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diff --git a/old/52400-0.txt b/old/52400-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c19c905..0000000 --- a/old/52400-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8182 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Brothers, by Famous Men of Ancient -Times, by S. G. Goodrich - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Famous Men of Ancient Times - -Author: S. G. Goodrich - -Release Date: June 23, 2016 [eBook #52400] -[Most recently updated: June 27, 2022] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Haragos Pál and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FAMOUS MEN OF ANCIENT TIMES *** - - - - - FAMOUS MEN - OF - ANCIENT TIMES. - - BY - - S. G. GOODRICH. - - - BOSTON: - - THOMPSON, BROWN & COMPANY. - 23 HAWLEY STREET. - - - - - PREFACE - - -The reader of these pages will perhaps remark, that the length of the -following sketches is hardly proportioned to the relative importance of -the several subjects, regarded in a merely historical point of view. -In explanation of this fact, the author begs leave to say, that, while -he intended to present a series of the great beacon lights that shine -along the shores of the past, and thus throw a continuous gleam over -the dusky sea of ancient history,—he had still other views. His chief -aim is moral culture; and the several articles have been abridged or -extended, as this controlling purpose might be subserved. - -It may be proper to make one observation more. If the author has been -somewhat more chary of his eulogies upon the great men that figure in -the pages of Grecian and Roman story, than is the established custom, -he has only to plead in his vindication, that he has viewed them in the -same light—weighed them in the same balance—measured them by the same -standard, as he should have done the more familiar characters of our -own day, making due allowance for the times and circumstances in which -they acted. He has stated the results of such a mode of appreciation; -yet if the master spirits of antiquity are thus shorn of some portion -of their glory, the writer still believes that the interest they -excite is not lessened, and that the instruction they afford is not -diminished. On the contrary, it seems to him that the study of ancient -biography, if it be impartial and discriminating, is one of the most -entertaining and useful to which the mind can be applied. - -[Illustration] - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - MOHAMMED, 7 - - BELISARIUS, 25 - - ATTILA, 60 - - NERO, 68 - - SENECA, 74 - - VIRGIL, 83 - - CICERO, 95 - - JULIUS CÆSAR, 130 - - HANNIBAL, 145 - - ALEXANDER, 157 - - ARISTOTLE, 183 - - DEMOSTHENES, 197 - - APELLES, 209 - - DIOGENES, 213 - - PLATO, 218 - - SOCRATES, 229 - - ALCIBIADES, 244 - - DEMOCRITUS, 252 - - PERICLES, 256 - - ARISTIDES, 261 - - ÆSOP, 264 - - SOLON, 271 - - LYCURGUS, 277 - - HOMER, 282 - - CONFUCIUS, 291 - -[Illustration] - - - - - FAMOUS MEN OF ANCIENT TIMES - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - MOHAMMED. - - -This individual, who has exercised a greater influence upon the -opinions of mankind than any other human being, save, perhaps, the -Chinese philosopher Confucius, was born at Mecca, in Arabia, A. D. -570. He was the only son of Abdallah, of the noble line of Hashem and -tribe of Koreish—descendants of Ishmael the reputed progenitor of the -Arabian race. - -The Koreishites were not only a commercial people, and rich by virtue -of their operations in trade, but they were the hereditary guardians -of the Caaba, or Kaaba, a heathen temple at Mecca. The custody of this -sacred place, together with all the priestly offices, belonged to the -ancestors of Mohammed. - -The Mohammedan authors have embellished the birth of the prophet with a -great variety of wonderful events, which are said to have attended his -introduction into the world. One of these is, that the Persian sacred -fire, kept in their temples, was at once extinguished over all Arabia, -accompanied by the diffusion of an unwonted and beautiful light. But -this and other marvels, we leave to the credulity of the prophet’s -followers. - -Mohammed’s father died early, and his son came under the guardianship -of his uncle, Abu Taleb. He was a rich merchant, who was accustomed -to visit the fairs of Damascus, Bagdad, and Bassora—three great and -splendid cities, and Mohammed often accompanied him to these places. -In his twelfth year, Mohammed took part in an expedition against -the wandering tribes that molested the trading caravans. Thus, by -travelling from place to place, he acquired extensive knowledge, and, -by being engaged in warlike enterprise, his imagination became inflamed -with a love of adventure and military achievements. If we add to -this, that he had naturally a love of solitude, with a constitutional -tendency to religious abstraction; and if, moreover, we consider that -in his childhood he had been accustomed to behold the wild exercises, -the dark ceremonies, and hideous rites of the temple of Caaba—we -shall at once see the elements of character, and the educational -circumstances, which shaped out the extraordinary career of the founder -of Islamism. - -It appears that Mohammed was remarkable for mental endowments, even in -his youth, for, in a religious conversation with a Nestorian monk, at -Basra, he showed such knowledge and talent, that the monk remarked to -his uncle, that great things might be expected of him. He was, however, -attentive to business, and so completely obtained the confidence of his -uncle, as a merchant, that he was recommended as a prudent and faithful -young man, to Khadijah, a rich widow, who stood in need of an agent to -transact her business and manage her affairs. In this capacity he was -received, and so well did he discharge his duties, that he not only won -the confidence of the widow, but finally obtained her hand in marriage. -This event took place when he was about twenty-five years old, Khadijah -being almost forty. - -Mohammed was now rich, and, though he continued to carry on mercantile -business, he often retired to a cave, called Heva, near Mecca, where -he resided. He also performed several journeys to different parts -of Arabia and Syria, taking particular pains to gather religious -information, especially of learned Jews and Christians. - -For some time, Mohammed, who lived happily with his wife, confided -to her his visits to the cave Heva, professing to enjoy interviews -with Heaven there, by means of dreams and trances, in which he met -and conversed with the angel Gabriel. There is little doubt that his -habits of religious retirement and gloomy reflection had unsettled -his judgment, and that he now gave himself up to the guidance of -an overwrought fancy. It is probable, therefore, that he believed -these visions to be of divine inspiration; else, why should he first -communicate them, as realities, to his wife? - -Soon after this, he informed other members of his family of his -visions, and, being now about forty years old, assumed with them, -the character and profession of a prophet. Several of his friends, -particularly his wife, and his cousin Ali, a young man of great energy -of character, yielded to the evidence he gave of his divine mission. -Having been silently occupied about three years in converting his -nearest friends, he invited some of the most illustrious men of the -family of Hashem to his house, and, after conjuring them to abandon -their idolatry, for the worship of ONE GOD, he openly proclaimed his -calling, and set forth, that, by the commands of Heaven, revealed -through the angel Gabriel, he was prepared to impart to his countrymen -the most precious gift—the only means of future salvation. - -Far from being convinced, the assembly was struck silent with mingled -surprise and contempt. The young and enthusiastic Ali, alone, yielded -to his pretences, and, falling at his feet, offered to attend him, in -good or evil, for life or for death. Several of the more sober part of -the assembly sought to dissuade Mohammed from his enterprise; but he -replied with a lofty fervor, that if the sun were placed in his right -hand, and the moon in his left, with power over the kingdoms they -enlighten, he would not, should not, could not hesitate or waver in his -course. - -Inflamed by the opposition he met with among this assembly, Mohammed -now went forth, and, wherever he could find crowds of people, there he -announced his mission. In the temples, in the public squares, streets, -and market-places, he addressed the people, laying claim to the -prophetic character, and setting forth the duty of rejecting idolatry, -for the worship of one God. The people were struck with his eloquence, -his majesty of person, the beautiful imagery he presented to their -minds, and the sublime sentiments he promulgated. Even the poet Lebid -is said to have been converted by the wonderful beauty and elevation -of the thoughts poured forth by the professed prophet. The people -listened, and, though they felt the fire of his eloquence, still they -were so wedded to their idolatries, that few were yet disposed to join -him. - -To aid in understanding the revolution wrought by Mohammed, it may -be well to sketch the condition of the Arabians at that period. The -original inhabitants of Arabia, though all of one stock, and occupying -a peninsula 1200 miles in length by 700 in width, had been, from -time immemorial, divided into a variety of distinct tribes. These -constituted petty communities or states, which, often changing, still -left the people essentially the same. In the more elevated table lands, -intersected by mountain ridges, with dreary wastes consisting of sandy -plains, the people continued to pursue a roving life, living partly -upon their flocks of camels, horses, and horned cattle, and partly -upon the robbery of trading caravans of other tribes. The people of the -plains, being near the water, settled in towns, cultivated the soil, -and pursued commerce. - -The various tribes were each governed by the oldest or most worthy -sheik or nobleman. Their bards met once a year, at Okhad, holding a -fair of thirty days, for the recitation of their productions. That -which was declared to be the finest, was written in gold and suspended -in the great temple of Mecca. This was almost the only common tie -between the several states or tribes, for, although they nominally -acknowledged an emir, or national chief, they had never been brought to -act in one body. - -The adoration of the Arabians consisted chiefly in the worship of the -heavenly luminaries; but they had a great variety of deities, these -being personifications of certain powers in nature, or passions in -mankind. They were represented by idols of every variety of shape, -which were gathered around the ancient temple of Caaba, at Mecca, a -large square edifice, considered as the central point of religion, and -the favorite seat of divinity. Their worship was attended with the most -horrid rites and shocking ceremonies: even children were sacrificed to -the idols, and one of the tribes was accustomed to bury their daughters -alive. Except that they fancied the souls of the departed to be -transformed into owls, hovering in gloom around the grave, it does not -appear that they had the least idea of a future state of existence. - -Such was the state of religion among the native Arabians. Among the -foreign settlers in the towns there were a few followers of the Greek -and Roman philosophy; the Christians were never numerous. These latter -were divided into a variety of sects, and those belonging to the Greek -church, advocated monasteries, and were addicted to the worship of -images, martyrs and relics. Some of these, even elevated the Virgin -Mary into a deity, and addressed her as the third person in the Trinity. - -Mohammed, while he no doubt looked with horror upon this state of -things, having studied the Bible, and clearly comprehended its sublime -revelation of one God, conceived the idea of uniting the people of -his native land under a religion of which this fundamental principle -should constitute the basis. His purpose was to crush idolatry, and -restore the lost worship of the true God. How far he was sincere, and -how far he was an impostor, we cannot venture to affirm. It is probable -that he was a religious enthusiast, deceived by his own fancies, and, -perhaps, really believing his own visions. At the outset of his career, -it is likely that he acted in good faith, while he was himself deluded. -When he had advanced so far as to see power and dominion offered -to his grasp, it is probable that his integrity gave way, and that -thenceforward we are to consider him as under the alternate guidance of -craft and fanaticism. - -Several of the nobles citizens of Mecca were finally converted by -Mohammed. Khadijah was now dead, and the prophet had married Ayesha, -the daughter of Abubeker, a man of great influence, and who exercised -it in favor of his son-in-law. Yet the new faith made little progress, -and a persecution of its votaries arose, which drove them to -Abyssinia, and caused Mohammed himself to fly for safety to Medina. -This flight is called the Hegira, and, taking place in the year 622, is -the epoch from which Mohammedan chronology is computed, as is ours from -the birth of Christ. - -At Medina, whither his tenets had been carried by pilgrims, Mohammed -was received with open arms. He was met by an imposing procession, -and invested at once with the regal and sacerdotal office. The people -also offered him assistance in propagating his faith, even by force, -if it should be required. From this moment, a vast field seems to have -been opened to the mind of Mohammed. Hitherto, he may have been but a -self-deceived enthusiast; but now, ambition appears to have taken at -least partial possession of his bosom. His revelations at once assumed -a higher tone. Hitherto he had chiefly inculcated the doctrine of one -God, eternal, omnipotent, most powerful and most merciful, together -with the practical duties of piety, prayer, charity, and pilgrimages. -He now revealed, as a part of his new faith, the duty of making war, -even with the sword, to propagate Islamism, and promised a sensual -paradise to those who should fall in doing battle in its behalf. At the -same time he announced that a settled fate or destiny hung over every -individual, which he could not by possibility alter, evade, or avert. - -He now raised men, and proceeded, sword in hand, to force the -acknowledgment of his pretensions. With alternate victory and defeat, -he continued to prosecute his schemes, and at last fell upon the towns -and castles of the peaceful and unwarlike Jews. These were soon taken -and plundered. But the prophet paid dearly for his triumph. A Jewish -female, at the town of Chaibar, gave him poison in some drink, and, -though he survived, he never fully recovered from the effects of the -dose. - -Thus advancing with the tribes settled in his own country, the power of -the ambitious apostle increased like the avalanche in its overwhelming -descent. Mecca was conquered, and yielded as well to his faith as -to his arms. He now made expeditions to Palestine and Syria, while -his officers were making conquests in all directions. His power was -soon so great, that he sent messages to the kings of Egypt, Persia, -and Ethiopia, and the emperor of Constantinople, commanding them to -acknowledge the divine law revealed through him. - -At last, in the tenth year of the Hegira, he proceeded on a farewell -pilgrimage to Mecca. The scene was imposing beyond description. He was -attended by more than a hundred thousand of his followers, who paid -him the greatest reverence. Everything in dress, equipage and imposing -ceremony that could enhance the splendor of the pageant, and give it -sanctity in the eyes of the people, was adopted. This was the last -great event of his life. - -Mohammed had now become too powerful to be resisted by force, but -not too exalted to be troubled by competition. His own example in -assuming the sacred character of an apostle and prophet, and the -brilliant success which had attended him, gave a hint to others of -the probable means of advancing themselves to a similar pitch of -dignity and dominion. The spirit of emulation, therefore, raised up a -fellow-prophet in the person of Moseilama, called to this day by the -followers of Islam “the lying Moseilama,” a descendant of the tribe of -Honeifa, and a principal person in the province of Yemen. - -This man headed an embassy sent by his tribe to Mohammed, in the -ninth year of the Hegira, and then professed himself a Moslem; but on -his return home, pondering on the nature of the new religion and the -character and fortunes of its founder, the sacrilegious suggestion -occurred to him, that by skilful management he might share with his -countryman in the glory of a divine mission; and, accordingly, in the -ensuing year he began to put his project in execution. He gave out that -he, also, was a prophet sent of Heaven, having a joint commission with -Mohammed to recall mankind from idolatry to the worship of the true -God. He, moreover, aped his model so closely as to publish written -revelations resembling the Koran, pretended to have been derived from -the same source. - -Having succeeded in gaining a considerable party, from the tribe of -Honeifa, he at length began to put himself still more nearly upon a -level with the prophet of Medina, and even went so far as to propose -to Mohammed a partnership in his spiritual supremacy. His letter -commenced thus: “From Moseilama, the apostle of God, to Mohammed, the -apostle of God. Now let the earth be half mine and half thine.” But -the latter, feeling himself too firmly established to stand in need of -an associate, deigned to return him only the following reply: “From -Mohammed, the apostle of God, to Moseilama, the liar. The earth is -God’s: he giveth the same for inheritance unto such of his servants as -he pleaseth; and the happy issue shall attend those who fear him.” - -During the few months that Mohammed lived after this, Moseilama -continued, on the whole, to gain ground, and became at length so -formidable, as to occasion extreme anxiety to the prophet, now rapidly -sinking under the effects of disease. An expedition, under the command -of Caled, the “Sword of God,” was ordered out to suppress the rival -sect headed by the spurious apostle, and the bewildered imagination -of Mohammed, in the moments of delirium, which now afflicted him, was -frequently picturing to itself the results of the engagement between -his faithful Moslems and these daring apostates. - -The army of Caled returned victorious. Moseilama himself, and ten -thousand of his followers, were left dead on the field; while the rest, -convinced by the shining evidence of truth that gleamed from the swords -of the conquerors, renounced their errors, and fell quietly back into -the bosom of the Mohammedan church. Several other insurgents of similar -pretences, but of minor consequence, were crushed in like manner in the -early stages of their defection. - -We have now reached the period at which the religion of Mohammed may -be considered as having become permanently established. The conquest -of Mecca and of the Koreishites had been, in fact, the signal for the -submission of the rest of Arabia; and though several of the petty -tribes offered, for a time, the show of resistance to the prophet’s -arms, they were all eventually subdued. Between the taking of Mecca -and the period of Mohammed’s death, somewhat more than three years -elapsed. In that short period he had destroyed the idols of Arabia; had -extended his conquests to the borders of the Greek and Persian empires; -had rendered his name formidable to those once mighty kingdoms; had -tried his arms against the disciplined troops of the former, and -defeated them in a desperate encounter at Muta. - -His throne was now firmly established; and an impulse given to the -Arabian nation, which induced them to invade, and enabled them to -conquer, a large portion of the globe. India, Persia, the Greek empire, -the whole of Asia Minor, Egypt, Barbary, and Spain, were eventually -reduced by their victorious arms. Mohammed himself did not indeed live -to see such mighty conquests achieved, but he commenced the train -which resulted in this wide-spread dominion, and, before his death, -had established over the whole of Arabia, and some parts of Asia, the -religion which he had devised. - -And now, having arrived at the sixty-third year of his age, and the -tenth of the Hegira, A. D. 632, the fatal effects of the poison, which -had been so long rankling in his veins, began to discover themselves -more and more sensibly, and to operate with alarming virulence. Day -by day, he visibly declined, and it was evident that his life was -hastening to a close. For some time previous to the event, he was -conscious of its approach, and is said to have viewed and awaited it -with characteristic firmness. The third day before his dissolution, -he ordered himself to be carried to the mosque, that he might, for -the last time, address his followers, and bestow upon them his parting -prayers and benedictions. Being assisted to mount the pulpit, he -edified his brethren by the pious tenor of his dying counsels, and in -his own example taught a lesson of humility and penitence, such as we -shall scarcely find inculcated in the precepts of the Koran. - -“If there be any man,” said the prophet, “whom I have unjustly -scourged, I submit my own back to the lash of retaliation. Have I -aspersed the reputation of any Mussulman? let him proclaim my fault -in the face of the congregation. Has any one been despoiled of his -goods? the little that I possess shall compensate the principal -and the interest of the debt.” “Yes,” replied a voice from the -crowd, “thou owest me three drachms of silver!” Mohammed heard the -complaint, satisfied the demand, and thanked his creditor that he -had accused him in this world, rather than at the day of judgment. -He then set his slaves at liberty, seventeen men and eleven women; -directed the order of his funeral; strove to allay the lamentations -of his weeping friends, and waited the approach of death. He did not -expressly nominate a successor, a step which would have prevented the -altercations that afterwards came so near to crushing in its infancy -the religion and the empire of the Saracens; but his appointment of -Abubeker to supply his place in the function of public prayer, and the -other services of the mosque, seemed to intimate indirectly the choice -of the prophet. This ancient and faithful friend, accordingly, after -much contention, became the first Caliph of the Saracens, though his -reign was closed by his death at the end of two years. - -The death of Mohammed was hastened by the force of a burning fever, -which deprived him at times of the use of reason. In one of these -paroxysms of delirium, he demanded pen and paper, that he might compose -or dictate a divine book. Omar, who was watching at his side, refused -his request, lest the expiring prophet might dictate something which -should supersede the Koran. Others, however, expressed a great desire -that the book might be written; and so warm a dispute arose in the -chamber of the apostle that he was forced to reprove their unbecoming -vehemence. The writing was not performed, and many of his followers -have mourned the loss of the sublime revelations which his dying -visions might have bequeathed to them. - -The favorite wife of the prophet, Ayesha, hung over her husband in -his last moments, sustaining his drooping head upon her knee, as he -lay stretched upon the carpet; watching with trembling anxiety his -changing countenance, and listening to the last broken sounds of his -voice. His disease, as it drew towards its termination, was attended at -intervals with most excruciating pains, which he constantly ascribed -to the fatal morsel taken at Chaibar; and as the mother of Bashar, -his companion who had died upon the spot from the same cause, stood -by his side, he exclaimed, “O mother of Bashar, the cords of my heart -are now breaking of the food which I ate with your son at Chaibar.” In -his conversation with those around him, he mentioned it as a special -prerogative granted to him, that the angel of death was not allowed -to take his soul till he had respectfully asked permission of him, and -this permission he condescendingly granted. Recovering from a swoon -into which the violence of his pains had thrown him, he raised his eyes -towards the roof of the house, and with faltering accents exclaimed, “O -God! pardon my sins. Yes, I come among my fellow-laborers on high!” His -face was then sprinkled with water, by his own feeble hand, and shortly -after he expired. - -The city, and more especially the house of the prophet, became at once -a scene of sorrowful but confused lamentation. Some of his followers -could not believe that he was dead. “How can he be dead, our witness, -our intercessor, our mediator with God? He is not dead. Like Moses and -Jesus, he is wrapped in a holy trance, and speedily will he return to -his faithful people.” The evidence of sense was disregarded, and Omar, -brandishing his scimitar, threatened to strike off the heads of the -infidels who should affirm that the prophet was no more. The tumult was -at length appeased, by the moderation of Abubeker. “Is it Mohammed,” -said he, “or the God of Mohammed, whom ye worship? The God of Mohammed -liveth forever, but the apostle was a mortal like ourselves, and, -according to his own prediction, he hath experienced the common fate of -mortality.” - -The prophet’s remains were deposited at Medina, in the very room where -he breathed his last, the floor being removed to make way for his -sepulchre, and a simple and unadorned monument was, some time after, -erected over them. The house itself has long since mouldered, or been -demolished, but the place of the prophet’s interment is still made -conspicuous to the superstitious reverence of his disciples. The story -of his relics being suspended in the air, by the power of loadstone in -an iron coffin, and that too at Mecca, instead of Medina, is a mere -idle fabrication. His tomb at the latter place has been visited by -millions of pilgrims, and, from the authentic accounts of travellers -who have visited both these holy cities in disguise, we learn that it -is constructed of plain mason work, fixed without elevation upon the -surface of the ground. The urn which encloses his body is protected by -a trellis of iron, which no one is permitted to pass. - -The Koran or Alkoran, meaning _the Book_, is a collection of all the -various fragments which the prophet uttered during the period in which -he professed to exercise the apostolic office. They were originally -written on scattered leaves, but they were collected by Abubeker, two -years after Mohammed’s death. They are in the purest and most refined -dialect of Arabia, and are distinguished by extraordinary graces of -style. - -The Koran furnishes not only the divinity, but the civil law of the -Mohammedans. It professes to contain the revelation of God’s will by -Gabriel to Mohammed, and through him to mankind. One of the books gives -an account of the translation of the prophet by night to the third -heaven, upon a winged animal, named Alborak, and resembling an ass, -where he saw unutterable things. The great doctrines of the Koran, as -before stated, are the existence of one supreme God, to whom alone -adoration and obedience are due. It declares that the divine law was -faithfully delivered by Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Christ. It -declares the immortality of the soul of man, and the final judgment, -and sets forth that the good are to dwell in everlasting bliss, amid -shady and delicious groves, and attended by heavenly virgins. The hope -of salvation is not confined to the Moslem, but is extended to all who -believe in God and do good works. Sinners, particularly unbelievers, -are to be driven about in a dark burning hell, forever. - -The practical duties enjoined by the Koran, are the propagation -of Islamism, and prayers directed to the temple of Mecca, at five -different periods of the day, together with fasting, alms, religious -ablutions, pilgrimages to Mecca, &c. It allows a man but four wives, -though the prophet had seventeen, and it is curious to add that all -were widows, save one. It strongly prohibits usury, gaming, wine and -pork. - -We cannot deny to Mohammed the possession of extraordinary genius. He -was a man of great eloquence, and the master of a beautiful style of -composition; and he possessed that majesty of person, which, united to -his mental qualities, gave him great ascendancy over those who came -into his presence. He lived in a dark age, amid a benighted people; -yet, without the aids of education, he mastered the religious systems -of the day, and took a broad and sagacious view of the moral and -political condition of the people of Asia. He conceived the sublime -idea of uniting, by one mighty truth, the broken fragments of his own -nation, and the destruction of idolatry by the substitution of the -worship of one God. It is true, that he sought to accomplish these -ends by unlawful means—by imposture, and the bloody use of the sword; -we must admit, also, that he was licentious and although we cannot -fail to condemn his character, we must acknowledge the splendor of -his abilities and allow that while he imposed on his followers, he -established a faith infinitely above Paganism, and sprinkled with many -rays of light from the fountain of Divine Truth. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - BELISARIUS. - - -This celebrated general, to whom the emperor Justinian is chiefly -indebted for the glory of his reign, was a native of Germania, on the -confines of Thrace, and was born about the year 505. It is probable -that he was of noble descent, liberally educated, and a professor of -the Christian faith. The first step in his military career was an -appointment in the personal guard of Justinian, while that prince was -yet heir apparent to the throne. - -The Roman or Byzantine empire, at this period, embraced almost exactly -the present territory of the Turkish dominions in Europe and Asia -Minor, with the addition of Greece—Constantinople being its capital. -Italy was held by the Goths; Corsica, Sardinia and Barbary in Africa, -by the Vandals. - -Justin I., an Illyrian peasant, having distinguished himself as a -soldier, had become emperor. His education was of course neglected, and -such was his ignorance, that his signature could only be obtained by -means of a wooden case, which directed his pen through the four first -letters of his name. From his accession, the chief administration of -affairs devolved on Justinian, his nephew and intended heir, whom he -was reluctantly compelled to raise from office to office, and at length -to acknowledge as his partner on the throne. His death, after a languid -reign of nine years and a life of nearly fourscore, left Justinian sole -sovereign in name, as well as in fact. - -In order to appreciate the life and actions of Belisarius, it is -necessary to understand the character of the new emperor, during -whose long reign his great exploits were performed. The first act of -Justinian on ascending the throne, was to marry a dissolute actress, -named Theodora, who, though licentious, avaricious, cruel and -vindictive, soon acquired an almost complete control over him. His mind -was essentially feeble and inconstant, and, though his Christian faith -was doubtless sincere, it was less fruitful of virtues than of rites -and forms. At his accession his treasury was full; but it was soon -exhausted by his profuseness, and heavy taxes were imposed, offices -put to sale, charities suppressed, private fortunes seized, and, in -short, every act of rapacity, injustice and oppression, practised by -his ministers, to support the wasteful magnificence of the court. - -The troops of the empire at this period were by no means what they -had been in the time of Scipio and Cæsar. They consisted, to a great -extent, of foreign mercenaries, and were divided into squadrons -according to their country; thus destroying all unity of feeling, and -annihilating that national spirit which once made the Roman arms the -terror of the world. These hired troops, which greatly outnumbered -the native soldiers, marched under their own national banner, were -commanded by their own officers, and usually followed their own -military regulations. The inefficiency of such mingled and discordant -forces, is obvious; yet it was under such a system that Belisarius -entered upon his military career. - -With a feeble and corrupt government, an ill-appointed and trustless -army, the Roman empire was still surrounded with powerful enemies. It -is scarcely possible to conceive of a great nation in a condition of -more complete debility and helplessness, than was the kingdom of the -Cæsars, at the period in which Belisarius appears upon the active stage -of life. - -Kobad, king of Persia, after a long cessation of hostilities, renewed -the war toward the close of Justin’s reign, by the invasion of -Iberia, which claimed the protection of the emperor. At this period, -Belisarius, being about twenty years of age, had the command of a -squadron of horse, and was engaged in some of the conflicts with the -Persian forces, on the borders of Armenia. In conjunction with an -officer named Sittas, he ravaged a large extent of territory, and -brought back a considerable number of prisoners. - -On a second incursion, however, they were less fortunate; for, being -suddenly attacked by the Persian forces, they were entirely defeated. -It appears that Belisarius incurred no blame, for he was soon after -promoted to the post of governor of Dara, and the command of the forces -stationed there. It was at this place that he chose Procopius, the -historian, as his secretary, and who afterwards repaid his kindness by -a vain attempt to brand his name with enduring infamy. - -Soon after Belisarius obtained the command of Dara, Justinian came -to the throne, and enjoined it upon his generals to strengthen the -defences of the empire in that quarter. This was attempted, but the -Persians baffled the effort. Belisarius was now appointed general of -the East, being commander-in-chief of the whole line of the Asiatic -frontier. Foreseeing that a formidable struggle was soon to ensue, he -applied himself to the raising and disciplining an army. He traversed -the neighboring provinces in person, and at last succeeded in mustering -five and twenty thousand men. These, however, were without discipline, -and their spirit was depressed by the ill success that had long -attended the Roman arms. - -In this state of things, the news suddenly came, that 40,000 men, the -flower of the Persian army, commanded by Firouz, was marching upon -Dara. Confident of victory, the Persian general announced his approach, -by the haughty message that a bath should be ready for him at Dara -the next evening. Belisarius made no other reply than preparations for -battle. Fortifying himself in the best manner he was able, he awaited -the onset; exhorting his men, however, by every stimulating motive he -could suggest, to do honor to the name and fame of Rome. - -The battle began by a mutual discharge of arrows, so numerous as to -darken the air. When the quivers were exhausted, they came to closer -combat. The struggle was obstinate and bloody; and the Persians were -already about to win the victory, when a body of horse, judiciously -stationed behind a hill by Belisarius, rushed forward, and turned the -tide of success. The Persians fled, and the triumph of Belisarius was -complete. They left their royal standard upon the field of battle, with -8000 slain. This victory had a powerful effect, and decided the fate of -the campaign. - -The aged Kobad, who had conceived a profound contempt for the Romans, -was greatly irritated by the defeat of his troops. He determined upon -a still more powerful effort, and the next season sent a formidable -army to invade Syria. Belisarius, with a promptitude that astounded he -enemy, proceeded to the defence of this province, and, with an inferior -force, compelled the Persian army to retreat. Obliged at length, by -his soldiers, against his own judgment, to give battle to the enemy, -he suffered severely, and only avoided total defeat by the greatest -coolness and address. Even the partial victory of the enemy was without -advantage to them, for they were obliged to retreat, and abandon their -enterprise. Soon after this event, Kobad died, in his eighty-third -year, and his successor, Nushirvan, concluded a treaty of peace with -Justinian. - -The war being thus terminated, Belisarius took up his residence at -Constantinople, and here became the second husband of Antonina, who, -though the child of an actress, had contracted an exalted marriage on -account of her beauty, and having filled a high office, enjoyed the -rank and honors of a patrician. While thus raised above the dangerous -profession of her mother, she still adhered to the morals of the stage. -Though openly licentious, she obtained through her bold, decided, and -intriguing character, aided by remarkable powers of fascination, a -complete ascendancy over Belisarius. It is seldom that a man is great -in all respects, and the weakness of the general whose history we are -delineating, was exhibited in a blind and submissive attachment to this -profligate woman. - -A singular outbreak of popular violence occurred about this period, -which stained the streets of Constantinople with blood, and threatened -for a time to hurl Justinian from his throne. The fondness of the -Romans for the amusements of the circus, had in no degree abated. -Indeed, as the gladiatorial combats had been suppressed, these -games were frequented with redoubled ardor. The charioteers were -distinguished by the various colors of red, white, blue, and green, -intending to represent the four seasons. Those of each color, -especially the blue and green, possessed numerous and devoted -partisans, which became at last connected with civil and religious -prejudices. - -Justinian favored the Blues, who became for that reason the emblem -of royalty; on the other hand, the Greens became the type of -disaffection. Though these dangerous factions were denounced by the -statutes, still, at the period of which we speak, each party were ready -to lavish their fortunes, risk their lives, and brave the severest -sentence of the laws, in support of their darling color. At the -commencement of the year 532, by one of those sudden caprices which -are often displayed by the populace, the two factions united, and -turned their vengeance against Justinian. The prisons were forced, and -the guards massacred. The city was then fired in various parts, the -cathedral of St. Sophia, a part of the imperial palace, and a great -number of public and private buildings, were wrapped in conflagration. -The cry of “_Nika! Nika!_” Vanquish! Vanquish! ran through every part -of the capital. - -The principal citizens hurried to the opposite shore of the Bosphorus, -and the emperor entrenched himself within his palace. In the mean time, -Hypatius, nephew of the emperor Anastatius, was declared emperor by -the rioters, and so formidable had the insurrection now become, that -Justinian was ready to abdicate his crown. For the first and last -time, Theodora seemed worthy of the throne, for she withstood the -pusillanimity of her husband, and, through her animated exhortations, -it was determined to take the chance of victory or death. - -Justinian’s chief hope now rested on Belisarius. Assisted by Mundus, -the governor of Illyria, who chanced to be in the capital, he now -called upon the guards to rally in defence of the emperor; but these -refused to obey him. Meanwhile, by another caprice the party of the -Blues, becoming ashamed of their conduct, shrunk one by one away, and -left Hypatius to be sustained by the Greens alone. - -These were dismayed at seeing Belisarius, issuing with a few troops -which he had collected, from the smoking ruins of the palace. Drawing -his sword, and commanding his veterans to follow, he fell upon them -like a thunderbolt. Mundus, with another division of soldiers, -rushed upon them from the opposite direction. The insurgents were -panic-struck, and dispersed in every quarter. Hypatius was dragged -from the throne which he had ascended a few hours before, and was soon -after executed in prison. The Blues now emerged from their concealment, -and, falling upon their antagonists, glutted their merciless and -ungovernable vengeance. No less than thirty thousand persons were slain -in this fearful convulsion. - -We must now turn our attention to Africa, in which the next exploits -of Belisarius were performed. The northern portion of this part of the -world, known to us by the merited by-word of Barbary, hardly retains a -trace of the most formidable rival and opulent province of Rome. After -the fall of Jugurtha, at the commencement of the second century, it -had enjoyed a long period of prosperity and peace—having escaped the -sufferings which had fallen upon every other portion of the empire. The -Africans in the fifth century were abounding in wealth, population, and -resources. During the minority of Valentinian, Boniface was appointed -governor of Africa. Deceived by Ætius into a belief of ingratitude on -the part of the government at home, he determined upon resistance, and -with this view, concluded a treaty with the Vandals in the southern -portion of Spain. - -These, embarking from Andalusia, whose name still denotes their former -residence, landed at the opposite cape of Ceuta, A. D. 429. Their -leader was the far-famed Genseric, one of the most able, but most -lawless and bloody monarchs recorded in history. Of a middle stature, -and lamed by a fall from his horse, his demeanor was thoughtful and -silent; he was contemptuous of luxury, sudden in anger, and boundless -in ambition. Yet his impetuosity was always guided and restrained by -cunning. He well knew how to tempt the allegiance of a foreign nation, -to cast the seeds of future discord, or to rear them to maturity. - -The barbarians on their passage to Africa consisted of 50,000 fighting -men, with a great crowd of women and children. Their progress -through the African province was rapid and unopposed, till Boniface, -discovering the artifices of Ætius, and the favorable disposition of -the government of Rome, bitterly repented the effects of his hasty -resentment. He now endeavored to withdraw his Vandal allies; but he -found it less easy to allay, than it had been to raise, the storm. His -proposals were haughtily rejected, and both parties had recourse to -arms. Boniface was defeated, and in the event, Genseric obtained entire -possession of the Roman provinces in Africa. - -Carthage, which had risen from its ruins at the command of Julius -Cæsar and been embellished by Diocletian, had regained a large share -of its former opulence and pride, and might be considered, at the -time of which we speak, the second city in the western empire. Making -this his capital, Genseric proceeded to adopt various measures to -increase his power, and, among others, determined upon the creation -of a naval force. With him, project and performance were never far -asunder. His ships soon rode in the Mediterranean, and carried terror -and destruction in their train. He annexed to his kingdom the Balearic -islands, Corsica and Sardinia; the last of which was afterwards -allotted by the Vandals as a place of exile or imprisonment for captive -Moors; and during many years, the ports of Africa were what they became -in more recent days, the abode of fierce and unpunished pirates. - -With every returning spring, the fleet of Genseric ravaged the coasts -of Italy and Sicily, and even of Greece and Illyria, sometimes bearing -off the inhabitants to slavery, and sometimes levelling their cities to -the ground. Emboldened by long impunity, he attacked every government -alike. On one occasion, when sailing from Carthage, he was asked by -the pilot of his vessel to what coast he desired to steer—“Leave the -guidance to God,” exclaimed the stern barbarian; “God will doubtless -lead us against the guilty objects of his anger!” - -The most memorable achievement of Genseric, the sack of Rome in 455, -is an event too much out of the track of our narrative to be detailed -here. We can only pause to state, that, after spending a fortnight -in that great metropolis, and loading his fleets with its spoils, -he returned to Africa, bearing the Empress Eudocia thither, as his -captive. She was, at length, released, but one of her daughters was -compelled by Genseric to accept his son in marriage. - -The repeated outrages of the Vandal king at length aroused the tardy -resentment of the court of Constantinople, and Leo I., then emperor, -despatched an army against him, consisting of nearly one hundred -thousand men, attended by the most formidable fleet that had ever been -launched by the Romans. The commander was a weak man, and being cheated -into a truce of five days by Genseric, the latter took advantage of a -moment of security, and, in the middle of the night, caused a number -of small vessels, filled with combustibles, to be introduced among the -Roman ships. A conflagration speedily ensued; and the Romans, starting -from their slumbers, found themselves encompassed by fire and the -Vandals. The wild shrieks of the perishing multitude mingled with the -crackling of the flames and the roaring of the winds; and the enemy -proved as unrelenting as the elements. The greater part of the fleet -was destroyed, and only a few shattered ships, and a small number of -survivors, found their way back to Constantinople. - -A peace soon followed this event, which continued uninterrupted till -the time of Justinian. Genseric died in 477, leaving his kingdom to his -son Hunneric. About the year 530, Gelimer being upon the Vandal throne, -Justinian began to meditate an expedition against him. His generals, -with the exception of Belisarius, were averse to the undertaking. The -same feeling was shared by many of the leading men about the court, and -in an assembly, in which the subject was under discussion, Justinian -was about to yield to the opposition, when a bishop from the east -earnestly begged admission to his presence. - -On entering the council chamber he exhorted the emperor to stand forth -as the champion of the church, and, in order to confirm him in the -enterprise, he declared that the Lord had appeared to him in a vision, -saying, “I will march before him in his battles, and make him sovereign -of Africa.” Men seldom reject a tale, however fantastic, which -coincides with their wishes or their prepossessions. All the doubts of -Justinian were at once removed; he commanded a fleet and army to be -forthwith equipped for this sacred enterprise, and endeavored still -further to insure its success by his austerity in fasts and vigils. -Belisarius was named supreme commander, still retaining his title as -General of the East. - -In the month of June, A. D. 533, the Roman armament, consisting of five -hundred transports, with twenty thousand sailors, and nearly the same -number of soldiers, became ready for departure. The general embarked, -attended on this occasion by Antonina and his secretary, the historian -Procopius, who, at first, had shared in the popular fear and distaste -of the enterprise, but had afterwards been induced to join it by a -hopeful dream. The galley of Belisarius was moored near the shore, -in front of the imperial palace, where it received a last visit from -Justinian, and a solemn blessing from the patriarch of the city. A -soldier recently baptized was placed on board, to secure its prosperous -voyage; its sails were then unfurled, and, with the other ships in its -train, it glided down the straits of the Bosphorus, and gradually -disappeared from the lingering gaze of the assembled multitude. - -With a force scarcely one fourth as strong as that which was -annihilated by Genseric, about seventy years before, Belisarius -proceeded upon his expedition. Having touched at Sicily and Malta, -he proceeded to the coast of Africa, where he landed in September, -about one hundred and fifty miles from Carthage, and began his -march upon that city. He took several towns, but enforcing the most -rigid discipline upon his troops, and treating the inhabitants with -moderation and courtesy, he entirely gained their confidence and good -will. They brought ample provisions to his camp, and gave him such a -reception as might be expected rather by a native than a hostile army. - -When the intelligence of the landing and progress of the Romans reached -Gelimer, who was then at Hermione, he was roused to revenge, and took -his measures with promptitude and skill. He had an army of eighty -thousand men, the greater part of whom were soon assembled, and posted -in a defile about ten miles from Carthage, directly in the route by -which Belisarius was approaching. Several severe skirmishes soon -followed, in which the Vandals were defeated. - -The main army now advanced, and a general engagement immediately -ensued. In the outset, the Vandals prevailed, and the Romans were on -the eve of flying, defeated, from the field. A pause on the part of -Gelimer was, however, seized upon by Belisarius to collect and rally -his forces, and with a united effort he now charged the Vandal army. -The conflict was fierce, but brief: Gelimer was totally defeated, and, -with a few faithful adherents, he sought safety in flight. Knowing that -the ruinous walls of Carthage could not sustain a siege, he took his -way to the deserts of Numidia. - -All idea of resistance was abandoned; the gates of Carthage were thrown -open, and the chains across the entrance of the port were removed. The -Roman fleet soon after arrived, and was safely anchored in the harbor. -On the 16th September, Belisarius made a solemn entry into the capital. -Having taken every precaution against violence and rapacity, not a -single instance of tumult or outrage occurred, save that a captain of -one of the vessels plundered some of the inhabitants, but was obliged -to restore the spoil he had taken. The soldiers marched peaceably to -their quarters; the inhabitants continued to pursue their avocations; -the shops remained open, and, in spite of the change of sovereigns, -public business was not for a moment interrupted! Belisarius took -up his quarters in the palace of Gelimer, and in the evening held a -sumptuous banquet there, being attended by the same servants who had so -lately been employed by the Vandal king. - -With his usual activity, Belisarius immediately applied himself to -the restoration of the ruinous ramparts of the city. The ditch was -deepened, the breaches filled, the walls strengthened, and the whole -was completed in so short a space as to strike the Vandals with -amazement. Meanwhile, Gelimer was collecting a powerful army at Bulla, -on the borders of Numidia at the distance of four days’ journey from -Carthage. - -Having placed the capital in a proper state for defence, at the end -of three months from its capture, Belisarius led forth his army, -leaving only five hundred troops to guard the city. Gelimer was now -within twenty miles of the capital, having raised an army of one -hundred thousand men. No sooner had the Romans taken up their march -toward his camp, than they prepared for battle. The armies soon met, -and Belisarius, having determined to direct all his endeavors against -the centre of the Vandal force, caused a charge to be made by some -squadrons of the horse guards. These were repulsed, and a second onset, -also, proved unsuccessful. - -But a third prevailed, after an obstinate resistance. The ranks of -the enemy were broken; Zazo, the king’s brother, was slain, and -consternation now completed the rout of the Vandals. Gelimer, under -the influence of panic, betook himself to flight; his absence was -perceived, and his conduct imitated. The soldiers dispersed in all -directions, leaving their camp, their goods, their families, all in -the hands of the Romans. Belisarius seized upon the royal treasure in -behalf of his sovereign, and in spite of his commands, the licentious -soldiers spent the night in debauchery, violence and plunder. - -Gelimer fled to the mountains of Papua, inhabited by a savage but -friendly tribe of Moors. He sought refuge in the small town of Medenus, -which presented a craggy precipice on all sides. Belisarius returned to -Carthage, and sent out various detachments, which rapidly subdued the -most remote portions of the Vandal kingdom. - -Immediately after the capture of Carthage, he had despatched one of his -principal officers to Justinian, announcing these prosperous events. -The intelligence arrived about the time that the emperor had completed -his _pandects_.[1] The exultation of the monarch is evinced by the -swelling titles he assumes in the preamble of these laws. All mention -of the general by whom his conquests had been achieved, is carefully -avoided; while the emperor is spoken of as the “pious,” “happy,” -“victorious,” and “triumphant!” He even boasts, in his Institutes, of -the warlike fatigues he had borne, though he had never quitted the -luxurious palace of Constantinople, except for recreation in some of -his neighboring villas. - -While the Roman general was actively employed at Carthage, Pharus was -proceeding in the siege of Medenus, which had been begun immediately -after the flight of Gelimer. Pent up in this narrow retreat, the -sufferings of the Vandal monarch were great, from the want of supplies -and the savage habits of the Moors. His lot was likewise embittered by -the recollection of the soft and luxurious life to which he had lately -been accustomed. - -During their dominion in Africa, the Vandals had declined from their -former hardihood, and yielded to the enervating influence of climate, -security and success. Their arms were laid aside; gold embroidery shone -upon their silken robes, and every dainty from the sea and land were -combined in their rich repasts. Reclining in the shade of delicious -gardens, their careless hours were amused by dancers and musicians, -and no exertion beyond the chase, interrupted their voluptuous repose. -The Moors of Papua, on the contrary, dwelt in narrow huts, sultry in -summer, and pervious to the snows of winter. They most frequently -slept upon the bare ground, and a sheepskin for a couch was a rare -refinement. The same dress, a cloak and a tunic, clothed them at every -season, and they were strangers to the use of both bread and wine. -Their grain was devoured in its crude state, or at best was coarsely -pounded and baked, with little skill, into an unleavened paste. - -Compelled to share this savage mode of life, Gelimer and his attendants -began to consider captivity, or even death, as better than the daily -hardships they endured. To avail himself of this favorable disposition, -Pharus, in a friendly letter, proposed a capitulation, and assured -Gelimer of generous treatment from Belisarius and Justinian. The spirit -of the Vandal prince, however, was still not wholly broken, and he -refused the offers, while acknowledging the kindness of his enemy. -In his answer he entreated the gifts of a lyre, a loaf of bread, and -a sponge, and his messenger explained the grounds of this singular -petition. At Medenus, he had never tasted the food of civilized -nations, he wished to sing to music an ode on his misfortunes written -by himself, and a swelling on his eyes needed a sponge for its cure. -The brave Roman, touched with pity that such wants should be felt by -the grandson and successor of Genseric, forthwith sent these presents -up the mountain, but by no means abated the watchfulness of his -blockade. - -The siege had already continued for upwards of three months, and -several Vandals had sunk beneath its hardships, but Gelimer still -displayed the stubborn inflexibility usual to despotic rulers, when -the sight of a domestic affliction suddenly induced him to yield. In -the hovel where he sat gloomily brooding over his hopeless fortunes, -a Moorish woman was preparing, at the fire, some coarse dough. Two -children, her son and the nephew of Gelimer, were watching her progress -with the eager anxiety of famine. The young Vandal was the first to -seize the precious morsel, still glowing with heat, and blackened with -ashes, when the Moor, by blows and violence, forced it from his mouth. -So fierce a struggle for food, at such an age, overcame the sternness -of Gelimer. He agreed to surrender on the same terms lately held out to -him, and the promises of Pharus were confirmed by the Roman general, -who sent Cyprian as his envoy to Papua. The late sovereign of Africa -reentered his capital as a suppliant and a prisoner, and at the suburb -of Aclas, beheld his conqueror for the first time. - -With the capitulation of Gelimer, the Vandal was at an end. There now -remained to Belisarius but the important task of making the conquered -countries permanently useful to the Romans. But, while occupied -in this design, his glory having provoked envy, he was accused to -Justinian of the intention of making himself king over the territories -he had conquered. With the weakness of a little mind, the emperor so -far yielded to the base accusation as to send a message to Belisarius, -indicating his suspicions. The latter immediately departed from -Carthage, and, taking with him his spoils and captives, proceeded to -Constantinople. - -This ready obedience dissipated the suspicions of the emperor, and he -made ample and prompt reparation for his unfounded jealousy. Medals -were struck by his orders, bearing on one side the effigy of the -emperor, and on the other that of the victorious general, encircled by -the inscription, _Belisarius, the glory of the Romans_. Beside this, -the honors of a triumph were decreed him, the first ever witnessed in -the Eastern capital. - -The ceremony was in the highest degree imposing. The triumphal -procession marched from the house of Belisarius to the hippodrome,[2] -filled with exulting thousands, where Justinian and Theodora sat -enthroned. Among the Vandal captives, Gelimer was distinguished by the -purple of a sovereign. He shed no tears, but frequently repeated the -words of Solomon, “Vanity of vanities: all is vanity.” When he reached -the imperial throne, and was commanded to cast aside the ensigns of -royalty, Belisarius hastened to do the same, to show him that he was to -undergo no insult as a prisoner, but only to yield the customary homage -of a subject. We may pause for a moment to reflect upon the caprices -of fortune, which had raised a comedian, in the person of Theodora, to -see the successor of Genseric and Scipio prostrate as slaves before her -footstool. - -Both the conqueror and captive experienced the effects of imperial -generosity. The former received a large share of the spoil as his -reward, and was named consul for the ensuing year. To the Vandal -monarch, an extensive estate in Galatia was assigned, to which he -retired, and, in peaceful obscurity, spent the remainder of his days. - -We must now turn our attention to Italy. Theodoric the Great, the -natural son of Theodomir, king of the Ostrogoths, became the master of -Italy toward the close of the fifth century. The Gothic dominion was -thus established in the ancient seat of the Roman empire, and the king -of the Goths was seated upon the throne of the Cæsars. - -Theodoric has furnished one of the few instances in which a successful -soldier has abandoned warlike pursuits for the duties of civil -administration, and, instead of seeking power by his arms, has devoted -himself to the improvement of his kingdom by a peaceful policy. Upright -and active in his conduct, he enforced discipline among his soldiers, -and so tempered his general kindness by acts of salutary rigor, that -he was loved as if indulgent, yet obeyed as if severe. He applied -himself to the revival of trade, the support of manufactures, and the -encouragement of agriculture. - -At the death of this great monarch, in 526, his grandson, Athalaric, -then only ten years of age, became king. After a nominal reign of eight -years he died in consequence of his dissipations, and was succeeded by -Theodatus, the nephew of Theodoric. This prince having attained the -throne by the murder of Amalasontha, the widow of Theodoric, Justinian -regarded him as an usurper stained with an atrocious crime, and -therefore determined to drive him from his throne. - -Accordingly, a force of twelve thousand men was despatched to Italy -under Belisarius. Landing at Catania, in Sicily, they surprised the -Goths, and had little difficulty in reducing the island. Fixing his -head quarters at Syracuse, he was making preparations to enter the -heart of Italy, when a messenger came to inform him that a serious -insurrection had broken out at Carthage. He immediately set out -for that place. On his arrival the insurgents fled, but Belisarius -pursued them, overtook them, and, though their force was four times as -great as his own, they were completely defeated in a pitched battle. -Returning to Carthage, the Roman general was informed by a messenger -from Sicily that a formidable mutiny had broken out in his army there. -He immediately embarked, and soon restored his troops to order and -discipline. - -The rapid conquest of Sicily by Belisarius struck terror into the heart -of king Theodatus, who was weak by nature, and depressed by age. He was -therefore induced to subscribe an ignominious treaty with Justinian, -some of the conditions of which forcibly display the pusillanimity of -one emperor, and the vanity of the other. Theodatus promised that no -statue should be raised to his honor, without another of Justinian at -his right hand, and that the imperial name should always precede his -own in the acclamations of the people, at public games and festivals: -as if the shouts of the rabble were matter for a treaty! - -But even this humiliating compact was not sufficient for the grasping -avarice of Justinian. He required of Theodatus the surrender of his -throne, which the latter promised; but before the compact could be -carried into effect, he was driven from his throne, and Vittiges, a -soldier of humble birth, but great energy and experience, was declared -his successor. Establishing his head quarters at Ravenna, the Gothic -king was making preparations to sustain his cause, when Belisarius, -who had taken Naples, was invited to Rome by Pope Sylverius. -Taking advantage of this opportunity, he immediately advanced, and -triumphantly entered the “eternal city.” - -Rome had now been under the dominion of its Gothic conquerors for -sixty years, during which it had enjoyed the advantages of peace and -prosperity. It had been the object of peculiar care, attention, and -munificence, and had received the respect due to the ancient mistress -of the world. Still, the people at large looked upon their rulers as -foreigners and barbarians, and desired the return of the imperial sway, -seeming to forget that they were preferring a foreign to a native -government. - -Belisarius lost no time in repairing the fortifications of Rome, while -he actively extended his conquests in the southern parts of Italy. His -military fame was now a host, and most of the towns submitted, either -from a preference of the Byzantine government, or respect for the -military prowess of the Roman general. - -The great achievements of Belisarius strike us with wonder, when we -consider the feeble means with which they were accomplished. His force -at the outset of his invasion of Italy did not exceed 12,000 men. -These were now much reduced by the bloody siege of Naples, and by his -subsequent successes, which made it necessary to supply garrisons for -the captured towns. - -Vittiges, in his Adriatic capital, had spent the winter in -preparations, and when the spring arrived, he set forth with a powerful -army. Knowing the small force of Belisarius, he hurried forward towards -Rome, fearing only that his enemy should escape by flight. The genius -of Belisarius never shone with greater lustre than at this moment. By -numerous devices he contrived to harass the Gothic army in their march, -but owing to the flight of a detachment of his troops whom he had -stationed at one of the towers, to delay their progress, they at last -came upon him by surprise. - -He was at the moment without the city, attended by only a thousand of -his guards, when suddenly he found himself surrounded by the van of the -Gothic cavalry. He now displayed not only the skill of a general, but -the personal courage and prowess of a soldier. Distinguished by the -charger whom he had often rode in battle—a bay with a white face—he -was seen in the foremost ranks, animating his men to the conflict. -“That is Belisarius,” exclaimed some Italian deserters, who knew him. -“Aim at the bay!” was forthwith the cry through the Gothic squadrons -and a cloud of arrows was soon aimed at the conspicuous mark. It -seemed as if the fate of Italy was felt to be suspended upon a single -life—so fierce was the struggle to kill or capture the Roman leader. - -Amid the deadly strife, however, Belisarius remained unhurt; and it is -said that more of the army fell that day by his single arm, than by -that of any other Roman. His guards displayed the utmost courage and -devotion to his person, rallying around him, and raising their bucklers -on every side, to ward off the showers of missiles that flew with -deadly aim at his breast. Not less than a thousand of the enemy fell in -the conflict—a number equal to the whole Roman troop engaged in the -battle. The Goths at length gave way, and Belisarius, with his guards, -reentered the city. - -On the morrow, March 12th, A. D. 537, the memorable siege of Rome -began. Finding it impossible, even with their vast army, to encircle -the entire walls of the city, which were twelve miles in length, the -Goths selected five of the fourteen gates, and invested them. They -now cut through the aqueducts, in order to stop the supply of water, -and several of them, having never been repaired, remain to this day, -extending into the country, and seeming like the “outstretched and -broken limbs of an expiring giant.” - -Though the baths of the city were stopped, the Tiber supplied the -people with water for all needful purposes. The resources and activity -of Belisarius knew no bounds: yet he had abundant occasion for all the -advantages these could supply. The relative smallness of his force, -the feebleness of the defences the fickleness and final disaffection -of the people, the intrigues of Vittiges, and his vastly superior army -constituted a web of difficulties which would have overwhelmed any -other than a man whose genius could extort good from evil, and convert -weakness into strength. - -For a whole year, the encircling walls of Rome were the scenes of -almost incessant attack and defence. The fertile genius of Vittiges -suggested a thousand expedients, and the number as well as courage -of his troops enabled him to plan and execute a variety of daring -schemes. Yet he was always baffled by his vigilant rival, and his most -elaborate devices were rendered fruitless by the superior genius of the -Roman general. At last, on the 21st of March, A. D. 538, foreseeing -that Belisarius was about to receive reinforcements, and despairing -of success in the siege, Vittiges withdrew his army, suffering in his -retreat a fearful massacre, from a sally of the Roman troops. - -Vittiges retired to Ravenna, and Belisarius soon invested it. While -he was pressing the siege, Justinian, probably alarmed by the threats -of the Persian king, entered into a treaty with the ambassadors of -Vittiges, by which he agreed to a partition of Italy, taking one half -himself, and allowing the Gothic king to retain the other portion. -Belisarius refused to ratify this treaty, and soon after, was pressed -by the Goths to become their king. Vittiges even joined in this -request, and Belisarius had now the easy opportunity of making himself -the emperor of the West, without the remotest fear of failure. But -he was too deeply impressed with his oath of allegiance, to allow -him to entertain a treacherous design toward his sovereign, and he -rejected the tempting offer. The merit of his fidelity under these -circumstances, is heightened by the consideration that he had refused -the ratification of the treaty, and was well aware that reproach, or -even hostility, might await him at Constantinople. - -Soon after these events, Ravenna capitulated, and Belisarius became -its master. His fame was now at its height; but this only served to -inflame the envy of his rivals at Constantinople. These, insidiously -working upon the suspicious temper of Justinian, induced him to command -the return of Belisarius to Constantinople. With prompt obedience, -he embarked at Ravenna, carrying with him his Gothic captives and -treasure. After five years of warfare, from the foot of Etna to the -banks of the Po, during which he had subdued nearly the same extent -of country which had been acquired by the Romans in the first five -centuries from the building of that city, he arrived at Constantinople. - -The voice of envy was silenced for a time, and Belisarius was appointed -to the command of the army now about to proceed against the Persians. -The captive monarch of the Goths was received with generous courtesy -by the emperor, and an ample estate was allotted to him in Asia. -Justinian gazed with admiration on the strength and beauty of the -Gothic captives—their fair complexions, auburn locks, and lofty -stature. A great number of these, attracted by the fame and character -of Belisarius, enlisted in his guards. - -In the spring of the year 540, Chosroes or Nushirvan, the Persian king, -invaded the Roman provinces in the east. The next year Belisarius -proceeded against him, and took his station at Dara. Here, instead of -a well-appointed army, he found only a confused and discordant mass -of undisciplined men. After various operations, being baffled by the -treachery or incapacity of his subalterns, he was obliged to retreat, -and closed a fruitless campaign, by placing his men in winter quarters. - -Being recalled to Constantinople, he went thither, but took the field -early in the spring, with the most powerful army he had ever commanded. -Nushirvan advanced into Syria, but, thwarted by the masterly manoeuvres -of Belisarius, he was at last obliged to retreat. Soon after, the Roman -general being again recalled by Justinian, the most fatal disasters -befel the Roman army. - -During these Persian campaigns, the political security, as well as the -domestic happiness of Belisarius, were shaken by the misconduct of his -wife. She had long been engaged in an intrigue with Theodosius, the -young soldier newly baptized as an auspicious omen in the galley of the -general, upon his departure for Africa. Though told of this, Belisarius -had been pacified by the protestations and artifices of Antonina; but -while he was absent in Asia Minor, she, being left in Constantinople, -pursued her licentious career with little scruple. - -Her son Photius, a gallant young soldier, being a check upon her -conduct, became the object of her hatred. While at the distance of a -thousand miles, during the Persian campaign, he still experienced the -malignant influence of her intrigues, and urged by a sense of duty -to his step-father, made him acquainted with his mother’s depravity. -When she afterwards joined her husband on the frontier, he caused her -to be imprisoned, and sent Photius towards Ephesus to inflict summary -punishment upon Theodosius. The latter was taken captive by Photius, -and borne to Cilicia. - -Antonina, by her convenient intrigues in behalf of Theodora, had laid -her under great obligations, and obtained the greatest influence -over her. The empress, therefore, now interfered to save her friend. -Positive injunctions were sent to Cilicia, and both Photius and -Theodosius were brought to Constantinople. The former was cast into -a dungeon and tortured at the rack; the latter was received with -distinction; but he soon expired from illness. Photius, after a third -escape from prison, proceeded to Jerusalem, where he took the habit of -a monk, and finally attained the rank of abbot. - -Belisarius and Antonina were summoned to Constantinople, and the -empress commanded the injured husband to abstain from the punishment -of his wife. He obeyed this order of his sovereign. She next required -a reconciliation at his hands; but he refused to comply with a demand -which no sovereign had a right to make. He, therefore, remained -at Constantinople, under the secret displeasure of Theodora and -Justinian, who only wanted some plausible pretext to accomplish his -ruin. - -The invasion of Nushirvan, in the ensuing spring impelled the -terrified emperor to lay aside his animosity, and restore the hero -to the direction of the eastern armies; but in this campaign, his -former offence was aggravated, and the glory of saving the East was -outweighed by the guilt of frankness. Justinian was recovering from a -dangerous illness; a rumor of his death had reached the Roman camp, and -Belisarius gave an opinion in favor of the emperor’s nearest kinsman -as his successor, instead of acknowledging the pretensions of Theodora -to the throne. This declaration inflamed with equal anger the aspiring -wife and the uxorious husband. - -Buzes, the second in command, who had concurred in these views, was -confined in a subterranean dungeon, so dark that the difference of day -and night was never apparent to its inmate. Belisarius himself was -recalled, with flattering professions of confidence and friendship, -lest resentment should urge him to rebellion; but on his arrival at -Constantinople, the mask was thrown aside; he was degraded from the -rank of general of the East; a commission was despatched into Asia to -seize his treasures; and his personal guards, who had followed his -standard through so many battles, were removed from his command. - -It was with mingled feelings of compassion and surprise, that the -people beheld the forlorn appearance of the general as he entered -Constantinople, and rode along the streets, with a small and squalid -train. Proceeding to the gates of the palace, he was exposed during -the whole day to the scoffs and insults of the rabble. He was received -by the emperor and Theodora with angry disdain, and when he withdrew, -in the evening, to his lonely palace, he frequently turned round, -expecting to see the appointed assassins advancing upon him. - -In the evening, after sunset, a letter was brought him from Theodora, -declaring that his life was granted and a portion of his fortune spared -at the intercession of his wife, and she trusted that his future -conduct would manifest his gratitude to his deliverer. The favorable -moments of surprise and gratitude were improved by Antonina with -her usual skill. Thus, by the artifices of two designing women, the -conqueror of armies was subdued, and Belisarius once more became the -duped and submissive husband. - -A fine of three hundred pounds weight of gold was levied upon the -property of Belisarius, and he was suffered for many months to languish -in obscurity. In 544, however, he was appointed to the command of -the war in Italy, whither he soon proceeded. Here, in his operations -against far superior forces, he displayed the same genius as before, -and in February, 547, he again entered Rome. He pursued the war with -various fortune; but at last, finding his means entirely inadequate -to the necessities of the contest, he begged of the emperor either -reinforcements or recall. Engrossed by religious quarrels, Justinian -took the easier course, and adopted the latter. Thus, after having -desolated Italy with all the horrors of war for several years, he now -abandoned it, from mere weakness and caprice. - -Belisarius returned to Constantinople, and for several years his -life affords no remarkable occurrence. He continued in the tranquil -enjoyment of opulence and dignities; but, in the year 559, various -warlike tribes beyond the Danube, known under the general name of -Bulgarians, marched southward, and desolated several provinces by -sword, fire, and plunder. Zabergan, their enterprising leader, having -passed the frozen Danube in the winter, detached one portion of his -army for the pillage of Greece, and the other against the capital. - -So sudden and bold an aggression filled Constantinople with helpless -and despairing terror. The people and the senators were agitated with -fear, and the emperor sat trembling in his palace. In this general -confusion and affright, all eyes were turned with hope to the conqueror -of Africa and Italy. Though his constitution was broken by his military -labors, his heart was alive to the call of his country, and Belisarius -prepared to crown his glorious life by a last and decisive battle. He -resumed his rusty armor, collected a handful of his scattered veterans, -and in the return of martial spirit he seemed to shake off the weakness -of decrepitude. - -Sallying from the city with three hundred mounted men, he met Zabergan -at the head of two thousand cavalry. Selecting a favorable position, he -withstood the onset, and, seeming to recover the powers of his youth, -he astonished all around him by his intrepidity and skill. After a -severe and bloody struggle, the Bulgarians were driven back in the -utmost disorder; four hundred fell on the field, and Zabergan himself -escaped with difficulty. The whole army of barbarians, amounting to -many thousands, were seized with contagious fear, raised their camp, -and retreated to the north. - -Belisarius was preparing for a close pursuit, when again his enemies -awaked the suspicions of Justinian by suggesting that he was aiming -at popular favor with disloyal views. The enthusiastic praises of -his heroic conduct, by the people, turned even the emperor’s heart -to jealousy, and he chose rather to purchase the departure of the -barbarians by tribute, than to permit Belisarius to obtain new laurels -by chastising their audacity. - -From this period, Belisarius continued under the displeasure of -Justinian, whose suspicious temper seemed to grow more virulent as his -faculties sunk in the dotage of years. In 563, several conspiracies -against the life of Justinian were detected, and under torture, some of -the domestics of Belisarius accused their master of participation. This -testimony, disproved by the long life and the habitually submissive -loyalty of Belisarius, was sufficient for his conviction. He was -stripped of his fortune, deprived of his guards, and detained as a -close prisoner in his palace. - -The other conspirators were condemned and executed; but, in -consideration of the past services of Belisarius, the decree of death -was changed for that of blindness, and his eyes were accordingly put -out.[3] He was now restored to liberty, but, deprived of all means -of subsistence, he was compelled to beg his bread before the gates of -the convent of Laurus. There he stood with a wooden platter which he -held out for charity, exclaiming to the passers-by, “Give a penny to -Belisarius the general!” - -The affecting scene was long impressed upon the recollection of the -people; and it would seem that this spectacle of persecuted merit -aroused some dangerous feelings of indignation and pity, and he was, -therefore, removed from public view. Belisarius was brought back to his -former palace, and a portion of his treasures was allotted for his use. -His death, which was doubtless hastened by the grief and hardships of -his lot, occurred in 565; and Antonina, who survived him, devoted the -remains of her life and fortune to the cloister. - -In person, Belisarius was tall and commanding; his features regular -and noble. When he appeared in the streets of Constantinople, he never -failed to attract the admiration of the people. As a military leader, -he was enterprising, firm, and fearless. His conception was clear, -and his judgment rapid and decisive. His conquests were achieved with -smaller means than any other of like extent recorded in history. He -experienced reverses in the field; but never did he fail without -strong and sufficient reason. His superior tactics covered his defeats, -retrieved his losses, and prevented his enemies from reaping the fruits -of victory. Never, even in the most desperate emergencies, was he known -to lose his courage or presence of mind. - -Though living in a barbarous and dissolute age, Belisarius possessed -many shining virtues. In the march of his armies, he would avoid the -trampling of the corn-fields, nor would he allow his soldiers even to -gather apples from the trees without making payment to the villagers. -After a victory, it was his first care to extend mercy and protection -to the vanquished. The gift of a golden bracelet or collar rewarded -any valorous achievement among his troops; the loss of a horse or -weapon was immediately supplied from his private funds; the wounded -ever found in him a father and a friend. To all, he was open and easy -of access, and by his courteous demeanor often comforted, where he -could not relieve. From his generosity, one would have deemed him rich; -from his manners, poor. His private virtues promoted and confirmed the -discipline of his soldiers. None ever saw him flushed with wine, nor -could the charms of his fairest captives overcome his conjugal fidelity. - -But the most remarkable feature in the character of Belisarius is his -steadfast loyalty, and the noble magnanimity with which he overlooked -the suspicious meanness and ingratitude of his sovereign. It is -impossible to find in history another instance of an individual so -strongly induced to rebellion by treacherous treatment on the part of -his country, and the opportunity of placing a crown upon his head -without the risk of effectual opposition, who refused, from patriotic -motives, the double temptation. - -That Belisarius had faults, is not to be denied. His blind submission -to his wife displayed great weakness, and led him into most of the -errors which are charged upon his public career. In his last campaign -in Italy, his wealth having been exhausted by an enormous fine, he -endeavored to repair his losses by imitating the rapacity universally -practised by other commanders of that period. He thus inflicted upon -his memory a serious stain, and showed that, however he was exalted -above the age, he was still a man. His whole career affords a striking -moral, coinciding with the emphatic language of Scripture, “Put not thy -trust in princes.” - -[Illustration] - -[Footnote 1: These were a digest of the civil law of Rome, made by the -order of Justinian, and have been preserved to our time. They contained -five hundred and thirty-four decisions or judgments of lawyers, to -which the emperor gave the force of law. The compilation consists of -fifty books, and has contributed to save Justinian’s name from the -contempt and reproach which had otherwise been heaped upon it.] - -[Footnote 2: A space where the chariot races were exhibited.] - -[Footnote 3: This portion of the story of Belisarius has been the -subject of controversy. It has been doubted by Gibbon and other -historians, whether the infliction of blindness upon Belisarius and -his beggary, were not mere traditionary fables. But Lord Mahon, in his -excellent life of the great Roman general from which we have drawn the -preceding account, appears to have established their authenticity. The -beautiful tale of Belisarius by Marmontel, is fictitious in many of its -details.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - ATTILA, KING OF THE HUNS - - -This renowned barbarian was the son of Mandras, and of a royal line. He -served in the army of his uncle, Roas, who was king of the Huns. At his -death, in 433, he succeeded him, sharing the throne with his brother -Bleda. The Huns at this period were very numerous and warlike. They -extended over the southern part of Russia, and a considerable portion -of the present empire of Austria. Attila’s kingdom lay between the -Carpathian mountains and the Danube, and was called Pannonia. - -At this period, the Roman empire had been for more than a century -divided into the Eastern and Western empire. Theodosius II. was -now emperor of the former, and Constantinople its capital, while -Valentinian III. was emperor of the latter, and Rome, or Ravenna, the -seat of his government. - -Both branches of the Roman empire were now sunk in the lap of luxury. -They were spread over with splendid cities, and enriched with all the -refinements of art, and all the spoils gathered from every quarter -of the world. These offered a tempting inducement to the fierce and -hungry barbarians of the north. Alaric[4] had shown the way to Rome a -few years before, and taught the weakness of the queen of the world. -Constantinople was not likely to be an inferior or more inaccessible -prize. Attila’s dominions bordered upon those of the two empires, and -the distance to either capital was not more than five or six hundred -miles. - -Among the first achievements of the two brothers, they threatened -the Eastern empire with their armies, and twice compelled the weak -Theodosius to purchase peace on humiliating terms. They then extended -their dominions both east and west, until they reigned over the whole -country from the Baltic to the Caspian Sea. - -Attila was regarded by the Huns as their bravest warrior, and most -skilful general. He performed such feats of valor, and success so -uniformly attended his career, that the ignorant and superstitious -people were inclined to think him more than mortal. He took advantage -of this feeling, and pretended that he had found the sword of their -tutelar god, and that with this he intended to conquer the whole earth. -Being unwilling to hold a divided sceptre, he caused his brother Bleda -to be murdered, and when he gave out that it was done by the command of -God, the event was celebrated with the greatest demonstrations of joy. - -Being now sole master of a warlike people, his ambition made him the -terror of all the surrounding nations. It was a saying of his own, that -no grass grew where his horse had set his foot, and the title of the -“Scourge of God” was assigned to him, as characterizing his career. -He extended his dominions over the whole of Germany and Scythia. The -Vandals, the Ostrogoths, and a part of the Franks, acknowledged his -sway, and both the Eastern and Western empires paid him tribute. -Historians tell us that his army amounted to 700,000 men. - -Having heard of the riches of Persia, he directed his march against it. -Being defeated on the plains of Armenia, he turned back, to satisfy -his desire of plunder in the dominions of the emperor of the East. -Regardless of existing treaties, he laid waste the whole country from -the Black Sea to the Adriatic. In three bloody engagements, he defeated -the troops sent against him by Theodosius. Thrace, Macedonia, and -Greece, were overrun by the savage robber, and seventy flourishing -cities were utterly destroyed. - -Theodosius was now at the mercy of the victor and was obliged to sue -for peace. One of the servants of Attila, named Edekon, was tempted -by an agent of the emperor to undertake the assassination of his -master, on his return to Pannonia; but, at the moment he was about to -accomplish his object, his courage failed him, he fell on his knees -before Attila, confessed his criminal design, and disclosed the plot. -Constantinople trembled at the idea of Attila’s revenge; but he was -contented with upbraiding Theodosius, and the execution of Crisapheus, -who had drawn his servant into the scheme. - -Priscus, a Roman historian, who was an ambassador to Attila in the -year 448, gives an interesting account of the king and his people. He -found the palace in the midst of a large village. The royal edifice was -entirely of wood: the houses of the Huns were also of wood, sometimes -mixed with mortar made of earth. The only stone building was a set -of baths. The wooden pillars of the palace were carved and polished, -and the ambassador could discover some evidence of taste in the -workmanship, as well as barbarous magnificence in the display of rich -spoils taken from more civilized nations. - -They were soon invited to a sumptuous entertainment, in which the -guests were all served upon utensils of silver and gold; but a dish of -plain meat was set before the king on a wooden trencher, of which he -partook very sparingly. His beverage was equally simple and frugal. The -rest of the company were excited into loud and frequent laughter by -the fantastic extravagances of two buffoons; but Attila preserved his -usually inflexible gravity. A secret agent in the embassy was charged -with the disgraceful task of procuring the assassination of this -formidable enemy. Attila was acquainted with this, which was the real -object of the mission, but he dismissed the culprit, as well as his -innocent companions, uninjured. The emperor Theodosius was compelled, -however, to atone for his base attempt, by a second embassy, loaded -with magnificent presents, which the king of the Huns was prevailed -upon to accept. Theodosius died not long after, and was succeeded by -the more virtuous and able Marcian. - -Attila was at this time collecting an enormous army, and threatened -both divisions of the Roman world at once. To each emperor he sent -the haughty message, “Attila, my lord and thy lord, commands thee -immediately to prepare a palace for his reception!” To this insult, he -added a demand upon the emperor for the remainder of the tribute due -from Theodosius. Marcian’s reply was in the same laconic style: “I have -gold for my friends, and steel for my enemies!” - -Attila determined to make war first on Valentinian. Honoria, the -emperor’s sister, who had been guilty of some youthful error, and was -consequently confined in a convent, had sent Attila a ring, offering to -become his wife. It was to claim her and half the empire as her dower, -that Attila professed to be making these formidable preparations. At -last, he appeared to accept the excuse of Theodosius for not allowing -his sister to become his wife, and speedily marched with a prodigious -force to the westward. He set out in midwinter, and did not pause -till he reached the Rhine. Having defeated the Franks, he cut down -whole forests to make rafts for his army to cross the river, and now, -throwing off the mask, entered Gaul, a dependency of Rome. - -The horrors of his march it is scarcely possible to describe. -Everything was destroyed that came in his way. Before him were terror -and despair; behind, a broad track marked with desolation, ruin and -death. He proceeded in his victorious career, till he reached the -ancient town of Orleans. Here an obstinate defence was offered. The -combined armies of Rome, under the celebrated Ætius, and the Goths -under Theodoric, attacked him here, and compelled him to raise the -siege. He retreated to Champaign, and waited for them in the plain of -Chalons. The two armies soon approached each other. - -Anxious to know the event of the coming battle, Attila consulted -the sorcerers, who foretold his defeat. Though greatly alarmed, he -concealed his feelings, and rode among his warriors, animating them for -the impending struggle. Inflamed by his ardor, the Huns were eager for -the contest. Both armies fought bravely. At length the ranks of the -Romans and Gauls were broken, and Attila felt assured of victory, when, -suddenly, Thorismond, son of Theodoric, swept down like an avalanche -from the neighboring heights upon the Huns. He threw them into -disorder, spread death through their ranks, and Attila, pressed on all -sides, escaped to his camp with the utmost difficulty. - -This was the bloodiest battle ever fought in Europe, for 106,000 -men lay dead on the field. Theodoric was slain, and Attila, who had -gathered his treasures into a heap, in order to burn himself with them -in case he was reduced to extremities, was left unexpectedly to make -his retreat. - -Having returned to Hungary and reinforced his army, he proceeded to -repeat his demand for the hand of Honoria. He mastered the unguarded -passes of the Alps, and, in 452, carried devastation into the north -of Italy. At last he approached the city of Rome, when a supplicatory -embassy met him, Pope Leo I. being at its head. The eloquence of the -pontiff, united to prudential considerations, prevailed, and the city -was saved; Attila returning to his home beyond the Danube. The Romans -looked upon this preservation as a miracle, and they have preserved -a legend that St. Peter and St. Paul appeared to the barbarian, and -threatened him with instant death, if he did not accept the proffered -terms. - -Attila now soothed himself by adding the beautiful Ildico to his -numerous wives, whom he wedded with all due ceremony. On this occasion -he gave himself up to licentiousness, but in the morning after his -marriage, he was found dead in his tent, and covered with blood, Ildico -sitting veiled by his side. The story went abroad that he had burst -a blood-vessel, and died in consequence, but a common suspicion is -entertained that he was stabbed by his bride. - -The news of Attila’s death spread terror and sorrow among his army. -His body was enclosed in three coffins,—the first of gold, the second -of silver, and the third of iron. The captives who dug his grave were -strangled, so that the place of his burial might not be known. - -In person, Attila was marked with the Tartar characteristics, from -which he, as well as the people of his kingdom, were descended. He was -low in stature, broad-chested, and of a powerful frame. He was dark -complexioned, with a few straggling hairs for beard, a flat nose, large -head, and small eyes. No one could look upon him, and not feel that -he had come into the world to disturb it. The number of persons slain -in his battles amounted to hundreds of thousands, yet to so little -purpose, that his empire was immediately dismembered upon his death. - -[Illustration] - -[Footnote 4: Alaric was one of the most eminent of those northern -chiefs who successively overran Italy, during the decline of the -Western empire, and the first who gained possession of imperial Rome. -He learned the art of war under the celebrated emperor of the East, -Theodosius, who curbed the depredations of the Goths. At his death, -Alaric became their leader, and overran Greece, A. D. 396. In the year -403, he entered Italy with a powerful army, but was defeated, and -retired to his own country. In 410, he again entered Italy, besieged -and took Rome, which he entered at midnight, and gave it up to plunder -and pillage for six days. He now led his troops into the southern -provinces of Italy, but died suddenly while he was besieging Cozenza. -He was buried in the channel of the river Bucente, in Naples, that his -remains might not be found by the Romans. To perform the burial, the -water of the river was turned out of its course.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - NERO. - - -Claudius Cæsar Nero was son of Caius Domitius Ænobarbus and Agrippina, -the daughter of Germanicus and wife of the Emperor Claudius, after the -death of her first husband. He was adopted by the Emperor Claudius, -A.D. 50, and when he was murdered by his wife, four years after, Nero -succeeded him on the throne. He possessed excellent talents, and -was carefully educated by Seneca and Burrhus. The beginning of his -reign was marked by acts of the greatest kindness and condescension, -by affability, complaisance and popularity. The object of his -administration seemed to be the good of his people; and when he -was desired to sign his name for the execution of a malefactor, he -exclaimed, “I wish to heaven I could not write!” He appeared to be an -enemy to flattery, and when the senate had liberally commended the -wisdom of his government, Nero desired them to keep their praises till -he deserved them. - -But these promising virtues were soon discovered to be artificial, -and Nero displayed the real propensities of his nature. He delivered -himself from the sway of his mother, and at last ordered her to be -assassinated. This unnatural act of barbarity shocked some of the -Romans; but Nero had his devoted adherents; and when he declared -that he had taken away his mother’s life to save himself from ruin, -the senate applauded his measures, and the people signified their -approbation. Even Burrhus and Seneca, Nero’s advisers, either -counselled or justified his conduct. Many of his courtiers shared the -unhappy fate of Agrippina, and Nero sacrificed to his fury or caprice -all such as obstructed his pleasures, or stood in the way of his -inclinations. - -In the night he generally sallied out from his palace, to visit the -meanest taverns and the scenes of debauchery in which Rome abounded. -In his nocturnal riots he was fond of insulting the people in the -streets, and on one occasion, an attempt to offer violence to the wife -of a Roman senator nearly cost him his life. He also turned actor, and -publicly appeared on the Roman stage, in the meanest characters. He had -an absurd passion to excel in music, and to conquer the disadvantages -of a hoarse, rough voice, he moderated his meals, and often passed the -day without eating. - -The celebrity of the Olympic games having attracted his notice, he -passed into Greece, and presented himself as a candidate for the -public honors. He was defeated in wrestling, but the flattery of the -spectators adjudged him the victory, and Nero returned to Rome with all -the pomp and splendor of an eastern conqueror, drawn in the chariot -of Augustus, and attended by a band of musicians, actors, and stage -dancers from every part of the empire. - -These private and public amusements of the emperor were comparatively -innocent; his character was injured, but not the lives of the people. -His conduct, however, soon became more censurable; he was guilty of -various acts which cannot be even named with decency. The cruelty of -his nature was displayed in the sacrifice of his wives Octavia and -Poppæa; and the celebrated writers, Seneca, Lucan, Petronius, &c., -became the victims of his wantonness. The Christians did not escape -his barbarity. He had heard of the burning of Troy, and as he wished -to renew that dismal scene, he caused Rome to be set on fire in -different places. The conflagration became soon universal, and during -nine successive days the fire was unextinguished. All was desolation; -nothing was heard but the lamentations of mothers whose children had -perished in the flames, the groans of the dying, and the continual fall -of palaces and buildings. - -Nero was the only one who enjoyed the general consternation. He placed -himself on a high tower and he sang on his lyre the destruction -of Troy; a dreadful scene which his barbarity had realized before -his eyes. He attempted to avert the public odium from his head, by -a feigned commiseration of the sufferings of his subjects, and by -charging the fire upon the Christians. He caused great numbers of them -to be seized and put to death. Some were covered with the skins of wild -beasts, and killed by dogs set upon them; others were crucified; others -were smeared with pitch and burned, at night, in the imperial gardens, -for the amusement of the people! - -Nero began to repair the streets and the public buildings at his own -expense. He built himself a celebrated palace, which he called his -golden house. It was profusely adorned with gold and precious stones, -and with whatever was rare and exquisite. It contained spacious fields, -artificial lakes, woods, gardens, orchards, and every device that -could exhibit beauty and grandeur. The entrance to this edifice would -admit a colossal image of the emperor, one hundred and twenty feet -high; the galleries were each a mile long, and the whole was covered -with gold. The roofs of the dining halls represented the firmament, in -motion as well as in figure, and continually turned round, night and -day, showering all sorts of perfumes and sweet waters. When this grand -edifice, which, according to Pliny, extended all round the city, was -finished, Nero said that he could now lodge like a man! - -His profusion was not less remarkable in all his other actions. When -he went fishing, his nets were made with gold and silk. He never -appeared twice in the same garment, and when he undertook a voyage, -there were thousands of servants to take care of his wardrobe. His -continued debauchery, cruelty, and extravagance at last roused the -resentment of the people. Many conspiracies were formed against him, -but they were generally discovered, and such as were accessory, -suffered the greatest punishments. One of the most dangerous plots -against Nero’s life was that of Piso, from which he was delivered -by the confession of a slave. The conspiracy of Galba proved more -successful; for the conspirator, when he was informed that his design -was known to Nero, declared himself emperor. The unpopularity of Nero -favored his cause; he was acknowledged by the whole Roman empire, and -the senate condemned the tyrant, that sat on the throne, to be dragged, -naked, through the streets of Rome, whipped to death, and afterwards -to be thrown from the Tarpeian rock, like the meanest malefactor. -This, however, was not done, for Nero, by a voluntary death, prevented -the execution of the sentence. He killed himself, A. D. 68, in the -thirty-second year of his age, after a reign of thirteen years and -eight months. - -Rome was filled with acclamations at the intelligence of this event, -and the citizens, more strongly to indicate their joy, wore caps such -as were generally used by slaves who had received their freedom. Their -vengeance was not only exercised against the statues of the deceased -tyrant, but his friends were the objects of the public resentment, and -many were crushed to pieces in such a violent manner, that one of the -senators, amid the universal joy, said that he was afraid they should -soon have cause to wish for Nero. The tyrant, as he expired, begged -that his head might not be cut off from his body and exposed to the -insolence of an enraged populace, but that the whole might be burned -on a funeral pile. His request was granted, and his obsequies were -performed with the usual ceremonies. - -Though his death seemed to be the source of universal gladness, yet -many of his favorites lamented his fall, and were grieved to see -that their pleasures and amusements were terminated by the death of -the patron of debauchery and extravagance. Even the king of Parthia -sent ambassadors to Rome to condole with the Romans, and to beg that -they would honor and revere the memory of Nero. His statues were -also crowned with garlands of flowers, and many believed that he was -not dead, but that he would soon make his appearance and take a due -vengeance upon his enemies. It will be sufficient to observe, in -finishing the character of this tyrannical emperor and detestable man, -that the name of _Nero_ is, even now, the common designation of a -barbarous and unfeeling oppressor. - -[Illustration] - - - - - LUCIUS ANNÆUS SENECA. - - -This individual, whose “Morals” are so familiar to us, was born -at Corduba, in Spain, six years before Christ. His father was a -rhetorician of some celebrity, and a portion of his works has come down -to our time. While Lucius was yet a child, he removed from Corduba to -Rome, which henceforward became his residence. The son, possessing -very promising talents, received the greatest care and attention in -respect to his education. He was taught eloquence by his father, and -took lessons in philosophy from the most celebrated masters. According -to the custom of those who sought to excel in wisdom and knowledge, he -travelled in Greece and Egypt, after completing his studies, and his -work entitled _Quæstiones Naturales_ showed that he made good use of -his opportunities during this excursion; it also proves that he was -master of the science of his time. - -Young Seneca was fascinated with the philosophical speculations of -the Stoics,[5] to which sect he became devoted. He even adopted the -austere modes of life they inculcated, and refused to eat the flesh of -animals; but when the emperor, Tiberius,[6] threatened to punish some -Jews and Egyptians for abstaining from certain meats, at the suggestion -of his father, he departed from this singularity. In compliance with -his father’s advice, who urged upon him the necessity of devoting -himself to some kind of business, he adopted the profession of an -advocate. - -As a pleader, Seneca appeared to great advantage, and consequently -excited the envy of Caligula, who aspired to the reputation of an -orator. Apprehensive of the consequences, he changed his views, and -became a candidate for the honors and offices of the state. He was made -prætor, under Claudius, but, being charged with a shameful intrigue -with a lady of rank, he was banished to Corsica. Though his guilt was -not satisfactorily proved, he continued for five years in exile; during -which period he wrote a treatise on Consolation. In this, he seems to -draw contentment and peace from philosophical views, and one would -fancy that he was elevated by these, above the evils of his condition. -Yet, unhappily for his reputation in respect to consistency and -sincerity, history tells us that, at this period, he was suing to the -emperor in the most abject terms for restitution. - -Claudius[7] at length married Agrippina, and Seneca, being recalled, -was made preceptor of Nero, the son of Agrippina, who was destined to -become emperor. From the favorable traits of character displayed by -the pupil of the philosopher in the early part of his career, it might -seem that Seneca’s instructions had exerted a good influence over him. -But an impartial scrutiny of the events of that period has led to the -probable conclusion that he was a pander to the worst of Nero’s vices. -It is certain that he acquired immense wealth in a short period of -time, and it appears that this was obtained through the munificence -of his royal patron. The latter was avaricious and mercenary, and was -likely to part with his money only for such things as ministered to his -voluptuous passions. - -The possessions of Seneca were enormous. He had several gardens and -villas in the country, and a magnificent palace in Rome. This was -sumptuously furnished, and contained five hundred tables of cedar, -with feet of ivory, and all of exquisite workmanship. His ready cash -amounted to about twelve millions of dollars. It appears certain -that such riches could not have been acquired by means of Seneca’s -precepts; and the inference of many of his contemporaries, as well as -of posterity, has been, that the virtue which appears so lovely in his -pages was but the decorous veil of avarice, vice, and crime. - -For a period after his accession to the throne, Nero’s conduct was -deserving of praise; but he soon threw off all regard even to decency, -and launched forth upon that career which has made his name a by-word -and reproach for all after time. Seneca, being accused of having -amassed immense wealth by improper means, became greatly alarmed; -for he knew the tyrant so well as to foresee that, under color of -this charge, he was very likely to sacrifice him, in order to obtain -his property. Pretending, therefore, to be indifferent to riches, he -begged the emperor to accept of his entire fortune, and permit him to -spend the remainder of his days in the quiet pursuits of philosophy. -The emperor, with deep dissimulation, refused this offer—no doubt -intending in some other way to compass the ruin of Seneca. - -Aware of his danger, the philosopher now kept himself at home for -a long period, as if laboring under disease. Some time after, a -conspiracy for the murder of Nero, headed by Piso, was detected. -Several of the most noble of the Roman senators were concerned, and -Seneca’s name was mentioned as an accessory. Nero, doubtless glad of an -opportunity to sacrifice him, now sent a command that he should destroy -himself. - -It has been a question whether Seneca was really concerned in the -conspiracy of Piso. The proof brought against him was not indeed -conclusive, but it is obvious that his position might lead him to -desire the death of the tyrant, as the only means of safety to himself; -and Seneca’s character, unfortunately, is not such as to shield his -memory against strong suspicion of participation in the alleged crime. - -Seneca was at table, with his wife, Paulina, and two of his friends, -when the messenger of Nero arrived. He heard the words which commanded -him to take his own life, with philosophic firmness, and even with -apparent joy. He observed that such a mandate might long have been -expected from a man who had murdered his own mother and assassinated -his best friends. He wished to dispose of his possessions as he -pleased, but his request was refused. When he heard this, he turned to -those around who were weeping at his fate, and told them, that, since -he could not leave them what he believed his own, he would leave them -at least his own life for an example—an innocent conduct, which they -might imitate, and by which they might acquire immortal fame. - -Against their tears and wailings, he exclaimed with firmness, and asked -them whether they had not learned better to withstand the attacks of -fortune and the violence of tyranny. As for his wife, he attempted to -calm her emotions, and when she seemed resolved to die with him, he -said he was glad to have his example followed with so much constancy. -Their veins were opened at the same moment; but Nero, who was partial -to Paulina, ordered the blood to be stopped, and her life was thus -preserved. - -Seneca’s veins bled but slowly, and the conversation of his dying -moments was collected by his friends, and preserved among his works. To -hasten his death, he drank a dose of poison, but it had no effect, and -therefore he ordered himself to be carried to a hot bath, to accelerate -the operation of the draught, and to make the blood flow more freely. -This was attended with no better success, and, as the soldiers were -clamorous, he was carried into a stove, and suffocated by the steam. -Thus he died, in the 66th year of the Christian era. - -The death of Seneca has been loudly applauded, and has sometimes been -pronounced sublime; but this is owing to an ignorance of the time, -and inattention to Seneca’s own doctrines. With the Stoics, death was -nothing; “It is not an evil, but the absence of all evil.” This was -their creed. With such principles, there could be no fear of death, -and consequently, we find that courage to die—if it be courage to -encounter that which is not an evil—was common in Seneca’s time. “At -that period of languor and luxury,” says M. Nisard, “of monstrous -effeminacies, of appetites for which the world could hardly suffice—of -perfumed baths, of easy and disorderly intrigues, there were daily men -of all ranks, of all fortunes, of all ages, who released themselves -from their evils by death. How was it possible for them to avoid -suicide, with no other consolation than the philosophy of Seneca, and -his theories on the delights of poverty? - -“Marcellinus[8] is attacked with a painful but curable malady. He is -young, rich, has slaves, friends, everything to make life pleasant: no -matter, he conceives the fancy of the pleasure of dying. He assembles -his friends; he consults them as if he were going to marry. He -discusses with them his project of suicide, and puts it to the vote. -Some advise him to do as he pleases; but a Stoic, a friend of Seneca’s, -then present, exhorts him bravely to die. His principal reason is that -he is _ennuyé_. No one contradicts the Stoic. Marcellinus thanks his -friends, and distributes money to his slaves. He abstains for three -days from all food, and is then carried into a warm bath, where he -quickly expires, having muttered some words on the pleasure he felt in -dying. - -“This pleasure was so little of an affectation, so much had it become -the fashion, that some of the austere Stoics thought themselves bound -to place certain restrictions upon it. They committed suicide from -_ennui_, from idleness, from want of patience to cure themselves of -their ills,—for distraction—much in the same way that they killed -each other in duels, under Cardinal Richelieu.” - -Viewed in this light, Seneca’s death had nothing in it of the sublime: -he yielded but to a fashion; he only practised what was common. If he -sincerely believed his professed creed—that death is the absence -of all evil—he neither evinced courage nor dignity; if he did not -believe, then his conduct displayed but the skilful acting of a part, -and under circumstances which mark him with the deepest hypocrisy. - -It is impossible to deny that Seneca’s works are full of wisdom, though -they fall far short of the Christian’s philosophy. In his treatise upon -benefits, for example, we have the following passage:— - -“The good will of the benefactor is the fountain of all benefits; -nay, it is the benefit itself, or, at least, the stamp that makes it -valuable and current. Some there are, I know, that take the matter -for the benefit, and tax the obligation by weight and measure. When -anything is given them, they presently cast it up—‘What may such a -house be worth? such an office? such an estate?’ as if that were the -benefit which is only the sign and mark of it, for the obligation -rests in the mind, not in the matter; and all those advantages which -we see, handle, or hold in actual possession, by the courtesy of -another, are but several modes or ways of explaining and putting the -good will in execution. There needs no subtlety to prove that both -benefits and injuries receive their value from the intention, when -even brutes themselves are able to decide this question. Tread upon a -dog by chance, or put him in pain upon the dressing of a wound, the -one he passes by as an accident, and the other, in his fashion, he -acknowledges as a kindness. But offer to strike at him—though you do -him no hurt at all—he flies in the face of you, even for the mischief -that you barely meant him.” - -This is all just and true: it makes the heart the seat of moral action, -and thus far coincides with the Christian’s philosophy. But if there be -nothing after death, what sanction has virtue? It may be more beautiful -than vice, and consequently preferable, just as a sweet perfume is -more desirable than an offensive odor. It is good taste, therefore, -to be virtuous. Still, each individual may choose for himself, and -without future responsibility, for all alike must share the oblivion -of the tomb. The insufficiency of this philosophy to ensure virtue, is -attested by the life of Seneca, as well as that of most of his sect. It -resulted in the grossest hypocrisy; an ostentation of virtue, covering -up the practice of vice. - -[Illustration] - -[Footnote 5: The Stoics were the followers of Zeno, a Greek philosopher -of Citium. They professed to prefer virtue to everything else, and -to regard vice as the greatest of evils. They required an absolute -command over the passions, and maintained the ability of man to attain -perfection and felicity in this life. They encouraged suicide, and held -that the doctrine of rewards and punishments was unnecessary to enforce -virtue upon mankind.] - -[Footnote 6: Tiberius succeeded Augustus Cæsar, as emperor; at his -succession he gave promise of a happy reign, but he soon disgraced -himself by debauchery, cruelty, and the most flagitious excesses. It -was wittily said of him by Seneca that he was never intoxicated but -once, for when he became drunk, his whole life was a continued state of -inebriety. He died A. D. 37, after a reign of twenty-two years, and was -succeeded by Caligula. - -For a brief period, Rome now enjoyed prosperity and peace; but the -young emperor soon became proud, cruel and corrupt. He caused a temple -to be erected to himself, and had his own image set in the place of -Jupiter and the other deities. He often amused himself by putting -innocent people to death; he attempted to famish Rome, and even wished -that the Romans had one head, that he might strike it off at a blow! At -last, weary of his cruelties, several persons formed a conspiracy and -murdered him, A. D. 41. History does not furnish another instance of so -great a monster as Caligula.] - -[Footnote 7: Claudius succeeded Caligula in 41, and, after a reign of -thirteen years, he was poisoned by his wife, Agrippina.] - -[Footnote 8: Seneca, Ess. lxxvii.] - - - - - VIRGIL. - - -Mantua, the capital of New Etruria itself built three centuries before -Rome, had the honor of giving birth to Publius Virgilius Maro. This -event happened on or near the fifteenth of October, seventy years B. -C, or during the first consulship of Pompey the Great and Licinius -Crassus. Who his father was, and even to what country he belonged, has -been the subject of much dispute. Some assert that he was a potter of -Andes; but the most probable account is, that he was either a wandering -astrologer, who practised physic, or a servant to one of this learned -fraternity. It is observed by Juvenal, that _medicus, magus_ usually -went together, and that this course of life was principally followed -by the Greeks and Syrians; to one of these nations, therefore, it -is presumed, Virgil owes his birth. His mother, Maia, was of good -extraction, being nearly related to Quintilius Varus, of whom honorable -mention is made in the history of the second Carthaginian war. - -It appears that all due attention was paid to young Virgil’s education. -He passed through his initiatory exercises at Mantua; thence he removed -to Cremona, and afterwards to Milan. In all these places he prosecuted -his studies with the most diligent application, associating with the -eminent professors of every department of science, and devoting whole -nights to the best Latin and Greek authors. In the latter he was -greatly assisted by his proximity to Marseilles, the only Greek colony -that maintained its refinement and purity of language, amidst the -overwhelming influence of all the barbarous nations that surrounded -it. At first, he devoted himself to the Epicurean philosophy, but -receiving no satisfactory reason for its tenets from his master, the -celebrated Syro, he passed over to the academic school, where physics -and mathematics became his favorite sciences; and these he continued to -cultivate, at leisure moments, during his whole life. - -At Milan, he composed a great number of verses on various subjects, -and, in the warmth of early youth, framed a noble design of writing -an heroic poem, on the Wars of Rome; but, after some attempts, he was -discouraged from proceeding, by the abruptness and asperity of the old -Roman names. - -It is said that he here formed the plan and collected the materials -for his principal poems. Some of these he had even begun; but a too -intense application to his studies, together with abstinence and -night-watching, had so impaired his health, that an immediate removal -to a more southern part of Italy was deemed absolutely necessary for -the preservation of his existence. He fixed upon Naples, and visiting -Rome in his way, had the honor, through the interest of his kinsman -and fellow-student, Varus, of being introduced to the emperor, -Octavius, who received him with the greatest marks of esteem, and -earnestly recommended his affairs to the protection of Pollio, then -lieutenant of Cisalpine Gaul, where Virgil’s patrimony lay, and who -generously undertook to settle his domestic concerns. Having this -assurance, he pursued his journey to Naples. The charming situation -of this place, the salubrity of the air, and the constant society of -the greatest and most learned men of the time, who resorted to it, -not only re-established his health, but contributed to the formation -of that style and happy turn of verse in which he surpassed all his -cotemporaries. - -To rank among the poets of their country, was, at this time, the -ambition of the greatest heroes, statesmen, and orators of Rome. -Cicero, Octavius, Pollio, Julius Cæsar, and even the stoical Brutus, -had been carried away by the impetuosity of the stream; but that genius -which had never deserted them in the forum, or on the day of battle, -shrunk dismayed at a comparison with the lofty muse of Virgil; and, -although they endeavored, by placing their poems in the celebrated -libraries, to hand them down to posterity, scarcely a single verse of -these illustrious authors survived the age in which they lived. This -preponderence of fashion, however, was favorable to Virgil; he had for -some time devoted himself to the study of the law, and even pleaded one -cause with indifferent success; but yielding now to the impulse of the -age and his own genius, he abandoned the profession and resumed with -increased ardor the cultivation of that talent for which he afterwards -became so distinguished. - -Captivated at an early age by the pastorals of Theocritus, Virgil was -ambitious of being the primitive introducer of that species of poetry -among the Romans. His first performance in this way, entitled Alexis, -is supposed to have appeared when the poet was in his twenty-fifth -year. Palæmon, which is a close imitation of the fourth and fifth Idyls -of Theocritus, was probably his second; but as this period of the life -of Virgil is enveloped in a considerable degree of obscurity,—few -writers on the subject having condescended to notice such particulars -as chronological arrangement,—little more than surmise can be -offered to satisfy the researches of the curious. The fifth eclogue -was composed in allusion to the death and deification of Cæsar, and -is supposed to have been written subsequently to Silenus, his sixth -eclogue. This is said to have been publicly recited on the stage, by -the comedian Cytheris, and to have procured its author that celebrity -and applause to which the peculiar beauty and sweetness of the poem so -justly entitled him. - -The fatal battle of Philippi, in which Augustus and Antony were -victorious, at once annihilated every shadow of liberty in the -commonwealth. Those veteran legions, who had conquered the world, -fought no more for the dearest rights of their country. Having been -once its protectors, they now became its ravagers. As the _amor patria_ -no longer inspired them, the treasury of the Roman empire proved -inadequate to allay their boundless thirst for wealth. Augustus, -therefore, to silence their clamors, distributed among them the -flourishing colony of Cremona, and, to make up the deficiency, added -part of the state of Mantua. In vain did the miserable mothers, with -famishing infants at their breasts, fill the forum with their numbers, -and the air with their lamentations; in vain did the inhabitants -complain of being driven, like vanquished enemies, from their native -homes. Such scenes are familiar to the conquerors in a civil war; and -those legions, which had sacrificed their own and their country’s -liberty, must be recompensed at the expense of justice and the -happiness of thousands. Virgil, involved in the common calamity, had -recourse to his old patrons, Pollio and Mecænas;[9] and, supported -by them, petitioned Augustus not only for the possession of his own -property, but for the reinstatement of his countrymen in theirs also; -which, after some hesitation, was denied, accompanied by a grant for -the restitution of his individual estate. - -Full of gratitude for such favor, Virgil composed his Tityrus, in -which he has introduced one shepherd complaining of the destruction of -his farm, the anarchy and confusion of the times; and another rejoicing -that he can again tune his reed to love amidst his flocks; promising to -honor, as a superior being, the restorer of his happiness. - -Unfortunately for Virgil, his joy was not of long continuance, for, on -arriving at Mantua, and producing his warrant to Arrius, a captain of -foot, whom he found in possession of his house, the old soldier was so -enraged at what he termed the presumption of a poet, that he wounded -him dangerously with his sword, and would have killed him had he not -escaped by swimming hastily over the Mincius. Virgil was, therefore, -compelled to return half the length of Italy, with a body reduced by -sickness, and a mind depressed by disappointment, again to petition -Augustus for the restoration of his estate. During this journey, which, -from the nature of his wound, was extremely slow, he is supposed to -have written his Moeris, or ninth eclogue; and this conjecture is -rendered more probable by the want of connexion, perceivable through -the whole composition—displaying, evidently, the disorder at that time -predominant in the poet’s mind. However, on his arrival at Rome, he had -the satisfaction to find that effectual orders had been given in his -behalf, and the farm was resigned into the hands of his procurator or -bailiff, to whom the above pastoral is addressed. - -The Sibylline Oracles, having received information from the Jews that -a child was to be born, who should be the Saviour of the world, and -to whom nations and empires should bow with submission, pretended to -foretell that this event would occur in the year of Rome, 714, after -the peace concluded between Augustus and Antony. Virgil, viewing this -prophecy with the vivid imagination of a poet, and willing to flatter -the ambition of his patron, composed his celebrated eclogue, entitled -Pollio, in which he supposes the child, who was thus to unite mankind -and restore the golden age, to be the offspring of Octavia, wife of -Antony, and half sister to Augustus. In this production, the consul -Pollio, Octavia, and even the unborn infant, are flattered with his -usual delicacy; and the rival triumviri, though a short time before in -open hostility, have the honor of equally sharing the poet’s applause. - -While Pollio, who seems to have been the most accomplished man of his -age, and is celebrated as a poet, soldier, orator and historian, was -engaged in an expedition against the Parthini, whom he subdued, Virgil -addressed to him his Pharmaceutria, one of the most beautiful of all -his eclogues, and in imitation of a poem of the same name, by his -favorite author, Theocritus. This production is the more valuable, as -it has handed down to posterity some of the superstitious rites of the -Romans and the heathen notions of enchantment. Virgil himself seems to -have been conscious of the beauty of his subject, and the dignity of -the person whom he was addressing; and, accordingly, has given us, by -the fertility of his genius and the brilliancy of his imagination, some -of the most sublime images that are to be found in any of the writings -of antiquity. - -By the advice, and indeed at the earnest entreaty of Augustus, Virgil, -in his thirty-fourth year, retired to Naples, and formed the plan of -his Georgics: a design as new in Latin verse, as pastorals, before -his, were in Italy. These he undertook for the interest, and to -promote the welfare, of his country. As the continual civil wars had -entirely depopulated and laid waste the land usually appropriated for -cultivation, the peasants had turned soldiers, and their farms became -scenes of desolation. Famine and insurrection were the inevitable -consequences that followed such overwhelming calamities. Augustus, -therefore, resolved to revive the decayed spirit of husbandry, and -began by employing Virgil to recommend it with all the insinuating -charms of poetry. This work took up seven of the most vigorous years of -his life, and fully answered the expectations of his patron. - -Augustus, having conquered his rival, Antony, gave the last wound to -expiring liberty, by usurping the exclusive government of the Roman -empire. To reconcile a nation, naturally jealous of its freedom, to -this, seems to have been the grand object of Virgil, in his Æneid. This -poem was begun in the forty-fifth year of the author’s life, and not -only displays admirable poetical genius, but great political address. -Not an incident that could in any way tend to flatter the Roman -people into a submission to the existing government, has escaped his -penetrating judgment. He traces their origin to the Trojans, and makes -Augustus a lineal descendant of Æneas. At the command of the gods they -obey him, and in return are promised the empire of the world. - -So anxious was Augustus as to the result of this poem, that he insisted -upon having part of it read before the whole was completed. Gratitude, -after threats and entreaties had been used in vain, at length induced -its author to comply; and, knowing that Octavia, who had just lost her -son, Marcellus, would be present, Virgil fixed upon the sixth book, -perhaps the finest part of the whole Æneid. His illustrious auditors -listened with all the attention which such interesting narrative and -eloquent recital demanded, till he came to that beautiful lamentation -for the death of young Marcellus, and where, after exhausting -panegyric, he has artfully suppressed the name of its object, till the -concluding verse: - - - “Tu Marcellus eris.” - - -At these words, Octavia, overcome with surprise and sorrow, fainted -away; but, on recovering, was so highly gratified at having her son -thus immortalized, that she presented the poet with ten _sesterces_ for -each line; amounting, in the whole, to about ten thousand dollars. - -Having at length brought his Æneid to a conclusion, Virgil proposed -travelling into Greece, and devoting three years to the correction and -improvement of his favorite work. Having arrived at Athens, he met with -Augustus, who was returning from a victorious expedition to the East, -and who requested the company of the poet back to Italy. The latter -deemed it his duty to comply; but, being desirous to see as many of -the Grecian antiquities as the time would allow, went for that purpose -to Megara. Here he was seized with a dangerous illness, which, from -neglect, and the agitation of the vessel in returning to Italy, proved -mortal, at Brundusium. Thus the great poet died on the twenty-second -of September, nineteen years B. C, and at a period when he had -nearly completed his fifty-second year. He expired with the greatest -tranquillity; and his remains, being carried to Naples, were interred -in a monument, erected at a small distance from the city; where it is -still shown, with the following inscription, said to have been dictated -by him on his death-bed: - - - Mantua me genuit; Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc - Parthenope; cecini pascua, rura, duces. - - -In his will he had ordered that the Æneid should be burnt, not having -finished it to his mind; but Augustus wisely forbade the destruction of -a performance which will perpetuate his name, as one of the greatest -of poets. It was, therefore, delivered to Varius and Tucca, Virgil’s -intimate friends, with the strictest charge to make no additions, but -merely to publish it correctly, in the state it then was. - -In person, Virgil was tall, and wide-shouldered, of a dark swarthy -complexion, which probably proceeded from the southern extraction -of his father; his constitution was delicate, and the most trifling -fatigue, either from exercise or study, produced violent headache and -spitting of blood. In temper he was melancholy and thoughtful, loving -retirement and contemplation. Though one of the greatest geniuses -of his age, and the admiration of the Romans, he always preserved -a singular modesty, and lived chastely when the manners of the -people were extremely corrupt. His character was so benevolent and -inoffensive, that most of his cotemporary poets, though they envied -each other, agreed in loving and esteeming him. He was bashful to a -degree of timidity; his aspect and behavior was rustic and ungraceful; -yet he was so honored by his countrymen, that once, coming into the -theatre, the whole audience rose out of respect to him. His fortune was -large, supposed to be about seventy thousand pounds sterling, besides -which he possessed a noble mansion, and well-furnished library on the -Esquiline Mount, at Rome, and an elegant villa in Sicily. Both these -last, he left to Mecænas, at his death, together with a considerable -proportion of his personal property; the remainder he divided between -his relations and Augustus,—the latter having introduced a politic -fashion of being in everybody’s will, which alone produced a sufficient -revenue for a prince. - -The works of Virgil are not only valuable for their poetic beauties, -but for their historical allusions and illustrations. We here find a -more perfect and satisfactory account of the religious customs and -ceremonies of the Romans, than in any other of the Latin poets, Ovid -excepted. Everything he mentions is founded upon historical truth. -He was uncommonly severe in revising his poetry—and often compared -himself to a bear that licks her cubs into shape. - -In his intercourse with society, Virgil was remarkable; his friends -enjoyed his unbounded confidence, and his library and possessions in -Rome were so liberally offered for the use of those who needed them, -as to seem to belong to the public. Amiable and exemplary, however, as -he was, he had bitter enemies; but their revilings only served to add -lustre to his name and fame. - -[Illustration] - -[Footnote 9: Mecænas, a celebrated Roman, who distinguished himself -by his liberal patronage of learned men and letters. His fondness for -pleasure removed him from the reach of ambition, and he preferred -to live and die a knight, to all the honors and dignities that the -Emperor Augustus could heap upon him. The emperor received the private -admonitions of Mecænas in the same friendly way in which they were -given. Virgil and Horace both enjoyed his friendship. He was fond of -literature, and from the patronage which the heroic and lyric poets of -the age received from him, patrons of literature have ever since been -called by his name. Virgil dedicated to him his Georgics and Horace his -Odes. He died eight years B. C.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - CICERO. - - -Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on the 3d of January, 107, B. C. His -mother, whose name was Helvia, was of an honorable and wealthy family; -his father, named Marcus, was a wise and learned man of fortune, who -lived at Apulia. This city was anciently of the Samnites, now part of -the kingdom of Naples. Here Cicero was born, at his father’s country -seat, which it seems was a most charming residence. - -The care which the ancient Romans bestowed upon the education of their -children was worthy of all praise. Their attention to this, began from -the moment of their birth. They were, in the first place, committed to -the care of some prudent matron, of good character and condition, whose -business it was to form their first habits of acting and speaking; to -watch their growing passions, and direct them to their proper objects; -to superintend their sports, and suffer nothing immodest or indecent -to enter into them, that the mind, preserved in all its innocence, -and undepraved by the taste of false pleasures, might be at liberty -to pursue whatever was laudable, and apply its whole strength to that -profession in which it should desire to excel. - -Though it was a common opinion among the Romans that children should -not be instructed in letters till they were seven years old, yet -careful attention was paid to their training, even from the age of -three years. It was reckoned a matter of great importance what kind of -language they were first accustomed to hear at home, and in what manner -their nurses, and even their fathers and mothers spoke, since their -first habits were then formed, either of a pure or corrupt elocution. -The two Gracchi were thought to owe that elegance of speaking for which -they were distinguished, to their mother, Cornelia, who was a very -accomplished woman and remarkable for the purity of her diction, as -well in speaking as writing. - -Young Cicero experienced the full advantage of these enlightened views, -in his childhood. When he was of sufficient age to enter upon a regular -course of study, his father removed to Rome, and placed him in a public -school, under an eminent Greek master. Here he gave indications of -those shining abilities, which rendered him afterwards so illustrious. -His school-fellows carried home such stories of his extraordinary -powers, that their parents were often induced to visit the school, for -the sake of seeing a youth of such endowments. - -Encouraged by the promising genius of his son Cicero’s father spared no -cost or pains to improve it by the help of the ablest professors. Among -other eminent instructors, he enjoyed the teaching of the poet Archias. -Under this master, he applied himself chiefly to poetry, to which he -was naturally addicted and made such proficiency in it, that, while -he was still a boy, he composed and published a poem, called Glaucus -Pontius. - -After finishing the course of juvenile studies, it was the custom to -change the dress of the boy for that of the man, and take what they -called the _manly gown_, or the ordinary robe of the citizen. This was -an occasion of rejoicing, for the youth thus passed from the power of -his tutor into a state of greater liberty. He was at the same time -introduced into the forum, or great square of the city, where the -assemblies of the people were held. Here also, they were addressed -by the magistrates, and here all the public pleadings and judicial -transactions took place. - -When Cicero was sixteen years old, he was introduced to this place, -with all customary solemnity. He was attended by the friends and -dependants of the family, and after divine rites were performed in -the capital, he was committed to the special protection of Q. Mucius -Scævola, the principal lawyer as well as statesman of that age. - -Young Cicero made good use of the advantages he enjoyed. He spent -almost his whole time in the society of his patron, carefully -treasuring up in his memory the wisdom that fell from his lips. After -his death, he came under the instruction of another of the same -family—Scævola, the high priest, a person remarkable for his probity -and skill in the law. - -The legal profession, as well as that of arms and eloquence, was a sure -recommendation to the first honors of the republic; for it appears to -have been the practice of many of the most eminent lawyers to give -their advice gratis to all that asked it. It was the custom of the old -senators, eminent for their wisdom and experience, to walk up and down -the forum in the morning, freely offering their assistance to all who -had occasion to consult them, not only in cases of law, but in relation -to their private affairs. At a later period, they used to sit at home, -with their doors open, upon a kind of throne, or raised seat, giving -access and audience to all who might come. - -It is not surprising that a profession thus practised should be honored -among the Roman people, nor is it wonderful that Cicero’s ambitious -mind should have been attracted by so obvious a road to honor and -preferment. But his views were not satisfied with being a mere lawyer. -He desired especially to be an orator; and, conceiving that all kinds -of knowledge would be useful in such a profession, he sought every -opportunity to increase his stores of information. He also attended -constantly at the forum, to hear the speeches and pleadings; he -perused the best authors with care, so as to form an elegant style; -and cultivated poetry, for the purpose of adding elegance and grace to -his mind. While he was thus engaged, he also studied philosophy, and, -for a time, was greatly pleased with Phædrus, the Epicurean, who then -gave lessons at Rome. Though he retained his affection for the amiable -philosopher, Cicero soon rejected his system as fallacious. - -It was always a part of the education of the young gentlemen of Rome, -to learn the art of war by personal service, under some general of -name and experience. Cicero accordingly took the opportunity to make -a campaign with Strabo, the father of Pompey the Great. During this -expedition, he manifested the same diligence in the army that he had -done in the forum, to observe everything that passed. He sought to be -always near the person of the general, that nothing of importance might -escape his notice. - -Returning to Rome, Cicero pursued his studies as before, and about -this time, Molo, the Rhodian, one of the most celebrated teachers of -eloquence of that age, coming to the city to deliver lectures upon -oratory, he immediately took the benefit of his instructions, and -pursued his studies with ceaseless ardor. His ambition received an -impulse at this time, from witnessing the fame of Hortensius, who made -the first figure at the bar, and whose praises fired him with such -emulation, that, for a time, he scarcely allowed himself rest from his -studies, either day or night. - -He had in his own house a Greek preceptor, who instructed him in -various kinds of learning, but more particularly in logic, to which -he paid strict attention. He, however, never suffered a day to pass, -without some exercise in oratory, particularly that of declaiming, -which he generally performed with some of his fellow-students. He -sometimes spoke in Latin, but more frequently in Greek, because the -latter furnished a greater variety of elegant expressions, and because -the Greek masters were far the best, and could not correct and improve -their pupils, unless they declaimed in that language. - -Cicero had now passed through that course of discipline, which, in his -treatise upon the subject, he lays down as necessary for the formation -of an accomplished orator. He declares that no man should pretend to -this, without being acquainted with everything worth being known, in -art and nature; that this is implied in the very name of an orator, -whose profession is to speak upon every subject proposed to him, and -whose eloquence, without knowledge, would be little better than the -prattle and impertinence of children. - -He had learnt grammar and the languages from the ablest teachers, -passed through the studies of humanity and the polite letters with -the poet Archias been instructed in philosophy by the principal -philosophers of each sect—Phædrus the epicurean, Philo the academic, -Diodorus the Stoic—and acquired a thorough knowledge of the law from -the greatest jurists and statesmen of Rome—the two Scævolas. - -These accomplishments he regarded but as subservient to the object -on which his ambition was placed,—the reputation of an orator. To -qualify himself, therefore, particularly for this, he had attended -the pleadings of the greatest speakers of his time, heard the daily -lectures of the most eminent orators of Greece, constantly written -compositions at home, and declaimed them under the correction of these -masters. - -That he might lose nothing which would in any degree improve and polish -his style, he spent the intervals of his leisure in the company of -ladies, especially those who were remarkable for elegant conversation, -and whose fathers had been distinguished for their eloquence. While he -studied the law, therefore, under Scævola, the augur, he frequently -conversed with his wife, Lælia, whose discourse he says was tinctured -with all the eloquence of her father, Lælius, the most polished orator -of his time. He also frequented the society of her daughter, Mucia, as -well as that of two of her granddaughters, who all excelled in elegance -of diction, and the most exact and delicate use of language. - -It is impossible not to admire the noble views which Cicero had formed -of the profession to which he was to devote his life. Nor can we -withhold praise for the diligence, energy and judgment with which he -trained himself for entering upon the theatre of his ambition. If in -all respects he is not to be regarded as a model for imitation, still, -his example is thus far worthy of emulation to all those who seek to -enjoy a virtuous and lasting fame. - -Thus adorned and accomplished, Cicero, at the age of twenty-six years, -presented himself at the bar, and was soon employed in several private -causes. His first case of importance was the defence of S. Roscius, of -Ameria, which he undertook in his twenty-seventh year; the same age at -which Demosthenes distinguished himself at Athens. - -The case of Roscius was this. His father was killed in the recent -proscription of Sylla, and his estate, worth about £60,000 sterling, -was sold, among the confiscated estates of the proscribed, for a -trifling sum, to L. Cornelius Chrysogonus, a young favorite slave, whom -Sylla had made free, and who, to secure possession of it, accused the -son of the murder of his father, and had prepared evidence to convict -him; so that the young man was likely to be deprived, not only of his -fortunes, but, by a more villanous cruelty, of his honor also, and his -life. - -The tyrant Sylla was at this time at the height of his power. Fearing -his resentment, therefore, as well as the influence of the prosecutor, -the older advocates of Rome refused to undertake the defence of -Roscius, particularly as it would lead them into an exposure of the -corruptions of the age, and the misdemeanors of those high in rank and -office. - -But Cicero readily undertook it, as a glorious opportunity of enlisting -in the service of his country, and giving a public testimony of his -principles, and his zeal for that liberty to the support of which he -was willing to devote the labors of his life. In the management of the -cause, he displayed great skill and admirable eloquence. Roscius was -acquitted, and Cicero was applauded by the whole city for his courage -and address. From this period he was ranked as one of the ablest -advocates of Rome. - -Having occasion in the course of his pleading to mention that -remarkable punishment which their ancestors had contrived for the -murder of a parent—that of sewing the criminal alive into a sack, and -throwing him into a river—he says, “that the meaning of it was, to -strike him at once, as it were, out of the system of nature, by taking -him from the air, the sun, the water, and the earth; that he who had -destroyed the author of his being, should lose the benefit of those -elements whence all things derive their being. They would not throw him -to the beasts, lest the contagion of such wickedness should make the -beasts themselves more furious; they would not commit him naked to the -stream, lest he should pollute the very sea, which was the purifier of -all other pollutions; they left him no share of anything natural, how -vile or common soever; for what is so common as breath to the living, -earth to the dead, the sea to those who float, the shore to those who -are cast up? Yet these wretches live so, as long as they can, as not to -draw breath from the air; die so, as not to touch the ground; are so -tossed by the waves, as not to be washed by them; so cast out upon the -shore, as to find no rest, even on the rocks.” - -This passage was received with acclamations of applause; yet, speaking -of it afterwards himself, Cicero calls it “the redundancy of a juvenile -fancy, which wanted the correction of his sounder judgment; and, like -all the compositions of young men, was not applauded so much for its -own sake, as for the hopes which it gave of his more improved and -ripened talents.” - -The popularity of his cause, and the favor of the audience, induced -Cicero, in the course of his plea, to expose the insolence and villany -of the favorite, Chrysogonus, with great freedom. He even ventured -some bold strokes at Sylla himself. He took care, however, to palliate -these, by observing, that through the multiplicity of Sylla’s affairs, -who reigned as absolute on earth as Jupiter in heaven, it was not -possible for him to know everything that was done by his agents, and -that he was perhaps forced to connive at some of the corrupt practices -of his favorites. - -Soon after this trial, Cicero set out for the purpose of visiting -Greece and Asia, the fashionable tour of that day with those who -travelled for pleasure or improvement. At Athens he spent six months, -renewing the studies of his youth, under celebrated masters. He was -here initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries, the end and aim of which -appear to have been to inculcate the unity of God and the immortality -of the soul. - -From Athens, he passed into Asia, where he was visited by the principal -orators of the country. These kept him company through the remainder -of his tour, frequently exercising themselves together in oratorical -exhibitions. They came at last to Rhodes, where Cicero applied to Molo, -and again became his pupil On a public occasion he made an address -at the end of which, the company were lavish of their praises. Molo -alone was silent, till, observing that Cicero was somewhat disturbed, -he said, “As for you, Cicero, I praise and admire you, but pity the -fortune of Greece, to see arts and eloquence, the only ornaments which -were left to her, transplanted by you to Rome.” - -Soon after Cicero’s return from his travels, he pleaded the cause of -the famous comedian, Roscius, whom a singular merit in his art had -recommended to the familiarity and friendship of the greatest men of -Rome. The case was this. One Fannius had made over to Roscius, a young -slave, to be trained for the stage, on condition of a partnership in -the profits which the slave should acquire by acting. The slave was -afterwards killed, and Roscius prosecuted the murderer for damages, and -obtained, by composition, a little farm, worth about 800 pounds, for -his particular share. Fannius also sued separately, and was supposed to -have gained as much, but, pretending to have recovered nothing, sued -Roscius for the moiety of what he had received. - -One cannot but observe, from Cicero’s pleading, the wonderful esteem -and reputation which Roscius enjoyed—of whom he draws a very amiable -picture. “Has Roscius, then,” said he, “defrauded his partner? Can such -a stain adhere to such a man, who—I speak it with confidence—has more -integrity than skill, more veracity than experience; whom the people of -Rome know to be a better man than he is an actor, and, while he makes -the first figure on the stage in his art, is worthy of the senate for -his virtues?” - -His daily pay for acting is said to have been about thirty pounds -sterling. Pliny computes his yearly profit at 4000 pounds; but Cicero -seems to rate it at 5000 pounds. He was generous, benevolent, and a -contemner of money; after he had raised an ample fortune from the -stage, he devoted his talents to the public, for many years, without -pay; whence Cicero urges it as incredible that he, who in ten years -past might honestly have gained fifty thousand pounds, which he -refused, should be tempted to commit a fraud for the paltry sum of four -hundred. We need but add that the defence was effectual. - -Soon after Cicero’s return to Rome, he, being about thirty years of -age, was married to Terentia, a lady of good station in life, and of -large fortune. Shortly after, he was a candidate for the office of -quæstor, in which he succeeded by the unanimous suffrage of the tribes. - -The provinces of the quæstors being distributed by lot, the island -of Sicily fell to Cicero’s share. This was called the granary of the -republic, and this year, there being great scarcity at Rome, the people -were clamorous for a supply. As it was a part of the duty of the -quæstors to supply the city with corn, a difficult duty devolved upon -Cicero; for, while he was to see that Rome was adequately furnished, it -was necessary to avoid impoverishing the island. He, however, acquitted -himself with the greatest prudence and address, displaying courtesy to -the dealers, justice to the merchants, generosity to the inhabitants, -and, in short, doing all manner of good offices to everybody. He -thus obtained the love and admiration of the Sicilians, and, at his -departure, they paid him greater honors than had ever been bestowed, -even upon their own governors. - -In his hours of leisure, Cicero pursued his rhetorical studies, making -it a rule never to let a day pass without some exercise of this kind. -At the expiration of his year, he left the island, and, on his return -to Rome, he stopped at Baiae, the chief seat of pleasure at that time -in Italy, and where there was a perpetual resort of the rich and great, -as well on account of its delightful situation, as for the use of its -luxurious baths and tepid waters. - -Pleased with the success of his administration, and flattering -himself that all Rome was celebrating his praises, he reached this -place, and mingled amongst the crowd. What was his disappointment -and mortification, to be asked by the first friend he met, “How long -since you left Rome, and what is the news there?” “I came from the -provinces,” was the reply. “From Africa, I suppose,” said one of the -bystanders. “No, I came from Sicily,” said Cicero, a little vexed. -“How, did you not know that Cicero was quæstor of Syracuse?” said -another person present; thus showing his ignorance, while he pretended -to be wiser than the rest. This incident humbled Cicero for the time, -and made him feel that he had not yet made himself so conspicuous as to -live perpetually in the eye of so mighty a city as Rome. - -Having now devoted himself to a life of business and ambition, he -omitted none of the usual arts of recommending himself to popular -favor, and facilitating his advancement to the highest honors. “He -thought it absurd,” says Plutarch, “that, when every little artificer -knew the name and use of all his tools, a statesman should neglect the -knowledge of men, who were the proper instruments with which he was to -work; he made it his business, therefore, to learn the name, the place, -and the condition of every eminent citizen; what estate, what friends, -what neighbors he had; and could readily point out their several -houses, as he travelled through Italy.” - -This knowledge was deemed so necessary at Rome, where the people -expected to be courted by their public men, that every individual who -aspired to official dignities, kept a slave or two in his family, whose -sole business it was to know the name and person of every citizen at -sight, so that he might whisper them to his master as he passed through -the streets, and enable him to salute them familiarly, as particular -acquaintances. Such artifices, which appear degrading in our day, were -by no means beneath the practice of one so elevated in his sense of -propriety as Cicero. - -Having reached his thirty-seventh year, and being therefore eligible to -the office of edile, he offered himself as a candidate, and was elected -by the people. Before he entered upon its duties, however, he undertook -the prosecution of C. Verres, the late prætor of Sicily, charged -with many flagrant acts of injustice, rapine and cruelty, during his -triennial government of that island. This was one of the most memorable -transactions of Cicero’s life, and has given him greater fame than any -other. - -In order to obtain the evidence, he proceeded to Sicily, where he was -received with the greatest kindness and favor, though every art was -resorted to, by the agents of Verres, to obstruct his inquiries. On -his return, he found the most formidable preparations to resist him. -Hortensius was engaged for Verres and several of the leading families -had taken his part. Cicero, however, produced his witnesses, whose -depositions overwhelmed the criminal with such proofs of guilt, that -Hortensius had nothing to say for his client, who submitted without -defence to a voluntary exile. - -From this account, it appears, that, of the seven orations on the -subject of this trial, which now remain among the works of Cicero, -two only were spoken, and these contain little more than a statement -of the whole case. The five others were published afterwards, as they -were prepared, and intended to be spoken, if Verres had made a regular -defence. - -From the evidence produced, it appears that every species of rapine -was practised without scruple by Verres, during his prætorship. Cicero -estimated the amount of his plunder at 800,000 pounds sterling, or -nearly four millions of dollars. It is shocking to read the black -catalogue of this man’s crimes; yet, such was the corruption of -society, especially among the higher classes, that Cicero, instead of -gaining favor by his exposure of these abuses, brought upon himself -the hatred and ill-will of the largest portion of the nobility. -They doubtless looked upon the public offices as their inheritance, -and did not like to see the accustomed privileges of the provincial -governors abridged. We may add here that Verres continued long in a -miserable exile, deserted and forgotten by his former friends, and -was actually relieved in his necessities by the generosity of Cicero. -He was afterwards proscribed and murdered by Mark Antony, in order to -obtain some fine statues, which he had obtained by robbery, during his -government in Sicily, and which he had refused to part with, even in -the extremity of his poverty. - -From the impeachment of Verres, Cicero entered upon the office of -edile, and in one of his speeches gives a short account of its duties. -“I am now chosen edile,” says he, “and am sensible of what is committed -to me by the Roman people. I am to exhibit with the greatest solemnity -the most sacred sports to Ceres, Liber, and Libera; am to appease -and conciliate the mother Flora to the people and city of Rome, by -the celebration of the public games; am to furnish out those ancient -shows, the first which were called Roman, with all possible dignity and -religion, in honor of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva; am to take care also of -all the sacred edifices, and, indeed, of the whole city.” - -The people of Rome were passionately fond of the public games and -diversions, and the allowance for them being small, the ediles were -obliged to supply the rest. Many of them, in their ambition to flatter -the people and obtain their favor, incurred such expense in these -entertainments, as to involve themselves in ruin. Every part of the -empire was ransacked for whatever was rare and curious to increase the -splendor of these shows; the forum, in which they were exhibited, was -usually beautified with porticoes for the purpose, and these were -decorated with the choicest pictures and statues, which Rome, and -indeed, all Italy could furnish. Several of the great men of Cicero’s -time had distinguished their magistracy by their magnificence, some of -them having entertained the city with stage plays, in which the scenes -were entirely covered with silver. Cæsar, in the sports exhibited upon -the occasion of his father’s funeral, caused the entire furniture of -the theatre to be made of solid silver, so that the wild beasts trod -upon that metal. - -Unseduced by these examples, Cicero took the middle course, which was -suited to his circumstances. In compliance with the custom, he gave -three entertainments, which were conducted with taste, and to the -satisfaction of the people. The Sicilians gave him effectual proofs of -their gratitude by supplying him largely with provisions for the use -of his table and the public feasts he was obliged to provide. Cicero, -however, took no private advantage of these gifts, for he distributed -the whole to the poor. - -Soon after leaving the office of edile, Cicero was chosen prætor; a -magistrate next in dignity to a consul. The business of the prætors was -to preside and judge in all causes, especially of a public or criminal -kind. There were eight of them, and their several jurisdictions were -assigned by lot. It fell to Cicero to hear charges of extortion and -rapine, brought against magistrates and governors of provinces. -In this office, he acquired great reputation for integrity and -impartiality—qualities, in the corrupted state of Rome, scarcely to be -found, either in public or private life, among men of high stations. -While he seemed full of employment as prætor, and attentive to his -duties in the senate, Cicero still had a large practice as advocate. It -is evident that nothing but ceaseless industry and wonderful facility -in the despatch of business, could have enabled him to discharge his -multifarious duties, and with such surpassing ability. - -His office of prætor having expired, Cicero now fixed his hopes upon -the consulship. While he was aiming at this, and resorting to all the -ordinary means of attaining his object, by flattering the people, -allaying the hostility of the nobles, and strengthening his interest -on every hand, he was expending large sums of money in decorating his -several villas, especially that of Tusculum, in which he took the -greatest pleasure. This was situated in the neighborhood of Rome, -and furnished him an easy retreat from the hurry and fatigue of the -city. Here he built several rooms and galleries, in imitation of -the schools and porticoes of Athens, in which he was accustomed to -hold philosophical conversations with his learned friends. He had -given Atticus, a lover of the arts, who resided at Athens, a general -commission to purchase for him pictures, statues and other curiosities; -and Atticus, having a rare taste in these matters, thus assisted him to -embellish and enrich his residence with a choice collection of works of -art and literary treasures, of various kinds. - -Cicero, being now in his forty-third year, became eligible as consul, -and offered himself as a candidate for that high office. As the -election approached, his interest appeared to take the lead; for the -nobles, envious and jealous of him as they were, were alarmed by the -threatening aspect of the times, and saw the necessity of entrusting -the consular power to strong and faithful hands. The intrigues of -Cæsar, the plots of Cataline, the ambition of Pompey, seemed to heave -and convulse the elements of society to its foundation, and portend a -storm which threatened the very existence of the state. Thus, by the -voices of the people as well as the favor of the patricians, Cicero was -proclaimed First Consul, and Antonius was chosen his colleague. - -This year, Cicero’s father died in a good old age, and he gave his -daughter Tullia, in marriage, at the age of thirteen, to C. Piso Frugi, -a young nobleman of great hopes and of one of the best families in -Rome. He was also much gratified by the birth of a son and heir to his -family. - -Cicero had now passed through the usual gradations to the highest -honors which the people could bestow, or a citizen desire. He entered -upon his trust with a patriotic determination to discharge its duties, -not so much according to the fleeting humor, as the lasting interests -of the people. The most remarkable event of his consulship was the -conspiracy of Cataline, which he detected by his sagacity, and defeated -by his courage and address. - -Cataline was adapted by art and nature, to be the leader of desperate -enterprises. He was of an illustrious family, of ruined fortunes, -profligate heart, undaunted courage and unwearied industry. He had a -capacity equal to the hardiest attempt, a tongue that could seduce, an -eloquence to persuade, a hand to execute. His character, compounded of -contradictory qualities—of great virtues, mastered by still greater -vices—is forcibly drawn by Cicero himself. - -“Who,” said he, “was more agreeable at one time to the best citizens? -Who more intimate at another with the worst? Who a man of better -principles? Who a fouler enemy to this city? Who more intemperate in -pleasure? Who more patient in labor? Who more rapacious in plundering, -who more profuse in squandering? He had a wonderful faculty of engaging -men to his friendship and obliging them by his observance; sharing -with them in common whatever he was master of; serving them with his -money, his interest, his pains, and, when there was occasion, by the -most daring acts of villany, moulding his nature to his purposes, -and bending it every way to his will. With the morose, he could live -severely; with the free, gayly; with the old, gravely; with the young, -cheerfully; with the enterprising, audaciously; with the vicious, -luxuriously. By a temper so various and pliable, he gathered about him -the profligate and the rash from all countries; yet held attached to -him, at the same time, many brave and worthy men, by the specious show -of a pretended virtue.” - -Associated in the plot with Cataline, were about thirty-five -individuals as leaders, some of them senators, and all of them men of -rank and consideration. Several were from the colonies and the larger -towns of Italy. Among the most important of these persons were Lentulus -and Cethegus, both patricians, possessing powerful family influence; -the two Syllas nephews of the dictator; Cassius, who was a competitor -with Cicero for the consulship, and Autronius, who had obtained an -election to that office, but was not permitted to hold it, on account -of his gross briberies. Julius Cæsar was suspected of being also -engaged in the scheme, but it is probable that while he was willing to -see it attempted, hoping to be benefited by the convulsion that might -follow, he was too wary to commit himself by any overt act of treason. - -A meeting of the conspirators was finally held, in which it was -resolved that a general insurrection should be raised throughout Italy, -the different parts of which were assigned to different leaders. -Cataline was to put himself at the head of the troops in Etruria; Rome -was to be set on fire in different places at once, under the direction -of Cassius, and a general massacre of the senate, with all the enemies -of the conspirators, was to be affected under the management of -Cithegus. The vigilance of Cicero being the chief occasion of their -apprehensions, two knights of the company undertook to gain access -to his house early the next morning, upon pretence of business, and, -rushing into his chamber, to kill him in his bed. - -But no sooner was the meeting over, than Curius, one of the assembly, -and in the interest of Cicero, sent him a particular account of all -that had transpired. He immediately imparted the intelligence to some -of the chiefs of the city, who assembled at his house that night, -and made preparations for the emergency. The two knights came before -break of day to Cicero’s house, but had the mortification to find it -carefully guarded. Cataline had set out in the hope of surprising the -town of Preneste, one of the strongest fortresses of Italy, and within -twenty five miles of Rome; but Cicero’s messenger anticipated him, and -when the attack was made the next night, he found the place so well -guarded, as to forbid an assault. - -Cicero now assembled the senate at the temple of Jupiter, in the -capital, where they were accustomed to meet only in times of public -alarm, and laid before them the facts which we have narrated. Cataline -had returned to Rome, and being a member of the senate, met the charge -with profound dissimulation and the most subtle cunning. Cicero, -however, poured forth upon him such a torrent of invective, and placed -his guilt in so strong a light, that the conspirator became desperate, -made a threatening speech to the senate, and left the hall. That night, -he departed and repaired with expedition to head the forces at Etruria. -The result of the whole enterprise was, that several of the accomplices -were executed, and Cataline himself fell bravely fighting at the head -of those troops he had induced to join his cause. Cicero received the -thanks of the senate, and the most unbounded applause at the hands of -the people. - -Cicero’s administration being now at an end, nothing remained but to -resign the consulship, according to custom, in an assembly of the -people, and declare upon oath that he had administered the office with -fidelity. It was usual for the consul, under such circumstances, to -address the people, and on the present occasion an immense concourse -of people met to hear the farewell speech of Cicero. But Metellus, one -of the new tribunes, ambitious to signalize himself by some display -of that remarkable veto power committed to the tribunes, determined to -disappoint the orator and the audience. - -Accordingly, when Cicero had mounted the rostrum, and was about to -address the people, Metellus interfered, remarking that he who had -put citizens to death unheard, ought not to be permitted to speak for -himself. This was a reflection upon Cicero, because the associates -of Cataline had been executed by a vote of the senate, without the -ordinary trial. Cicero, however, was never at a loss, and, instead of -pronouncing the usual form of the oath, exalted his voice so that all -the people might hear him, saying, “I have saved the republic and the -city from ruin!” The vast multitude caught the sounds, and, with one -acclamation, declared, “You have sworn the truth!” Thus, the intended -affront of Metellus was turned to the advantage of Cicero, and he was -conducted from the forum to his house with every demonstration of -respect by the whole city. - -It was about this period that Cicero is supposed to have pronounced his -oration, still extant, in defence of his old preceptor, Archias. He, -doubtless, expected from his muse an immortality of fame; for Archias -had sung in Greek verse the triumphs of Marius over the Cimbri, and of -Lucullus over Mithridates. He appears, however, to have died without -celebrating the consulship of Cicero; and Archias, instead of adding to -the fame of the orator, would have been buried in complete oblivion, -had not his memory been perpetuated in the immortal pages of his pupil. - -Pompey the Great now returned to Rome, in the height of his fame and -fortunes, from the Mithridatic war. It had been apprehended that he -was coming back to Rome, at the head of his army, to seize upon the -government. It is certain that he had this in his power, and Cæsar, -with the tribune Metellus, was inviting him to it. But he seemed -content, for the time, with the glory he had achieved. By his victories -he had extended the boundaries of the empire into Asia, having reduced -three powerful kingdoms there, Pontus, Syria and Bithynia, to the -condition of Roman provinces, taken the city of Jerusalem, and left -the other nations of the east, as far as the Tigris, tributary to the -republic. - -For these great services, a triumph was decreed him, which lasted two -days, and was the most splendid that had ever been seen in Rome. Of -the spoils, he erected a temple to Minerva, with an inscription giving -a summary of his victories:—“that he had finished a war of thirty -years; had vanquished, slain, and taken two millions one hundred and -eighty-three thousand men; sunk or taken eight hundred and forty-six -ships; reduced to the power of the empire a thousand five hundred -and thirty-eight towns and fortresses, and subdued all the countries -between the lake Moeris and the Red Sea.” - -The spectacle which Rome, at this period, presents is full of warning -to mankind. In the very height of her pride and her power, holding -the whole civilized world in her grasp, she was still torn with -dissensions, and corrupted through every vein and artery of society. -With political institutions favorable to liberty, and calculated to -promote public and private virtue; yet vice and crime stained the -character of public men, while profligacy, in every form, characterized -the people at large. - -Nor could anything better be expected; for the general policy of the -nation was alike wicked and unwise. Instead of seeking prosperity by -the peaceful arts of life, they sought to enrich themselves by robbing -other nations. War was the great trade of the state; the soldier was -a hero; a successful general, the idol of the nation. The greatest -plunderer received the greatest honors, and glory was proportioned to -the blood spilled and the spoils obtained. A system so immoral could -not fail to debauch the nation, nor was it difficult to see that, from -robbing other countries, the victorious general, having attached the -soldiery to himself by leading them on to booty, would soon learn to -turn his arms against the country. Such had now become the experience -of Rome; and the natural course of ambition seemed to be to obtain -the command of an army in some of the provinces, gorge the soldiers -with plunder, and, having become the idol of the troops, to march upon -Rome and seize, by intimidation or force, the sceptre of power. Such a -course had been expected of Pompey, and was soon after adopted by Cæsar. - -The triumvirate, consisting of Cæsar, Pompey and Crassus, was now -formed, and Cicero yielded, for a time, to their power. His patriotism -and integrity were obstacles, however, to the success of their schemes, -and he became the object of their hatred and persecution. Perceiving -the storm that was ready to burst over him, he threw himself at the -feet of Pompey and begged his protection. This, however, was refused; -and seeing no alternative but to defend himself by force, or retreat -till the storm had blown over, he adopted the latter course by the -advice of Cato and Hortensius. He left the city, and attended by a -numerous train of friends, pursued his way to Sicily. - -After his departure, the dissolute Clodius, who had become tribune, -caused a law to be passed, denouncing Cicero in violent terms, and -forbidding all persons, on pain of death, to harbor or receive him. -Immediately after, his houses, both in the city and country, were given -up to plunder; the marble columns of his dwelling on the Palatine -hill were carried away by one of the consuls, and the rich furniture -of his Tusculum villa, by another. Even the ornamental trees of his -plantations were taken up and transplanted to one of his neighbor’s -grounds. To make the loss of his house in Rome irretrievable, Clodius -caused the space to be consecrated to the service of religion, and a -temple to be built upon it, dedicated to the goddess of liberty! - -Nor did the vengeance of Cicero’s enemies stop here. Clodius pursued -his wife and children with the same fury, and made several attempts -to gain access to his son, then six years old, with the intention of -putting him to death. But the child was carefully guarded, and finally -removed from the reach of his malice. Terentia took sanctuary in the -temple of Vesta, but she was dragged forcibly out, and insolently -examined as to the concealment of her husband’s property. Being a -woman of singular spirit, however, she bore these indignities with -masculine courage. - -The desolation of Cicero’s fortunes at home, and the misery which he -suffered abroad, in being deprived of everything that was dear to -him, soon made him repent his flight. His suffering was increased -on reaching Sicily, for there he found his former friends afraid to -receive him, in consequence of the decree of banishment which had -been passed at Rome, and which forbade him to remain within four -hundred miles of the city. He therefore found it necessary to leave -Sicily, and after various changes of opinion, he resolved to proceed -to Thessalonica, in Macedonia. Here he took up his residence with his -friend Plaucius, who treated him with the utmost kindness. - -Cicero was so dejected by his misfortunes, that he shut himself up -in his apartments, and refused to see all company. When his brother, -Quintus, was on his way from Asia to Rome, Cicero felt incapable of -supporting an interview, and did not see him, so deeply were his -feelings affected. At the same time, his letters to his friends were -full of regret, complaint and despondency. It is obvious that, in this -period of trial, he displayed great weakness of character, though it -is probable that his affectionate disposition—his fondness for his -children, and love of his friends—rendered separation from them an -evil almost worse than death. It would seem, also, that he had so long -enjoyed the homage paid to his talents, had so long lived in the blaze -of popular favor, that his present exile seemed like being deprived of -the very light of heaven. - -But the period of his return to Rome was now approaching. Clodius, by -a series of the most flagrant outrages, made himself hated at Rome, -and finally put himself in opposition to Pompey himself. The people at -large were favorable to Cicero, and it was not long before the senate, -with great unanimity, passed a resolution favorable to his recall. -Pompey urged the measure with ardor, and declared that Cicero ought to -be received with such honors, as might atone for the sorrows of his -exile. - -Preparations were made to obtain the passage of a law coinciding -with the resolve of the senate; but Clodius, with his slaves and a -multitude of hired gladiators, resisted the tribunes who sought to -gain possession of the market-place, for that purpose. Several bloody -encounters followed, and for a time the streets of Rome were deluged -with blood. The dead bodies were thrown into the Tiber, which were so -numerous as almost to obstruct its channel. Nothing can better show -the greatness of Cicero’s reputation, than the facts now transpiring -in Rome. For several months the attention of the people of that city, -and of Italy, was wholly occupied with the question of his recall. -The ambassadors of kings, the messengers of princes,—affairs which -involved the fate of nations—were all laid aside, till this absorbing -subject could be disposed of. - -The senate, after long deliberation, and in a full assembly, at last -passed a decree for his restoration; Clodius, among four hundred and -fifty, giving the only vote against it. When the news reached a -neighboring theatre, the air was rent with acclamation. Æsopus, the -actor, was performing, at the time, the part of Timolean, banished from -the country, in one of the plays of Accius. By a happy change of a -few words, and giving the utmost effect to his voice, he directed the -thoughts of the audience to Cicero, while he uttered these sentences, -“What, he who always stood up for the republic! who, in doubtful -times, spared neither life nor fortunes—the greatest friend in the -greatest dangers—of such parts and talents! O Father—I saw his house -and rich furniture all in flames! O, ungrateful Greeks, inconstant -people; forgetful of services,—to see such a man banished, driven -from his country, and suffer him to continue in this condition!” It -is not possible to describe the thrilling effect of these words, or -the enthusiasm of the people. When Lentulus, the consul, who had -taken an active part in Cicero’s favor, entered the place, they all -rose up, stretched out their hands, and, with tears of joy and loud -acclamations, testified their thanks. Several of the senators coming -into the theatre, were received with the most deafening applause. -Clodius also making his appearance was assailed by reproaches, threats -and curses. - -Though a decree was now regularly obtained for Cicero’s return, Clodius -had still the courage and address to hinder its sanction by the popular -assemblies. There were several meetings of the senate, and the whole -city was shaken to its foundation with the question now at issue. All -Italy and indeed many of the remote provinces were thrown into a state -of ferment by the struggle, and the mighty interests of the empire -were postponed till this important question could be settled. Ptolemy, -the king of Egypt, driven from his kingdom, and seeking protection at -the hands of Rome, even though a lodger in Pompey’s house, could not -obtain an audience, till Cicero’s cause was decided. - -The greatest preparations were now made for submitting the question -to the popular assemblies. Never had there been known so numerous -and solemn a gathering of the Roman people as on this occasion. The -whole country seemed to be drawn together. It was reckoned a sin to -be absent. Neither age nor infirmity was thought a sufficient excuse -for failing to lend a helping hand to the restoration of Cicero. -The meeting was held in the field of Mars, for the more convenient -reception of so vast a multitude. It was an august scene. The senators -presided at the polls, to see the ballots fairly taken. The result was -that Cicero was recalled from exile by the unanimous suffrage of all -the hundreds, and to the infinite joy of the whole city! - -Cicero, having been advised of the course of events, had returned -as far as Brundusium, where he was met by his daughter Tullia. In a -few days he received the welcome intelligence of his recall. Setting -out immediately for Rome, he everywhere received the most lively -demonstrations of joy from the people. Multitudes were drawn together -to congratulate him on his return. The whole road, from Brundusium to -Rome, being crowded with men, women, and children, seemed like one -continued street. Every prefecture, town and colony throughout Italy -decreed him statues, or public honors, and sent deputations to him, -with tenders of congratulation. Cicero himself remarks, that Italy -brought him back on its shoulders, and that the day of his return was -worth an immortality. - -Cicero was now restored to his dignity, but not to his fortunes. -Restitution had been decreed, and the sum of £22,000 was finally paid -him. This he accepted, though it was scarcely more than half what he -had actually lost. He now attached himself to the cause of Pompey, -but spent several years with little public employment, being chiefly -occupied with his rhetorical studies and the business of an advocate. -The turbulent Clodius was at last slain by Milo, and Cicero was thus -delivered from his most troublesome enemy. - -The senate now conferred upon him the office of pro-consul, or -governor, of Cilicia, in Asia Minor, whither he immediately proceeded. -He discharged the duties of this office with ability, and, on his -return, was decreed a triumph. But he was prevented from enjoying it -by the factious opposition of his enemies. On his return, he found -Rome agitated with serious disturbances. The rupture between Cæsar and -Pompey had taken place, and the horrors of a civil war seemed to be -impending over the republic. In vain did he attempt to reconcile the -fierce and haughty rivals. - -Cæsar advanced upon Rome, and Pompey was forced to fly with the consuls -and the senate. Cæsar had met Cicero at Formiae, and sought to gain -him over to his cause, but though convinced that he would prevail in -the coming struggle, he felt himself prompted, by a sense of honor to -return to Pompey, who had served him so effectually during his exile. -After the fatal battle of Pharsalia and the flight of Pompey, he -returned to Rome, where he was graciously received by Cæsar. - -He now devoted himself to literary and philosophical pursuits, and, -soon after, divorced his wife Terentia, an act which has justly -subjected him to much reproach. It is true that she was a woman of -an imperious and turbulent spirit, expensive and negligent in her -private affairs, busy and intriguing in public matters. But these -qualities were in some degree compensated by her devotion to Cicero, -and especially by the energy with which she had sought to effect his -return during his exile. His letters to her at this period recognise -her efforts in his behalf, and are full of the most tender expressions -of affection and esteem. - -It must be remarked that the nuptial bond was lightly regarded at this -period in Rome, and divorces were so common as to be little thought -of. Terentia was soon after married to Sallust, the historian, by -which it would seem that her separation from Cicero inflicted upon her -no disgrace. Cicero would perhaps have been little blamed, were it -not that he was soon after married to a young lady named Publilia, of -whom he was guardian, and who had been committed to his care by her -father’s will. She had a large estate, and this was doubtless Cicero’s -inducement to the match, if not to the divorce of Terentia. It is the -suspicion of such motives, in these transactions, that has sullied the -fame of Cicero. We may add here, in respect to Terentia, that she was -once or twice married after the death of Sallust, and lived to the age -of one hundred and three years. - -Cæsar, having established himself as dictator, Cicero was induced to -assent to his government. Accordingly, he pronounced a famous oration, -in which he mingled as much counsel as panegyric for the despot. He -was rapidly regaining his former consideration, when the conspiracy -of Brutus and his associates terminated the career of the ambitious -usurper. Antony now took Cæsar’s place, and while he was prosecuting -his designs, Cicero returned to his literary occupations. He went to -Greece for a time, but soon returned, and pronounced those famous -orations against Antony, which are called Philippics. - -Octavius, known as Augustus Cæsar, and the nephew of Julius Cæsar, -united his interests with those of Antony, and having obtained the -consulate, soon gained an ascendency over the senate. Cicero, in his -retirement at Tusculum, saw that the power having passed into the -hands of desperate men, the liberty of Rome was no more. He soon heard -that his own name was included among those of the proscribed. He fled -immediately to Astura, on the sea coast, where he found a vessel -waiting for him. - -He here embarked, but contrary winds drove him back to the shore. At -the earnest entreaty of his slaves, he embarked a second time, but -returned to await his fate at his country seat near Formiae, declaring, -“I will die in my country, which I have more than once saved.” His -slaves, seeing the neighborhood already disturbed by the soldiers of -Antony, endeavored to convey him away in a litter, but soon discovered -the assassins, who had been sent to take his life, at their heels. -They prepared for resistance, but Cicero, who felt that death was -unavoidable, bowed his head before Pompilius, the commander of the -murderers, who had once been saved by his eloquence, and suffered death -more courageously than he had borne misfortune. - -Thus died Cicero, and with him the liberties of Rome. The dynasty of -the emperors was built upon the ruins of the republic, and, continuing -for five centuries, was finally extinguished in the gloom of the dark -ages. Cicero was killed on the 7th December, 43 B. C., at the age of -sixty-three. His head and hands were severed from the body, by his -murderers, and carried to Antony, who caused the former to be placed -upon the rostra in the forum, between the two hands. The odium of these -barbarities fell chiefly upon Antony, yet they left a stain of perfidy -and ingratitude upon Augustus, which can never be wiped away. - -In his person, Cicero was tall and slender, yet his features were -regular and manly. He mingled great dignity with an air of cheerfulness -and serenity, that inspired both affection and respect. His -constitution was naturally weak, but his prudent habits enabled him to -support all the fatigues of an active and studious life, with health -and vigor. In dress, he avoided singularity, and was only remarkable -for personal neatness and appropriateness of attire. In domestic -and social life, his demeanor was exceedingly amiable. He was an -affectionate parent, a zealous friend, a generous master. Yet he was -not more generous to his friends than placable to his enemies. It was -one of his sayings, delivered in a public assembly, that “his enmities -were mortal, his friendships immortal.” - -The moral character of Cicero was not blemished by the stain of any -habitual vice. He was, indeed, the shining pattern of virtue in an age, -of all others, the most licentious and profligate. His great soul was -superior to the sordid passions which engross little minds—avarice, -envy and malice. His familiar letters, in which he pours out his whole -heart, are free from anything base, immodest or vengeful. A uniform -principle of benevolence, justice, love of his friends and his country, -is seen to flow through the whole, inspiring all his thoughts and words -and actions. - -The failings of Cicero consisted chiefly in his vanity and that -despondency under adverse circumstances, which seemed unworthy of his -character. With these abatements, we must pronounce him a truly great -and good man—the glory of Rome, an honor to human nature. His works, -a large portion of which are extant, are among the richest treasures -bequeathed to us by antiquity, and there are few minds so exalted, even -with the advantages of our own time, as not to find instruction in his -pages. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR. - - -This celebrated Roman, famous for his intrigues, his generalship, his -eloquence and his talents, was born in the year 100 B. C. He was of a -good family, and his aunt Julia was wife of Caius Marius, who had been -consul. We know little of him in his youth, though it would seem that -he early attracted attention by his abilities and ambition. At the age -of fifteen, he left his father, and was made a priest in the temple of -Jupiter, the year after. At the age of seventeen, he married Cornelia, -a daughter of Cinna. By this marriage, and through his aunt Julia, he -was allied both to Marius and Cinna, the two principal opposers of -Sylla, who had acquired an ascendency in Rome, and exercised his power -with fearful and bloody tyranny. Soon after his marriage, Cæsar became -an object of suspicion to the despot; he was stripped of his office -as priest of Jupiter, his wife’s dower was confiscated, and he, being -threatened with death, deemed it prudent to seek safety in flight. - -He wandered up and down the country, concealing himself for a time -among the Sabines; but at last he escaped by sea, and went to Bithynia -in Asia Minor, and sought protection of king Nicomedes. His stay at -this place was, however, short. He re-embarked, and was taken, near -the isle of Pharmacusa, by pirates, who were masters of that sea, and -blocked up all the passages with a number of galleys and other vessels. -They asked him only twenty talents for his ransom. He laughed at their -demand, as the consequence of not knowing him, and promised them fifty -talents. - -To raise the money he despatched his attendants to different cities, -and in the meantime remained, with only one friend and two servants, -among these people, who considered murder a trifle. Cæsar, however, -held them in great contempt, and used, whenever he went to sleep, -to send them an order to keep silence. Thus he lived among them -thirty-eight days, as if they had been his guards rather than his -keepers. - -Perfectly fearless and self-possessed, he joined in their diversions, -and took his exercises among them. He wrote poems and orations, and -rehearsed them to these pirates; and when they expressed no admiration, -he called them dunces and barbarians—nay, he often threatened to -crucify them. They were delighted with these freedoms, which they -imputed to his frank and facetious vein. But as soon as the money was -brought for his ransom, and he had recovered his liberty, he manned -some vessels in the port of Miletus, in order to attack these corsairs. -He found them still lying at anchor by the island, took most of them, -together with the money he had paid them, and caused them to be -imprisoned at Pergamus. - -After this adventure, Cæsar took lessons of Appolonius Molo, of Rhodes, -a celebrated teacher of rhetoric, who had been the instructor of -Cicero. He here displayed great talents, especially in an aptitude for -eloquence, in which he afterwards excelled. After this, he served under -different generals in Asia, and upon the death of Sylla, returned to -Rome, where he soon became conspicuous among the aspiring politicians -of the day. - -Rome was at this time a republic, in which there was a constant -struggle for ascendency between the aristocracy and the -democracy—between the privileged few and the people. Sylla had placed -the former on a firm footing; for a time, therefore, Cæsar, who -courted the people, took no open part, but looked calmly on, waiting -and watching for his opportunity. He, however, seized every occasion -to please and flatter the people; he gave expensive entertainments to -which they were invited; he attached to his person the talented and -enterprising young men; he distributed presents, paid compliments, and -said a thousand pleasant things, calculated to flatter those whose -favor he desired. He also made public speeches on various occasions, -in all of which he avowed sentiments which gratified the plebeians. -Thus beginning afar off and steadily approaching his object he was ere -long in a situation to realize it. Cato, who had watched him carefully, -discovered his dangerous ambition, but he could not prevent the success -of his schemes. - -At the age of thirty-one, he was chosen by the people, as one of the -military tribunes, an office which gave him the command of a legion, or -division in the army. The year following, he was quæstor, or receiver -of public moneys in Spain; and in the year 68, having returned to Rome, -he was chosen edile—an office which gave him charge of the public -buildings. - -In this situation, he had an opportunity to indulge his taste for -magnificence and display; at the same time, he gratified the people. He -beautified the city with public edifices and gave splendid exhibitions -of wild beasts and gladiators. - -He was now thirty-five years old, and being desirous of military glory, -he sought a command in Egypt. He offered himself as a candidate—but -failed. The next year he took his measures more carefully. The -corruption of the voters of Rome, at that time, was such as to excite -our disgust. On the day of election, there were stalls, openly kept, -where the votes of the freemen were bought, with as little shame, as if -they had been common merchandise. We hardly know which most to despise, -the crafty leaders, who thus corrupted the people, or the venal voters, -who abused and degraded the dearest of privileges. - -Though Cæsar was from the beginning a professed champion of the -democracy, yet the manner in which he treated those whose support he -sought, showed that his designs were selfish; that he wished to make -the people instruments of his ambition. A man who will flatter the -mass; use false, yet captivating arguments with them; appeal to their -prejudices; fall in with their currents of feeling and opinion, even -though they may be wrong, may profess democracy but he is at heart an -aristocrat: he has no true love for the people; no confidence in them; -he really despises them, and looks upon them but as the despicable -tools of his ambition. Such was Cæsar, and such is always the popular -demagogue. While nothing is more noble than a true democrat—a true -well-wisher of the people—and one who honestly seeks to vindicate -their rights, enlighten their minds, and elevate them in the scale of -society; so nothing is more base than a selfish desire to govern them, -hidden beneath the cloak of pretended democracy. - -The measures of Cæsar were now so open, and his real character so -obvious, that we should wonder at his success with the people, did we -not know the power which flattery exerts over all mankind, and that -when a man of rank and talents becomes a demagogue, he is usually more -successful than other men. It was so, at least, with Cæsar. He courted -the populace on all occasions; he distributed money with a lavish hand, -particularly among the poorer voters. - -After many intrigues, he obtained the office of prætor, at the end -of a sharply contested election. This office was one of high dignity -and trust. The prætor administered justice, protected the rights of -widows and orphans—presided at public festivals was president of the -senate, in the absence of the consul, and assembled or prorogued the -senate at his pleasure. He also exhibited shows to the people, and in -the festivals of Bona Dea, where none but women were admitted, his wife -presided. - -In obtaining this office, Cæsar achieved a great triumph. He also -increased his power, and reached a situation which enabled him still -more to flatter the people. An event, however, occurred about this -time, which gave him great annoyance. During the ceremonies in honor -of the Bona Dea, at his house, a profligate person, named Clodius, -disguised as a woman, gained access to the festivities. This caused a -great deal of scandal, and Cæsar divorced his wife, Pompeia, whom he -had married after the death of Cornelia. - -In the year 63 B. C., a conspiracy, which had for its object the -subversion of the Roman government, was detected by Cicero, the orator, -then consul. It was headed by Cataline, a Roman nobleman of dissolute -habits, whose life had been stained with many crimes. His accomplices -were men of similar character, who took an oath of fidelity to the -cause, which they sealed by drinking human blood. After the disclosure -of the plot, Cataline braved the senate for a time, but five of his -associates being seized, he fled to Gaul, where, having raised some -troops, he was attacked, and fell, bravely fighting to the last. - -When the trial of the five accomplices came on in the Roman senate, -there was but a single person who dared to oppose their execution, and -this was Cæsar. His courage, moral or physical, never failed him. In -policy and war, he often undertook what might seem the most desperate -schemes, yet the event usually bore out his judgment, or his skill -and energy generally ensured success. In the present case, he failed; -though his speech in the senate had a wonderful effect. Even Cicero -wavered. As that speech is handed down by Sallust, it is a masterly -performance. It gave Cæsar a high place as an orator, he being now -regarded as second to Cicero alone. Though he did not obtain his direct -object respecting the conspirators, and was driven from his office by -the aristocratic faction, he gained more than he lost, by increased -popularity with the plebeians. - -In the year 60 B. C., when the time was approaching for the choice of -consuls, Cæsar being a candidate, the aristocratic faction saw that -they could not defeat his election; they therefore thought to check -him, by associating with him Bibulus, one of their own party. When -the election took place, Cæsar and Bibulus were chosen. The latter -was rather a weak man, and offered no effectual obstacle to Cæsar’s -schemes. On one occasion, he determined to check his colleague, and for -this purpose, resorted to the use of an extreme power, vested, however, -in his hands. It was the custom, before any public business, to consult -the augurs. These were officers of state, who were supposed to foretell -future events. - -The augur sat upon a high tower, where he studied the heavens, and -particularly noticed comets, thunder and lightning, rain and tempest. -The chirping or flying of birds—the sudden crossing of the path by -quadrupeds—accidents, such as spilling salt hearing strange noises, -sneezing, stumbling, &c.—were all esteemed ominous, and were the means -by which the soothsayers pretended to unravel the fate of men and of -nations. When these gave an unfavorable report, a consul could stop -public business, and even break up the sittings of the senate. Bibulus -resorted to the use of this power, and not only declared that the -augurs were unfavorable, but that they would be so all the year! This -extravagant stretch of authority was turned to ridicule by Cæsar and -his friends, and the baffled consul, in disgust and shame, shut himself -up in his own house. Cæsar was now, in fact, the sole consul of Rome. - -Pompey the Great was at this period in the full flush of his fame. -His military achievements had been of the most splendid character. He -was, therefore, a man of the highest consideration, and even superior -to Cæsar in standing. The latter, by a series of intrigues, gained -his favor, and these two, rivals at heart, both yearning for supreme -authority in Rome, entered into a political alliance, which they -cemented by the marriage of Julia, Cæsar’s daughter, to Pompey. It -mattered not, among these unscrupulous politicians, that Julia had long -been betrothed to Marcus Brutus. Cæsar, at this time, also took a wife, -named Calpurnia, daughter of Piso—a political match, which greatly -enlarged his power. Three great men were now at the head of affairs in -Rome—Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus—and this union is called in history -the First Triumvirate. - -Cæsar was, however, the master as well of the senate as of the people. -By his influence, an agrarian law was passed, for the division of some -public lands in Campania, among the poorer citizens, which he carried -by intimidation. Everything gave way before him; even Cicero, who was -in his way, was banished. Cæsar’s desire was now to have an army at -his command: this he obtained, being appointed to the charge of the -provinces of Gaul, on both sides of the Alps, for five years. - -From this time, the history of Rome presents a striking parallel to -that of the republic of France during Bonaparte’s first campaigns -in Italy. In both cases we see a weak republic, torn by contending -factions, and rather feeding discontent than seeking tranquillity. In -both cases we see vast provinces of the distracted republic occupied -by a general of unlimited powers—a man of superior genius, desperate -resolves, and fearful cruelty—a man, who, under the show of democratic -principles and a love of the people, gains a complete ascendency over -the soldiers, that he may lead them on to victory, bloodshed, plunder, -and despotism! - -We shall not follow Cæsar in the details of his victorious career. It -is sufficient to say, that, in nine campaigns, he waged war against -the numerous tribes which occupied the present territory of France, -Britain, Switzerland, and Germany. Some of these were warlike and -populous nations, and frequently brought into the field immense armies -of fierce and formidable soldiery. Though often pushed to extremity, by -a series of splendid achievements, Cæsar reduced them all to subjection -at last. During this period, it is said that he fought nearly a -thousand battles, captured eight hundred towns, slew a million of -men, and reduced to captivity as many more! If the warrior’s glory is -estimated by the blood he sheds, the life he extinguishes, the liberty -he destroys—Cæsar’s crown must be one of surpassing splendor. - -Though Cæsar did not visit Rome during this long period, he was by no -means ignorant of what was transpiring there. It was his custom to -spend his winters in Cisalpine Gaul, that is, on the southern side of -the Alps, about two hundred and fifty miles from Rome. Here he was able -to keep up a correspondence with his friends, and to mingle in all the -intrigues that agitated the mighty city—the heart of the empire. - -Pompey had at length broken through the alliance with Cæsar, and set -up for supreme authority. It was now understood that Cæsar had similar -views, and Rome began to look with fear and trembling upon the issue -that was approaching between these powerful rivals. Pompey succeeded -in getting certain acts passed by the senate, requiring Cæsar to quit -his army, and come to Rome. The latter saw danger in this, and while he -determined to visit Rome, he resolved that his army should accompany -him. The southern boundary of his provinces was a small stream, called -the Rubicon. When Cæsar came to this, he hesitated. To cross it with -his troops, was a declaration of war. Staggered with the greatness of -the attempt, he stopped to weigh with himself its evils and advantages; -and, as he stood revolving in his own mind the arguments on both sides, -he seemed to waver in his opinion. In a state of doubt, he conferred -with such of his friends as were by, enumerating the calamities -which the passage of that river would bring upon the world, and the -reflections that might be made upon it by posterity. At last, upon some -sudden impulse, bidding adieu to his reasonings, and plunging into the -abyss of futurity—in the words of those who embark in doubtful and -arduous enterprises—he cried out, “The die is cast;” and immediately -passed the river. - -He now travelled with the utmost rapidity, having but about three -hundred horse and five thousand foot. The consternation of the whole -country was evinced by the movements visible on all hands—not -individuals, only, were seen wandering about, but whole cities were -broken up, the inhabitants seeking safety in flight. Pompey himself, -with his friends, fled from Rome, and Cæsar entered the city, and took -possession of the government without opposition. - -A senate was hastily assembled, and the forms of law observed, though -in obedience to Cæsar’s will. He was declared dictator, and then -marched to Brundusium, whither Pompey had fled. After many skirmishes, -the two armies met on the plains of Pharsalia, a town of Thessaly, in -Greece, and a decisive and bloody engagement took place. Pompey was -defeated, and, wandering like a distracted man, came at last to Egypt, -where he was treacherously murdered. Cæsar followed, as the remorseless -eagle pursues its prey, but finding his rival slain, he repaired in -triumph to Rome. These events occurred in the year 48 B. C. - -After various proceedings, Cæsar was elected consul for ten years, and -declared dictator for life. The mask was now thrown off—the despot -stood disclosed. Forty senators, incensed at his subversion of the -constitution of Rome, entered into a conspiracy to take his life, and, -on the 18th of March, B. C. 44, they stabbed him, as he was entering -the senate chamber. Proud even in death, Cæsar muffled his face in his -cloak as he fell, that his expiring agonies might not be witnessed. - -Thus lived and thus died, Julius Cæsar. His talents were only equalled -by his ambition. If he sought glory, it was often by worthy means—by -valuable improvements, and real benefits. Yet he hesitated not to -trample upon life, principles, bonds, rights—upon liberty—his -country—everything that stood in the way of his towering wishes. - -He left behind him an account of his battles, written from day to day, -as events occurred. These are called Commentaries, and furnish a fund -of authentic narrative for history, beside being admired for their -elegance of style. It was after a victory over Pharnaces, king of -Pontus, in Asia Minor, that he used the remarkable words, _veni, vidi, -vinci_—“I came, I saw, I conquered.” They well express the celerity -and decision of his movements. In private affairs he was extravagant of -money; his debts at one time amounted to eight hundred talents—almost -a million of dollars. These were paid by his friends. In public -concerns he did not appear greedy of wealth. As an evidence of the -activity and energy of his faculties, it was said that at the same time -he could employ his ear to listen, his eye to read, his hand to write, -and his mind to dictate. His disposition led him irresistibly to seek -dominion; in battle, he must be a conqueror; in a republic, he must be -the master. This leading feature in his character is well illustrated, -in his saying to the inhabitants of a village, “I would rather be first -here, than second in Rome.” His character is delineated by an eminent -writer, in the following terms:— - -“Such was the affection of his soldiers, and their attachment to his -person, that they, who, under other commanders, were nothing above the -common rate of men, became invincible when Cæsar’s glory was concerned, -and met the most dreadful dangers with a courage which nothing could -resist. - -“This courage, and this great ambition, were cultivated and cherished, -in the first place, by the generous manner in which Cæsar rewarded his -troops, and the honors which he paid them. His whole conduct showed -that he did not accumulate riches to minister to luxury, or to serve -any pleasures of his own, but that he laid them up in a common stock, -as prizes to be obtained by distinguished valor; and that he considered -himself no farther rich, than as he was in a condition to do justice to -the merit of his soldiers. Another thing that contributed to make them -invincible, was their seeing Cæsar always take his share in the danger, -and never desire any exemption from labor and fatigue. - -“As for his exposing his person to danger, they were not surprised at -it, because they knew his passion for glory; but they were astonished -at his patience under toil, so far, in all appearance, above his -bodily powers; for he was of a slender make, fair, of a delicate -constitution, and subject to violent headaches, and epileptic fits. He -had the first attack of the falling sickness at Corduba. He did not, -however, make these disorders a pretence for indulging himself. On the -contrary, he sought in war a remedy for his infirmities, endeavoring -to strengthen his constitution by long marches, by simple diet, by -seldom coming under cover. Thus he contended against his distemper, and -fortified himself against its attacks. - -“When he slept, it was commonly upon a march, either in a chariot or a -litter, that rest might be no hindrance to business. In the daytime he -visited the castles, cities, and fortified camps, with a servant at his -side, and with a soldier behind, who carried his sword. - -“As a warrior and a general, we behold him not in the least inferior to -the greatest and most admired commander the world ever produced; for, -whether we compare him with the Fabii, the Scipios, the Metelli—with -the generals of his own time, or those who flourished a little before -him—with Sylla, Marius, the two Luculli, or with Pompey himself, -whose fame in every military excellence, reached the skies, Cæsar’s -achievements bear away the palm. One he surpassed in the difficulty of -the scene of action; another in the extent of the countries he subdued; -this, in the number and strength of the enemies he overcame; that, -in the savage manners and treacherous dispositions of the people he -humanized; one, in mildness and clemency to his prisoners; another, in -bounty and munificence to his troops; and all, in the number of battles -that he won, and enemies that he killed. In less than ten years’ war -in Gaul, he took eight hundred cities by assault, conquered three -hundred nations, and fought pitched battles, at different times, with -three millions of men, one million of which he cut in pieces, and made -another million prisoners.” - -Such was Cæsar, one of the greatest, yet worst of men. It appears that -after his death he was enrolled among the gods. It is evident that a -people who looked upon such a being as divine, must have worshipped -power, and not virtue; and that what we call vice and crime, were, in -their view, compatible with divinity. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - HANNIBAL. - - -This great man, a native of Carthage, and son of Hamilcar Barcas, was -born 247 B. C. At this period, Rome and Carthage were rival powers and -both seated upon the borders of the Mediterranean Sea. Rome had been -in existence about five hundred years, and had already extended her -conquests over Italy and a portion of Spain. She had not yet crossed -the Alps, to conquer the more northern Gauls or Goths, but she was -rapidly advancing in power; and, about a century after, Greece and Asia -Minor fell before her. Already her proud eagle began to spread his -wing, and whet his beak for conquest and slaughter. - -Rome was a nation of soldiers; and, paying little respect to commerce, -manufactures and productive industry, she sought to enrich herself by -robbing other countries—thus building herself up by the very means -which the Goths and Vandals employed, seven hundred years after, for -her destruction. Carthage was, in most respects, the opposite of Rome; -her citizens were chiefly devoted to commerce and manufactures. The -Mediterranean was dotted over with her vessels, and she had numerous -colonies in Spain and along the coasts of Africa. - -The city of Rome was the centre of the republic and the seat of -government. Here all the laws were enacted; here all the military -movements and other affairs of state were decided upon. The city was -at this time nearly twenty miles in circuit, and defended by a triple -range of walls. The number of its inhabitants was several millions. - -Carthage was also a vast city, situated in Africa, about four hundred -miles south-west of Rome, the Mediterranean Sea lying between them. It -originated with a small colony of people from Tyre, a maritime city in -Syria, about a hundred years before Rome was founded by Romulus. It -increased rapidly, and became a flourishing place. The city exercised -dominion over the whole country around. Its government was a mixture -of aristocracy and democracy; the chief men ruling on all ordinary -occasions, but sometimes consulting the people. - -The Carthaginians were an industrious nation and appear to have had no -taste or leisure for the gladiator fights, the shows of wild beasts, -the theatrical exhibitions and other amusements, that excited such -deep interest among the idle and dissipated Romans. They were, in many -respects, exemplary in their morals—even abstinence from wine being -required of the magistrates while in office. Their religion, however, -was a gloomy superstition, and their punishments were cruel. They even -sacrificed children to their gods, in the earlier periods of their -history. - -Though chiefly addicted to commerce, the Carthaginians paid great -attention to agriculture. The rich men laid out their surplus money in -cultivating the lands; and in the time of Hannibal, the whole extent -of country around Carthage, which was the territory now called Tunis, -was covered with vast herds of the finest cattle, fields waving with -corn, vineyards and olive grounds. There were a multitude of small -villages scattered over the country; near to the great city, the whole -landscape was studded with the splendid villas of the rich citizens. To -such a pitch was the art of agriculture carried, that one Mago wrote -twenty-eight books upon the subject. These were carried to Rome, after -the conquest of Carthage, and greatly increased the knowledge and skill -of the Romans, in the science of husbandry. - -It was at a period when these two great powers had already extended -themselves so far as to come in frequent collision, that Hannibal was -born. His father was a general, who had served in Spain and fought -against the Romans in the first Punic war. His mind was filled with -hatred of that nation; and while Hannibal was yet a boy of nine years -old, and about to accompany his father in his Spanish campaigns, he -caused him to kneel before the altar, and swear eternal hatred to the -Romans. - -Asdrubal, the brother of Hamilcar, succeeded, at the death of the -latter, to the command of the Carthaginian army in Spain; at his death, -Hannibal, now twenty-one years old, was made general of the whole army, -as well by the acclamations of the soldiers, as the decree of the -Carthaginian senate. He immediately marched against various barbarous -tribes in Spain, yet unsubdued, and quickly reduced them to submission. - -During the first Punic war, Carthage had lost her finest colonies—the -island of Sicily, as well as the Lipari isles—all of which had fallen -into the hands of Rome. She had now recovered from the losses of that -war, and Hannibal determined to revenge the injuries Rome had inflicted -upon his country. Accordingly, he laid siege to Saguntum, in Spain, a -large city subject to Rome, and situated on the Mediterranean, near the -present town of Valencia. Faithful to their alliance, and expecting -succors from Rome, the people made the most determined resistance for -eight months. They were at last reduced to such fearful extremity -for food, that they killed their infant children and fed upon their -blood and flesh. Filled with a horrid despair, they finally erected -an immense pile of wood, and setting it on fire, the men first hurled -their women, slaves and treasures into the blaze, and then plunged into -it themselves. Hannibal now entered the city, but, instead of finding -rich spoils, he only witnessed a heap of ashes. The solitude of that -scene might have touched even a warrior’s heart. The present town of -Murviedo, the site of the ancient Saguntum and the witness of these -horrid scenes, still abounds in remains of Roman architecture. - -The second Punic war was begun by these proceedings against Saguntum. -Hannibal, who had determined upon the invasion of Italy, spent the -winter in making his preparations. Leaving a large force in Africa, and -also in Spain, to defend these points, he set out, in the spring of -the year 218, with eighty thousand foot and twelve thousand horse, to -fulfil his project. - -His course lay along the Mediterranean; the whole distance to Rome -being about one thousand miles by the land route which he contemplated. -When he had traversed Spain, he came to the Pyrenees, a range of -mountains separating that country from Gaul, now France. Here he was -attacked by wild tribes of brave barbarians, but he easily drove them -back. He crossed the Pyrenees, traversed Gaul, and came at last to -the Alps, which threw up their frowning battlements, interposing a -formidable obstacle between him and the object of his expedition. No -warrior had then crossed these snowy peaks with such an army; and -none but a man of that degree of resolution and self-relience which -will not be baffled, would have hazarded the fearful enterprise. -Napoleon accomplished the task, two thousand years afterwards, but with -infinitely greater facilities. - -Hannibal, after a march of five months, descended the southern slopes -of the Alps, and poured down upon the soft and smiling plains of Italy. -The northern portion, called Cisalpine Gaul, was peopled with Gothic -tribes, long settled in the country. They were desirous, however, of -throwing off the Roman yoke, and therefore favored the Carthaginian -cause. Hannibal, whose army had been greatly reduced in his march, -especially in crossing the Alps, remained among some of these people -for a time, to recruit, and then proceeded southward toward Rome. - -On the banks of the river Tessino he was met by a Roman army despatched -against him; but, after a bloody conflict, he was victorious. In a few -weeks he again encountered the Romans, and again he triumphed. Thus, -the whole of Cisalpine Gaul fell into his hands, and these people, -relieved from the presence of the Roman army, aided him freely with -every kind of supplies. - -Rome now presented a scene of the greatest activity. She was not -yet softened by luxuries, or corrupted by indulgence; she did not, -therefore, yield to fear, as in after days, when the wild leaders -of the north poured down from the Alps, like an avalanche. She was -alarmed, but yet she met the emergency with courage and resolution. -Every artisan in the city was busy in preparation; the senate were -revolving deep schemes; generals held councils of war; soldiers were -recruited and trained; the people ran to and fro in the streets, -telling the last news, and recounting some marvellous legend of the -Carthaginians and their dreaded leader. All was bustle and preparation. - -When the spring of the year 217 B. C. arrived, two Roman armies took -the field; one under the consul Flaminius, and the other under the -consul Servilius. Hannibal first marched against Flaminius, but in -passing the swamps of the river Arno, his army suffered greatly, and -he himself lost one of his eyes. Soon after this, Flaminius, who was -a rash and headstrong man, came up with him on the banks of the lake -Trasimenus, and gave the Carthaginians battle. Here, again, the genius -of Hannibal triumphed. The conflict was dreadful, and the water of the -lake where the armies met, was red with blood. But the Romans were -totally defeated. - -After this event, a famous general, Quintus Fabius Maximus, was -appointed dictator of Rome, and, under his direction, a new policy was -adopted. Instead of sending armies to act offensively against Hannibal -at a distance, the defensive system of warfare was rigidly observed. -This prudent course, adopted by Fabius, has given a signification -to his name; the _Fabian_ policy being a term which is used as -synonymous with _prudent_ policy. It is thought that Washington, in our -revolutionary war, imitated this great Roman general. - -But the successes of Hannibal and the disasters of Rome, had not -yet ended. In the year 216, another battle was determined upon, and -Hannibal met the enemy at Cannæ, near the present city of Naples. Here, -again, the Romans were defeated with dreadful slaughter. Not less than -forty thousand of their soldiers were slain. To this day, the relics -of the fight are ploughed up from the ground, and the spot where the -battle took place, is called the “field of blood.” If the red stain -has long since vanished from the soil, time cannot wash out the bloody -record from the memory of man. - -Beside this fearful carnage, ten thousand Roman soldiers were taken -prisoners. The Carthaginian loss was small. We can only account for -such events as these, by the supposition that Hannibal, whose army -was scarcely half as large as that of the Romans, was a man greatly -superior in capacity even to the able and practised generals of Rome, -who were sent against him. Nothing in modern times has been witnessed, -to compare with his achievements, except those of Napoleon, operating -in the same countries, and also contending against disciplined troops -and generals long practised in the military art. - -The whole of lower Italy was now in the possession of Hannibal. He had -entered the country by the north, and, having passed Rome, was in the -southern portion of the peninsula. It would seem that he was now near -the consummation of his wishes, and that the imperial city must fall -before him; but such was not the event. A defensive system was still -observed, and the city being too formidable for attack, Hannibal was -obliged to look around for aid. He applied to Philip of Macedon and the -Syracusans, but the Romans contrived to keep both occupied at home. - -Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, had charge of the Carthaginian -forces in Spain, where he conducted the war with ability. In a great -battle, he defeated the Romans; and two generals, by the name of -Scipio, fell. Another Scipio was sent thither, and he soon recovered -in Spain what the Romans had lost there. Hasdrubal now left that -country to join his brother, and, crossing the Alps without opposition, -reached Italy. Before he could effect the junction he desired, he was -met by the Roman forces, his army cut to pieces and he himself slain. -Hannibal was now obliged to act on the defensive. Yet he continued -to sustain himself here for a series of years without calling upon -Carthage for supplies. - -Scipio, having finished the war in Spain, now transported his army -across the Mediterranean: thus _carrying the war into Africa_, and -giving rise to an expression still in vogue, and significant of -effective retaliation. By the aid of Massinissa, a powerful prince of -Numidia, now Morocco, he gained two victories over the Carthaginians, -who were obliged hastily to recall their great commander from Italy. -He landed at Leptis, and advanced near Zama, five days’ journey to -the west of Carthage. Here he met the Roman forces, and here, for the -first time, he suffered a total defeat. The loss of the Carthaginians -was immense, and they were obliged to sue for peace. This was granted -on humiliating terms by Scipio, called Africanus, after this victory. -Hannibal would still have resisted, but he was compelled by his -countrymen to submit. Thus ended the second Punic war, 200 B. C, having -continued about eighteen years. - -Hannibal now applied himself to the reform of abuses in the government -of Carthage. In this he was supported by the people, but he incurred -the dislike of certain leading men among his countrymen. These, -insensible to his great services, and only guided by their jealousy, -sent to the Roman authorities certain representations, calculated to -excite their suspicion and arouse their anger against him. Ambassadors -were accordingly sent to Carthage, to demand his punishment; but -Hannibal, foreseeing the storm, fled to Tyre. From this place he went -to Ephesus, and induced Antiochus to declare war against Rome, B. C. -196. He had himself but a subordinate command, and when the war, which -proved unfortunate, was over, he was compelled to depart, and seek a -refuge with Prusias, prince of Bithynia, in Asia Minor. The Romans, -being uneasy so long as their formidable enemy was alive, sent to -Prusias to demand that he should be given up. Hannibal, now driven to -extremity, and sick of life, destroyed himself by poison, B. C. 183, in -the sixty-fifth year of his age. - -We have no accounts of this wonderful man except from his enemies, the -Romans, and nothing from them but his public career. Prejudiced as are -these sources of evidence, they still exhibit him as one of the most -extraordinary men that has ever lived. Many of the events of his life -remind us of the career of Napoleon. Like him, he crossed the Alps with -a great army; like him, he was repeatedly victorious over disciplined -and powerful forces in Italy; like him, he was finally overwhelmed in a -great battle; like him, he was a statesman as well as a general; like -him, he was the idol of the army; like him, he was finally driven from -his country and died in exile. No one achievement of Bonaparte’s life -was equal to that of Hannibal in crossing the Alps, if we consider -the difficulties he had to encounter; nor has anything in generalship -surpassed the ability he displayed in sustaining himself and his army, -for sixteen years, in Italy, in the face of Rome, and without asking -for assistance from his own country. - -During this whole period he never once dismissed his forces, and -though they were composed of Africans, Spaniards, Gauls, Carthaginians -and Greeks—persons of different laws, languages and habits—never -was anything like mutiny displayed among them. How wonderful was the -genius that held such a vast number of persons—the fiery spirits of -so many different nations—subject to one will, and obedient to one -authority! Where can we look for evidence of talent superior to this? -We cannot doubt that Hannibal, in addition to his great mind, possessed -those personal qualifications, which enabled him to exercise powers -of fascination over all those persons who came into his presence; and -that, in this respect too, he bore a resemblance to Napoleon. - -We may not approve, yet we can hardly fail to admire, the unflinching -hostility of Hannibal to Rome. He had been taught this in his -childhood; it came with the first lessons of life, and from the lips -of a father; he had sworn it at the altar. Rome was the great enemy -of his country; and as he loved the last, he must hate the first. His -duty, his destiny, might serve to impel him to wage uncompromising war -against Rome; for this he lived—for this, at last, he died. - -Nor can we believe that this sentiment, which formed the chief spring -of his actions, was unmixed with patriotism. Indeed, this was -doubtless at its very root. It was for the eclipse that she cast over -Carthage, that he would annihilate Rome. It was from a conviction -that one of these great powers must give way to the other—that -the existence of Rome boded destruction to Carthage—that he waged -uncompromising and deadly war upon the former. - -That Hannibal was patriotic, is evinced also by the reforms which he -sought to effect in the government of his country. These had for their -object the benefit of the people at large. For this, he obtained the -confidence of the mass, while he incurred the hostility of the few. -It is no evidence against him that he fell a victim to the jealousy -thus excited, for such has too often been the fate of the lover of his -country. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - ALEXANDER, KING OF MACEDON. - - -It is now somewhat more than two thousand years since this warrior -flourished; yet his image continues to stand out from the page of -history in bold relief, seeming not only to claim our attention, but to -challenge our admiration. A brief outline of his history may enable us -to judge upon what basis this undying fame is founded. - -Alexander was born 354 B. C., on the same day that Erostratus destroyed -the famous temple of Diana at Ephesus, by fire. A wit of the time -remarked that “it was no wonder that the temple of Diana should be -burnt at Ephesus, while the goddess was at Macedon, attending the -birth of Alexander.” Plutarch observes that this witticism was frigid -enough to have extinguished the flames. Philip, Alexander’s father, -being absent at the time of his birth, received three messages in one -day: the first informed him that his general, Parmenio, had won a great -battle; the second, that his horse had gained the prize at the Olympic -games; the third, that his wife had borne him a son. - -At the time of Alexander’s birth, Macedonia, which lay north of Greece, -and now constitutes that part of Turkey called Romelia, had become a -warlike and powerful kingdom. Philip was not only an able warrior, but -an ambitious and sagacious statesman. He greatly civilized his own -people, trained them to arms, and added to his kingdom several adjacent -states. By a series of victories and crafty negotiations he had also -become the nominal protector, but real master of Greece. It was against -the insidious policy of Philip that Demosthenes pronounced his caustic -speeches, which gave rise to the term “Philippics.” - -Although Philip was ruthless in war and unscrupulous in policy, still -he was a very enlightened prince. He understood many of the arts, -customs and feelings which belong to civilization; nor was he destitute -of noble traits of character. We are told that a Grecian, named -Arcadius, was constantly railing against him. Venturing once into the -dominions of Philip, the courtiers suggested to their prince that he -had now an opportunity to punish Arcadius for his past insults, and to -put it out of his power to repeat them. The king took their advice, but -in a different way. Instead of seizing the hostile stranger and putting -him to death, he sent for him, and then caused him to be dismissed, -loaded with courtesies and kindness. - -Some time after Arcadius’ departure from Macedon, word was brought -that the king’s old enemy had become one of his warmest friends, and -did nothing but diffuse his praises wherever he went. On hearing this, -Philip turned to his courtiers, and said with a smile, “Am not I a -better physician than you are?” We are also told of numerous instances -in which Philip treated his prisoners of war with a kindness quite -unusual in the barbarous age in which he lived. Though dissolute in -private life, as a prince he was far in advance of his nation in all -that belongs to civilization. - -No better evidence of his enlightened views can be required than is -afforded by the pains he bestowed upon the education of Alexander, -his eldest son, and heir to his throne. He obtained for him the best -masters, and finally placed him under the care of Aristotle, then the -most learned and famous philosopher of Greece, and one of the most -extraordinary men that ever lived. It cannot but be interesting and -instructive to trace the history of the greatest warrior, who was, at -the same time, the pupil of the greatest philosopher, of antiquity. - -Alexander was an apt and attentive student, and easily mastered the -studies to which he applied. He was somewhat headstrong if treated -with harshness, and he resisted, if an attempt was made to drive him. -He, however, was docile and obedient when treated gently. It would -seem, that, in this at least, he was very much like the clever boys -of our own day. He mastered not only matters of science, but polite -literature also. He was greatly delighted with Homer’s Iliad, and, it -is thought, modelled himself upon the warlike heroes of that poem. In -after days, even in his campaigns, he took a copy of this work with -him, and in the camp, read it at moments of leisure, and slept with it -at night beneath his pillow. - -Alexander was greatly attached to Aristotle during his pupilage, -though he changed both in feeling and conduct towards him afterwards. -Philip seems to have formed a high estimate of the services rendered -by Aristotle. The latter being born at Stagira—and hence called the -Stagirite—which had been dismantled, Philip ordered it, in compliment -to the philosopher, to be rebuilt, and re-established there the -inhabitants which had either fled or been reduced to slavery. He also -ordered a beautiful promenade, called Mirza, to be prepared on the -borders of the river, for the studies and literary conversation of the -people. Here were shown, even in the time of Plutarch, Aristotle’s -stone seats and shady walks. - -It is interesting to remark here, that both Philip and Alexander, -powerful sovereigns and men of great minds, were yet inferior, in what -constitutes greatness, to Aristotle. They treated him, indeed, as their -inferior—an object of their patronage; and it is also true, that -both Philip and Alexander are remembered at the present day; but the -consequences of their actions ceased ages ago. Not so with Aristotle: -his books being preserved, have come down to our times, and for two -thousand years have been constantly exercising a powerful influence -over mankind. There can be no doubt, therefore, that the schoolmaster -is infinitely above the prince; the one lives for a generation, the -other for all time; the one deals with external things which perish; -the other with knowledge, science—principles—which never die. The one -is a being of action, the other of mind; the one may be great for a -brief space in the eye of vulgar observation, but he is soon quenched -in utter oblivion; the other, though his body be dead, still lives by -the power of the spirit. It is desirable to impress this truth on our -hearts, for it shows that true glory lies in cultivating and exercising -the mind; while, in comparison, it is a poor and mean ambition, which -incites us to seek only worldly power or wealth or station. - -At an early period, Alexander displayed noble qualities, amid some -vices. He was exceedingly ambitious, and when news came that his father -had taken some strong town, or won some great battle, “My father will -conquer,” he exclaimed impatiently “the whole world, and will leave -nothing for me to conquer.” Though in the light of our Christian -philosophy, nothing more wicked than the feelings here displayed could -exist, still it accorded with the education he had received, and was -an earnest of that love of war and conquest which signalized his after -career. It may be stated, also, that Alexander did not value riches -or pleasure, in his youth, but seemed to be always excited by a love -of glory; he did not desire a kingdom that should afford him opulence -and the means of luxury, but one that would bring wars and conflicts, -and the full exercise of ambition. A sad portrait this, viewed in the -light of our day—yet the very description of a hero, and almost of a -god, in the age and country in which he lived. - -When Alexander was about twelve years old, a horse was brought for sale -from Thessaly called Bucephalus. The price required was about £2,500 -sterling, or $12,000. Yet when any one attempted to mount him, he -became restive and unmanageable. Philip was incensed that such a price -should be asked for so vicious a beast, but Alexander had observed him -carefully, and saw that he was indeed a noble creature. He therefore -wished to try him. His father rebuked him sharply, but the prince -persevered, and desired to mount the horse. “If you are not able to -ride him upon trial,” said Philip, “what forfeit will you pay?” “The -price of the horse,” said Alexander. This produced a laugh rather at -Alexander’s expense—but the forfeit was agreed upon, and he ran to -the horse. He had observed that he was startled at his shadow, the -sun shining very brightly; so he turned his head to the sun, leaped -lightly upon his back, obtained a firm seat, and gave the animal the -rein. The noble beast felt, with that quick intelligence of which his -race is capable, that one worthy to be his master was on his back, and -set forward. Finding him inclined to run, Alexander, nothing daunted, -but with a spirit as wild and fearless as his own, and no doubt with a -bounding and joyous sympathy, gave him the spur, and made him fly over -the plain. - -Philip and all his courtiers around him were greatly frightened at -first, but soon Alexander wheeled Bucephalus about, and rode him back -to the place from which he started. The animal was completely subdued; -yet there was something in his proud look, as he now stood still before -the admiring throng, which seemed to say, “I yielded, but only to one -worthy of being a conqueror.” Alexander was received by a shout of -acclamation—but Philip was overcome by the noble chivalry of his boy, -and wept in very joy. “Seek another kingdom, my son!” said he, in the -fulness of his heart, “for Macedon is too small for thee!” Such was the -value in those days set upon personal gallantry and courage; and we -know that these qualities are of the utmost importance, when hard blows -usually decide the fate of empires. - -Everything seemed to show that Alexander had very early acted under -the idea of being a king, and of pursuing, in that character, a career -of conquest. No doubt all around him, the courtiers, his father and -mother, and his teachers had thus trained him, and no doubt all this -coincided with his natural turn of mind. He not only showed personal -courage, but a precocious desire of practical knowledge. When less than -twelve years of age, ambassadors came to visit the court of Macedon -from Persia. Philip was absent, and Alexander therefore received them -with great politeness, and a sobriety quite astonishing. He asked no -trifling or childish questions; but made a great many inquiries about -the roads to Persia; the distance from place to place; the situation -of certain provinces; the character of their king; how he treated his -enemies; in what the power of Persia lay, &c. All this astonished -the ambassadors, who, in their excitement, exclaimed, “The boasted -sagacity of Philip is nothing to the lofty and enterprising genius of -his son!” Such, indeed, were the striking qualities of young Alexander, -that the people of Macedon, in their admiration, called the youth king, -and his father only general! - -Philip was pleased with all this, but as Alexander grew older, troubles -sprung up between them. Olympias, the mother of Alexander, was a woman -of fierce and restive temper, and she was justly incensed by a foolish -marriage which Philip made with a young lady, named Cleopatra. At the -celebration of this union there was great festivity, and the king got -drunk. Alexander’s mind, having been poisoned by his mother, was in -such a state of irritation, that he spoke rudely at the feast. Philip -drew his sword, but his passion and the wine he had drunk, caused -him to stumble, and he fell upon the floor. “See,” said Alexander, -insolently—“men of Macedon, see there the man who was preparing to -pass from Europe into Asia! He is not able to pass from one table to -another!” After this insult, he left the table, and taking his mother, -they repaired to Epirus. - -Here they spent some time, but Philip at last induced them to come -back. Other troubles, however, arose, and finally king Philip was slain -by Pausanius, whom he had injured. Olympias was thought to have incited -the young man to this desperate act, and suspicion of participation -fell upon Alexander. - -The latter, now twenty years of age, succeeded to his father’s throne. -His dominion extended over Macedon and the adjacent tribes to the -north, including nearly the whole of that territory which now forms a -part of Turkey, and lies between Greece, and the Argentaro mountains. -Macedonia itself, was far less civilized than the southern parts -of Greece: the people were, indeed, men of a different race, being -esteemed barbarous, though the kings claimed to have been of Hellenic -origin, and even to trace their lineage to Achilles and Hercules. The -nation was much softened in its manners by the wise administration of -Philip, while, at the same time, they were carefully trained in the art -of war. The surrounding tribes, still more savage than his own people, -and often giving exercise to his arms, still served to fill his ranks -with the most daring and powerful soldiery. - -Greece, too, constituted a part of the kingdom now left to the youthful -Alexander. But his father had only conquered, not consolidated into -one empire, his vast dominions. Upon his death, the barbarians on -the north, and the states of Greece at the south, feeling themselves -liberated from a tyrant, and little fearing a youth of twenty, either -revolted or showed a disposition to revolt. Alexander’s advisers -recommended him to give up Greece, and seek only to subdue the -barbarous tribes around him, and to do this by mild measures. - -Such a course did not suit the young king. He took the opposite course; -marched north as far as the Danube, defeating his principal enemy, and -thus securing submission to his authority in that quarter. He then -pushed southward, and fell upon the restive Thebans, destroying their -city, and reducing the place to a mere heap of ghastly ruins! No less -than six thousand of the inhabitants were slain in battle, and three -thousand were sold as slaves! - -In the midst of the horrors which took place immediately after Thebes -was taken—fire and the sword, slaughter, rapine, violence, raging on -all sides—a party of savage Thracians, belonging to Alexander’s army, -demolished the house of Timoclea, a woman of high standing and quality. -Having carried off the booty found in her house, and shamefully abused -the lady, the captain asked her if she had not some gold and silver -concealed. She replied that she had—and taking him alone into the -garden, showed him a well, in which she said she had thrown everything -of value when the city was taken. The officer stooped to look into -the well, when the lady pushed him down, and rolling stones down -upon him, soon despatched him. The Thracians, coming up, found what -she had done, and, binding her hands, took her to Alexander. When he -asked her who she was—“A sister of Theagenes,” said she, proudly and -fearlessly,—“a Theban general, who fought for the liberty of Greece, -against the usurpation of Philip—and fell gloriously at the battle of -Cheronæa!” Alexander was so much struck by her noble mien and patriotic -sentiments, that he caused her and her children to be set at liberty. -Such are the few rays of light, that flash across the dark path of the -conqueror! - -Greece was soon brought to a state of submission and, as Alexander now -contemplated an expedition against Darius, king of Persia, the several -states, having held an assembly at Corinth, concluded to furnish their -quota of supplies. Many statesmen and philosophers came to Corinth, -where Alexander was to congratulate him upon this result; but the king -was disappointed to find that Diogenes, the cynic philosopher, was not -among the number. As he desired greatly to see him, he went to his -residence in the suburbs of the city, to pay him a visit. He found the -philosopher, basking in the sun; at the approach of so many people, he -carelessly roused himself a little, and happened to fix his eyes on -Alexander—“Is there anything,” said the king, condescendingly—“in -which I can serve you?”—“Only stand a little out of my sunshine,” said -Diogenes. This answer produced a laugh among the crowd, who thought it -mere vulgarity; but Alexander saw deeper, and, reflecting upon that -superiority, which could regard even his presence without surprise, -and look with disdain upon his gifts, remarked, “that if he were not -Alexander, he would wish to be Diogenes.” - -Alexander set out, in the spring of the year 334 B. C., upon his -expedition against Persia—from which, however, he never returned. -He had thirty thousand foot, and five thousand horse, and a supply -of money. His troops were well armed, the infantry bearing shields, -spears, and battle-axes of iron; the horse were equipped with similar -weapons, but defended with helmets and breastplates. The officers -all bore swords. The arms of the Persians were similar, though many -of their troops used the bow: the forces of Alexander were, however, -better provided, better trained, and far more athletic than their -Asiatic enemies. - -We must pause a moment to look at that mighty power which had now -swallowed up Assyria, Babylon, and the countries from the Grecian -Archipelago on the west, to India on the east; an extent of territory -nearly three thousand miles in length, and comprehending at once the -most fertile and populous region on the face of the globe. Such were -the power and resources of the Persian empire, that, about one hundred -and fifty years prior to the date of which we are speaking, it had sent -an army, with its attendants, of five millions of persons, to conquer -that very Greece, which was now preparing to roll back the tide of war, -and put a final period to its proud existence. - -The reigning king of Persia was Darius III., a weak but conceited -monarch, who held his court at the splendid city of Persepolis, -which had long been the capital of the empire. His situation was -very similar to that of the sultan of Turkey at the present day. The -Persians, though their king ruled over almost countless nations, were -comparatively few in number. His revenue was derived from the tribute -of dependent princes, and the extortions made by his own satraps or -governors. His empire, consisting of so many nations, required constant -watchfulness, to keep all parts in subjection; and as the Asiatic -troops were inferior, he kept in his pay, at all times, a considerable -number of renegade Greeks, as soldiers. - -Being made aware of the design of Alexander, Darius sent a vast army -westward, and marching into Syria himself, determined there to await -his enemy. Alexander crossed the Propontis, now Sea of Marmora, which -immediately brought him into Asia Minor, and the dominions of Persia. -As soon as he landed, he went to Ilium, the scene of the Trojan war, -and the ten years’ siege of Troy, celebrated in the Iliad. He anointed -the pillar upon Achilles’ tomb with oil—and he and his friends ran -naked around it, according to the custom which then prevailed. He also -adorned it with a wreath, in the form of a crown. These ceremonies -are supposed to have been intended to enforce the belief that he was -descended from Achilles—a claim which he always maintained. - -Meantime, the Persian generals had pushed forward and posted themselves -upon the banks of the Granicus, a small river now called Ousvola, which -empties into the sea of Marmora. Alexander led the attack upon them -by plunging into the river with his horse. He advanced, with thirteen -of his troop, in the face of a cloud of arrows; and though swept down -by the rapidity of the current, and opposed by steep banks lined with -cavalry, he forced his way, by irresistible strength and impetuosity, -across the stream. Standing upon the muddy slope, his troops were now -obliged to sustain a furious attack, hand to hand, and eye to eye. -The Persian troops, cheered by their vantage ground, pushed on with -terrific shouts, and hurled their javelins, like snow-flakes, upon the -Macedonians. Alexander, being himself distinguished by his buckler and -crest, decorated with white plumes, was the special object of attack. -His cuirass was pierced by a javelin, at the joint; but thus far he was -unhurt. Now he was assailed by two chiefs of great distinction. Evading -one, he engaged the other; after a desperate struggle, in which his -crest was shorn away, and his helmet cleft to his hair, he slew one of -the chiefs, and was saved, at the moment of deadly peril, by the hand -of his friend Clytus, who despatched the other. - -While Alexander’s cavalry were fighting with the utmost fury, the -Macedonian phalanx and the infantry crossed the river, and now engaged -the enemy. The effect of a leader’s example was never more displayed. -Alexander’s exhibition of courage and prowess, made every soldier a -hero. They fought, indeed, like persons who knew nothing, and cared -for nothing, but to destroy the enemy. Some of the Persians gave way -and fled. Their hireling Greeks, however, maintained the fight, and -Alexander’s horse was killed under him—but not Bucephalus. “When Greek -meets Greek, then comes the tug of war.” The fight was, indeed, severe, -but at last Alexander triumphed. The victory was complete. The loss of -the Persians was twenty-five thousand slain; that of the Macedonians -less than fifty. - -Alexander had now passed the gates of Asia, and had obtained entrance -into the dominions of the enemy. He paused for a time to pay the last -honors to the dead. To each, he erected a statue of brass, executed -by Lysippus. Upon the arms which were taken and distributed among the -troops, he caused this inscription to be made:—“Won by Alexander, of -the barbarians in Asia!” - -We may pause here to note that Bonaparte seems to have imitated the -Macedonian conqueror in this kind of boasting. As he was on his march -to Russia, he caused to be graven on a stone fountain at Coblentz upon -the Rhine, as follows: - -“Year MDCCCXII. _Memorable for the campaign against Russia._ 1812.” - -The Russian commander, when Napoleon had been dethroned, passing -through Coblentz with his troops, caused to be carved, immediately -beneath as follows: - -“_Seen and approved by the Russian commander of the town of Coblentz, -January 1, 1814._” - -It is true that no such speedy retort awaited the Macedonian conqueror, -yet he was bound upon an errand which was ere long to put a period to -his proud career. - -Alexander soon pushed on to the East, and, meeting Darius near the -Gulf of Issus, now Aias, and forming the north-eastern point of -the Mediterranean, a tremendous engagement took place. Darius was -defeated, and more than one hundred thousand of his soldiers lay -dead on the field. Darius escaped with difficulty, leaving his tent, -and even his wife and daughter, in the hands of the enemy. When the -fighting was over, Alexander went to see the tent of Darius. It -was, indeed, a curiosity to one like the Macedonian king, little -acquainted with eastern refinements. He gazed for a time at the -luxurious baths of Darius; his vases, boxes, vials and basins, all of -wrought gold; he inhaled the luscious perfumes, and surveyed the rich -silk drapery and gorgeous furniture of the tent—and then exclaimed, -contemptuously—“This, then, it seems, is to be a king,”—intimating -that if these were the only distinctions of a king, the title deserved -contempt. - -While Alexander was thus occupied, he was told that the wife and -daughter of Darius were his captives. The queen was one of the -loveliest women that was ever known, and his daughter was also -exceedingly beautiful. Though Alexander was told all this, he sent word -to the afflicted ladies that they need have no fear; and he caused them -to be treated with the utmost delicacy and attention. He refrained from -using his power in any way to their annoyance; and thus displayed one -of the noblest graces of a gentleman and a man—a nice regard for the -feelings of the gentler sex. This anecdote of the conqueror has shed -more honor upon his name for two thousand years, than the victory of -the Issus; nor will it cease to be cited in his praise, as long as -history records his name. - -The historians represent Alexander as simple in his tastes and habits -at this period. He was temperate in eating, drank wine with great -moderation, and if he sat long at table, it was for the purpose of -conversation, in which he excelled, though given to boasting of his -military exploits. When business called, nothing could detain him; but -in times of leisure, his first business in the morning was to sacrifice -to the gods. He then took his dinner, sitting. The rest of the day -he spent in hunting, or deciding differences among his troops, or in -reading and writing. Sometimes he would exercise himself in shooting -or darting the javelin, or in mounting and alighting from a chariot -in full career. Sometimes, also, he diverted himself with fowling and -fox-hunting. His chief meal was supper, which he took at evening, and -in a recumbent posture, with his friends around him. He was not fond of -delicacies and though they were always found at his table, he usually -sent them to others. Such was Alexander during the early periods of his -campaigns in Asia. - -After various operations, Alexander marched against Phoenicia and -Sidon, which submitted at once. Tyre resisted, but, after a siege of -seven months, was taken by storm. Eight thousand Tyrians fell in the -onslaught, and thirty thousand captives were sold into slavery. Gaza -was now taken, after a siege of two months. Alexander then marched -to Jerusalem, to punish the inhabitants for refusing to supply him -with men and money. The high priest, Jaddus, went forth to meet the -conqueror, attended by the priests and the people, with all the -imposing emblems and signs of the Jewish religion. Alexander was so -struck with the spectacle, that he pardoned the people, adored the name -of the Most High, and performed sacrifices in the temple, according to -the instructions of Jaddus. The book of the prophet Daniel was shown to -him, and the passage pointed out in which it was foretold that the king -of Grecia would overcome the king of Persia, with which he was well -pleased. - -The conqueror now turned his arms against Egypt, which yielded without -striking a blow. Having established the government on a liberal -footing, he set out, A. D. 331, to attack the Persian king, who had -gathered an army of a million of men, and was now in Persia. About -this time, he received a letter from Darius, in which that prince -proposed, on condition of a pacification and future friendship, to -pay him ten thousand talents in ransom of his prisoners, to cede him -all the countries on this side the Euphrates, and to give him his -daughter in marriage. Upon his communicating these proposals to his -friends, Parmenio said, “If I were Alexander, I would accept them.” -“So would I,” said Alexander, “if I were Parmenio.” The answer he gave -Darius, was, “that if he would come to him, he should find the best of -treatment; if not, he must go and seek him.” - -In consequence of this declaration, he began his march; but he repented -that he had set out so soon, when he received information that the wife -of Darius was dead. That princess died in childbed; and the concern of -Alexander was great, because he lost an opportunity of exercising his -clemency. All he could do was to return, and bury her with the utmost -magnificence. - -Alexander, having subdued various places that held out against him, -now proceeded in his march against Darius. He found him with his -immense army encamped on the banks of the Bumadus, a small river in -what is now called Kourdistan. Alexander immediately approached, and -prepared for battle. Being near the enemy at night, the murmur of the -immense multitude, seeming like the roaring of the sea, startled one of -Alexander’s friends, who advised him to attack them in the night. The -reply was, “I will not steal a victory!” - -During that night, though it was foreseen that a dreadful and doubtful -battle was to be fought the next day, Alexander, having made his -preparations, slept soundly. In the morning, on the field, he wore a -short coat, girt close about him; over that, a breast plate of linen -strongly quilted, which he had taken in the battle of the Issus. His -helmet was of polished iron, and shone like silver. To this was fixed -a gorget, set with precious stones. His sword was light, and of the -finest temper. The belt he wore was superb and was given him by the -Rhodians, as a mark of respect. In reviewing and exercising, he spared -Bucephalus, but he rode him in battle, and when he mounted his back it -was always a signal for the onset. - -Aristander, the soothsayer, rode by the side of Alexander, in a white -robe, and with a golden crown upon his head. He looked up, and lo, an -eagle was sailing over the army! His course was towards the enemy. The -army caught sight of the noble bird, and, taking it for a good omen, -they now charged the enemy like a torrent. They were bravely resisted, -but Alexander and his troops burst down upon them like an overwhelming -avalanche, cutting their way towards the tent of Darius. The path was -impeded by the slaughtered heaps that gathered before them, and their -horses were embarrassed by the mangled and dying soldiers, who clung to -the legs of the animals, seeking in their last agonies to resist them. -Darius, now in the utmost peril, turned to fly, but his chariot became -entangled in the slain. Seeing this, he mounted a swift horse, and fled -to Bactriana, where he was treacherously murdered by Bessus. - -Alexander was now declared king of all Asia, and, though this might -seem the summit of his glory, it was the point at which his character -begins to decline. He now affected the pomp of an eastern prince, and -addicted himself to dissipation. He, however, continued his conquests. -He marched to Babylon, which opened its gates for his reception. He -proceeded to Persepolis, which he took by surprise. Here, in a drunken -frolic, and instigated by an abandoned woman, named Thais, he set fire -to the palace, which was burnt to the ground. - -He now marched into Parthia, and, meeting with a beautiful princess, -named Roxana, daughter of a Bactrian king, he fell in love with her, -and married her. Some time after this, upon some suspicion of the -fidelity of Philotas, the son of Parmenio, he caused him to be put -to the torture till he died. He then sent orders to have his father, -an old and faithful soldier, who had fought under Philip, and who -was now in Media, to be put to death, which were but too faithfully -executed. This horrid transaction was soon followed by another, still -more dreadful. Under the excitement of wine, a dispute arose between -Alexander and Clytus, the brave officer who had saved his life at the -battle of the Granicus. - -Both became greatly excited: taunts and gibes were uttered on either -side. Alexander, unable longer to keep down his rage, threw an apple -in the face of Clytus, and then looked about for his sword; but one of -his friends had prudently taken it away. Clytus was now forced out of -the room, but he soon came back, and repeated the words of Euripides, -meaning to apply them to Alexander: - - - “Are these your customs?—Is it thus that Greece - Rewards her combatants? Shall one man claim - The trophies won by thousands?” - - -The conqueror was now wholly beside himself. He seized a spear from -one of the guards, and, at a plunge, ran it through the body of Clytus, -who fell dead, uttering a dismal groan as he expired. - -Alexander’s rage subsided in a moment. Seeing his friends standing -around in silent astonishment, he hastily drew out the spear, and was -applying it to his own throat, when his guards seized him, and carried -him by force to his chamber. Here the pangs of remorse stung him to -the quick. Tears fell fast for a time, and then succeeded a moody, -melancholy silence, only broken by groans. His friends attempted in -vain to console him. It was not till after long and painful suffering, -that he was restored to his wonted composure. - -Alexander now set out for the conquest of India, then a populous -country, and the seat of immense wealth. After a series of splendid -achievements, he reached the banks of the Hydaspes, a considerable -stream that flows into the Indus. Here he was met by Porus, an Indian -king, with an army, in which were a large number of elephants. A -bloody battle followed, in which Alexander was victorious and Porus -made captive. “How do you wish to be treated?” said Alexander to the -unfortunate monarch. “Like a king,” was the brief, but significant -reply. Alexander granted his request, restored his dominions and much -enlarged them, making him, however, one of his tributaries. - -The conqueror, not yet satisfied, wished to push on to the Ganges; -but his army refusing to go farther, he was forced to return. On his -way back, he paid a visit to the ocean, and, in a battle with some -savage tribes, being severely wounded, he came near losing his life. -On the borders of the sea, he and his companions first saw the ebbing -and flowing of the tide,—a fact of which they were before entirely -ignorant. In this expedition the army suffered greatly: when it set out -for India, it consisted of 150.000 men: on its return, it was reduced -to one fourth of that number. - -[Illustration] - -Coming to a fertile district, Alexander paused to recruit, and refresh -his men. He then proceeded, keeping up a kind of bacchanalian fête, in -which the whole army participated. His own chariot was drawn by eight -horses: it consisted of a huge platform where he and his friends -revelled, day and night. This carriage was followed by others, some -covered with rich purple silk and others with fresh boughs. In these -were the generals, crowned with flowers, and inebriated with wine. In -the immense procession there was not a spear, helmet, or buckler, but -in their places cups, flagons, and goblets. The whole country resounded -with flutes, clarionets, and joyous songs. The scene was attended with -the riotous dances and frolics of a multitude of women. This licentious -march continued for seven days. - -When he arrived at Susa, in Persia, he married a great number of his -friends to Persian ladies. He set the example by taking Statira, -daughter of Darius, to himself, and gave her sister to Hephæstion, -his dearest friend. He now made a nuptial feast for the newly-married -people, and nine thousand persons sat down to the entertainment. Each -one was honored with a golden cup. - -On his return to Babylon, Alexander determined to make that place his -residence and capital, and set about various plans for carrying this -into effect. But his mind seemed haunted with superstitious fears. -Everything that happened was construed into an augury of evil. The -court swarmed with sacrifices and soothsayers, but still, for a long -time, peace could not be obtained by the monarch. - -At last he seemed to be relieved, and being asked by Medias to a -carousal, he drank all day and all night, until he found a fever coming -upon him. He then desisted, but it was too late. The disease increased, -setting at defiance every attempt at remedy, and in the space of about -thirty days he died. Such was the miserable end of Alexander the Great. -His wife, Roxana, with the aid of Perdiccas, murdered Statira and her -sister, and the empire of the mighty conqueror was divided between four -of his officers. - -The great achievement of Alexander—the grand result of his life—was -the subjugation of the Persian monarchy, which lay like an incubus upon -the numerous nations that existed between the Indus and the Euxine -sea, and at the same time intercepted the communication between Europe -and Asia. It was an achievement far greater than it would be now to -overthrow the Ottoman throne, and give independence to the various -tribes and states that are at present under its dominion. That he -accomplished this work for any good motive, we cannot maintain, for his -whole course shows, that, like all other conquerors, his actions began -and terminated in himself. - -The character of Alexander has been delineated in the course of this -brief sketch. We have not been able to give the details of all his -battles, marches, and countermarches. His achievements were indeed -stupendous. He crossed the Propontis in 334, and died in 323. It was in -the brief space of eleven years, and at the age of thirty-three, that -he had accomplished the deeds of which we have given a naked outline. -Nor was he a mere warrior. He displayed great talents as a statesman, -and many of the traits of a gentleman. His whole life, indeed, was -founded upon an atrocious wrong—that one man may sacrifice millions -of lives for his own pleasure—but this was the error of the age. As -before intimated, considered in the light of Christianity, he was a -monster; yet, according to the heathen model, he was a hero, and almost -a god. - -In seeking for the motives which impelled Alexander forward in his -meteor-like career we shall see that it was the love of glory—an -inspiration like that of the chase, in which the field is an empire, -and the game a monarch. In this wild ambition, he was stimulated by -the Iliad of Homer, and it was his darling dream to match the bloody -deeds of its heroes—Ajax and Achilles. It is impossible to see in his -conduct, anything which shows a regard to the permanent happiness of -mankind. He makes war, as if might were the only test of right; and he -sacrifices nations to his thirst of conquest, with as little question -of the rectitude of his conduct, as is entertained by the lion when he -slays the antelope, or the sportsman when he brings down his game. - -Although we see many noble traits in Alexander, the real selfishness -of his character is evinced in his famous letter to Aristotle. The -latter, having published some of his works, is sharply rebuked by -the conqueror, who says to him—“Now that you have done this, what -advantage have I, your pupil, over the rest of mankind, since you have -put it in the power of others to possess the knowledge which before was -only imparted to me!” What can be more narrow and selfish than this? -Even the current standard of morals in Alexander’s time, would condemn -this as excessive meanness. - -We must not omit to record the last days of one that figures in -Alexander’s annals, and is hardly less famous than the conqueror -himself—we mean his noble horse, Bucephalus. This animal, more -renowned than any other of his race, died on the banks of the Hydaspes. -Craterus was ordered to superintend the building of two cities, one -on each side of this river. The object was to secure the passage in -future. That on the left bank was named Nicæa, the other Bucephala, -in honor of the favorite horse, which had expired in battle without -a wound, being worn out by age, heat, and over-exertion. He was then -thirty years old. He was a large, powerful, and spirited horse, and -would allow no one but Alexander to mount him. From a mark of a bull’s -head imprinted on him, he derived his name, Bucephalus; though some say -that he was so called in consequence of having in his forehead a white -mark resembling a bull’s head. - -Once this famous charger, whose duties were restricted to the field -of battle, was intercepted, and fell into the hands of the Uxians. -Alexander caused a proclamation to be made, that, if Bucephalus were -not restored, he would wage a war of extirpation against the whole -nation. The restoration of the animal instantly followed the receipt of -this notification; so great was Alexander’s regard for his horse and so -great the terror of his name among the barbarians. “Thus far,” writes -Arrian, “let Bucephalus be honored by me, for the sake of his master.” - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - ARISTOTLE. - - -This great philosopher was born at Stagira, or Stageira, in Macedonia, -384 B. C. His father, physician to Amyntas II., king of Macedonia, -commenced the education of his son, intending to prepare him for his -own profession; and the studies pursued by the latter with this object, -doubtless laid the foundation for that lore of natural history, which -he displayed through life, and which he cultivated with such success. - -Aristotle lost both his parents while he was still young. After their -death, he was brought up under Proxenes, a citizen of Mysia, in Asia -Minor, who had settled in Stagira. Aristotle testified his gratitude to -Proxenes and his wife, by directing, in his will, that statues of them -should be executed at his expense and set up as his parents. He also -educated their son Nicanor, to whom he gave his daughter Pythias in -marriage. - -In his eighteenth year, Aristotle left Stagira and went to Athens, -the centre of letters and learning in Greece—doubtless attracted -thither by the fame of the philosopher, Plato. It appears, however, -that during the three first years of his residence there, Plato was -absent on a visit to Sicily. There can be no doubt that Aristotle paid -particular attention to anatomy and medicine, as appears both from his -circumstances in youth, and what we know of his best writings. It is -also probable, as is indicated by some statements of ancient writers, -that for a space he practised, like Locke, the healing art; he must, -however, from an early age, have devoted his whole time to the study -of philosophy and the investigation of nature, and have abandoned all -thoughts of an exclusively professional career. - -His eagerness for the acquisition of knowledge, and his extraordinary -acuteness and sagacity, doubtless attracted Plato’s attention at -an early period; thus we are told that his master called him “the -Intellect of the school,” and his house, the “House of the reader;” -that he said Aristotle required the curb, while Zenocrates, a -fellow-disciple, required the spur; some of which traditions are -probably true. We are likewise informed that when reading he used to -hold a brazen ball in his hand over a basin, in order that, if he -fell asleep, he might be awaked by the noise which it would make in -falling. Although Aristotle did not during Plato’s life, set up any -school in opposition to him, as some writers have stated, he taught -publicly in the art of rhetoric, and by this means became the rival of -the celebrated Isocrates, whom he appears, notwithstanding his very -advanced age, to have attacked with considerable violence, and to have -treated with much contempt. - -Aristotle remained at Athens till Plato’s death, 347 B. C., having at -that time reached his thirty-seventh year. Many stories are preserved -by the ancient compilers of anecdotes, respecting the enmity between -Plato and Aristotle, caused by the ingratitude of the disciple, as well -as by certain peculiarities of his character which were displeasing to -the master. But these rumors appear to have no other foundation than -the known variance between the opinions and the mental habits of the -two philosophers; and particularly the opposition which Aristotle made -to Plato’s characteristic doctrine of ideas; whence it was inferred -that there must have been an interruption of their friendly relations. -The probability, however, is, that Aristotle, at whatever time he may -have formed his philosophical opinions, had not published them in an -authoritative shape, or entered into any public controversy, before -his master’s death. In his Nicomachean Ethics, moreover, which was -probably one of his latest works, he says “that it is painful to him to -refute the doctrine of ideas, as it had been introduced by persons who -were his friends: nevertheless, that it is his duty to disregard such -private feelings; for both philosophers and truth being dear to him, it -is right to give the preference to truth.” He is, likewise, stated to -have erected an altar to his master inscribing on it that he was a man -“whom the wicked ought not even to praise.” - -After the death of Plato, Aristotle left Athens and went to live at the -court of Hermeias, prince of Atarneus. He had resided here but three -years, when Hermeias, falling into the hands of the Persians, was put -to death. Aristotle took refuge in Mytilene, the chief city of Lesbos. -Here he married Pythias, sister of Hermeias, and who, being exposed to -persecution from the Persians, now coming into power there, he saved by -a rapid flight. For the patriotic and philosophical prince Hermeias, -Aristotle entertained a fervent and deep affection, and he dedicated -to his memory a beautiful poem, which is still extant. On account of -the admiration he expresses of his friend, he was afterwards absurdly -charged with impiety in deifying a mortal. - -In the year 356 B. C., Philip of Macedon wrote a famous letter to -Aristotle, as follows: “King Philip of Macedon, to Aristotle, greeting. -Know that a son has been born to me. I thank the gods, not so much that -they have given him to me, as that they have permitted him to be born -in the time of Aristotle. I hope that thou wilt form him to be a king -worthy to succeed me, and to rule the Macedonians.” - -In the year 342 B. C., Aristotle was invited by Philip to take charge -of the education of his son, Alexander, then fourteen years old. -This charge was accepted, and Alexander was under his care three or -four years. The particulars of his method of instruction are not -known to us; but when we see the greatness of mind that Alexander -displayed in the first years of his reign,—his command of his passions -till flattery had corrupted him, and his regard for the arts and -sciences,—we cannot but think that his education was judiciously -conducted. It may be objected that Aristotle neglected to guard his -pupil against ambition and the love of conquest; but it must be -recollected that he was a Greek, and of course a natural enemy to the -Persian kings; his hatred had been deepened by the fate of his friend -Hermeias; and, finally, the conquest of Persia had, for a long time, -been the wish of all Greece. It was, therefore, natural that Aristotle -should exert all his talents to form his pupil with the disposition and -qualifications necessary for the accomplishment of this object. - -Both father and son sought to show their gratitude for the services of -such a teacher. Philip rebuilt Stagira, and established a school there -for Aristotle. The Stagirites, in gratitude for this service, appointed -a yearly festival, called _Aristotelia_. The philosopher continued at -Alexander’s court a year after his accession to the throne, and is -said to have then repaired to Athens. Ammonius, the Eclectic, says -that he followed his pupil in a part of his campaigns; and this seems -very probable; for it is hardly possible that so many animals as the -philosopher describes could have been sent to Athens, or that he could -have given so accurate a description of them without having personally -dissected and examined them. We may conjecture that he accompanied -Alexander as far as Egypt, and returned to Athens about 331 B. C., -provided with the materials for his excellent History of Animals. - -Aristotle, after parting with Alexander, returned to Athens, where he -resolved to open a school, and chose a house, which, from its vicinity -to the temple of Apollo Lyceus, was called the _Lyceum_. Attached to -this building was a garden, with walks, in Greek _peripatoi_, where -Aristotle used to deliver his instructions to his disciples; whence his -school obtained the name of _peripatetic_. It appears that his habit -was to give one lecture in the early part of the day on the abstruser -parts of his philosophy, to his more advanced scholars, which was -called the _morning walk_, and lasted till the hour when people dressed -and anointed themselves; and another lecture, called the _evening -walk_, on more popular subjects, to a less select class. - -It was probably during the thirteen years of his second residence at -Athens, that Aristotle composed or completed the greater part of his -works which have descended to our days. The foundation of most of -them was, doubtless, laid at an early period of his life; but they -appear to have been gradually formed, and to have received continual -additions and corrections. Among the works which especially belong to -this period of his life, are his treatises on Natural History; which, -as has been correctly observed by a late writer on this subject, are -not to be considered as the result of his own observations only, but -as a collection of all that had been observed by others, as well as by -himself. - -It is stated by Pliny, that “Alexander the Great, being smitten with -the desire of knowing the natures of animals, ordered several thousand -persons, over the whole of Asia and Greece, who lived by hunting, -bird-catching and fishing, or who had the care of parks, herds, -hives, seines, and aviaries, to furnish Aristotle with materials for -a work on animals.” We are likewise informed that Aristotle received -from Alexander the enormous sum of eight hundred talents,—nearly a -million of dollars, to prosecute his researches in natural history,—a -circumstance which did not escape the malice of his traducers, who -censured him for receiving gifts from princes. Seneca, who states that -Philip furnished Aristotle with large sums of money for his history of -animals, had, doubtless, confounded the father and son. - -Callisthenes, a relation of Aristotle, by his recommendation, -attended Alexander in his expedition to Asia, and sent from Babylon -to the philosopher, in compliance with his previous injunctions, the -astronomical observations which were preserved in that ancient city, -and which, according to the statement of Porphyrius, reached back as -far as 1903 years before the time of Alexander the Great; that is, 2234 -years before the Christian era. - -Aristotle had, at this time, reached the most prosperous period of his -life. The founder and leader of the principal school of Greece, and -the undisputed head of Grecian philosophy, surrounded by his numerous -disciples and admirers, protected by the conqueror of Asia, and by him -furnished with the means of following his favorite pursuits, and of -gratifying his universal spirit of inquiry, he had, probably, little -to desire in order to fill up the measure of a philosopher’s ambition. -But he did not continue to enjoy the favor of Alexander till the end. -Callisthenes, by his free-spoken censures and uncourtly habits, had -offended his master, and had been executed, on a charge of having -conspired with some Macedonians to take away his life; and the king’s -wrath appears to have extended to his kinsman, Aristotle, as being the -person who had originally recommended him. It is not, however, probable -that this circumstance caused any active enmity between the royal pupil -and his master; even if we did not know that Alexander died a natural -death, there would be no reason for listening to the absurd calumny -that Aristotle was concerned in poisoning him. Aristotle indeed appears -to have been considered, to the last, as a partisan of Alexander, and -an opponent of the democratic interest. - -When the anti-Macedonian party obtained the superiority at Athens in -consequence of Alexander’s death, an accusation against Aristotle was -immediately prepared, and the pretext selected, was, as in the case of -Socrates, _impiety_, or _blasphemy_. He was charged by Eurymedon, the -priest, and a man named Demophilus, probably a leader of the popular -party, with paying divine honors to Hermeias, and perhaps with teaching -certain irreligious doctrines. In order to escape this danger, and -to prevent the Athenians, as he said, in allusion to the death of -Socrates, from “sinning twice against philosophy,” he quitted Athens -in the beginning of the year 322 B. C., and took refuge at Chalcis, -in Euboea, an island then under the Macedonian influence—leaving -Theophrastus his successor in the Lyceum. There he died, of a -disease of the stomach, in the autumn of the same year, being in the -sixty-third year of his age. His frame is said to have been slender and -weakly, and his health had given way in the latter part of his life, -having probably been impaired by his unwearied studies and the intense -application of his mind. The story of his having drowned himself in the -Euripus of Euboea, is fabulous. - -The characteristic of Aristotle’s philosophy, as compared with -that of Plato, is, that while the latter gave free scope to his -imagination, and, by his doctrine that we have ideas independent of -the objects which they represent, opened a wide door to the dreams of -mysticism—the latter was a close and strict observer of both mental -and physical phenomena, avoiding all the seductions of the fancy, -and following a severe, methodical, and strictly scientific course -of inquiry, founded on data ascertained by experience. The truly -philosophical character of his mind, and his calm and singularly -dispassionate manner of writing, are not more remarkable than the -vast extent both of his reading and of his original researches. His -writings appear to have embraced nearly the whole circle of the -theoretical and practical knowledge of his time, comprising treatises -on logical, metaphysical, rhetorical, poetical, ethical, political, -economical, physical, mechanical, and medical science. He likewise -wrote on some parts of the mathematics; and, besides a collection of -the constitutions of all the states known in his age, both Grecian and -barbarian he made chronological compilations relating to the political -and dramatic history of Greece. - -His works, however, though embracing so large an extent of subjects, -were not a mere encyclopædia, or digest of existing knowledge; some -of the sciences which he treated of were created by himself, and -the others were enriched by fresh inquiries, and methodized by his -systematic diligence. To the former belong his works on analytics and -dialectics, or, as it is now called, logic; to the invention of which -science he distinctly lays claim, stating that “before his time nothing -whatever had been done in it.” Nearly the same remark applies to his -metaphysical treatise. “But of all the sciences,” says Cuvier, “there -is none which owes more to Aristotle, than the natural history of -animals. Not only was he acquainted with a great number of species, but -he has studied and described them on a luminous and comprehensive plan, -to which, perhaps, none of his successors has approached; classing the -facts not according to the species, but according to the organs and -functions, the only method of establishing comparative results. Thus it -may be said that he is not only the most ancient author of comparative -anatomy, whose works have come down to us, but that he is one of those -who have treated this branch of natural history with the most genius, -and that he best deserves to be taken for a model. The principal -divisions which naturalists still follow in the animal kingdom, -are due to Aristotle; and he had already pointed out several which -have recently been again adopted, after having once been improperly -abandoned. If the foundations of these great labors are examined, -it will be seen that they all rest on the same method. Everywhere -Aristotle observes the facts with attention; he compares them with -sagacity, and endeavors to rise to the qualities which they have in -common.” - -Among the sciences which he found partly cultivated, but which he -greatly advanced, the most prominent are those of rhetoric, ethics, and -politics. Of rhetoric he defined the province, and analyzed all the -parts with admirable skill and sagacity. His treatise on the passions, -in this short but comprehensive work, has never been surpassed, if it -has ever been equalled, by writers on what may be termed descriptive -moral philosophy. His ethical writings contain an excellent practical -code of morality, chiefly founded on the maxim that virtues are in -the middle, between two opposite vices; as courage between cowardice -and fool-hardiness, liberality between niggardliness and prodigality, -&c. His remarks on friendship are also deserving of special notice; a -subject much discussed by the ancients, but which has less occupied the -attention of philosophers, since love has played a more prominent part, -in consequence of the influence of the Germans, and the introduction -of the manners of chivalry in western Europe. His treatise on politics -is not, like Plato’s Republic, and the works of many later speculators -on government, a mere inquiry after a perfect state, but contains an -account of the nature of government, of the various forms of which it -is susceptible, and the institutions best adapted to the societies in -which these forms are established; with an essay, though unhappily an -imperfect one, on education. This treatise is valuable, not only for -its theoretical results, but also for the large amount of information -which it contains, on the governments of Greece and other neighboring -countries. Throughout these last-mentioned works, the knowledge of the -world and of human nature displayed by Aristotle, is very observable; -and, although his mind appears to have preferred the investigations -of physical and metaphysical science, yet he holds a very high place -in the highest rank of moral and political philosophers. Aristotle, -it will be remembered, did not lead the life of a recluse; but, as -the friend of Hermeias, the teacher of Alexander, and the head of a -philosophical school, he was brought into contact with a great variety -of persons, and learned by practice to know life under many different -forms, and in many different relations. - -Of all the philosophers of antiquity, Aristotle has produced the most -lasting and extensive effect on mankind. His philosophical works, many -centuries after his death, obtained a prodigious influence, not only in -Europe, but even in Asia; they were translated into Arabic, and from -thence an abstract of his logical system passed into the language of -Persia. In Europe they acquired an immense ascendency in the middle -ages, and were considered as an authority without appeal, and only -second to that of Scripture; we are even informed that in a part of -Germany his ethics were read in the churches on Sunday, in the place -of the Gospels. Parts of his philosophy, which are the most worthless, -as his Physics, were much cultivated; and his logical writings were, -in many cases, abused so as to lead to vain subtleties, and captious -contests about words. The connection between some of his tenets and the -Roman Catholic theology, tended much to uphold his authority, which -the Reformation lowered in a corresponding degree. His doctrines were -in general strongly opposed by the early reformers. In 1518 Luther -sustained a thesis at Heidelberg, affirming that “he who wishes to -philosophize in Aristotle, must be first stultified in Christ.” Luther, -however, gave way afterwards, and did not oppose Aristotle, as to human -learning. Melanchthon, who was one of the mildest of the reformers, was -a great supporter of Aristotle. Many of his doctrines were in the same -century zealously attacked by the French philosopher, Pierre Ramus. -Bacon, afterwards, with others of his followers, added the weight of -their arguments and authority against him. Aristotle’s philosophy -accordingly fell into undeserved neglect during the latter part of the -seventeenth, and the whole of the eighteenth century. Of late, however, -the true worth of his writings has been more fully appreciated, and the -study of his best treatises has much revived. - -The most valuable of Aristotle’s lost works, and indeed the most -valuable of all the lost works of Greek prose, is his collection of One -Hundred and Fifty-eight Constitutions, both of Grecian and Barbarian -States, the Democratic, Oligarchical, Aristocratical, and Tyrannical, -being treated separately, containing an account of the manners, -customs, and institutions of each country. The loss of his works on -Colonies, on Nobility, and on Royal Government; of his Chronological -Collections, and of his Epistles to Philip, Alexander, Antipater, and -others, is also much to be regretted. He likewise revised a copy of -the Iliad, which Alexander carried with him during his campaigns, in a -precious casket; hence this recension, called the _casket copy_, passed -into the Alexandrine library, and was used by the Alexandrine critics. -His entire works, according to Diogenes Laertius, occupied in the Greek -manuscripts 445,270 lines. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - DEMOSTHENES. - - -This celebrated Grecian orator was born about 384 or 385 years B. -C., at a period when Athens had reached the zenith of her literary, -and had passed that of her political, glory. Juvenal has represented -him slightingly, as the son of a blacksmith—the fact being that the -elder Demosthenes was engaged in various branches of trade, and, among -others, was owner of a sword manufactory. His maternal grandmother was -a Thracian woman—a circumstance noticeable because it enabled his -enemies, in the spirit of ill-will, to taunt him as a barbarian and -hereditary enemy of his country; for the Greeks, in general, regarded -the admixture of other than Greek blood, with the same sort of contempt -and dislike that the whites of America do the taint of African descent. - -Being left an orphan when seven years old, Demosthenes fell into the -hands of dishonest guardians, who embezzled a large portion of the -property which his father had bequeathed to him. His constitution -appears to have been delicate, and it may have been on this account -that he did not attend the gymnastic exercises, which formed a large -portion of the education of the youths in Greece; exercises really -important where neither birth nor wealth set aside the obligation to -military service common to all citizens; and where, therefore, skill -in the use of arms, strength, and the power to endure fatigue and -hardship, were essential to the rich as well as to the poor. It may -have been on this account that a nickname expressive of effeminacy -was bestowed on him, which was afterwards interpreted into a proof of -unmanly luxury and vicious habits; indeed, the reproach of wanting -physical strength clung to him through life; and apparently this was -not undeserved. Another nickname that he obtained was that of “Viper.” -In short, the anecdotes which have come down to us, tend pretty -uniformly to show that his private character was harsh and unamiable. - -His ambition to excel as an orator is said to have been kindled by -hearing a masterly and much admired speech of Callistratus. For -instruction, he resorted to Isæus, and, as some say, to Isocrates, both -eminent teachers of the art of rhetoric. He had a stimulus to exertion -in the resolution to prosecute his guardians for abuse of their trust; -and having gained the cause, B. C. 364, in the conduct of which he -himself took an active part, recovered, it would seem, a large part of -his property. The orations against Aphobus and Onetor, which appear -among his works, profess to have been delivered in the course of the -suit; but it has been doubted, on internal evidence, whether they were -really composed by him so early in life. - -Be this as it may, his success emboldened him to come forward as a -speaker in the assemblies of the people; on what occasion, and at what -time, does not appear. His reception was discouraging. He probably -had underrated, till taught by experience, the degree of training and -mechanical preparation requisite at all times to excellence, and most -essential in addressing an audience so acute, sensitive and fastidious -as the Athenians. He labored also under physical defects, which almost -amounted to disqualifications. His voice was weak, his breath short, -his articulation defective; in addition to all this, his style was -throughout strained, harsh and involved. - -Though somewhat disheartened by his ill success, he felt as Sheridan -is reported to have expressed himself on a similar occasion, that -_it was in him, and it should come out_; beside, he was encouraged -by a few discerning spirits. One aged man, who had heard Pericles, -cheered him with the assurance that he reminded him of that unequalled -orator; and the actor Satyrus pointed out the faults of his delivery, -and instructed him to amend them. He now set himself in earnest to -realize his notions of excellence; and the singular and irksome methods -which he adopted, denoting certainly no common energy and strength of -will, are too celebrated and too remarkable to be omitted, though the -authority on which they rest is not free from doubt. He built a room -under ground, where he might practise gesture and delivery without -molestation, and there he spent two or three months together, shaving -his head, that the oddity of his appearance might render it impossible -for him to go abroad, even if his resolution should fail. The defect in -his articulation he cured by reciting with small pebbles in his mouth. -His lungs he strengthened by practising running up hill, while reciting -verses. Nor was he less diligent in cultivating mental than bodily -requisites, applying himself earnestly to study the theory of the art -as explained in books, and the examples of the greatest masters of -eloquence. Thucydides is said to have been his favorite model, insomuch -that he copied out his history eight times, and had it almost by heart. - -Meanwhile, his pen was continually employed in rhetorical exercises; -every question suggested to him by passing events served him for -a topic of discussion, which called forth the application of his -attainments to the real business of life. It was perhaps as much -for the sake of such practice, as with a view to reputation, or the -increase of his fortune, that he accepted employment as an advocate, -which, until he began to take an active part in public affairs, was -offered to him in abundance. - -Such was the process by which he became confessedly the greatest orator -among the people by whom eloquence was cultivated, as it has never been -since by any nation upon earth. He brought it to its highest state of -perfection, as did Sophocles the tragic drama, by the harmonious union -of excellences which had before only existed apart. The quality in his -writings, which excited the highest admiration of the most intelligent -judges among his countrymen in the later critical age, was the Protean -versatility with which he adapted his style to every theme, so as to -furnish the most perfect examples of every order and kind of eloquence. - -Demosthenes, like Pericles, never willingly appeared before his -audience with any but the ripest fruits of his private studies, though -he was quite capable of speaking on the impulse of the moment in a -manner worthy of his reputation. That he continued to the end of his -career to cultivate the art with unabated diligence, and that, even -in the midst of public business, his habits were those of a severe -student, is well known. - -The first manifestation of that just jealousy of Philip, the ambitious -king of Macedon, which became the leading principle of his life, was -made 252 B. C., when the orator delivered the first of those celebrated -speeches called Philippics. This word has been naturalized in Latin -and most European languages, as a concise term to signify indignant -invective. - -From this time forward, it was the main object of Demosthenes to -inspire and keep alive in the minds of the Athenians a constant -jealousy of Philip’s power and intentions, and to unite the other -states of Greece in confederacy against him. The policy and the -disinterestedness of his conduct have both been questioned; the former, -by those who have judged, from the event, that resistance to the power -of Macedonia was rashly to accelerate a certain and inevitable evil; -the latter, by those, both of his contemporaries and among posterity, -who believe that he received bribes from Persia, as the price of -finding employment in Greece for an enemy, whose ambition threatened -the monarch of the East. With respect to the former, however, it -was at least the most generous policy, and like that of the elder -Athenians in their most illustrious days—not to await the ruin of -their independence submissively, until every means had been tried for -averting it; for the latter, such charges are hard either to be proved -or refuted. The character of Demosthenes certainly does not stand above -the suspicion of pecuniary corruption, but it has not been shown, nor -is it necessary or probable to suppose, that his jealousy of Philip -of Macedon was not, in the first instance, far-sighted and patriotic. -During fourteen years, from 352 to 338, he exhausted every resource of -eloquence and diplomatic skill to check the progress of that aspiring -monarch; and whatever may be thought of his moral worth, none can -undervalue the genius and energy which have made his name illustrious, -and raised a memorial of him far more enduring than sepulchral brass. - -In 339 B. C., Philip’s appointment to be general of the Amphictyonic -League gave him a more direct influence than he had yet possessed; -and in the same year, the decisive victory of Cheronea, won over the -combined forces of Thebes, Athens, &c., had made him master of Greece. -Demosthenes served in this engagement, but joined, early in the flight, -with circumstances, according to report, of marked cowardice and -disgrace. He retired for a time from Athens, but the cloud upon his -character was but transient for, shortly after, he was entrusted with -the charge of putting the city in a state of defence, and was appointed -to pronounce the funeral oration over those who had been slain. After -the battle of Cheronea, Philip, contrary to expectation, did not -prosecute hostilities against Athens; on the contrary, he used his -best endeavors to conciliate the affections of the people, but without -success. The party hostile to Macedon soon regained the superiority, -and Demosthenes was proceeding with his usual vigor in the prosecution -of his political schemes, when news arrived of the murder of Philip, in -July, 336. - -The daughter of Demosthenes had then lately died; nevertheless, in -violation of national usage, he put off his mourning, and appeared -in public, crowned with flowers and with other tokens of festive -rejoicing. This act, a strong expression of triumph over the fall of -a most dangerous enemy, has been censured with needless asperity; -the accusation of having been privy to the plot for Philip’s murder, -beforehand, founded on his own declaration of the event some time -before intelligence of it came from any other quarter, and the manifest -falsehood as to the source of the information, which he professed to -derive from a divine revelation, involves—if it be judged to be well -founded—a far blacker imputation. - -Whether or not it was of his own procuring, the death of Philip was -hailed by Demosthenes as an event most fortunate for Athens, and -favorable to the liberty of Greece. Thinking lightly of the young -successor to the Macedonian crown, he busied himself the more in -stirring up opposition to Alexander, and succeeded in urging Thebes -into that revolt, which ended in the entire destruction of the city, -B. C., 335. This example struck terror into Athens. Alexander demanded -that Demosthenes, with nine others, should be given up into his hands, -as the authors of the battle of Cheronea and of the succeeding troubles -of Greece; but finally contented himself with requiring the banishment -of Charidemus alone. - -Opposition to Macedon was now effectually put down, and, until the -death of Alexander, we hear little more of Demosthenes as a public -man. During this period, however, one of the most memorable incidents -of his life occurred, in that contest of oratory with Æschines, which -has been more celebrated than any strife of words since the world -began. The origin of it was as follows. About the time of the battle -of Cheronea, one Ctesiphon brought before the people a decree for -presenting Demosthenes with a crown for his distinguished services; -a complimentary motion, in its nature and effects very much like a -vote in the English parliament, declaratory of confidence in the -administration. Æschines, the leading orator of the opposite party, -arraigned this motion, as being both untrue in substance and irregular -in form; he indicted Ctesiphon on these grounds, and laid the penalty -at fifty talents, equivalent to about $50,000. Why the prosecution -was so long delayed, does not clearly appear; but it was not brought -to an issue until the year 330, when Æschines pronounced his great -oration “against Ctesiphon.” Demosthenes defended him in the still -more celebrated speech “on the crown.” These, besides being admirable -specimens of rhetorical art, have the additional value, that the rival -orators, being much more anxious to uphold the merits of their own -past policy and conduct, than to convict and defend the nominal object -of prosecution, have gone largely into matters of self-defence and -mutual recrimination, from which much of our knowledge of this obscure -portion of history is derived. Æschines lost the cause, and not having -the votes of so much as a fifth part of the judges, became liable, -according to the laws of Athens, to fine and banishment. He withdrew -to Rhodes, where he established a school of oratory. On one occasion, -for the gratification of his hearers, he recited first his own, then -his adversary’s speech. Great admiration having been expressed of the -latter, “What then,” he said, “if you had heard the brute himself?” -bearing testimony in these words to the remarkable energy and fire of -delivery which was one of Demosthenes’ chief excellences as an orator. - -A fate similar to that of his rival, overtook Demosthenes himself, a -few years later, B. C. 324. Harpalus, an officer high in rank and favor -under Alexander, having been guilty of malversation to such an extent -that he dared not await discovery, fled to Greece, bringing with him -considerable treasures and a body of mercenary soldiers. He sought the -support of the Athenians; and, as it was said, bribed Demosthenes not -to oppose his wishes. Rumors to that effect got abroad, and though his -proposals were rejected by the assembly, Demosthenes was called to -account, and fined fifty talents, nearly $50,000, as having been bribed -to give false counsel to the people. Being unable to pay the amount -of the fine, it acted as a sentence of banishment, and he retired into -Ægina. Like Cicero, when placed in a similar situation, he displayed -effeminacy of temper, and an unmanly violence of regret, under a -reverse of fortune. - -In the following year, however, the death of Alexander restored him -to political importance; for when that event opened once more to the -Athenians the prospect of shaking off the supremacy of Macedonia, -Demosthenes was recalled, with the most flattering marks of public -esteem. He guided the state during the short war waged with Antipater, -the Macedonian viceroy, until the inequality of the contest became -evident, and the Macedonian party regained its ascendency. Demosthenes -then retired to the sanctuary of Calauria, an island sacred to Neptune, -on the coast of Argolis. Sentence of death was passed on him in his -absence. He was pursued to his place of refuge by the emissaries of -Antipater, and being satisfied that the sanctity of the place would not -protect him, he took poison, which, as a last resort, he carried about -his person, concealed in a quill. - -Most of the speeches of Demosthenes are short, at least compared with -modern oratory. He rarely spoke extempore, and bestowed an unusual -degree of pains on his composition. That style which is described by -Hume as “rapid harmony, exactly adapted to the sense; vehement reason, -without any appearance of art; disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, -involved in a continued stream of argument”—instead of being, as it -would seem, the effervescence of a powerful, overflowing mind, was the -labored produce of much thought, and careful, long-continued polish. - -If we compare the two greatest orators of antiquity—Cicero and -Demosthenes—it may seem difficult to decide between them. By devoting -his powers almost exclusively to oratory, the latter excelled in -energy, strength, and accuracy; and as a mere artist, was probably the -superior. Cicero, by cultivating a more extended field, was doubtless -far the abler lawyer, statesman and philosopher. Of the value of their -works to mankind, there is no comparison; for those of Cicero are -not only more numerous and diversified, but of more depth, wisdom, -and general application. We must also remark, that while the soul of -Demosthenes appears to have been selfish and mean, that of Cicero ranks -him among the noblest specimens of humanity, whether of ancient or -modern times. - -If we compare the speeches of these great men with the efforts of -modern orators, we shall see that the latter greatly surpass them in -range of thought, power of diction and splendor of illustration. The -question then arises, why did the orations of Cicero and Demosthenes -produce such electrical effects upon their auditors? The reason -doubtless was, that they paid the greatest attention to action, -manner and tones of voice—thus operating upon their hearers by -nearly the same powers as the modern opera. There was stage effect in -their manner, and music in their tones, combined with most perfect -elocution—and the application of these arts, carried to the utmost -perfection, was made to the quick Italians or mercurial Athenians. -These suggestions may enable us to understand the fact, that speeches, -which, uttered in the less artful manner of our day, and before our -colder audiences, would fall flat and dead upon the ear, excited the -utmost enthusiasm, in more southern climes, two thousand years ago. - -[Illustration] - - - - - APELLES - - -Apelles was a celebrated painter of Cos, a little island in the Egean -Sea. The date of his birth is not known, but he painted many portraits -of Philip, and was still nourishing in the time of Alexander, who -honored him so much that he forbade any other artist to draw his -picture. His chief master was Pamphilius, a famous painter of Macedon. -He was so attentive to his profession, that he never spent a day -without employing his pencil,—whence the proverb of _Nulla die sine -linea_. His most perfect picture was the Venus Anadyomene, which, -however, was not wholly finished when the painter died. - -He executed a painting of Alexander, holding thunder in his hand, so -much like life, that Pliny, who saw it, says that the hand of the king -with the thunder seemed to come out of the picture. This was placed in -Diana’s temple at Ephesus. He made another picture of Alexander; but -the king, on coming to see it after it was painted, appeared not to -be satisfied with it. It happened, however, at that moment a horse, -passing by, neighed at the horse in the picture, supposing it to be -alive; upon which the painter said, “One would imagine that the horse -is a better judge of painting, than your majesty.” When Alexander -ordered him to draw the picture of Campaspe, one of his favorites, -Apelles became enamored of her, and the king permitted him to marry -her. He wrote three volumes on painting, which were still extant in the -age of Pliny,—but they are now lost. It is said that he was accused, -while in Egypt, of conspiring against the life of Ptolemy, and that he -would have been put to death, had not the real conspirator discovered -himself, and thus saved the artist. Apelles put his name to but three -pictures; a sleeping Venus, Venus Anadyomene, and an Alexander. - -Apelles appears to have been not only an excellent artist, but a man -of admirable traits of character. Being once at Rhodes, he met with -the productions of Protogenes,[10] which so greatly delighted him -that he offered to purchase the whole. Before this, Protogenes was -entirely unappreciated by his countrymen, but the approbation of one so -distinguished as Apelles, brought him into notice, and his fame soon -became established. - -Another story of Apelles is told as having given rise to the well-known -maxim, _Ne sutor ultra crepidam_: Let the shoemaker stick to his last. -Apelles placed a picture, which he had finished, in a public place, and -concealed himself behind it, in order to hear the criticisms of the -passers-by. A shoemaker observed a defect in the shoe, and the painter -forthwith corrected it. The cobbler came the next day, and being -somewhat encouraged by the success of his first remark, began to extend -his censure to the leg of the figure, when the angry painter thrust out -his head from behind the figure, and told him to keep to his trade. - -Apelles excelled in grace and beauty. The painter, who labored -incessantly, as we have seen, to improve his skill in drawing, probably -trusted as much to that branch of his art, as to his coloring. We are -told that he only used four colors. He used a varnish which brought -out the colors, and at the same time preserved them. His favorite -subject was the representation of Venus, the goddess of love,—the -female blooming in eternal beauty; and the religious system of the age -favored the taste of the artist. - -Apelles painted many portraits of Alexander the Great, who, we are -told, often visited his painting room. It is not easy to reconcile -his rambling life with this account, unless we suppose that Apelles -followed him into Asia; a conjecture not altogether improbable, if we -read the account of the revelries at Susa, after Alexander’s return -from India, and of the number of all kinds of professional artists then -assembled to add to the splendor of the festival. - -[Illustration] - -[Footnote 10: Protogenes, a painter of Rhodes, who flourished about -328 years B. C. He was originally so poor that he painted ships to -maintain himself. His countrymen were ignorant of his merits, before -Apelles came to Rhodes and offered to buy all his pieces, as we have -related. This opened the eyes of the Rhodians; they became sensible of -the talents of their countryman, and liberally rewarded him. Protogenes -was employed seven years in finishing a picture of Jalysus a celebrated -huntsman, supposed to have been the son of Apollo and the founder of -Rhodes. During all this time the painter lived only upon lupines and -water, thinking that such aliment would leave him greater flights of -fancy; but all this did not seem to make him more successful in the -perfection of his picture. He was to represent in this piece a dog -panting, and with froth at his mouth; but this he could never do with -satisfaction to himself; and when all his labors seemed to be without -success, he threw his sponge upon the piece in a fit of anger. Chance -alone brought to perfection what the utmost labors of art could not -do; the fall of the sponge upon the picture represented the froth -of the mouth of the dog in the most perfect and natural manner, and -the piece was universally admired. Protogenes was very exact in his -representations, and copied nature with the greatest nicety; but this -was blamed as a fault by his friend Apelles. When Demetrius besieged -Rhodes, he refused to set fire to a part of the city, which might have -made him master of the whole, because he knew that Protogenes was then -working in that quarter. When the town was taken, the painter was -found closely employed, in a garden, finishing a picture; and when -the conqueror asked him why he showed not more concern at the general -calamity, he replied, that Demetrius made war against the Rhodians; and -not against the fine arts.] - - - - - DIOGENES. - - -This eccentric individual was a native of Sinope, a city of Pontus, -and born 419 B. C. Having been banished from his native place, with -his father, upon the accusation of coining false money, he went to -Athens, and requested Antisthenes, the Cynic,[11] to admit him among -his disciples. That philosopher in vain attempted to drive away the -unfortunate supplicant. He even threatened to strike him; but Diogenes -told him he could not find a stoic hard enough to repel him, so long -as he uttered things worthy of being remembered. Antisthenes was -propitiated by this, and received him among his pupils. - -Diogenes devoted himself, with the greatest diligence, to the lessons -of his master, whose doctrines he afterwards extended and enforced. He -not only, like Antisthenes, despised all philosophical speculations, -and opposed the corrupt morals of his time, but also carried the -application of his principles, in his own person, to the extreme. The -stern austerity of Antisthenes was repulsive; but Diogenes exposed the -follies of his cotemporaries with wit and humor, and was, therefore, -better adapted to be the censor and instructor of the people, though he -really accomplished little in the way of reforming them. At the same -time, he applied, in its fullest extent, his principle of divesting -himself of all superfluities. He taught that a wise man, in order to -be happy, must endeavor to preserve himself independent of fortune, of -men, and of himself; and, in order to do this, he must despise riches, -power, honor, arts and sciences, and all the enjoyments of life. - -He endeavored to exhibit, in his own person, a model of Cynic virtue. -For this purpose, he subjected himself to the severest trials, and -disregarded all the forms of polite society. He often struggled -to overcome his appetite, or satisfied it with the coarsest food; -practised the most rigid temperance, even at feasts, in the midst of -the greatest abundance, and did not consider it beneath his dignity to -ask alms. - -By day, he walked through the streets of Athens barefoot, with a long -beard, a stick in his hand, and a bag over his shoulders. He was clad -in a coarse double robe, which served as a coat by day and a coverlet -by night; and he carried a wallet to receive alms. His abode was a -cask in the temple of Cybele. It is said that he sometimes carried a -tub about on his head which occasionally served as his dwelling. In -summer he rolled himself in the burning sand, and in winter clung to -the marble images covered with snow, that he might inure himself to the -extremes of the climate. He bore the scoffs and insults of the people -with the greatest equanimity. Seeing a boy draw water with his hand, -he threw away his wooden goblet, as an unnecessary utensil. He never -spared the follies of men, but openly and loudly inveighed against vice -and corruption, attacking them with keen satire, and biting irony. -The people, and even the higher classes, heard him with pleasure, and -tried their wit upon him. When he made them feel his superiority, they -often had recourse to abuse, by which, however, he was little moved. -He rebuked them for expressions and actions which violated decency and -modesty, and therefore it is not credible that he was guilty of the -excesses with which his enemies reproached him. His rudeness offended -the laws of good breeding, rather than the principles of morality. - -On a voyage to the island of Ægina, he fell into the hands of pirates, -who sold him as a slave to Xeniades, a Corinthian. He, however, -emancipated him, and entrusted to him the education of his children. He -attended to the duties of his new employment with the greatest care, -commonly living in summer at Corinth, and in the winter at Athens. It -was at the former place that Alexander found him at the road-side, -basking in the sun; and, astonished at the indifference with which -the ragged beggar regarded him, entered into conversation with him, -and finally gave him permission to ask him a boon. “I ask nothing,” -answered the philosopher, “but that thou wouldst get out of my -sunshine.” Surprised at this proof of content, the king is said to have -exclaimed, “Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.” The following -dialogue, though not given as historical, is designed to represent this -interview. - - - _Diogenes._ Who calleth? - - _Alexander._ Alexander. How happeneth it that you would not come out - of your tub to my palace? - - _D._ Because it was as far from my tub to your palace, as from your - palace to my tub. - - _A._ What! dost thou owe no reverence to kings? - - _D._ No. - - _A._ Why so? - - _D._ Because they are not gods. - - _A._ They are gods of the earth. - - _D._ Yes, gods of the earth! - - _A._ Plato is not of thy mind. - - _D._ I am glad of it. - - _A._ Why? - - _D._ Because I would have none of Diogenes’ mind but Diogenes. - - _A._ If Alexander have anything that can pleasure Diogenes, let me - know, and take it. - - _D._ Then take not from me that you cannot give me—the light of the - sun! - - _A._ What dost thou want? - - _D._ Nothing that you have. - - _A._ I have the world at command. - - _D._ And I in contempt. - - _A._ Thou shalt live no longer than I will. - - _D._ But I shall die, whether you will or no. - - _A._ How should one learn to be content? - - _D._ Unlearn to covet. - - _A._ (_to Hephæstion._) Hephæstion, were I not Alexander, I would wish - to be Diogenes. - - _H._ He is dogged, but shrewd; he has a sharpness, mixed with a kind - of sweetness; he is full of wit, yet too wayward. - - _A._ Diogenes, when I come this way again, I will both see thee and - confer with thee. - - _D._ Do. - - -We are told that the philosopher was seen one day carrying a lantern -through the streets of Athens: on being asked what he was looking -after, he answered, “I am seeking an honest man.” Thinking he had found -among the Spartans the greatest capacity for becoming such men as he -wished, he said, “Men, I have found nowhere, but children, at least, -I have seen in Lacedæmon.” Being asked, “What is the most dangerous -animal?” his answer was, “Among wild animals, the slanderer; among -tame, the flatterer.” He expired 323 B. C., at a great age, and, it -is said, on the same day that Alexander died. When he felt death -approaching, he seated himself on the road leading to Olympia, where he -died with philosophical calmness, in the presence of a great number of -people who were collected around him. - -None of the works of Diogenes are extant; in these he maintained the -doctrines of the Cynics. He believed that exercise was of the greatest -importance, and capable of effecting everything. He held that there -were two kinds of exercise,—one of the body, and one of the mind,—and -that one was of little use without the other. By cultivation of the -mind, he did not mean the accumulation of knowledge or science, but a -training which might give it vigor, as exercise endows the body with -health and strength. - -[Footnote 11: The Cynics were a sect of philosophers, founded by -Antisthenes, at Athens; they took their name from their disposition to -criticise the lives and actions of others. They were famous for their -contempt of riches, their neglect of dress, and the length of their -beards. They usually slept on the ground.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - PLATO. - - -It has been remarked by Coleridge, that all men are born disciples -either of Plato or Aristotle: by which he means that these two great -men are the leaders in the two kinds of philosophy which govern the -thinking world,—the one looking into the soul, as the great well of -truth; the other, studying the outward world, and building up its -system upon facts collected by observation. The truth is doubtless to -be found by compounding the two systems. - -Plato was born at Athens, in May, 429 B. C. He was the son of Ariston -and Perectonia. His original name was Aristocles, and it has been -conjectured that he received that of Plato, from the largeness of -his shoulders: this, however, is improbable, as Plato was then a -common name at Athens. Being one of the descendants of Codrus, and -the offspring of a noble, illustrious, and opulent family, he was -educated with the utmost care; his body was formed and invigorated with -gymnastic exercises, and his mind was cultivated and trained by the -study of poetry and of geometry; from which two sources he doubtless -derived that acuteness of judgment and warmth of imagination, which -stamped him as at once the most subtle and flowery writer of antiquity. - -He first began his literary career by writing poems and tragedies; but -he was disgusted with his own productions, when, at the age of twenty, -he was introduced into the society of Socrates, and was qualified to -examine, with critical accuracy, the merit of his compositions, and -compare them with those of his poetical predecessors. He, therefore, -committed them to the flames. During eight years he continued to be one -of the pupils of Socrates; and though he was prevented by indisposition -from attending the philosopher’s last moments, he collected, from the -conversation of those that were present, and from his own accurate -observations, very minute and circumstantial accounts, which exhibit -the concern and sensibility of the pupil, and the firmness, virtue, and -elevated moral sentiments of the dying philosopher. - -After the death of Socrates Plato retired from Athens, and, with a view -to emerge his stores of knowledge, he began to travel over different -countries. He visited Megara, Thebes, and Elis, where he met with the -kindest reception from his fellow-disciples, whom the violent death -of their master had likewise removed from Attica. He afterwards -visited Magna Græcia, attracted by the fame of the Pythagorean -philosophy, and by the learning, abilities, and reputation of its -professors, Philolaus, Archytas, and Eurytus. He then passed into -Sicily, and examined the eruptions of Etna. He visited Egypt, where the -mathematician Theodorus, then flourished, and where he knew that the -tenets of the Pythagorean philosophy had been fostered. - -When he had finished his travels, Plato retired to the groves of -Academus, in the neighborhood of Athens, and established a school -there; his lectures were soon attended by a crowd of learned, noble, -and illustrious pupils; and the philosopher, by refusing to have a -share in the administration of political affairs, rendered his name -more famous and his school more frequented. During forty years he -presided at the head of the academy, and there he devoted his time to -the instruction of his pupils, and composed those dialogues which have -been the admiration of every succeeding age. His studies, however, -were interrupted for a while, as he felt it proper to comply with the -pressing invitations of Dionysius, of Syracuse, to visit him. The -philosopher earnestly but vainly endeavored to persuade the tyrant to -become the father of his people, and the friend of liberty. - -In his dress, Plato was not ostentatious; his manners were elegant, but -modest, simple, and without affectation. The great honors which were -bestowed upon him, were not paid to his appearance, but to his wisdom -and virtue. In attending the Olympian games, he once took lodgings -with a family who were totally strangers to him. He ate and drank -with them, and partook of their innocent pleasures and amusements; -but though he told them his name was Plato, he did not speak of the -employment he pursued at Athens, and never introduced the name of that -great philosopher, whose doctrines he followed, and whose death and -virtues were favorite topics of conversation in every part of Greece. -When he returned to Athens, he was attended by the family which had -so kindly entertained him; and, being familiar with the city, he was -desired to show them the celebrated philosopher whose name he bore. -Their surprise may be imagined, when he told them that he was the Plato -whom they wished to behold. - -In his diet he was moderate; and, indeed, to sobriety and temperance in -the use of food, and abstinence from those indulgences which enfeeble -the body and enervate the mind, some have attributed his preservation -during a terrible pestilence which raged in Athens at the beginning -of the Peloponnesian war. Plato was never subject to any long or -lingering indisposition; and, though change of climate had enfeebled a -constitution naturally strong and healthy, the philosopher lived to an -advanced age, and was often heard to say, when his physicians advised -him to leave his residence at Athens, where the air was impregnated by -the pestilence, that he would not advance one single step to gain the -top of Mount Athos, were he assured of attaining the longevity which -the inhabitants of that mountain were said to enjoy. Plato died on his -birth-day, in the eighty-first year of his age, about the year 348 B. -C. His last moments were easy, and without pain; and, according to -some authors, he expired in the midst of an entertainment; but Cicero -tells us that he died while in the act of writing. - -The works of Plato are numerous; with the exception of twelve letters, -they are all written in the form of dialogue, in which Socrates is the -principal interlocutor. Thus he always speaks by the mouth of others, -and the philosopher has nowhere made mention of himself, except once -in his dialogue entitled Phædon, and another time in his Apology -for Socrates. His writings were so celebrated, and his opinions so -respected, that he was called divine; and for the elegance, melody, and -sweetness of his expressions, he was distinguished by the appellation -of the Athenian bee. His style, however, though commended and admired -by the most refined critics among the ancients, has not escaped the -censure of some of the moderns. It is obvious that the philosopher -cannot escape ridicule, who supposes that fire is a pyramid tied to -the earth by numbers; that the world is a figure consisting of twelve -pentagons; and who, to prove the metempsychosis and the immortality -of the soul, asserts that the dead are born from the living, and the -living from the dead. The speculative mind of Plato was employed in -examining things divine and human; and he attempted to ascertain and -fix not only the practical doctrines of morals and politics but the -more subtle and abstruse theory of mystical theogony—the origin of -the gods, or divine power. His philosophy was universally received and -adopted in ancient times, and it has not only governed the opinions of -the speculative part of mankind, but it continues still to influence -the reasoning, and to divide the sentiments of the moderns. - -In his system of philosophy, he followed the physics of Heraclitus, -the metaphysical opinions of Pythagoras, and the morals of Socrates. -He maintained the existence of two beings—one self-existent, and the -other formed by the hand of a pre-existent, creative god and man. The -world, he maintained, was created by that self-existent cause, from the -rude, undigested mass of matter which had existed from all eternity, -and which had ever been animated by an irregular principle of motion. -The origin of evil could not be traced under the government of a deity, -without admitting a stubborn intractability and wildness congenial -to matter; and from these, consequently, could be demonstrated the -deviations from the laws of nature, and from thence, the extravagant -passions and appetites of men. - -From materials like these were formed the four elements, and the -beautiful structure of the heavens and the earth; and into the active -but irrational principle of matter, the divinity infused a rational -soul. The souls of men were formed from the remainder of the rational -soul of the world, which had previously given existence to the -invisible gods and demons. The philosopher, therefore, supported the -doctrine of ideal forms, and the pre-existence of the human mind, -which he considered as emanations of the Deity, and which can never -remain satisfied with objects or things unworthy of their divine -original. Men could perceive, with their corporeal senses, the types of -immutable things, and the fluctuating objects of the material world; -but the sudden changes to which these are continually liable, create -innumerable disorders, and hence arise deception, and, in short, all -the errors of human life. Yet, in whatever situation man may be, he is -still an object of divine concern, and, to recommend himself to the -favor of the pre-existent cause, he must comply with the purposes of -his creation, and, by proper care and diligence, he can recover those -immaculate powers with which he was naturally endowed. - -All science the philosopher made to consist in reminiscence—in -recalling the nature, forms, and proportions, of those perfect and -immutable essences, with which the human mind had been conversant. From -observations like these, the summit of felicity might be attained by -removing from the material, and approaching nearer to the intellectual -world; by curbing and governing the passions, which were ever agitated -and inflamed by real or imaginary objects. - -The passions were divided into two classes: the first consisted of the -irascible passions, which originated in pride or resentment, and were -seated in the breast; the other, founded on the love of pleasure, was -the concupiscible part of the soul, seated in the inferior parts of the -body. These different orders induced the philosopher to compare the -soul to a small republic, of which the reasoning and judging powers -were stationed in the head, as in a firm citadel, and of which the -senses were the guards and servants. By the irascible part of the soul, -men asserted their dignity, repelled injuries, and scorned danger and -the concupiscible part provided the support and the necessities of -the body, and, when governed with propriety, gave rise to temperance. -Justice was produced by the regular dominion of reason, and by the -submission of the passions; and prudence arose from the strength, -acuteness, and perfection of the soul, without which other virtues -could not exist. - -But amidst all this, wisdom was not easily attained; at their creation -all minds were not endowed with the same excellence; the bodies which -they animated on earth, were not always in harmony with the divine -emanation; some might be too weak, others too strong. On the first -years of a man’s life depended his future character; an effeminate and -licentious education seemed calculated to destroy the purposes of the -divinity, while the contrary produced different effects, and tended to -cultivate and improve the reasoning and judging faculty, and to produce -wisdom and virtue. - -Plato was the first who supported the immortality of the soul upon -arguments solid and permanent, deduced from truth and experience. He -did not imagine that the diseases and death of the body could injure -the principle of life, and destroy the soul, which, of itself, was of -divine origin, and of an incorrupted and immutable essence, which, -though inherent for a while in matter, could not lose that power which -was the emanation of God. From doctrines like these, the great founder -of Platonism concluded that there might exist in the world a community -of men, whose passions could be governed with moderation, and who, from -knowing the evils and miseries which arise from ill conduct, might -aspire to excellence, and attain that perfection which can be derived -from a proper exercise of the rational and moral powers. To illustrate -this more fully, the philosopher wrote a book, well known by the name -of the “Republic of Plato,” in which he explains, with acuteness, -judgment, and elegance, the rise and revolution of civil society; and -so respected was his opinion as a legislator, that his scholars were -employed in regulating the republics of Arcadia. - -It was a characteristic of Plato’s mind, that he united a subtle -intellect to a glowing fancy. As an illustration of his style, we -may mention the passage in which he shows the operation of the three -principles in the human being—mind, soul, and body—or the three -powers of intellect, spirit, and matter. It occurs in the dialogue of -Phædrus, where he endeavors to illustrate the doctrine that the mind or -reason should be the governing faculty. - -The soul is here compared to a chariot, drawn by a pair of winged -steeds, one of which is well-bred and well-trained, and the other quite -the contrary. The quiet horse, the Will, is obedient to the rein, and -strives to draw its wilder yoke-fellow, the Appetite, along with it, -and to induce it to listen to the voice of the charioteer, Reason. But -they have a great deal of trouble with the restive horse, and the whole -object of the journey seems to be lost, if this is permitted to have -its way. In this allegory, it is shown that the object of Reason, in -exacting obedience, is not merely that discipline and subordination -which constitute the virtues of man, but to keep the mind in a state -to rise to the contemplation and enjoyment of great and eternal truths. -In other words, a man must be in a moral state, before he can place -himself in a religious state, so as to enjoy the _summum bonum_, or -greatest good. What, then, is this greatest good? or, in the language -of Plato, its _idea_?—for, with him, _idea_ and _essence_ are -synonymous. This is God—not his image, but his nature, which is the -sovereign good. Thus the greatest happiness of man was placed by Plato -in a mysterious union of the soul with this source of goodness. How -near an approach to Christian communion with God, is this? - -However fantastic many of the details of Plato’s system may seem, and -however illusory its whole machinery must appear, when viewed in the -light of modern criticism, one thing is to be observed,—that the -great results of his philosophy are true. He struggled through the -thick mists of his age, and discovered the eternal existence of Deity; -he perceived and established, on grounds not to be controverted, the -immortality of the soul. He placed true happiness where philosophy and -religion place it—in the ascendency of the spirit over the body—the -subjugation of the passions to the dominion of reason and virtue. It -appears that the germs of these great truths had already manifested -themselves in the minds of Pythagoras, Socrates, and others; and Plato -borrowed from them many of his noble ideas. But he systematized what -they had left in a crude state; he gave a more clear and distinct -utterance to what his great master, Socrates, had dimly conceived, and -ineffectually struggled to announce. He reached the highest point, in -the search after divine knowledge which has ever been attained, without -the direct aid of inspiration. In the gradual development of God’s will -to man, he was one of the great instruments. Yet, in reviewing his -works, we see how imperfect was still his knowledge of things divine, -and what fearful shadows would rest upon the world, if Plato were our -only guide. How dark, uncertain, mysterious, would be the ways of -God—the destinies of man—if left where the philosopher left them! - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - SOCRATES. - - -Socrates was born at Athens 468 B. C. His father, Sophroniscus, was -a sculptor of humble reputation and in moderate circumstances. He -educated his son to his own profession, in which it appears that the -latter made considerable proficiency. He did not, however, devote -himself wholly to this pursuit, but spent a large share of his time -in reading the works of philosophers. Crito, an intimate friend, -supplied him with money to pay the masters who taught him various -accomplishments, and he became an auditor of most of the great -philosophers who visited Athens, during his youth. By these means, he -received the best education which an Athenian youth could command in -those days. - -In the early part of his life, he wrought at his trade, so far as -to earn a decent subsistence. Receiving a small property at his -father’s death, when he was about thirty years of age, he devoted -himself entirely to philosophical pursuits. His habits were simple and -economical; his dress was coarse, and he seldom wore shoes. By his -frugality, he was thus able to live without labor, and yet without -being dependent upon others. - -With regard to his public life, it appears that he served his country -faithfully as a soldier, according to the duty of every Athenian -citizen. He took part in three campaigns, displaying the greatest -hardihood and valor. He endured, without repining, hunger and thirst, -heat and cold. In a skirmish with the enemy, his pupil, Alcibiades, -fell wounded in the midst of the enemy. Socrates rescued him and -carried him off, for which the civic crown was awarded as the prize of -valor. This reward, however, he transferred to Alcibiades. In another -campaign he saved the life of his pupil, Xenophon, whom he carried from -the field on his shoulders, fighting his way as he went. - -At the age of sixty-five, he became a member of the council of Five -Hundred, at Athens. He rose also to the dignity of president of that -body; by virtue of which office, he for one day managed the popular -assemblies and kept the key of the citadel and treasury. Ten naval -officers had been accused of misconduct, because, after the battle -of Arginusæ, they had omitted the sacred duty of burying the slain, -in consequence of a violent storm. Their enemies, finding the people -disposed to acquit them procured by intrigue, the prorogation of -several assemblies. A new assembly was held on the day when Socrates -was president; and the citizens, instigated by bad men, violently -demanded that sentence of death should be pronounced on all the accused -at once, contrary to law. But the menaces of violence were unable to -bend the inflexible justice of Socrates, and he was able afterwards to -declare, on his own trial, that ten innocent men had been saved by his -influence. - -When Socrates formed the resolution of devoting himself to the pursuit -of divine and human knowledge, the sophists, a set of arrogant -philosophers, were perverting the heads and corrupting the hearts of -the Grecian youth. He therefore put himself in opposition to these -false guides, and went about endeavoring to instruct everybody in a -wiser and better philosophy than that which prevailed. He was, in fact, -an instructor of the people; and, believing himself an ambassador of -God, he was occupied from the dawn of day in seeking persons whom he -might teach either what is important to mankind in general, or the -private circumstances of individuals. He went to the public assemblies -and the most crowded streets, or entered the workshops of mechanics -and artists, and conversed with the people on religious duties, on -their social and political relations; on all subjects, indeed, relating -to morals, and even on agriculture, war, and the arts. He endeavored -to remove prevailing prejudices and errors, and to substitute right -principles; to awaken their better genius in the minds of his hearers; -to encourage and console them; to enlighten and improve mankind, and -make them really happy. - -It is manifest that such a course must have been attended with great -difficulties. But the serenity of Socrates was undisturbed; he was -always perfectly cheerful in appearance and conversation. In the -market-place and at home, among people and in the society of those -whom love of truth and virtue connected more closely with him, he -was always the same. It cannot be doubted that a happy physical and -mental temperament contributed to produce this equanimity. But it was, -likewise, a fruit of self-discipline and the philosophy he taught. He -treated his body as a servant, and inured it to every privation, so -that moderation was to him an easy virtue; and he retained in old age -his youthful vigor, physical and mental. He was kind as a husband and -a father. Though his wife, Xantippe, was a noted shrew, he viewed her -as an excellent instrument of discipline, and treated her with patience -and forbearance. - -Although the Greeks at this time were zealously devoted to their -heathen mythology, Socrates was a sincere worshipper of the Supreme -Being; yet, from his care not to offend his weaker brethren, he -observed, with punctilious exactness, the religious uses which -antiquity and custom had consecrated. He was constantly attended by a -circle of disciples, who caught from him the spirit of free inquiry, -and were inspired with his zeal for the highest good, for religion, -truth and virtue. The succeeding schools of philosophy in Greece -are therefore justly traced back to him; and he is to be regarded -as the master who gave philosophical investigation among the Greeks -its highest direction. Among his most distinguished disciples were -Alcibiades, Crito, Xenophon, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Phædon, Æschines, -Cebes, Euclid, and Plato. From the detached accounts given us by -Xenophon and Plato, it appears that he instructed them in politics, -rhetoric, logic, ethics, arithmetic, and geometry, though not in a -systematic manner. He read with them the principal poets, and pointed -out their beauties; he labored to enlighten and correct their opinions -on all practical subjects, and to excite them to the study of whatever -is most important to men. - -To make his instructions attractive, they were delivered, not in long -lectures, but in free conversations, rendered interesting by question -and answer. He did not reason _before_, but _with_ his disciples, and -thus exercised an irresistible power over their minds. He obliged -them to think for themselves, and if there was any capacity in a man, -it could not fail to be excited by his conversation. This method of -question and answer is called the _Socratic method_. The fragments of -his conversations, preserved by Xenophon, often leave us unsatisfied; -Plato alone has transmitted to us the genuine spirit of this method; -and he was therefore viewed by the ancients as the only fountain of the -Socratic philosophy,—a fact which has been too much disregarded by -modern writers. - -Socrates fell a victim to the spirit of bigotry, which has sacrificed -so many persons, who were in advance of the age. The document -containing the accusation against him was lodged in the Temple of -Cybele, as late as the second century of the Christian era. The -following is a translation:—“Melitus, son of Melitus, accuses -Socrates, son of Sophroniscus, of being guilty of denying the existence -of the gods of the republic, making innovations in the religion of the -Greeks, and of corrupting the Athenian youth. Penalty,—death.” - -Melitus, who was a tragic writer of a low order, was engaged as an -accuser in this affair, by the wealthy and more powerful enemies of -Socrates. Amongst them were Anytus and Lycon, the former a rich artisan -and zealous democrat, who had rendered very important services to -the republic, by aiding Thrasybulus in the expulsion of the thirty -tyrants, and in establishing the liberty of his country. The latter was -an orator, and therefore a political magistrate, to which office the -Athenian orators were entitled, by virtue of the laws of Solon. - -Socrates was seventy years of age when summoned to appear at the -Areopagus. The news of this event did not excite much surprise, as the -people had long expected it. Aristophanes, the celebrated comic poet of -Athens, had previously undertaken, at the instigation of Melitus, to -ridicule the venerable character of the philosopher; and when once he -was calumniated and defamed, the fickle populace ceased to revere the -man whom they had before looked upon as a being of a superior order. - -The enemies of Socrates were of two classes,—the one consisted of -citizens who could not help admiring his genius and virtue, but who -regarded him as a dangerous innovator and subverter of public order. -They were ready, with him, to acknowledge that some reformation might -be made in the tenets of Paganism; that the gods and goddesses were -not patterns of virtue; and that the conduct of the sovereign of the -skies, himself, was far from exemplary; but, said they, the thunders -of Jupiter exercise a salutary influence over the minds of some, and -the pains of Tartarus still operate as a bridle upon the passions of -others. To bring in question the ancient faith, was at once to attack -the institutions of the republic at their base, and excite revolution. -The philosophy of Socrates, even though true, must be suppressed; for -the life of one man is not to be put in the balance with the repose -of a whole people,—with the safety of the country. It is better that -Socrates should die, than Athens perish. Such was the reasoning of one -portion. - -The other class was composed of the superstitious and bigoted,—of -the vicious and imbecile,—who were daily exposed to the censures -and sarcasms of the philosopher; in fine, of that set of narrow, -jealous-minded men, who looked upon the welfare and fame of their -neighbors with envy and with malice. The race that had exiled -Aristides, because he was great, was ready to condemn Socrates, because -he was wise. The friends and disciples of the great philosopher saw -the danger that menaced him, and with anxiety and fear they crowded -around their master, supplicating him to fly, or to adopt some means of -defence; but he would do neither. Lysias, one of the most celebrated -orators of the day, composed a pathetic oration, which he wished his -friend to pronounce, as his defence, in the presence of his judges. -Socrates read it, praised its animated and eloquent style, but rejected -it, as being neither manly nor expressive of fortitude. The anxiety -and trouble of avoiding condemnation appeared to him of little moment, -when compared to the performance of his duty in upholding to the last -moment, the truth of his principles and the dignity of his character. - -Socrates, though both eloquent and persuasive in conversation, was not -capable of addressing a large assembly; therefore, on the day of his -trial, he asked permission of his judges to use the means of defence to -which he had been accustomed; namely, to speak familiarly with, and ask -questions of, his adversaries. - -“Athenians,” he said, in commencing, “I hope I shall succeed in my -defence, if, by succeeding, good may result from it; but I look upon my -success as very doubtful, and, therefore, do not deceive myself in that -respect. But let the will of the gods be obeyed.” - -The two chief accusations against Socrates, were firstly, that he -did not believe in the religion of the state; secondly, that he was -guilty of corrupting the minds of young men, and of disseminating the -disbelief of the established religion. - -Socrates did not reply, in a direct manner, to either of these charges. -Instead of declaring that he believed in the religion of his country, -he proved that he was not an atheist; instead of refuting the charge of -instructing youth to doubt the sacred tenets of the law, he declared -and demonstrated that it was morality which he taught; and instead of -appealing to the compassion of his judges, he did not disguise the -contempt in which he held the means practised by parties accused, who, -in order to excite sympathy and compassion, brought their children and -relations to supplicate, with tears in their eyes, the mercy of the -judges. “I, also, have friends and relations!” he said, “and, as to -children, I have three,—one a stripling, the other two in childhood; -yet I will not allow them to come here to excite your sympathy. -Why will I not do so? It is not caused by stubbornness, nor by any -disdain I have for you. For my honor, for your honor, for that of the -republic, it is not meet that, with the reputation, whether true or -false that I have acquired, I should make use of such means to procure -your acquittal. Indeed, I should be ashamed if those that distinguish -themselves for wisdom, courage, or any other virtue, should, like many -people that I have seen, although they have passed for great men, -commit actions the most grovelling—as if death were the greatest -misfortune that could befall them, and that,—if their lives were -spared,—they would become immortal!” - -When Socrates had ceased speaking, the judges of the Areopagus found -him guilty, by a majority of three. On being demanded, according to -the spirit of the Athenian laws, to pass sentence on himself, and -to mention the death he preferred, Socrates, conscious of his own -innocence, replied,—“Far from deeming myself guilty, I believe that -I have rendered my country important services, and, therefore, think -that I ought to be maintained in the Prytaneum at the public expense, -during the remainder of my life,—an honor, O Athenians, that I merit -more than the victors of the Olympic games. They make you happy in -appearance; I have made you so in reality.” - -This reply in the highest degree exasperated his judges, who condemned -him to die by poison. When the sentence was passed, Socrates remained, -for a few minutes, calm and undisturbed, and then asked permission to -speak a few words. - -“Athenians,” he said, “your want of patience will be used as a pretext -by those who desire to defame the republic. They will tell you that -you have put to death the wise Socrates; yes, they will call me wise, -to add, to your shame—though I am not so. If you had but waited a -short time, death would have come of itself, and thus saved you from -disgracing yourselves. You see I am already advanced in years and must -shortly die. All know that in times of war, nothing is more easy than -saving our lives by throwing down our weapons, and demanding quarter of -the enemy. It is the same in all dangers; a thousand pretexts can be -found by those who are not scrupulous about what they say and do. It is -difficult, O Athenians, to avoid death; but it is much more so to avoid -crime, which is swifter than death. It is for this reason that, old and -feeble as I am, I await the latter, whilst my accusers, who are more -vigorous and volatile, embrace the former. I am now about to suffer the -punishment to which you have sentenced me; my accusers, the odium and -infamy to which virtue condemns them.” - -“What is going to happen to me,” he added, “will be rather an advantage -than an evil; for it is apparent, that to die at present, and to be -delivered of the cares of this life, is what will best suit me. I have -no resentment towards my accusers, neither have I any ill-will against -those who condemn me, although their intention was to injure me, to do -all in their power to do me harm. I will make but one request; when -my children are grown up, if they are seen to covet riches, or prefer -wealth to virtue, punish and torment them as I have tormented you; and -if they look upon themselves as beings of importance, make them blush -for their presumption. This is what I have done to you. If you do that, -you will secure the gratitude of a father, and my children will ever -praise you. But it is time that we should separate; I go to die, and -you to live. Which of us has the best portion? No one knows except God.” - -When he had finished, he was taken to prison and loaded with chains. -His execution was to have taken place in twenty-four hours, but it -was postponed for thirty days, on account of the celebration of the -Delian festivals. Socrates, with his usual cheerfulness and serenity, -passed this time in conversing with his friends upon some of the most -important subjects that could engage the mind of man. Plato relates, -in the dialogue entitled The Phedon, the conversation which took place -on the day preceding his death. That dialogue, without exception, is -the most beautiful that the Greeks have left us. We can give only those -passages which are more immediately connected with his death. - -“After the condemnation of Socrates,” says Phedon, “we did not allow a -day to escape without seeing him, and on the day previous to his death, -we assembled earlier than usual. When we arrived at the prison door, -the jailor told us to wait a little, as the Eleven were then giving -orders for the death of Socrates.” - -Speaking of the fear of death, Socrates said, “Assuredly, my dear -friends, if I did not think I was going to find, in the other world, -gods good and wise, and even infinitely better than we are, it would be -wrong in me not to be troubled at death; but you must know that I hope -soon to be introduced to virtuous men,—soon to arrive at the assembly -of the just. Therefore it is that I fear not death, hoping, as I do, -according to the ancient faith of the human race, that something better -is in store for the just, than what there is for the wicked.” - -The slave who was to give Socrates the poison, warned him to speak as -little as possible, because sometimes it was necessary to administer -the drug three or four times to those who allowed themselves to be -overheated by conversation. - -“Let the poison be prepared,” said Socrates, “as if it were necessary -to give it two or three times;” then continued to discourse upon the -immortality of the soul, mixing in his arguments the inspiration of -sentiment and of poetry. - -“Let that man,” said he, “have confidence in his destiny, who, during -lifetime, has renounced the pleasures of the body as productive of -evil. He who has sought the pleasures of science, who has beautified -his soul, not with useless ornaments, but with what is suitable to his -nature, such as temperance, justice, fortitude, liberty, and truth, -ought to wait peaceably the hour of his departure, and to be always -ready for the voyage, whenever fate calls him.” - -“Alas! my dear friend,” said Crito; “have you any orders for me, or for -those present, with regard to your children or your affairs?” “What I -have always recommended to you, Crito,”—replied Socrates, “to take -care of yourselves,—nothing more. By doing so, you will render me a -service, my family, and all who know you.” - -After Socrates had bathed, his children and his female relations were -brought into his presence. He spoke to them for some time, gave them -his orders, then caused them to retire. After he returned, he sat down -upon his bed, and had scarcely spoken, when the officer of the Eleven -came in and said, “Socrates, I hope I shall not have the same occasion -to reproach you as I have had in respect to others. As soon as I come -to acquaint them that they must drink the poison, they are incensed -against me; but you have, ever since you came here, been patient, calm, -and even-tempered, and I am confident that you are not angry with -me. Now, you know what I have told you. Farewell! Try to bear with -resignation what cannot be avoided.” Saying these words, he turned -away, while the tears were streaming from his eyes. - -“I will follow your counsel,” said Socrates. Then turning to his -disciples, he continued, “Observe the honesty of that poor man. -During my imprisonment, he has visited me daily, and now, see with -what sincerity he weeps for me!” When the slave brought the poison to -Socrates, the latter looked at him, and said, “Very well, my friend, -what must I do? for you know best, and it is your business to direct -me.” - -“Nothing else but drink the poison; then walk, and when you find -your limbs grow stiff, lie down upon your bed.” At the same time, he -handed the cup to Socrates, who took it without emotion or change of -countenance; then looking at the man with a steady eye, he said,—“Tell -me, is it allowable to make a drink-offering of this mixture?” -“Socrates,” the man replied, “we never prepare more than what is -sufficient for one dose.” - -“I understand you,” said Socrates; “but nevertheless, it is lawful for -me to pray to God that he may bless my voyage, and render it a happy -one.” Having said so, he raised the cup to his lips, and drank the -poison with astonishing tranquillity and meekness. When Socrates looked -around and saw his friends vainly endeavoring to stifle their tears, -he said, “What are you doing, my companions? Was it not to avoid this, -that I sent away the women? and you have fallen into their weakness. Be -quiet, I pray you, and show more fortitude.” - -In the mean time, he continued to walk, and when he felt his legs grow -stiff, he lay down upon his back, as had been recommended. The person -who gave Socrates the poison, then came forward, and, after examining -his legs and feet, he bound them, and asked if he felt the cord. The -dying philosopher answered, “No;” and feeling himself with his hand, -he told his disciples, that “when the cold reached his heart, he should -leave them.” - -A few minutes afterwards, he exclaimed, “Crito, we owe a cock to -Esculapius; do not forget to pay the debt.” These were the last words -of Socrates. Such was the end of the great philosopher; and it may be -truly said that he was one of the wisest, best, and most upright of all -the Athenians. - -In personal appearance Socrates was disagreeable: he had a sunken -nose, and his eyes protruded so as to give him a strange appearance. -It is supposed that he knew the shrewish temper of Xantippe, before he -married her, and sought the alliance that she might give exercise to -his patience. She tried every means to irritate him, and finding it -impossible to rouse his anger, she poured some dirty water upon him -from a window. “After thunder, we generally have rain,” was the only -remark the philosopher deigned to make. Many other anecdotes are handed -down, which show the wonderful command Socrates had acquired over -himself. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - ALCIBIADES. - - -This eminent Athenian general and statesman, was born about 450 B. -C. Descended on both sides from the most illustrious families of his -country,—born to the inheritance of great wealth,—endued with great -personal beauty and the most brilliant mental qualities,—it seemed -evident, from his early youth, that he would exert no slight influence -over the counsels and fortunes of Athens. His father, Cleinias, was -killed at the battle of Cheronæa, and being thus an orphan, he was -placed under the wardship of his uncle, Pericles. The latter was too -much engaged in affairs of state to bestow that care upon Alcibiades, -which the impetuosity of his disposition required. In his childhood -he showed the germ of his future character. One day, when he was -playing at dice with some companions in the street, a wagon came up; -he requested the driver to stop, and, the latter refusing, Alcibiades -threw himself before the wheel, exclaiming, “Drive on, if thou darest!” - -He excelled alike in mental and bodily exercises. His beauty and birth, -and the high station of Pericles, procured him a multitude of friends -and admirers, and his reputation was soon injured by the dissipation in -which he became involved. He was fortunate in acquiring the friendship -of Socrates, who endeavored to lead him to virtue, and undoubtedly -obtained a great ascendency over him, so that Alcibiades often quitted -his gay associates for the company of the philosopher. - -He bore arms, for the first time, in the expedition against Potidæa and -was wounded. Socrates, who fought at his side, defended him, and led -him out of danger. In the battle of Delium, he was among the cavalry -who were victorious, but, the infantry being beaten, he was obliged to -flee, as well as the rest. He overtook Socrates, who was retreating on -foot. Alcibiades accompanied him, and protected him. - -[Illustration: _Socrates saving Alcibiades._] - -For a considerable time he took no part in public affairs, but on the -death of Cleon, 422 B. C., Nicias succeeded in making a peace for fifty -years, between the Athenians and Lacedæmonians. Alcibiades, jealous of -the influence of Nicias, and offended because the Lacedæmonians, with -whom he was connected by the ties of hospitality, had not applied to -him, sought to bring about some disagreement between the two nations. -The Lacedæmonians sent ambassadors to Athens. Alcibiades received them -with apparent good-will, and advised them to conceal their credentials, -lest the Athenians should prescribe conditions to them. They suffered -themselves to be duped, and, when called into the assembly, declared -that they were without credentials. Alcibiades rose immediately, stated -that they had credentials, accused them of ill-faith, and induced the -Athenians to form an alliance with the Argives. A breach with the -Lacedæmonians was the immediate consequence. Alcibiades commanded -the Athenian fleet several times during the war, and devastated the -Peloponnesus. - -He did not, however, refrain from luxury and dissipation, to which he -abandoned himself after his return from the wars. On one occasion, -after having a nocturnal revel, in the company of some friends, he laid -a wager that he would give Hipponicus a box on the ear; which he did. -This act made a great noise in the city, but Alcibiades went to the -injured party, threw off his garments, and called upon him to revenge -himself by whipping him with rods. This open repentance reconciled -Hipponicus, who not only pardoned him, but gave him afterwards his -daughter, Hipparete, in marriage, with a portion of ten talents—about -ten thousand dollars. Alcibiades, however, still continued his levity -and prodigality. His extravagance was conspicuous at the Olympic -games, where he entered the stadium, not like other rich men, with one -chariot, but with seven at a time—and gained the three first prizes. -He seems also to have been victor in the Pythian and Nemæan games. By -these courses he drew upon himself the hatred of his fellow citizens, -and he would have fallen a sacrifice to the ostracism, if he had -not, in connection with Nicias and Phæax, who feared a similar fate, -artfully contrived to procure the banishment of his most formidable -enemy. - -Soon afterwards, the Athenians, at the instance of Alcibiades, resolved -on an expedition against Sicily, and elected him commander-in-chief, -together with Nicias and Lamachus. But, during the preparations, it -happened one night that all the statues of Mercury were broken. The -enemies of Alcibiades charged him with the act, but postponed a public -accusation till he had set sail, when they stirred up the people -against him to such a degree, that he was recalled in order to be -tried. Alcibiades had been very successful in Sicily, when he received -the order to return. He prepared to obey, and embarked, but on reaching -Thurium, he landed, and, instead of proceeding to Athens, concealed -himself. Some one asking him, “How is this, Alcibiades? Have you no -confidence in your country?”—he replied, “I would not trust my mother -when my life is concerned, for she might, by mistake, take a black -stone instead of a white one.” He was condemned to death in Athens. -When the news reached him, he remarked—“I shall show the Athenians -that I am yet alive.” - -He now went to Argos; thence to Sparta, where he made himself a -favorite by conforming closely to the prevailing strictness of manners. -Here he succeeded in inducing the Lacedæmonians to form an alliance -with the Persian king, and, after the unfortunate issue of the Athenian -expedition against Sicily, he prevailed on the Spartans to assist -the inhabitants of Chios in throwing off the yoke of Athens. He went -himself thither, and on his arrival in Asia Minor, roused the whole of -Ionia to insurrection against the Athenians, and did them considerable -injury. But Agis and the principal leaders of the Spartans became -jealous of him, on account of his success, and ordered their commanders -in Asia to cause him to be assassinated. - -Alcibiades suspected their plan, and went to Tissaphernes, a Persian -satrap, who was ordered to act in concert with the Lacedæmonians. Here -he changed his manners once more, adopted the luxurious habits of -Asia, and soon contrived to make himself indispensable to the satrap. -As he could no longer trust the Lacedæmonians, he undertook to serve -his country, and showed Tissaphernes that it was against the interest -of the Persian king to weaken the Athenians; on the contrary, Sparta -and Athens ought to be preserved for their mutual injury. Tissaphernes -followed this advice, and afforded the Athenians some relief. The -latter had, at that time, considerable forces at Samos. Alcibiades sent -word to their commanders, that, if the licentiousness of the people -was suppressed and the government put into the hands of the nobles, he -would procure for them the friendship of Tissaphernes, and prevent the -junction of the Phoenician and Lacedæmonian fleets. - -This demand was acceded to, and Pisander was sent to Athens; by whose -means the government of the city was put into the hands of a council, -consisting of four hundred persons. As, however, the council showed no -intention of recalling Alcibiades, the army of Samos chose him their -commander, and exhorted him to go directly to Athens and overthrow the -power of the tyrants. He wished, however, not to return to his country -before he had rendered it some services; and therefore attacked and -totally defeated the Lacedæmonians. When he returned to Tissaphernes, -the latter, in order not to appear a participator in the act, caused -him to be arrested in Sardis. But Alcibiades found means to escape; -placed himself at the head of the Athenian army; conquered the -Lacedæmonians and Persians, at Cyzicus, by sea and land; took Cyzicus, -Chalcedon, and Byzantium; restored the sovereignty of the sea to the -Athenians, and returned to his country, whither he had been recalled, -on the motion of Critias. - -He was received with general enthusiasm; for the Athenians considered -his exile as the cause of all their misfortunes. But this triumph was -of short duration. He was sent with one hundred ships to Asia; and, not -being supplied with money to pay his soldiers, he saw himself under -the necessity of seeking help in Caria, and committed the command -to Antiochus, who was drawn into a snare by Lysander, and lost his -life and a part of his ships. The enemies of Alcibiades improved this -opportunity to accuse him, and procure his removal from office. - -Alcibiades now went to Pactyæ in Thrace, collected troops, and waged -war against the Thracians. He obtained considerable booty, and secured -the quiet of the neighboring Greek cities. The Athenian fleet was, -at that time, lying at Ægos Potamos. He pointed out to the generals -the danger which threatened them, advised them to go to Sestos, and -offered his assistance to force the Lacedæmonian general, Lysander, -either to fight, or to make peace. But they did not listen to him, and -soon after were totally defeated. Alcibiades, fearing the power of -the Lacedæmonians, betook himself to Bithynia, and was about to go to -Artaxerxes, to procure his assistance for his country. In the meantime, -the thirty tyrants, whom Lysander after the capture of Athens, had set -up there, requested the latter to cause Alcibiades to be assassinated. -But Lysander declined, until he received an order to the same effect -from his own government. He then charged Pharnabazes with the execution -of it. Alcibiades was at the time with Timandra, his mistress, in a -castle in Phrygia. The assistants of Pharnabazes, afraid to encounter -Alcibiades, set fire to his house, and when he had already escaped the -conflagration, they despatched him with their arrows. Timandra buried -the body with due honor. - -Thus Alcibiades ended his life, 404 B. C., being about forty-five years -old. He was endowed by nature with distinguished qualities, a rare -talent to captivate and rule mankind, and uncommon eloquence, although -he could not pronounce the letter _r_, and had an impediment in his -speech. He had, however, no fixed principles, and was governed only by -external circumstances. He was without that elevation of soul which -steadily pursues the path of virtue. On the other hand, he possessed -that boldness which arises from consciousness of superiority, and which -shrinks from no difficulty, because confident of success. He was a -singular instance of intellectual eminence and moral depravity. His -faculty for adapting himself to circumstances enabled him to equal -the Spartans in austerity of manners, and to surpass the pomp of the -Persians. Plutarch says, that “no man was of so sullen a nature but he -would make him merry; nor so churlish but he could make him gentle.” - - - - - DEMOCRITUS. - - -Democritus, one of the most remarkable of the philosophers of -antiquity, was born at Abdera, a maritime city of Thrace, 460 B. C. He -travelled over the greatest part of Europe, Asia and Africa, in quest -of knowledge. Though his father was so rich as to entertain Xerxes -and his whole army, while marching against Greece, and left his son a -large fortune, yet the latter returned from his travels in a state of -poverty. It was a law of the country, that a man should be deprived -of the honor of a funeral, who had reduced himself to indigence. -Democritus was of course exposed to this ignominy; but having read -before his countrymen his chief work, it was received with the greatest -applause, and he was presented with five hundred talents,—a sum nearly -equal to half a million of dollars. Statues were also erected to his -honor; and a decree was passed that the expenses of his funeral should -be paid from the public treasury. - -These circumstances display alike the great eminence of the -philosopher, and an appreciation of genius and learning on the part -of the people, beyond what could now be found in the most civilized -communities of the world. Where is the popular assembly of the present -day, that would bestow such a reward, on such an occasion? - -After his return from his travels, Democritus retired to a garden -near the city, where he dedicated his time to study and solitude; -and, according to some authors, put out his eyes, to apply himself -more closely to philosophical inquiries. This, however, is unworthy -of credit. He was accused of insanity, and Hippocrates, a celebrated -physician, was ordered to inquire into the nature of his disorder. -After a conference with the philosopher, he declared that not the -latter, but his enemies were insane. Democritus was so accustomed to -laugh at the follies and vanities of mankind, who distract themselves -with care, and are at once the prey to hope and anxiety, that he -acquired the title of the “laughing philosopher,” in contrast to -Heraclitus,[12] who has been called the “weeping philosopher.” He told -Darius, the king, who was inconsolable for the loss of his wife, that -he would raise her from the dead if he could find three persons who had -gone through life without adversity, and whose names he might engrave -on the queen’s monument. The king’s inquiries after such, proved -unavailing, and the philosopher discovered the means of soothing the -sorrows of the sovereign. - -He was a disbeliever in the existence of ghosts; and some youths, to -try his fortitude, dressed themselves in hideous and deformed habits, -and approached his cave in the dead of night, expecting to excite his -terror and astonishment. The philosopher received them unmoved, and, -without hardly deigning to bestow upon them a look, desired them to -cease making themselves such objects of ridicule and folly. He died in -the one hundred and fourth year of his age, B. C. 357. - -All the works of Democritus, which were numerous, are lost. He was -the first to teach that the milky way was occasioned by a confused -light from a multitude of stars. He may be considered as the parent of -experimental philosophy; in the prosecution of which he was so ardent, -that he declared he would prefer the discovery of one of the causes of -the works of nature, to the diadem of Persia. He is said to have made -artificial emeralds by chemical means, and to have tinged them with -various colors; he likewise found the art of dissolving stones and -softening ivory. - -He was the author of the atomic theory; he viewed all matter, in which -he included mind, as reducible to atoms; he considered the universe to -consist only of matter and empty space. The mind he regarded as round -atoms of fire. He argued that nothing could arise out of nothing; and -also that nothing could utterly perish and become nothing. Hence he -inferred the eternity of the universe, and dispensed with the existence -of a Creator. - -He explained the difference in substances by a difference in their -component atoms; and all material phenomena, by different motions, -backward or forward, taking place of necessity. He did not seem to -perceive that under this word, _necessity_, he concealed a deity. He -explained sensation by supposing sensible images to issue from bodies. -In moral philosophy, he only taught that a cheerful state of mind was -the greatest attainable good. - -The theories of Democritus appear absurd enough in our time; but -philosophy was then in its infancy. His struggles after light and truth -display the darkness of the age, and the ingenuity of the philosopher. -They may also teach us by what a process of mental toil, for centuries -piled upon centuries, the knowledge we possess has been attained. The -school he established, was supplanted, about a century after, by that -of Epicurus. - -[Illustration] - -[Footnote 12: Heraclitus flourished about 500 years B. C. He was a -native of Ephesus; and being of a melancholy disposition, he spent -his time in mourning and weeping over the frailties of human nature, -and the miseries of human life. He employed himself for a time, in -writing different treatises, in which he maintained that all things -are governed by a fatal necessity. His opinions, in some things, were -adopted by the Stoics. He became at last a man-hater, and retired to -the mountains, so as to be entirely separated from his fellow-men. Here -he fed on grass, which brought on a dropsical complaint: to get cured -of this, he returned to the town. He established his residence on a -dunghill, hoping that the warmth might dissipate his disease; but this -proved ineffectual, and he died in his sixtieth year.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - PERICLES. - - -This celebrated man, born about 498 B. C., was an Athenian of noble -birth, son of Xantippus and Agariste. He was endowed by nature with -great powers, which he improved by attending the lectures of Damon, -Zeno, and Anaxagoras. Under these celebrated masters, he became a -commander, a statesman, and an orator, and gained the affections -of the people by his great address, and well-directed liberality. -When he took a share in the administration of public affairs, he -rendered himself popular by opposing Cimon, who was the favorite of -the nobility; and, to remove every obstacle which stood in the way of -his ambition, he lessened the dignity and the power of the court of -Areopagus, whom the people had been taught for ages to respect and -venerate. - -He continued his attacks upon Cimon, and finally caused him to be -banished by the ostracism. Thucydides also, who had succeeded Cimon -on his banishment, shared the same fate, and Pericles remained, for -fifteen years, the sole minister, and, as it may be said, the absolute -sovereign of a republic which always showed itself so jealous of her -liberties, and which distrusted so much the honesty of her magistrates. -In his ministerial capacity, Pericles did not enrich himself, but the -prosperity of Athens was the object of his administration. He made war -against the Lacedæmonians, and restored the temple of Delphi to the -care of the Phocians, who had been illegally deprived of that honorable -trust. - -He obtained a victory over the Sicyonians near Nemæa, and waged a -successful war against the inhabitants of Samos. The Peloponnesian war -was fomented by his ambitious views, and when he had warmly represented -the flourishing state, the opulence and actual power of his country, -the Athenians did not hesitate to undertake a war against the most -powerful republics of Greece—a war which continued for twenty-seven -years, and was concluded by the destruction of their empire and the -demolition of their walls. The arms of the Athenians were, for some -time, crowned with success; but an unfortunate expedition raised -clamors against Pericles, and the enraged populace attributed all their -losses to him. To make atonement for their ill-success, they condemned -him to pay fifty talents. - -The loss of popular favor did not so much affect Pericles, as the death -of all his children. When the tide of disaffection had passed away, he -condescended to come into the public assembly, and viewed with secret -pride the contrition of his fellow-citizens, who universally begged his -forgiveness for the violence which they had offered to his ministerial -character. He was again restored to all his honors, and, if possible, -invested with more power and more authority than before; but the -dreadful pestilence which had diminished the number of his family, and -swept away many of his best friends, proved fatal to himself, and about -429 years B. C., in his seventieth year, he fell a sacrifice to that -terrible malady which robbed Athens of so many of her citizens. - -Pericles was forty years at the head of the administration; twenty-five -years with others, and fifteen alone. The flourishing state of the -country under his government, gave occasion to the Athenians publicly -to lament his loss and venerate his memory. As he was expiring -and apparently senseless, his friends, that stood around his bed, -expatiated with warmth on the most glorious actions of his life, and -the victories which he had won—when he suddenly interrupted their -tears and conversation, by saying, that in mentioning the exploits he -had achieved, and which were common to him with all generals, they had -forgotten to mention a circumstance, which reflected far greater glory -on him as a minister, a general, and above all, as a man: “It is,” said -he, “that not a citizen in Athens has been obliged to put on mourning -on my account.” - -The Athenians were so affected by his eloquence that they compared it -to thunder and lightning, and, as if he were another father of the -gods, they gave him the title of Olympian. The poets said that the -goddess of persuasion, with all her charms and attractions, dwelt -upon his tongue. When he marched at the head of the Athenian armies, -he observed that he had the command of a free nation, who were Greeks -and citizens of Athens. He also declared that not only the hand of -a magistrate, but also his eyes and his tongue, should be pure and -undefiled. There can be no doubt that Pericles was one of the most -eloquent orators and sagacious statesmen of Greece. - -Yet, great and venerable as his character may appear, we must not -forget his follies. His vicious partiality for the celebrated -courtesan, Aspasia, justly subjected him to the ridicule and censure -of his fellow-citizens. The greatness of his talents and his services, -enabled him to triumph over satire and reproach for the time, but the -Athenians had occasion to execrate the memory of a man, who, by his -example, corrupted the purity and innocence of their morals, and who, -associating licentiousness with talents and public virtue, rendered it -almost respectable. - -Pericles lost all his legitimate children by the pestilence already -mentioned; and to call a natural son by his own name, he was obliged to -repeal a law which he had made against spurious children, and which -he had enforced with great severity. This son, named Pericles, became -one of the ten generals who succeeded Alcibiades in the administration -of affairs, and, like his colleagues, he was condemned to death by the -Athenians, after the unfortunate battle of Arginusæ. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - ARISTIDES. - - -This great Athenian general and statesman, who took so conspicuous -a part in the deliverance of Greece from the Persians, and who has -come down to us with the enviable surname of THE JUST, was the son of -Lysimachus and born about the year 550 B. C. We know little of the -steps by which he rose to eminence. He was one of the ten generals of -the Athenian forces, when they fought with the Persians at Marathon. -According to the custom, each general held command of the army for -one day, in rotation. Aristides, perceiving the disadvantages of -this system, prevailed on his colleagues to give up their command -to Miltiades. To this, in a great measure, must be attributed the -memorable victory of the Greeks upon that occasion. - -The year after this, Aristides was archon; and the ambitious -Themistocles, desiring to get rid of him privately circulated a charge -that Aristides was aiming at sovereign power. He succeeded finally in -causing him to be exiled by the ostracism—a vote of banishment, in -which the Athenians used shells for ballots. While the voting, upon -this occasion, was going on, Aristides was among the people; a rustic -citizen, who did not know him, came up and asked him to write the name -of Aristides upon the shell with which he intended to vote. “Has he -ever injured you?” said Aristides. “No,” said the voter, “but I am -tired of hearing him called the ‘_Just!_’” - -Aristides left Athens, with prayers for its welfare. He was recalled -at the end of three years, and, forgetting his injury, devoted himself -with ardor and success to the good of his country. In the famous battle -of Platea, he commanded the Athenians, and is entitled to a great share -of the merit of the splendid victory gained by the Greeks. He died at -an advanced age, about 467 B. C. He was so poor that the expenses of -his funeral were defrayed at the public charge, and his two daughters, -on account of their father’s virtues, received a dowry from the public -treasury, when they came to marriageable years. - -The effect of so rare an example as that of Aristides, was visible even -during his lifetime. The Athenians became more virtuous, in imitating -their great leader. Such was their sense of his good qualities, that, -at the representation of one of the tragedies of Æschylus, when the -actor pronounced a sentence concerning moral goodness, the eyes of the -audience were all at once turned from the players to Aristides. When -he sat as judge, it is said that the plaintiff in his accusation—in -order to prejudice him against the defendant—mentioned the injuries -he had done to Aristides. “Mention the wrong _you_ have received,” -said the equitable Athenian. “I sit here as judge; the lawsuit is -yours, not mine.” On one occasion, Themistocles announced to the -people of Athens that he had a scheme of the greatest advantage to the -state; but it could not be mentioned in a public assembly. Aristides -was appointed to confer with him. The design was to set fire to the -combined fleet of the Greeks, then lying in a neighboring port, by -which means the Athenians would acquire the sovereignty of the seas. -Aristides returned to the people, and told them that nothing could be -more advantageous—yet nothing more unjust. The project was of course -abandoned. - -The character of Aristides is one of the finest that is handed down by -antiquity. To him belongs the rarest of all praises, that of observing -justice, not only between man and man, but between nation and nation. -He was truly a patriot, for he preferred the good of his country to his -own ambition. A candid enemy, an impartial friend, a just administrator -of other men’s money—an observer of national faith—he is well -entitled to the imperishable monument which is erected in that simple -title, THE JUST! - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - ÆSOP. - - -This celebrated inventor of fables was a native of Phrygia, in Asia -Minor, and flourished in the time of Solon, about 560 B. C. A life of -him was written by a Greek monk, named Planudes, about the middle of -the fourteenth century, which passed into circulation as a genuine -work, but which is proved to have been a mere fiction. In that work, -Æsop is represented as being hunch-backed, and an object of disgust -from his deformity. There appears to be no foundation whatever for this -story. This invention of the monk, no doubt, had for its object, to -give eclat to the beauties of Æsop’s mind, by the contrast of bodily -deformity. - -Throwing aside the work of Planudes, we are left to grope in obscurity -for the real history of the great fabulist. After the most diligent -researches, we can do little more than trace the leading incidents of -his life. The place of his birth, like that of Homer, is matter of -question; Samos, Sardis, Cotiæum in Phrygia, and Mesembria in Thrace, -laying claim alike to that honor. The early part of his life was spent -in slavery, and the names of three of his masters have been preserved: -Dinarchus, an Athenian, in whose service he is said to have acquired -a correct and pure knowledge of Greek; Xanthus, a Samian, who figures -in Planudes as a philosopher, in order that the capacity of the slave -may be set off by the incapacity of the master; and Iadmon or Idmon, -another Samian, by whom he was enfranchised. - -He acquired a high reputation in Greece for that species of -composition, which, after him, was called Æsopian, and, in consequence, -was solicited by Croesus to take up his abode at the Lydian court. Here -he is said to have met Solon, and to have rebuked the sage for his -uncourtly way of inculcating moral lessons. He is said to have visited -Athens during the usurpation of Pisistratus, and to have then composed -the fable of Jupiter and the Frogs[13] for the instruction of the -citizens. - -Being charged by Croesus with an embassy to Delphi, in the course of -which he was to distribute a sum of money to every Delphian, a quarrel -arose between him and the citizens, in consequence of which he returned -the money to his patron, alleging that those for whom it was meant -were unworthy of it. The disappointed party, in return, got up the -charge of sacrilege, upon which they put him to death. A pestilence -which ensued was attributed to this crime, and in consequence they made -proclamation, at all the public assemblies of the Grecian nation, of -their willingness to make compensation for Æsop’s death to any one who -should appear to claim it. A grandson of his master, Iadmon, at length -claimed and received it, no person more closely connected with the -sufferer having appeared. - -It is a question of some doubt, whether Æsop was the inventor of that -species of fable which endows the inferior animals, and even inanimate -objects, with speech and reason, and thus, under the cover of humorous -conceit, conveys lessons of wisdom; and which, from their pleasant -guise, are often well received where the plain truth would be rejected. -The probability is, that, if not the originator of such fables, -Æsop was the first who composed them of such point as to bring them -into use as a powerful vehicle for the inculcation of truth. At all -events, there is abundant proof that fables, passing under his name, -were current and popular in Athens, during the most brilliant period -of its literary history, and not much more than a century after the -death of the supposed author. The drolleries of Æsop are mentioned by -Aristophanes in terms which lead us to suppose that they were commonly -repeated at convivial parties. Socrates, in prison, turned into verse -‘those that he knew;’ and Plato, who banishes the fictions of Homer -from his ideal republic, speaks with high praise of the tendency of -those of Æsop. - -Many of the fables in circulation among us, under the name of Æsop, are -not his;—indeed, it is probable that but a small portion of them can -trace their origin back to the Phrygian. A good fable, as well as a -good story, however it may originate, is apt to be attributed to one -whose character it may suit—and thus it happens that the same smart -sayings are credited, in different countries, to different individuals; -and thus, also, we see that many of the fables which we assign to Æsop, -are credited, by the Mohammedans, to their fabulist, Lokman. - -The value of fables, as instruments of instruction, is attested by -Addison, in the following words. “They were,” says he, “the first -pieces of wit that made their appearance in the world; and have been -still highly valued, not only in times of the greatest simplicity, but -among the most polite ages of mankind. Jotham’s fable of the Trees is -the oldest that is extant, and as beautiful as any which have been -made since that time. Nathan’s fable of the Poor Man and his Lamb is -likewise more ancient than any that is extant, excepting the above -mentioned, and had so good an effect as to convey instruction to the -ear of a king, without offending it, and to bring the ‘man after God’s -own heart’ to a right sense of his guilt and his duty. We find Æsop -in the most distant ages of Greece. And, if we look into the very -beginning of the commonwealth of Rome, we see a mutiny among the common -people appeased by the fable of the Belly and the Members; which was -indeed very proper to gain the attention of an incensed rabble, at -a time when perhaps they would have torn to pieces any man who had -preached the same doctrine to them in an open and direct manner. As -fables took their birth in the very infancy of learning, they never -flourished more than when learning was at its greatest height. To -justify this assertion, I shall put my reader in mind of Horace, the -greatest wit and critic in the Augustan age; and of Boileau, the most -correct poet among the moderns; not to mention La Fontaine, who, by -this way of writing, is come more into vogue than any other author of -our times.” - -“Reading is to the mind,” continues the writer, “what exercise is -to the body: as, by the one, health is preserved, strengthened, and -invigorated, by the other, virtue, (which is the health of the mind,) -is kept alive, cherished and confirmed. But, as exercise becomes -tedious and painful when we make use of it only as the means of health, -so reading is too apt to grow uneasy and burdensome, when we apply -ourselves to it only for our improvement in virtue. For this reason, -the virtue which we gather from a fable or an allegory, is like the -health we get by hunting, as we are engaged in an agreeable pursuit -that draws us on with pleasure, and makes us insensible of the fatigues -that accompany it.” - -In modern times, La Fontaine has given us an admirable collection of -fables, and the artist Grandville has added a new charm to them, by a -very happy conceit. With infinite wit, he has dressed up the wolves, -foxes, and other animals which figure in the fables, in human attire, -yet so skilfully as to seem natural—thus aiding the imagination, in -conceiving of the actors and speakers in the fables, as performing -their several parts. By the aid of his magical pencil, even trees, -kettles and kegs assume an appearance of life, and seem to justify the -wit and wisdom which they are imagined to utter. The humor of these -designs is inimitable; and thus not only is greater effect given to -the particular fables illustrated, but greater scope, to the fable -generally. We are indebted, in this country, for a most excellent -translation of La Fontaine, with many of Grandville’s designs, to -Professor Wright. - -[Illustration] - -[Footnote 13: “The frogs, living an easy, free life everywhere among -the lakes and ponds, assembled together one day, in a very tumultuous -manner, and petitioned Jupiter to let them have a king, who might -inspect their morals, and make them live a little honester. Jupiter, -being at that time in pretty good humor, was pleased to laugh heartily -at their ridiculous request; and, throwing a little log down into -the pool, cried, ‘There is a king for you,’ The sudden splash which -this made, by its fall into the water, at first terrified them so -exceedingly, that they were afraid to come near it. But, in a little -time, seeing it remain without moving, they ventured, by degrees, to -approach it; and, at last, finding there was no danger, they leaped -upon it, and, in short, treated it as familiarly as they pleased. - -“But not contented with so insipid a king as this was, they sent their -deputies to petition again for another sort of one; for this they -neither did nor could like. Upon that Jupiter sent them a stork, who, -without any ceremony, fell to devouring and eating them up, one after -another, as fast as he could. Then they applied themselves privately to -Mercury, and got him to speak to Jupiter in their behalf, that he would -be so good as to bless them again with another king, or to restore them -to their former state. ‘No,’ says Jove, ‘since it was their own choice, -let the obstinate wretches suffer the punishment due to their folly.’”] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - SOLON. - - -Solon, one of the seven wise men of Greece, was born at Salamis, 637 -B. C. and educated at Athens. His father was one of the descendants of -king Codrus, and, by his mother’s side, he reckoned among his relations -the celebrated Pisistratus. After he had devoted part of his time to -philosophical and political studies, Solon travelled over the greatest -part of Greece; but at his return home he was distressed at beholding -the dissensions among his countrymen. - -All now fixed their eyes upon him as a deliverer, and he was -unanimously elected archon. He might have become absolute, but he -refused the dangerous office of king of Athens, and, in the capacity -of lawgiver, he began to make a reform in every department of the -government. The complaints of the poorer citizens found redress; all -debts were remitted, and no one was permitted to seize the person of -his debtor, if he was unable to make payment. After he had established -the most salutary regulations in the state, and bound the Athenians -by a solemn oath that they would faithfully observe his laws for the -space of one hundred years, Solon resigned the office of legislator, -and removed himself from Athens. He visited Egypt, and the court of -Croesus,[14] king of Lydia—celebrated for his wealth, and the vanity -of desiring to be esteemed the happiest of mankind. He here declared -to the monarch that an Athenian, who had always seen his country -flourish—who had virtuous children, and who fell in defence of his -native land, had a happier career than the proudest emperor on the -globe. - -After ten years’ absence, Solon returned to Athens; but he had the -mortification to find the greatest part of his regulations disregarded, -through the factious spirit of his countrymen and the usurpation of -Pisistratus. Not to be longer a spectator of the divisions that reigned -in his country, he retired to Cyprus, where he died at the court of -king Philocyprus, in the eightieth year of his age. The laws of Solon -became established in Athens, and their salutary consequences can be -discovered in the length of time they were in force in the republic. -For above four hundred years they flourished in full vigor, and Cicero, -who was himself a witness of their benign influence, passes the highest -encomiums upon the legislator, whose superior wisdom framed such a code -of regulations. - -It was the intention of Solon to protect the poorer citizens; and by -dividing the whole body of the Athenians into four classes, three of -which were permitted to discharge the most important offices and -magistracies of the state, and the last to give their opinion in the -assemblies, but not have a share in the distinctions and honors of -their superiors; the legislator gave the populace a privilege, which, -though at first small and inconsiderable, soon rendered them masters -of the republic, and of all the affairs of government. He made a -reformation in the Areopagus, increased the authority of the members, -and permitted them yearly to inquire how every citizen maintained -himself, and to punish such as lived in idleness, and were not employed -in some honorable and lucrative profession. He also regulated the -Prytaneum, and fixed the number of its judges to four hundred. - -The sanguinary laws of Draco were all cancelled except that against -murder; and the punishment denounced against every offender was -proportioned to his crime; but Solon made no law against parricide -or sacrilege. The former of these crimes, he said, was too horrible -to human nature for a man to be guilty of it, and the latter could -never be committed, because the history of Athens had never furnished -a single instance. Such as had died in the service of their country, -were buried with great pomp, and their families were maintained at -the public expense; but such as had squandered away their estates, -such as refused to bear arms in defence of their country, or paid no -attention to the infirmity and distress of their parents, were branded -with infamy. The laws of marriage were newly regulated; it became an -union of affection and tenderness, and no longer a mercenary contract. -To speak with ill language against the dead, as well as against -the living, was made a crime; for the legislator wished that the -character of his fellow-citizens should be freed from the aspersions of -malevolence and envy. A person that had no children was permitted to -dispose of his estates as he pleased; females were not allowed to be -extravagant in their dress or expenses; licentiousness was punished; -and those accustomed to abandoned society, were deprived of the -privilege of addressing the public assemblies. These celebrated laws -were engraved on several tables; and that they might be better known -and more familiar to the Athenians, they were written in verse. - -If we consider the time in which Solon lived, we shall see occasion to -regard him as a man of extraordinary wisdom and virtue. Nearly all the -systems of government around him were despotic. That government should -be instituted and conducted for the benefit of the governed; and that -the people are the proper depositories of power—principles recognised -in his institutions—were truths so deeply hidden from mankind, as to -demand an intellect of the highest order for their discovery. - -Nor are his virtues and humanity less conspicuous than his sagacity. -While repealing the bloody code of Draco, he substituted mild and -equitable laws; he shunned the harsh and savage system of Lycurgus, -which sacrificed all the best feelings of the heart, and the most -refined pleasures of life, in order to sustain the martial character -of the state; and while he sought to soften the manners, he strove -to exalt the standard of public and private virtue, not only by his -laws, but by his conversation and example. He was thus, not only -the benefactor of Athens and of Greece, but—as one of the great -instruments of civilization throughout the world, and especially as -one of the leaders in the establishment of free government—mankind at -large owe him a lasting debt of gratitude. - -[Illustration] - - -[Footnote 14: Croesus was the fifth and last of the Mermadæ, who -reigned in Lydia, and during his time he passed for the richest of -mankind. He was the first who made the Greeks of Asia tributary to -the Lydians. His court was the asylum of learning; and Æsop, the -famous fable-writer, among others, lived under his patronage. In a -conversation with Solon, Croesus wished to be thought the happiest of -mankind; but the philosopher apprized him of his mistake, and gave the -preference to poverty and domestic virtue. Croesus undertook a war -against Cyrus, the king of Persia, and marched to meet him with an army -of 420,000 men, and 60,000 horse. After a reign of fourteen years he -was defeated, B. C. 548; his capital was besieged, and he fell into -the conqueror’s hands, who ordered him to be burnt alive. The pile -was already on fire, when Cyrus heard the conquered monarch exclaim, -“Solon! Solon! Solon!” with lamentable energy. He asked him the reason -of his exclamation, and Croesus repeated the conversation he once had -with Solon, on human happiness. Cyrus was moved at the recital; and, -at the recollection of the inconstancy of human affairs, he ordered -Croesus to be taken from the burning pile, and he was afterwards one -of his most intimate friends. The kingdom of Lydia became extinct in -his person, and the power was transferred to Persia. Croesus survived -Cyrus. The manner of his death is unknown. He is celebrated for the -immensely rich presents which he made to the temple of Delphi, from -which he received an obscure and ambiguous oracle, which he interpreted -in his favor, but which was fulfilled in the destruction of his -empire.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - LYCURGUS. - - -This Spartan lawgiver is supposed to have been born about 900 B. C. He -was the youngest son of king Eunomus, and was entitled to the throne -upon the death of his brother, Polydectes; but he relinquished it in -behalf of his unborn son, and administered the government in his name. -By the wisdom of his measures, he won general esteem; and his noble -disinterestedness raised his glory to a height which awoke envy against -him in the minds of some of the most distinguished Spartans, who now -conspired against him. Partly to escape the danger which threatened -him, and partly to gratify the desire of seeing foreign nations, and -learning their manners, he left Sparta, and travelled in various -countries. - -After visiting Crete, and admiring the wise laws of Minos, he went to -Iona. The effeminate and luxurious life of the inhabitants, and the -feebleness of their laws, which formed a striking contrast with the -simplicity and vigor of those of Crete, made a deep impression upon -him. Here, however, he is said to have become acquainted with the poems -of Homer, which he collected and carried to Greece. From hence he is -said to have travelled into Egypt, India, and Spain; but this seems -improbable. - -In the meanwhile, the two kings who succeeded him at Sparta, Archelaus -and Charilaus, were esteemed neither by the people nor by the -nobility; and, as there were no laws sufficient to maintain the public -tranquillity, the confusion passed all bounds. In this dangerous -situation, Lycurgus was the only man from whom help and deliverance -could be expected. The people hoped from him protection against -the nobles, and the kings believed that he would put an end to the -disobedience of the people. More than once, ambassadors were sent to -entreat him to come to the assistance of the state. - -He long resisted, but at last yielded to the urgent wishes of his -fellow-citizens. At his arrival in Sparta, he found that not only -particular abuses were to be suppressed, but that it would be necessary -to form an entirely new constitution. The confidence which his -personal character, his judgment, and the dangerous situation of the -state, gave him among his fellow-citizens, encouraged him to encounter -all obstacles. The first step which he took, was to add to the kings a -senate of twenty-eight persons, venerable for their age, without whose -consent the former were to undertake nothing. He thus established a -useful balance between the power of the kings and the licentiousness -of the people. The latter at the same time obtained the privilege of -giving their voice in public affairs. They had not, however, properly -speaking, deliberative privileges, but only the limited right of -accepting or rejecting what was proposed by the kings or the senate. - -The Spartans conformed in general to the institutions of Lycurgus; but -the equal division of property which he effected, excited among the -rich such violent commotions, that the lawgiver fled to the temple, to -save his life. On the way, he received a blow, which struck out one of -his eyes. He merely turned round, and showed to his pursuers his face -streaming with blood. This sight filled all with shame and repentance; -they implored his pardon, and led him respectfully home. The person who -had done the deed, a young man of rank, and of a fiery character, was -given up to him. Lycurgus pardoned him, and dismissed him, covered with -shame. - -After having thus formed a constitution for Sparta, Lycurgus endeavored -to provide for its continuance. He made all the citizens take a -solemn oath that they would change nothing in the laws which he had -introduced, before his return. He then went to Delphi, and asked the -gods whether the new laws were sufficient for the happiness of Sparta. -The answer was, “Sparta will remain the most prosperous of all states -as long as it observes these laws.” He sent this answer to Lacedæmon, -and left his country forever. He died of voluntary starvation, and -ordered his body to be burned, and the ashes scattered in the sea, lest -they should be carried to Sparta, and his countrymen be released from -their oath. - -Though the patriotism of Lycurgus appears to have been of the most -exalted nature, his institutions were exceedingly barbarous, in many -respects. He cherished no such thing as family ties, but required -everything to yield to the good of the state. The children did not -belong to the parents; feeble children were destroyed; meals were all -taken in common; unmarried men were punished. Thus the private liberty -of the people was taken away, and they were made slaves, in their daily -habits, thoughts and feelings, to that power which was called the -state. The design of the lawgiver seemed to be to rear up a nation of -soldiers—not for conquest, but for defence. He would not permit Sparta -to be encircled with walls, preferring that its defence should depend -on the arms of the citizens. The men were wholly trained for martial -life. Sensibility to suffering, and the fear of death, were treated -with contempt. Victory or death, in battle, was their highest glory; -cowardice was attended with the most deadly shame. - -The difference between the institutions of Lycurgus and those of Solon, -may be seen in their results. The Spartans became a stern and haughty -nation of soldiers; but they have left nothing behind but their story, -to instruct mankind; while the Athenians, exalted by the genial breath -of liberty, continue to this very hour to be the admiration of the -world, for their literature, their arts, and their institutions. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - HOMER. - - -The Iliad is often spoken of as the greatest production of the human -mind; yet it has been seriously questioned whether such a person -as Homer ever lived! This paradox is to be explained by admitting, -that, although the Iliad is a wonderful performance for the time and -circumstances of its composition, still, it is by no means entitled to -the supremacy which scholastic fondness assigns to it; and that the -doubts thrown upon its authorship are but the mists engendered in the -arena of hypercriticism. - -By Homer, we mean the author of the Iliad, whatever may have been his -true name. The period at which he flourished is matter of doubt, but -it is fixed by the Arundelian Marbles,[15] at 907 B. C., which is -probably not far from the true date. A great many tales are handed -down to us, in relation to him, which are mere fictions. The only well -established facts, in his life, are that he was a native of Asiatic -Greece, and a wandering poet, or rhapsodist, who went about the country -reciting his compositions, according to the custom of those times. The -story of his being blind is without authority. - -Such are the meagre facts which can be gathered amid the obscurity of -that remote age in which Homer lived. There is something painful in -this barrenness,—and we almost feel that the critics, in exploding the -fond fictions which antiquity has woven around the name of the great -poet, have performed an ungracious office. They have indeed dissipated -fables, but they have left us little but darkness or vacuity in their -place. Such is the yearning of the mind, in respect to those who have -excited its emotions, and created an interest in the bosom, that it -will cherish even the admitted portraitures of fiction and fancy, -rather than content itself with the blank canvass of nothingness. The -heart, as well as nature, abhors a vacuum. - -The fictitious history of Homer—which, however, is of some antiquity, -and has passed current for centuries—is briefly as follows. His mother -was named Critheis: she was married to Mæon, king of Smyrna, and gave -birth to a child, on or near the banks of the river Meles, from which -circumstance he was called Meles genes. The mother soon died, and he -was brought up and educated under the care of Mæon. The name of Homer -was afterwards given to him, on account of his becoming blind. - -The legends proceed in general to state that Homer himself became a -schoolmaster and poet of great celebrity, at Smyrna, and remained -there till Mentes, a foreign merchant, induced him to travel. That the -author of the Iliad and Odyssey must have travelled pretty extensively -for those times, is unquestionable; for besides the accurate knowledge -of Greece which these works display, it is clear that the poet had a -familiar acquaintance with the islands both in the Ægean and the Ionian -seas, the coasts of Asia Minor, Crete, Cyprus, and Egypt—which still -bear the names he gave them—and possessed also distinct information -with respect to Lybia, Æthiopia, Phoenicia, Caria and Phrygia. - -In his travels, as the legends say, Homer visited Ithaca, and there -became subject to a disease in his eyes, which afterwards terminated in -total blindness. From this island he is said to have gone to Italy, and -even to Spain; but there is no sign, in either of the two poems, of his -possessing any definite knowledge westward of the Ionian sea. Wherever -he went, Homer recited his verses, which were universally admired, -except at Smyrna, where he was a prophet in his own country. At Phocæa, -a schoolmaster, of the name of Thestorides, obtained from Homer a copy -of his poetry, and then sailed to Chios, and there recited these verses -as his own. Homer went soon after to the same place, and was rescued -by Glaucus, a goatherd, from the attack of his dogs, and brought by -him to Bolissus, a town in Chios, where he resided a long time, in the -possession of wealth and a splendid reputation. - -According to Herodotus, Homer died at Io, on his way to Athens, and -was buried near the sea-shore. Proclus says he died in consequence of -falling over a stone. Plutarch tells a different story. He preserves -two responses of an oracle to the poet, in both of which he was -cautioned to beware of the young men’s riddle; and relates that the -poet, being on a voyage to Thebes, to attend a musical or poetical -contest at the feast of Saturn, in that city, landed in the island -of Io, and, whilst sitting on a rock by the sea-shore, observed some -young fishermen in a boat. Homer asked them if they had anything, and -the young wags, who, having had no sport, had been diligently catching -and killing as many as they could, of certain personal companions of a -race not even yet extinct, answered,—“As many as we caught, we left; -as many as we could not catch, we carry with us.” The catastrophe of -this absurd story is, that Homer, being utterly unable to guess the -riddle, broke his heart, out of pure vexation; and the inhabitants of -the island buried him with great magnificence, and placed the following -inscription on his tomb:— - - - Here Homer, the divine in earthly bed, - Poet of Heroes, rests his sacred head. - - -The general theory in regard to the poems of Homer, is that they were -composed and recited by him, to the people living upon the islands and -the main land along the coasts of Asia Minor. At that time books were -unknown, and it is a question whether even the art of writing was then -practised. Homer, therefore, published his poems in the only way he -could do it—by oral delivery. Whether his verses were sung, or only -recited, we cannot determine; but there is no doubt that he obtained -both fame and maintenance by his performances. - -So deep was the impression made by the poet, that his verses were -learned by heart, and preserved in the memories of succeeding -rhapsodists and minstrels. His reputation was diffused over all Greece; -and Lycurgus, who had heard of his compositions, is supposed to have -taken pains, during his travels, to have them written down, and to have -brought them in a collected form to Greece. They were, however, still -in fragments, and the task of arranging and uniting them was performed -by Pisistratus, with the help of the poets of his time. In this way, -they received nearly the form they now possess; the division of each of -the two epics into twenty-four books, corresponding with the letters -of the Greek alphabet, being the work of the Alexandrian critics, -some centuries after. It must be remembered, however, that although -the poems of Homer were thus committed to writing in the time of -Pisistratus, they continued to be recited by the rhapsodists, who were -much favored in Greece, and in this way alone, for several centuries, -were popularly known. It is probable that in these recitations, there -was a good deal of dramatic action, and that they possessed something -of the interest which belongs to theatrical representation. - -The vicissitudes to which Homer’s reputation and influence have been -subject, deserve notice. From the arrangement of the Iliad and Odyssey, -in the time of the Pisistratidæ, to the promulgation of Christianity, -the love and reverence with which the name of Homer was regarded, went -on constantly increasing, till at last public games were instituted in -his honor, statues dedicated, temples erected, and sacrifices offered -to him, as a divinity. There were such temples at Smyrna, Chios, and -Alexandria; and, according to Ælian, the Argives sacrificed to, and -invoked the names and presence of, Apollo and Homer together. - -But about the beginning of the second century of the Christian era, -when the struggle between the old and the new religions was warm -and active, the tide turned. Heathenism, says Pope, was then to be -destroyed, and Homer appeared to be the father of those fictions which -were at once the belief of the Pagan religion, and the objections of -Christianity against it. He became, therefore, deeply involved in the -question, not with that honor which had hitherto attended him, but as -a criminal, who had drawn the world into folly. These times, however, -are past, and Homer stands on the summit of the ancient Parnassus, the -boast and glory of Greece, and the wonder and admiration of mankind. - -The Iliad, with the exception of the Pentateuch and some others of the -books of the Old Testament, is the most ancient composition known. It -is interesting not only as a splendid poem, but also on account of the -light it throws upon the history and manners of the remote ages in -which it was written. We are struck with the similarity of the customs -of the Asiatic Greeks to those of the Hebrews, as set forth in the -Bible; and also with the fact that the Jupiter of Homer rises to that -unchecked omnipotence assigned to Jehovah. - -The design of the Iliad seems to be to set forth the revenge which -Achilles took on Agamemnon, for depriving him of his mistress, Briseis, -while engaged in the siege of Troy—with the long train of evils which -followed. The admirers of Homer have pretended to discover in the work -the most profound art in the construction of the poem, and have hence -deduced rules for the formation of the epic poem; but nothing is more -clear than that, in the simple lines of Homer, the poet had no other -guide than a profound knowledge of human nature and human sympathies; -and that he only sought to operate on these by telling a plain story, -in the most simple, yet effective manner. The absence of all art is -one of the chief characteristics of the Iliad;—its naturalness is the -great secret of its power. - -That this poem is the greatest of human productions—a point often -assumed—is by no means to be received as true. It strikes us with -wonder, when we consider the age in which it was composed, and we -feel that Homer was indeed one of the great lights of the world. The -following passage, one of the finest in the Iliad, is full of truth, -nature and pathos—and it shows that the heroes of Troy, nearly three -thousand years ago, had the same feelings and sympathies as those which -beat in the bosoms of our time; yet we can point to a great number of -passages in modern poems, far, very far superior to this. The scene -represents Priam—who has come to the Greek camp for the purpose of -redeeming the body of his son Hector—as addressing the chieftain, -Achilles: - - - “Think, O Achilles, semblance of the gods! - On thy own father, full of days like me, - And trembling on the gloomy verge of life: - Some neighbor chief, it may be, even now, - Oppresses him, and there is none at hand, - No friend to succor him in his distress; - Yet doubtless, hearing that Achilles lives, - He still rejoices, hoping day by day, - That one day he shall see the face again - Of his own son from distant Troy returned. - But me no comfort cheers, whose bravest sons, - So late the flower of Ilium, all are slain. - When Greece came hither, I had fifty sons; - Nineteen were children of one bed; the rest - Born of my concubines. A numerous house! - But fiery Mars hath thinned it. One I had, - One, more than all my sons, the strength of Troy, - Whom standing for his country thou hast slain,— - Hector. His body to redeem I come; - Into Achia’s fleet bringing myself - Ransom inestimable to thy tent. - Rev’rence the gods, Achilles! recollect - Thy father; for his sake compassion show - To me, more pitiable still, who draw - Home to my lips (humiliation yet - Unseen on earth) his hand who slew my son! - - “So saying, he awakened in his soul regret - Of his own sire; softly he placed his hand - On Priam’s hand, and pushed him gently away. - Remembrance melted both. Rolling before - Achilles feet, Priam his son deplored, - Wide slaughtering Hector, and Achilles wept - By turns his father, and by turns his friend - Patroclus: sounds of sorrow filled the tent.” - - -Beside the Iliad, another epic, divided into twenty-four books, and -entitled the Odyssey, with a number of smaller pieces, are attributed -to Homer, and doubtless upon good and substantial grounds. The Odyssey -is a tale of adventures, like Robinson Crusoe, and Sinbad the Sailor, -heightened by an object, and dignified by a moral far above these -works. It tells us what befel Ulysses, in returning from the siege of -Troy to his home in Greece; and is wrought up with wonderful powers -of invention and fancy. It is esteemed inferior, on the whole, to the -Iliad, and an eminent critic has said, that, in the former, Homer -appears like the rising, and in the latter, like the setting sun. - -[Illustration] - - -[Footnote 15: These Marbles consist of a large collection of busts, -statues, altars, inscriptions, mutilated figures, &c., formed by Thomas -Howard, Earl of Arundel, in the early part of the seventeenth century, -and presented to the University of Oxford, by Henry Howard, the earl’s -grandson. They were obtained in various parts of Greece; many are of -great antiquity and of great value, as well for the light they shed -upon history as upon the arts, customs, and manners of past ages.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - CONFUCIUS. - - -This greatest of Chinese philosophers was born in the petty kingdom -of Lú, now the province of Shántung, in the year 549 B. C.—the same -year that Cyrus became king of the Medes and Persians. The Chinese, -in their embellishments of his history, tell us that his birth was -attended with heavenly music, filling the air; that two dragons were -seen winding over the roof; that five old men appeared at the door, -and after consulting together, suddenly vanished; and that a unicorn -brought to his mother a tablet in his mouth. It is also related that -when he was born, five characters were seen on his breast, declaring -him to be “the maker of a rule for settling the world.” These and other -marvels are a part of the established biography of the philosopher, as -received by the Chinese. - -The father of Confucius, who was a magistrate of the district where he -lived, died when the son was but three years old. The latter was poor -and unknown during his youth—though his gravity and attention to study -attracted the attention of his townsmen. When he approached manhood, he -was esteemed remarkable for his wisdom, and equal to the learned men of -the country in his knowledge of antiquity. - -At the age of seventeen he received an appointment as clerk in the -grain department of the government; and so attentive was he in his -trust, as, two years after, to be advanced to the general supervision -of the fields and parks, and the breeding of cattle. About this time -he was married, and two years after, his only son was born. Upon this -occasion, Lord Cháu the governor of Lú, sent him two carp as a present, -and accordingly Confucius named his son Lí or Carp. His humor went even -farther, and he gave the boy the additional title of Piyü, or Uncle -Fish. - -At the age of twenty-four, Confucius lost his mother, whom he buried in -the same grave with his father, who had been dead some time. He then -resigned his office, that he might mourn three years for his mother, -according to the ancient custom of the country. This practice had -fallen into neglect, and, consequently, the example of Confucius, in -following the holy custom of the fathers of the country, gained him -great renown for his piety. His reputation was thus extended, and his -example began to be followed. - -The three years of his mourning were not lost—for he then devoted -himself to study. He diligently examined the books of the old authors, -seeking to discover the means by which the ancient kings and sages -sought to attain the perfection of morals. The result was, a conviction -that the social virtues were best cultivated by an observance of the -ancient usages of the country; and accordingly he resolved to devote -his life to them, and to their permanent establishment in China. This -great work he accomplished; and if we consider the effect he has -produced on the most populous nation of the globe, and during a space -of nearly two thousand years, we shall perceive the mighty consequence -of his labors. The actual amount of influence he has exercised, perhaps -exceeds that of any other human being, save Aristotle alone. - -Appearing to have a clear view of his great work, Confucius entered -upon it with systematic diligence. He resolved to establish schools -where his philosophy should be taught to pupils who would go forth and -spread his doctrines through the empire. He also proposed to write a -series of books, setting forth his views. All these things he lived to -accomplish. - -The greater part of the life of Confucius was passed in travelling, -visiting the courts of the petty princes, whose states then constituted -the empire under the sovereign of the Chán dynasty. This course was, -as might be expected, fruitless in reforming these states, but it -diffused a general knowledge of himself and his doctrines, and procured -him scholars. The prince of Tsí was the first who invited him to his -court, and received him with distinction. This potentate heard him with -pleasure, and applauded his maxims; but, to the chagrin of Confucius, -he continued to live in luxury, and to allow his ministers to oppress -his subjects and abuse their power. He, however, offered him for his -maintenance the revenue of a considerable city, which the philosopher -thought proper to decline, alleging that he had done nothing to merit -such a recompense. After sojourning a year in Tsí, and seeing that his -discourse produced no effect to reform the abuses and evils of the -country, he left it, and visited some of the principal cities of China. - -On the road between Tsí and Chin, he fell into a difficulty. The prince -of Wú having attacked Chin, the lord of Tsú came to his relief, and -sent an invitation to Confucius to join him; but the other party, -fearing that he would do them a disservice, sent people to intercept -him. They surrounded him in the wilderness, and would have starved him -to death, had not a friend come to his relief, after a detention of -seven days. After this narrow escape, he returned home and the prince -of Lú gave him a carriage, two horses and a servant, with which he set -off for King-yang, the capital of the empire. Here he passed his time -in observing the forms of government, the condition of the people and -their manners, and how the rites and ceremonies of the ancient kings -were regarded. He held several interviews with the ministers of the -court, was permitted to visit the emperor’s ancestral hall, and other -sacred places, and had access to the archives of the kingdom, from -which he was allowed to take extracts. - -One object in the visit of Confucius to the capital, was to see -Láutsz’, the founder of the Táu sect, or Rationalists, who lived in -a retired place, some distance from court. This old philosopher, -accustomed to visits from men of all ranks, received Confucius and his -disciples with indifference. He was reclining on an elevated platform, -and hearing that his visitor had come to hear from his own mouth an -exposition of his tenets, and to ask him about _propriety_, he roused -himself to receive him. “I have heard speak of you,” says he, “and I -know your reputation. I am told that you talk only of the ancients, -and discourse only upon what they taught. Now, of what use is it to -endeavor to revive the memory of men of whom no trace remains on the -earth? The sage ought to interest himself with the times in which he -lives, and regard present circumstances; if they are favorable, he -will improve them; but if, on the contrary, they are unfavorable, he -will retire and wait tranquilly, without grieving at what others do. -He who possesses a treasure, will try to have everybody know it; he -will preserve it against the day of need; this you will do if you are a -sage. It seems, judging by your conduct, that you have some ostentation -in your plans of instruction and that you are proud. Correct these -faults, and purify your heart from all love of pleasure; you will, in -this way, be much more useful than seeking to know what the ancients -said.” - -Láutsz’ also observed, “A discreet merchant keeps his affairs to -himself as if he knew nothing; an excellent man, although highly -intelligent, demeans himself like an ignorant man.” Confucius remarked -to his disciples, “I have seen Láutsz’; have I not seen something -like a dragon?” On leaving him, Láutsz’ said, “I have heard that -the rich dismiss their friends with a present, and the benevolent -send away people with a word of advice; whoever is talented, and -prying into everything, will run himself into danger, because he -loves to satirize and slander men; and he who wishes to thoroughly -understand recondite things will jeopard his safety, because he loves -to publish the failings of men.” Confucius replied, “I respectfully -receive your instructions,” and thus left him. Láutsz’ advice seemed -directed against a too inquisitive philosophy, and meddling too much -in the affairs of the world; he was rather of the Budhistic school of -quietists, while Confucius wished men to endeavor to make each other -better. - -Confucius, like Aristotle and other masters, used to teach his -disciples while walking with them, deriving instruction from what they -saw. Once, while walking with them by the bank of a stream, he stopped -from time to time to look very intently at the water, until their -attention was excited, and they were induced to ask him the reason of -his conduct. He replied, “The running of water in its bed is a very -simple thing, the reason of which everybody knows. I was, however, -rather making a comparison in my own mind between the running of water -and doctrine. The water, I reflected, runs unceasingly, by day and by -night, until it is lost in the bosom of the mighty deep. Since the days -of Yáu and Shun, the pure doctrine has uninterruptedly descended to us: -let us in our turn transmit it to those who come after us, that they, -from our example, may give it to their descendants to the end of time. -Do not imitate those isolated men, (referring to Láutsz’,) who are -wise only for themselves. To communicate the knowledge and virtue we -possess, to others, will never impoverish ourselves. This is one of the -reflections I would make upon the running of water.” - -This peripatetic habit, and the aptitude for drawing instruction from -whatever would furnish instruction, was usual with the philosopher, -and he seldom omitted to improve an occasion. Once, when walking in -the fields, he perceived a fowler, who, having drawn in his nets, -distributed the birds he had taken into different cages. On coming up -to him to ascertain what he had caught, Confucius attentively remarked -the vain efforts of the captive birds to regain their liberty, until -his disciples gathered round him, when he addressed the fowler,—“I do -not see any old birds here; where have you put them?” “The old birds,” -said he, “are too wary to be caught; they are on the look-out, and if -they see a net or a cage, far from falling into the snare, they escape, -and never return. Those young ones which are in company with them, -likewise escape, but such only as separate into a flock by themselves, -and rashly approach, are the birds I catch. If perchance I catch an old -bird, it is because he follows the young ones.” - -“You have heard him,” said Confucius, turning to his disciples; “the -words of this fowler afford us matter for instruction. The young -birds escape the snare only when they keep with the old ones; the old -ones are taken when they follow the young. It is thus with mankind. -Presumption, hardihood, want of forethought, and inattention are the -principal reasons why young people are led astray. Inflated with their -small attainments, they have scarcely made a commencement in learning, -before they think they know everything; they have scarcely performed -a few virtuous acts, and straight they fancy themselves at the height -of wisdom. Under this false impression they doubt nothing; they rashly -undertake acts without consulting the aged and experienced, and thus, -securely following their own notions, they are misled, and fall into -the first snare laid for them. If you see an old man of sober years so -badly advised as to be taken with the giddiness of a youth, attached -to him, and thinking and acting with him, he is led astray by him, and -soon taken in the same snare. Do not forget the answer of the fowler, -but reflect on it occasionally.” - -Having completed his observations at the capital, Confucius returned, -by the way of Tsí, to his native state of Lú, where he remained ten -years. His house now became a sort of lyceum, open to every one who -wished to receive instruction. His manner of teaching was to allow -his disciples or others to come and go when they pleased, asking -his opinion on such points, either in morals, politics, history, or -literature, as they wished to have explained. He gave them the liberty -of choosing their subject, and then he discoursed upon it. From these -conversations and detached expressions of the philosopher, treasured -up by his disciples, they afterwards composed Lun Yü, now one of the -Four Books. Confucius, it is said, numbered upwards of three thousand -disciples, or perhaps we ought to call them advocates or hearers -of his doctrine. They consisted of men of all ranks and ages, who -attended upon him when their duties or inclinations permitted, and -who materially assisted in diffusing a knowledge of his tenets over -the whole country. There were, however, a select few, who attached -themselves to his person, lived with him, and followed him wherever he -went; and to whom he entrusted the promulgation of his doctrines. - -After several years of retirement, Confucius was called into public -life. The prince of Lú died, and his son, entertaining a great respect -for the philosopher, and esteem for his instructions, invited him to -court, in order to learn his doctrines more fully. After becoming well -acquainted with him, and reposing confidence in his integrity, the -young ruler committed the entire management of the state to him; and -the activity, courage, and disinterested conduct which he exhibited -in the exercise of his power, soon had the happiest effect upon the -country. By his wise rules and the authority of his example and his -maxims he soon reformed many vicious practices, and introduced -sobriety and order, in the place of waste and injustice. He occupied -himself with agriculture, and regulated the revenue and the manner of -receiving it; so that, in consequence of his measures, the productions -of the state were increased, the happiness of the people was extended, -and the revenue considerably augmented. - -He carried his reforms into every department of justice, in which, soon -after he entered upon his duties as minister, he had an opportunity of -exhibiting his inflexibility. One of the most powerful nobles of the -state had screened himself from the just punishment due to his many -crimes, under the dread of his power and riches, and the number of his -retainers. Confucius caused him to be arrested, and gave order for his -trial; and when the overwhelming proofs brought forward had convinced -all of his guilt, he condemned him to lose his head, and presided -himself at the execution. This wholesome severity struck a dread into -other men of rank, and likewise obtained the plaudits of all men of -sense, as well as of the people, who saw in the minister a courageous -protector, ready to defend them against the tyranny of men in power. - -These salutary reforms had not been long in operation, before the -neighboring states took alarm at the rising prosperity of Lú; and the -prince of Tsí, who had recently usurped the throne by assassinating -its occupant, resolved to ruin the plans of Confucius. To this end he -appointed an envoy to the young prince, with whose character he was -well acquainted, desiring to renew the ancient league of friendship -between the two countries. This envoy was charged with thirty-five -horses, beautifully caparisoned, a large number of curious rarities, -and twenty-four of the most accomplished courtesans he could procure in -his dominions. The scheme succeeded; before these seductive damsels, -the austere etiquette of the court of Lú soon gave way, and fetes, -comedies, dances, and concerts, took the place of propriety and -decorum. The presence of the sage soon became irksome to his master, -and he at last forbid him to come into his sight, having become quite -charmed with the fair enchantresses, and no longer able to endure the -remonstrances of his minister. - -Confucius, thus disgraced in his own country, and now at the age of -fifty, left it, and retired to the kingdom of Wei, where he remained -more than ten years, without seeking to exercise any public office, -but principally occupied with completing his works, and instructing -his disciples in his doctrines. During his residence in Wei, he -frequently made excursions into other states, taking with him such of -his disciples as chose to accompany him. He was at times applauded -and esteemed, but quite as often was the object of persecution and -contempt. More than once his life was endangered. He compared himself -to a dog driven from his home: “I have the fidelity of that animal, -and I am treated like it. But what matters the ingratitude of men? -They cannot hinder me from doing all the good that is appointed me. If -my precepts are disregarded, I have the consolation in my own breast -of knowing that I have faithfully performed my duty.” He sometimes -spoke in a manner that showed his own impression to be that Heaven had -conferred on him a special commission to instruct the world. When an -attempt was made on his life, he said, “As Heaven has produced such a -degree of virtue in me, what can Hwántúi do to me?” On another occasion -of danger, he said, “If Heaven means not to obliterate this doctrine -from the earth, the men of Kwáng can do nothing to me.” - -At the age of sixty-eight, after an absence of eighteen years, -Confucius returned to his native country, where he lived a life of -retirement, employed in putting the finishing hand to his works. In his -sixty-sixth year, his wife died, and his son, Piyü, mourned for her a -whole year; but one day overhearing his father say, “Ah! it is carried -too far;” he dried up his tears. Three years after this, this son also -died, leaving a son, Tsz’sz’, who afterwards emulated his grandfather’s -fame as a teacher, and became the author of the Chung Yung, or True -Medium. The next year, Yen Hwui, the favorite disciple of the sage, -died, whose loss he bitterly mourned, saying, “Heaven has destroyed me! -heaven has destroyed me!” He had great hopes of this pupil, and had -depended upon him to perpetuate his doctrines. - -An anecdote is related of him about this time of life, which the -Chinese regard as highly creditable to their sage. Tsz’kung, one of his -disciples, was much surprised one morning to meet his master at the -door, dressed with much elegance and nicety. On asking him where he was -going, Confucius, with a sigh, replied, “I am going to court, and that -too, without being invited. I have not been able to resist a feeling -which possesses me to make a last effort to bring a just punishment -upon Chin Chen, the usurper of the throne of Tsí. I am prepared by -purification and fasting, for this audience, so that if I fail, I shall -not have to accuse myself.” On presenting himself, he was received with -respect, and immediately admitted to an audience; and the prince of Lú -asked him what important affair had called him from his retirement. -Confucius, replied: “Sire, that which I have to communicate, alike -concerns all kings. The perfidious Chin Chen has imbued his hands in -the blood of his legitimate sovereign, Kien. You are a prince; your -state borders upon Tsí; Kien was your ally, and originally of the same -race as yourself. Any one of these reasons is sufficient to authorize -you to declare war against Chin Chen, and all of them combined make -it your duty to take up arms. Assemble your forces and march to -exterminate a monster whom the earth upholds with regret. This crime -is such that it cannot be pardoned, and, in punishing it, you will at -once avenge an outrage against heaven, from which every king derives -his power; against royalty, which has been profaned by this perfidy; -against a parent, to whom you are allied by ties of blood, alliance and -friendship.” - -The prince, convinced of the criminality of Chin Chen, applauded the -just indignation which inspired the heart of Confucius, but suggested -that before he entered upon such an enterprise, it would be best to -confer with his ministers. “Sire,” said the philosopher, “I have -acquitted myself of a duty in laying this case before you; but it -will be useless to insist upon it before your ministers, whom I know -are disinclined to enter into my views. Reflect, I pray you, as a -sovereign, upon what I now propose, and consult only with yourself as -to its execution. Your servants are not sovereigns, and have no other -than their own ends to gain, to which they sometimes sacrifice the good -of their master and the glory of the state. I have no other end in view -than to support the cause of justice; and I conjure you, by the sacred -names of justice and good order, to go and exterminate this miscreant -from the earth, and, by restoring the throne of Tsí to its rightful -owner, to exhibit to the world your justice, and strike a salutary -terror into the hearts of all who may wish to imitate this successful -villany.” On leaving, the prince said to Confucius, “I will think -seriously on what you have said, and, if it be possible, will carry it -into execution.” - -Towards the end of his days, when he had completed his revision of the -Five Classes, he, with great solemnity, dedicated them to Heaven. He -assembled all his disciples and led them out of the town to one of the -hills where sacrifices had been usually offered for many years. He here -erected a table, or altar, upon which he placed the books; and then, -turning his face to the north, adored Heaven, and returned thanks upon -his knees, in a humble manner, for having had life and strength granted -him to enable him to accomplish this laborious undertaking; he implored -heaven to grant that the benefit to his countrymen from so arduous a -labor might not be small. He had prepared himself for this ceremony by -privacy, fasting and prayer. Chinese pictures of this scene represent -the sage in the attitude of supplication, and a pencil of light, or -a rainbow, descending from the sky upon the books, while his scholars -stand around in admiring wonder. - -In his seventy-third year, a few days before his death, leaning upon -his staff, Confucius tottered about the house, singing out,— - - - “The great mountain is broken! - The strong beam is thrown down! - The wise man is decayed!” - - -He then related a dream he had had the night before, to his pupil, -Tsz’kung, which he regarded as a presage of his own death; and, after -keeping his bed seven days, he died on the 18th day of the second -month, and was buried in the same grave with his wife. Tsz’kung mourned -for him six years in a shed erected by the side of his grave, and then -returned home. His death occurred 479 B. C., the year of the battle of -Platæa, in Greece, and about seven years before the birth of Socrates. -Many events of great importance happened during his life, in western -countries, of which the return of the Jews, and building of the second -temple, Xerxes’ invasion of Greece, the expulsion of the kings from -Rome, the conquest of Egypt, and establishment of the Persian monarchy -in its fullest extent, were the most important. - -Posthumous honors in great variety have been conferred upon Confucius. -Soon after his death, the prince of Lú entitled him _Ní fú_, or father -Ní; which under the reign of Lintí, of the Hán dynasty, 197 B. C., was -changed to _Ní kung_, or duke _Ní_, and his portrait was ordered to be -hung up in the public school. By the emperors of the Tang dynasty it -was made _sien shing_, the ancient sage. He was next styled the royal -preacher, and his effigy clad in king’s robes, and a crown put on -its head. The Ming dynasty called him the most holy ancient teacher, -Kungtsz’, which title is now continued to him. His descendants have -continued to dwell in Shántung province, and the heads of the family -have enjoyed the rank of nobility, being almost the only hereditary -noblemen in the empire out of the imperial kingdom. They are called -Yenshing kung. In the reign of Kánghí, one hundred and twenty years -ago, the descendants of the sage numbered eleven thousand males; the -present is said to be the seventy-fourth generation. The chief of the -family is commonly called the “holy duke,” and enjoys all the honors -of a prince. Whenever he visits the court, the emperor receives him -with almost the same respect and ceremony as he does ambassadors from -foreign countries. P. Amiot relates that he was honored with a call -from him, upon one of his visits to court. “He was a pleasant and -modest man, whom knowledge had not filled with conceit. He received, -when he came to our house, some religious books, which we offered -him in exchange for some Chinese books he gave us. His name was Kung -Chauhán, and he was of the seventy-first generation in direct descent -from the sage,—in all probability the oldest family in the world, of -which the regular descent can be traced.” In the Life of Confucius, -written by Amiot, which forms one of the volumes of the _Mémoires sur -les Chinoises_, there is a brief account of each of these heads of -this family, with notices of other distinguished persons belonging to -the house. - -In every district in the empire there is a temple dedicated to -Confucius, and his name is usually suspended in every school-room in -the land, and incense is burned before it morning and evening by the -scholars. Adoration is paid to him by all ranks. In 1457, Jentsung, -of the Ning dynasty, set up a copper statue of the sage in one of the -halls of the palace, and ordered his officers, whenever they came to -the palace, to go to this room, and respectfully salute Confucius -before speaking of the affairs of state, even if the monarch were -present. But this custom was represented to another emperor as tending -to the worship of images, like the Budhists; and on that account the -memorialist represented that simple tablets, inscribed with the name of -him who was worshipped, were much better. This advice was followed; the -statues of Confucius and his disciples were suppressed, by order of the -emperor Chítsung, in 1530, and simple tablets have since been set up in -the temples erected to his name. - -The writings of Confucius, as might be expected are held in great -veneration, and regarded as the best books in the language. He revised -all the ancient books, containing the precepts of the kings and -emperors of former times, and left them pretty much as they are at the -present day. He explained the Yi King, or Book of Changes, commented -upon the Lí Kí, or Book of Rites, and compiled the Shí King, or Book -of Odes. He composed the Shú King, or Book of Records, and the Chun -Tsaú, or Spring and Autumn Annals,—so called, it is said, because the -commendations contained therein are life-giving, like spring, and the -reproofs are life-withering, like autumn. The books are collectively -called the Wú King, or Five Classics. The Hiáu King, or Memoir on -Filial Duty; the Chung yung, or True Medium; the Tái Hióh, or Superior -Lessons, and the Lun Yü, or Conversations of Confucius, are all -considered, by the Chinese, as containing the doctrines of the sage; -the first one is sometimes ascribed to his own pen. The last three, -with the work of Mencius, constitute the Sz Shü, or Four Books, and -were arranged in their present form by Ching fútsz, about eight hundred -years ago. - -The leading features of the morality of Confucius are, subordination -to superiors, and kind, upright dealing with our fellow-men. From the -duty, honor, and obedience owed by a child to his parents, he proceeds -to inculcate the obligations of wives to their husbands, of subjects -to their prince, and of ministers to their king, while he makes him -amenable to Heaven. These principles are perpetually inculcated in -the Confucian writings, and are imbodied in solemn ceremonials, and -apparently trivial forms of mere etiquette. And, probably, it is this -feature of his ethics which has made him such a favorite with all the -governments of China for many centuries past, and at this day. These -principles, and these forms, are early instilled into young minds, -and form their conscience; the elucidation and enforcement of these -principles and forms is the business of students who aspire to be -magistrates or statesmen; and it is no doubt owing in great part, to -the force of these principles on the national mind and habits, that -China holds steadfastly together—the largest associated population -in the world. Every one is interested in upholding doctrines which -give him power over those under him; and as the instruction of his -own youthful days has given him the habit of obedience and respect -to all his superiors, so now, when he is a superior, he exacts the -same obedience from his juniors, and public opinion accords it to -him. The observance of such principles has tended to consolidate the -national mind of China in that peculiar uniformity which has been -remarked by those who have known this people. It has also tended to -restrain all independence of thought, and keep even the most powerful -intellects under an incubus which, while they were prevented by outward -circumstances from getting at the knowledge of other lands was too -great for their unassisted energies to throw off. It cannot be doubted -that there have been many intellects of commanding power among the -Chinese, but ignorance of the literature and condition of other nations -has led them to infer that there was nothing worthy of notice out of -their own borders, and to rest contented with explaining and enforcing -the maxims of their sage. - -Confucius must be regarded as a great man, if superiority to the times -in which one lives is a criterion of greatness. The immense influence -he has exercised over the minds of his countrymen cannot, perhaps, -be regarded as conclusive evidence of his superiority; but no mind -of weak or ordinary powers could have stamped its own impress upon -other minds as he has done. He never rose to those sublime heights of -contemplation which Plato attained, nor does his mind seem to have been -of a very discursive nature. He was content with telling his disciples -how to act, and encouraging them to make themselves and others better, -by following the rules he gave; not leading them into those endless -disquisitions and speculations, upon which the Greek moralists so -acutely reasoned, but which exercised no power over the conscience and -life. The leading features of his doctrines have been acknowledged by -mankind the world over, and are imbodied in their most common rules -of life. “Do justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with thy God,” is a -direction of inspired Writ; and, so far as he knew these duties, he -inculcated them. He said little or nothing about spirits or gods, nor -did he give any directions about worshipping them; but the veneration -for parents, which he enforced, was, in fact, idolatrous, and has since -degenerated into the grossest idolatry. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Transcriber’s Note: - -Italics are indicated by _underscores_. -Small capitals have been rendered in full capitals. -Footnote is placed to the end of chapter. -Ligatures [oe] have been converted into oe. -A number of minor spelling errors have been corrected without note. - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FAMOUS MEN OF ANCIENT TIMES *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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