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diff --git a/old/52293-0.txt b/old/52293-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index bcac77d..0000000 --- a/old/52293-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9932 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of On the various forces of nature and their -relations to each other, by Michael Faraday - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: On the various forces of nature and their relations to each other - -Author: Michael Faraday - -Editor: William Crookes - -Release Date: June 10, 2016 [EBook #52293] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE VARIOUS FORCES OF NATURE *** - - - - -Produced by MWS, Bryan Ness, Les Galloway and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - - - - - - - - - ON THE - VARIOUS FORCES OF NATURE. - - - - -_WORKS by RICHARD A. PROCTOR._ - - EASY STAR LESSONS. With Star Maps for Every Night in the Year, - Drawings of the Constellations, &c. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s. - - FLOWERS OF THE SKY. With 55 Illustrations. Small crown 8vo, cloth - extra, 3s. 6d. - - SATURN AND ITS SYSTEM. Revised Edition, with 13 Steel Plates. Demy - 8vo, cloth extra, 10s. 6d. - - FAMILIAR SCIENCE STUDIES. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s. - - MYSTERIES OF TIME AND SPACE. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth - extra, 6s. - - THE UNIVERSE OF SUNS, and other Science Gleanings. With Illustrations. - Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s. - - WAGES AND WANTS OF SCIENCE WORKERS. Crown 8vo, 1s. 6d. - - -_By Dr. ANDREW WILSON, F.R.S.E._ - - CHAPTERS ON EVOLUTION: A Popular History of the Darwinian and Allied - Theories of Development. Second Edition, with 259 Illustrations. Crown - 8vo, cloth extra, 7s. 6d. - - LEAVES FROM A NATURALIST’S NOTE-BOOK. Post 8vo, cloth limp, 2s. 6d. - - LEISURE-TIME STUDIES, chiefly Biological. Third Edition, with a New - Preface and Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s. - - STUDIES IN LIFE AND SENSE. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, - cloth extra. 6s. - - COMMON ACCIDENTS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, - 1s.; cloth, 1s. 6d. - - GLIMPSES OF NATURE. With 35 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 3s. - 6d. - - -_By Dr. J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S._ - - THE SAGACITY AND MORALITY OF PLANTS: A Sketch of the Life and - Conduct of the Vegetable Kingdom. With Coloured Frontispiece and 100 - Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 7s. 6d. - - OUR COMMON BRITISH FOSSILS, and Where to Find Them. A Handbook for - Students. With over 300 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 7s. 6d. - - THE PLAYTIME NATURALIST. With 366 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth - extra, 5s. - - -_By GRANT ALLEN._ - - THE EVOLUTIONIST AT LARGE. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s. - - COLIN CLOUT’S CALENDAR. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s. - - -_By W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS, F.R.A.S._ - - SCIENCE IN SHORT CHAPTERS. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 7s. 6d. - - A SIMPLE TREATISE ON HEAT. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth limp, - 2s. 6d. - - THE CHEMISTRY OF COOKERY. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s. - - -_By Sir DAVID BREWSTER._ - - MORE WORLDS THAN ONE: The Creed of the Philosopher and the Hope of the - Christian. With Plates. Post 8vo, cloth extra, 4s. 6d. - - THE MARTYRS OF SCIENCE: Lives of GALILEO, TYCHO BRAHE, and KEPLER. - With Portraits. Post 8vo, cloth extra, 4s. 6d. - - LETTERS ON NATURAL MAGIC. A new Edition, with numerous Illustrations, - and Chapters on Additional Phenomena of Natural Magic, by J. A. SMITH. - Post 8vo, cloth extra, 4s. 6d. - - -_By MICHAEL FARADAY._ - - THE CHEMICAL HISTORY OF A CANDLE. With Illustrations. Edited by - WILLIAM CROOKES, F.C.S. Post 8vo, cloth extra, 4s. 6d. - - ON THE VARIOUS FORCES OF NATURE, and their Relations to each other. - With numerous Illustrations. Edited by WILLIAM CROOKES, F.C.S. Post - 8vo, cloth extra, 4s. 6d. - - - LONDON: CHATTO & WINDUS, PICCADILLY. - - - - - ON THE - - _Various Forces of Nature_ - - AND - - THEIR RELATIONS TO EACH OTHER: - - _A COURSE OF LECTURES DELIVERED BEFORE A JUVENILE - AUDIENCE AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION_ - - BY MICHAEL FARADAY, D.C.L., F.R.S. - - EDITED BY - WILLIAM CROOKES, F.C.S. - - [Illustration: Colophon] - - _A NEW EDITION, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS._ - - London: - CHATTO & WINDUS, PICCADILLY. - 1894. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Which was first, Matter or Force? If we think on this question, we -shall find that we are unable to conceive of matter without force, or -of force without matter. When God created the elements of which the -earth is composed, He created certain wondrous forces, which are set -free, and become evident when matter acts on matter. All these forces, -with many differences, have much in common, and if one is set free, -it will immediately endeavour to free its companions. Thus, heat will -enable us to eliminate light, electricity, magnetism, and chemical -action; chemical action will educe light, electricity, and heat. In -this way we find that all the forces in nature tend to form mutually -dependent systems; and as the motion of one star affects another, -so force in action liberates and renders evident forces previously -tranquil. - -We say tranquil, and yet the word is almost without meaning in the -Cosmos.--Where do we find tranquillity? The sea, the seat of animal, -vegetable, and mineral changes, is at war with the earth, and the air -lends itself to the strife. The globe, the scene of perpetual intestine -change, is, as a mass, acting on, and acted on, by the other planets of -our system, and the very system itself is changing its place in space, -under the influence of a known force springing from an unknown centre. - -For many years the English public had the privilege of listening to -the discourses and speculations of Professor Faraday, at the Royal -Institution, on Matter and Forces; and it is not too much to say that -no lecturer on Physical Science, since the time of Sir Humphrey Davy, -was ever listened to with more delight. The pleasure which all derived -from the expositions of Faraday was of a somewhat different kind -from that produced by any other philosopher whose lectures we have -attended. It was partially derived from his extreme dexterity as an -operator: with him we had no chance of apologies for an unsuccessful -experiment--no hanging fire in the midst of a series of brilliant -demonstrations, producing that depressing tendency akin to the pain -felt by an audience at a false note from a vocalist. All was a -sparkling stream of eloquence and experimental illustration. We would -have defied a chemist loving his science, no matter how often he might -himself have repeated an experiment, to feel uninterested when seeing -it done by Faraday. - -The present publication presents one or two points of interest. In the -first place, the Lectures were especially intended for young persons, -and are therefore as free as possible from technicalities; and in -the second place, they are printed as they were spoken, _verbatim -et literatim_. A careful and skilful reporter took them down; and -the manuscript, as deciphered from his notes, was subsequently most -carefully corrected by the Editor as regards any scientific points -which were not clear to the short-hand writer; hence all that is -different arises solely from the impossibility, alas! of conveying the -manner as well as the matter of the Lecturer. - -May the readers of these Lectures derive one-tenth of the pleasure and -instruction from their perusal which they gave to those who had the -happiness of hearing them! - - W. CROOKES. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - LECTURE I. - PAGE - THE FORCE OF GRAVITATION, 13 - - LECTURE II. - GRAVITATION--COHESION, 44 - - LECTURE III. - COHESION--CHEMICAL AFFINITY, 72 - - LECTURE IV. - CHEMICAL AFFINITY--HEAT, 99 - - LECTURE V. - MAGNETISM--ELECTRICITY, 122 - - LECTURE VI. - THE CORRELATION OF THE PHYSICAL FORCES, 147 - - LIGHT-HOUSE ILLUMINATION--THE ELECTRIC LIGHT, 173 - - NOTES, 195 - - - Book Catalogue - - - - - THE - - VARIOUS FORCES OF NATURE. - - - - - LECTURE I. - - THE FORCE OF GRAVITATION. - - -It grieves me much to think that I may have been a cause of disturbance -in your Christmas arrangements[1], for nothing is more satisfactory -to my mind than to perform what I undertake; but such things are not -always left in our own power, and we must submit to circumstances as -they are appointed. I will to-day do my best, and will ask you to -bear with me if I am unable to give more than a few words; and as a -substitute, I will endeavour to make the _illustrations_ of the sense I -try to express as full as possible; and if we find by the end of this -lecture that we may be justified in continuing them, thinking that next -week our power shall be greater,--why, then, with submission to you, -we will take such course as you may think fit,--either to go on, or -discontinue them; and although I now feel much weakened by the pressure -of illness (a mere cold) upon me, both in facility of expression and -clearness of thought, I shall here claim, as I always have done on -these occasions, the right of addressing myself to the younger members -of the audience. And for this purpose, therefore, unfitted as it may -seem for an elderly infirm man to do so, I will return to second -childhood and become, as it were, young again amongst the young. - -Let us now consider, for a little while, how wonderfully we stand upon -this world. Here it is we are born, bred, and live, and yet we view -these things with an almost entire absence of wonder to ourselves -respecting the way in which all this happens. So small, indeed, is our -wonder, that we are never taken by surprise; and I do think that, to a -young person of ten, fifteen, or twenty years of age, perhaps the first -sight of a cataract or a mountain would occasion him more surprise than -he had ever felt concerning the means of his own existence,--how he -came here; how he lives; by what means he stands upright; and through -what means he moves about from place to place. Hence, we come into this -world, we live, and depart from it, without our thoughts being called -specifically to consider how all this takes place; and were it not -for the exertions of some few inquiring minds, who have looked _into_ -these things and ascertained the very beautiful laws and conditions by -which we _do_ live and stand upon the earth, we should hardly be aware -that there was anything wonderful in it. These inquiries, which have -occupied philosophers from the earliest days, when they first began to -find out the laws by which we grow, and exist, and enjoy ourselves, -up to the present time, have shewn us that all this was effected in -consequence of the existence of certain _forces_, or _abilities_ to -do things, or _powers_, that are so common that nothing can be more -so; for nothing is commoner than the wonderful powers by which we are -enabled to stand upright--they are essential to our existence every -moment. - -It is my purpose to-day to make you acquainted with some of these -powers; not the vital ones, but some of the more elementary, and, -what we call, _physical_ powers: and, in the outset, what can I do to -bring to your minds a notion of neither more nor less than that which -I mean by the word _power_, or _force_? Suppose I take this sheet of -paper, and place it upright on one edge, resting against a support -before me (as the roughest possible illustration of something to be -disturbed), and suppose I then pull this piece of string which is -attached to it. I pull the paper over. I have therefore brought into -use a _power_ of doing so--the _power_ of my hand carried on through -this string in a way which is very remarkable when we come to analyse -it; and it is by means of these powers conjointly (for there are -several powers here employed) that I pull the paper over. Again, if I -give it a push upon the other side, I bring into play a _power_, but -a very different exertion of power from the former; or, if I take now -this bit of shell-lac [a stick of shell-lac about 12 inches long and -1½ in diameter] and rub it with flannel, and hold it an inch or so in -front of the upper part of this upright sheet, the paper is immediately -moved towards the shell-lac, and by now drawing the latter away, the -paper falls over without having been touched by anything. You see--in -the first illustration I produced an effect than which nothing could -be commoner--I pull it over now, not by means of that string or the -pull of my hand, but by some action in the shell-lac. The shell-lac, -therefore, has a _power_ wherewith it acts upon the sheet of paper; and -as an illustration of the exercise of another kind of power, I might -use gunpowder with which to throw it over. - -Now, I want you to endeavour to comprehend that when I am speaking of -a _power_ or _force_, I am speaking of that which I used just now to -pull over this piece of paper. I will not embarrass you at present with -the _name_ of that power, but it is clear there was a _something_ in -the shell-lac which acted by attraction, and pulled the paper over; -this, then, is one of those things which we call _power_, or _force_; -and you will now be able to recognise it as such in whatever form I -shew it to you. We are not to suppose that there are so very many -different powers; on the contrary, it is wonderful to think how few are -the powers by which all the phenomena of nature are governed. There -is an illustration of another kind of power in that lamp; _there_ is -a power of heat--a power of doing something, but not the same power -as that which pulled the paper over: and so, by degrees, we find that -there are certain other powers (not many) in the various bodies around -us. And thus, beginning with the simplest experiments of pushing and -pulling, I shall gradually proceed to distinguish these powers one from -the other, and compare the way in which they combine together. This -world upon which we stand (and we have not much need to travel out of -the world for illustrations of our subject; but the mind of man is not -confined like the matter of his body, and thus he may and does travel -outwards; for wherever his sight can pierce, there his observations -can penetrate) is pretty nearly a round globe, having its surface -disposed in a manner of which this terrestrial globe by my side is a -rough model; so much is land and so much is water, and by looking at -it here we see in a sort of map or picture how the world is formed upon -its surface. Then, when we come to examine further, I refer you to -this sectional diagram of the geological strata of the earth, in which -there is a more elaborate view of what is beneath the surface of our -globe. And when we come to dig into or examine it (as man does for his -own instruction and advantage, in a variety of ways), we see that it -is made up of different kinds of matter, subject to a very few powers, -and all disposed in this strange and wonderful way, which gives to man -a history--and such a history--as to what there is in those veins, -in those rocks, the ores, the water springs, the atmosphere around, -and all varieties of material substances, held together by means of -_forces_ in one great mass, 8,000 miles in diameter, that the mind is -overwhelmed in contemplation of the wonderful history related by these -strata (some of which are fine and thin like sheets of paper),--all -formed in succession by the forces of which I have spoken. - -I now shall try to help your attention to what I may say by directing, -to-day, our thoughts to one kind of power. You see what I mean by the -term _matter_--any of these things that I can lay hold of with the -hand, or in a bag (for I may take hold of the air by enclosing it in -a bag)--they are all portions of matter with which we have to deal at -present, generally or particularly, as I may require to illustrate -my subject. Here is the sort of matter which we call _water_,--it -is _there_ ice [pointing to a block of ice upon the table], _there_ -water [pointing to the water boiling in a flask], _here_ vapour--you -see it issuing out from the top [of the flask]. Do not suppose that -that ice and that water are two entirely different things, or that -the steam rising in bubbles and ascending in vapour _there_ is -absolutely different from the fluid water. It may be different in -some particulars, having reference to the _amounts_ of power which -it contains; but it is the same, nevertheless, as the great ocean -of water around our globe, and I employ it here for the sake of -illustration, because if we look into it we shall find that it supplies -us with examples of all the powers to which I shall have to refer. -For instance, here is water--it is heavy; but let us examine it with -regard to the _amount_ of its heaviness, or its gravity. I have before -me a little glass vessel and scales [nearly equipoised scales, one of -which contained a half-pint glass vessel], and the glass vessel is at -present the lighter of the two; but if I now take some water and pour -it in, you see that that side of the scales immediately goes down; that -shews you (using common language, which I will not suppose for the -present you have hitherto applied very strictly) that it is _heavy_: -and if I put this additional weight into the opposite scale, I should -not wonder if this vessel would hold water enough to weigh _it_ down. -[The Lecturer poured more water into the jar, which again went down.] -Why do I hold the bottle _above_ the vessel to pour the water into it? -You will say, because experience has taught me that it is necessary. -I do it for a better reason--because it is a law of nature that the -water should fall towards the earth, and therefore the very means -which I use to cause the water to enter the vessel are those which -will carry the whole body of water down. That power is what we call -_gravity_, and you see _there_ [pointing to the scales] a good deal of -water gravitating towards the earth. Now _here_ [exhibiting a small -piece of platinum[2]] is another thing which gravitates towards the -earth as much as the whole of that water. See what a little there is -of it--_that_ little thing is heavier than so much water [placing the -metal in opposite scales to the water]. What a wonderful thing it is to -see that it requires so much water as _that_ [a half-pint vessel full] -to fall towards the earth, compared with the little mass of substance -I have _here_! And again, if I take this metal [a bar of aluminium[3] -about eight times the bulk of the platinum], we find the water will -balance that as well as it did the platinum; so that we get, even in -the very outset, an example of what we want to understand by the words -_forces_ or _powers_. - -I have spoken of water, and first of all of its property of falling -downwards. You know very well how the oceans surround the globe--how -they fall round the surface, giving roundness to it, clothing it like -a garment; but, besides that, there are other properties of water. -_Here_, for instance, is some quick-lime, and if I add some water to -it, you will find another power or property in the water.[4] It is -now very hot, it is steaming up, and I could perhaps light phosphorus -or a lucifer match with it. Now, that could not happen without a -_force_ in the water to produce the result; but that force is entirely -distinct from its power of falling to the earth. Again, here is another -substance [some anhydrous sulphate of copper[5]] which will illustrate -another kind of power. [The Lecturer here poured some water over the -white sulphate of copper, which immediately became blue, evolving -considerable heat at the same time.] Here is the same water, with a -substance which heats nearly as much as the lime does; but see how -differently. So great indeed is this heat in the case of lime, that it -is sufficient sometimes (as you see here) to set wood on fire; and this -explains what we have sometimes heard, of barges laden with quick-lime -taking fire in the middle of the river, in consequence of this power -of heat brought into play by a leakage of the water into the barge. -You see how strangely different subjects for our consideration arise, -when we come to think over these various matters,--the power of heat -evolved by acting upon lime with water, and the power which water has -of turning this salt of copper from white to blue. - -I want you now to understand the nature of the most simple exertion -of this power of matter called _weight_, or _gravity_. Bodies are -heavy--you saw that in the case of water when I placed it in the -balance. Here I have what we call a _weight_ [an iron half cwt.]--a -thing called a weight, because in it the exercise of that power of -pressing downwards is especially used for the purposes of weighing; -and I have also one of these little inflated india-rubber bladders, -which are very beautiful although very common (most beautiful things -are common), and I am going to put the weight upon it, to give you -a sort of illustration of the downward pressure of the iron, and of -the power which the air possesses of resisting that pressure. It may -burst, but we must try to avoid that [During the last few observations -the Lecturer had succeeded in placing the half cwt. in a state of -quiescence upon the inflated india-rubber ball, which consequently -assumed a shape very much resembling a flat cheese with round edges.] -There you see a bubble of air bearing half a hundred weight, and you -must conceive for yourselves what a wonderful _power_ there must be to -pull this weight downwards, to sink it thus in the ball of air. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.] - -Let me now give you another illustration of this power. You know what -a pendulum is. I have one here (fig. 1), and if I set it swinging, it -will continue to swing to and fro. Now, I wonder whether you can tell -me why that body oscillates to and fro--that pendulum bob as it is -sometimes called. Observe, if I hold the straight stick horizontally, -as high as the position of the balls at the two ends of its journey -you see that the ball is in a higher position at the two extremities -than it is when in the middle. Starting from one end of the stick, the -ball falls towards the centre; and then rising again to the opposite -end, it constantly tries to fall to the lowest point, swinging and -vibrating most beautifully, and with wonderful properties in other -respects--the time of its vibration, and so on--but concerning which we -will not now trouble ourselves. - -If a gold leaf, or piece of thread, or any other substance, were hung -where this ball is, it would swing to and fro in the same manner, and -in the same time too. Do not be startled at this statement: I repeat, -in the same manner and in the same time; and you will see by and by -how this is. Now, that power which caused the water to descend in the -balance--which made the iron weight press upon and flatten the bubble -of air--which caused the swinging to and fro of the pendulum,--that -power is entirely due to the attraction which there is between the -falling body and the earth. Let us be slow and careful to comprehend -this. It is not that the earth has any _particular_ attraction towards -bodies which fall to it, but, that _all_ these bodies possess an -attraction, every one towards the other. It is not that the earth has -any special power which these balls themselves have not; for just as -much power as the earth has to attract these two balls [dropping two -ivory balls], just so much power have they in proportion to their bulks -to draw themselves one to the other; and the only reason why they fall -so quickly to the earth is owing to its greater size. Now, if I were to -place these two balls near together, I should not be able, by the most -delicate arrangement of apparatus, to make you, or myself, sensible -that these balls did attract one another: and yet we know that such is -the case, because, if instead of taking a small ivory ball, we take -a mountain, and put a ball like this near it, we find that, owing to -the vast size of the mountain, as compared with the billiard ball, the -latter is drawn slightly towards it; shewing clearly that an attraction -_does_ exist, just as it did between the shell-lac which I rubbed and -the piece of paper which was overturned by it. - -Now, it is not very easy to make these things quite clear at the -outset, and I must take care not to leave anything unexplained as I -proceed; and, therefore, I must make you clearly understand that all -bodies are attracted to the earth, or, to use a more learned term, -_gravitate_. You will not mind my using this word; for when I say -that this penny-piece _gravitates_, I mean nothing more nor less than -that it falls towards the earth, and if not intercepted, it would go -on falling, falling, until it arrived at what we call the _centre of -gravity_ of the earth, which I will explain to you by and by. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - -I want you to understand that this property of gravitation is never -lost, that every substance possesses it, that there is never any change -in the quantity of it; and, first of all, I will take as illustration -a piece of marble. Now this marble has weight--as you will see if I -put it in these scales; it weighs the balance down, and if I take -it off, the balance goes back again and resumes its equilibrium. I -can decompose this marble and change it, in the same manner as I can -change ice into water and water into steam. I can convert a part of -it into _its own_ steam easily, and shew you that this steam from -the marble has the property of remaining in the same place at common -temperatures, which _water_-steam has not. If I add a little liquid -to the marble, and decompose it[6], I get that which you see--[the -Lecturer here put several lumps of marble into a glass jar, and poured -water and then acid over them; the carbonic acid immediately commenced -to escape with considerable effervescence]--the appearance of boiling, -which is only the separation of one part of the marble from another. -Now this [marble] steam, and that [water] steam, and all other steams -_gravitate_, just like any other substance does--they all are attracted -the one towards the other, and all fall towards the earth; and what -I want you to see is, that _this_ steam gravitates. I have here (fig. -2) a large vessel placed upon a balance, and the moment I pour this -steam into it, you see that the steam gravitates. Just watch the index, -and see whether it tilts over or not. [The Lecturer here poured the -carbonic acid out of the glass in which it was being generated into the -vessel suspended on the balance, when the gravitation of the carbonic -acid was at once apparent.] Look how it is going down. How pretty -that is! I poured nothing in but the invisible steam, or vapour, or -gas which came from the marble, but you see that part of the marble, -although it has taken the shape of air, still gravitates as it did -before. Now, will it weigh down that bit of paper? [Placing a piece of -paper in the opposite scale.] Yes, more than that; it nearly weighs -down this bit of paper. [Placing another piece of paper in.] And -thus you see that _other_ forms of matter besides solids and liquids -tend to fall to the earth; and, therefore, you will accept from me -the fact--that _all_ things gravitate, whatever may be their form or -condition. Now _here_ is another chemical test which is very readily -applied. [Some of the carbonic acid was poured from one vessel into -another, and its presence in the latter shewn by introducing into it a -lighted taper, which was immediately extinguished.] You see from this -result also that it gravitates. All these experiments shew you that, -tried by the balance, tried by pouring like water from one vessel to -another, this steam, or vapour, or gas, is, like all other things, -attracted to the earth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. and Fig. 4.] - -There is another point I want in the next place to draw your attention -to. I have here a quantity of shot; each of these falls separately, -and each has its own gravitating power, as you perceive when I let -them fall loosely on a sheet of paper. If I put them into a bottle, I -collect them together as one mass; and philosophers have discovered -that there is a certain point in the middle of the whole collection -of shots that may be considered as the _one point_ in which all their -gravitating power is centred, and that point they call the _centre of -gravity_: it is not at all a bad name, and rather a short one--the -centre of gravity. Now suppose I take a sheet of pasteboard, or any -other thing easily dealt with, and run a bradawl through it at one -corner A (fig. 3), and Mr. Anderson hold that up in his hand before -us, and I then take a piece of thread and an ivory ball, and hang that -upon the awl--then the centre of gravity of both the pasteboard and the -ball and string are as near as they can get to the centre of the earth; -that is to say, the whole of the attracting power of the earth is, as -it were, centred in a single point of the cardboard--and this point is -exactly below the point of suspension. All I have to do, therefore, is -to draw a line, A B, corresponding with the string, and we shall find -that the centre of gravity is somewhere in that line. But where? To -find that out, all we have to do is to take another place for the awl -(fig. 4), hang the plumb-line, and make the same experiment, and there -[at the point C] is the centre of gravity--there where the two lines -which I have traced cross each other; and if I take that pasteboard, -and make a hole with the bradawl through it at that point, you will see -that it will be supported in any position in which it may be placed. -Now, knowing that, what do I do when I try to stand upon one leg? Do -you not see that I push myself over to the left side, and quietly take -up the right leg, and thus bring some central point in my body over -this left leg. What is that point which I throw over? You will know at -once that it is the _centre of gravity_--that point in me where the -whole gravitating force of my body is centred, and which I thus bring -in a line over my foot. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. and Fig. 6.] - -Here is a toy I happened to see the other day, which will, I think, -serve to illustrate our subject very well. That toy _ought_ to lie -something in this manner (fig. 5); and would do so if it were uniform -in substance. But you see it does not; it will get up again. And now -philosophy comes to our aid; and I am perfectly sure, without looking -inside the figure, that there is some arrangement by which the centre -of gravity is at the lowest point when the image is standing upright; -and we may be certain, when I am tilting it over (see fig. 6), that -I am lifting up the centre of gravity (_a_), and raising it from the -earth. All this is effected by putting a piece of lead inside the lower -part of the image, and making the base of large curvature; and there -you have the whole secret. But what will happen if I try to make the -figure stand upon a sharp point? You observe, I must get that point -_exactly_ under the centre of gravity, or it will fall over thus -[endeavouring unsuccessfully to balance it]; and this you see is a -difficult matter--I cannot make it stand steadily. But if I embarrass -this poor old lady with a world of trouble, and hang this wire with -bullets at each end about her neck, it is very evident that, owing -to there being those balls of lead hanging down on either side, in -addition to the lead inside, I have lowered the centre of gravity, and -now she will stand upon this point (fig. 7); and what is more, she -proves the truth of our philosophy by standing sideways. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.] - -I remember an experiment which puzzled me very much when a boy. I read -it in a conjuring book, and this was how the problem was put to us: -“How,” as the book said, “how to hang a pail of water, by means of a -stick, upon the side of a table” (fig. 8). Now, I have here a table, a -piece of stick, and a pail, and the proposition is, how can that pail -be hung to the edge of this table? It is to be done; and can you at all -anticipate what arrangement I shall make to enable me to succeed? Why, -this. I take a stick, and put it in the pail between the bottom and the -horizontal piece of wood, and thus give it a stiff handle--and there it -is; and what is more, the more water I put into the pail the better -it will hang. It is very true that before I quite succeeded I had the -misfortune to push the bottoms of several pails out; but here it is -hanging firmly (fig. 9), and you now see how you can hang up the pail -in the way which the conjuring books require. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.] - -Again, if you are really so inclined (and I do hope all of you are), -you will find a great deal of philosophy in this [holding up a cork -and a pointed thin stick about a foot long]. Do not refer to your -toy-books, and say you have seen that before. Answer me rather, if I -ask you have you _understood_ it before? It is an experiment which -appeared very wonderful to me when I was a boy; I used to take a piece -of cork (and I remember, I thought at first that it was very important -that it should be cut out in the shape of a man; but by degrees I got -rid of that idea), and the problem was to balance it on the point of a -stick. Now, you will see I have only to place two sharp-pointed sticks -one on each side, and give it wings, thus, and you will find this -beautiful condition fulfilled. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.] - -We come now to another point:--All bodies, whether heavy or light, fall -to the earth by this force which we call gravity. By observation, -moreover, we see that bodies do not occupy the same time in falling. I -think you will be able to see that this piece of paper and that ivory -ball fall with different velocities to the table [dropping them]; and -if, again, I take a feather and an ivory ball, and let them fall, you -see they reach the table or earth at different times--that is to say, -the ball falls faster than the feather. Now, that should not be so, -for all bodies do fall equally fast to the earth. There are one or -two beautiful points included in that statement. First of all, it is -manifest that an ounce, or a pound, or a ton, or a thousand tons, all -fall equally fast, no one faster than another: here are two balls of -lead, a very light one and a very heavy one, and you perceive they both -fall to the earth in the same time. Now, if I were to put into a little -bag a number of these balls sufficient to make up a bulk equal to the -large one, they would also fall in the same time; for if an avalanche -fall from the mountains, the rocks, snow and ice, together falling -towards the earth, fall with the same velocity, whatever be their size. - -I cannot take a better illustration of this than that of gold leaf, -because it brings before us the reason of this apparent difference in -the time of the fall. Here is a piece of gold-leaf. Now, if I take a -lump of gold and this gold-leaf, and let them fall through the air -together, you see that the lump of gold--the sovereign, or coin--will -fall much faster than the gold leaf. But why? They are both gold, -whether sovereign or gold-leaf. Why should they not fall to the earth -with the same quickness? _They would do so_, but that the air around -our globe interferes very much where we have the piece of gold so -extended and enlarged as to offer much obstruction on falling through -it. I will, however, shew you that gold-leaf _does_ fall as fast -when the resistance of the air is excluded--for if I take a piece of -gold-leaf and hang it in the centre of a bottle, so that the gold, -and the bottle, and the air within shall all have an equal chance of -falling, then the gold-leaf will fall as fast as anything else. And -if I suspend the bottle containing the gold-leaf to a string, and set -it oscillating like a pendulum, I may make it vibrate as hard as I -please, and the gold-leaf will not be disturbed, but will swing as -steadily as a piece of iron would do; and I might even swing it round -my head with any degree of force, and it would remain undisturbed. Or -I can try another kind of experiment:--if I raise the gold-leaf in -this way [pulling the bottle up to the ceiling of the theatre by means -of a cord and pulley, and then suddenly letting it fall to within a -few inches of the lecture-table], and allow it then to fall from the -ceiling downwards (I will put something beneath to catch it, supposing -I should be _maladroit_), you will perceive that the gold-leaf is not -in the least disturbed. The resistance of the air having been avoided, -the glass bottle and gold-leaf all fall exactly in the same time. - -Here is another illustration,--I have hung a piece of gold-leaf in the -upper part of this long glass vessel, and I have the means, by a little -arrangement at the top, of letting the gold-leaf loose. Before we let -it loose we will remove the air by means of an air pump, and while that -is being done, let me shew you another experiment of the same kind. -Take a penny-piece, or a half-crown, and a round piece of paper a -trifle smaller in diameter than the coin, and try them, side by side, -to see whether they fall at the same time [dropping them]. You see they -do not--the penny-piece goes down first. But, now place this paper flat -on the top of the coin, so that it shall not meet with any resistance -from the air, and upon _then_ dropping them you see they _do_ both fall -in the same time [exhibiting the effect]. I dare say, if I were to put -this piece of gold-leaf, instead of the paper, on the coin, it would -do as well. It is very difficult to lay the gold-leaf so flat that the -air shall not get under it and lift it up in falling, and I am rather -doubtful as to the success of this, because the gold-leaf is puckery; -but will risk the experiment. There they go together! [letting them -fall] and you see at once that they both reach the table at the same -moment. - -We have now pumped the air out of the vessel, and you will perceive -that the gold-leaf will fall as quickly in this vacuum as the coin does -in the air. I am now going to let it loose, and you must watch to see -how rapidly it falls. There! [letting the gold loose] there it is, -falling as gold should fall. - -I am sorry to see our time for parting is drawing so near. As we -proceed, I intend to write upon the board behind me certain words, so -as to recall to your minds what we have already examined--and I put the -word FORCES as a heading; and I will then add, beneath, the names of -the special forces according to the order in which we consider them: -and although I fear that I have not sufficiently pointed out to you the -more important circumstances connected with this force of GRAVITATION, -especially the law which governs its attraction (for which, I think, I -must take up a little time at our next meeting), still I will put that -word on the board, and hope you will now remember that we have in some -degree considered the _force of gravitation_--that force which causes -all bodies to attract each other when they are at sensible distances -apart, and tends to draw them together. - - - - -LECTURE II. - -GRAVITATION--COHESION. - - -Do me the favour to pay me as much attention as you did at our last -meeting, and I shall not repent of that which I have proposed to -undertake. It will be impossible for us to consider the Laws of -Nature, and what they effect, unless we now and then give our sole -attention, so as to obtain a clear idea upon the subject. Give me now -that attention, and then, I trust, we shall not part without your -knowing something about those Laws, and the manner in which they act. -You recollect, upon the last occasion, I explained that all bodies -attracted each other, and that this power we called _gravitation_. I -told you that when we brought these two bodies [two equal sized ivory -balls suspended by threads] near together, they attracted each other, -and that we might suppose that the whole power of this attraction was -exerted between their respective centres of gravity; and furthermore, -you learned from me, that if, instead of a small ball, I took a larger -one, like _that_ [changing one of the balls for a much larger one], -there was much more of this attraction exerted; or, if I made this -ball larger and larger, until, if it were possible, it became as large -as the Earth itself--or, I might take the Earth itself as the large -ball--that _then_ the attraction would become so powerful as to cause -them to rush together in this manner [dropping the ivory ball]. You -sit _there_ upright, and I stand upright _here_, because we keep our -centres of gravity properly balanced with respect to the earth; and -I need not tell you that on the other side of this world the people -are standing and moving about with their feet towards our feet, in a -reversed position as compared with us, and all by means of this power -of gravitation to the centre of the earth. - -I must not, however, leave the subject of gravitation, without telling -you something about its laws and regularity; and first, as regards -its power with respect to the distance that bodies are apart. If I -take one of these balls and place it within an inch of the other, they -attract each other with a certain power. If I hold it at a greater -distance off, they attract with less power; and if I hold it at a -greater distance still, their attraction is still less. Now this fact -is of the greatest consequence; for, knowing this law, philosophers -have discovered most wonderful things. You know that there is a planet, -Uranus, revolving round the sun with us, but eighteen hundred millions -of miles off; and because there is another planet as far off as three -thousand millions of miles, this law of attraction, or gravitation, -still holds good--and philosophers actually discovered this latter -planet, Neptune, by reason of the effects of its attraction at this -overwhelming distance. Now I want you clearly to understand what this -law is. They say (and they are right) that two bodies attract each -other _inversely as the square of the distance_--a sad jumble of words -until you understand them; but I think we shall soon comprehend what -this law is, and what is the meaning of the “inverse square of the -distance.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.] - -I have here (fig. 11) a lamp A, shining most intensely upon this disc, -B, C, D; and this light acts as a sun by which I can get a shadow from -this little screen, B F (merely a square piece of card), which, as -you know, when I place it close to the large screen, just shadows as -much of it as is exactly equal to its own size. But now let me take -this card E, which is equal to the other one in size, and place it -midway between the lamp and the screen: now look at the size of the -shadow B D--it is four times the original size. Here, then, comes the -“inverse square of the distance.” This distance, A E, is _one_, and -that distance, A B, is _two_; but that size E being _one_, this size -B D of shadow is _four_ instead of _two_, which is the _square_ of -the distance; and, if I put the screen at one-third of the distance -from the lamp, the shadow on the large screen would be _nine_ times -the size. Again, if I hold this screen _here_, at B F, a certain -amount of light falls on it; and if I hold it nearer the lamp at E, -_more_ light shines upon it. And you see at once how much--exactly -the quantity which I have shut off from the part of this screen, B D, -now in shadow; moreover, you see that if I put a single screen here, -at G, by the side of the shadow, it can only receive _one-fourth_ of -the proportion of light which is obstructed. That, then, is what is -meant by the _inverse_ of the square of the distance. This screen E -is the brightest, because it is the nearest; and there is the whole -secret of this curious expression, _inversely as the square of the -distance_. Now, if you cannot perfectly recollect this when you go -home, get a candle and throw a shadow of something--your profile, -if you like--on the wall, and then recede or advance, and you will -find that your shadow is exactly in proportion to the _square_ of the -distance you are off the wall; and then if you consider how much light -shines on you at one distance, and how much at another, you get the -inverse accordingly. So it is as regards the attraction of these two -balls--they attract according to the square of the distance, inversely. -I want you to try and remember these words, and then you will be able -to go into all the calculations of astronomers as to the planets and -other bodies, and tell why they move so fast, and why they go _round_ -the sun without falling into it, and be prepared to enter upon many -other interesting inquiries of the like nature. - -Let us now leave this subject which I have written upon the board -under the word FORCE--GRAVITATION--and go a step further. All bodies -attract each other at sensible distances. I shewed you the electric -attraction on the last occasion (though I did not call it so); that -attracts at a distance: and in order to make our progress a little -more gradual, suppose I take a few iron particles [dropping some small -fragments of iron on the table]. There, I have already told you that in -all cases where bodies fall, it is the _particles_ that are attracted. -You may consider these then as separate particles magnified, so as -to be evident to your sight; they are loose from each other--they all -gravitate--they all fall to the earth--for the force of gravitation -_never_ fails. Now, I have here a centre of power which I will not name -at present, and when these particles are placed upon it, see what an -attraction they have for each other. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.] - -Here I have an arch of iron filings (fig. 12) regularly built up like -an iron bridge, because I have put them within a sphere of action which -will cause them to attract each other. See!--I could let a mouse run -through it, and yet if I try to do the same thing with them _here_ -[on the table], they do not attract each other at all. It is _that_ -[the magnet] which makes them hold together. Now, just as these iron -particles hold together in the form of an elliptical bridge, so do the -different particles of iron which constitute this nail hold together -and make it one. And here is a bar of iron--why, it is only because the -different parts of _this_ iron are so wrought as to keep close together -by the attraction _between_ the particles that it is held together in -one mass. It is kept together, in fact, merely by the attraction of one -particle to another, and that is the point I want now to illustrate. -If I take a piece of flint and strike it with a hammer, and break it -thus [breaking off a piece of the flint], I have done nothing more than -separate the particles which compose these two pieces so far apart, -that their attraction is too weak to cause them to hold together, and -it is only for that reason that there are now two pieces in the place -of one. I will shew you an experiment to prove that this attraction -does still exist in those particles, for here is a piece of glass (for -what was true of the flint and the bar of iron is true of the piece of -glass, and is true of every other solid--they are all held together in -the lump by the attraction between their parts), and I can shew you the -attraction between its separate particles; for if I take these portions -of glass, which I have reduced to very fine powder, you see that I -can actually build them up into a solid wall by pressure between two -flat surfaces. The power which I thus have of building up this wall is -due to the attraction of the particles, forming as it were the cement -which holds them together; and so in this case, where I have taken no -very great pains to bring the particles together, you see perhaps a -couple of ounces of finely-pounded glass standing as an upright wall. -Is not this attraction most wonderful? _That_ bar of iron one inch -square has such power of attraction in its particles--giving to it such -strength--that it will hold up twenty tons weight before the little set -of particles in the small space, equal to one division across which it -can be pulled apart, will separate. In this manner suspension bridges -and chains are held together by the attraction of their particles; and -I am going to make an experiment which will shew how strong is this -attraction of the particles. [The Lecturer here placed his foot on a -loop of wire fastened to a support above, and swung with his whole -weight resting upon it for some moments.] You see while hanging here -all my weight is supported by these little particles of the wire, just -as in pantomimes they sometimes suspend gentlemen and damsels. - -How can we make this attraction of the particles a little more simple? -There are many things which if brought together properly will shew this -attraction. Here is a boy’s experiment (and I like a boy’s experiment). -Get a tobacco-pipe, fill it with lead, melt it, and then pour it out -upon a stone, and thus get a clean piece of lead (this is a better plan -than scraping it--scraping alters the condition of the surface of the -lead). I have here some pieces of lead which I melted this morning for -the sake of making them clean. Now these pieces of lead hang together -by the attraction of their particles; and if I press these two separate -pieces close together, so as to bring their particles within the -sphere of attraction, you will see how soon they become one. I have -merely to give them a good squeeze, and draw the upper piece slightly -round at the same time, and here they are as one, and all the bending -and twisting I can give them will not separate them again: I have -joined the lead together, not with solder, but simply by means of the -attraction of the particles. - -This, however, is not the best way of bringing those particles -together--we have many better plans than that; and I will shew you one -that will do very well for juvenile experiments. There is some alum -crystallised very beautifully by nature (for all things are far more -beautiful in their natural than their artificial form), and here I have -some of the same alum broken into fine powder. In it I have destroyed -that force of which I have placed the name on this board--COHESION, or -the attraction exerted between the particles of bodies to hold them -together. Now I am going to shew you that if we take this powdered -alum and some hot water, and mix them together, I shall dissolve -the alum--all the particles will be separated by the water far more -completely than they are here in the powder; but then, being in the -water, they will have the opportunity as it cools (for that is the -condition which favours their coalescence) of uniting together again -and forming one mass.[7] - -Now, having brought the alum into solution, I will pour it into this -glass basin, and you will, to-morrow, find that those particles of -alum which I have put into the water, and so separated that they are -no longer solid, will, as the water cools, come together and cohere, -and by to-morrow morning we shall have a great deal of the alum -crystallised out--that is to say, come back to the solid form. [The -Lecturer here poured a little of the hot solution of alum into the -glass dish, and when the latter had thus been made warm, the remainder -of the solution was added.] I am now doing that which I advise you to -do if you use a glass vessel, namely, warming it slowly and gradually; -and in repeating this experiment, do as I do--pour the liquid out -gently, leaving all the dirt behind in the basin: and remember that -the more carefully and quietly you make this experiment at home, the -better the crystals. To-morrow you will see the particles of alum drawn -together; and if I put two pieces of coke in some part of the solution -(the coke ought first to be washed very clean, and dried), you will -find to-morrow that we shall have a beautiful crystallisation over the -coke, making it exactly resemble a natural mineral. - -Now, how curiously our ideas expand by watching these conditions of -the attraction of cohesion!--how many new phenomena it gives us beyond -those of the attraction of gravitation! See how it gives us great -strength. The things we deal with in building up the structures on the -earth are of strength (we use iron, stone, and other things of great -strength); and only think that all those structures you have about -you--think of the “Great Eastern,” if you please, which is of such size -and power as to be almost more than man can manage--are the result of -this power of cohesion and attraction. - -I have here a body in which I believe you will see a change taking -place in its condition of cohesion at the moment it is made. It is -at first yellow, it then becomes a fine crimson red. Just watch when -I pour these two liquids together--both colourless as water. [The -Lecturer here mixed together solutions of perchloride of mercury and -iodide of potassium, when a yellow precipitate of biniodide of mercury -fell down, which almost immediately became crimson red.] Now, there -is a substance which is very beautiful, but see how it is changing -colour. It was reddish-yellow at first, but it has now become red.[8] I -have previously prepared a little of this red substance, which you see -formed in the liquid, and have put some of it upon paper. [Exhibiting -several sheets of paper coated with scarlet biniodide of mercury.[9]] -There it is--the same substance spread upon paper; and there, too, is -the same substance; and here is some more of it [exhibiting a piece of -paper as large as the other sheets, but having only very little red -colour on it, the greater part being yellow], a _little_ more of it, -you will say. Do not be mistaken; there is as much upon the surface of -one of these pieces of paper as upon the other. What you see yellow is -the same thing as the red body, only the attraction of cohesion is in a -certain degree changed; for I will take this red body, and apply heat -to it (you may perhaps see a little smoke arise, but that is of no -consequence), and if you look at it, it will first of all darken--but -see, how it is becoming yellow. I have now made it all yellow, and what -is more, it will remain so; but if I take any hard substance, and rub -the yellow part with it, it will immediately go back again to the red -condition. [Exhibiting the experiment.] There it is. You see the red -is not _put back_, but _brought back_ by the change in the substance. -Now [warming it over the spirit lamp] here it is becoming yellow again, -and that is all because its attraction of cohesion is changed. And what -will you say to me when I tell you that this piece of common charcoal -is just the same thing, only differently calesced, as the diamonds -which you wear? (I have put a specimen outside of a piece of straw -which was charred in a particular way--it is just like black lead.) -Now, this charred straw, this charcoal, and these diamonds, are all of -them the same substance, changed but in their properties as respects -the force of cohesion. - -Here is a piece of glass [producing a piece of plate-glass about two -inches square]--(I shall want this afterwards to look to and examine -its internal condition)--and here is some of the same sort of glass -differing only in its power of cohesion, because while yet melted -it has been dropped into cold water [exhibiting a “Prince Rupert’s -drop”.[10] (fig. 13)]; and if I take one of these little tear-like -pieces and break off ever so little from the point, the whole will at -once burst and fall to pieces. I will now break off a piece of this. -[The Lecturer nipped off a small piece from the end of one of the -Rupert’s drops, whereupon the whole immediately fell to pieces.] There! -you see the solid glass has suddenly become powder--and more than that, -it has knocked a hole in the glass vessel in which it was held. I can -shew the effect better in this bottle of water; and it is very likely -the whole bottle will go. [A 6-oz. vial was filled with water, and a -Rupert’s drop placed in it, with the point of the tail just projecting -out; upon breaking the tip off, the drop burst, and the shock being -transmitted through the water to the sides of the bottle, shattered the -latter to pieces.] - -Here is another form of the same kind of experiment. I have here -some more glass which has not been annealed [showing some thick glass -vessels[11] (fig. 14)], and if I take one of these glass vessels and -drop a piece of pounded glass into it (or I will take some of these -small pieces of rock crystal--they have the advantage of being harder -than glass), and so make the least scratch upon the inside, the whole -bottle will break to pieces,--it cannot hold together. [The Lecturer -here dropped a small fragment of rock crystal into one of these glass -vessels, when the bottom immediately came out and fell upon the plate.] -There! it goes through, just as it would through a sieve. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13. and Fig. 14.] - -Now, I have shewn you these things for the purpose of bringing your -minds to see that bodies are not merely held together by this power -of cohesion, but that they are held together in very curious ways. And -suppose I take some things that are held together by this force, and -examine them more minutely. I will first take a bit of glass, and if -I give it a blow with a hammer, I shall just break it to pieces. You -saw how it was in the case of the flint when I broke the piece off; a -piece of a similar kind would come off, just as you would expect; and -if I were to break it up still more, it would be as you have seen, -simply a collection of small particles of no definite shape or form. -But supposing I take some other thing, this stone for instance (fig. -15) [taking a piece of mica[12]], and if I hammer this stone, I may -batter it a great deal before I can break it up. I may even bend it -without breaking it; that is to say, I may bend it in _one particular -direction_ without breaking it much, although I feel in my hands that -I am doing it some injury. But now, if I take it by the edges, I find -that it breaks up into leaf after leaf in a most extraordinary manner. -Why should it break up like that? Not because all stones do, or all -crystals; for there is some salt (fig. 16)--you know what common salt -is[13]: here is a piece of this salt which by natural circumstances -has had its particles so brought together that they have been allowed -free opportunity of combining or coalescing; and you shall see what -happens if I take this piece of salt and break it. It does not break as -flint did, or as the mica did, but with a clean sharp angle and exact -surfaces, beautiful and glittering as diamonds [breaking it by gentle -blows with a hammer]; there is a square prism which I may break up into -a square cube. You see these fragments are all square--one side may be -longer than the other, but they will only split up so as to form square -or oblong pieces with cubical sides. Now, I go a little further, and -I find another stone (fig. 17) [Iceland, or calc-spar][14], which I -may break in a similar way, but _not_ with the same result. Here is a -piece which I have broken off, and you see there are plain surfaces -perfectly regular with respect to each other; but it is not cubical--it -is what we call a rhomboid. It still breaks in three directions most -beautifully and regularly, with polished surfaces, but with _sloping_ -sides, not like the salt. Why not? It is very manifest that this is -owing to the attraction of the particles, one for the other, being less -in the direction in which they give way than in other directions. I -have on the table before me a number of little bits of calcareous spar, -and I recommend each of you to take a piece home, and then you can take -a knife and try to divide it in the direction of any of the surfaces -already existing. You will be able to do it at once; but if you try to -cut it _across_ the crystals, you cannot--by hammering, you may bruise -and break it up--but you can only divide it into these beautiful little -rhomboids. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16. and Fig. 17.] - -Now I want you to understand a little more how this is--and for this -purpose I am going to use the electric light again. You see, we cannot -look into the _middle_ of a body like this piece of glass. We perceive -the outside form, and the inside form, and we look _through_ it; but -we cannot well find out how these forms become so: and I want you, -therefore, to take a lesson in the way in which we use a ray of light -for the purpose of seeing what is in the interior of bodies. Light is a -thing which is, so to say, attracted by every substance that gravitates -(and we do not know anything that does not). All matter affects light -more or less by what we may consider as a kind of attraction, and I -have arranged (fig. 18) a very simple experiment upon the floor of the -room for the purpose of illustrating this. I have put into that basin -a few things which those who are in the body of the theatre will not -be able to see, and I am going to make use of this power, which matter -possesses, of attracting a ray of light. If Mr. Anderson pours some -water, gently and steadily, into the basin, the water will attract the -rays of light downwards, and the piece of silver and the sealing-wax -will appear to rise up into the sight of those who were before not high -enough to see over the side of the basin to its bottom. [Mr. Anderson -here poured water into the basin, and upon the Lecturer asking whether -any body could see the silver and sealing-wax, he was answered by a -general affirmative.] Now, I suppose that everybody can see that they -are not at all disturbed, whilst from the way they appear to have risen -up, you would imagine the bottom of the basin and the articles in it -were two inches thick, although they are only one of our small silver -dishes and a piece of sealing-wax which I have put there. The light -which now goes to you from that piece of silver was obstructed by the -edge of the basin, when there was no water there, and you were unable -to see anything of it; but when we poured in water, the rays were -attracted down by it, over the edge of the basin, and you were thus -enabled to see the articles at the bottom. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18. and Fig. 19.] - -I have shewn you this experiment first, so that you might understand -how glass attracts light, and might then see how other substances, like -rock-salt and calcareous spar, mica, and other stones, would affect -the light; and, if Dr. Tyndall will be good enough to let us use his -light again, we will first of all shew you how it may be bent by a -piece of glass (fig. 19). [The electric lamp was again lit, and the -beam of parallel rays of light which it emitted was bent about and -decomposed by means of the prism.] Now, here you see, if I send the -light through this piece of plain glass, A, it goes straight through, -without being bent, unless the glass be held obliquely, and then the -phenomenon becomes more complicated; but if I take this piece of -glass, B [a prism], you see it will shew a very different effect. It -no longer goes to that wall, but it is bent to this screen, C; and how -much more beautiful it is now [throwing the prismatic spectrum on the -screen]. This ray of light is bent out of its course by the attraction -of the glass upon it. And you see I can turn and twist the rays to and -fro, in different parts of the room, just as I please. Now it goes -there, now here. [The Lecturer projected the prismatic spectrum about -the theatre.] Here I have the rays once more bent on to the screen, -and you see how wonderfully and beautifully that piece of glass not -only bends the light by virtue of its attraction, but actually splits -it up into different colours. Now, I want you to understand that this -piece of glass [the prism] being perfectly uniform in its internal -structure, tells us about the action of these other bodies which are -not uniform--which do not merely _cohere_, but also have within them, -in different parts, different _degrees of cohesion_, and thus attract -and bend the light with varying powers. We will now let the light -pass through one or two of these things which I just now shewed you -broke so curiously; and, first of all, I will take a piece of mica. -Here, you see, is our ray of light. We have first to make it what we -call _polarised_; but about that you need not trouble yourselves--it -is only to make our illustration more clear. Here, then, we have our -polarised ray of light, and I can so adjust it as to make the screen -upon which it is shining either light or dark, although I have nothing -in the course of this ray of light but what is perfectly transparent -[turning the _analyser_ round]. I will now make it so that it is quite -dark; and we will, in the first instance, put a piece of common glass -into the polarised ray, so as to shew you that it does not enable the -light to get through. You see the screen remains dark. The glass then, -internally, has no effect upon the light. [The glass was removed, and -a piece of mica introduced.] Now, there is the mica which we split up -so curiously into leaf after leaf, and see how that enables the light -to pass through to the screen, and how, as Dr. Tyndall turns it round -in his hand, you have those different colours, pink, and purple, and -green, coming and going most beautifully--not that the mica is more -transparent than the glass, but because of the different manner in -which its particles are arranged by the force of cohesion. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.] - -Now we will see how calcareous spar acts upon this light,--that stone -which split up into rhombs, and of which you are each of you going -to take a little piece home. [The mica was removed, and a piece of -calc-spar introduced at A.] See how that turns the light round and -round, and produces these rings and that black cross (fig. 20). Look -at those colours--are they not most beautiful for you and for me?--for -I enjoy these things as much as you do. In what a wonderful manner -they open out to us the internal arrangement of the particles of this -calcareous spar by the force of cohesion. - -And now I will shew you another experiment. Here is that piece of -glass which before had no action upon the light. You shall see what it -will do when we apply pressure to it. Here, then, we have our ray of -polarised light, and I will first of all shew you that the glass has no -effect upon it in its ordinary state,--when I place it in the course -of the light, the screen still remains dark. Now, Dr. Tyndall will -press that bit of glass between three little points, one point against -two, so as to bring a strain upon the parts, and you will see what a -curious effect that has. [Upon the screen two white dots gradually -appeared.] Ah! these points shew the position of the strain--in these -parts the force of cohesion is being exerted in a different degree to -what it is in the other parts, and hence it allows the light to pass -through. How beautiful that is--how it makes the light come through -some parts, and leaves it dark in others, and all because we weaken -the force of cohesion between particle and particle. Whether you have -this mechanical power of straining, or whether we take other means, we -get the same result; and, indeed, I will shew you by another experiment -that if we heat the glass in one part, it will alter its internal -structure, and produce a similar effect. Here is a piece of common -glass, and if I insert this in the path of the polarised ray, I believe -it will do nothing. There is the common glass [introducing it]--no -light passes through--the screen remains quite dark; but I am going to -warm this glass in the lamp, and you know yourselves that when you pour -warm water upon glass you put a strain upon it sufficient to break it -sometimes--something like there was in the case of the Prince Rupert’s -drops. [The glass was warmed in the spirit-lamp, and again placed -across the ray of light.] Now you see how beautifully the light goes -through those parts which are hot, making dark and light lines just -as the crystal did, and all because of the alteration I have effected -in its internal condition; for these dark and light parts are a proof -of the presence of forces acting and dragging in different directions -within the solid mass. - - - - -LECTURE III. - -COHESION--CHEMICAL AFFINITY. - - -We will first return for a few minutes to one of the experiments made -yesterday. You remember what we put together on that occasion--powdered -alum and warm water; here is one of the basins then used. Nothing has -been done to it since; but you will find on examining it, that it no -longer contains any powder, but a multitude of beautiful crystals. Here -also are the pieces of coke which I put into the other basin--they have -a fine mass of crystals about them. That other basin I will leave as it -is. I will not pour the water from it, because it will shew you that -the particles of alum have done something more than merely crystallise -together. They have pushed the dirty matter from them, laying it around -the outside or outer edge of the lower crystals--squeezed out as it -were by the strong attraction which the particles of alum have for -each other. - -And now for another experiment. We have already gained a knowledge of -the manner in which the particles of bodies--of solid bodies--attract -each other, and we have learnt that it makes calcareous spar, alum, and -so forth, crystallise in these regular forms. Now, let me gradually -lead your minds to a knowledge of the means we possess of making this -attraction alter a little in its force; either of increasing, or -diminishing, or apparently of destroying it altogether. I will take -this piece of iron [a rod of iron about two feet long, and a quarter -of an inch in diameter], it has at present a great deal of strength, -due to its attraction of cohesion; but if Mr. Anderson will make part -of this red-hot in the fire, we shall then find that it will become -soft, just as sealing-wax will when heated, and we shall also find that -the more it is heated the softer it becomes. Ah! but what does _soft_ -mean? Why, that the attraction between the particles is so weakened -that it is no longer sufficient to resist the power we bring to bear -upon it. [Mr. Anderson handed to the Lecturer the iron rod, with one -end red-hot, which he shewed could be easily twisted about with a pair -of pliers.] You see, I now find no difficulty in bending this end about -as I like; whereas I cannot bend the cold part at all. And you know -how the smith takes a piece of iron and heats it, in order to render -it soft for his purpose: he acts upon our principle of lessening the -adhesion of the particles, although he is not exactly acquainted with -the terms by which we express it. - -And now we have another point to examine; and this water is again a -very good substance to take as an illustration (as philosophers we call -it all water, even though it be in the form of ice or steam). Why is -this water hard? [pointing to a block of ice] because the attraction -of the particles to each other is sufficient to make them retain their -places in opposition to force applied to it. But what happens when -we make the ice warm? Why, in that case we diminish to such a large -extent the power of attraction that the solid substance is destroyed -altogether. Let me illustrate this: I will take a red-hot ball of iron -[Mr. Anderson, by means of a pair of tongs, handed to the Lecturer a -red-hot ball of iron, about two inches in diameter], because it will -serve as a convenient source of heat [placing the red-hot iron in the -centre of the block of ice]. You see I am now melting the ice where -the iron touches it. You see the iron sinking into it, and while part -of the solid water is becoming liquid, the heat of the ball is rapidly -going off. A certain part of the water is actually rising in steam--the -attraction of some of the particles is so much diminished that they -cannot even hold together in the liquid form, but escape as vapour. At -the same time, you see I cannot melt all this ice by the heat contained -in this ball. In the course of a very short time I shall find it will -have become quite cold. - -Here is the water which we have produced by destroying some of the -attraction which existed between the particles of the ice,--for below -a certain temperature the particles of water increase in their mutual -attraction, and become ice; and above a certain temperature the -attraction decreases, and the water becomes steam. And exactly the -same thing happens with platinum, and nearly every substance in nature; -if the temperature is increased to a certain point, it becomes liquid, -and a further increase converts it into a gas. Is it not a glorious -thing for us to look at the sea, the rivers, and so forth, and to -know that this same body in the northern regions is all solid ice and -icebergs, while here, in a warmer climate, it has its attraction of -cohesion so much diminished as to be liquid water. Well, in diminishing -this force of attraction between the particles of ice, we made use of -another force, namely, that of _heat_; and I want you now to understand -that this force of heat is always concerned when water passes from the -solid to the liquid state. If I melt ice in _other_ ways, I cannot do -without heat (for we have the means of making ice liquid without heat; -that is to say, without using heat as a _direct_ cause). Suppose, for -illustration, I make a vessel out of this piece of tinfoil [bending the -foil up into the shape of a dish]. I am making it metallic, because I -want the heat which I am about to deal with to pass readily through it; -and I am going to pour a little water on this board, and then place -the tin vessel on it. Now if I put some of this ice into the metal -dish, and then proceed to make it liquid by any of the various means -we have at our command, it still must take the necessary quantity of -heat from something, and in this case it will take the heat from the -tray, and from the water underneath, and from the other things round -about. Well, a little salt added to the ice has the power of causing it -to melt, and we shall very shortly see the mixture become quite fluid, -and you will then find that the water beneath will be frozen--frozen, -because it has been forced to give up that heat which is necessary to -keep it in the liquid state, to the ice on becoming liquid. I remember -once, when I was a boy, hearing of a trick in a country alehouse; the -point was how to melt ice in a quart-pot by the fire, and freeze it to -the stool. Well, the way they did it was this: they put some pounded -ice in a pewter pot and added some salt to it, and the consequence was, -that when the salt was mixed with it, the ice in the pot melted (they -did not tell me anything about the salt, and they set the pot by the -fire, just to make the result more mysterious), and in a short time the -pot and the stool were frozen together, as we shall very shortly find -it to be the case here. And all because salt has the power of lessening -the attraction between the particles of ice. Here you see the tin dish -is frozen to the board--I can even lift this little stool up by it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.] - -This experiment cannot, I think, fail to impress upon your minds the -fact, that whenever a solid body loses some of that force of attraction -by means of which it remains solid, heat is absorbed; and if, on the -other hand, we convert a liquid into a solid, _e.g._, water into ice, -a corresponding amount of heat is given out. I have an experiment -shewing this to be the case. Here (fig. 21) is a bulb, A, filled with -air, the tube from which dips into some coloured liquid in the vessel -B. And I dare say you know that if I put my hand on the bulb A, and -warm it, the coloured liquid which is now standing in the tube at C -will travel forward. Now we have discovered a means, by great care and -research into the properties of various bodies, of preparing a solution -of a salt[15] which, if shaken or disturbed, will at once become a -solid; and as I explained to you just now (for what is true of water -is true of every other liquid), by reason of its becoming solid, heat -is evolved, and I can make this evident to you by pouring it over this -bulb;--there! it is becoming solid, and look at the coloured liquid, -how it is being driven down the tube, and how it is bubbling out -through the water at the end; and so we learn this beautiful law of our -philosophy, that whenever we diminish the attraction of cohesion, we -absorb heat--and whenever we increase that attraction, heat is evolved. -This, then, is a great step in advance, for you have learned a great -deal in addition to the mere circumstance that particles attract each -other. But you must not now suppose that because they are liquid they -have lost their attraction of cohesion; for here is the fluid mercury, -and if I pour it from one vessel into another, I find that it will -form a stream from the bottle down to the glass--a continuous rod of -fluid mercury, the particles of which have attraction sufficient to -make them hold together all the way through the air down to the glass -itself; and if I pour water quietly from a jug, I can cause it to run -in a continuous stream in the same manner. Again, let me put a little -water on this piece of plate-glass, and then take another plate of -glass and put it on the water; there! the upper plate is quite free to -move, gliding about on the lower one from side to side; and yet, if I -take hold of the upper plate and lift it up straight, the cohesion is -so great that the lower one is held up by it. See how it runs about as -I move the upper one! and this is all owing to the strong attraction -of the particles of the water. Let me shew you another experiment. If -I take a little soap and water--not that the soap makes the particles -of the water more adhesive one for the other but it certainly has the -power of continuing in a better manner the attraction of the particles -(and let me advise you, when about to experiment with soap-bubbles, -to take care to have everything clean and soapy). I will now blow a -bubble; and that I may be able to talk and blow a bubble too, I will -take a plate with a little of the soapsuds in it, and will just soap -the edges of the pipe, and blow a bubble on to the plate. Now, there -is our bubble. Why does it hold together in this manner? Why, because -the water of which it is composed has an attraction of particle for -particle,--so great, indeed, that it gives to this bubble the very -power of an india-rubber ball; for you see, if I introduce one end of -this glass tube into the bubble, that it has the power of contracting -so powerfully as to force enough air through the tube to blow out a -light (fig. 22)--the light is blown out. And look! see how the bubble -is disappearing, see how it is getting smaller and smaller. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22. and Fig. 23.] - -There are twenty other experiments I might shew you to illustrate this -power of cohesion of the particles of liquids. For instance, what -would you propose to me if, having lost the stopper out of this alcohol -bottle, I should want to close it speedily with something near at -hand. Well, a bit of paper would not do, but a piece of linen cloth -would, or some of this cotton wool which I have here. I will put a -tuft of it into the neck of the alcohol bottle, and you see, when I -turn it upside down, that it is perfectly well stoppered, so far as -the alcohol is concerned; the air can pass through, but the alcohol -cannot. And if I were to take an oil vessel, this plan would do equally -well, for in former times they used to send us oil from Italy in flasks -stoppered only with cotton wool (at the present time the cotton is put -in after the oil has arrived here, but formerly it used to be sent so -stoppered). Now, if it were not for the particles of liquid cohering -together, this alcohol would run out; and if I had time, I could have -shewn you a vessel with the top, bottom, and sides altogether formed -like a sieve, and yet it would hold water, owing to this cohesion. - -You have now seen that the solid water can become fluid by the addition -of heat, owing to this lessening the attractive force between its -particles, and yet you see that there is a good deal of attractive -force remaining behind. I want now to take you another step beyond. -We saw that if we continued applying heat to the water (as indeed -happened with our piece of ice here), that we did at last break up -that attraction which holds the liquid together; and I am about to -take some ether (any other liquid would do, but ether makes a better -experiment for my purpose), in order to illustrate what will happen -when this cohesion is broken up. Now, this liquid ether, if exposed -to a very low temperature, will become a solid; but if we apply heat -to it, it becomes vapour, and I want to shew you the enormous bulk of -the substance in this new form--when we make ice into water, we lessen -its bulk, but when we convert water into steam, we increase it to an -enormous extent. You see it is very clear that as I apply heat to the -liquid I diminish its attraction of cohesion--it is now boiling, and I -will set fire to the vapour, so that you may be enabled to judge of the -space occupied by the ether in this form by the size of its flame, and -you now see what an enormously bulky flame I get from that small volume -of ether below. The heat from the spirit-lamp is now being consumed, -not in making the ether any warmer, but in converting it into vapour; -and if I desired to catch this vapour and condense it (as I could -without much difficulty), I should have to do the same as if I wished -to convert steam into water and water into ice: in either case it would -be necessary to increase the attraction of the particles, by cold or -otherwise. So largely is the bulk occupied by the particles increased -by giving them this diminished attraction, that if I were to take a -portion of water a cubic inch in bulk (A, fig. 23) I should produce -a volume of steam of that size, B [1700 cubic inches; nearly a cubic -foot], so greatly is the attraction of cohesion diminished by heat; and -yet it still remains water. You can easily imagine the consequences -which are due to this change in volume by heat--the mighty powers of -steam and the tremendous explosions which are sometimes produced by -this force of water. I want you now to see another experiment, which -will perhaps give you a better illustration of the bulk occupied by a -body when in the state of vapour. Here is a substance which we call -iodine, and I am about to submit this solid body to the same kind of -condition as regards heat that I did the water and the ether [putting a -few grains of iodine into a hot glass globe, which immediately became -filled with the violet vapour], and you see the same kind of change -produced. Moreover, it gives us the opportunity of observing how -beautiful is the violet-coloured vapour from this black substance, or -rather the mixture of the vapour with air (for I would not wish you to -understand that this globe is entirely filled with the vapour of iodine). - -If I had taken mercury and converted it into vapour (as I could -easily do), I should have a perfectly colourless vapour; for you -must understand this about vapours, that bodies in what we call the -vaporous, or the gaseous state, are always perfectly transparent, -never cloudy or smoky: they are, however, often coloured, and we can -frequently have coloured vapours or gases produced by colourless -particles themselves mixing together, as in this case [the Lecturer -here inverted a glass cylinder full of binoxide of nitrogen[16] over -a cylinder of oxygen, when the dark-red vapour of hypo-nitrous acid -was produced]. Here also you see a very excellent illustration of the -effect of a power of nature which we have not as yet come to, but which -stands next on our list--CHEMICAL AFFINITY. And thus you see we can -have a violet vapour or an orange vapour, and different other kinds of -vapour; but they are always perfectly transparent, or else they would -cease to be vapours. - -I am now going to lead you a step beyond this consideration of the -attraction of the particles for each other. You see we have come to -understand that, if we take water as an illustration, whether it be -ice, or water, or steam, it is always to be considered by us as water. -Well, now prepare your minds to go a little deeper into the subject. -We have means of searching into the constitution of water beyond any -that are afforded us by the action of heat, and among these one of the -most important is that force which we call voltaic electricity, which -we used at our last meeting for the purpose of obtaining light, and -which we carried about the room by means of these wires. This force -is produced by the battery behind me, to which, however, I will not -now refer more particularly: before we have done we shall know more -about this battery, but it must grow up in our knowledge as we proceed. -Now, here (fig. 24) is a portion of water in this little vessel C, -and besides the water there are two plates of the metal platinum, -which are connected with the wires (A and B) coming outside, and I -want to examine that water, and the state and the condition in which -its particles are arranged. If I were to apply heat to it, you know -what we should get; it would assume the state of vapour, but it would -nevertheless remain water, and would return to the liquid state as -soon as the heat was removed. Now, by means of these wires (which are -connected with the battery behind me, and come under the floor and up -through the table), we shall have a certain amount of this new power -at our disposal. Here you see it is [causing the ends of the wires to -touch]--that is the electric light we used yesterday, and by means of -these wires we can cause water to submit itself to this power; for the -moment I put them into metallic connection (at A and B), you see the -water boiling in that little vessel (C), and you hear the bubbling of -the gas that is going through the tube (D). See how I am converting -the water into vapour; and if I take a little vessel (E), and fill it -with water, and put it in the trough over the end of the tube (D), -there goes the vapour ascending into the vessel. And yet that is not -steam; for you know that if steam is brought near cold water, it would -at once condense, and return back again to water. This then cannot be -steam, for it is bubbling through the cold water in this trough; but it -is a vaporous substance, and we must therefore examine it carefully, -to see in what way the water has been changed. And now, in order to -give you a proof that it is not steam, I am going to shew you that it -is combustible; for if I take this small vessel to a light, the vapour -inside explodes in a manner that steam could never do. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.] - -I will now fill this large bell-jar (F) with water; and I propose -letting the gas ascend into it, and I will then shew you that we can -reproduce the water back again from the vapour or air that is there. -Here is a strong glass vessel (G), and into it we will let the gas -(from F) pass. We will there fire it by the electric spark, and then -after the explosion you will find that we have got the water back -again: it will not be much, however, for you will recollect that I -shewed you how small a portion of water produced a very large volume of -vapour. Mr. Anderson will now pump all the air out of this vessel (G); -and when I have screwed it on to the top of our jar of gas (F), you -will see upon opening the stop-cocks (H´ H H) the water will jump up, -shewing that some of the gas has passed into the glass vessel. I will -now shut these stop-cocks, and we shall be able to send the electric -spark through the gas by means of the wires (I, K) in the upper part of -the vessel, and you will see it burn with a most intense flash. [Mr. -Anderson here brought a Leyden jar, which he discharged through the -confined gas by means of the wires I, K.] You saw the flash; and now -that you may see that there is no longer any gas remaining, if I place -it over the jar and open the stop-cocks again, up will go the gas, and -we can have a second combustion; and so I might go on again and again, -and I should continue to accumulate more and more of the water to which -the gas has returned. Now, is not this curious?--in this vessel (C) we -can go on making from water a large bulk of _permanent gas_, as we call -it, and then we can reconvert it into water in this way. [Mr. Anderson -brought in another Leyden jar, which, however, from some cause would -not ignite the gas. It was therefore recharged, when the explosion -took place in the desired manner.] How beautifully we get our results -when we are right in our proceedings!--it is not that Nature is wrong -when we make a mistake. Now, I will lay this vessel (G) down by my -right hand, and you can examine it by and by: there is not very much -water flowing down, but there is quite sufficient for you to see. - -Another wonderful thing about this mode of changing the condition -of the water is this--that we are able to get the separate parts of -which it is composed, at a distance the one from the other, and to -examine them, and see what they are like, and how many of them there -are; and for this purpose I have here some more water in a slightly -different apparatus to the former one (fig. 25), and if I place this -in connection with the wires of the battery (at A B), I shall get a -similar decomposition of the water at the two platinum plates. Now, I -will put this little tube (O) over there, and that will collect the gas -together that comes from this side (A), and this tube (H) will collect -the gas that comes from the other side (B); and I think we shall soon -be able to see a difference. In this apparatus the wires are a good way -apart from each other, and it now seems that _each_ of them is capable -of drawing off particles from the water and sending them off, and you -see that one set of particles (H) is coming off twice as fast as those -collected in the other tube (O). Something is coming out of the water -_there_ (at H) which burns [setting fire to the gas]; but what comes -out of the water _here_ (at O), although it will not burn, will support -combustion very vigorously. [The Lecturer here placed a match with a -glowing tip in the gas, when it immediately rekindled.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.] - -Here, then, we have two things, neither of them being water alone, -but which we get out of the water. Water is therefore composed of -two substances different to itself, which appear at separate places -when it is made to submit to the force which I have in these wires; -and if I take an inverted tube of water and collect this gas (H), -you will see that it is by no means the same as the one we collected -in the former apparatus (fig. 24). That exploded with a loud noise -when it was lighted, but this will burn quite noiselessly--it is -called _hydrogen_; and the other we call _oxygen_--that gas which so -beautifully brightens up all combustion, but does not burn of itself. -So now we see that water consists of two kinds of particles attracting -each other in a very different manner to the attraction of gravitation -or cohesion; and this new attraction we call _chemical affinity_, or -the force of chemical action between different bodies. We are now -no longer concerned with the attraction of iron for iron, water for -water, wood for wood, or like bodies for each other, as we were when -dealing with the force of cohesion: we are dealing with another kind -of attraction,--the attraction between particles of a _different_ -nature one to the other. Chemical affinity depends entirely upon the -energy with which particles of _different_ kinds attract each other. -Oxygen and hydrogen are particles of different kinds, and it is their -attraction to each other which makes them chemically combine and -produce water. - -I must now shew you a little more at large what chemical affinity is. I -can prepare these gases from other substances, as well as from water; -and we will now prepare some oxygen. Here is another substance which -contains oxygen--chlorate of potash. I will put some of it into this -glass retort, and Mr. Anderson will apply heat to it. We have here -different jars filled with water; and when, by the application of heat, -the chlorate of potash is decomposed, we will displace the water, and -fill the jars with gas. - -Now, when water is opened out in this way by means of the -battery--which adds nothing to it materially, which takes nothing from -it materially (I mean no _matter_; I am not speaking of _force_), which -adds no _matter_ to the water--it is changed in this way: the gas -which you saw burning a little while ago, called _hydrogen_, is evolved -in large quantity, and the other gas, _oxygen_, is evolved in only half -the quantity; so that these two areas represent water, and these are -always the proportions between the two gases. - - +-----------+-----------+ - | | | - | | 8 | - | | | Oxygen, 88.9 - | | Oxygen. | - | 1 | | Hydrogen, 11.1 - | +-----------+ ---- - | Hydrogen. | Water, 100.0 - | | 9 - | | - | | - | | - +-----------+ - -But oxygen is sixteen times the weight of the other--eight times as -heavy as the particles of hydrogen in the water; and you therefore know -that water is composed of nine parts by weight--one of hydrogen and -eight of oxygen; thus:-- - - Hydrogen, 46.2 cubic inches, = 1 grain. - Oxygen, 23.1 cubic inches, = 8 grains. - ---- -- - Water (_steam_), 69.3 cubic inches, = 9 grains. - -Now, Mr. Anderson has prepared some oxygen, and we will proceed to -examine what is the character of this gas. First of all, you remember, -I told you that it does not burn, but that it affects the burning of -other bodies. I will just set fire to the point of this little bit -of wood, and then plunge it into the jar of oxygen, and you will see -what this gas does in increasing the brilliancy of the combustion. -It does not burn--it does not take fire as the hydrogen would--but -how vividly the combustion of the match goes on. Again, if I were to -take this wax taper and light it, and turn it upside down in the air, -it would in all probability put itself out, owing to the wax running -down into the wick. [The Lecturer here turned the lighted taper upside -down, when in a few seconds it went out.] Now, that will not happen -in oxygen gas; you will see how differently it acts (fig. 26). [The -taper was again lighted, turned upside down, and then introduced into -a jar of oxygen.] Look at that! see how the very wax itself burns, and -falls down in a dazzling stream of fire, so powerfully does the oxygen -support combustion. Again, here is another experiment which will serve -to illustrate the force, if I may so call it, of oxygen. I have here -a circular flame of spirit of wine, and with it I am about to shew -you the way in which iron burns, because it will serve very well as a -comparison between the effect produced by air and oxygen. If I take -this ring flame, I can shake by means of a sieve the fine particles of -iron filings through it, and you will see the way in which they burn. -[The Lecturer here shook through the flame some iron filings, which -took fire and fell through with beautiful scintillations.] But if I -now hold the flame over a jar of oxygen [the experiment was repeated -over a jar of oxygen, when the combustion of the filings, as they fell -into the oxygen, became almost insupportably brilliant], you see how -wonderfully different the effect is in the jar; because there we have -oxygen instead of common air. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.] - - - - -LECTURE IV. - -CHEMICAL AFFINITY--HEAT. - - -We shall have to pay a little more attention to the forces existing -in water before we can have a clear idea on the subject. Besides -the attraction which there is between its particles to make it hold -together as a liquid or a solid, there is also another force, different -from the former--one which, yesterday, by means of the voltaic battery, -we overcame, drawing from the water two different substances--which, -when heated by means of the electric spark, attracted each other, and -rushed into combination to reproduce water. Now, I propose to-day to -continue this subject, and trace the various phenomena of chemical -affinity; and for this purpose, as we yesterday considered the -character of oxygen, of which I have here two jars (oxygen being those -particles derived from the water which enable other bodies to burn), -we will now consider the other constituent of water; and, without -embarrassing you too much with the way in which these things are made, -I will proceed now to shew you our common way of making _hydrogen_. -(I called it hydrogen yesterday--it is so called because it helps to -generate water.)[A] I put into this retort some zinc, water, and oil -of vitriol, and immediately an action takes place, which produces an -abundant evolution of gas, now coming over into this jar, and bubbling -up in appearance exactly like the oxygen we obtained yesterday. - - [A] ὕδωρ, “water,” and γενναω, “I generate.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.] - -The processes, you see, are very different, though the result is the -same, in so far as it gives us certain gaseous particles. Here, then, -is the hydrogen. I shewed you yesterday certain qualities of this gas; -now let me exhibit you some other properties. Unlike oxygen, which -is a supporter of combustion, and will not burn, hydrogen itself is -combustible. There is a jar full of it; and if I carry it along in this -manner, and put a light to it, I think you will see it take fire, not -with a bright light--you will at all events hear it, if you do not see -it. Now, that is a body entirely different from oxygen: it is extremely -light; for although yesterday you saw twice as much of this hydrogen -produced on the one side as on the other, by the voltaic battery, -it was only one-eighth the weight of the oxygen. I carry this jar -upside-down. Why? Because I know that it is a very light body, and that -it will continue in this jar upside-down quite as effectually as the -water will in that jar which is not upside-down; and just as I can pour -water from one vessel into another in the right position to receive -it, so can I pour this gas from one jar into another when they are -upside-down. See what I am about to do. There is no hydrogen in this -jar at present, but I will gently turn this jar of hydrogen up under -this other jar (fig. 28), and then we will examine the two. We shall -see, on applying a light, that the hydrogen has left the jar in which -it was at first, and has poured upwards into the other, and there we -shall find it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.] - -You now understand that we can have particles of very different kinds, -and that they can have different bulks and weights; and there are two -or three very interesting experiments which serve to illustrate this. -For instance, if I blow soap bubbles with the breath from my mouth, -you will see them fall, because I fill them with common air, and the -water which forms the bubble carries it down. But now, if I inhale -hydrogen gas into my lungs (it does no harm to the lungs, although it -does no good to them), see what happens. [The Lecturer inhaled some -hydrogen, and after one or two ineffectual attempts, succeeded in -blowing a splendid bubble, which rose majestically and slowly to the -ceiling of the theatre, where it burst.] That shews you very well how -light a substance this is; for, notwithstanding all the heavy bad air -from my lungs, and the weight of the bubble, you saw how it was carried -up. I want you now to consider this phenomenon of weight as indicating -how exceedingly different particles are one from the other; and I -will take as illustrations these very common things--air, water, the -heaviest body, platinum, and this gas: and observe how they differ in -this respect; for if I take a piece of platinum of that size (fig. 29), -it is equal to the weight of portions of water, air, and hydrogen of -the bulks I have represented in these spheres. And this illustration -gives you a very good idea of the extraordinary difference with regard -to the gravity of the articles having this enormous difference in bulk. -[The following tabular statement having reference to this illustration -appeared on the diagram board.] - - +------------+----------+-------+------+ - | Hydrogen, | 1 | | | - +------------+----------+-------+------+ - | Air, | 14.4 | 1 | | - +------------+----------+-------+------+ - | Water, | 11943 | 829 | 1 | - +------------+----------+-------+------+ - | Platinum, | 256774 | 17831 | 21.5 | - +------------+----------+-------+------+ - -Whenever oxygen and hydrogen unite together they produce water; and you -have seen the extraordinary difference between the bulk and appearance -of the water so produced, and the particles of which it consists -chemically. Now, we have never yet been able to reduce either oxygen -or hydrogen to the liquid state; and yet their first impulse, when -chemically combined, is to take up first this liquid condition, and -then the solid condition. We never combine these different particles -together without producing water; and it is curious to think how often -you must have made the experiment of combining oxygen and hydrogen to -form water without knowing it. Take a candle, for instance, and a clean -silver spoon (or a piece of clean tin will do), and if you hold it -over the flame, you immediately cover it with dew--not a smoke--which -presently evaporates. This perhaps will serve to shew it better. Mr. -Anderson will put a candle under that jar, and you will see how soon -the water is produced (fig. 30). Look at that dimness on the sides of -the glass, which will soon produce drops, and trickle down into the -plate. Well, that dimness and these drops are _water_, formed by the -union of the oxygen of the air with the hydrogen existing in the wax of -which that candle is formed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.] - -And now, having brought you in the first place to the consideration -of chemical attraction, I must enlarge your ideas so as to include -all substances which have this attraction for each other--for it -changes the character of bodies, and alters them in this way and that -way in the most extraordinary manner, and produces other phenomena -wonderful to think about. Here is some chlorate of potash, and there -some sulphuret of antimony.[17] We will mix these two different sets -of particles together; and I want to shew you in a general sort of way -some of the phenomena which take place when we make different particles -act together. Now, I can make these bodies act upon each other in -several ways. In this case I am going to apply heat to the mixture; but -if I were to give a blow with a hammer, the same result would follow. -[A lighted match was brought to the mixture, which immediately exploded -with a sudden flash, evolving a dense white smoke.] There you see the -result of the action of chemical affinity overcoming the attraction of -cohesion of the particles. Again, here is a little sugar[18], quite a -different substance from the black sulphuret of antimony, and you shall -see what takes place when we put the two together. [The mixture was -touched with sulphuric acid, when it took fire and burnt gradually, -and with a brighter flame than in the former instance.] Observe this -chemical affinity travelling about the mass, and setting it on fire, -and throwing it into such wonderful agitation! - -I must now come to a few circumstances which require careful -consideration. We have already examined one of the effects of this -chemical affinity; but to make the matter more clear we must point -out some others. And here are two salts dissolved in water[19]. They -are both colourless solutions, and in these glasses you cannot see -any difference between them. But if I mix them, I shall have chemical -attraction take place. I will pour the two together into this glass, -and you will at once see, I have no doubt, a certain amount of change. -Look, they are already becoming milky, but they are sluggish in their -action--not quick as the others were--for we have endless varieties -of rapidity in chemical action. Now, if I mix them together, and stir -them, so as to bring them properly together, you will soon see what -a different result is produced. As I mix them, they get thicker and -thicker, and you see the liquid is hardening and stiffening, and before -long I shall have it quite hard; and before the end of the lecture -it will be a solid stone--a wet stone, no doubt, but more or less -solid--in consequence of the chemical affinity. Is not this changing -two liquids into a solid body a wonderful manifestation of chemical -affinity? - -There is another remarkable circumstance in chemical affinity, which -is, that it is capable of either waiting or acting at once. And this -is very singular, because we know of nothing of the kind in the forces -either of gravitation or cohesion. For instance, here are some oxygen -particles, and here is a lump of carbon particles. I am going to put -the carbon particles into the oxygen; they _can_ act, but they _do_ -not--they are just like this unlighted candle. It stands here quietly -on the table, waiting until we want to light it. But it is not so in -this other case. Here is a substance, gaseous like the oxygen, and if -I put these particles of metal into it, the two combine at once. The -copper and the chlorine unite by their power of chemical affinity, and -produce a body entirely unlike either of the substances used. And in -this other case, it is not that there is any deficiency of affinity -between the carbon and oxygen; for the moment I choose to put them in -a condition to exert their affinity, you will see the difference. [The -piece of charcoal was ignited, and introduced into the jar of oxygen, -when the combustion proceeded with vivid scintillations.] - -Now, this chemical action is set going exactly as it would be if I -had lighted the candle, or as it is when the servant puts coals on -and lights the fire: the substances wait until we do something which -is able to start the action. Can anything be more beautiful than this -combustion of charcoal in oxygen? You must understand that each of -these little sparks is a portion of the charcoal, or the bark of the -charcoal, thrown off white-hot into the oxygen, and burning in it most -brilliantly, as you see. And now let me tell you another thing, or you -will go away with a very imperfect notion of the powers and effects of -this affinity. There you see some charcoal burning in oxygen. Well, a -piece of lead will burn in oxygen just as well as the charcoal does, -or indeed better; for absolutely that piece of lead will act at once -upon the oxygen as the copper did in the other vessel with regard to -the chlorine. And here also a piece of iron: if I light it and put -it into the oxygen, it will burn away just as the carbon did. And I -will take some lead, and shew you that it will burn in the common -atmospheric oxygen at the ordinary temperature. These are the lumps of -lead which, you remember, we had the other day--the two pieces which -clung together. Now these pieces, if I take them to-day and press them -together, will not stick; and the reason is, that they have attracted -from the atmosphere a part of the oxygen there present, and have -become coated as with a varnish by the oxide of lead, which is formed -on the surface by a real process of combustion or combination. There -you see the iron burning very well in oxygen; and I will tell you the -reason why those scissors and that lead do not take fire whilst they -are lying on the table. Here the lead is in a lump, and the coating of -oxide remains on its surface; whilst there you see the melted oxide -is clearing itself off from the iron, and allowing more and more to -go on burning. In this case, however [holding up a small glass tube -containing lead pyrophorus.[20]], the lead has been very carefully -produced in fine powder, and put into a glass tube, and hermetically -sealed, so as to preserve it; and I expect you will see it take fire -at once. This has been made about a month ago, and has thus had time -enough to sink down to its normal temperature. What you see, therefore, -is the result of chemical affinity alone. [The tube was broken at -the end, and the lead poured out on to a piece of paper, whereupon it -immediately took fire.] Look, look at the lead burning; why, it has set -fire to the paper! Now, that is nothing more than the common affinity -always existing between very clean lead and the atmospheric oxygen; and -the reason why this iron does not burn until it is made red-hot is, -because it has got a coating of oxide about it, which stops the action -of the oxygen--putting a varnish, as it were, upon its surface, as we -varnish a picture, absolutely forming a substance which prevents the -natural chemical affinity between the bodies from acting. - -I must now take you a little further in this kind of illustration--or -consideration, I would rather call it--of chemical affinity. This -attraction between different particles exists also most curiously in -cases where they are previously combined with other substances. Here -is a little chlorate of potash, containing the oxygen which we found -yesterday could be procured from it. It contains the oxygen there -combined and held down by its chemical affinity with other things; but -still it can combine with sugar, as you saw. This affinity can thus -act _across_ substances; and I want you to see how curiously what we -call combustion acts with respect to this force of chemical affinity. -If I take a piece of phosphorus and set fire to it, and then place a -jar of air over the phosphorus, you see the combustion which we are -having there on account of chemical affinity (combustion being in all -cases the result of chemical affinity). The phosphorus is escaping in -that vapour, which will condense into a snow-like mass at the close of -the lecture. But suppose I limit the atmosphere, what then? why, even -the phosphorus will go out. Here is a piece of camphor, which will burn -very well in the atmosphere, and even on water it will float about and -burn, by reason of some of its particles gaining access to the air. But -if I limit the quantity of air by placing a jar over it, as I am now -doing, you will soon find the camphor will go out. Well, why does it go -out? Not for want of air, for there is plenty of air remaining in the -jar. Perhaps you will be shrewd enough to say, for want of oxygen. - -This, therefore, leads us to the inquiry as to whether oxygen can do -more than a certain amount of work. The oxygen there (fig. 30) cannot -go on burning an unlimited quantity of candle, for that has gone -out, as you see; and its amount of chemical attraction or affinity -is just as strikingly limited: it can no more be fallen short of or -exceeded than can the attraction of gravitation. You might as soon -attempt to destroy gravitation, or weight, or all things that exist, -as to destroy the exact amount of force exerted by this oxygen. And -when I pointed out to you that 8 by weight of oxygen to 1 by weight -of hydrogen went to form water, I meant this, that neither of them -would combine in different proportions with the other; for you cannot -get 10 of hydrogen to combine with 6 of oxygen, or 10 of oxygen to -combine with 6 of hydrogen--it must be 8 of oxygen and 1 of hydrogen. -Now, suppose I limit the action in this way: this piece of cotton wool -burns, as you see, very well in the atmosphere; and I have known of -cases of cotton-mills being fired as if with gunpowder, through the -very finely-divided particles of cotton being diffused through the -atmosphere in the mill, when it has sometimes happened that a flame -has caught these raised particles, and it has run from one end of the -mill to the other, and blown it up. That, then, is on account of the -affinity which the cotton has for the oxygen; but suppose I set fire -to this piece of cotton, which is rolled up tightly, it does not go on -burning, because I have limited the supply of oxygen, and the inside -is prevented from having access to the oxygen, just as it was in the -case of the lead by the oxide. But here is some cotton which has been -imbued with oxygen in a certain manner. I need not trouble you now with -the way it is prepared; it is called gun-cotton.[21] See how that burns -[setting fire to a piece]; it is very different from the other, because -the oxygen that must be present in its proper amount is put there -beforehand. And I have here some pieces of paper which are prepared -like the gun-cotton[22], and imbued with bodies containing oxygen. Here -is some which has been soaked in nitrate of strontia--you will see the -beautiful red colour of its flame; and here is another which I think -contains baryta, which gives that fine green light; and I have here -some more which has been soaked in nitrate of copper--it does not burn -quite so brightly, but still very beautifully. In all these cases the -combustion goes on independent of the oxygen of the atmosphere. And -here we have some gunpowder put into a case, in order to shew that it -is capable of burning under water. You know that we put it into a gun, -shutting off the atmosphere, with shot, and yet the oxygen which it -contains supplies the particles with that without which chemical action -could not proceed. Now, I have a vessel of water here, and am going to -make the experiment of putting this fuse under the water, and you will -see whether that water can extinguish it. Here it is burning out of the -water, and there it is burning under the water; and so it will continue -until exhausted, and all by reason of the requisite amount of oxygen -being contained within the substance. It is by this kind of attraction -of the different particles one to the other that we are enabled to -trace the laws of chemical affinity, and the wonderful variety of the -exertions of these laws. - -Now, I want you to observe that one great exertion of this power, -which is known as _chemical affinity_, is to produce HEAT and light. -You know, as a matter of fact, no doubt, that when bodies burn they -give out heat; but it is a curious thing that this heat does not -continue--the heat goes away as soon as the action stops, and you see -thereby that it depends upon the action _during the time_ it is going -on. It is not so with gravitation: this force is continuous, and is -just as effective in making that lead press on the table as it was -when it first fell there. Nothing occurs there which disappears when -the action of falling is over; the pressure is upon the table, and -will remain there until the lead is removed; whereas, in the action -of chemical affinity to give light and heat, they go away immediately -the action is over. This lamp _seems_ to evolve heat and light -continuously; but it is owing to a constant stream of air coming into -it on all sides, and this work of producing light and heat by chemical -affinity will subside as soon as the stream of air is interrupted. -What, then, is this curious condition of heat? Why is the evolution -of another power of matter, of a power new to us, and which we must -consider as if it were now for the very first time brought under our -notice? What is heat? We recognise heat by its power of liquefying -solid bodies and vaporising liquid bodies, by its power of setting in -action, and very often overcoming, chemical affinity. Then, how do we -obtain heat? We obtain it in various ways--most abundantly by means of -the chemical affinity we have just before been speaking about; but we -can also obtain it in many other ways. Friction will produce heat. The -Indians rub pieces of wood together until they make them hot enough to -take fire; and such things have been known as two branches of a tree -rubbing together so hard as to set the tree on fire. I do not suppose -I shall set these two pieces of wood on fire by friction; but I can -readily produce heat enough to ignite some phosphorus. [The Lecturer -here rubbed two pieces of cedar-wood strongly against each other -for a minute, and then placed on them a piece of phosphorus, which -immediately took fire.] And if you take a smooth metal button stuck on -a cork, and rub it on a piece of soft deal wood, you will make it so -hot as to scorch wood and paper, and burn a match. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.] - -I am now going to shew you that we can obtain heat, not by chemical -affinity alone, but by the pressure of air. Suppose I take a pellet of -cotton and moisten it with a little ether, and put it into a glass tube -(fig. 31), and then take a piston and press it down suddenly, I expect -I shall be able to burn a little of that ether in the vessel. It wants -a suddenness of pressure, or we shall not do what we require. [The -piston was forcibly pressed down, when a flame, due to the combustion -of the ether, was visible in the lower part of the syringe.] All we -want is to get a little ether in vapour, and give fresh air each -time, and so we may go on again and again getting heat enough by the -compression of air to fire the ether-vapour. - -This, then, I think, will be sufficient, accompanied with all you have -previously seen, to shew you how we procure heat. And now for the -effects of this power. We need not consider many of them on the present -occasion, because when you have seen its power of changing ice into -water and water into steam, you have seen the two principal results -of the application of heat. I want you now to see how it expands all -bodies--all bodies but one, and that under limited circumstances. Mr. -Anderson will hold a lamp under that retort, and you will see the -moment he does so that the air will issue abundantly from the neck, -which is under water, because the heat which he applies to the air -causes it to expand. And here is a brass rod (fig. 32) which goes -through that hole, and fits also accurately into this gauge; but if -I make it warm with this spirit-lamp, it will only go in the gauge -or through the hole with difficulty; and if I were to put it into -boiling-water, it would not go through at all. Again, as soon as the -heat escapes from bodies they collapse. See how the air is contracting -in the vessel, now that Mr. Anderson has taken away his lamp: the stem -of it is filling with water. Notice, too, now, that although I cannot -get the tube through this hole or into the gauge, the moment I cool -it by dipping it into water, it goes through with perfect facility; -so that we have a perfect proof of this power of heat to contract and -expand bodies. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.] - - - - -LECTURE V. - -MAGNETISM--ELECTRICITY. - - -I wonder whether we shall be too deep to-day or not. Remember that we -spoke of the attraction by gravitation of _all_ bodies to all bodies -by their simple approach. Remember that we spoke of the attraction of -particles of the _same_ kind to each other,--that power which keeps -them together in masses,--iron attracted to iron, brass to brass, or -water to water. Remember that we found, on looking into water, that -there were particles of two different kinds attracted to each other; -and this was a great step beyond the first simple attraction of -gravitation; because here we deal with attraction between _different_ -kinds of matter. The hydrogen could attract the oxygen, and reduce -it to water, but it could not attract any of its own particles; so -that there we obtained a first indication of the existence of _two_ -attractions. - -To-day we come to a kind of attraction even more curious than the last, -namely, the attraction which we find to be of a double nature--of a -curious and dual nature. And I want first of all to make the nature -of this doubleness clear to you. Bodies are sometimes endowed with a -wonderful attraction, which is not found in them in their ordinary -state. For instance, here is a piece of shell-lac, having the -attraction of gravitation, having the attraction of cohesion; and if I -set fire to it, it would have the attraction of chemical affinity to -the oxygen in the atmosphere. Now, all these powers we find _in_ it -as if they were parts of its substance; but there is another property -which I will try and make evident by means of this ball, this bubble of -air [a light india-rubber ball, inflated and suspended by a thread]. -There is no attraction between this ball and this shell-lac at present: -there may be a little wind in the room slightly moving the ball about, -but there is no attraction. But if I rub the shell-lac with a piece of -flannel [rubbing the shell-lac, and then holding it near the ball], -look at the attraction which has arisen out of the shell-lac, simply -by this friction, and which I may take away as easily by drawing -it gently through my hand. [The Lecturer repeated the experiment of -exciting the shell-lac, and then removing the attractive power by -drawing it through his hand.] Again, you will see I can repeat this -experiment with another substance; for if I take a glass rod and rub -it with a piece of silk covered with what we call amalgam, look at the -attraction which it has, how it draws the ball towards it; and then, as -before, by quietly rubbing it through the hand, the attraction will be -all removed again, to come back by friction with this silk. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.] - -But now we come to another fact. I will take this piece of shell-lac -and make it attractive by friction; and remember that whenever we get -an attraction of gravity, chemical affinity, adhesion, or electricity -(as in this case), the body which attracts is attracted also; and just -as much as that ball was attracted by the shell-lac, the shell-lac -was attracted by the ball. Now, I will suspend this piece of excited -shell-lac in a little paper stirrup, in this way (fig. 33), in order -to make it move easily, and I will take another piece of shell-lac, -and after rubbing it with flannel, will bring them near together. You -will think that they ought to attract each other; but now what happens? -It does not attract; on the contrary, it very strongly _repels_, and -I can thus drive it round to any extent. These, therefore, repel each -other, although they are so strongly attractive--repel each other to -the extent of driving this heavy piece of shell-lac round and round -in this way. But if I excite this piece of shell-lac, as before, and -take this piece of glass and rub it with silk, and then bring them -near, what think you will happen? [The Lecturer held the excited glass -near the excited shell-lac, when they attracted each other strongly.] -You see, therefore, what a difference there is between these two -attractions,--they are actually two _kinds_ of attraction concerned in -this case, quite different to anything we have met with before; but the -_force_ is the same. We have here, then, a double attraction--a dual -attraction or force--one attracting, and the other repelling. - -Again, to shew you another experiment which will help to make this -clear to you. Suppose I set up this rough indicator again [the excited -shell-lac suspended in the stirrup]--it is rough, but delicate enough -for my purpose; and suppose I take this other piece of shell-lac, and -take away the power, which I can do by drawing it gently through the -hand; and suppose I take a piece of flannel (fig. 34), which I have -shaped into a cap for it and made dry. I will put this shell-lac into -the flannel, and here comes out a very beautiful result. I will rub -this shell-lac and the flannel together (which I can do by twisting the -shell-lac round), and leave them in contact; and then, if I ask, by -bringing them nearer our indicator, what is the attractive force?--it -is nothing! But if I take them apart, and then ask what will they do -when they are separated--why, the shell-lac is strongly repelled, as it -was before, but the cap is strongly attractive; and yet if I bring them -both together again, there is no attraction--it has all disappeared -[the experiment was repeated]. Those two bodies, therefore, still -contain this attractive power: when they were parted, it was evident to -your senses that they had it, though they do not attract when they are -together. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.] - -This, then, is sufficient in the outset to give you an idea of the -nature of the force which we call ELECTRICITY. There is no end to the -things from which you can evolve this power. When you go home, take -a stick of sealing-wax--I have rather a large stick, but a smaller -one will do--and make an indicator of this sort (fig. 35). Take a -watch-glass (or your watch itself will do; you only want something -which shall have a round face), and now, if you place a piece of -flat glass upon that, you have a very easily moved centre. And if I -take this lath and put it on the flat glass (you see I am searching -for the centre of gravity of this lath--I want to balance it upon -the watch-glass), it is very easily moved round; and if I take this -piece of sealing-wax and rub it against my coat, and then try whether -it is attractive [holding it near the lath], you see how strong the -attraction is; I can even draw it about. Here, then, you have a very -beautiful indicator, for I have, with a small piece of sealing-wax -and my coat, pulled round a plank of that kind; so you need be in -no want of indicators to discover the presence of this attraction. -There is scarcely a substance which we may not use. Here are some -indicators (fig. 36). I bend round a strip of paper into a hoop, and -we have as good an indicator as can be required. See how it rolls -along, travelling after the sealing-wax. If I make them smaller, of -course we have them running faster, and sometimes they are actually -attracted up into the air. Here also is a little collodion balloon. It -is so electrical that it will scarcely leave my hand unless to go to -the other. See, how curiously electrical it is: it is hardly possible -for me to touch it without making it electrical; and here is a piece -which clings to anything it is brought near, and which it is not easy -to lay down. And here is another substance, gutta-percha, in thin -strips: it is astonishing how, by rubbing this in your hands, you make -it electrical. But our time forbids us to go further into this subject -at present. You see clearly there are two kinds of electricities which -may be obtained by rubbing shell-lac with flannel, or glass with silk. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.] - -Now, there are some curious bodies in nature (of which I have -two specimens on the table) which are called _magnets_ or -_loadstones_--ores of iron, of which there is a great deal sent from -Sweden. They have the attraction of gravitation, and attraction of -cohesion, and certain chemical attraction; but they also have a great -attractive power, for this little key is held up by this stone. -Now, that is not chemical attraction,--it is not the attraction of -chemical affinity, or of aggregation of particles, or of cohesion, or -of electricity (for it will not attract this ball if I bring it near -it); but it is a separate and dual attraction--and, what is more, one -which is not readily removed from the substance, for it has existed -in it for ages and ages in the bowels of the earth. Now, we can make -artificial magnets (you will see me to-morrow make artificial magnets -of extraordinary power). And let us take one of these artificial -magnets, and examine it, and see where the power is in the mass, and -whether it is a dual power. You see it attracts these keys, two or -three in succession, and it will attract a very large piece of iron. -That, then, is a very different thing indeed to what you saw in the -case of the shell-lac; for _that_ only attracted a light ball, but here -I have several ounces of iron held up. And if we come to examine this -attraction a little more closely, we shall find it presents some other -remarkable differences: first of all, one end of this bar (fig. 37) -attracts this key, but the middle does not attract. It is not, then, -the _whole_ of the substance which attracts. If I place this little -key in the middle, it does not adhere; but if I place it _there_, a -little nearer the end, it does, though feebly. Is it not, then, very -curious to find that there is an attractive power at the extremities -which is not in the middle--to have thus in one bar two places in which -this force of attraction resides! If I take this bar and balance it -carefully on a point, so that it will be free to move round, I can -try what action this piece of iron has on it. Well, it attracts one -end, and it also attracts the other end, just as you saw the shell-lac -and the glass did, with the exception of its not attracting in the -middle. But if now, instead of a piece of iron, I take a _magnet_, and -examine it in a similar way, you see that one of its ends _repels_ -the suspended magnet--the force then is no longer attraction, but -repulsion; but if I take the other end of the magnet and bring it near, -it shews attraction again. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37. and Fig. 38.] - -You will see this better, perhaps, by another kind of experiment. Here -(fig. 38) is a little magnet, and I have coloured the ends differently, -so that you may distinguish one from the other. Now this end (S) of -the magnet (fig. 37) attracts the _uncoloured_ end of the little -magnet. You see it pulls it towards it with great power; and as I carry -it round, the uncoloured end still follows. But now, if I gradually -bring the middle of the bar magnet opposite the uncoloured end of the -needle, it has no effect upon it, either of attraction or repulsion, -until, as I come to the opposite extremity (N), you see that it is the -_coloured_ end of the needle which is pulled towards it. We are now -therefore dealing with two kinds of power, attracting different ends -of the magnet--a double power, already existing in these bodies, which -takes up the form of attraction and repulsion. And now, when I put up -this label with the word MAGNETISM, you will understand that it is to -express this double power. - -Now, with this loadstone you may make magnets artificially. Here is -an artificial magnet (fig. 39) in which both ends have been brought -together in order to increase the attraction. This mass will lift -that lump of iron; and, what is more, by placing this _keeper_, as it -is called, on the top of the magnet, and taking hold of the handle, -it will adhere sufficiently strongly to allow itself to be lifted -up--so wonderful is its power of attraction. If you take a needle, and -just draw one of its ends along one extremity of the magnet, and then -draw the other end along the other extremity, and then gently place -it on the surface of some water (the needle will generally float on -the surface, owing to the slight greasiness communicated to it by the -fingers), you will be able to get all the phenomena of attraction and -repulsion, by bringing another magnetised needle near to it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.] - -I want you now to observe, that although I have shewn you in these -magnets that this double power becomes evident principally at the -extremities, yet the _whole_ of the magnet is concerned in giving the -power. That will at first seem rather strange; and I must therefore -shew you an experiment to prove that this is not an accidental matter, -but that the whole of the mass is really concerned in this force, -just as in falling the whole of the mass is acted upon by the force -of gravitation. I have here (fig. 40) a steel bar, and I am going to -make it a magnet, by rubbing it on the large magnet (fig. 39). I have -now made the two ends magnetic in opposite ways. I do not at present -know one from the other, but we can soon find out. You see when I bring -it near our magnetic needle (fig. 38) one end repels and the other -attracts; and the middle will neither attract nor repel--it _cannot_, -because it is _half-way between the two ends_. But now, if I break -out that piece (_n s_), and then examine it--see how strongly one end -(_n_) pulls at this end (S, fig. 38), and how it repels the other end -(N). And so it can be shewn that every part of the magnet contains this -power of attraction and repulsion, but that the power is only rendered -evident at the end of the mass. You will understand all this in a -little while; but what you have now to consider is, that every part -of this steel is in itself a magnet. Here is a little fragment which -I have broken out of the very centre of the bar, and you will still -see that one end is attractive and the other is repulsive. Now, is not -this power a most wonderful thing? and very strange the means of taking -it from one substance and bringing it to other matters? I cannot make -a piece of iron or anything else heavier or lighter than it is. Its -cohesive power it must and does have; but, as you have seen by these -experiments, we can add or subtract this power of magnetism, and almost -do as we like with it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.] - -And now we will return for a short time to the subject treated of -at the commencement of this lecture. You see here (fig. 41) a large -machine, arranged for the purpose of rubbing glass with silk, and for -obtaining the power called _electricity_; and the moment the handle of -the machine is turned, a certain amount of electricity is evolved, as -you will see by the rise of the little straw indicator (at A). Now, I -know from the appearance of repulsion of the pith ball at the end of -the straw, that electricity is present in those brass conductors (B B), -and I want you to see the manner in which that electricity can pass -away. [Touching the conductor (B) with his finger, the Lecturer drew -a spark from it, and the straw electrometer immediately fell.] There, -it has all gone; and that I have really taken it away, you shall see -by an experiment of this sort. If I hold this cylinder of brass by the -glass handle, and touch the conductor with it, I take away a little of -the electricity. You see the spark in which it passes, and observe that -the pith-ball indicator has fallen a little, which seems to imply that -so much electricity is lost; but it is not lost: it is here in this -brass; and I can take it away and carry it about, not because it has -any substance of its own, but by some strange property which we have -not before met with as belonging to any other force. Let us see whether -we have it here or not. [The Lecturer brought the charged cylinder -to a jet from which gas was issuing; the spark was seen to pass from -the cylinder to the jet, but the gas did not light.] Ah! the gas did -not light, but you saw the spark; there is, perhaps, some draught in -the room which blew the gas on one side, or else it would light. We -will try this experiment afterwards. You see from the spark that I can -transfer the power from the machine to this cylinder, and then carry it -away and give it to some other body. You know very well, as a matter of -experiment, that we can transfer the power of heat from one thing to -another; for if I put my hand near the fire it becomes hot. I can shew -you this by placing before us this ball, which has just been brought -red-hot from the fire. If I press this wire to it, some of the heat -will be transferred from the ball; and I have only now to touch this -piece of gun-cotton with the hot wire, and you see how I can transfer -the heat from the ball to the wire, and from the wire to the cotton. -So you see that some powers are transferable, and others are not. -Observe how long the heat stops in this ball. I might touch it with the -wire, or with my finger, and if I did so quickly, I should merely burn -the surface of the skin; whereas, if I touch that cylinder, however -rapidly, with my finger, the electricity is gone at once--dispersed on -the instant, in a manner wonderful to think of. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.] - -I must now take up a little of your time in shewing you the manner -in which these powers are transferred from one thing to another; -for the manner in which _force_ may be conducted or transmitted is -extraordinary, and most essential for us to understand. Let us see in -what manner these powers travel from place to place. Both heat and -electricity can be conducted; and here is an arrangement I have made to -shew how the former can travel. It consists of a bar of copper (fig. -42); and if I take a spirit-lamp (this is one way of obtaining the -power of heat), and place it under that little chimney, the flame will -strike against the bar of copper and keep it hot. Now, you are aware -that power is being transferred from the flame of that lamp to the -copper, and you will see by-and-by that it is being conducted along -the copper from particle to particle; for, inasmuch as I have fastened -these wooden balls by a little wax at particular distances from the -point where the copper is first heated, first one ball will fall, and -then the more distant ones, as the heat travels along--and thus you -will learn that the heat travels gradually through the copper. You will -see that this is a very slow conduction of power, as compared with -electricity. If I take cylinders of wood and metal, joined together -at the ends, and wrap a piece of paper round, and then apply the heat -of this lamp to the place where the metal and wood join, you will see -how the heat will accumulate where the wood is, and burn the paper -with which I have covered it; but where the metal is beneath, the heat -is conducted away too fast for the paper to be burned. And so, if I -take a piece of wood and a piece of metal joined together, and put it -so that the flame should play equally both upon one and the other, we -shall soon find that the metal will become hot before the wood; for -if I put a piece of phosphorus on the wood, and another piece on the -copper, you will find that the phosphorus on the copper will take fire -before that on the wood is melted--and this shews you how badly the -wood conducts heat. But with regard to the travelling of electricity -from place to place, its rapidity is astonishing. I will, first of all, -take these pieces of glass and metal, and you will soon understand how -it is that the glass does not lose the power which it acquired when it -is rubbed by the silk. By one or two experiments I will shew you. If I -take this piece of brass and bring it near the machine, you see how -the electricity leaves the latter, and passes to the brass cylinder. -And, again, if I take a rod of metal and touch the machine with it, I -lower the indicator; but when I touch it with a rod of glass, no power -is drawn away,--shewing you that the electricity is conducted by the -glass and the metal in a manner entirely different: and to make you see -that more clearly, we will take one of our Leyden jars. Now, I must not -embarrass your minds with this subject too much; but if I take a piece -of metal, and bring it against the knob at the top and the metallic -coating at the bottom, you will see the electricity passing through the -air as a brilliant spark. It takes no sensible time to pass through -this; and if I were to take a long metallic wire, no matter what the -length--at least as far as we are concerned--and if I make one end of -it touch the outside, and the other touch the knob at the top, see how -the electricity passes!--it has flashed instantaneously through the -whole length of this wire. Is not this different from the transmission -of heat through this copper bar (fig. 42), which has taken a quarter -of an hour or more to reach the first ball? - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.] - -Here is another experiment, for the purpose of shewing the -conductibility of this power through some bodies, and not through -others. Why do I have this arrangement made of brass? [pointing to the -brass work of the electrical machine, fig. 41]. Because it conducts -electricity. And why do I have these columns made of glass? Because -they obstruct the passage of electricity. And why do I put that paper -tassel (fig. 43) at the top of the pole, upon a glass rod, and connect -it with this machine by means of a wire? You see at once that as -soon as the handle of the machine is turned, the electricity which -is evolved travels along this wire and up the wooden rod, and goes -to the tassel at the top, and you see the power of repulsion with -which it has endowed these strips of paper, each spreading outwards -to the ceiling and sides of the room. The outside of that wire is -covered with gutta-percha. It would not serve to keep the force from -you when touching it with your hands, because it would burst through; -but it answers our purpose for the present. And so you perceive how -easily I can manage to send this power of electricity from place to -place, by choosing the materials which can conduct the power. Suppose -I want to fire a portion of gunpowder, I can readily do it by this -transferable power of electricity. I will take a Leyden jar, or any -other arrangement which gives us this power, and arrange wires so -that they may carry the power to the place I wish; and then placing a -little gunpowder on the extremities of the wires, the moment I make the -connection by this discharging rod, I shall fire the gunpowder. [The -connection was made, and the gunpowder ignited.] And if I were to shew -you a stool like this, and were to explain to you its construction, -you could easily understand that we use glass legs, because these are -capable of preventing the electricity from going away to the earth. If, -therefore, I were to stand on this stool, and receive the electricity -through this conductor, I could give it to anything that I touched. -[The Lecturer stood upon the insulating stool, and placed himself in -connection with the conductor of the machine.] Now, I am electrified--I -can feel my hair rising up as the paper tassel did just now. Let us -see whether I can succeed in lighting gas by touching the jet with my -finger. [The Lecturer brought his finger near a jet from which gas was -issuing, when, after one or two attempts, the spark which came from his -finger to the jet set fire to the gas.] You now see how it is that -this power of electricity can be transferred from the matter in which -it is generated, and conducted along wires and other bodies, and thus -be made to serve new purposes utterly unattainable by the powers we -have spoken of on previous days; and you will not now be at a loss to -bring this power of electricity into comparison with those which we -have previously examined; and to-morrow we shall be able to go further -into the consideration of these transferable powers. - - - - -LECTURE VI. - -THE CORRELATION OF THE PHYSICAL FORCES. - - -We have frequently seen, during the course of these lectures, that one -of those powers or forces of matter, of which I have written the names -on that board, has produced results which are due to the action of some -other force. Thus, you have seen the force of electricity acting in -other ways than in attracting: you have also seen it combine matters -together, or disunite them, by means of its action on the chemical -force; and in this case, therefore, you have an instance in which -these two powers are related. But we have other and deeper relations -than these; we have not merely to see how it is that one power affects -another--how the force of heat affects chemical affinity, and so -forth--but we must try and comprehend what relation they bear to each -other, and how these powers may be changed one into the other; and -it will to-day require all my care, and your care too, to make this -clear to your minds. I shall be obliged to confine myself to one or two -instances, because, to take in the whole extent of this mutual relation -and conversion of forces, would surpass the human intellect. - -In the first place, then, here is a piece of fine zinc-foil; and if I -cut it into narrow strips and apply to it the power of heat, admitting -the contact of air at the same time, you will find that it burns; and -then, seeing that it burns, you will be prepared to say that there is -chemical action taking place. You see all I have to do is to hold the -piece of zinc at the side of the flame, so as to let it get heated, and -yet to allow the air which is flowing into the flame from all sides -to have access to it;--there is the piece of zinc burning just like -a piece of wood, only brighter. A part of the zinc is going up into -the air, in the form of that white smoke, and part is falling down on -to the table. This, then, is the action of chemical affinity exerted -between the zinc and the oxygen of the air. I will shew you what a -curious kind of affinity this is by an experiment, which is rather -striking when seen for the first time. I have here some iron filings -and gunpowder, and will mix them carefully together, with as little -rough handling as possible. Now, we will compare the combustibility, -so to speak, of the two. I will pour some spirit of wine into a basin, -and set it on fire: and, having our flame, I will drop this mixture of -iron filings and gunpowder through it, so that both sets of particles -will have an equal chance of burning. And now, tell me which of them it -is that burns? You see a plentiful combustion of the iron-filings. But -I want you to observe that, though they have equal chances of burning, -we shall find that by far the greater part of the gunpowder remains -untouched. I have only to drain off this spirit of wine, and let the -powder which has gone through the flame dry, which it will do in a few -minutes, and I will then test it with a lighted match. So ready is the -iron to burn, that it takes, under certain circumstances, even less -time to catch fire than gunpowder. [As soon as the gunpowder was dry, -Mr. Anderson handed it to the Lecturer, who applied a lighted match to -it, when a sudden flash shewed how large a proportion of gunpowder had -escaped combustion when falling through the flame of alcohol.] - -These are all cases of chemical affinity; and I shew them to make -you understand that we are about to enter upon the consideration -of a strange kind of chemical affinity, and then to see how far we -are enabled to convert this force of affinity into electricity or -magnetism, or any other of the forces which we have discussed. Here -is some zinc (I keep to the metal zinc, as it is very useful for our -purpose), and I can produce hydrogen gas by putting the zinc and -sulphuric acid together, as they are in that retort. There you see -the mixture which gives us hydrogen--the zinc is pulling the water -to pieces and setting free hydrogen gas. Now, we have learned by -experience that, if a little mercury is spread over that zinc, it does -not _take away_ its power of decomposing the water, but _modifies_ it -most curiously. See how that mixture is now boiling; but when I add a -little mercury to it, the gas ceases to come off. We have now scarcely -a bubble of hydrogen set free, so that the action is suspended for -the time. We have not _destroyed_ the power of chemical affinity, -but modified it in a wonderful and beautiful manner. Here are some -pieces of zinc covered with mercury, exactly in the same way as the -zinc in that retort is covered; and if I put this plate into sulphuric -acid, I get no gas--but this most extraordinary thing occurs, that -if I introduce along with the zinc another metal which is _not_ so -combustible, then I reproduce all the action. I am now going to put -to the amalgamated zinc in this retort some portions of copper wire -(copper not being so combustible a metal as the zinc), and observe how -I get hydrogen again. As in the first instance, there the bubbles are -coming over through the pneumatic trough, and ascending faster and -faster in the jar. The zinc now is acting by reason of its contact with -the copper. - -Every step we are now taking brings us to a knowledge of new phenomena. -That hydrogen which you now see coming off so abundantly does not come -from the zinc, as it did before, _but from the copper_. Here is a jar -containing a solution of copper. If I put a piece of this amalgamated -zinc into it, and leave it there, it has scarcely any action; and here -is a plate of platinum, which I will immerse in the same solution, -and might leave it there for hours, days, months, or even years, and -no action would take place. But by putting them both together, and -allowing them to touch (fig. 44), you see what a coating of copper -there is immediately thrown down on the platinum. Why is this? The -platinum has no power of itself to reduce that metal from that fluid, -but it has in some mysterious way received this power by its contact -with the metal zinc. Here, then, you see a strange transfer of chemical -force from one metal to another--the chemical force from the zinc is -transferred, and made over to the platinum by the mere association of -the two metals. I might take, instead of the platinum, a piece of -copper or of silver, and it would have no action of its own on this -solution; but the moment the zinc was introduced and touched the other -metal, then the action would take place, and it would become covered -with copper. Now, is not this most wonderful and beautiful to see? -We still have the identical chemical force of the particles of zinc -acting, and yet in some strange manner we have power to make that -chemical force, or something it produces, travel from one place to -another--for we do make the chemical force travel from the zinc to the -platinum by this very curious experiment of using the two metals in the -same fluid in contact with each other. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44. and Fig. 45.] - -Let us now examine these phenomena a little more closely. Here is a -drawing (fig. 45) in which I have represented a vessel containing the -acid liquid, and the slips of zinc and platinum or copper, and I have -shewn them touching each other _outside_ by means of a wire coming from -each of them (for it matters not whether they touch in the fluid or -outside--by pieces of metal attached--they still by that communication -between them have this power transferred from one to another). Now, -if instead of only using one vessel, as I have shewn there, I take -another, and another, and put in zinc and platinum, zinc and platinum, -zinc and platinum, and connect the platinum of one vessel with the -zinc of another, the platinum of this vessel with the zinc of that, -and so on, we should only be using a series of these vessels instead -of one. This we have done in that arrangement which you see behind me. -I am using what we call a Grove’s voltaic battery, in which one metal -is zinc, and the other platinum, and I have as many as forty pairs of -these plates all exercising their force at once in sending the whole -amount of chemical power there evolved through these wires under the -floor, and up to these two rods coming through the table. We need do no -more than just bring these two ends in contact, when the spark shews -us what power is present; and what a strange thing it is to see that -this force is brought away from the battery behind me, and carried -along through these wires. I have here an apparatus (fig. 46) which Sir -Humphry Davy constructed many years ago, in order to see whether this -power from the voltaic battery caused bodies to attract each other in -the same manner as the ordinary electricity did. He made it in order to -experiment with his large voltaic battery, which was the most powerful -then in existence. You see there are in this glass jar two leaves of -gold, which I can cause to move to and fro by this rack-work. I will -connect each of these gold leaves with separate ends of this battery; -and, if I have a sufficient number of plates in the battery, I shall -be able to shew you that there will be some attraction between those -leaves, even before they come in contact. If I bring them sufficiently -near when they are in communication with the ends of the battery, -they will be drawn gently together; and you will know when this takes -place, because the power will cause the gold leaves to burn away, which -they could only do when they touched each other. Now, I am going to -cause these two leaves of gold to approach gradually, and I have no -doubt that some of you will see that they approach before they burn; -and those who are too far off to see them approach will see by their -burning that they have come together. Now they are attracting each -other, long before the connection is complete; and there they go! burnt -up in that brilliant flash--so strong is the force. You thus see, from -the attractive force at the two ends of this battery, that these are -really and truly electrical phenomena. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46. and Fig. 47.] - -Now, let us consider what is this spark. I take these two ends and -bring them together, and there I get this glorious spark, like the -sunlight in the heavens above us. What is this? It is the same thing -which you saw when I discharged the large electrical machine, when you -saw one single bright flash; it is the same thing, only _continued_, -because here we have a more effective arrangement. Instead of having -a machine which we are obliged to turn for a long time together, we -have here a _chemical_ power which sends forth the spark; and it is -wonderful and beautiful to see how this spark is carried about through -these wires. I want you to perceive, if possible, that this very spark -and the heat it produces (for there is heat) is neither more nor less -than the chemical force of the zinc--its _very_ force carried along -wires and conveyed to this place. I am about to take a portion of the -zinc and burn it in oxygen gas, for the sake of shewing you the kind -of light produced by the actual combustion in oxygen gas of some of -this metal. [A tassel of zinc-foil was ignited at a spirit-lamp, and -introduced into a jar of oxygen, when it burnt with a brilliant light.] -That shews you what the affinity is when we come to consider it in its -energy and power. And the zinc is being burned in the battery behind -me at a much more rapid rate than you see in that jar, because the -zinc is there dissolving and _burning_, and produces here this great -electric light. That very same power, which in that jar you saw evolved -from the actual combustion of the zinc in oxygen, is carried along -these wires and made evident here; and you may, if you please, consider -that the zinc is burning in those cells, and that _this_ is the light -of that burning [bringing the two poles in contact, and shewing the -electric light]; and we might so arrange our apparatus as to shew that -the amounts of power evolved in either case are identical. Having thus -obtained power over the chemical force, how wonderfully we are able -to convey it from place to place! When we use gunpowder for explosive -purposes, we can send into the mine chemical affinity by means of this -electricity; not having provided fire beforehand, we can send it in at -the moment we require it. Now, here (fig. 47) is a vessel containing -two charcoal points, and I bring it forward as an illustration of the -wonderful power of conveying this force from place to place. I have -merely to connect these by means of wires to the opposite ends of the -battery, and bring the points in contact. See what an exhibition of -force we have! We have exhausted the air so that the charcoal cannot -burn; and, therefore, the light you see is really the burning of the -zinc in the cells behind me--there is no disappearance of the carbon, -although we have that glorious electric light; and the moment I cut off -the connection, it stops. Here is a better instance to enable some of -you to see the certainty with which we can convey this force, where, -under ordinary circumstances, chemical affinity would not act. We may -absolutely take these two charcoal poles down under water, and get our -electric light there;--there they are in the water, and you observe, -when I bring them into connection, we have the same light as we had in -that glass vessel. - -Now, besides this production of light, we have all the other effects -and powers of burning zinc. I have a few wires here which are not -combustible, and I am going to take one of them, a small platinum -wire, and suspend it between these two rods, which are connected with -the battery; and, when contact is made at the battery, see what heat -we get (fig. 48). Is not that beautiful?--it is a complete bridge -of power. There is metallic connection all the way round in this -arrangement; and where I have inserted the platinum, which offers some -resistance to the passage of the force, you see what an amount of heat -is evolved,--this is the heat which the zinc would give if burnt in -oxygen; but as it is being burnt in the voltaic battery, it is giving -it out at this spot. I will now shorten this wire for the sake of -shewing you, that the shorter the obstructing wire is, the more and -more intense is the heat, until at last our platinum is fused and falls -down, breaking off the circuit. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.] - -Here is another instance. I will take a piece of the metal silver, and -place it on charcoal, connected with one end of the battery, and lower -the other charcoal pole on to it. See how brilliantly it burns (fig. -49). Here is a piece of iron on the charcoal--see what a combustion is -going on; and we might go on in this way, burning almost everything we -place between the poles. Now, I want to shew you that this power is -still chemical affinity--that if we call the power which is evolved at -this point _heat_, or _electricity_, or any other name referring to -its source, or the way in which it travels, we still shall find it to -be chemical action. Here is a coloured liquid which can shew by its -change of colour the effects of chemical action. I will pour part of it -into this glass, and you will find that these wires have a very strong -action. I am not going to shew you any effects of combustion or heat; -but I will take these two platinum plates, and fasten one to the one -pole, and the other to the other end, and place them in this solution, -and in a very short time you will see the blue colour will be entirely -destroyed. See, it is colourless now!--I have merely brought the end -of the wires into the solution of indigo, and the power of electricity -has come through these wires, and made itself evident by its chemical -action. There is also another curious thing to be noticed, now we are -dealing with the chemistry of electricity, which is, that the chemical -power which destroys the colour is only due to the action on one side. -I will pour some more of this sulpho-indigotic acid[23] into a flat -dish, and will then make a porous dyke of sand, separating the two -portions of fluid into two parts (fig. 50); and now we shall be able -to see whether there is any difference in the two ends of the battery, -and which it is that possesses this peculiar action. You see it is the -one on my right hand which has the power of destroying the blue--for -the portion on that side is thoroughly bleached--while nothing has -apparently occurred on the other side. I say _apparently_, for you must -not imagine that, because you cannot perceive any action, none has -taken place. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.] - -Here we have another instance of chemical action. I take these platinum -plates again, and immerse them in this solution of copper, from which -we formerly precipitated some of the metal, when the platinum and zinc -were both put in it together. You see that these two platinum plates -have no chemical action of any kind--they might remain in the solution -as long as I liked, without having any power of themselves to reduce -the copper;--but the moment I bring the two poles of the battery in -contact with them, the chemical action, which is there transformed into -electricity and carried along the wires, again becomes chemical action -at the two platinum poles; and now we shall have the power appearing on -the left-hand side, and throwing down the copper in the metallic state -on the platinum plate; and in this way I might give you many instances -of the extraordinary way in which this chemical action, or electricity, -may be carried about. That strange nugget of gold, of which there is a -model in the other room--and which has an interest of its own in the -natural history of gold, and which came from Ballarat, and was worth -£8,000, or £9,000, when it was melted down last November--was brought -together in the bowels of the earth, perhaps ages and ages ago, by -some such power as this. And there is also another beautiful result -dependent upon chemical affinity in that fine lead-tree[24]--the lead -growing and growing by virtue of this power. The lead and the zinc are -combined together in a little voltaic arrangement, in a manner far more -important than the powerful one you see here; because, in nature, these -minute actions are going on for ever, and are of great and wonderful -importance in the precipitation of metals and formation of mineral -veins, and so forth. These actions are not for a limited time, like my -battery here, but they act for ever in small degrees, accumulating more -and more of the results. - -I have here given you all the illustrations that time will permit me to -shew you of chemical affinity producing electricity, and electricity -again becoming chemical affinity. Let that suffice for the present, and -let us now go a little deeper into the subject of this chemical force, -or this electricity--which shall I name first--the one producing the -other in a variety of ways? These forces are also wonderful in their -power of producing another of the forces we have been considering, -namely, that of magnetism; and you know that it is only of late years, -and long since I was born, that the discovery of the relations of these -two forces of electricity and chemical affinity to produce magnetism -have become known. Philosophers had been suspecting this affinity -for a long time, and had long had great hopes of success; for in the -pursuit of science we first start with hopes and expectations. These -we realise and establish, never again to be lost, and upon them we -found new expectations of further discoveries, and so go on pursuing, -realising, establishing, and founding new hopes again and again. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.] - -Now, observe this: here is a piece of wire which I am about to make -into a bridge of force--that is to say, a communicator between the -two ends of the battery. It is copper wire only, and is therefore not -magnetic of itself. We will examine this wire with our magnetic needle -(fig. 51); and though connected with one extreme end of the battery, -you see that, before the circuit is completed, it has no power over -the magnet. But observe it when I make contact; watch the needle--see -how it is swung round, and notice how indifferent it becomes if I -break contact again; so you see we have this wire evidently affecting -the magnetic needle under these circumstances. Let me shew you that a -little more strongly. I have here a quantity of wire, which has been -wound into a spiral; and this will affect the magnetic needle in a very -curious manner, because, owing to its shape, it will act very like a -real magnet. The copper spiral has no power over that magnetic needle -at present; but if I cause the electric current to circulate through -it, by bringing the two ends of the battery in contact with the ends -of the wire which forms the spiral, what will happen? Why, one end of -the needle is most powerfully drawn to it; and if I take the other -end of the needle, it is repelled: so you see I have produced exactly -the same phenomena as I had with the bar magnet,--one end attracting, -and the other repelling. Is not this, then, curious, to see that we -can construct a magnet of copper? Furthermore, if I take an iron bar, -and put it inside the coil, so long as there is no electric current -circulating round, it has no attraction,--as you will observe if I -bring a little iron filings or nails near the iron. But now, if I make -contact with the battery, they are attracted at once. It becomes at -once a powerful magnet--so much so, that I should not wonder if these -magnetic needles on different parts of the table pointed to it. And I -will shew you by another experiment what an attraction it has. This -piece and that piece of iron, and many other pieces, are now strongly -attracted (fig. 52); but as soon as I break contact, the power is all -gone, and they fall. What, then, can be a better or a stronger proof -than this of the relation of the powers of magnetism and electricity? -Again, here is a little piece of iron which is not yet magnetised. It -will not at present take up any one of these nails; but I will take -a piece of wire and coil it round the iron (the wire being covered -with cotton in every part, it does not touch the iron), so that the -current must go round in this spiral coil. I am, in fact, preparing -an _electro-magnet_ (we are obliged to use such terms to express -our meaning, because it is a magnet made by electricity--because we -produce by the force of electricity a magnet of far greater power than -a permanent steel one). It is now completed, and I will repeat the -experiment which you saw the other day, of building up a bridge of iron -nails. The contact is now made, and the current is going through; it is -now a powerful magnet. Here are the iron nails which we had the other -day; and now I have brought this magnet near them, they are clinging -so hard that I can scarcely move them with my hand (fig. 53). But when -the contact is broken, see how they fall. What can shew you better than -such an experiment as this the magnetic attraction with which we have -endowed these portions of iron? Here, again, is a fine illustration of -this strong power of magnetism. It is a magnet of the same sort as the -one you have just seen. I am about to make the current of electricity -pass through the wires which are round this iron for the purpose of -shewing you what powerful effects we get. Here are the poles of the -magnet; and let us place on one of them this long bar of iron. You -see, as soon as contact is made, how it rises in position (fig. 54); -and if I take such a piece as this cylinder, and place it on, woe be -to me if I get my finger between: I can roll it over, but if I try to -pull it off, I might lift up the whole magnet; but I have no power to -overcome the magnetic power which is here evident. I might give you an -infinity of illustrations of this high magnetic power. There is that -long bar of iron held out; and I have no doubt that, if I were to -examine the other end, I should find that it was a magnet. See what -power it must have to support not only these nails but all those lumps -of iron hanging on to the end. What, then, can surpass these evidences -of the change of chemical force into electricity, and electricity into -magnetism? I might shew you many other experiments whereby I could -obtain electricity and chemical action, heat and light, from a magnet; -but what more need I shew you to prove the universal correlation of the -physical forces of matter, and their mutual conversion one into another? - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.] - -And now, let us give place, as juveniles, to the respect we owe to our -elders; and for a time let me address myself to those of our seniors -who have honoured me with their presence during these lectures. I wish -to claim this moment for the purpose of tendering our thanks to them, -and my thanks to you all, for the way in which you have borne the -inconvenience that I at first subjected you to. I hope that the insight -which you have here gained into some of the laws by which the universe -is governed, may be the occasion of some amongst you turning your -attention to these subjects; for what study is there more fitted to -the mind of man than that of the physical sciences? And what is there -more capable of giving him an insight into the actions of those laws, -a knowledge of which gives interest to the most trifling phenomenon of -nature, and makes the observing student find-- - - “----tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, - Sermons in stones, and good in everything?” - - - - - LECTURE - - ON - - LIGHT-HOUSE ILLUMINATION--THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. - -[_Delivered before the Royal Institution on Friday, 9th March, 1860._] - - -There is no part of my life which gives me more delight than my -connection with the Trinity House. The occupation of nations joined -together to guide the mariner over the sea, to all a point of great -interest, is infinitely more so to those who are concerned in the -operations which they carry into effect; and it certainly has -astonished me, since I have been connected with the Trinity House, to -see how beautifully and how wonderfully shines forth amongst nations -at large the desire to do good; and you will not regret having come -here to-night, if you follow me in the various attempts which have been -made to carry out the great object of guiding in safety all people -across the dark and dreary waste of waters. It is wonderful to think -how eagerly efforts at improvement are made by the various public -bodies--the Trinity House in this country, and Commissions in France -and other nations; and whilst the improvements progress, we come to the -knowledge of such curious difficulties, and such odd modes of getting -over those difficulties, as are not easy to be conceived. I must ask -you this evening to follow me from the simplest possible method of -giving a sign by means of a light to persons at a distance, to the -modes at which we have arrived in the present day; and to consider the -difficulties which arise when carrying out these improvements to a -practical result, and the extraordinary care which those who have to -judge on these points must take in order to guard against the too hasty -adoption of some fancied improvement, thus, as has happened in some few -cases, doing harm instead of good. - -If I try to make you understand these things partly by old models, and -partly by those which we have here, it is only that I may the better -be enabled to illustrate that which I look forward to as the higher -mode of lighting, by means of the electric lamp and the lime light. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.] - -There is nothing more simple than a candle being set down in a cottage -window to guide a husband to his home; but when we want to make a -similar guide on a large scale, not merely over a river or over a -moor, but over large expanses of sea, how can we then make the signal, -using only a candle? I have shewn in this diagram (fig. 55) what we -may imagine to be the rays of a candle or any other source of light -emanating from the centre of a sphere in all directions round to -infinite distances. After this simple kind of light had been used for -some time--it being found to be liable to be obscured by fogs, or -distance, or other circumstance--there arose the attempt to make larger -lights by means of fires; and after that there was introduced a very -important refinement in the mode of dealing with the light, namely, -the principle of reflection,--for, understand this (which is not -known by all, and not known by many who should know it), that when we -take a source of light--a single candle, for instance, giving off any -quantity of light--we can by no means increase that light: we can make -arrangements around and about the light, as you see here, but we can by -no means _increase the quantity_ of light. The utmost I can do is to -_direct_ the light which the lamp gives me by taking a certain portion -of the rays going off on one side and reflecting them on to the course -of the rays which issue in the opposite direction. First of all, let -us consider how we may gather in the rays of light which pass off from -this candle. You will easily see that if I could take the half-rays -on the one side, and could send them by any contrivance over to the -other side, I should gain an advantage in light on the side to which I -directed them. This is effected in a beautiful manner by the parabolic -mirror, by means of which I gather all that portion of the rays which -are included in it--upwards, downwards, sideways, anywhere within its -sphere of action: they are all picked up and sent forward. You thus -see what a beautiful and important invention is that of the parabolic -reflector for throwing forward the rays of light. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.] - -Before I go further into the subject of reflection, let me point out a -further mode of dealing with the direction of the light. For instance, -here is a candle, and I can employ the principle of _refraction_ to -bend and direct the rays of light; and if I want to increase the light -in any one direction, I must either take a reflector or use the -principle of refraction. I will place this lens (fig. 56) in front of -the candle, and you will easily see that by its means I can throw on -to that sheet of paper a great light; that is to say, that instead of -the light being thrown all about, it is _refracted_ and concentrated -on to that paper. So here I have another means of bending the light -and sending it in one direction; and you see above a still better -arrangement for the same purpose,--one which comes up to the maximum, I -may say, of the ability of directing light by this means. You are aware -that without that arrangement of glass the light would be dispersed in -all directions; but the lens being there, all the light which passes -through it is thrown into parallel beams and cast horizontally along. -There is consequently no loss of light--the beam goes forward of the -same dimensions, and will consequently continue to go forward for five -or ten miles, or so long as the imperfection of the atmosphere does -not absorb it: and see, what a glorious power that is, to be able to -convert what was just now darkness on that paper into brilliant light! - -Whenever we have refraction of this sort, we are liable to an evil -consequent upon the necessary imperfections in the form of the lens; -and Dr. Tyndall will take this lens, and will shew you even in this -small and perfect apparatus what is the evil of spherical aberration -with which we have to fight. This can be illustrated by means of the -electric lamp: if you look at the screen, you will see produced, by -means of this lens, a figure of the coal points. This image is produced -by the rays which pass through the _middle_ of the lens, a piece of -card with a hole in the centre being placed in front; but if, keeping -the rest of the apparatus in the same position, I change this card for -another piece which will only allow the rays to pass through the _edge_ -of the lens, you observe how inferior the image will be. In order to -get it distinct, I have to bring the screen much nearer the lamp; and -so, if I take the card away altogether, and allow the light to pass -through all parts of the lens, we cannot get a perfect image, because -the different parts of the lens are not able to act together. This -spherical aberration is, therefore, what we try to avoid by building -up compound lenses in the manner here shewn (fig. 58). Look at this -beautiful apparatus--is it not a most charming piece of workmanship? -Buffon first, and Fresnel afterwards, built up these kind of lenses, -ring within ring, each at its proper adjustment, to compensate for the -effects of spherical aberration. The ring round that centre lens is -ground so as to obviate what would otherwise give rise to spherical -aberration; and the next ring being corrected in the same manner, you -will perceive, if you look at the disc of light thrown by the apparatus -upstairs, that there is nothing like the amount of aberration that -there would have been if it had been one great bull’s-eye. Here is -one of Fresnel’s lamps of the fourth order so constructed (fig. 57): -observe the fine effect obtained by these different lenses, as you see -them revolve before you, and understand that all this upper part is -made to form part of the lens, each prism throwing its rays to increase -the effect; and although you may think it is imperfect, because, if -you happen to sit below or above the horizontal line, you perceive but -little if any of the light, yet you must bear in mind that we want the -rays to go in a straight line to the horizon. So that all that building -up of rings of glass is for the purpose of producing one fine and -glorious lens of a large size, to send the rays all in one direction. -Here is another apparatus used to pull the rays down to a horizontal -sheet of light, so that the mariner may see it as a constant and -uniform fixed light. The former lamp is a revolving one, and the light -is seen only at certain times, as the lenses move round, and these are -the points which make them valuable in their application. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.] - -There are various orders and sizes of lights in light-houses, to shine -for twenty or thirty miles over the sea, and to give indications -according to the purposes for which they are required; but suppose -we want more effect than is produced by these means, how are we to -get more light? Here comes the difficulty. We cannot get more light, -because we are limited by the condition of the burner. In any of these -cases, if the spreading of the ray, or _divergence_, as it is called, -is not restrained, it soon fails from weakness; and if it does not -diverge at all, it makes the light so small, that perhaps only one in -a hundred can see it at the same time. The South Foreland light-house -is, I think, 300 or 400 feet above the level of the sea; and therefore -it is necessary to have a certain divergence of the beam of light, in -order that it may shine along the sea to the horizon. I have drawn -here two wedges--one has an angle of 15°, and shews you the manner in -which the light opens out from this reflector, seen at the distance -of half-a-mile or more; the other wedge has an angle of 6°, which is -the beautiful angle of Fresnel. When the angle is less than 6°, the -mariner is not quite sure that he will see the light--he may be beneath -or above it; and, in practice, it is found that we cannot have a larger -angle than 15°, or a less one than 6°. In order, therefore, to get -more light, we must have more combustion, more cotton, more oil; but -already there are in that lamp four wicks, put in concentric rings, -one within the other; and we cannot increase them much more, owing to -the divergence which would be caused by an increase in the size of the -light--the more the divergence, the more the light is diffused and -lost. We are therefore restrained, by the condition of the light and -the apparatus, to a certain sized lamp. At Teignmouth, some of the -revolving lights have ten lamps and reflectors, all throwing their -light forward at once. But even with ten lamps and reflectors, we do -not get sufficient light; and we want, therefore, a means of getting a -light more intense than a candle in the space of a candle--not merely -an accumulation of candle upon candle, but a concentration, into the -space of a candle, of a greater amount of light; and it is here that -the electric light comes to be of so much value. - -Let me now shew you what are the properties of that light which make -it useful for light-house illumination, and which has been brought -to a practical condition by the energy and constancy of Professor -Holmes. I will, first of all, shew you the image of the charcoal points -on the screen, and draw your attention to the spot where the light -is produced. There are the coal points. The two carbons are brought -within a certain distance; the electricity is being urged across by the -voltaic battery, and the coal points are brought into an intense state -of ignition. You will observe that the light is essentially given by -the carbons. You see that one is much more luminous than the other, and -that is the end which principally forms the spark. The other does not -shine so much, and there is a space between the two, which, although -not very luminous, is most important to the production of the light. -Dr. Tyndall will help me in shewing you that a blast of wind will blow -out that light--the electric light can, in fact, be blown out easier -than a candle. We have the power of getting our light where we please. -If I cause the electricity to pass between carbon and mercury, I get a -most intense and beautiful light--most of it being given off from the -portion of the mercury between the liquid and the solid pole. I can -shew you that the light is sometimes produced by the vapour between -the two poles better, if I take silver, than when I use mercury. Here -is the carbon pole, there is the silver, and there is the beautiful -green light, which comes from the intervening portions. Now, that light -is more easily blown out than the common lamp, the slightest puff of -wind being sufficient to extinguish it, as you will see if Dr. Tyndall -breathes upon it. - -You see, therefore, how we are able, by using this electric spark, to -get, first of all, the light into a very small space. That oil-lamp has -a burner 3¾ inches in diameter. Compare the size of the flame with the -space occupied by this electric light. Next, compare the intensity -of this light with any other. If I take this candle, and place it by -the side, I actually seem to put out the candle. We are thus able to -get a light which, while it surpasses all others in brilliancy, is -at the same time not too large; for I might put this light into an -apparatus not larger than a hat, and yet I could count upon the rays -being useful. Moreover, when such large burners are used in a lantern, -we have to consider whether the bars of the window do not interfere -to throw a shadow or otherwise; but with this light there will be no -difficulty of that sort, as a single small speculum, no larger than a -hat, will send it in any direction we please; and it is wonderful what -advantages, by reason of its small bulk, we have in the consideration -of the different kinds of apparatus required, reflecting or refracting, -irrespective of other reasons for using the electric light. And it is -these kind of things which make us decide most earnestly and carefully -in favour of the electric light. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.] - -I am going to shew you the effect that will take place with that -large lens, when we throw the oil-lamp out of action, and put the -electric light into use. It is astonishing to find how little the -eye can compare the relative intensities of two lights. Look at that -screen, and try to recollect the amount of light thrown upon it from -the 3¾ inch lamp of Fresnel; and, now, when we shift the lens sideways, -look at the glorious light arising from that small carbon point (fig. -58)--see how beautifully it shines in the focus of that lens, and -throws the rays forward. At present, the electric light is put at -just the same distance as the oil light; and therefore, being in the -focus of the lens, we have parallel rays which are thrown forward in -a perfectly straight line--as you will see by comparing the size of -the lens with that of the light thrown on the screen. You will now see -how far we can affect this beam of light by increasing or diminishing -the distance of the lamp. We are able, by a small adjustment, to get a -beam of a large or small angle; and observe what power I have now over -it,--for if I want to increase the degrees of divergence, I am limited -by the power of light, in the case of the oil-lamp; but, with the -electric light, I can make it spread over any width of the horizon by -this simple adjustment. These, then, are some of the reasons which make -it desirable to employ the electric light. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.] - -By means of a magnet, and of motion, we can get the same kind of -electricity as I have here from the battery; and, under the authority -of the Trinity House, Professor Holmes has been occupied in introducing -the magneto-electric light in the light-house at the South Foreland; -for the voltaic battery has been tried under every conceivable -circumstance, and, I take the liberty of saying, it has hitherto proved -a decided failure. Here, however, is an instrument wrought only by -mechanical motion. The moment we give motion to this soft iron in -front of the magnet, we get a spark. It is true, in this apparatus -it is very small, but it is sufficient for you to judge of its -character. It is the _magneto-electric_ light; and an instrument has -been constructed, as there shewn (fig. 59), which represents a number -of magnets placed radially upon a wheel--three wheels of magnets and -two sets of helices. When the machine, which is worked by a two-horse -power engine, is properly set in motion, and the different currents -are all brought together, and thrown by Professor Holmes up into the -lantern, we have a light equal to the one we have been using this -evening. For the last six months the South Foreland has been shining -by means of this electric light--beyond all comparison, better than -its former light. It has shone into France, and has been seen there -and taken notice of by the authorities, who work with beautiful accord -with us in all these matters. Never for once during six months has it -failed in doing its duty--never once--more than was expected by the -inventor. It has shone forth with its own peculiar character, and this -even with the old apparatus; for, as yet, no attempt has been made to -construct special reflectors or refractors for it, because it is not -yet established. I will not tell you that the problem of employing the -magneto-electric spark for light-house illumination is quite solved -yet, although I desire it should be established most earnestly (for I -regard this magnetic spark as one of my own offspring). The thing is -not yet decidedly accomplished, and what the considerations of expense -and other matters may be, I cannot tell. I am only here to tell you as -a philosopher, how far the results have been carried; but I do hope -that the authorities will find it a proper thing to carry out in full. -If it cannot be introduced at all the light-houses--if it can only be -used at one--why, really, it will be an honour to the nation which can -originate such an improvement as this--one which must of necessity be -followed by other nations. - -You may ask, what is the use of this bright light? It would not be -useful to us, were it not for the constant changes which are taking -place in the atmosphere, which is never pure. Even when we can see -the stars clearly on a bright night, it is not a pure atmosphere. The -light of a light-house, more than any other, is liable to be dimmed -by vapours and fogs; and where we most want this great power, is not -in the finest condition of the atmosphere, but when the mariner is in -danger--when the sleet and rain are falling, and the fogs arise, and -the winds are blowing, and he is nearing coasts where the water is -shallow, and abounds with rocks,--then is his time of danger, when he -most wants this light. I am going to shew you how, by means of a little -steam, I can completely obscure this glorious sun, this electric light -which you see. The cloud now obscuring the light on the screen is only -such a cloud as you see when sitting in a train on a fine summer’s day. -You may observe that the vapour passing out of the funnel casts as deep -a shadow on the ground as the black funnel; the very sun itself is -extinguished by the steam from the funnel, so that it cannot give any -light; and the sun itself, if set in the light-house, would not be able -to penetrate such a vapour. - -Now, the haze of this cloud of steam is just what we have to overcome, -and the electric light is as soon, proportionally, extinguished by an -obstruction of this kind as any other light. If we take two lights, -one four times the intensity of the other, and we extinguish half of -one by a vapour, we extinguish half of the other--and that is a fact -which cannot be set aside by any arrangement. But, then, we fall back -upon the _amount_ of light which the electric spark does give us in -aid of the power of penetrating the fog; for the light of the electric -spark shines so far at times, that even before it has arisen above the -horizon, twenty-five miles off, it can be seen. This intense light has, -therefore, that power which we can take advantage of,--of bearing a -great deal of obstruction, before it is entirely obscured by fogs or -otherwise. - -Taking care that we do not lead our authorities into error by the -advice given, we hope that we shall soon be able to recommend the -Trinity House, from what has passed, to establish either one or more -good electric lights in this country. - - - - -NOTES. - - -LECTURE I. - -[1] Page 13. The opening lecture was twice postponed on account of Dr. -Faraday’s illness. - -[2] Page 22. _Platinum_, with one exception, the heaviest body known, -is 21½ times heavier than water. - -[3] Page 22. _Aluminium_ is 2½ times heavier than water. - -[4] Pages 23 and 24. _Power or Property in Water._--This power--the -heat by which the water is kept in a _fluid_ state--is said, under -ordinary circumstances, to be _latent_ or _insensible_. When, however, -the water changes its form, and, by uniting with the lime or sulphate -of copper, becomes _solid_, the heat which retained it in a liquid -state is evolved. - -[5] Page 23. _Anhydrous Sulphate of Copper_: sulphate of copper -deprived of its water of crystallisation. To obtain it, the blue -sulphate is calcined in an earthen crucible. - -[6] Page 29. _Add a little liquid to the marble, and decompose -it._--Marble is composed of _carbonic acid_ and _lime_, and, in -chemical language, is called _carbonate of lime_. When sulphuric acid -is added to it, the carbonic acid is set free, and the sulphuric acid -unites with the lime to form sulphate of lime. - -_Carbonic acid_, under ordinary circumstances, is a colourless -invisible gas, about half as heavy again as air. Dr. Faraday first -shewed that, under great pressure, it could be obtained in a liquid -state. Thilorier, a French chemist, afterwards found that it could be -solidified. - - -LECTURE II. - -[7] Page 55. _Crystallisation of Alum._--The solution must be -saturated--that is, it must contain as much alum as can possibly be -dissolved. In making the solution, it is best to add powdered alum to -hot water as long as it dissolves; and when no more is taken up, allow -the solution to stand a few minutes, and then pour it off from the dirt -and undissolved alum. - -[8] Page 57. _Red Precipitate of Biniodide of Mercury._--A little care -is necessary to obtain this precipitate. The solution of potassium -should be added to the solution of perchloride of mercury (corrosive -sublimate) very gradually. The red precipitate which first falls is -redissolved when the liquid is stirred: when a little more of the -iodide of potassium is added, a pale, red precipitate is formed, -which, on the further addition of the iodide, changes into the -brilliant scarlet biniodide of mercury. If too much iodide of potassium -is added, the scarlet precipitate disappears, and a colourless solution -is left. - -[9] Page 57. _Paper Coated with Scarlet Biniodide of Mercury._--In -order to fix the biniodide on paper, it must be mixed with a little -weak gum water, and then spread over the paper, which must be dried -without heat. - -_Biniodide of Mercury_ is said to be _dimorphous_; that is, is able to -assume two different forms. - -[10] Page 59. “_Prince Rupert’s Drops._”-These are made by pouring -drops of melted green glass into cold water. They were not, as is -commonly supposed, invented by Prince Rupert, but were first brought to -England by him, in 1660. They excited a great deal of curiosity, and -were considered “a kind of miracle in nature.” - -[11] Page 60. _Thick Glass Vessels._--They are called _Proofs_ or -_Bologna phials_. - -[12] Page 61. _Mica._--A silicate of alumina and magnesia. It has a -bright metallic lustre--hence its name, from _mico_, to shine. - -[13] Page 62. _Common salt_, or chloride of sodium, crystallises in the -form of solid cubes, which, aggregated together, form a mass, which may -be broken up into the separate cubes. - -[14] Page 62. _Iceland_ or _Calc Spar_.--Native carbonate of lime in -its primitive crystalline form. - - -LECTURE III. - -[15] Page 79. _Solution of a Salt._--Acetate of soda. A solution -saturated, or nearly so, at the boiling point, is necessary, and it -must be allowed to cool, and remain at rest until the experiment is -made. - -[16] Page 86. _Binoxide of Nitrogen and Hypo-nitrous Acid._--Binoxide -of nitrogen is formed when nitric acid and a little water are added to -some copper turnings. It produces deep red fumes as soon as it comes -in contact with the air, by combining with the oxygen of the latter to -form hypo-nitrous acid. _Binoxide of nitrogen_ is composed of two parts -oxygen and one part of nitrogen; _hypo-nitrous acid_ is composed of one -part of nitrogen and three parts of oxygen. - - -LECTURE IV. - -[17] Page 106. _Chlorate of Potash and Sulphuret of Antimony._--Great -care must be taken in mixing these substances, as the mixture is -dangerously explosive. They must be powdered separately, and mixed -together with a feather on a sheet of paper, or by passing them several -times through a small sieve. - -[18] Page 107. The mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar does not -require the same precautions. They may be rubbed together in a pestle -and mortar without fear. One part of chlorate of potash and three parts -of sugar will answer. The mixture need only be touched with a glass rod -dipped in oil of vitriol. - -[19] Page 107. _Two Salts Dissolved in Water._--Sulphate of soda and -chloride of calcium. The solutions must be saturated for the experiment -to succeed well. - -[20] Page 111. _Lead Pyrophorous._--This is a tartrate of lead which -has been heated in a glass tube to dull redness as long as vapours are -emitted. As soon as they cease to be evolved, the end of the tube is -sealed, and it is allowed to cool. - -[21] Page 115. _Gun-Cotton_ is made by immersing cotton-wool in -a mixture of sulphuric acid and the strongest nitric acid, or of -sulphuric acid and nitrate of potash. - -[22] Page 115. _Paper Prepared like Gun-Cotton._--It should be bibulous -paper, and must be soaked for ten minutes in a mixture of ten parts by -measure of oil of vitriol with five parts of strong fuming nitric acid. -The paper must afterwards be thoroughly washed with warm distilled -water, and then carefully dried at a gentle heat. The paper is then -saturated with chlorate of strontia, or chlorate of baryta, or nitrate -of copper, by immersion in a warm solution of these salts. (See -_Chemical News_, Vol. I., page 36.) - - -LECTURE VI. - -[23] Page 162. _Sulpho-indigotic Acid._--A mixture of one part of -indigo and fifteen parts of concentrated oil of vitriol. It is bleached -on the side at which hydrogen gas is evolved, in consequence of the -liberated hydrogen withdrawing oxygen from the indigo, thereby forming -a colourless deoxidised indigo. In making the experiment, only enough -of the sulpho-indigotic acid must be added to give the water a decided -blue colour. - -[24] Page 164. _Lead Tree._--To make a lead tree, pass a bundle of -brass wires through the cork of a bottle, and fasten a plate of zinc -round them just as they issue from the cork, so that the zinc may be -in contact with every one of the wires. Make the wires to diverge so -as to form a sort of cone, and having filled the bottle quite full of -a solution of sugar of lead, insert the wires and cork, and seal it -down, so as to perfectly exclude the air. 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RICE. - - Ready-Money Mortiboy. - My Little Girl. - With Harp and Crown. - This Son of Vulcan. - The Golden Butterfly. - The Monks of Thelema. - By Celia’s Arbour. - Chaplain of the Fleet. - The Seamy Side. - The Case of Mr. Lucraft. - In Trafalgar’s Bay. - The Ten Years’ Tenant. - -By Sir WALTER BESANT. - - All Sorts & Conditions. - The Captains’ Room. - All in a Garden Fair. - Dorothy Forster. - Uncle Jack. - Holy Rose. - World Went Well Then. - Children of Gibeon. - Herr Paulus. - For Faith and Freedom. - To Call Her Mine. - The Revolt of Man. - The Bell of St. Paul’s. - Armorel of Lyonesse. - S. Katherine’s by Tower. - Verbena Camellia, &c. - The Ivory Gate. - The Rebel Queen. - Dreams of Avarice. - In Deacon’s Orders. - The Master Craftsman. - The City of Refuge. - A Fountain Sealed. - The Changeling. - The Fourth Generation. - The Charm. - The Orange Girl. - -By AMBROSE BIERCE.--In Midst of Life. - -By HAROLD BINDLOSS.--Ainslie’s Ju-Ju. - -By M. McD. BODKIN. - - Dora Myrl. - Shillelagh and Shamrock. - Patsey the Omadaun. - -By PAUL BOURGET.--A Living Lie. - -By J. D. BRAYSHAW.--Slum Silhouettes. - -By H. A. BRYDEN.--An Exiled Scot. - -By ROBERT BUCHANAN. - - Shadow of the Sword. - A Child of Nature. - God and the Man. - Martyrdom of Madeline. - Love Me for Ever. - Annan Water. - Foxglove Manor. - The Charlatan. - The New Abelard. - Matt. - Rachel Dene. - Master of the Mine. - The Heir of Linne. - Woman and the Man. - Red and White Heather. - Lady Kilpatrick. - Andromeda. - -By GELETT BURGESS and WILL IRWIN.--The Picaroons. - -By R. W. CHAMBERS.--The King in Yellow. - -By J. M. CHAPPLE.--The Minor Chord. - -By HALL CAINE. - - Shadow of a Crime. - Deemster. - Son of Hagar. - -By AUSTIN CLARE.--By Rise of River. - -By Mrs. ARCHER CLIVE. - - Paul Ferroll. - Why Paul Ferroll Killed his Wife. - -By ANNE COATES.--Rie’s Diary. - -By MACLAREN COBBAN. - - The Red Sultan. - The Burden of Isabel. - -By WILKIE COLLINS. - - Armadale. - No Name. - After Dark. - Antonina. - Basil. - Hide and Seek. - The Dead Secret. - Queen of Hearts. - My Miscellanies. - The Woman in White. - The Law and the Lady. - The Haunted Hotel. - The Moonstone. - Man and Wife. - Poor Miss Finch. - Miss or Mrs.? - The New Magdalen. - The Frozen Deep. - The Two Destinies. - ‘I Say No.’ - Little Novels. - The Fallen Leaves. - Jezebel’s Daughter. - The Black Robe. - Heart and Science. - The Evil Genius. - The Legacy of Cain. - A Rogue’s Life. - Blind Love. - -By MORT. & FRANCES COLLINS. - - Blacksmith & Scholar. - The Village Comedy. - You Play me False. - Midnight to Midnight. - -By M. J. COLQUHOUN.--Every Inch Soldier. - -By HERBERT COMPTON. - - The Inimitable Mrs. Massingham. - -By E. H. COOPER.--Geoffory Hamilton. - -By V. C. COTES.--Two Girls on a Barge. - -By C. E. CRADDOCK. - - The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains. - His Vanished Star. - -By H. N. CRELLIN. - - Romances of the Old Seraglio. - -By MATT CRIM. - - The Adventures of a Fair Rebel. - -By S. R. CROCKETT and others. - - Tales of Our Coast. - -By B. M. CROKER. - - Diana Barrington. - Proper Pride. - A Family Likeness. - Pretty Miss Neville. - A Bird of Passage. - Mr. Jervis. - Village Tales. - Some One Else. - Jason. - Infatuation. - The Real Lady Hilda. - Married or Single? - Two Masters. - In the Kingdom of Kerry. - Interference. - A Third Person. - Beyond the Pale. - Miss Balmaine’s Past. - Terence. - The Cat’s-paw. - -By ALPHONSE DAUDET. - - The Evangelist; or, Port Salvation. - -By H. C. DAVIDSON.--Mr. Sadler’s Daughters. - -By JAS. DE MILLE. - - A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder. - -By HARRY DE WINDT. - - True Tales of Travel and Adventure. - -By DICK DONOVAN. - - Man from Manchester. - Records of Vincent Trill. - The Mystery of Jamaica Terrace. - Tales of Terror. - Chronicles of Michael Danevitch. - Tyler Tatlock, Private Detective. - Deacon Brodie. - -By RICHARD DOWLING. - - Old Corcoran’s Money. - -By A. CONAN DOYLE. - - The Firm of Girdlestone. - -By S. JEANNETTE DUNCAN. - - A Daughter of To-day. - Vernon’s Aunt. - -By ANNIE EDWARDES. - - Archie Lovell. - A Plaster Saint. - -By G. S. EDWARDS.--Snazelleparilla. - -By G. MANVILLE FENN. - - Cursed by a Fortune. - The Case of Ailsa Gray. - Commodore Junk. - The New Mistress. - Witness to the Deed. - The Tiger Lily. - The White Virgin. - Black Blood. - Double Cunning. - A Fluttered Dovecote. - King of the Castle. - Master of Ceremonies. - Tho Man with a Shadow. - One Maid’s Mischief. - Story of Antony Grace. - This Man’s Wife. - In Jeopardy. - A Woman Worth Winning. - -By PERCY FITZGERALD.--Fatal Zero. - -By Hon. Mrs. W. FORBES.--Dumb. - -By R. E. FRANCILLON. - - One by One. - A Dog and his Shadow. - A Real Queen. - Ropes of Sand. - Jack Doyle’s Daughter. - -By HAROLD FREDERIC. - - Seth’s Brother’s Wife. - The Lawton Girl. - -By PAUL GAULOT.--The Red Shirts. - -By CHARLES GIBBON. - - Robin Gray. - Of High Degree. - The Golden Shaft. - The Braes of Yarrow. - Queen of the Meadow. - The Flower of the Forest. - -By E. GLANVILLE. - - The Lost Heiress. - Fair Colonist. - Fossicker. - The Golden Rock. - Tales from the Veld. - -By E. J. GOODMAN. - - The Fate of Herbert Wayne. - -By Rev. S. BARING GOULD. - - Red Spider. - Eve. - -By ALFRED A. GRACE. - - Tales of a Dying Race. - -By CECIL GRIFFITH.--Corinthia Marazion. - -By A. CLAVERING GUNTER. - - A Florida Enchantment. - -By BRET HARTE. - - A Waif of the Plains. - A Ward of the Golden Gate. - A Sappho of Green Springs. - Col. Starbottle’s Client. - Susy. - Sally Dows. - Bell-Ringer of Angel’s. - Tales of Trail and Town. - A Protegee of Jack Hamlin’s. - Clarence. - Barker’s Luck. - Devil’s Ford. - The Crusade of the Excelsior. - Three Partners. - Gabriel Conroy. - New Condensed Novels. - -By OWEN HALL. - - The Track of a Storm. - Jetsam. - -By COSMO HAMILTON. - - Glamour of Impossible. - Through a Keyhole. - -By THOMAS HARDY. - - Under the Greenwood Tree. - -By JULIAN HAWTHORNE. - - Garth. - Dust. - Ellice Quentin. - Sebastian Strome. - Fortune’s Fool. - Beatrix Randolph. - David Poindexter’s Disappearance. - Spectre of Camera. - -By Sir A. HELPS.--Ivan de Biron. - -By I. HENDERSON.--Agatha Page. - -By G. A. HENTY. - - Dorothy’s Double. - Rujub, the Juggler. - The Queen’s Cup. - -By HEADON HILL.--Zambra the Detective. - -By JOHN HILL.--The Common Ancestor. - -By TIGHE HOPKINS. - - Twixt Love and Duty. - The Incomplete Adventurer. - Nugents of Carriconna. - Nell Haffenden. - -By VICTOR HUGO.--The Outlaw of Iceland. - -By FERGUS HUME. - - Lady from Nowhere. - The Millionaire Mystery. - -By Mrs. HUNGERFORD. - - Marvel. - Unsatisfactory Lover. - In Durance Vile. - A Modern Circe. - Lady Patty. - A Mental Struggle. - Lady Verner’s Flight. - The Red-House Mystery. - The Three Graces. - Professor’s Experiment. - A Point of Conscience. - A Maiden all Forlorn. - The Coming of Chloe. - Nora Creina. - An Anxious Moment. - April’s Lady. - Peter’s Wife. - Lovice. - -By Mrs. ALFRED HUNT. - - The Leaden Casket. - That Other Person. - Self-Condemned. - Mrs. Juliet. - -By R. ASHE KING.--A Drawn Game. - -By GEORGE LAMBERT. - - The President of Boravia. - -By EDMOND LEPELLETIER. - - Madame Sans-Gene. - -By ADAM LILBURN. A Tragedy in Marble. - -By HARRY LINDSAY. - - Rhoda Roberts. - The Jacobite. - -By HENRY W. LUCY.--Gideon Fleyce. - -By E. LYNN LINTON. - - Patricia Kemball. - Under which Lord? - ‘My Love!’ - Ione. - Paxton Carew. - Sowing the Wind. - With a Silken Thread. - The World Well Lost. - The Atonement of Leam Dundas. - The One Too Many. - Dulcie Everton. - Rebel of the Family. - An Octave of Friends. - -By JUSTIN McCARTHY. - - A Fair Saxon. - Linley Rochford. - Dear Lady Disdain. - Camiola. - Mononia. - Waterdale Neighbours. - My Enemy’s Daughter. - Miss Misanthrope. - Donna Quixote. - Maid of Athens. - The Comet of a Season. - The Dictator. - Red Diamonds. - The Riddle Ring. - The Three Disgraces. - -By JUSTIN H. McCARTHY. - - A London Legend. - -By GEORGE MACDONALD. - - Heather and Snow. - Phantastes. - -By W. H. MALLOCK.--The New Republic. - -By P. & V. MARGUERITTE.--The Disaster. - -By L. T. MEADE. - - A Soldier of Fortune. - In an Iron Grip. - Dr. Rumsey’s Patient. - The Voice of the Charmer. - An Adventuress. - On Brink of a Chasm. - The Siren. - The Way of a Woman. - A Son of Ishmael. - The Blue Diamond. - A Stumble by the Way. - -By LEONARD MERRICK. - - This Stage of Fools. - Cynthia. - -By EDMUND MITCHELL. - - The Lone Star Rush. - -By BERTRAM MITFORD. - - The Gun-Runner. - Luck of Gerard Ridgeley. - The King’s Assegai. - Rensh. Fanning’s Quest. - The Triumph of Hilary Blachland. - -By Mrs. MOLESWORTH. - - Hathercourt Rectory. - -By J. E. MUDDOCK. - - Maid Marian and Robin Hood. - Basile the Jester. - Golden Idol. - Young Lochinvar. - -By D. CHRISTIE MURRAY. - - A Life’s Atonement. - Joseph’s Coat. - Coals of Fire. - Old Blazer’s Hero. - Val Strange. - Hearts. - A Model Father. - By the Gate of the Sea. - A Bit of Human Nature. - First Person Singular. - Cynic Fortune. - The Way of the World. - Bob Martin’s Little Girl. - Time’s Revenges. - A Wasted Crime. - In Direst Peril. - Mount Despair. - A Capful o’ Nails. - Tales in Prose & Verse. - A Race for Millions. - This Little World. - His Own Ghost. - Church of Humanity. - V.C.: Castle Barfield and the Crimea. - -By MURRAY and HERMAN. - - The Bishops’ Bible. - One Traveller Returns. - Paul Jones’s Alias. - -By HUME NISBET.--‘Bail up!’ - -By W. E. NORRIS. - - Saint Ann’s. - Billy Bellew. - Miss Wentworth’s Idea. - -By G. OHNET.--A Weird Gift. - - Love’s Depths. - The Woman of Mystery. - -By Mrs. OLIPHANT. - - Whiteladies. - The Sorceress. - -By OUIDA. - - Held in Bondage. - Strathmore. - Chandos. - Under Two Flags. - Idalia. - Cecil Castlemaine’s Gage. - Tricotrin. - Puck. - Folle Farine. - A Dog of Flanders. - Pascarel. - Signa. - Princess Napraxine. - Two Wooden Shoes. - In a Winter City. - Friendship. - Moths. - Ruffino. - Pipistrello. - Ariadne. - A Village Commune. - Bimbi. - Wanda. - Frescoes. - Othmar. - In Maremma. - Syrlin. - Guilderoy. - Santa Barbara. - Two Offenders. - The Waters of Edera. - -By G. SIDNEY PATERNOSTER. - - The Motor Pirate. - -By MARGARET A. PAUL. - - Gentle and Simple. - -By JAMES PAYN. - - Lost Sir Massingberd. - The Family Scapegrace. - A County Family. - Less Black than We’re Painted. - A Confidential Agent. - A Grape from a Thorn. - In Peril and Privation. - Mystery of Mirbridge. - High Spirits. - By Proxy. - The Talk of the Town. - Holiday Tasks. - For Cash Only. - The Burnt Million. - The Word and the Will. - Sunny Stories. - A Trying Patient. - A Modern Dick Whittington. - -By WILL PAYNE.--Jerry the Dreamer. - -By Mrs. CAMPBELL PRAED. - - Outlaw and Lawmaker. - Christina Chard. - Mrs. Tregaskiss. - Nulma. - Madame Izan. - ‘As a Watch in the Night.’ - -By E. C. PRICE.--Valentina. - -By RICHARD PRYCE. - - Miss Maxwell’s Affections. - -By Mrs. J. H. RIDDELL. - - Weird Stories. - A Rich Man’s Daughter. - -By CHARLES READE. - - Peg Woffington; and Christie Johnstone. - Hard Cash. - Cloister & the Hearth. - Never Too Late to Mend. - The Course of True Love; and Singleheart & Doubleface. - Autobiography of a Thief; Jack of all Trades; A Hero and a Martyr; - and The Wandering Heir. - Griffith Gaunt. - Love Little, Love Long. - The Double Marriage. - Foul Play. - Put Y’rself in His Place. - A Terrible Temptation. - A Simpleton. - A Woman-Hater. - The Jilt, & other Stories; & Good Stories of Man. - A Perilous Secret. - Readiana; and Bible Characters. - -By FRANK RICHARDSON. - - The Man who Lost His Past. - The Bayswater Mystery. - -By AMELIE RIVES. - - Barbara Bering. - Meriel. - -By F. W. ROBINSON. - - The Hands of Justice. - Woman in the Dark. - -By ALBERT ROSS.--A Sugar Princess. - -By J. RUNCIMAN.--Skippers and Shellbacks. - -By W. CLARK RUSSELL. - - Round the Galley-Fire. - In the Middle Watch. - On the Fo’k’sle Head. - A Voyage to the Cape. - Book for the Hammock. - Mystery of ‘Ocean Star.’ - Jenny Harlowe. - An Ocean Tragedy. - A Tale of Two Tunnels. - My Shipmate Louise. - Alone on Wide Wide Sea. - The Phantom Death. - Is He the Man? - Good Ship ‘Mohock.’ - The Convict Ship. - Heart of Oak. - The Tale of the Ten. - The Last Entry. - The Death Ship. - -By DORA RUSSELL.--Drift of Fate. - -By HERBERT RUSSELL.--True Blue. - -By BAYLE ST. JOHN.--A Levantine Family. - -By ADELINE SERGEANT. - - Dr. Endicott’s Experiment. - Under False Pretences. - -By M. P. SHIEL.--The Purple Cloud. - -By GEORGE R. SIMS. - - Dagonet Abroad. - Once Upon a Christmas Time. - Without the Limelight. - Rogues and Vagabonds. - In London’s Heart. - Mary Jane’s Memoirs. - Mary Jane Married. - The Small-part Lady. - A Blind Marriage. - Biographs of Babylon. - -By UPTON SINCLAIR.--Prince Hagen. - -By HAWLEY SMART. - - Without Love or Licence. - The Master of Rathkelly. - Long Odds. - The Outsider. - Beatrice & Benedick. - A Racing Rubber. - -By J. MOYR SMITH. - - The Prince of Argolis. - -By T. W. SPEIGHT. - - The Grey Monk. - The Master of Trenance. - The Web of Fate. - A Minion of the Moon. - The Strange Experiences of Mr. Verschoyle. - Secret Wyvern Towers. - The Doom of Siva. - As it was Written. - Her Ladyship. - -By ALAN ST. 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ZOLA. - - The Joy of Life. - The Fortune of the Rougons. - Abbe Mouret’s Transgression. - The Conquest of Plassans. - The Honour of the Army. - The Downfall. - The Dream. - Money. - Dr. Pascal. - Lourdes. - The Fat and the Thin. - His Masterpiece. - Germinal. - His Excellency. - The Dram-Shop. - Rome. - Paris. - Work. - Fruitfulness. - Truth. - -By ‘ZZ.’--A Nineteenth Century Miracle. - - - CHEAP EDITIONS OF POPULAR NOVELS. - - Post 8vo, illustrated boards, 2_s._ each. - -By ARTEMUS WARD. - - Artemus Ward Complete. - -By E. LESTER ARNOLD. - - Phra the Phœnician. - -By Mrs. ALEXANDER. - - Maid, Wife, or Widow? - Blind Fate. - Valerie’s Fate. - A Life Interest. - Mona’s Choice. - By Woman’s Wit. - -By GRANT ALLEN. - - Philistia. - Babylon. - Strange Stories. - For Maimie’s Sake. - In all Shades. - The Beckoning Hand. - The Devil’s Die. - The Tents of Shem. - The Great Taboo. - Dumaresq’s Daughter. - Duchess of Powysland. - Blood Royal. - Ivan Greet’s Masterpiece. - The Scallywag. - This Mortal Coil. - At Market Value. - Under Sealed Orders. - -By FRANK BARRETT. - - Fettered for Life. - Little Lady Linton. - Between Life & Death. - Sin of Olga Zassoulich. - Folly Morrison. - Lieut. Barnabas. - Honest Davie. - A Prodigal’s Progress. - Found Guilty. - A Recoiling Vengeance. - For Love and Honour. - John Ford, &c. - Woman of Iron Brace’ts. - The Harding Scandal. - A Missing Witness. - -By Sir W. BESANT and J. 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Katherine’s by Tower. - Verbena Camellia Stephanotis. - The Ivory Gate. - The Rebel Queen. - Beyond the Dreams of Avarice. - The Revolt of Man. - In Deacon’s Orders. - The City of Refuge. - -By AMBROSE BIERCE. - - In the Midst of Life. - -By FREDERICK BOYLE. - - Camp Notes. - Savage Life. - Chronicles of No-man’s Land. - -BY BRET HARTE. - - Californian Stories. - Gabriel Conroy. - Luck of Roaring Camp. - An Heiress of Red Dog. - Flip. - Maruja. - A Phyllis of the Sierras. - A Waif of the Plains. - Ward of Golden Gate. - -By ROBERT BUCHANAN. - - Shadow of the Sword. - A Child of Nature. - God and the Man. - Love Me for Ever. - Foxglove Manor. - The Master of the Mine. - Annan Water. - The Martyrdom of Madeline. - The New Abelard. - The Heir of Linne. - Woman and the Man. - Rachel Dene. - Matt. - Lady Kilpatrick. - -By BUCHANAN and MURRAY. - - The Charlatan. - -By HALL CAINE. - - The Shadow of a Crime. - A Son of Hagar. - The Deemster. - -By Commander CAMERON. - - The Cruise of the ‘Black Prince.’ - -By HAYDEN CARRUTH. - - The Adventures of Jones. - -By AUSTIN CLARE. - - For the Love of a Lass. - -By Mrs. ARCHER CLIVE. - - Paul Ferroll. - Why Paul Ferroll Killed his Wife. - -By MACLAREN COBBAN. - - The Cure of Souls. - The Red Sultan. - -By M. J. COLQUHOUN. - - Every Inch a Soldier. - -By C. ALLSTON COLLINS. - - The Bar Sinister. - -By MORT. & FRANCES COLLINS. - - Sweet Anne Page. - Transmigration. - From Midnight to Midnight. - A Fight with Fortune. - Sweet and Twenty. - The Village Comedy. - You Play me False. - Blacksmith and Scholar. - Frances. - -By WILKIE COLLINS. - - Armadale. - After Dark. - No Name. - Antonina. - Basil. - Hide and Seek. - The Dead Secret. - Queen of Hearts. - Miss or Mrs.? - The New Magdalen. - The Frozen Deep. - The Law and the Lady. - The Two Destinies. - The Haunted Hotel. - A Rogue’s Life. - My Miscellanies. - The Woman in White. - The Moonstone. - Man and Wife. - Poor Miss Finch. - The Fallen Leaves. - Jezebel’s Daughter. - The Black Robe. - Heart and Science. - ‘I Say No!’ - The Evil Genius. - Little Novels. - Legacy of Cain. - Blind Love. - -By C. EGBERT CRADDOCK. - - The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains. - -By MATT CRIM. - - The Adventures of a Fair Rebel. - -By H. N. CRELLIN.--Tales of the Caliph. - -By B. M. CROKER. - - Pretty Miss Neville. - Diana Barrington. - ‘To Let.’ - A Bird of Passage. - Proper Pride. - A Family Likeness. - A Third Person. - Village Tales and Jungle Tragedies. - Two Masters. - Mr. Jervis. - The Real Lady Hilda. - Married or Single? - Interference. - -By ALPHONSE DAUDET. - - The Evangelist; or, Port Salvation. - -By JAMES DE MILLE. - - A Strange Manuscript. - -By DICK DONOVAN. - - The Man-Hunter. - Tracked and Taken. - Caught at Last! - Wanted! - Who Poisoned Hetty Duncan? - Man from Manchester. - A Detective’s Triumphs. - The Mystery of Jamaica Terrace. - The Chronicles of Michael Danevitch. - In the Grip of the Law. - From Information Received. - Tracked to Doom. - Link by Link. - Suspicion Aroused. - Riddles Read. - -By Mrs. ANNIE EDWARDES. - - A Point of Honour. - Archie Lovell. - -By EDWARD EGGLESTON.--Roxy. - -By G. MANVILLE FENN. - - The New Mistress. - Witness to the Deed. - The Tiger Lily. - The White Virgin. - -By PERCY FITZGERALD. - - Bella Donna. - Never Forgotten. - Polly. - Fatal Zero. - Second Mrs. Tillotson. - Seventy-five Brooke Street. - The Lady of Brantome. - -By P. FITZGERALD and others. - - Strange Secrets. - -By R. E. FRANCILLON. - - Olympia. - One by One. - A Real Queen. - Queen Cophetua. - King or Knave? - Romances of the Law. - Ropes of Sand. - A Dog and his Shadow. - -By HAROLD FREDERIC. - - Seth’s Brother’s Wife. - The Lawton Girl. - -Prefaced by Sir BARTLE FRERE. - - Pandurang Hari. - -By CHARLES GIBBON. - - Robin Gray. - Fancy Free. - For Lack of Gold. - What will World Say? - In Love and War. - For the King. - In Pastures Green. - Queen of the Meadow. - A Heart’s Problem. - The Dead Heart. - In Honour Bound. - Flower of the Forest. - The Braes of Yarrow. - The Golden Shaft. - Of High Degree. - By Mead and Stream. - Loving a Dream. - A Hard Knot. - Heart’s Delight. - Blood-Money. - -By WILLIAM GILBERT. - - James Duke. - -By ERNEST GLANVILLE. - - The Lost Heiress. - A Fair Colonist. - The Fossicker. - -By Rev. S. BARING GOULD. - - Red Spider. - Eve. - -By ANDREW HALLIDAY. - - Every-day Papers. - -By THOMAS HARDY. - - Under the Greenwood Tree. - -By JULIAN HAWTHORNE. - - Garth. - Love--or a Name. - Ellice Quentin. - David Poindexter’s Disappearance. - Fortune’s Fool. - Miss Cadogna. - The Spectre of the Camera. - Dust. - Beatrix Randolph. - -By Sir ARTHUR HELPS. - - Ivan de Biron. - -By G. A. HENTY. - - Rujub the Juggler. - -By HEADON HILL. - - Zambra the Detective. - -By JOHN HILL.--Treason Felony. - -By Mrs. CASHEL HOEY. - - The Lover’s Creed. - -By Mrs. GEORGE HOOPER. - - The House of Raby. - -By Mrs. HUNGERFORD. - - A Maiden all Forlorn. - Lady Verner’s Flight. - In Durance Vile. - The Red-House Mystery. - Marvel. - The Three Graces. - A Mental Struggle. - Unsatisfactory Lover. - A Modern Circe. - Lady Patty. - April’s Lady. - Nora Creina. - Peter’s Wife. - Professor’s Experiment. - -By Mrs. ALFRED HUNT. - - That Other Person. - The Leaden Casket. - Self-Condemned. - -By MARK KERSHAW. - - Colonial Facts and Fictions. - -By R. ASHE KING. - - A Drawn Game. - Passion’s Slave. - ‘The Wearing of the Green.’ - Bell Barry. - -By EDMOND LEPELLETIER. - - Madame Sans-Gene. - -By JOHN LEYS.--The Lindsays. - -By E. LYNN LINTON. - - Patricia Kemball. - The Atonement of Leam Dundas. - The World Well Lost. - Under which Lord? - Rebel of the Family. - Paston Carew. - Sowing the Wind. - ‘My Love!’ - The One Too Many. - Ione. - Dulcie Everton. - With a Silken Thread. - -By HENRY W. LUCY. - - Gideon Fleyce. - -By JUSTIN McCARTHY. - - Dear Lady Disdain. - Donna Quixote. - Waterdale Neighbours. - Maid of Athens. - My Enemy’s Daughter. - The Comet of a Season. - A Fair Saxon. - The Dictator. - Linley Rochford. - Red Diamonds. - Miss Misanthrope. - The Riddle Ring. - Camiola. - -By HUGH MACCOLL. - - Mr. Stranger’s Sealed Packet. - -By GEORGE MACDONALD. - - Heather and Snow. - -By AGNES MACDONELL. - - Quaker Cousins. - -By W. H. MALLOCK. - - The New Republic. - -By BRANDER MATTHEWS. - - A Secret of the Sea. - -By L. T. MEADE. - - A Soldier of Fortune. - -By LEONARD MERRICK. - - The Man who was Good. - -By Mrs. MOLESWORTH. - - Hathercourt Rectory. - -By J. E. MUDDOCK. - - Stories Weird and Wonderful. - From the Bosom of the Deep. - The Dead Man’s Secret. - -By D. CHRISTIE MURRAY. - - A Model Father. - A Bit of Human Nature. - Joseph’s Coat. - First Person Singular. - Coals of Fire. - Bob Martin’s Little Girl. - Val Strange. - Heart. - Time’s Revenges. - Old Blazer’s Hero. - A Wasted Crime. - The Way of the World. - In Direst Peril. - Cynic Fortune. - Mount Despair. - A Life’s Atonement. - A Capful o’ Nails. - By the Gate of the Sea. - -By MURRAY and HERMAN. - - One Traveller Returns. - The Bishops’ Bible. - Paul Jones’s Alias. - -By HUME NISBET. - - ‘Bail Up!’ - Dr. Bernard St. Vincent. - -By W. E. NORRIS. - - Saint Ann’s. - Billy Bellew. - -By GEORGES OHNET. - - Dr. Rameau. - A Weird Gift. - A Last Love. - -By Mrs. OLIPHANT. - - Whiteladies. - The Greatest Heiress in England. - The Primrose Path. - -By OUIDA. - - Held in Bondage. - Two Lit. Wooden Shoes. - Strathmore. - Moths. - Chandos. - Bimbi. - Idalia. - Pipistrello. - Under Two Flags. - A Village Commune. - Cecil Castlemaine’s Gage. - Wanda. - Tricotrin. - Othmar. - Puck. - Frescoes. - Folle Farine. - In Maremma. - A Dog of Flanders. - Guilderoy. - Pascarel. - Ruffino. - Signa. - Syrlin. - Princess Napraxine. - Santa Barbara. - In a Winter City. - Two Offenders. - Ariadne. - Ouida’s Wisdom, Wit, and Pathos. - Friendship. - -By MARGARET AGNES PAUL. - - Gentle and Simple. - -By Mrs. CAMPBELL PRAED. - - The Romance of a Station. - The Soul of Countess Adrian. - Outlaw and Lawmaker. - Christina Chard. - Mrs. Tregaskiss. - -By JAMES PAYN. - - Bentinck’s Tutor. - The Talk of the Town. - Murphy’s Master. - Holiday Tasks. - A County Family. - A Perfect Treasure. - At Her Mercy. - What He Cost Her. - Cecil’s Tryst. - A Confidential Agent. - The Clyffards of Clyffe. - Glow-worm Tales. - The Foster Brothers. - The Burnt Million. - Found Dead. - Sunny Stories. - The Best of Husbands. - Lost Sir Massingberd. - Walter’s Word. - A Woman’s Vengeance. - Halves. - The Family Scapegrace. - Fallen Fortunes. - Gwendoline’s Harvest. - Humorous Stories. - Like Father, Like Son. - £200 Reward. - Married Beneath Him. - A Marine Residence. - Not Wooed, but Won. - Mirk Abbey. - Less Black than We’re Painted. - By Proxy. - Under One Roof. - Some Private Views. - High Spirits. - A Grape from a Thorn. - Carlyon’s Year. - The Mystery of Mirbridge. - From Exile. - The Word and the Will. - For Cash Only. - Kit. - A Prince of the Blood. - The Canon’s Ward. - A Trying Patient. - -By RICHARD PRYCE. - - Miss Maxwell’s Affections. - -By CHARLES READE. - - It is Never Too Late to Mend. - Foul Play. - Christie Johnstone. - The Wandering Heir. - The Double Marriage. - Hard Cash. - Put Y’self in His Place. - Singleheart, Doubleface. - Love Little, Love Long. - Good Stories of Man, &c. - Cloister and the Hearth. - Peg Woffington. - Course of True Love. - Griffith Gaunt. - The Jilt. - A Perilous Secret. - Autobiog. of a Thief. - A Simpleton. - A Terrible Temptation. - Readiana. - A Woman-Hater. - -By Mrs. J. H. RIDDELL. - - Weird Stories. - The Uninhabited House. - Fairy Water. - The Mystery in Palace Gardens. - Her Mother’s Darling. - The Nun’s Curse. - The Prince of Wales’s Garden Party. - Idle Tales. - -By F. W. ROBINSON. - - Women are Strange. - The Woman in the Dark. - The Hands of Justice. - -By W. CLARK RUSSELL. - - Round the Galley Fire. - An Ocean Tragedy. - On the Fo’k’sle Head. - My Shipmate Louise. - In the Middle Watch. - Alone on Wide Wide Sea. - A Voyage to the Cape. - Good Ship ‘Mohock.’ - A Book for the Hammock. - The Phantom Death. - The Mystery of the ‘Ocean Star.’ - Is He the Man? - The Romance of Jenny Harlowe. - Heart of Oak. - The Convict Ship. - The Tale of the Ten. - The Last Entry. - -By DORA RUSSELL.--A Country Sweetheart. - -By GEORGE AUGUSTUS SALA. - - Gaslight and Daylight. - -By GEORGE R. SIMS. - - The Ring o’ Bells. - Zeph. - Mary Jane’s Memoirs. - Memoirs of a Landlady. - Mary Jane Married. - Scenes from the Show. - Tales of To-day. - The 10 Commandments. - Dramas of Life. - Dagonet Abroad. - Tinkletop’s Crime. - Rogues and Vagabonds. - My Two Wives. - -By HAWLEY SMART. - - Without Love or Licence. - The Plunger. - Beatrice and Benedick. - Long Odds. - The Master of Rathkelly. - -By ARTHUR SKETCHLEY. - - A Match in the Dark. - -By R. A. STERNDALE. - - The Afghan Knife. - -By T. W. SPEIGHT. - - The Mysteries of Heron Dyke. - Back to Life. - The Golden Hoop. - The Loudwater Tragedy. - Hoodwinked. - Burgo’s Romance. - By Devious Ways. - Quittance in Full. - A Husband from the Sea. - -By ALAN ST. AUBYN. - - A Fellow of Trinity. - Orchard Damerel. - The Junior Dean. - In the Face of the World. - Master of St. Benedict’s. - The Tremlett Diamonds. - To His Own Master. - -By R. LOUIS STEVENSON. - - New Arabian Nights. - -By ROBERT SURTEES. - - Handley Cross. - -By WALTER THORNBURY. - - Tales for the Marines. - -By T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE. - - Diamond Cut Diamond. - -By F. ELEANOR TROLLOPE. - - Like Ships upon the Sea. - Anne Furness. - Mabel’s Progress. - -By ANTHONY TROLLOPE. - - Frau Frohmann. - The Land-Leaguers. - Marion Fay. - The American Senator. - Kept in the Dark. - Scarborough’s Family. - The Way We Live Now. - Golden Lion of Granpere. - -By MARK TWAIN. - - A Pleasure Trip on the Continent. - Stolen White Elephant. - The Gilded Age. - Life on the Mississippi. - Huckleberry Finn. - Prince and Pauper. - Tom Sawyer. - A Yankee at the Court of King Arthur. - A Tramp Abroad. - £1,000,000 Bank-Note. - -By C. C. FRASER-TYTLER. - - Mistress Judith. - -By SARAH TYTLER. - - Bride’s Pass. - Lady Bell. - The Huguenot Family. - Buried Diamonds. - The Blackball Ghosts. - St. Mungo’s City. - What She Came Through. - Noblesse Oblige. - Beauty and the Beast. - Disappeared. - -By ALLEN UPWARD.--Queen against Owen. - -By WM. WESTALL.--Trust-Money. - -By Mrs. WILLIAMSON.--A Child Widow. - -By J. S. WINTER. - - Cavalry Life. - Regimental Legends. - -By H. F. WOOD. - - The Passenger from Scotland Yard. - The Englishman of the Rue Cain. - -By MARG. WYNMAN.--My Flirtations. - - - NEW SERIES OF TWO-SHILLING NOVELS. - - Bound in picture cloth, flat backs. - - -By EDWIN LESTER ARNOLD. - - The Constable of St. Nicholas. - -By Sir WALTER BESANT. - - St. Katherine’s by Tower. - The Rebel Queen. - -By H. BINDLOSS.--Ainslie’s Ju Ju. - -By McD. BODKIN, K.C. - - Dora Myrl, the Lady Detective. - -By DICK DONOVAN. - - Vincent Trill, Detective. - Wanted. - Dark Deeds. - The Man from Manchester. - -By G. M. FENN.--A Crimson Crime. - -By PAUL GAULOT.--The Red Shirts. - -By OWEN HALL.--Track of a Storm. - -By BRET HARTE. - - The Luck of Roaring Camp; and Sensation Novels. - In a Hollow of the Hills. - Sappho of Green Springs. - Colonel Starbottle’s Client. - A Protegee of Jack Hamlin’s. - -By HEADON HILL.--Zambra, the Detective. - -By FERGUS HUME.--The Lady from Nowhere. - -By EDMUND MITCHELL. - - Plotters of Paris. - The Temple of Death. - Towards the Eternal Snows. - -By BERTRAM MITFORD. - - The Luck of Gerard Ridgeley. - The King’s Assegai. - -By J. E. MUDDOCK. - - Maid Marian and Robin Hood. - -By CHRISTIE MURRAY. - - His Own Ghost. - -By OUIDA. - - Syrlin. - The Waters of Edera. - -By J. PAYN. - -A Modern Dick Whittington. - -By DORA RUSSELL. - - A Country Sweetheart. - The Drift of Fate. - -By G. R. SIMS. - - In London’s Heart. - Rogues and Vagabonds. - -By FRANK STOCKTON. - - The Young Master of Hyson Hall. - -By SUNDOWNER. - - Tale of the Serpent. - -By SARAH TYTLER. - - Citoyenne Jacqueline. - -By ALLEN UPWARD. - - Queen against Owen. - -By F. WARDEN. - - Joan, the Curate. - -By BYRON WEBBER. - - Sport and Spangles. - -By JOHN STRANGE WINTER. - - Cavalry Life; and Regimental Legends. - -By LOUIS ZANGWILL. - - A Nineteenth Century Miracle. - - -UNWIN BROTHERS, LTD., Printers, 27, Pilgrim Street, London, E.C. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_. The majority of authors and -titles in the catalogue are in bold text but, for the sake of clarity, -this has not been marked up. 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