in the darkness the man was -swept off his feet and carried into the sea. The second keeper on duty, -marvelling at the non-return of his assistant, evidently had roused his -other companion, and the two had instituted a search in the storm, only -in turn to be caught by a wave and carried away. - -In Great Britain, since 1860, men only have been employed by the -Trinity House Brethren for the maintenance of the lights, but in -the United States women still are engaged in this duty. Some of the -British lights have been controlled by one family through two or -three generations. It was only a few years ago that a Darling retired -from the vigil on the Longstones of Farne Islands, the scene of Grace -Darling’s heroism, while for a century and a half one family kept the -South Foreland light faithfully. The Casquets light off Alderney, in -the Channel Islands, was maintained by one family, some of the children -spending the whole of their lives on the rock, son succeeding father at -the post of duty. - -On the American coast, however, women are more extensively employed. -Seeing that many of the lights are burned in a low tower projecting -from the dwelling-house, this circumstance may be readily understood, -as the duties beyond the maintenance of the light are not exacting. -One of the most notable instances, however, is the Point Pino light -at the entrance to Monterey Bay, on the Californian coast, the -guardianship of which has been in feminine hands for the past thirty -years. For something approaching half a century a woman maintained the -Michigan City harbour light on the Great Lake of that name. Indeed, -the associations were so deep-rooted and long that the beacon became -popularly known as “Miss Colfax’s light,” after the name of its keeper. -Even when she attained the age of eighty years she was as active and -attentive to her charge as on the day, in 1861, when she first assumed -responsibility for its safe-keeping. - -In those times there was a beacon established on the end of the wooden -pier, which railed off an area of the restless lake for the purposes of -the inland port. Those were strenuous days. Her home was on shore, and -every night and morning she tramped the long arm of woodwork to light -and extinguish the lamp. Lard-oil was used, and during the winter the -food for the lamp had to be heated to bring it into a fluid condition -before she set out from home. It was no easy matter struggling along on -a blusterous, gusty evening, with a pail of hot oil in one hand and a -lamp in the other, over a narrow plank. Often, when a gale was raging, -progress was so slow that by the time the beacon was reached the oil -had cooled and congealed, rendering it a difficult matter to induce -the lamp to burn. Once set going, however, it was safe for the night, -as the heat radiated from the burner kept the lard melted. In addition -to this lamp, there was another light in the tower projecting from the -roof of her house, which had to be maintained, and this, being the main -light, was the more important of the two. - -In 1886 the pier tower was taken out of her hands for ever. A furious -gale, such as is peculiar to these inland seas, and which cannot be -rivalled on the ocean for fury, was raging. At dusk she started on her -usual journey. Time after time she was wellnigh swept off her feet, so -that she staggered rather than walked, for the spray and sand flecking -her face nearly blinded her. When she gained the tower she paused, and -observed that it was trembling violently. Undismayed, she ascended, lit -the light, and tramped back to the shore. Scarcely had she gained the -mainland, when, glancing seawards, she saw the light sway from side -to side for a second or two, and then make a dive into the water. A -few moments later a crash reverberated above the noise of the storm: -the decrepit pier had succumbed at last. Hers was a lucky escape, but -she hurried home, and sat by the main light gleaming from her roof all -that night, apprehensive that some vessel might endeavour to make the -harbour and come to grief. When the pier was rebuilt, a new beacon -was placed on its extremity, but its upkeep was taken over by the -harbour authorities, leaving only the shore light in the trusty woman’s -keeping, the wicks of which for over forty years were trimmed and lit -at dusk, and extinguished with the dawn, with her own hands. - -During the migratory season of the birds extraordinary sights are -witnessed around the light at night. The brilliant glare attracts -enormous flocks, which flit to and fro. As the monster flaming spoke -swings round, the birds, evidently blinded by the glare, dash with such -fury against the glass panes of the lantern as to flutter to the floor -of the gallery with broken necks and wings, while large numbers, dazed -or killed, fall into the water. The birds are of all species, and at -times may be picked up by the basketful. Then the light-keepers are -able to secure a welcome change in their dietary. Moths, too, often -hover in clouds round the light, and are of such variety that an hour -on the gallery would bring infinite delight and rich harvests to the -youthful entomologist who has to be content to hunt around electric -lamps in quiet streets at night. - -While the lamp is burning, time cannot drag, owing to the multitude -of details which compel the keeper’s constant attention. The official -log has to be kept posted with a host of facts, such as temperature, -barometric readings, weather conditions as they vary from hour to -hour, behaviour of the lamps, etc.; while, when the lighthouse is -a marine signal-station as well, passing ships have to be signalled -and reported. The spell of labour varies from four to five hours or -more. Obviously, the task is more exacting and arduous in the winter -than in summer. During the former season the lamps have to be lighted -as early as 3.15 p.m., and are not extinguished until eight o’clock -the next morning. In the summer, on the other hand, the lamps may be -required for less than six hours or so. In northern latitudes where the -daylight is continuous owing to the midnight sun, the light scarcely -seems necessary. Yet it is kept burning during the scheduled hours of -darkness. - -Thus, night in and night out the whole year round, a comparatively -small band of faithful toilers keeps alert vigil over the dangers of -the deep, for the benefit of those who “go down to the sea in ships, -and do their business in great waters.” The safety of thousands of -human lives and of millions sterling of merchandise is vested in -their keeping. The resources of the shipbuilder, the staunchness of -the ship, the skill and knowledge of the captain--all would count for -nothing were it not for the persistent, steady glare of the fixed, -the twinkling of the occulting, or the rhythmic, monotonous turning -spokes of the revolving light, thrown over the waste of waters from the -lighthouse and the lightship. - - - - -INDEX - - - Aberbrothock, Abbot of, 96 - - Acetylene: as illuminant, Daléngas, 49, 274; - systems for floating lighthouses, 238, 278, 285-95; - cost of lighting by, 282; - dissolved, French system of using, 291; - use in Sweden, 291-94 - - Acetylene gun, the, 68-71 - - Admiralty, the: adoption of the siren, 60-61; - use of the Wigham light, 296 - - Adriatic shoreline, 203 - - “Aga” principle of lighting, 274, 277, 291, 293; - adopted by the United States, 294-95 - - Ailly, Pointe d’, 303 - - Ailsa Crag, system of fog-signalling, 63-65, 66 - - Alaska: trade of, 173; - controlled by the Lighthouse Board, 206; - unattended lighthouses, 277; - coastline 284 - - Alderney coastline, 12-13 - - Alexander, Lieutenant B. S., the Minot’s ledge-light, 8, 179 - - Alexandria, Pharos of, 2-3 - - Allerton Point lighthouse, 6 - - Altacarry Head, 313 - - Ambrose Channel, 251 - - American Thimble Shoal lighthouse, 308 - - Amour Point light, 169 - - Anderson, Lieutenant-Colonel William P., 172, 174, 217 - - _Anglo-Saxon_, Allan liner, wreck, 163-64 - - Anticosti, 171 - - Antifer, Cap d’, lighthouse, 39 - - Antipodes, the, 239 - - Arbroath, 97 - - Arena Point, 204 - - Argand burner, the, 47, 55, 79, 219 - - Argyll, Duke of, 115; - lays foundation-stone of Skerryvore, 105 - - Ar-men light, Finisterre, 20-24 - - Arthur, Port, 214, 217 - - _Assyrian_, the, wreck, 164 - - Astoria, 13, 185, 188, 193 - - Auckland coastline, 236, 237, 238 - harbour, 238 - Islands, 239 - - Auer, Dr. von, the incandescent mantle, 47-48 - - Australia: lighthouses of, 229-39; - unattended lighthouses, 283 - - Austria, lighthouses, 48 - - - Bache, General Hartmann, 63; - Brandywine Shoal light, 200-201 - - “Back lights,” 20 - - Ballantyne, A., the Tillamook Rock lighthouse, 185-95 - - Ballycastle, 313 - - Baltic Sea, unattended lighthouses of the, 274, 278, 291 - - Bar lightship, Mersey, 240 - - Barnard, General, the Minot’s Ledge light, 178-82 - - Barra Head, 113 - - Barra Island, 113 - - Barsier rock, 269 - - Bauld Cape light, 169 - - “Bay of the Dead,” Finisterre, 21, 22 - - Beachy Head lighthouse, 24-27, 94 - - Belfast, 306 - - Bell Rock lighthouse, 9; - lighting, 53; - fog-signals, 59; - the reef, 96-97 - - Bell-buoys, 68 - - Belle Ile, 51; - the beacons, 169; - the Northern light, 170-71; - the Southern light, 169; - the auxiliary light, 169-70; - isolation of, 171 - - Belle Ile, Straits of, 162, 163, 169 - - Bells: on lighthouses, 58; - submarine, 249-50 - - Biscay, Bay of, gales, 3-4 - - Bishop Rock lighthouse, 38, 51, 81-87 - - Black Prince, the, in Gascony, 4 - - Black Sea, lighthouses on the, 18-19 - - Blau liquid gas, 48-49 - - “Blowing-holes,” 62-63 - - Bluff, the, 236 - - Bois Blanc Island, 211 - - Bordeaux, trade of, 3-4 - - Boston Harbour: lighting, 6, 33-4, 196; - Minot’s Ledge light, 176-82 - - Bothnia, Gulf of, unattended lighthouses, 268, 274 - - Bounty Islands, 239 - - Bourdelles, M., investigations, 56, 219 - - Brandywine Shoal light, 200-201 - - Brebner, Alexander, 117 - - “Breeches-buoy,” used at Tillamook Rock, 187-89 - - Bréhat, Heaux de, Reynaud’s tower, 149-53 - - Bréhat, Isle of, 149 - - Bremerhaven, 132, 138, 139, 141 - - Brett, Cape, lighthouse, 238 - - Brewster, Sir David, lighting methods, 29 - - Bridges and Roads, Department of, 148 - - Bristol Channel: the Flat Holme light, 7; - unattended lighthouses, 278-79 - - British Columbia coastline, 284 - - Brittany coastline, 148 - - Brothers light, the, 234-35 - - Bull Rock lighthouse, 39 - - Bullivant cableways, 25-26 - - Bungaree Norah. _See_ Norah Head - - Buoys: bell and whistle, 68; - gas-buoys, 244; - the Willson, 286-89; - combined light and whistling, 290 - - Büsun, 226 - - Byron Bay, 232 - - Byron Cape, 232 - - - Cabrillo Point light, 205 - - Calf Rock light, 123 - - California coastline, 204 - - Campbell, General, 270 - - Campbell Island, 239 - - Canadian Marine Department, 8; - systems of building, 18-19; - fog-signalling apparatus, 66-68; - lighting of the coastline, 161-75; - lighting of the Great Lakes, 208-17; - floating lighthouses, 286 - - Caribou Island lighthouse, 216-17 - - Carmel Head, 94 - - Carolina, North, 240 - - Carrington, W. H. T., 25 - - Casquets lighthouse: the approach to, 12-13; - keepers of the, 314 - - Castle Point lighthouse, 238 - - Casuarina Island, 55 - - Catoptric system of lighting, 28 - - Centre Island lighthouse, 237 - - Chance Bros. and Co.: systems of lighting, 33, 36, 42, 55, 256; - the hyperradiant method, 38-39; - lenses, 40; - clockwork mechanism, 43-44; - the incandescent mantle, 48; - works carried out by, 53, 222 - - Channel Islands coastline, 269 - - Charles, Cape, 200 - - Chatham Island, 239 - - _Chauffer_, the, 4-6 - - Chesapeake Bay lights, 199, 200, 308 - - Chicken Rock light, 9, 94, 238 - - China, coast-lighting, 258-59 - - Clear, Cape, 121 - - Coffin Island, 171 - - Cohasset Rocks, 177 - - Colchester Reef lighthouse, 210, 216 - - Colfax: “Miss Colfax’s light,” 315-16 - - Collinson, Sir Richard, rocket system invented by, 58-59 - - “Colossus,” the Rothersand caisson, 138-9 - - Colton family, the, 170 - - Columbia River, 183, 184, 185 - - Colza oil as illuminant, 46, 47 - - Concrete, reinforced, use of, 18, 174 - - Cook’s Strait, 233, 234, 237 - - Cordouan, rocks of, 4 - - Cordouan, Tour de, 4-5, 30 - - Cornish plunderers of the Wolf Rock, 88 - - Corunna lighthouse, 3 - - Couedie, Cap de, lighthouse, 55 - - Courtenay, whistling device, 290 - - Creach, electric light at, 156 - - - Daboll, C. L., invention of the trumpet fog-signal, 59, 60 - - Dalén, Gustaf: the sun-valve, 49; - system of lighting, 274, 275, 291; - unattended lights, 269; - honour for, 291 note; - experiments, 292-93 - - Danger Point, 230 - - Darling, Grace, 95, 314 - - Daudet, Alphonse, “Phares de Sanguinaires,” 93 - - Delaware Bay, 143, 199, 200 - - Denmark, coastline, lighting, 48 - - Detroit River, Lower, 208 - - “Deviline” toy whistle, 61 - - Dewey, Admiral, 310 - - Dhu-Heartach lighthouse, 9, 107, 113-20, 311 - - Diamond Shoal, dangers of, 205-6; - the lightship, 251-53 - - “Diaphone,” the, 67, 68, 165 - - Dieppe, 303-304 - - Differential arc, use of, 227-28 - - Dioptric system of lighting, 37, 220 - - Disappointment Cape lighthouse, 186 - - Distances, table of, 52 - - “Divergence,” 39 - - Dog Island lighthouse, 237 - - Doty burner, the, 238 - - “Double-shell” principle of construction, 200 - - Douglass, Sir James: design for the new Eddystone, 78-80; - preservation of the Bishop Rock, 86-87; - system of lighting, 223 - - Douglass, William, and the Fastnet, 123 - - Dover Harbour lightship, 245 - - Dover, the pharos at, 3 - - Doyle Fort, 271-74 - - _Drummond Castle_, wreck, 148 - - Dues, lighthouse, 4, 7, 239 - - Duluth, 214 - - Duncansby Head, 108 - - Dunedin, N.Z., 236 - - Dungeness light, 94 - - Dunkirk, 249 - - - Earraid, 115, 116 - - East Cape, N.Z., 236 - - East Indies Archipelago, 257 - - Eddystone lighthouse: lighting of, 38, 41, 55; - fog-signals, 59; - description, 72, 82; - the Winstanley construction, 73-4; - John Rudyerd’s lighthouse, 74, 75, 94; - Smeaton’s work, 75, 78, 80; - the Douglass tower, 78-80; - keepers of, 311 - - “Eddystones,” 72 - - Edinburgh, Duke of, 79 - - Egmont, Cape, 233 - - Electricity: as luminant, 50-51, 148, 218, 295-96; - used in operation of derrick, 159 - - _Eider_ lightship, 249 - - Erie, Lake, 208, 216 - - Estevan Point light, 174 - - - Fair Isle lighthouse, 39 - - “Family of Engineers (A),” 8-9 - - Faraday, Professor, 218 - - Farallon Beacon, 205 - - Farallon Isles, fog-signalling on, 63 - - Farne Islands, 95, 314 - - Faro, the, 3 - - Fastnet lighthouse, 121-31; - lighting, 41; - keepers, 311 - - Ferro-concrete, use in construction, 18-19 - - _Feu-éclair_, the, 56 - - Finisterre, Cape, 3; - the Ar-men light, 20-24 - - Fire Island lighthouse, 250 - - Fire Island lightship, 240, 242, 250 - - Fisher’s Island Sound, 203 - - Flamborough Head light, 95 - - Flannen Islands lighthouse, 9, 113; - disappearance of keepers, 313-14 - - Flat Holme light, the, 7 - - Florida coastline, 201 - - “Focal point,” 39 - - Fog-signals: discharge of guns, 57-58; - rockets, 58-59; - explosion of gun-cotton, 59; - the Daboll trumpet, 59-60; - the siren, 60-62; - blowing-holes, 62-63; - installation on Ailsa Crag, 63-66; - diaphone on Ailsa Crag, 66-68; - the acetylene gun, 68-71; - diaphone at Cape Race, 165; - Belle Ile diaphone, 170 - - Foix, Louis de, 4-5, 8 - - _Forfarshire_, the, 95, 314 - - Forteau Bay, 169 - - Forth, Firth of, lighthouses in, 7, 218-19 - - Fourteen Foot Bank, 132, 143-47 - - Foveaux Strait, 237 - - Fowey Rocks lights, 201-3 - - French coast: lighting of, 148; - lightships, 243, 249 - - French Lighthouse Commission (1811), 29 - - Fresnel, Augustin: system of lighting, 28, 33, 286; - adopted by the United States, 36 - - - Gap Rock lighthouse and signal-station, 264 - - Gas Accumulator Company, of Stockholm, 49, 274, 291 - - Gas as illuminant, the incandescent mantle, 47-48 - - Gasfeten tower, 274 - - Gedney’s Channel, lighting of, 295-96 - - General Superintendent of Lights, office of, 197-98 - - Georgian Bay, 216 - - Gerholmen light-boat, 294 - - Germany: coastline of, lighting, 48, 50-51; - the lightship service, 249-50 - - Gironde lighthouse, 19 - - Gironde, the, rocks of the estuary, 3-4 - - Goodwin Sands, 205, 240, 244-45, 248 - - Grand Banks, the, 163 - - Grande Braye Rock, 296 - - Grand Trunk Pacific, 173 - - Granite, use of, 18 - - Great Lakes of North America: lighting of the, 27, 173, 208-17; - Lighthouse Board, control of, 206; - floating lighthouses, 286 - - Green Cape lighthouse, 232-33 - - “Grouting,” 27 - - Guantanamo Bay, 308 - - Guernsey coast lighthouse, 9, 16; - unattended lights, 269 - - Gun-cotton, explosion of, 58, 59 - - - Halifax Harbour: lights, 192; - the “Outer Automatic,” 290 - - Halpin, George, the Fastnet lighthouse, 121-23, 129 - - Hand Deeps, 79 - - Hanois lighthouse, 16 - - Hargreaves, Riley and Co., 260 - - Harkort, Society of, Duisburg, 133-34: - the Rothersand contract, 136-43 - - Hatteras, Cape: coastline, 147, 251-53; - sandbanks, 205-6, 240 - - Hauraki Gulf, 238 - - Hawaiian Islands, 206 - - Hebrides, lighthouses of the, 112, 313 - - Heligoland lighthouse, 133, 218; - use of the rocket system, 59; - the electric installation, 224-26 - - Hellespont, Sigeum lighthouse, 2 - - Henlopen Cape, light, 199 - - Hennebique system, 260 - - Henry, Cape, lighthouse, 20, 199-200 - - Héve, Cape, lighthouse, 218, 219 - - _Hinemoa_, New Zealand Government steamer, 235, 236, 238 - - Hoheweg lighthouse, 138 - - Hole-in-the-Wall, Vancouver, 174 - - Holland coastline, 48 - - Holmes, Professor, fog-horns, 60-62, 64, 66, 218 - - Holophotal revolving apparatus, 33 - - Hong-Kong, 264 - - “Hoo-doo,” 91 - - Horaine, plateau of, 153-56 - - Horn, Cape, 268 - - Hornum light, the electric installation, 226-28 - - Howe, Cape, 230, 232 - - _Huddart Parker_, liner, wreck, 236 - - Hudson Bay coastline, 268 - - Hugo, Victor, “The Toilers of the Sea,” 269 - - Hunting Island tower, South Carolina, 19-20 - - Huron, Lake, 211 - - Hynish harbour, 107 - - “Hyperradiant,” the, 37, 41; - the quicksilver trough, 42-43 - - - “Ice-breakers,” 201 - - “Ice-stoves,” 200-201, 210 - - Inchcape. _See_ Bell Rock - - Ingrey, Charles, scheme for Ailsa Crag, 64, 66 - - Invercargill, 237 - - Iona, 100 - - Ireland, Congested Districts Board beacons, 282-83 - - Irish lights, Commissioners of, 7; - the Fastnet, 123, 127 - - Iron, use in construction, 19-20 - - Islay, 298 - - - Jamaica coastline, lighting, 283 - - Japan, coastline, lighthouses, 9-10, 257-58 - - Java, 257 - - Jersey coastline, 243 - - Jument of Ushant, 156, 160 - - - Karachi, unattended light, 281 - - Kavanagh, James, the Fastnet, 125, 128 - - “Kingdom of Heaven,” 92 - - - Labrador coastline, 169, 268 - - Lagerholmen lighthouse, 278 - - Lampaul, Bay of, 157 - - Land’s End coastline, 247 - - Lard-oil as fuel, 46, 47 - - Leasowe lighthouse, 16; - fire at, 309 - - Lenses, preparation, 39, 40 - - Lewes, Delaware, 144 - - Lewis, Isle of, 113 - - Lewis, Winslow, invention of, 34, 35 - - “Light-boats,” 294 - - Lighthouse Board, U.S.A., 178-79 - - Lighthouse dues, origin, 4, 7; - levy of, 7, 239 - - Lighthouse Literature Mission, 306 - - Lighthouses, construction of, 174; - wooden towers, 198; - electric, of the world, 218-28; - unattended, 267-83; - floating, 284-300 - - Lighting: candles, 33; - Fresnel system, 28-33; - holophotal revolving apparatus, 33; - hyperradiants, 33-41; - sperm-oil, 46; - colza-oil, 46-47; - lard-oil, 46, 47; - petroleum, 47-48, 296-98; - paraffin, 47-48; - oil-gas, 48-49, 296; - various gases, 49-50; - electric lighting, 50-51, 148, 295-96; - acetylene system, 69-71, 238, 291 - - Light-keepers, life of the, 301-17 - - Lights: wood or coal in open braziers, 28; - tallow candles, 28; - indentification of, 32; - classification of, 37, 44-45; - “divergence,” 39; - focal point, 39; - white and coloured, 45-46; - candle-power, 51, 53; - subsidiary, 53-55; - duration of flash in revolving, 55-56 - - Lightships: the Stevenson unattended, 70; - maintenance of, 240-41; - description, 241-42; - the Minquiers light, 243-44; - average crew for, 244-45; - incidents, 244-55; - illuminating apparatus, 255-57 - - “Light valve,” the Dalén, 275-78 - - Lipson’s Reef, 55 - - Little Brewster Island lighthouse, 196-197 - - Lizard Head, 72, 82, 94 - - Lizard lighthouse, 94, 218 - - Lloyd’s, signalling-station at the Fastnet, 131 - - Longfellow, lines to Minot’s Ledge light, 176 - - Longships light, 82, 92, 311 - - Longstones lighthouse, 95, 314 - - Louis XIV. and the Eddystone, 75 - - Lundy Island, 92 - - _Lupata_, sailing-ship, wreck, 183 - - _Lusitania_, French emigrant steamer, wreck, 164 - - _Ly-ce-moon_, steamer, wreck, 233 - - - Mackinac, Strait of, 211 - - Macquarie, tower, 231 - - Magellan, Straits of, 268; - unattended lighthouses, 274-75 - - Malacca Straits lighthouse, 257; - One Fathom Bank, 259-64 - - Malay Peninsula, 257 - - _Malcolm Baxter Junior_, schooner, collision with the lighthouse, 308 - - Man, Isle of, Chicken Rock light, 94 - - Manacles, wrecks on the, 7 - - Manilla, 310 - - Manora breakwater, the Wigham light, 281 - - Manora Point light, Karachi, 39-41 - - Maria Van Diemen, Cape, lighthouse, 237, 238 - - Marine and Fisheries, Department of, Canada, 171 - - Marine Department, New Zealand, 233 - - Matthews, Sir Thomas, 26; - light designed by, 278-79, 299 - - May, Isle of, lighthouse, 7, 218-23 - - _Megantic_, White Star liner, 313 - - Meldrum, Sir John, the North Foreland lighthouse, 81 - - Mendocino, Cape, lighthouse, 204-5 - - Ménier, Henri, 171 - - Mercury float, the, 42, 43, 56 - - Meriten (De), dynamos, 221, 223 - - Mersey lightship, 240 - - Mew Island lighthouse, 38, 41 - - Mexico, Gulf of, coastline, 201 - - Michigan City Harbour light, 315-16 - - Michigan Lake, lighting of, 208, 211, 214, 215, 217 - - Minches, the, 112, 113 - - _Minnehaha_, wreck of the, 82, 83 - - Minot’s Ledge light, 11, 74, 204; - Captain Swift’s tower, 176-78; - General Barnard’s structure, 178-82 - - Minquiers lightship, 243-44 - - _Mohegan_ wreck, 7 - - Moko Hinou, 238 - - Monach Island light, 113 - - “Monolithic” method of construction, 16-19 - - Montagu Island lighthouse, 30-31 - - Monterey Bay, 315 - - Morocco, Cape Spartel light, 207 - - Moye system of lighting, 69 - - Muckle Flugga, 109-112 - - Mull, Isle of, 102, 115 - - Mull of Kintyre, 108 - - Murray, Hon. A., 260 - - - Nantucket Shoals lightship, 250 - - Navesink lighthouse, 51, 218 - - Needles light, the, 94 - - New Jersey coastline, 218 - - New London, Connecticut, Race Rock lighthouse, 203-4 - - New South Wales, lighthouses of, 230, 231, 232-33 - - New York Harbour: lighting, 218, 295; - lightships, 251 - - New Zealand: system of lighting, 33; - lighthouses of, 229-30, 233-35; - the lighthouse-keepers, 235; - unattended lighthouses, 268 - - Newfoundland coastline, 162, 169 - - Newhaven, 303 - - “No. 87” lightship, 251 - - Norah Head lighthouse, 232 - - Norderney lightship, 242, 249 - - Nore lightship, 240, 242, 245 - - _Norge_ liner, wreck, 299 - - Norman Cape light, 169 - - North Cape, New Zealand, lighthouse, 237, 238 - - North Foreland light, 81 - - North German Lloyd Atlantic liners, 132, 137 - - North Island, New Zealand, coastline, 233 - - North Ronaldshay lighthouse, 33 - - North Unst lighthouse, 9, 109, 110-12 - - Northern lighthouses, Commissioners of, 8-10, 37, 63, 64, 94, 96, - 100-02, 105, 109, 114, 219 - - North-West lightship (Mersey), 240 - - Nova Scotia: Sable Island lighthouse, 166; - floating lighthouses, 285, 290 - - Nuremberg, tests carried out at, 225-26 - - - Oil-gas, compressed, use of, 48, 296 - - One Fathom Bank lighthouse, 259-64 - - “One-tenth flash,” 294 - - Ontario Lake, 217 - - Oregon coastline, 13, 195 - - Orkneys coastline, 108, 109 - - Otter Rock lightship, 9, 297-99 - - Ouessant, Ile d’. _See_ Ushant - - “Outer Automatic,” Halifax Harbour, 290 - - Outer Diamond Shoal lightship, 147 - - Outer Minot light, 177, 178 - - - Panama Canal, unattended lighthouses, 277 - - “Panels,” system of dividing the light by, 31-32 - - Paraffin, use of, 47 - - Paris Exhibition of 1867, 61 - - _Paris_, wreck of the, 7 - - Parry sound, 216 - - Patents granted for upkeep of beacons, 5-6 - - Pei Yu-Shan lighthouse, 39 - - Pencarrow Head lighthouse, 234 - - Pentland Firth, 108 - - Pentland Skerries light, 109 - - Petroleum gas, use of, 47, 48, 279, 296-98 - - _Phare_, the term, 3 - - _Phares, Service des_, 19, 148, 219 - - _Pharos_, constructional vessel, 110 - - Pharos, the, Dover, 3; - of Alexandria, 2-3 - - Philippines coastline, 206 - - Phœnicians, beacons erected by the, 3 - - Pilgrim Fathers, the, and lighthouses, 6 - - Pilotage, Board of, Sweden, experiments with acetylene, 292, 293-94 - - Pino Point lighthouse, 315 - - Pladda, Island of, 64 - - Planier lighthouse, 219 - - Platte Fougère, land-controlled station of, 269-74, 283 - - Pleasanton, Stephen, 197-98 - - Plenty, Bay of, 236 - - Plymouth Harbour, 72 - - Plymouth Hoe, 80 - - Poe, General O. M., Spectacle Reef lighthouse, 211-14 - - Portland Canal, 173 - - Portland, Duke of, lighthouse on the Isle of Man, 7 - - Portland stone, used for building Eddystone, 76 - - Port of Dublin Corporation, 121 - - Potomac, ice-shores of the, 200-201 - - Potron, Charles Eugène, generosity of, 157, 159-60 - - Prince Rupert, port of, 173, 284 - - Pulsometer Engineering Company, Reading, 66 - - Punta Gorda light-station, 311 - - Puysegur Point, 237 - - - Queenstown harbour floating light, 297 - - - Race, Cape, lighthouse, 39, 43; - the lens, 40-41; - clockwork mechanism, 43; - fog-signalling apparatus, 67; - dangers of, 162-64; - the first beacon, 164-65; - the new beacon, 165 - - Race Rock lighthouse, 203-4 - - Ralph the Rover, 96 - - Rame Head, 72 - - Rathlin light, 313 - - Rattray Briggs lighthouse, 9 - - Ray, Cape, 164 - - Red Rock lighthouse, 210, 216 - - Red Sea lighthouses, 311 - - Rennie, John, the Bell Rock light, 97 - - Reyes Point, 205 - - Reynaud, Léonce, tower on the Heaux de Bréhat, 149-53 - - Rhins of Islay, 113 - - Ribière, 8 - - Rock Island, 124 - - Rock of Ages lighthouse, 210, 214-15, 216 - - Rockall, the, 299-300 - - Rockets, use of, 58-59 - - Rose of Mull, the, 113 - - Rothersand lighthouse, 11, 218; - the first attempt, 132-36; - work of the Society Harkort, 136-43 - - Round Island lighthouse, 39 - - Royale, Isle, 214 - - Rudyerd, John, the Eddystone lighthouse, 74, 75, 92-93 - - Russell Channel, the, 269-70 - - Russian lighthouse authorities, 18 - - Rutingen lightship, 242, 249 - - - Sable Island, 162; - description, 165-66; - lighthouses and chief station, 166-67; - the west end light, 167-68; - the east end light, 168 - - St. Agnes light, 81 - - St. Catherine’s Downs, 223 - - St. Catherine’s lighthouse, 55, 94, 218; - the electric installation, 223-24 - - St. Clair, Lake, 208 - - St. David’s Head, 92 - - St. John’s, Newfoundland, 164 - - St. Kilda, 300 - - St. Lawrence, Gulf of, 163; - dangers, 171 - - St. Lawrence River: - fog-signalling apparatus, 66-68; - entrance, 162; - the ice, 172; - lighting of the, 172-73 - - St. Malo Harbour, 243 - - St. Mary’s, 85 - - St. Peter Port lighthouse, 269-70 - - Sambro Island lighthouse, 162 - - Samoan Islands, American, controlled by the Lighthouse Board, 206 - - San Francisco: bay, 63; - coastline, 205 - - Sand, lighthouses built on, 132-47 - - Sandbanks, signposts of the, 240-56 - - Sandy Hook lighthouse, 199, 295 - - Sarnia, 216 - - _Salara_, the, wreck, 232-33 - - Sault Ste. Marie, 216 - - Scammon’s Harbour, 212 - - _Schiller_, German packet, wreck of, 86 - - Schukert, 225 - - Scilly Island, 81, 82, 247 - - Scotland: lighting, 50; - sea-rock lights of, 96; - the coastline, 108 - - _Scotsman_, Dominion liner, 171 - - Scott, C. W., and the Fastnet, 123-24, 129 - - Scott, Sir Walter, _quoted_, 100, 101 - - “Screw-pile lighthouses,” 19, 83, 200-203, 261-62 - - Sea-rock lighthouses, construction, 20 _et seq._ - - Serrin-Berjot lamps, 221-23 - - Seven Hunters. _See_ Flannen Islands - - Seven Stones lightship, 242, 248-49 - - Seven Wonders of the world, 2 - - Shark-catching, 311-12 - - Sherman, General, 211 - - Shetlands coastline, 108-109 - - Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, 82 - - Sigeum lighthouse, on the Hellespont, 2 - - Singapore, 257 - - Siren, the, developments, 59-60, 159 - - Skerries light, 94 - - Skerryvore lighthouse, 11, 59, 100-107, 113, 311 - - Slave-running, 312 - - Slight, Mr., the modern siren, 62 - - Smalls, The, 92-93 - - Smeaton, John, the Eddystone lighthouse, 8, 75-78, 80 - - _Smeaton_, the, 97-99 - - Smith, Thomas, 9, 219 - - Solent, the, 94 - - Sound, aberration of, 68 - - South Carolina, lighthouses of, 19-20 - - South Foreland lighthouse: lighting, 38, 95; - electricity adopted, 218-19; - keepers of the, 314 - - South Island, N.Z., coastline, 237 - - South Solitary Island lighthouse, 230, 231 - - South Stock light, 94 - - Southey, ballad of the Bell Rock, 96 - - Spain, early beacons, 3 - - Spartel Cape lighthouse, 207, 300 - - Spectacle Reef lighthouse, 74, 210-14, 215-16 - - Sperm-oil, as luminant, 46 - - “Spider-web braces,” 201 - - Spurn Point lighthouse, 38-39 - - Standard Oil Co., 282 - - Stannard’s Rock lighthouse, 214, 216 - - Start Point, 94 - - Stephens Island, 233 - - Stevenson, Alan: “Skerryvore,” 9, 100-107; - improvements in lighting, 32-33; - table of distances by, 51-52 - - Stevenson, Charles, 9 - - Stevenson, David, “North Unst,” 9 - - Stevenson, David and Charles: the acetylene gun, 68-71; - the unattended light, 269; - the Platte Fougère fog-signal, 270-71; - the Otter Rock light, 297; - scheme for Rockall, 300 - - Stevenson, David and Thomas: works carried out by, 15, 53; - the Chicken Rock light, 94; - building of the Dhu-Heartach, 114-20 - - Stevenson, family of engineers: preeminence of, 8-10; - systems of lighting, 36-38; - adoption of electricity, 219-22; - work in Japan, 258; - characteristics, 305 - - Stevenson, George, and the Fastnet, 122 - - Stevenson, Robert, and the Bell Rock lighthouse, 9, 97-100; - Skerryvore, 101 - - Stevenson, Robert Louis, “A Family of Engineers,” 8-9 - - Stevenson, Thomas, 9, 222 - - Stewart Island, 237 - - Stornoway lighthouse, lighting, 53-54 - - Strain, Samuel H., 306 - - Subsidiary lights, 53-55 - - Suez, 312 - - Sugar-Loaf Point lighthouse, 232 - - Sule Skerry lighthouse, 9, 39 - - Sumatra, 257 - - “Sun-valve,” the Dalén, 275-78 - - Superior, Lake, lighting of, 214, 216, 217 - - Sweden: floating lighthouses, 291; - unattended lighthouses, 277-82 - - Swift, Captain W. H., the Minot’s Ledge light, 176-78, 182 - - Sydney lighthouse. _See_ Macquarie Tower - - - _Tararua_, steamship, wreck of the, 236, 237 - - Tay, Firth of, 96 - - Terawhiti, Cape, 238 - - Thames lightships, 240-41 - - Thomas, O. P., 260 - - Three Kings Rock, 236 - - Tierra del Fuego, 268 - - Tillamook Head, 183 - - Tillamook Rock lighthouse, 13-15, 183-95, 204; - the keepers, 307-8 - - Tiri-Tiri Island lighthouse, 236-38 - - Torrain Rocks, 113 - - Tory Island lighthouse, 39 - - Trade, Board of: - collection of light dues, 7-8; - and the siren, 61; - Mr. Ingrey’s scheme, 64; - adoption of electricity, 219 - - Trewavas, John R., death of, 14-15 - - Triangle Island, British Columbia, light, 174 - - Trinity House Brethren: purchase of patents, 6; - maintenance of English lights, 7, 26; - adoption of the Daboll trumpet, 60; - and the Eddystone, 77; - and the Wolf Rock, 88-89; - and the Whiteside light, 93; - and the Fastnet, 122; - adoption of electricity, 218, 223; - the light on the Seven Stones, 248 - - Trinity House Museum: Smeaton’s clock, 76-77; - Bishop Rock fog-bell, 85-86 - - _Triumph_, steamship, wreck, 236 - - Tyndall, Professor, 59 - - Tyree, island of, 100, 102, 105, 107 - - - United States Corps of Engineers, 63, 198 - - United States Lighthouse Board, 13 36, 195; - coastline lighting, 20, 196-207; - methods of lighting, 46-47; - inauguration, 198; - extent of control 206-7; - lighting of the Great Lakes, 208-17; - lightship service, 255; - adoption of the Aga light, 294-95 - - United States Typographical Engineers, 176 - - Unst, island of, 112 - - Ushant, 148, 156, 157 - - Ushant Island, 158 - - - Vancouver, 173; - coastline, 284 - - Vancouver Island, 174 - - Victoria, 173 - - _Victoria_, steamer, wreck, 303-4 - - - Waipapapa Point lighthouse, 236, 237 - - Walker, James, 8; - Bishop Rock light, 84-5 - - Wanganui, N.Z., 233 - - Water-gas, 48 - - Wellington, N.Z., 233-4 - - Weser River estuary, 132 - - West Indies lighthouses, 309 - - White ant, ravages of the, 264-66 - - White Shoal lighthouse, 215, 216 - - Whiteside light, 92, 93 - - Whistles on lighthouses, 58 - - Wigham light, 279-280, 282, 296-97 - - Willson, Mr. Thomas: the acetylene automatic light, 285-89, 291, 294 - - _Winchelsea_, wreck of the, 72, 74 - - Windward Point, Cuba, 308 - - Winstanley, Henry: the Eddystone lighthouse, 73 - - Wireless installation: on the Fastnet, 131; - station, Sable Island, 167; - Belle Ile, Southern Point, 170; - the Eider lightship, 249 - - Wirral, 16, 309 - - Wolf Rock lighthouse, 14; - blowing holes, 63, 87-92; - relief, 311 - - Women as lighthouse-keepers, 314-15 - - Wrath, Cape, 112 - - Wreckers of the Wolf Rock, 88; - Chinese, 258-59 - - -BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not -changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. - -Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references. - -Ditto marks in the Index have been replaced by the actual text. - -Empty, featureless areas along the side(s) of some illustrations have -been removed by Transcriber. 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