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diff --git a/old/51960-0.txt b/old/51960-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c09fe05..0000000 --- a/old/51960-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42260 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and -Ornaments, of Great Britain, by John Evans - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and Ornaments, of Great Britain - Second Edition, Revised - - -Author: John Evans - - - -Release Date: May 2, 2016 [eBook #51960] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANCIENT STONE IMPLEMENTS, -WEAPONS AND ORNAMENTS, OF GREAT BRITAIN*** - - -E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, RichardW, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file - which includes the more than 400 original illustrations. - See 51960-h.htm or 51960-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/51960/51960-h/51960-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/51960/51960-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/ancientstoneimpl00evaniala - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - A carat character is used to denote superscription. A - single character following the carat is superscripted - (example: S^r). - - Small capitalss are changed to all capital letters. - - Original page numbers have been inserted into the text - and are shown like this: |81|. - - Footnotes were changed to endnotes, and renumbered 1–2808. - - Long descriptive passages in the printed book were marked - by a line of white space before and after, and smaller - font and line-height. In this e-book the white space - separators are displayed as a line of asterisks. - - - - - -THE ANCIENT STONE IMPLEMENTS, WEAPONS AND ORNAMENTS, OF GREAT BRITAIN. - -Second Edition, Revised. - -by - -SIR JOHN EVANS, K.C.B., D.C.L., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., etc., etc. - -Correspondant de L’Institut de France. - - - - - - - -Longmans, Green, and Co. -39, Paternoster Row, London -and Bombay -1897 - -(All rights reserved.) - -London: -Printed by J. S. Virtue and Co., Limited. -City Road. - - - - -|v| - - PREFACE - TO THE FIRST EDITION. - - -In presenting this work to the public I need say but little by way -of preface. It is the result of the occupation of what leisure hours -I could spare, during the last few years, from various and important -business, and my object in undertaking it is explained in the -Introduction. - -What now remains for me to do is to express my thanks to those numerous -friends who have so kindly aided me during the progress of my work, -both by placing specimens in their collections at my disposal, and -by examination of my proofs. Foremost among these must be ranked the -Rev. William Greenwell, F.S.A., from whose unrivalled collection of -British antiquities I have largely drawn, and from whose experience and -knowledge I have received much assistance in other ways. - -To Mr. A. W. Franks, F.S.A.; Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S.; Mr. W. Pengelly, -F.R.S.; Colonel A. Lane Fox, F.S.A.; Mr. E. T. Stevens, of Salisbury; -Messrs. Mortimer, of Fimber; Mr. Joseph Anderson, the Curator of the -Antiquarian Museum at Edinburgh; and to numerous others whose names are -mentioned in the following pages, my thanks must also be expressed. - -The work itself will, I believe, be found to contain most of the -information at present available with regard to the class of -antiquities of which it treats. The subject is one which does not -readily lend itself to lively description, and an accumulation of -facts, such as is here presented, is of necessity dull. I have, -however, relegated to smaller type the bulk of the descriptive |vi| -details of little interest to the ordinary reader, who will probably -find more than enough of dry matter to content him if he confines -himself to the larger type and an examination of the illustrations. - -Whatever may be the merits or defects of the book, there are two -points on which I feel that some credit may be claimed. The one is -that the woodcuts—the great majority of which have been specially -engraved for this work by Mr. Swain, of Bouverie Street—give accurate -representations of the objects; the other is, that all the references -have been carefully checked. - -The Index is divided into two parts; the first showing the subjects -discussed in the work, the second the localities where the various -antiquities have been found. - -Now that so much more attention than formerly is being bestowed on this -class of antiquities, there will, no doubt, be numerous discoveries -made, not only of forms with which we are at present unacquainted, but -also of circumstances calculated to throw light on the uses to which -stone implements and weapons were applied, and the degree of antiquity -to be assigned to the various forms. - -I will only add that I shall gladly receive any communications relative -to such discoveries. - -JOHN EVANS. - -_Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, May, 1872._ - - - - -|vii| - - PREFACE - TO THE SECOND EDITION. - - -The undiminished interest taken by many archæologists in the subject -to which this book relates seems to justify me in again placing it -before the public, though in an extended and revised form. I am further -warranted in so doing by the fact that the former edition, which -appeared in 1872, has now been long out of print. - -In revising the work it appeared desirable to retain as much of the -original text and arrangement as possible, but having regard to the -large amount of new matter that had to be incorporated in it and to the -necessity of keeping the bulk of the volume within moderate bounds, -some condensation seemed absolutely compulsory. This I have effected, -partly by omitting some of the detailed measurements of the specimens, -and partly by printing a larger proportion of the text in small type. -I have also omitted several passages relating to discoveries in the -caverns of the South of France. - -I have throughout preserved the original numbering of the Figures, so -that references that have already been made to them in other works will -still hold good. The new cuts, upwards of sixty in number, that have -been added in this edition are distinguished by letters affixed to the -No. of the Figure immediately preceding them. - -The additions to the text, especially in the portion relating to the -Palæolithic Period, are very extensive, and I hope that all the more -important discoveries of stone antiquities made in this country during -the last quarter of a century are here duly recorded, and references -given to the works in which fuller details concerning them may be -found. In some cases, owing to the character of the |viii| objects -discovered being insufficiently described, I have not thought it -necessary to cite them. - -I am indebted to numerous collectors throughout the country for having -called my attention to specimens that they acquired, and for having, -in many cases, sent them to me for examination. I may take this -opportunity of mentioning that while the whole of the objects found by -Canon Greenwell during his examination of British Barrows has been most -liberally presented to the nation, the remainder of his fine collection -of stone antiquities, so frequently referred to in these pages, has -passed into the hands of Dr. W. Allen Sturge, of Nice. - -The two Indices have been carefully compiled by my sister, Mrs. -Hubbard, and are fuller than those in the former edition. They will -afford valuable assistance to any one who desires to consult the book. - -For the new woodcuts that I have had engraved I have been so fortunate -as to secure the services of Messrs. Swain, who so skilfully cut the -blocks for the original work. I am indebted for the loan of numerous -other blocks to several learned Societies, and especially to the -Society of Antiquaries of Scotland and to the Geological Society of -London. Mr. Worthington Smith has also most liberally placed a number -of blocks at my disposal. - -It remains for me to express my thanks to those who have greatly aided -me in the preparation of this edition, the whole of the proofs of which -have been kindly read by Mr. C. H. Read, F.S.A., of the British Museum, -as well as by some members of my own family. Dr. Joseph Anderson, of -the National Museum at Edinburgh, has been good enough to read the -parts relating to Scotland, while Professor Boyd Dawkins has gone over -the chapter on Cave Implements, and Mr. William Whitaker has corrected -the account of the discoveries in the River-drift. To each and all I am -grateful, and as the result of their assistance I trust that, though -not immaculate, the book may prove to be fairly free from glaring -errors and inconsistencies. - -JOHN EVANS. - -_Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, May, 1897._ - - - - -|ix| - -CONTENTS. - - -CHAPTER I. - -INTRODUCTORY. - -The Iron, Bronze, and Stone Ages — Bronze in use before Iron — -Persistence of Religious Rites — Use of Stone in Religious Ceremonies — -Stone Antiquities not all of the same Age — Order of Treatment . . . 1 - -CHAPTER II. - -ON THE MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. - -Pyrites and Flint used for striking Fire — Strike-a-light Flints — -The Gun-flint Manufacture — Gun-flint Production — Modes of producing -Flakes — Pressigny Nuclei — Rough-hewing Stone-hatchets — Ancient -Mining for Flint — Flint-mines at Grime’s Graves and Spiennes — -Production of Arrow-heads — Flaking Arrow-heads — Arrow-flakers — -Grinding Stone Implements — Methods of Sawing Stone — Methods of -Boring Stone — Boring by means of a Tube — Progress in Modes of -Manufacture . . . 14 - - -_IMPLEMENTS OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD._ - -CHAPTER III. - -CELTS. - -Belief in their Meteoric Origin — Regarded as Thunderbolts — Celt with -Gnostic Inscriptions — Their Origin and Virtues — How regarded by the -Greeks and Romans . . . 55 - -CHAPTER IV. - -CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS. - -The Kjökken-Mödding Type — Some possibly Agricultural Implements — Some -carefully Chipped — The Common Forms — Their abundance — Discoveries -at Cissbury — Found in company with Polished Celts — Their probable -Age . . . 67 - -CHAPTER V. - -CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY. - -Pointed at the Butt-end — Of Elongated Form — Expanding at the Ends — -Of Peculiar Forms — Their Occurrence in Foreign Countries . . . 87 - -CHAPTER VI. - -POLISHED CELTS. - -A Type common in the Eastern Counties — With the Surface ground all -over — Expanding at the Edge — Of other Materials than Flint — The -Thin and Highly-polished Type — With Flat Sides — With Flat Sides -and Narrow Butt — With Flat Sides and Pointed Butt — Of Rectangular -Section — Chisel-like and of Rectangular Section — Of Oval Section — -Of Oval Section with Conical Butt — Of a Form common in France — Of -Oval Section pointed at the Butt — With a Cutting Edge at each End — -Sharp at both Ends — Polished Celts narrowing in the Middle — Used in -the Hand without Hafting — Polished Celts of Abnormal types — Polished -Celts with Depressions and Flutings — Circumstances under which they -have been Found — Their Discovery with Objects of Later Date — Their -Range in Time — Accompanying Interments — Manner in which Hafted — In -their original Handles — Inserted in Sockets in the Hafts — Hafted with -Intermediate Sockets — Compared with Axes of modern Savages — Mounted -in Forked Hafts — Mounted on Wooden Hafts — Compared with Adzes of -modern Savages — Mounted in Withes and Cleft Sticks — Modern methods of -Hafting Axes . . . 98 - -CHAPTER VII. - -PICKS, CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC. - -Small Hand Chisels — Gouges rare in Britain — Bastard Gouges . . . 173 - -CHAPTER VIII. - -PERFORATED AXES. - -Sharp at both Ends — Expanding at one End — Pointed at one End — -Adze-like in Character — Cutting at one End only — Used as Battle-axes -— Ornamented on the Faces — Large and Heavy — A Large Form common -in the North — Fluted on the Faces — Boring, the last Process — -Axe-hammers hollowed on the Sides — Axe-hammers ornamented on the -Faces — Frequently found in Barrows — But little used by modern -Savages . . . 183 - -CHAPTER IX. - -PERFORATED AND GROOVED HAMMERS. - -Of Peculiar Forms — Some of them Weapons, not Tools — Conical, Rounded -at each End — Made from Pebbles with Natural Holes — Of an Ornamented -Character — Made from Quartzite Pebbles — Purposes to which Applied — -Mauls for Mining Purposes — Of Wide Range — Net-sinkers . . . 217 - -CHAPTER X. - -HAMMER-STONES, ETC. - -With Depressions on the Faces — With Cup-shaped Depressions — Ridged -at the End — Made of Flint and Quartzite — Saddle-querns — Pestles -and Mortars — From Shetland and Orkney — Various forms of Mortars — -Hand-mills or Querns . . . 238 - -CHAPTER XI. - -GRINDING-STONES AND WHETSTONES. - -Uses for Sharpening Celts — Found in Barrows — Found with Interments — -Pebbles with Grooves in them . . . 261 - -CHAPTER XII. - -FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. - -The Cone and Bulb of Percussion — Classification of Flakes — Polygonal -Cores — Numerous in Ancient Settlements — Localities where Abundant -— Not Confined to the Stone Period — The Roman Tribulum — In other -parts of the World — The Uses of Flakes — Flakes ground at the Edge — -Hafted Flakes — Flakes made into Saws — Serrated, as the Armature of -Sickles . . . 272 - -CHAPTER XIII. - -SCRAPERS. - -Used in Dressing Hides — Horseshoe-shaped — Kite-shaped and -Duck-bill-shaped — Some like Oyster Shells in Form — Double-ended and -Spoon-shaped — Found with Interments — Evidences of Wear upon them — -Found with Pyrites — The Modern form of Strike-a-light — Used with -Pyrites for producing Fire — The Flat and Hollowed Forms . . . 298 - -CHAPTER XIV. - -BORERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS. - -Found in different Countries — Of Minute Dimensions . . . 321 - -CHAPTER XV. - -TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC. - -From different Countries — Some Trimmed Flakes, probably Knives — -Knives from Barrows — Some possibly Lance-heads — Knives with one -Edge blunt — Of Oval Form — Sharpened by Grinding — Of Circular Form -— Of Semicircular and Triangular Form — The so-called “Picts’ Knives” -— Like those of the Eskimos — Daggers or Lance-heads — With Notches -at the Sides — Found in other Countries — Curved and Crescent-shaped -Blades — Curved Knives, probably Sickles — Ripple-marked Egyptian -Blades . . . 326 - -CHAPTER XVI. - -JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS. - -Their earliest occurrence — Thought to fall from the Heavens — -Superstitions attaching to them — Worn as Amulets — An Egyptian Arrow -— Javelin-heads — Leaf-shaped Arrow-heads — Leaf-shaped Arrow-heads -pointed at both Ends — Lozenge-shaped Arrow-heads — Stemmed-Arrow-heads -— Stemmed and Barbed Arrow-heads — Unusual Forms — Found in Scotland -— Localities where found — The Triangular Form — Single-barbed -Arrow-heads — The Chisel-ended Type — Found in Barrows — Irish and -French Types — From various Countries — African and Asiatic Types — -South American Types — How attached to their Shafts — Bows in Early -Times . . . 360 - -CHAPTER XVII. - -FABRICATORS, FLAKING TOOLS, ETC. - -Their probable Uses — Used for working in Flint . . . 412 - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -SLING-STONES AND BALLS. - -Sling-stones Roughly Chipped from Flint — Ornamented Balls principally -from Scotland — The use of “Bolas” . . . 417 - -CHAPTER XIX. - -BRACERS, AND ARTICLES OF BONE. - -Wrist-guards or Bracers of Stone — The use of Arm-guards — Bone -Lance-heads and Pins — Needles of Bone — Hoes of Stag’s -Horn . . . 425 - -CHAPTER XX. - -SPINDLE-WHORLS, DISCS, SLICKSTONES, WEIGHTS, AND CUPS. - -Superstitions attaching to Whorls — Uses of Perforated Discs — Use of -Slick-stones — Stones as Burnishers and Weights — Stone Cups — Cups -turned in a Lathe — Amber Cup — Vessels made of Stone . . . 436 - -CHAPTER XXI. - -PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. - -Buttons of Jet, Shale, and Stone — Buttons found in Barrows — Necklaces -of Jet — Necklaces, Beads, Pendants, and Bracelets — Rings of Stone — -Pebbles found in Barrows — Lucky Stones and Amulets — Conclusions as -to the Neolithic Period . . . 452 - - -_IMPLEMENTS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD._ - -CHAPTER XXII. - -CAVE IMPLEMENTS. - -Compared with those from the River-drift — Formation of Caverns — -Deposition of Stalagmite — Different Ages of Caverns — Chronological -Sequence of Caverns — Fauna of the Caves — Dean Buckland’s Researches -— Kent’s Cavern, Torquay — Alteration in Structure of Flint — Trimmed -Flakes from Kent’s Cavern — Scrapers from Kent’s Cavern — Cores and -Hammers from Kent’s Cavern — Bone Harpoon-heads from Kent’s Cavern -— Fauna of Kent’s Cavern — Animal Remains associated with Works of -Art — Correlation of Kent’s Cavern with Foreign Caves — Brixham Cave -— Trimmed Flakes from the Brixham Cave — The Wookey Hyæna Den — The -Gower and other Welsh Caves — The Caves of Creswell Crags — General -Considerations . . . 473 - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -IMPLEMENTS OF THE RIVER-DRIFT PERIOD. - -The Discoveries at Abbeville and Amiens — Discoveries on the Continent -and in India — In the Valley of the Ouse — Biddenham, Bedford — -Hitchin, Herts — Valleys of the Cam and the Lark — Bury St. Edmunds -— Icklingham — High Lodge, Mildenhall — Redhill, Thetford — Santon -Downham — Bromehill, Weeting — Gravel Hill, Brandon — Lakenheath -— Shrub Hill, Feltwell — Hoxne, Suffolk — Saltley, Warwickshire — -Possibility of their occurrence in the North of England — Gray’s Inn -Lane, London — Highbury, London — Lower Clapton, Stoke Newington, &c. -— Ealing and Acton — West Drayton, Burnham, Reading — Oxford and its -Neighbourhood — Peasemarsh, Godalming — Valleys of the Gade and Colne -— Caddington — No Man’s Land, Wheathampstead — Valley of the Lea — -Valley of the Cray — Swanscomb and Milton Street — Ightham, Sevenoaks -— Limpsfield, Surrey — Valley of the Medway — Reculver — Thanington, -Kent — Canterbury and Folkestone — Southampton — Hill Head, Southampton -Water — The Foreland, Isle of Wight — Bemerton, Salisbury — Fisherton -and Milford Hill, Salisbury — Bournemouth and Barton Cliff — Valley of -the Axe . . . 526 - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -FORMS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPLEMENTS FROM THE RIVER-DRIFT. - -Flint Flakes — Trimmed Flakes — Pointed Implements — Sharp-rimmed -Implements — Differ from those of Neolithic Age — Their occurrence in -other parts of the World — Found in Africa and Asia — Their probable -Uses — The Civilization they betoken — Characteristics of their -Authenticity . . . 640 - -CHAPTER XXV. - -ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. - -Hypothetical case of River-action — Origin of River Systems — Amount -of Solid Matter in Turbid Water — Nature of Flood-deposits — Effects of -Ground-Ice — Deposits left on the Slopes of Valleys during Excavation -— Solvent power of Carbonic Acid — The results of the Deepening of -Valleys — Actual Phenomena compared with the Hypothetical — The -Denudation of the Fen Country — The Valley of the Waveney — The Valley -of the Thames — Deposits in the South of England — Deposits near -Salisbury — The Origin of the Solent — Deposits at Bournemouth — Breach -through the Chalk-range South of Bournemouth — The Question of Climate -— Evidence as to Climate — Association of Implements with a Quaternary -Fauna — Scarcity of Human Bones in the River-drift — Attempts to -formulate Chronological Data — Data from Erosion — Conclusion . . . 662 - - - - -WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. - - * The cuts marked with an asterisk have been borrowed from various - sources, which are duly acknowledged in the body of the book. - - -CHAPTER I. - -INTRODUCTORY. - -1. Egypt . . . 8 - -CHAPTER II. - -ON THE MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. - -2. Flint Core with Flakes replaced upon it . . . 20 - -2A. Gun Flint, Avlona, Albania . . . 21 - -3. Nucleus—Pressigny . . . 29 - -4. — — . . . 30 - -5. — — . . . 30 - -6. Flake — . . . 31 - -7. — — . . . 31 - -8. Eskimo Arrow-flaker . . . 38 - -9.* — — — . . . 38 - -10. — — — . . . 38 - -CHAPTER III. - -CELTS. - -11.* Celt with Gnostic Inscription . . . 61 - -CHAPTER IV. - -CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS. - -12. Near Mildenhall . . . 68 - -13. — — . . . 68 - -14. Near Thetford . . . 69 - -15. Oving, near Chichester . . . 70 - -16. Near Newhaven . . . 71 - -17. Near Dunstable . . . 72 - -18. Burwell Fen . . . 72 - -19. Mildenhall . . . 73 - -20. Bottisham Fen . . . 73 - -21. Near Bournemouth . . . 74 - -22. Thetford . . . 74 - -23. Reach Fen, Cambridge . . . 75 - -24. Scamridge, Yorkshire . . . 76 - -25.* Forest of Bere, near Horndean . . . 76 - -25A.* Isle of Wight . . . 77 - -26. Cissbury . . . 81 - -27. — . . . 81 - -28. — . . . 82 - -29. — . . . 82 - -CHAPTER V. - -CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY. - -30. Downs near Eastbourne . . . 88 - -31. Culford, Suffolk . . . 88 - -32. Near Mildenhall, Suffolk . . . 88 - -33. Sawdon, North Yorkshire . . . 89 - -34. Weston, Norfolk . . . 90 - -35. Mildenhall . . . 91 - -35A. Reach Fen . . . 92 - -36. Burwell Fen . . . 93 - -37. Thetford . . . 93 - -38. Undley Common, Lakenheath . . . 94 - -38A. East Dean . . . 95 - -39. Ganton . . . 95 - -40. Swaffham Fen . . . 95 - -41. Grindale, Bridlington . . . 96 - -42. North Burton . . . 96 - -CHAPTER VI. - -POLISHED CELTS. - -43. Santon Downham, Suffolk . . . 99 - -44. Coton, Cambridge . . . 101 - -45. Reach Fen, Cambridge . . . 102 - -46. Great Bedwin, Wilts . . . 102 - -47. Burradon, Northumberland . . . 103 - -48. Coton, Cambridge . . . 104 - -49. Ponteland, Northumberland . . . 105 - -50. Fridaythorpe, Yorkshire . . . 105 - -51. Oulston . . . 106 - -52. Burwell Fen . . . 107 - -52A.* Berwickshire . . . 108 - -53. Botesdale, Suffolk . . . 111 - -54. Lackford, Suffolk . . . 112 - -55. Dalmeny, Linlithgow . . . 113 - -56. Sprouston, near Kelso . . . 114 - -57. Nunnington, Yorkshire . . . 115 - -58. Burradon, Northumberland . . . 116 - -59. Livermere, Suffolk . . . 116 - -60. Ilderton, Northumberland . . . 117 - -61. Near Pendle, Lancashire . . . 118 - -62. Ness . . . 119 - -63. Gilling . . . 120 - -64. Swinton, near Malton . . . 121 - -65. Scamridge Dykes, Yorkshire . . . 121 - -66. Whitwell, Yorkshire . . . 122 - -67. Thames, London . . . 123 - -68. Near Bridlington . . . 124 - -69. Lakenheath, Suffolk . . . 125 - -70. Seamer, Yorkshire . . . 126 - -71. Guernsey . . . 127 - -72. Wareham . . . 127 - -73. Forfarshire . . . 128 - -74. Bridlington . . . 129 - -75. Caithness . . . 129 - -76. Gilmerton, East Lothian . . . 131 - -77. Stirlingshire . . . 132 - -78. Harome . . . 133 - -79. Daviot, near Inverness . . . 134 - -80. Near Cottenham . . . 135 - -81. Near Malton . . . 135 - -82. Mennithorpe, Yorkshire . . . 136 - -83. Middleton Moor . . . 137 - -83A. Keystone . . . 137 - -84. Near Truro . . . 138 - -84A.* Slains . . . 138 - -85. Near Lerwick . . . 139 - -86. Weston, Norfolk . . . 139 - -87. Acklam Wold . . . 140 - -88. Fimber . . . 140 - -89. Duggleby . . . 141 - -90. Guernsey . . . 141 - -90A. Wereham . . . 142 - -91.* Solway Moss . . . 151 - -92. Cumberland . . . 153 - -93.* Monaghan . . . 154 - -94. Axe from the Rio Frio . . . 155 - -95.* War-axe—Gaveoë Indians, Brazil . . . 156 - -96. Axe of Montezuma II . . . 157 - -97. Axe—Nootka Sound . . . 158 - -98. Axe in Stag’s-horn Socket—Concise . . . 159 - -99. Axe—Robenhausen . . . 159 - -99A. Penhouet . . . 161 - -99B.* New Guinea . . . 161 - -99C.* — — Adze . . . 162 - -100. Axe—Robenhausen . . . 163 - -101. Schraplau . . . 163 - -102.* Adze—New Caledonia . . . 164 - -103.* Adze—Clalam Indians . . . 165 - -104.* South-Sea Island Axes . . . 166 - -105.* Axe—Northern Australia . . . 168 - -106.* Hatchet—Western Australia . . . 170 - -CHAPTER VII. - -PICKS, CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC. - -107. Great Easton . . . 173 - -108. Bury St. Edmunds . . . 174 - -109. Burwell . . . 175 - -110. Near Bridlington . . . 175 - -111. Dalton, Yorkshire . . . 176 - -112. Helperthorpe . . . 177 - -113. New Zealand Chisel . . . 178 - -114. Burwell . . . 179 - -114A. Westleton Walks . . . 179 - -115. Eastbourne . . . 180 - -116. Willerby Wold . . . 181 - -117. Bridlington . . . 181 - -CHAPTER VIII. - -PERFORATED AXES. - -118. Hunmanby . . . 185 - -119.* Hove . . . 186 - -120. Llanmadock . . . 188 - -121. Guernsey . . . 189 - -122. Fireburn Mill, Coldstream . . . 190 - -123. Burwell Fen . . . 191 - -124. Stourton . . . 192 - -125. Bardwell . . . 193 - -126. Potter Brompton Wold . . . 194 - -127. Rudstone . . . 195 - -128. Borrowash . . . 196 - -129.* Crichie, Aberdeenshire . . . 197 - -130. Walsgrave-upon-Sowe . . . 199 - -131. Wigton . . . 201 - -132. Wollaton Park . . . 203 - -133. Buckthorpe . . . 204 - -134. Aldro’ . . . 205 - -135. Cowlam . . . 206 - -136. Seghill . . . 207 - -136A.* Wick, Caithness . . . 208 - -137. Kirklington . . . 209 - -138.* Winterbourn Steepleton . . . 210 - -139. Skelton Moors . . . 211 - -140. Selwood Barrow . . . 211 - -140A.* Longniddry . . . 212 - -141. Upton Lovel . . . 213 - -142. Thames, London . . . 213 - -143. Pelynt, Cornwall . . . 214 - -CHAPTER IX. - -PERFORATED AND GROOVED HAMMERS. - -144. Balmaclellan . . . 219 - -145. Thames, London . . . 219 - -145A.* Kirkinner . . . 220 - -146. Scarborough . . . 221 - -147. Shetland . . . 221 - -148.* Caithness . . . 222 - -149. Leeds . . . 222 - -150. Rockland . . . 223 - -151. Heslerton Wold . . . 224 - -152. Birdoswald . . . 225 - -153. Maesmore, Corwen . . . 226 - -154. Normanton, Wilts . . . 227 - -155. Redgrave Park . . . 228 - -156. Redmore Fen . . . 228 - -157.* Stifford . . . 229 - -158. Sutton . . . 231 - -159.* Ambleside . . . 236 - -CHAPTER X. - -HAMMER-STONES, ETC. - -160. Helmsley . . . 239 - -161. Winterbourn Bassett . . . 240 - -161A.* Goldenoch . . . 241 - -162. St. Botolph’s Priory . . . 242 - -163. Bridlington . . . 242 - -164. — . . . 243 - -165. — . . . 243 - -166. Scamridge . . . 246 - -167 & 168. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 248 - -168A.* Culbin Sands . . . 249 - -169. Bridlington . . . 249 - -170.* Holyhead . . . 251 - -171.* Ty Mawr . . . 253 - -172.* Holyhead . . . 254 - -173.* Pulborough . . . 254 - -174.* Shetland . . . 256 - -175.* — . . . 256 - -176.* — . . . 256 - -177.* — . . . 256 - -178.* — . . . 256 - -179.* — . . . 257 - -180.* Balmaclellan . . . 260 - -CHAPTER XI. - -GRINDING-STONES AND WHETSTONES. - -180A.* Lamberton Moor . . . 264 - -181. Dorchester . . . 265 - -182. Rudstone . . . 265 - -183. Fimber . . . 266 - -184. Cowlam . . . 267 - -185. Amesbury . . . 267 - -186.* Hove . . . 268 - -187.* Ty Mawr . . . 270 - -CHAPTER XII. - -FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. - -188. Artificial Cone of Flint . . . 274 - -189. Weaverthorpe . . . 276 - -190. Newhaven . . . 278 - -191. Redhill, Reigate . . . 278 - -192. Icklingham . . . 278 - -193. Seaford . . . 278 - -194.* Tribulum from Aleppo . . . 285 - -195.* Admiralty Islands . . . 288 - -196. Charleston . . . 291 - -197. Nussdorf . . . 292 - -198. Australia . . . 293 - -199. Willerby Wold . . . 295 - -200. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 295 - -201. Scamridge . . . 296 - -202. West Cranmore . . . 296 - -CHAPTER XIII. - -SCRAPERS. - -203.* Eskimo Scraper . . . 298 - -204. Weaverthorpe . . . 300 - -205. Sussex Downs . . . 301 - -206. Yorkshire . . . 302 - -207. Helperthorpe . . . 302 - -208. Weaverthorpe . . . 302 - -209. Sussex Downs . . . 303 - -210. Yorkshire . . . 303 - -211. — Wolds . . . 303 - -212. — — . . . 304 - -213. Sussex Downs . . . 304 - -214. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 304 - -215. Sussex Downs . . . 305 - -216. — — . . . 306 - -217. — — . . . 306 - -218. Bridlington . . . 307 - -219. — . . . 307 - -220. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 307 - -221. — — . . . 308 - -222. French “Strike-a-light” . . . 314 - -223. Rudstone . . . 316 - -224. Method of using Pyrites and “Scraper” for striking a -light . . . 317 - -225. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 319 - -226. — — . . . 319 - -226A. North of Ireland . . . 320 - -CHAPTER IV. - -BORERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS. - -227. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 322 - -228. Bridlington . . . 322 - -229. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 323 - -230. Bridlington . . . 323 - -231. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 324 - -232. — — . . . 324 - -232A. Hastings . . . 325 - -232B. — . . . 325 - -232C. — . . . 325 - -232D.* Vindhya Hills . . . 325 - -232E.* — — . . . 325 - -232F.* — — . . . 326 - -CHAPTER XV. - -TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC. - -233. Cambridge (?) . . . 326 - -234. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 328 - -235. Yorkshire . . . 328 - -236. Bridlington . . . 329 - -237. Yorkshire . . . 329 - -238. Bridlington . . . 329 - -239. Castle Carrock . . . 329 - -240. Ford, Northumberland . . . 330 - -240A.* Etton . . . 330 - -241. Weaverthorpe . . . 331 - -242. Wykeham Moor . . . 331 - -243. Potter Brompton Wold . . . 332 - -244. Snainton Moor . . . 333 - -245. Ford . . . 333 - -246. Bridlington . . . 334 - -247. Cambridge Fens . . . 334 - -248. Scamridge . . . 335 - -249. Burwell Fen . . . 336 - -250. Saffron Walden . . . 336 - -251. Fimber . . . 337 - -252. Argyllshire . . . 338 - -253. Glen Urquhart . . . 338 - -254. Bridlington . . . 339 - -255. Overton . . . 339 - -256. Kempston . . . 340 - -256A. Eastbourne . . . 341 - -257. Kintore . . . 342 - -258. Newhaven, Derbyshire . . . 342 - -259. Harome, Yorkshire . . . 343 - -260. — — . . . 344 - -261. Crambe . . . 345 - -262. Walls, Shetland . . . 346 - -263. — — . . . 347 - -264. Lambourn Down . . . 349 - -265. Thames . . . 350 - -266. Burnt Fen . . . 350 - -267. Arbor Low . . . 352 - -267A. Sewerby . . . 355 - -268. Fimber . . . 356 - -269. Yarmouth . . . 356 - -270. Eastbourne . . . 357 - -CHAPTER XVI. - -JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS. - -271.* Elf Shot . . . 365 - -272. Egypt . . . 369 - -273. Winterbourn Stoke . . . 371 - -274. — — . . . 371 - -275. — — . . . 371 - -276.* Calais Wold Barrow . . . 372 - -277.* — — — . . . 372 - -278.* — — — . . . 372 - -279.* — — — . . . 372 - -280. Icklingham . . . 373 - -281.* Gunthorpe . . . 373 - -282. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 373 - -283. — — . . . 374 - -284. Little Solsbury Hill . . . 374 - -285. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 374 - -286. Bridlington . . . 374 - -287 & 288. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 375 - -289. Lakenheath . . . 375 - -290 & 291. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 376 - -292 & 293. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 376 - -294. — — . . . 376 - -295.* Fyfield . . . 377 - -296. Bridlington . . . 378 - -297. Newton Ketton . . . 378 - -298 & 299. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 378 - -300. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 379 - -301. Amotherby . . . 379 - -302. Iwerne Minster . . . 379 - -303. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 380 - -304. — — . . . 380 - -305. Pick Rudge Farm . . . 380 - -305A. Ashwell . . . 381 - -306. Sherburn Wold . . . 381 - -307. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 381 - -308. — — . . . 381 - -309. — — . . . 381 - -310. — — . . . 381 - -311. — — . . . 381 - -312. — — . . . 381 - -313 & 314. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 382 - -314A. Icklingham . . . 382 - -315. Eddlesborough . . . 383 - -316. Reach Fen . . . 383 - -317. Isleham . . . 383 - -318. Rudstone . . . 384 - -318A. Dorchester Dykes . . . 384 - -319. Lambourn Down . . . 384 - -320. Fovant . . . 384 - -321. Yorkshire Moors . . . 385 - -322 & 323. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 385 - -323A.* Brompton . . . 386 - -324.* Isle of Skye . . . 387 - -325. Urquhart . . . 387 - -326. Aberdeenshire . . . 387 - -327. Glenlivet . . . 387 - -327A.* Philiphaugh . . . 388 - -328. Icklingham . . . 390 - -329. Langdale End . . . 390 - -330. Amotherby . . . 390 - -331. Weaverthorpe . . . 391 - -332. Lakenheath . . . 391 - -333. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 391 - -334. — — . . . 391 - -335. — — . . . 392 - -336. Bridlington . . . 392 - -337. — . . . 392 - -338. Fimber . . . 393 - -339. Hungry Bentley . . . 394 - -340.* Caithness . . . 394 - -341. Lakenheath . . . 395 - -342. Urquhart . . . 395 - -342A.* Fyvie, Aberdeenshire . . . 408 - -343. Switzerland . . . 408 - -344. Fünen, Denmark . . . 409 - -345.* Modern Stone Arrow-head . . . 409 - -CHAPTER XVII. - -FABRICATORS, FLAKING TOOLS, ETC. - -346. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 412 - -346A.* Corennie . . . 413 - -347. Bridlington . . . 413 - -348. Sawdon . . . 415 - -349. Acklam Wold . . . 415 - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -SLING-STONES AND BALLS. - -350. Yorkshire Wolds . . . 419 - -351.* Dumfriesshire . . . 420 - -352.* Towie . . . 421 - -CHAPTER XIX. - -BRACERS, AND ARTICLES OF BONE. - -353. Isle of Skye . . . 425 - -354. Evantown . . . 426 - -355. Devizes . . . 426 - -356.* Isle of Skye . . . 428 - -CHAPTER XX. - -SPINDLE-WHORLS, DISCS, SLICKSTONES, WEIGHTS, AND CUPS. - -357. Scampston . . . 438 - -358.* Holyhead . . . 438 - -359.* — . . . 438 - -360.* — . . . 438 - -361.* — . . . 442 - -362.* Scotland . . . 444 - -363.* Sutherlandshire . . . 444 - -364.* Faroe Islands . . . 445 - -365.* Broad Down or Honiton . . . 446 - -366.* Rillaton . . . 448 - -367.* Hove . . . 449 - -368.* Ty Mawr . . . 450 - -CHAPTER XXI. - -PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. - -369. Butterwick . . . 453 - -370. — . . . 453 - -371. Rudstone . . . 454 - -372. — . . . 454 - -373. Crawfurd Moor . . . 454 - -374.* Calais Wold Barrow . . . 455 - -375.* Assynt, Ross-shire . . . 457 - -376.* Pen-y-Bonc . . . 458 - -377.* Probable Arrangement of the Jet Necklace found at Pen-y-Bonc, -Holyhead . . . 459 - -378.* Fimber . . . 461 - -379.* Yorkshire . . . 462 - -380.* — . . . 462 - -381. Hungry Bentley . . . 464 - -381A.* Heathery Burn Cave . . . 464 - -382.* Jet—Guernsey . . . 464 - -383.* Bronze—Guernsey . . . 464 - -384. Kent’s Cavern . . . 465 - -385.* Ty Mawr . . . 466 - -CHAPTER XXII. - -CAVE IMPLEMENTS. - -386. Kent’s Cavern . . . 493 - -387. — — . . . 493 - -388. — — . . . 494 - -388A.* — — . . . 495 - -389. — — . . . 496 - -390. — — . . . 496 - -391. — — . . . 498 - -392. — — . . . 499 - -393. — — . . . 499 - -394. — — . . . 500 - -395. — — . . . 500 - -396. — — . . . 501 - -397. — — . . . 501 - -398. — — . . . 502 - -399. — — . . . 502 - -400. — — . . . 502 - -401. — — . . . 503 - -402. — — . . . 503 - -403. — — . . . 505 - -404. — — . . . 505 - -405. — — . . . 505 - -406. — — . . . 506 - -407. — — . . . 506 - -408. — — . . . 506 - -409. Brixham Cave . . . 514 - -410. — — . . . 515 - -411. — — . . . 515 - -412. — — . . . 516 - -413.* Wookey Hyæna Den . . . 518 - -413A.* Robin Hood Cave . . . 522 - -413B.* — — — . . . 523 - -413C.* — — — . . . 523 - -413D.* — — — . . . 523 - -413E.* — — — . . . 523 - -413F.* — — — . . . 524 - -413G.* Church Hole Cave . . . 524 - -413H.* — — — . . . 524 - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -IMPLEMENTS OF THE RIVER-DRIFT PERIOD. - -414. Biddenham, Bedford . . . 532 - -415. — — . . . 533 - -416. — — . . . 534 - -417. — — . . . 534 - -418. — — . . . 535 - -418A. Hitchin . . . 537 - -419. Maynewater Lane, Bury St. Edmunds . . . 540 - -419A. Grindle Pit, Bury St. Edmunds . . . 541 - -419B. Bury St. Edmunds . . . 542 - -419C. Nowton, near Bury St. Edmunds . . . 543 - -419D. Westley, near Bury St. Edmunds . . . 544 - -420. Rampart Hill, Icklingham . . . 545 - -421. Icklingham . . . 546 - -422. — . . . 546 - -423. — . . . 547 - -424. — . . . 548 - -425. High Lodge . . . 548 - -426. — — . . . 549 - -426A. — — . . . 549 - -427. Redhill, Thetford . . . 552 - -428. — — . . . 553 - -429. — — . . . 554 - -430. — — . . . 555 - -431. — — . . . 555 - -432. Whitehill, Thetford . . . 556 - -433. Santon Downham . . . 557 - -434. — — . . . 558 - -435. — — . . . 559 - -436. — — . . . 560 - -437. — — . . . 561 - -438. Bromehill, Brandon . . . 562 - -439. Gravel Hill, Brandon . . . 563 - -440. — — — . . . 564 - -441. — — — . . . 564 - -442. — — — . . . 565 - -443. — — — . . . 566 - -444. Valley of the Lark, or of the Little Ouse . . . 567 - -445. Shrub Hill, Feltwell . . . 570 - -446. — — — . . . 570 - -447. — — — . . . 571 - -448. — — — . . . 571 - -449. Hoxne . . . 575 - -450. — . . . 576 - -450A. Saltley . . . 579 - -451. Gray’s Inn Lane . . . 582 - -452. Hackney Down . . . 583 - -453. Highbury New Park . . . 585 - -453A.* Lower Clapton . . . 587 - -453B.* Stamford Hill . . . 588 - -453C.* Stoke Newington Common . . . 588 - -453D.* — — — . . . 589 - -454. Ealing Dean . . . 590 - -455. Peasemarsh, Godalming . . . 595 - -455A.* Caddington . . . 599 - -455B.* — . . . 599 - -455C.* — . . . 600 - -455D.* — . . . 600 - -455E.* — . . . 601 - -455F.* — . . . 601 - -455G.* — . . . 601 - -455H.* Wheathampstead . . . 601 - -456. Dartford Heath . . . 606 - -456A. Bewley, Ightham . . . 609 - -457. Reculver . . . 612 - -458. Near Reculver . . . 614 - -459. — — . . . 615 - -460. Reculver . . . 616 - -461. — . . . 616 - -462. Studhill . . . 618 - -463. Thanington . . . 619 - -464. Canterbury . . . 620 - -464A.* — . . . 621 - -464B. Folkestone . . . 622 - -465. Southampton . . . 623 - -466. Hill Head . . . 625 - -467. The Foreland, Isle of Wight . . . 627 - -468. Lake . . . 628 - -469. Bemerton . . . 629 - -470. Highfield . . . 629 - -471. Fisherton . . . 630 - -472. Milford Hill, Salisbury . . . 633 - -473. Fordingbridge . . . 634 - -474. Boscombe, Bournemouth . . . 635 - -475. — — . . . 636 - -476. Bournemouth . . . 637 - -477. Broom Pit, Axminster . . . 638 - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -INTRODUCTORY. - - -In the following pages I purpose to give an account of the various -forms of stone implements, weapons, and ornaments of remote antiquity -discovered in Great Britain, their probable uses and method of -manufacture, and also, in some instances, the circumstances of -their discovery. While reducing the whole series into some sort -of classification, as has been done for the stone antiquities of -Scandinavia by Worsaae, Montelius, and Sophus Müller, for those of -France by Messrs. Gabriel and Adrien de Mortillet, and for those of -Ireland by Sir William Wilde, I hope to add something to our knowledge -of this branch of Archæology by instituting comparisons, where -possible, between the antiquities of England and Scotland and those of -other parts of the world. Nor in considering the purposes to which the -various forms were applied, and the method of their manufacture, must I -neglect to avail myself of the illustrations afforded by the practice -of modern savages, of which Sir John Lubbock and others have already -made such profitable use. - -But before commencing any examination of special forms, there are -some few general considerations on which it seems advisable to enter, -if only in a cursory manner; and this is the more necessary, since -notwithstanding the attention which has now for many years been -devoted to Prehistoric Antiquities, there is seemingly still some -misapprehension remaining as to the nature and value of the conclusions -based upon recent archæological and geological investigations. - -At the risk therefore of being tedious, I shall have to notice once -more many things already well known to archæologists, but which, it -would appear from the misconceptions so often evinced, even by those -who speak and write on such matters, can hardly be too often repeated. - -Not the least misunderstood of these subjects has been the |2| -classification of the antiquities of Western Europe, first practically -adopted by the Danish antiquaries, under periods known as the Iron, -Bronze, and Stone Ages; the Iron Age, so far as Denmark is concerned, -being supposed to go back to about the Christian era, the Bronze Age to -embrace a period of one or two thousand years previous to that date, -and the Stone Age all previous time of man’s occupation of that part -of the world. These different periods have been, and in some cases may -be safely, subdivided; but into this question I need not now enter, as -it does not affect the general sequence. The idea of the succession is -this:— - -1. That there was a period in each given part of Western Europe, say, -for example, Denmark, when the use of metals for cutting-instruments -of any kind was unknown, and man had to depend for his implements and -weapons on stone, bone, wood, and other readily accessible natural -products. - -2. That this period was succeeded by one in which the use of copper, -or of copper alloyed with tin—bronze—became known, and gradually -superseded the use of stone for certain purposes, though it continued -to be employed for others; and - -3. That a time arrived when bronze, in its turn, gave way to iron or -steel, as being a superior metal for all cutting purposes; which, as -such, has remained in use up to the present day. - -Such a classification into different ages in no way implies any exact -chronology, far less one that would be applicable to all the countries -of Europe alike, but is rather to be regarded as significant only of a -succession of different stages of civilization; for it is evident that -at the time when, for instance, in a country such as Italy, the Iron -Age may have commenced, some of the more northern countries of Europe -may possibly have been in their Bronze Age, and others again still in -their Stone Age. - -Neither does this classification imply that in the Bronze Age of -any country stone implements had entirely ceased to be in use, nor -even that in the Iron Age both bronze and stone had been completely -superseded for all cutting purposes. Like the three principal -colours of the rainbow, these three stages of civilization overlap, -intermingle, and shade off the one into the other; and yet their -succession, so far as Western Europe is concerned, appears to be -equally well defined with that of the prismatic colours, though the -proportions of the spectrum may vary in different countries.[1] |3| - -The late Mr. James Fergusson, in his Rude Stone Monuments,[2] has -analyzed the discoveries made by Bateman in his exploration of -Derbyshire barrows, and on the analysis has founded an argument against -the division of time into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. He has, -however, omitted to take into account the fact that in many of the -barrows there were secondary interments of a date long subsequent to -the primary. - -I have spoken of this division into Periods as having been first -practically adopted by the Danish school of antiquaries, but in fact -this classification is by no means so recent as has been commonly -supposed. Take, for instance, the communication of Mahudel to the -_Académie des Inscriptions_ of Paris[3] in 1734, in which he points -out that man existed a long time in different countries using -implements of stone and without any knowledge of metals; or again, the -following passage from Bishop Lyttelton’s[4] “Observations on Stone -Hatchets,” written in 1766:—“There is not the least doubt of these -stone instruments having been fabricated in the earliest times, and by -barbarous people, before the use of iron or other metals was known, and -from the same cause spears and arrows were headed with flint and other -hard stones.” A century earlier, Sir William Dugdale, in his “History -of Warwickshire,”[5] also speaks of stone celts as “weapons used by -the Britons before the art of making arms of brass or iron was known.” -We find, in fact, that the same views were entertained, not only by -various writers[6] within the last two centuries, but also by many of -the early poets and historians. There are even biblical grounds for -argument in favour of such a view of a gradual development of material -civilization. For all, including those who invest Adam with high -moral attributes, must confess that whatever may have been his mental -condition, his personal equipment in the way of tools or weapons could -have been but inefficient if no artificer was instructed in brass and -iron until the days of Tubal Cain, the sixth in descent from Adam’s -outcast son, and that too at a time when a generation was reckoned at a -hundred years, instead of at thirty, as now. |4| - -Turning, however, to Greek and Roman authors, we find Hesiod,[7] about -B.C. 850, mentioning a time when bronze had not been superseded by -iron:— - - Τοῖς δ᾿ ἧν χάλκεα μὲν τεύχεα, χάλκεοι δέ τε οἷκοι - Χαλκῶ δ᾿ εἰργάζοντο, μέλας δ᾿ οὐκ ἓσχε σίδηρος. - -Lucretius[8] is even more distinct in his views as to the successive -Periods:— - - “Arma antiqua manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt - Et lapides, et item sylvarum fragmina rami— - Posterius ferri vis est ærisque reperta; - Sed prior æris erat quam ferri cognitus usus— - Ære solum terræ tractabant, æreque belli - Miscebant fluctus et vulnera vasta ferebant.” - -So early as the days of Augustus it would appear that bronze arms were -regarded as antiquities, and that emperor seems to have commenced the -first archæological and geological collection on record, having adorned -one of his country residences “rebus vetustate ac raritate notabilibus, -qualia sunt Capreis immanium belluarum ferarumque membra prægrandia quæ -dicuntur gigantum ossa et arma heroum.”[9] - -We learn from Pausanias[10] what these arms of the heroes were, for -he explains how in the heroic times all weapons were of bronze, and -quotes Homer’s description of the axe of Pisander and the arrow of -Meriones. He also cites the spear of Achilles in the temple of Pallas, -at Phaselis, the point and ferrule of which only were of bronze; and -the sword of Memnon in the temple of Æsculapius, at Nicomedia, which -was wholly of bronze. In the same manner Plutarch[11] relates that when -Cimon disinterred the remains of Theseus in Scyros he found with them a -bronze spear-head and sword. - -There is, indeed, in Homer constant mention of arms, axes, and adzes -of bronze, and though iron is also named, it is of far less frequent -occurrence. According to the Arundelian marbles,[12] it was discovered -only 188 years before the Trojan war, though of course such a date must -be purely conjectural. Even Virgil preserves the unities, and often -gives bronze arms to the heroes of the Æneid, as well as to some of the -people of Italy— - - “Æratæque micant peltæ, micat æreus ensis.”[13] |5| - -The fact that in the Greek[14] language the words χαλκεύς and -χαλκεύειν remained in use as significant of working in iron affords -a very strong, if not an irrefragable argument as to bronze having -been the earlier metal known to that people. In the same way the -continuance in use of bronze cutting implements in certain religious -rites—as was also the case with some stone implements which I shall -subsequently mention—affords evidence of their comparative antiquity. -The Tuscans[15] at the foundation of a city ploughed the pomærium with -a bronze plough-share, the priests of the Sabines cut their hair with -bronze knives, and the Chief Priest of Jupiter at Rome used shears -of the same metal for that purpose. In the same manner Medea has -attributed to her both by Sophocles and Ovid[16] a bronze sickle when -gathering her magic herbs, and Elissa is represented by Virgil as using -a similar instrument for the same purpose. Altogether, if history is -to count for anything, there can be no doubt that in Greece and Italy, -the earliest civilized countries of Europe, the use of bronze preceded -that of iron, and therefore that there was in each case a Bronze Age of -greater or less duration preceding the Iron Age. - -It seems probable that the first iron used was meteoric, and such may -have been that “self-fused” mass which formed one of the prizes at the -funeral games of Patroclus,[17] and was so large that it would suffice -its possessor for all purposes during five years. Even the Greek word -for iron (σίδηρος) may not improbably be connected with the meteoric -origin of the first known form of the metal. Its affinity with ἀστήρ, -often used for a shooting star or meteor, with the Latin “_sidera_” and -our own “star” is evident. - -Professor Lauth,[18] moreover, interprets the Coptic word for iron, -ⲂⲈⲚⲒⲠⲈ, as “the stone of heaven” (Stein des Himmels) which implies that -in Egypt also its meteoric origin was acknowledged. - -Among the Eskimos[19] of modern times meteoric iron has been employed -for making knives. Where an excess of nickel is present, the meteoric -iron cannot well be forged,[20] but Dana seems to be right in saying, -as a general rule it is perfectly malleable. - -Some, however, are of opinion that during the time that bronze was -employed for cutting instruments, iron was also in use for |6| other -purposes.[21] At the first introduction of iron the two metals were, -no doubt, in use together, but we can hardly suppose them to have been -introduced simultaneously; and if they had been, the questions arise, -whence did they come? and how are we to account for the one not having -sooner superseded the other for cutting purposes? - -Another argument that has been employed in favour of iron having been -the first metal used, is that bronze is a mixed metal requiring a -knowledge of the art of smelting both copper and tin, the latter being -only produced in few districts, and generally having to be brought from -far, while certain of the ores of iron are of easy access and readily -reducible,[22] and meteoric iron is also found in the metallic state -and often adapted for immediate use. The answer to this is, first, that -all historical evidence is against the use of iron previously to copper -or bronze; and, secondly, that even in Eastern Africa, where, above all -other places, the conditions for the development of the manufacture of -iron seem most favourable, we have no evidence of the knowledge of that -metal having preceded that of bronze; but, on the contrary, we find in -Egypt, a country often brought in contact with these iron-producing -districts, little if any trace of iron before the twelfth dynasty,[23] -and of its use even then the evidence is only pictorial, whereas the -copper mines at Maghara are said to date back to the second dynasty, -some eight hundred years earlier. Agatharchides,[24] moreover, relates -that in his time, _circa_ B.C. 100, there were found buried in the -ancient gold mines of Egypt the bronze chisels (λατομίδες χαλκᾶι) of -the old miners, and he accounts for their being of that metal by the -fact that at the period when the mines were originally worked the use -of iron was entirely unknown. Much of the early working in granite may -have been effected by flint tools. Admiral Tremlett has found that -flakes of jasper readily cut the granite of Brittany.[25] - -To return, however, to Greece and Italy, there can, as I have already -said, be little question that even on historical grounds we must accept -the fact that in those countries, at all events, the use of bronze -preceded that of iron. We may therefore infer theoretically that the -same sequence held good with the |7| neighbouring and more barbarous -nations of Western Europe. Even in the time of Pausanias[26] (after -A.D. 174) the Sarmatians are mentioned as being unacquainted with the -use of iron; and practically we have good corroborative archæological -evidence of such a sequence in the extensive discoveries that have been -made of antiquities belonging to the transitional period, when the use -of iron or steel was gradually superseding that of bronze for tools or -weapons, and when the forms given to the new metal were copied from -those of the old. The most notable relics of this transitional period -are those of the ancient cemetery at Hallstatt, in the Salzkammergut, -Austria, where upwards of a thousand graves were opened by Ramsauer, -of the contents of which a detailed account has been given by the -Baron von Sacken.[27] The evidence afforded by the discoveries in the -Swiss lakes is almost equally satisfactory; but I need not now enter -further into the question of the existence and succession of the Bronze -and Iron Ages, on which I have dwelt more fully in my book on Ancient -Bronze Implements.[28] - -I am at present concerned with the Stone Age, and if, as all agree, -there was a time when the use of iron or of bronze, or of both -together, first became known to the barbarous nations of the West of -Europe, then it is evident that before that time they were unacquainted -with the use of those metals, and were therefore in that stage of -civilization which has been characterized as the Stone Age. - -It is not, of course, to be expected that we should discover direct -contemporary historical testimony amongst any people of their being -in this condition, for in no case do we find a knowledge of writing -developed in this stage of culture; and yet, apart from the material -relics of this phase of progress which are found from time to time in -the soil, there is to be obtained in most civilized countries indirect -circumstantial evidence of the former use of stone implements, even -where those of metal had been employed for centuries before authentic -history commences. It is in religious customs and ceremonies—in rites -which have been handed down from generation to generation, and in which -the minute and careful repetition of ancient observances is indeed -often the essential religious element—that such evidence is to be -sought. As has already been observed by others, the transition from -ancient to venerable, from venerable to holy, is as natural as it is -universal; |8| and in the same manner as some of the festivals and -customs of Christian countries are directly traceable to heathen times, -so no doubt many of the religious observances of ancient times were -relics of what was even then a dim past. - -Whatever we may think of the etymology of the word as given by -Cicero,[29] Lactantius,[30] or Lucretius,[31] there is much to be -said in favour of Dr. E. B. Tylor’s[32] view of superstition being -“the standing over of old habits into the midst of a new and changed -state of things—of the retention of ancient practices for ceremonial -purposes, long after they had been superseded for the commonplace uses -of ordinary life.” - -Such a standing over of old customs we seem to discover among most of -the civilized peoples of antiquity. Turning to Egypt and Western Asia, -the early home of European civilization, we find from Herodotus[33] and -from Diodorus Siculus,[34] that in the rite of embalming, though the -brain was removed by a crooked iron, yet the body was cut open by a -sharp Ethiopian stone. - -In several European museums are preserved thin, flat, leaf-shaped -knives of cherty flint found in Egypt, some of which will be mentioned -in subsequent pages. In character of workmanship their correspondence -with the flint knives or daggers of Scandinavia is most striking. Many, -however, are provided with a tang at one end at the back of the blade, -and in this respect resemble metallic blades intended to be mounted by -means of a tang driven into the haft. - -In the British Museum is an Egyptian dagger-like instrument of flint, -from the Hay collection, still mounted in its original wooden handle, -apparently by a central tang, and with remains of its skin sheath. It -is shown on the scale of one-fourth in Fig. 1. There is also a polished -stone knife broken at the handle, which bears upon it in hieroglyphical -characters the name of PTAHMES, an officer. - -[Illustration: EGYPT.—Fig. 1.] - -Curiously enough the bodies of the chiefs or Menceys of the Guanches in -Teneriffe[35] were also cut open by particular persons set apart for -the office with knives made of sharp pieces of obsidian. |9| - -The rite of circumcision was among those practised by the Egyptians, -but whether it was performed with a stone knife, as was the case with -the Jews when they came out of Egypt, is not certain. Among the latter -people, not to lay stress on the case of Zipporah,[36] it is recorded -of Joshua,[37] that in circumcising the children of Israel he made use -of knives of stone. It is true that, in our version, the words חַרְבוֹת -צוּרִים are translated sharp knives, which by analogy with a passage -in Psalm lxxxix. 44 (43 E.V.), is not otherwise than correct; but the -Syriac, Arabic, Vulgate, and Septuagint translations all give knives -of stone;[38] and the latter version, in the account of the burial of -Joshua, adds that they laid with him the stone knives (τὰς μαχαίρας τὰς -πετρίνας) with which he circumcised the children of Israel—“and there -they are unto this day.” Gesenius (_s. v._ צוּר) observes upon the -passage, “This is a circumstance worthy of remark; and goes to show at -least, that knives of stone were found in the sepulchres of Palestine, -as well as in those of north-western Europe.”[39] In recent times the -Abbé Richard, in examining what is known as the tomb of Joshua at some -distance to the east of Jericho, found a number of sharp flakes of -flint as well as flint instruments of other forms.[40] - -Under certain circumstances modern Jews make use of a fragment of flint -or glass for this rite. The occurrence of flint knives in ancient -Jewish sepulchres may, however, be connected with a far earlier -occupation of Palestine than that of the Jews. It was a constant custom -with them to bury in caves, and recent discoveries have shown that, -like the caves of Western Europe, many of these were at a remote period -occupied by those unacquainted with the use of metals, whose stone -implements are found mixed up with the bones of the animals which had -served them for food.[41] - -Of analogous uses of stone we find some few traces among classical -writers. Ovid, speaking of Atys, makes the instrument with which he -maimed himself to be a sharp stone, - - “Ille etiam saxo corpus laniavit acuto.” - -The solemn treaties among the Romans were ratified by the |10| -Fetialis[42] sacrificing a pig with a flint stone, which, however, -does not appear to have been sharpened. “Ubi dixit, porcum saxo silice -percussit.” The “religiosa silex”[43] of Claudian seems rather to -have been a block of stone like that under the form of which Jupiter, -Cybele, Diana, and even Venus were worshipped. Pausanias informs us -that it was the custom among the Greeks to bestow divine honours on -certain unshaped stones, and ΖΕΥΣ ΚΑΣΙΟΣ is thus represented on coins -of Seleucia in Syria, while the Paphian Venus appears in the form of -a conical stone on coins struck in Cyprus. The Syrian god from whom -Elagabalus, the Roman emperor, took his name seems also to have been an -unhewn stone, possibly a meteorite. - -The traces, however, of the Stone Age in the religious rites of Greece -and Rome are extremely slight, and this is by no means remarkable when -we consider how long the use of bronze, and even of iron, had been -known in those parts of Europe at the time when authentic history -commences. We shall subsequently see at how early a period different -implements of stone had a mysterious if not a superstitious virtue -assigned to them. I need only mention as an instance that, in several -beautiful gold necklaces[44] of Greek or Etruscan workmanship, the -central pendant consists of a delicate flint arrow-head, elegantly set -in gold, and probably worn as a charm. Nor is the religious use of -stone confined to Europe.[45] In Western Africa, when the god Gimawong -makes his annual visit to his temple at Labode, his worshippers kill -the ox which they offer, with a stone. - -To come nearer home, it is not to be expected that in this country, -the earliest written history of which (if we except the slight account -derived from merchants trading hither), comes from the pen of foreign -conquerors, we should have any records of the Stone Age. In Cæsar’s -time, the tribes with which he came in contact were already acquainted -with the use of iron, and were, indeed, for the most part immigrants -from Gaul, a country whose inhabitants had, by war and commerce, been -long brought into close relation with the more civilized inhabitants -of Italy and Greece. I have elsewhere shown[46] that the degree of -civilization which must be conceded to those maritime tribes far -exceeds what is accorded by popular belief. The older occupants -of Britain, who |11| had retreated before the Belgic invaders, -and occupied the western and northern parts of the island, were no -doubt in a more barbarous condition; but in no case in which they -came in contact with their Roman invaders do they seem to have been -unacquainted with the use of iron. Even the Caledonians,[47] in the -time of Severus, who tattooed themselves with the figures of animals, -and went nearly naked, carried a shield, a spear, and a sword, and wore -iron collars and girdles; they however deemed these latter ornamental -and an evidence of wealth, in the same way as other barbarians esteemed -gold. - -But though immediately before and after the Christian era the knowledge -of the use of iron may have been general throughout Britain, and though -probably an acquaintance with bronze, at all events in the southern -part of the island, may probably date many centuries farther back, it -by no means follows, as I cannot too often repeat, that the use of -stone for various purposes to which it had previously been applied -should suddenly have ceased on a superior material, in the shape of -metal, becoming known. On the contrary, we know that the use of certain -stone weapons was contemporary with the use of bronze daggers, and -the probability is that in the poorer and more inaccessible parts of -the country, stone continued in use for many ordinary purposes long -after bronze, and possibly even iron, was known in the richer and more -civilized districts. - -Sir William Wilde informs us that in Ireland[48] “stone hammers, -and not unfrequently stone anvils, have been employed by country -smiths and tinkers in some of the remote country districts until a -comparatively recent period.” The same use of stone hammers and anvils -for forging iron prevails among the Kaffirs[49] of the present day. -In Iceland[50] also, perforated stone hammers are still in use for -pounding dried fish, driving in stakes, for forging and other purposes; -“knockin’-stones”[51] for making pot-barley, have till recently been in -use in Scotland, if not still employed; and I have seen fruit-hawkers -in the streets of London cracking Brazil nuts between two stones. - -With some exceptions it is, therefore, nearly impossible to say whether -an ancient object made of stone can be assigned with |12| absolute -certainty to the Stone Period or no. Much will depend upon the -circumstances of the discovery, and in some instances the form may be a -guide. - -The remarks I have just made apply most particularly to the weapons, -tools, and implements belonging to the period more immediately -antecedent to the Bronze Age, and extending backwards in time through -an unknown number of centuries. For besides the objects belonging -to what was originally known by the Danish antiquaries as the Stone -Period, which are usually found upon or near the surface of the soil, -in encampments, on the site of ancient habitations, and in tumuli, -there are others which occur in caverns beneath thick layers of -stalagmite, and in ancient alluvia, in both cases usually associated -with the remains of animals either locally or entirely extinct. In -no case do we find any trace of metallic tools or weapons in true -association with the stone implements of the old ossiferous caverns, -or with those of the beds of gravel, sand, and clay deposited by the -ancient rivers; and, unlike the implements found upon the surface -and in graves, which in many instances are ground or polished, those -from the caves, and from what are termed by geologists the Quaternary -gravels, are, so far as at present known, invariably chipped only, and -not ground, besides as a rule differing in form. - -This difference[52] in the character of the implements of the two -periods, and the vast interval of time between the two, I pointed out -in 1859, at the time when the discoveries of M. Boucher de Perthes, -in the Valley of the Somme, first attracted the attention of English -geologists and antiquaries. Since then, the necessity of subdividing -what had until then been regarded as the Stone Age into two distinct -stages, an earlier and a later, has been universally recognized; and -Sir John Lubbock[53] has proposed to call them the Palæolithic and -the Neolithic Periods respectively, terms which have met with almost -general acceptance, and of which I shall avail myself in the course of -this work. In speaking of the polished and other implements belonging -to the time when the general surface of the country had already -received its present configuration, I may, however, also occasionally -make use of the synonymous term Surface Period for the Neolithic, and -shall also find it convenient to treat of the Palæolithic Period under -two subdivisions—those of the River-gravels and of the |13| Caves, the -fauna and implements of which are not in all cases identical. - -In passing the different kinds of implements, weapons, and ornaments -formed of stone under review, I propose to commence with an examination -of the antiquities of the Neolithic Period, then to proceed to the -stone implements of human manufacture discovered imbedded with ancient -mammalian remains in Caverns, and to conclude with an account of -the discoveries of flint implements in the Drift or River-gravels -in various parts of England. But before describing their forms and -characters, it will be well to consider the method of manufacture by -which the various forms were produced. - - - - -|14| - -CHAPTER II. - -ON THE MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS IN PREHISTORIC TIMES.[54] - - -In seeking to ascertain the method by which the stone implements and -weapons of antiquity were fabricated, we cannot, in all probability, -follow a better guide than that which is afforded us by the manner in -which instruments of similar character are produced at the present day. -As in accounting for the vast geological changes which we find to have -taken place in the crust of the earth, the safest method of argument -is by referring to ascertained physical laws, and to the existing -operations of nature, so, in order to elucidate the manufacture -of stone implements by the ancient inhabitants of this and other -countries, we may refer to the methods employed by existing savages -in what we must judge to be a somewhat similar state of culture, and -to the recognized characteristics of the materials employed. We may -even go further, and call in aid the experience of some of our own -countrymen, who still work upon similar materials, although for the -purpose of producing different objects from those which were in use in -ancient times. - -So far as relates to the method of production of implements formed of -silicious materials, there can be no doubt that the manufacture of -gun-flints, which, notwithstanding the introduction of percussion-caps, -is still carried on to some extent both in this and in neighbouring -countries, is that best calculated to afford instruction. The principal -place in England where the gun-flint manufacture is now carried on, -is Brandon, on the borders of Norfolk and Suffolk, where I have -witnessed the process. I have also seen the manufacture at Icklingham, -in Suffolk, where thirty years ago, gun-flint factories existed, -which have now I believe |15| been closed. They were also formerly -manufactured in small numbers at Catton, near Norwich. At Brandon, in -1868, I was informed that upwards of twenty workmen were employed, who -were capable of producing among them from 200,000 to 250,000 gun-flints -per week. These were destined almost entirely for exportation, -principally to Africa. On July 18th, 1890, the _Daily News_[55] gave -the number of workmen at Brandon as thirty-five. - -Some other sites of the gun-flint manufacture in former times are -mentioned by Mr. Skertchly, as for instance, Clarendon near Salisbury; -Gray’s Thurrock, Essex; Beer Head, Devon; and Glasgow; besides several -places in Norfolk and Suffolk. - -In France the manufacture of gun-flints is still carried on in the -Department of Loir et Cher,[56] and various other localities are -recorded by Mr. Skertchly.[57] - -In proof of the antiquity of the use of flint as a means of producing -fire, I need hardly quote the ingenious derivation of the word Silex -as given by Vincent of Beauvais:—“Silex est lapis durus, sic dictus eò -quod ex eo ignis exiliat.”[58] But before iron was known as a metal, -it would appear that flint was in use as a fire-producing agent in -combination with blocks of iron pyrites (sulphide of iron) instead of -steel. Nodules of this substance have been found in both French and -Belgian bone-caves belonging to an extremely remote period; while, -as belonging to Neolithic times, to say nothing of discoveries in -this country, which will subsequently be mentioned, part of a nodule -of pyrites may be cited which was found in the Lake settlement of -Robenhausen, and had apparently been thus used.[59] In our own days, -this method of obtaining fire has been observed among savages in -Tierra del Fuego, and among the Eskimos of Smith’s Sound.[60] The |16| -Fuegian tinder, like the modern German and ancient Roman, consists of -dried fungus, which when lighted is wrapped in a ball of dried grass -and whirled round the head till it bursts into flames. Achates, as will -shortly be seen, is described by Virgil as following the same method. - -The name of pyrites (from πῦρ) is itself sufficient evidence of the -purpose to which this mineral was applied in early times, and the -same stone was used as the fire-giving agent in the guns with the -form of lock known as the wheel-lock. Pliny[61] speaks of a certain -sort of pyrites, “plurimum habens ignis, quos vivos appellamus, et -ponderosissimi sunt.” These, as his translator, Holland, says, “bee -most necessary for the espialls belonging unto a campe, for if they -strike them either with an yron spike or another stone they will cast -forth sparks of fire, which lighting upon matches dipt in brimstone -(_sulphuratis_) drie puff’s (_fungis_) or leaves, will cause them to -catch fire sooner than a man can say the word.” - -Pliny also[62] informs us that it was Pyrodes, the son of Cilix, who -first devised the way to strike fire out of flint—a myth which seems to -point to the use of silex and pyrites rather than of steel. The Jews -on their return to Jerusalem, under Judas Maccabæus, “made another -altar and striking stones they took fire out of them and offered a -sacrifice.”[63] How soon pyrites was, to a great extent, superseded -by steel or iron, there seems to be no good evidence to prove; it is -probable, however, that the use of flint and steel was well known to -the Romans of the Augustan age, and that Virgil[64] pictured the Trojan -voyager as using steel, when— - - “silici scintillam excudit Achates, - Suscepitque ignem foliis atque arida circum - Nutrimenta dedit, rapuitque in fomite flammam.” - -And again, where— - - “quærit pars semina flammæ - Abstrusa in venis silicis.”[65] - -In Claudian[66] we find the distinct mention of flint and steel— - - “Flagrat anhela silex et amicam saucia sentit - Materiem, placidosque chalybs agnoscit amores.” - -At Unter Uhldingen[67] a Swiss lake station where Roman pottery was -present, was found what appears to be a steel for striking a |17| -light. However the case may have been as to the means of procuring -fire, it was not until some centuries after the invention of gunpowder -that flints were applied to the purpose of discharging fire-arms. -Beckmann,[68] in his “History of Inventions,” mentions that it was not -until the year 1687 that the soldiers of Brunswick obtained guns with -flint-locks, instead of match-locks, though, no doubt, the use of the -wheel-lock with pyrites had in some other places been superseded before -that time. - -I am not aware of there being any record of flints, such as were in -use for tinder-boxes,[69] having been in ancient times an article -of commerce: this, however, must have been the case, as there are -so many districts in which flint does not naturally occur, and into -which, therefore, it would have by some means to be introduced. -Even at the present day, when so many chemical matches are in use, -flints are still to be purchased at the shops in country places in -the United Kingdom; and artificially prepared flints continue to -be common articles of sale both in France and Germany, and are in -constant use, in conjunction with German tinder, or prepared cotton, by -tobacco-smokers. At Brandon[70] a certain number of “strike-a-light” -flints are still manufactured for exportation, principally to the East -and to Brazil—they are usually circular discs, about two inches in -diameter. These flints are wrought into shape in precisely the same -manner as gun-flints, and it seems possible that the trade of chipping -flint into forms adapted to be used with steel for striking a light may -be of considerable antiquity, and that the manufacture of gun-flints -ought consequently to be regarded as only a modification and extension -of a pre-existing art, closely allied with the facing and squaring of -flints for architectural purposes, which reached great perfection at an -early period. However this may be, it would seem that when gun-flints -were an indispensable munition of war, a great mystery was made as -to the manner in which they were prepared. Beckmann[71] says that, -considering the great use made of them, it will hardly be believed how -much trouble he had to obtain information on the subject. It would be -ludicrous to repeat the various answers he obtained to his inquiries. -Many thought that the stones were cut down by grinding them; some -conceived that |18| they were formed by means of red-hot pincers, -and many asserted that they were made in mills. The best account of -the manufacture with which he was acquainted, was that collected by -his brother, and published in the _Hanoverian Magazine_ for the year -1772. At a later date the well-known mineralogist Dolomieu[72] gave -an account of the process in the _Mémoires de l’Institut National des -Sciences_, and M. Hacquet,[73] of Leopol, in Galicia, published a -pamphlet on the same subject. The accounts given by both these authors -correspond most closely with each other, and also with the practice of -the present day, though the French process differs in some respects -from the English.[74] This has been well described by Dr. Lottin.[75] -The flints best adapted for the purpose of the manufacture are those -from the chalk. They must, however, be of fair size, free from flaws -and included organisms, and very homogeneous in structure. They are -usually procured by sinking small shafts into the ground until a band -of flints of the right quality is reached, along which low horizontal -galleries, or “burrows,” as they are called, are worked. For success in -the manufacture a great deal is said to depend upon the condition of -the flint as regards the moisture it contains, those which have been -too long exposed upon the surface becoming intractable, and there being -also a difficulty in working those that are too moist. A few blows -with the hammer enable a practised flint-knapper to judge whether the -material on which he is at work is in the proper condition or no. Some -of the Brandon workmen, however, maintain that though a flint which has -been some time exposed to the air is harder than one recently dug, yet -that it works equally well, and they say further, that the object in -keeping the flints moist is to preserve the black colour from fading, -black gun-flints being most saleable. - -A detailed account, by Mr. Skertchly, of the manufacture of gun-flints, -with an essay on the connection between Neolithic art and the gun-flint -trade, forms an expensive memoir of the geological survey, published in -1879; but it seems well to retain the following short account of the -process. - -The tools required are few and simple:— - -1. A flat-faced blocking, or quartering hammer, from one to |19| two -pounds in weight, made either of iron or of iron faced with steel. - -2. A well-hardened steel flaking hammer, bluntly pointed at each end, -and weighing about a pound, or more; or in its place a light oval -hammer, known as an “English” hammer, the pointed flaking hammer having -been introduced from France. - -3. A square-edged trimming or knapping hammer, which may either be in -the form of a disc, or oblong and flat at the end, made of steel not -hardened. In England, this hammer is usually made from a portion of an -old flat file perforated to receive the helve, and drawn out at each -end into a thin blade, about 1∕16 of an inch in thickness; the total -length being about 7 or 8 inches. - -4. A chisel-shaped “stake” or small anvil set vertically in a block of -wood, which at the same time forms a bench for the workman. In England, -the upper surface of this stake is about 1∕4 inch thick, and inclined -at a slight angle to the bench. - -The method of manufacture[76] is as follows:—A block of flint is -broken by means of the quartering hammer in such a manner as to detach -masses, the newly-fractured surfaces of which are as nearly as possible -plane and even. One of these blocks is then held in the left hand, so -that the edge rests on a leathern pad tied on the thigh of the seated -workman, the surface to be struck inclining at an angle of about 45°. -A splinter is then detached from the margin by means of the flaking -hammer. If the flint is of good quality, this splinter may be three -or four inches in length, the line of fracture being approximately -parallel to the exterior of the flint. There is, of course, the usual -bulb of percussion, or rounded protuberance at the end,[77] where -the blow is given, and a corresponding depression is left in the -mass of flint. Another splinter is next detached, by a blow given at -a distance of about an inch on one side of the spot where the first -blow fell, and then others at similar distances, until some portion -of the block assumes a more or less regular polygonal outline. As -the splinters which are first detached usually show a portion of the -natural crust of the flint upon them, they are commonly |20| thrown -away as useless. The second and succeeding rows of flakes are those -adapted for gun-flints. To obtain these, the blows of the flaking -hammer are administered midway between two of the projecting angles of -the polygon, and almost immediately behind the spots where the blows -dislodging the previous row of flakes or splinters were administered, -though a little to one side. They fall at such a distance from the -outer surface as is necessary for the thickness of a gun-flint. By -this means a succession of flakes is produced, the section of which -is that of an obtuse triangle with the apex removed, inasmuch as for -gun-flints, flakes are required with the face and back parallel, and -not with a projecting ridge running along the back. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Flint-core with flakes replaced upon it.] - -Fig. 2, representing a block from which a number of flakes adapted -for gun-flints have been detached and subsequently returned to their -original positions around the central core or nucleus, will give a -good idea of the manner in which flake after flake is struck off. -Mr. Spurrell and Mr. Worthington Smith have succeeded in building up -flakes of Palæolithic date into the original blocks from which they -were struck. The former has also replaced ancient Egyptian flakes,[78] -the one upon the other. Mr. F. Archer has likewise restored a block of -flint from Neolithic flakes[79] found near Dundrum Bay, county Down. - -To complete the manufacture of gun-flints, each flake is taken in the -left hand, and cut off into lengths of the width required, by means -of the knapping hammer and the stake fixed in the bench. The flake -is placed over the stake at the spot where it is to be cut, |21| -and a skilful workman cuts the flake in two at a single stroke. The -sections of flakes thus produced have a cutting edge at each end; -but the finished gun-flint is formed by chipping off the edge at the -butt-end and slightly rounding it by means of the fixed chisel and -knapping hammer, the blows from which are made to fall just within -the chisel, so that the two together cut much in the same manner as -a pair of shears. Considerable skill is required in the manufacture, -more especially in the production of the flakes; but Hacquet[80] says -that a fortnight’s practice is sufficient to enable an ordinary workman -to fashion from five hundred to eight hundred gun-flints in a day. -According to him, an experienced workman will produce from a thousand -to fifteen hundred per diem. Dolomieu estimates three days as the time -required by a “_caillouteur_” to produce a thousand gun-flints; but -as the highest price quoted for French gun-flints by Hacquet is only -six francs the thousand, it seems probable that his calculation as to -the time required for their manufacture is not far wrong. Some of the -Brandon flint-knappers are, however, said to be capable of producing -sixteen thousand to eighteen thousand gun-flints in a week. Taking -the lowest estimate, it appears that a practised hand is capable of -making at least three hundred flint implements of a given definite -form, and of some degree of finish, in the course of a single day. If -our primitive forefathers could produce their worked flints with equal -ease, the wonder is, not that so many of them are found, but that they -do not occur in far greater numbers. - -An elegant form of gun-flint, showing great skill in surface flaking, -is still produced in Albania. A specimen, purchased at Avlona[81] by -my son, is shown in Fig. 2A. Some gun-flints and strike-a-lights are -formed of chalcedony or agate, and cut and polished. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2A.—Gun-flint, Avlona, Albania. 1∕1] - -The ancient flint-workers had not, however, the advantages of steel -and iron tools and other modern appliances at their command; and, at -first sight, it would appear that the |22| production of flakes of -flint, without having a pointed metallic hammer for the purpose, was -a matter of great difficulty, I have, however, made some experiments -upon the subject, and have also employed a Suffolk flint-knapper -to do so, and I find that blows from a rounded pebble, judiciously -administered, are capable of producing well-formed flakes, such as, in -shape, cannot be distinguished from those made with a metallic hammer. -The main difficulties consist—first, in making the blow fall exactly -in the proper place; and, secondly, in so proportioning its intensity -that it shall simply dislodge a flake, and not shatter it. The pebble -employed as a hammer need not be attached to a shaft, but can be used, -without any preparation, in the hand. Professor Nilsson tried the same -method long ago, and has left on record an interesting account of his -experience.[82] - -In the neighbourhood of the Pfahl-bauten of Moosseedorf, in -Switzerland, have been found numerous spots where flint has been -worked up into implements, and vast numbers of flakes and splinters -left as refuse. Dr. Keller[83] says, that “the tools used for making -these flint implements do not seem to have been of the same material, -but of gabbro, a bluish-green and very hard and tough kind of stone. -Several of these implements have been met with; their form is very -simple, and varies between a cube and an oval. The oval specimens were -ground down in one or two places, and the most pointed part was used -for hammering.” There were nearly similar workshops at Wauwyl[84] and -Bodmann, not to mention places where flint was dug for the purposes of -manufacture. - -Closely analogous sites of ancient flint-workshops have been discovered -both in France[85] and Germany[86] as well as in Great Britain; such, -for instance, as that at the confluence[87] of the Leochel and the -Don, in Aberdeenshire, where, moreover, flint is not native in the -neighbourhood; but proper attention has not, in all cases, been paid to -the hammer-stones, which, in all probability, occur with the chippings -of flint. - -The blow from the hammer could not, of course, be always administered -at the right spot; and I have noticed on some ancient flakes, a groove -at the butt-end, the bottom of which is crushed, as if by blows from a -round pebble, which, from having |23| fallen too near the edge of the -block, had at first merely bruised the flint, instead of detaching the -flake. - -There are, moreover, a certain number of small cores, or nuclei, both -English and foreign, from which such minute and regular flakes have -been detached, that it is difficult to believe that a mere stone -hammer could have been directed with sufficient skill and precision to -produce such extreme regularity of form. I may cite as instances some -of the small nuclei which are found on the Yorkshire wolds, and some -of those from the banks of the Mahanuddy,[88] in India, which, but for -the slight dissimilarity in the material (the latter being usually -chalcedony and the former flint), could hardly be distinguished from -each other. Possibly in striking off the flakes some form of punch was -used which was struck with the hammer as subsequently described. There -are also some large nuclei, such as those from the neighbourhood of -the Indus,[89] in Upper Scinde, and one which I possess from Ghlin, in -Belgium, which are suggestive of the same difficulty. In form they much -resemble the obsidian cores of Mexico, and it seems not improbable that -they are the result of some similar process of making flakes or knives -to that which was in use among the Aztecs. - -Torquemada[90] thus describes the process he found in use:—“One of -these Indian workmen sits down upon the ground, and takes a piece of -this black stone” (obsidian) “about eight inches long or rather more, -and as thick as one’s leg or rather less, and cylindrical; they have -a stick as large as the shaft of a lance, and three cubits or rather -more in length; and at the end of it they fasten firmly another piece -of wood, eight inches long, to give more weight to this part; then, -pressing their naked feet together, they hold the stone as with a pair -of pincers or the vice of a carpenter’s bench. They take the stick -(which is cut off smooth at the end) with both hands, and set it well -home against the edge of the front of the stone (_y ponenlo avesar -con el canto de la frente de la piedra_), which also is cut smooth in -that part; and then they press it against their breast, and with the -force of the pressure there flies off a knife, with its point, and edge -on each side, as neatly as if one were to make them of a turnip with -a sharp knife, |24| or of iron in the fire.” Hernandez[91] gives a -similar account of the process, but compares the wooden instrument used -to a cross-bow, so that it would appear to have had a crutch-shaped -end to rest against the breast. So skilful were the Mexicans in the -manufacture of obsidian knives, that, according to Clavigero, a single -workman could produce a hundred per hour. - -The short piece of heavy wood was probably cut from some of the -very hard trees of tropical growth. I much doubt whether any of -our indigenous trees produce wood sufficiently hard to be used for -splintering obsidian; and flint is, I believe, tougher and still more -difficult of fracture. We have, however, in this Mexican case, an -instance of the manufacture of flakes by sudden pressure, and of the -employment of a flaking tool, which could be carefully adjusted into -position before the pressure or blow was given to produce the flake. - -Mr. G. E. Sellers, in the Smithsonian Report for 1885,[92] has -published some interesting “observations on stone chipping,” and from -the report of Mr. Catlin, who sojourned long among the Indians of North -America, gives sketches of crutch-like flaking tools tipped with walrus -tooth or bone which he had seen in use. He also describes a method of -making flint flakes by the pressure of a lever. The whole memoir is -worthy of study. - -The subject of the manufacture of stone implements is also discussed -by[93] Sir Daniel Wilson in an essay on the Trade and Commerce of the -Stone Age. - -There appears to have been another process in use in Central America, -for Mr. Tylor[94] heard on good authority that somewhere in Peru the -Indians still have a way of working obsidian by laying a bone wedge on -the surface of a piece and tapping it till the stone cracks. Catlin[95] -also describes the method of making flint arrow-heads among the Apaches -in Mexico as being of the same character. After breaking a boulder of -flint by means of a hammer formed of a rounded pebble of horn-stone -set in a handle made of a twisted withe, flakes are struck off, and -these are wrought into shape while held on the palm of the left hand, -by means of a punch made of the tooth of the sperm whale, held in the -right hand, and struck with a hard wooden mallet by an assistant. Both -holder and striker sing, and the strokes of the |25| mallet are given -in time with the music, the blow being sharp and _rebounding_, in -which the Indians say is the great medicine or principal knack of the -operation. - -The Cloud River[96] Indians at the present day use a punch made of -deer’s-horn for striking off obsidian flakes from which to make -arrow-heads. - -Such a process as this may well have been adopted in this country in -the manufacture of flint flakes; either bone or stag’s-horn sets or -punches, or else small and hard pebbles, may have been applied at the -proper spots upon the surface of the flints, and then been struck by -a stone or wooden mallet. I have tried some experiments with such -stone sets, and have succeeded in producing flakes in this manner, -having been first led to suppose that some such system was in use by -discovering, in the year 1864, some small quartz pebbles battered at -the ends, and associated with flint flakes and cores in an ancient -encampment at Little Solsbury Hill, near Bath, of which I have already -given an account elsewhere.[97] I am, however, inclined to think that -the use of such a punch or set was in any case the exception rather -than the rule; for with practice, and by making the blows only from -the elbow kept fixed against the body, and not with the whole arm, it -is extraordinary what precision of blow may be attained with merely a -pebble held in the hand as a hammer. - -The flakes of chert from which the Eskimos manufacture their -arrow-heads are produced, according to Sir Edward Belcher,[98] who saw -the process, by slight taps with a hammer formed of a very stubborn -kind of jade or nephrite. He has kindly shown me one of these hammers, -which is oval in section, about 3 inches long and 2 inches broad, and -secured by a cord of sinew to a bone handle, against which it abuts. -The ends are nearly flat. This hammer is now in the Christy Collection -at the British Museum and is figured by Ratzel.[99] Another from -Alaska,[100] and several such hammers made of basalt from the Queen -Charlotte Islands,[101] have also been figured. It seems doubtful -whether the proper use of these hammers was not for crushing bones.[102] - -Among the natives of North Australia a totally different method |26| -appears to have been adopted, the flakes being struck off the stone -which is used as a hammer, and not off the block which is struck. In -the exploring expedition, under Mr. A. G. Gregory, in 1855–6, the party -came on an open space between the cliffs along one of the tributary -streams of the Victoria River, where the ground was thickly strewn with -fragments of various stones and imperfectly-formed weapons. The method -of formation of the weapons, according to Mr. Baines,[103] was this, -“The native having chosen a pebble of agate, flint, or other suitable -stone, perhaps as large as an ostrich egg, sits down before a larger -block, on which he strikes it so as to detach from the end a piece, -leaving a flattened base for his subsequent operations. Then, holding -the pebble with its base downwards, he again strikes so as to split -off a piece as thin and broad as possible, tapering upward in an oval -or leaf-like form, and sharp and thin at the edges. His next object -is to strike off another piece nearly similar, so close as to leave a -projecting angle on the stone, as sharp, straight, and perpendicular -as possible. Then, again taking the pebble carefully in his hand, he -aims the decisive blow, which, if he is successful, splits off another -piece with the angle running straight up its centre as a midrib, and -the two edges sharp, clear, and equal, spreading slightly from the -base, and again narrowing till they meet the midrib in a keen and taper -point. If he has done this well, he possesses a perfect weapon, but at -least three chips must have been formed in making it, and it seemed -highly probable, from the number of imperfect heads that lay about, -that the failures far outnumbered the successful results. In the making -of tomahawks or axes, in which a darker green stone is generally used, -great numbers of failures must ensue; and in these another operation -seemed necessary, for we saw upon the rocks several places were they -had been ground, with a great expenditure of labour, to a smooth round -edge.” - -In the manufacture of flint flakes, whether they were to serve as -knives or lance-heads without any more preparation, or whether they -were to be subjected to further manipulation, so as eventually to -become arrow-heads, scrapers, or any other of the more finished -implements, the form of the nucleus from which they were struck was -usually a matter of no great importance, the chips or flakes being -the object of the operator and not the resulting core, which was in -most cases thrown away as worthless. But where very long |27| flakes -were desired, it became a matter of importance to produce nuclei of a -particular form, specially adapted for the purpose. I have never met -with any such nuclei in England, but the well-known _livres-de-beurre_ -chiefly found in the neighbourhood of Pressigny-le-grand (Indre et -Loire), France, are typical instances of the kind. I have precisely -similar specimens, though on a rather smaller scale, and of a somewhat -different kind of flint, from Spiennes, near Mons, in Belgium; and -a few nuclei of the same form have also been found in Denmark. The -occurrence of flints wrought into the same shape, at places so far -apart, might at first appear to countenance the view of this peculiar -form being that of an implement intended for some special purpose, -and not merely a refuse block. This, however, is not the case. I have -treated of this question elsewhere,[104] but it will be well here to -repeat a portion, at least, of what I have before written on this point. - -These large nuclei or _livres-de-beurre_ are blocks of flint, usually -10 or 12 inches long and 3 to 4 inches wide in the broadest part, the -thickness being in most cases less than the width. In general outline -they may be described as boat-shaped, being square at one end and -brought to a point—more or less finished—at the other. The outline -has been given by striking a succession of flakes from the sides of a -mass of flint, until the boat-like contour has been obtained, with the -sides slightly converging towards the keel, and then the upper surface -corresponding to the deck of the boat has been chipped into form by a -succession of blows administered at right angles to the first, and in -such a manner that the deck, as originally formed, was convex instead -of flat. After this convex surface was formed, one, two, or even more -long flakes were dislodged along its whole length, or nearly so, by -blows administered at the part represented by the stern of the boat, -thus leaving one or more channels along what corresponds to the deck. -In rare instances, these long flakes have not been removed, in others -of more frequent occurrence, one of the flakes has broken off short -before attaining its full length. - -Strange as this boat-shaped form may at the outset appear, yet on a -little consideration it will be seen that the chipping into such a -form is in fact one of the necessities of the case for the production -of long blades of flint. Where flakes only 3 or 4 inches long are -required, the operator may readily, with his hammer, strike off from -the outside of his block of flint a succession of chips, so as to |28| -give it a polygonal outline, the projections of which will serve for -the central ridges or back-bones of the first series of regular flakes -that he strikes off. The removal of this first series of flakes leaves -a number of projecting ridges, which serve as guides for the formation -of a second series of flakes, and so on until the block is used up. - -But where a flake 10 or 12 inches in length is required, a different -process becomes necessary. For it is nearly impossible with a rough -mass of flint, to produce by single blows plane surfaces 10 or 12 -inches in length, and arranged at such an angle as to produce a -straight ridge, such as would serve to form the back-bone, as it were, -of a long flake; and without such a back-bone, the production of a -long flake is impossible. It is indeed this ridge (which need not, -of course, be angular, but may be more or less rounded or polygonal) -that regulates the course of the fissure by which the flake is -dislodged from the matrix or parent flint; there being a slight degree -of elasticity in the stone, which enables a fissure once properly -commenced in a homogeneous flint to proceed at right angles to the -line of least resistance in the dislodged flake, while at the same -time exerting a nearly uniform strain, so that the inner surface of -the flake becomes nearly parallel to the outer ridge. It was to obtain -this outer ridge that the Pressigny cores were chipped into the form -in which we find them; and it appears as if the workmen who fashioned -them adopted the readiest means of obtaining the desired result of -producing along the block of flint a central ridge whenever it became -necessary, until the block was so much reduced in size as to be no -longer serviceable. For, the process of chipping the block into the -boat-like form could be repeated from time to time, until it became too -small for further use. The same process of cross-chipping was practised -in Scandinavia in early times, and the obsidian cores from the Greek -island of Melos, Crete, and other ancient Greek sites prove that it was -also known there. The blocks are found in various stages, rarely with -the central ridge still left on, as Fig. 3, and more commonly with one -or more long flakes removed from them, like Figs. 4 and 5. The sections -of each block are shown beneath them. Two of the flakes are represented -in Figs. 6 and 7. All the figures are on the scale of one-half linear -measure. - -The causes why the nuclei were rejected as useless are still -susceptible of being traced. In some cases they had become so thin that -they would not bear re-shaping; in others a want of |29| uniformity in -the texture of the flint, probably caused by some included organism, -had made its appearance, and caused the flakes to break off short of -their proper length, or had even made it useless to attempt to strike -them off. In some rare instances, when the striking off long flakes -had proved unsuccessful on the one face, the attempt has been made to -procure them from the other. The abundance of large masses of flint -near Pressigny—some as much as two or three feet across—has, however, -rendered the workmen rather prodigal of their materials. The skill -which has been brought to bear in the manufacture of these long flakes -is marvellous, as the utmost precision is required in giving the blow -by which they are produced. Generally speaking, the projecting ridge -left at the butt-end of the nucleus between the depressions, whence -two of the short flakes have been struck off in chipping it square, -has been selected as the point of impact. They appear to me to have -been struck off by a free blow, and not by the intervention of a set -or punch. No doubt the face of the flint at the time of the blow being -struck was supported on some elastic body. A few flints which bear -marks of having been used as hammer-stones are found at Pressigny. |30| - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Nucleus—Pressigny. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4, Fig. 5; Nuclei—Pressigny. 1∕2] - -An interesting lecture on the Flint Industry of Touraine was given on -the occasion of the annual meeting of the Société Archéologique de -Touraine, in 1891, by M. J. de Saint-Venant. |31| - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Flake—Pressigny. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Flake—Pressigny. 1∕2] - -I have hitherto been treating of the production of flint flakes for -various purposes. In such cases the flakes are everything, and the -resulting core, or nucleus, mere refuse. In the manufacture of celts, -or hatchets, the reverse is the case, the flakes are the refuse -(though, of course, they might occasionally be utilized) and the -resulting block is the main object sought. To produce this, however, -much the same process appears to have been adopted, at all events -where flint was the material employed. The hatchets seem to have been -rough-hewn by detaching a succession of flakes, chips, or splinters, -from a block of flint, by means of a hammer-stone, and these rough-hewn -implements were subsequently worked into a more finished form by -detaching smaller splinters, also probably by means of a hammer, -previously to their being ground or polished, if they were destined to -be finished in such a manner. In most cases, one face of the hatchet -was first roughed out, and then by a series of blows, given at proper -intervals, along the margin of that face the general shape was given -and the other face chipped out. This is proved by the fact that in most -of the |32| roughly-chipped hatchets found in Britain, the depressions -of the bulbs of percussion of the flakes struck off occur in a perfect -state only on one face, having been partly removed on the other face -by the subsequent chipping. There are, however, exceptions to this -rule, and more especially among the implements found in our ancient -river gravels. In some cases (see _postea_, Fig. 12) the cutting edge -has been formed by the intersection of two convex lines of fracture -giving a curved and sharp outline, and the body of the hatchet has -been subsequently made to suit the edge. The same is the case with -the hatchets from the Danish kjökken-möddings and coast-finds, though -the intersecting facets are at a higher angle, and the resulting edge -straighter, than in the specimens which I have mentioned. The edge is -also, like that of a mortising chisel, at the extremity of a flat face, -and not in the centre of the blade. The cutting edge has, however, in -most of the so-called celts of the ordinary form, been fashioned by -chipping subsequent to the roughing out of the hatchet; and even in -the case of polished hatchets, the edge when damaged was frequently -re-chipped into form before being ground afresh. - -There hardly appears to be sufficient cause for believing that any of -the stone hatchets found in this country were chipped out by any other -means than by direct blows of a hammer; but in the case of the Danish -axes with square sides, and with their corners as neatly crimped or -puckered as if they had been made of pieces of leather sewn together, -it is probable that this neat finish was produced by the use of some -kind of punch or set. The hammer-stones used in the manufacture of -flint hatchets appear to have been usually quartzite pebbles, where -such are readily to be obtained, but also frequently to have been -themselves mere blocks of flint. Many such hammer-stones of flint -occurred in the Cissbury pits[105]—of which more hereafter—and I have -found similar hammer-stones on the Sussex Downs, near Eastbourne, where -also flint implements of various kinds appear to have been manufactured -in quantities. Not improbably, these hammers were made of flints which -had been for some time exposed on the surface, and which were in -consequence harder than the flints recently dug from the pits. We have -already seen that the gun-flint knappers of the present day are said -to work most successfully on blocks of flint recently extracted, and -those, too, from a particular layer in |33| the chalk; and it seems -probable that the ancient flint-workers were also acquainted with the -advantages of using the flints fresh from the quarry, and worked them -into shape at the pits from which they were dug, not only on account -of the saving in transport of the partly-manufactured articles, but -on account of the greater facility of working the freshly-extracted -flints. This working the flints upon the spot is conclusively shown by -the examination of the old flint-quarry at Cissbury, Sussex, by General -Pitt Rivers (then Colonel A. Lane-Fox) and others. A very large number -of hatchets, more or less perfectly chipped out, were there found, as -will subsequently be mentioned. That they were in some cases at great -pains to procure flint of the proper quality for being chipped into -form, and were not content with blocks and nodules, such as might be -found on the surface, is proved by the interesting explorations at -Grime’s Graves, near Brandon, carried on by Canon Greenwell, F.R.S.[106] - -In a wood at this spot, the whole surface of the ground is studded -with shallow bowl-shaped depressions from 20 to 60 feet in diameter, -sometimes running into each other so as to form irregularly shaped -hollows. They are over 250 in number, and one selected for exploration -was about 28 feet in diameter at the mouth, gradually narrowing to -12 feet at the bottom, which proved to be 39 feet below the surface. -Through the first 13 feet it had been cut through sand, below which -the chalk was reached, and after passing through one layer of flint -of inferior quality, which was not quarried beyond the limits of the -shaft, the layer known as the “floor-stone,” from which gun-flints -are manufactured at the present day, was met with at the bottom of -the shaft. To procure this, various horizontal galleries about 3 feet -6 inches in height were driven into the chalk. The excavations had -been made by means of picks formed from the antlers of the red-deer, -of which about 80 were found. The points are worn by use, and the -thick bases of the horns battered by having been used as hammers, for -breaking off portions of the chalk and also of the nodules of flint. -Where they had been grasped by the hand the surface is polished by -use, and on some there was a coating of chalky matter adhering, on -which was still distinctly visible the impression of the cuticle of the -old flint-workers. The marks of the picks and hammers were as fresh -on the walls of the galleries as if made but yesterday. |34| It is -to be observed that such picks as these formed of stag’s horn have -been found in various other places, but have not had proper attention -called to their character. I have seen one from the neighbourhood -of Ipswich,[107] Suffolk. Canon Greenwell mentions somewhat similar -discoveries having been made at Eaton and Buckenham, Norfolk. One was -also found by him in a grave under a barrow he examined at Rudstone, -near Bridlington,[108] and others occurred near Weaverthorpe and -Sherburn. A polished hatchet of basalt had also been used at Grime’s -Graves as one of the tools for excavation, and the marks of its cutting -edge were plentiful in the gallery in which it was discovered. There -were also found some rudely-made cups of chalk apparently intended -for lamps; a bone pin or awl; and, what is very remarkable, a rounded -piece of bone 4 1∕2 inches long and 1 inch in circumference, rubbed -smooth, and showing signs of use at the ends, which, as Canon Greenwell -suggests, may have been a punch or instrument for taking off the lesser -flakes of flint in making arrow-heads and other small articles. It -somewhat resembles the pin of reindeer horn in the Eskimo arrow-flaker, -shortly to be mentioned. The shaft had been filled in with rubble, -apparently from neighbouring pits, and in it were numerous chippings -and cores of flint, and several quartzite and other pebbles battered at -the ends by having been used as hammers for chipping the flints. Some -large rounded cores of flint exhibited similar signs of use. On the -surface of the fields around, numerous chippings of flint, and more or -less perfect implements, such as celts, scrapers, and borers were found. - -At Spiennes (near Mons, in Belgium), where a very similar manufacture -but on a larger scale than that of Cissbury or even of Grime’s Graves, -appears to have been carried on, flints seem to have been dug in the -same manner. Since I visited the spot, now many years ago, a railway -cutting has traversed a portion of the district where the manufacture -existed, and exposed a series of excavations evidently intended for -the extraction of flint. Mons. A. Houzeau de Lehaie, of Hyon, near -Mons, has most obligingly furnished me with some particulars of -these subterranean works, a detailed account of which has also been -published.[109] From this |35| account it appears that shafts from -3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches in diameter were sunk through the loam and -sand above the chalk to a depth of 30 or even 40 feet; and from the -bottom of the shafts lateral galleries were worked, from 5 to 6 feet in -height and about the same in width. Stag’s horns which had been used -as hammers, were found in the galleries, but it is doubtful whether -they had been used as pick-axes like those in Grime’s Graves. Among -the rubble in the galleries, as well as on the surface of the ground -above, were found roughly-chipped flints and splinters, and more or -less rudely-shaped hatchets by thousands. There is one peculiar feature -among these hatchets which I have not noticed to the same extent -elsewhere, viz., that many of them are made from the nuclei or cores -which, in the first instance, had subserved to the manufacture of long -flint flakes, the furrows left by which appear on one of the faces of -the hatchets. Sometimes, though rarely, the Pressigny nuclei have been -utilized in a similar manner. - -In France, pits for the extraction of flint have been discovered -at Champignolles, Sérifontaine (Oise)[110] and at Mur de Barrez -(Aveyron).[111] - -Professor J. Buckman[112] has recorded a manufactory of celts and other -flint instruments near Lyme Regis. - -In these instances, especially at Cissbury and Grime’s Graves in -England, and at Pressigny and Spiennes on the Continent, and, indeed, -at other places also,[113] there appears to have been an organized -manufactory of flint instruments by settled occupants of the different -spots; and it seems probable that the products were bartered away to -those who were less favoured in their supply of the raw material, -flint. At Old Deer,[114] Aberdeenshire, thirty-four leaf-shaped flints, -roughly blocked out, were found together. - -The chipping out of celts and some other tools formed, not of flint, -but of other hard rocks, must have been effected in the same manner. -The stone employed is almost always of a more or less silicious nature, -and such as breaks with a conchoidal fracture. |36| - -Dr. F. A. Forel[115] chipped out a hatchet of euphotide or gabbro with -a hammer formed of a fragment of saussurite. The process occupied an -hour and ten minutes, and the subsequent grinding three hours more. He -made and ground to an edge a rude hatchet of serpentine in thirty-five -minutes. - -To return, however, to the manufacture of the flint implements of this -country, and more especially to those which are merely flakes submitted -to a secondary process of chipping. We have seen that in the gun-flint -manufacture the flakes are finally shaped by means of a knapping or -trimming hammer and a fixed chisel, which act one against the other, -somewhat like the two blades of a pair of shears, and the process -adopted by the ancient flint-workers for many purposes must have been -to some extent analogous, though it can hardly have been precisely -similar. One of the most common forms of flint implements is that to -which the name of “scraper” or “thumb-flint” has been given, and which -is found in abundance on the Yorkshire Wolds, on the Downs of Sussex, -and in many other parts of England and Scotland. The normal form is -that of a broad flake chipped to a semicircular edge, usually at the -end farthest from the bulb of percussion, the edge being bevelled -away from the flat face of the flake, like that of a round-nosed -turning-chisel. The name of “scraper” or “_grattoir_,” has been given -to these worked flints from their similarity to an instrument in use -among the Eskimos[116] for scraping the insides of hides in the course -of their preparation; but I need not here enter upon the question of -the purpose for which these ancient instruments were used, as we are at -present concerned only with the method of their manufacture. I am not -aware of any evidence existing as to the method pursued by the Eskimos -in the chipping out of their scraping tools: but I think that if, at -the present time, we are able to produce flint tools precisely similar -to the ancient “scrapers” by the most simple means possible, and -without the aid of any metallic appliances, there is every probability -that identically the same means were employed of old. Now, I have found -by experiment that, taking a flake of flint (made, I may remark, with -a stone hammer, consisting of a flint or quartzite pebble held in the -hand), and placing it, with the flat face upwards, on a smooth block of -stone, I can, by successive blows of the pebble, chip the end of the -flake without any difficulty into the desired form. The face of the -stone hammer is brought to |37| bear a slight distance only within -the margin of the flake, and, however sharp the blow administered, the -smooth block of stone on which the flake is placed, and which of course -projects beyond it, acts as a stop to prevent the hammer being carried -forward so as to injure the form, and brings it up sharply, directly it -has done its work of striking off a splinter from the end of the flake. -The upper face of the flake remains quite uninjured, and, strange as -it may appear, there is no difficulty in producing the evenly circular -edge of the scraper by successive blows of the convex pebble. - -Some of the other ancient tools and weapons, having one flat face, -seem to have been fashioned in much the same manner. In the case of -arrow-heads and lance-heads, however, another process would appear to -have been adopted. It is true that we know not exactly how - - “the ancient arrow-maker - Made his arrow-heads of sandstone, - Arrow-heads of chalcedony, - Arrow-heads of flint and jasper, - Smooth and sharpened at the edges, - Hard and polished, keen and costly.” - -And yet the process of making such arrow-heads is carried on at the -present day by various half-civilized peoples, and has been witnessed -by many Europeans, though but few have accurately recorded their -observations. Sir Edward Belcher[117] who had seen obsidian arrow-heads -made by the Indians of California, and those of chert or flint by the -Eskimos of Cape Lisburne, states that the mode pursued in each case -was exactly similar. The instrument employed among the Eskimos, which -may be termed an “arrow-flaker,” usually consists of a handle formed -of fossil ivory, curved at one end for the purpose of being firmly -held, and having at the other end a slit, like that for the lead in -our pencils, in which is placed a slip of the point of the horn of a -reindeer, which is found to be harder and more stubborn than ivory. -This is secured in its place by a strong thong of leather or plaited -sinew, put on wet, which on drying becomes very rigid. A representation -of one of these instruments, in the Blackmore Museum at Salisbury, is -given in Fig. 8. Another in the Christy Collection[118] is shown in -Fig. 9. Another form of |38| instrument of this kind, but in which -the piece of horn is mounted in a wooden handle, is shown in Fig. 10, -from an original in the same collection from Kotzebue Gulf. The bench -on which the arrow-heads are made is said to consist of a log of wood, -in which a spoon-shaped cavity is cut; over this the flake of chert -is placed, and then, by pressing the “arrow-flaker” gently along the -margin vertically, first on one side and then on the other, as one -would set a saw, alternate fragments are splintered off until the -object thus properly outlined presents the spear or arrow-head form, -with two cutting serrated sides. |39| - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Eskimo Arrow-flaker. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.—Eskimo Arrow-flaker. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Eskimo Arrow-flaker. 1∕2] - -Sir Edward Belcher some years ago kindly explained the process to me, -and showed me both the implements used, and the objects manufactured. -It appears that the flake from which the arrow-head is to be made is -sometimes fixed by means of a cord in a split piece of wood so as to -hold it firmly, and that all the large surface flaking is produced -either by blows direct from the hammer, or through an intermediate -punch or set formed of reindeer horn. The arrow-or harpoon-head -thus roughly chipped out is afterwards finished by means of the -“arrow-flaker.” - -The process in use at the present day among the Indians of Mexico in -making their arrows is described in a somewhat different manner by -Signor Craveri, who lived sixteen years in Mexico, and who gave the -account to Mr. C. H. Chambers.[119] He relates that when the Indians -wish to make an arrow-head or other instrument of a piece of obsidian, -they take the piece in the left hand, and hold grasped in the other -a small goat’s horn; they set the piece of stone upon the horn, and -dexterously pressing it against the point of it, while they give the -horn a gentle movement from right to left, and up and down, they -disengage from it frequent chips, and in this way obtain the desired -form. M. F. de Pourtalès[120] speaks of a small notch in the end of -the bone into which the edge of the flake is inserted, and a chip -broken off from it by a sideways blow. Mr. T. R. Peale[121] describes -the manufacture of arrow-heads among the Shasta and North California -Indians, as being effected by means of a notched horn, as a glazier -chips glass. This has also been fully described and illustrated by -Mr. Paul Schumacher[122] of San Francisco. Major Powell confirms this -account. - -The Cloud River Indians[123] and the Fuegians,[124] also fashion their -arrow-heads by pressure. Mr. Cushing[125] has described the process and -claims to be the first civilized man who flaked an arrow-head with horn -tools. This was in 1875. I had already done so and had described the -method at the Norwich Congress in 1868. - -The late Mr. Christy,[126] in a paper on the Cave-dwellers of |40| -Southern France, gave an account, furnished to him by Sir Charles -Lyell, of the process of making stone arrow-heads by the Shasta Indians -of California who still commonly use them, which slightly differs from -that of Mr. Peale. This account by Mr. Caleb Lyon runs as follows:—“The -Indian seated himself upon the floor, and, laying the stone anvil -upon his knee, with one blow of his agate chisel he separated the -obsidian pebble into two parts, then giving a blow to the fractured -side he split off a slab a quarter of an inch in thickness. Holding -the piece against his anvil with the thumb and finger of his left -hand, he commenced a series of continuous blows, every one of which -chipped off fragments of the brittle substance. It gradually seemed to -acquire shape. After finishing the base of the arrow-head (the whole -being little over an inch in length), he began striking gentle blows, -every one of which I expected would break it in pieces. Yet such was -his adroit application, his skill and dexterity, that in little over -an hour he produced a perfect obsidian arrow-head. . . . . No sculptor -ever handled a chisel with greater precision, or more carefully -measured the weight and effect of every blow than did this ingenious -Indian; for even among them, arrow-making is a distinct profession, -in which few attain excellence.” Dr. Rau[127] has, however, pointed -out that this account of the manufacture requires confirmation; but -Mr. Wyeth[128] states that the Indians on the Snake River form their -arrow-heads of obsidian by laying one edge of the flake on a hard -stone, and striking the other edge with another hard stone; and that -many are broken when nearly finished and are thrown away. - -Captain John Smith,[129] writing in 1606 of the Indians of Virginia, -says, “His arrow-head he maketh quickly with a little bone, which he -ever weareth at his bracert,[130] of any splint of stone or glasse in -the form of a heart, and these they glew to the end of their arrowes. -With the sinewes of deer and the tops of deers’ horns boiled to a -jelly, they make a glue which will not dissolve in cold water.” - -Beyond the pin of bone already mentioned, as having been found in -one of the pits at Grime’s Graves, I am not aware of any bone or -horn implements of precisely this character, having |41| been as -yet discovered in Europe; but hammers of stag’s horn and detached -tines have frequently been found in connection with worked flints, -and may have served in their manufacture. I have, moreover, remarked -among the worked flints discovered in this country, and especially -in Yorkshire, a number of small tools, the ends of which present a -blunted, worn, and rounded appearance, as if from attrition against -a hard substance. These tools are usually from 2 to 4 inches long, -and made from large thick flakes, with the cutting edges removed by -chipping; but occasionally, they are carefully finished implements of a -pointed oval or a subtriangular section, and sometimes slightly curved -longitudinally. Of these, illustrations will be given at a subsequent -page. They are usually well adapted for being held in the hand, and I -cannot but think that we have in them some of the tools which were used -in the preparation of flint arrow-heads and other small instruments. -I have tried the experiment with a large flake of flint used as the -arrow-flaker, both unmounted and mounted in a wooden handle, and have -succeeded in producing with it very passable imitations of ancient -arrow-heads, both leaf-shaped and barbed. The flake of flint on which I -have operated has been placed against a stop on a flat piece of wood, -and when necessary to raise the edge of the flake I have placed a small -blocking piece, also of wood, underneath it, and then by pressure of -the arrow-flaker upon the edge of the flake, have detached successive -splinters until I have reduced it into form. If the tool consists of -a rather square-ended flake, one corner may rest upon the table of -wood, and the pressure be given by a rocking action, bringing the -other corner down upon the flake. In cutting the notches in barbed -arrow-heads, this was probably the plan adopted, as I was surprised -to find how easily this seemingly difficult part of the process was -effected. Serration of the edges may be produced by the same means. - -The edges of the arrow-heads made entirely with these flint -arrow-flakers are, however, more obtuse and rounded than those of -ancient specimens, so that probably these flint tools were used rather -for removing slight irregularities in the form than for the main -chipping out. This latter process, I find experimentally, can be best -performed by means of a piece of stag’s horn, used much in the same way -as practised by the Eskimos. By supporting the flake of flint which is -to be converted into an arrow-head against a wooden stop, and pressing -the horn against the edge of the |42| flake, the flint enters slightly -into the body of the horn; then bringing the pressure to bear sideways, -minute splinters can be detached, and the arrow-head formed by degrees -in this manner without much risk of breaking. Not only can the -leaf-shaped forms be produced, but the barbed arrow-heads, both with -and without the central stem. The leaf-shaped arrow-heads are, however, -the most easy to manufacture, and this simple form was probably that -earliest in use. The counterfeit arrow-heads made by the notorious -Flint Jack are of rude work, and were probably made with a light hammer -of iron. Of late years (1895) a far more skilful workman at Mildenhall -has produced imitations which can hardly be distinguished from genuine -arrow-heads. He keeps his process of manufacture secret. - -Among many tribes[131] of America, arrow-making is said to have been -a trade confined to a certain class, who possessed the traditional -knowledge of the process of manufacture; and it can hardly be expected -that a mere novice like myself should be able at once to attain the -art. I may, therefore, freely confess that, though by the use of stag’s -horn the ordinary surface-chipping characteristic of ancient implements -may be obtained, yet the method of producing the even fluting, like -ripple-marks, by detaching parallel splinters uniform in size, and -extending almost across the surface of a lance- or arrow-head is at -present a mystery to me; as is also the method by which the delicate -ornamentation on the handles of Danish flint daggers was produced. It -seems, however, possible that by pressing the flint to be operated -upon on some close-fitting elastic body at the time of removing the -minute flakes, the line of fracture may be carried along a considerable -distance over the surface of the flint, before coming to an end by -reason of the dislodged flake breaking off or terminating. It is also -possible that the minute and elegant ornaments may have been produced -by the use of a pointed tooth of some animal as a punch. Mr. F. C. -J. Spurrell,[132] in an interesting article, has suggested that the -final flaking was effected after the blades had been ground to a -smooth surface, in the same manner as the flaking on some of the most -symmetrical Egyptian blades. His view appears to be correct, at all -events so far as certain parts of some Danish blades are concerned. -It seems, however, very doubtful whether any such general practice -prevailed. I have seen a delicate lance-head |43| 6 inches long, of -triangular section, with the broad face polished and the two other -faces exquisitely fluted. In this case also the faces may have been -ground before fluting. This blade was found in a cavern at Sourdes, in -the Landes, and was in the collection of M. Chaplain-Duparc. - -With regard to the process of grinding or polishing flint and other -stone implements not much need be said. I may, however, refer the -reader to Wilde’s Catalogue[133] of the Museum of the Royal Irish -Academy, for an account of the different processes. In all cases the -grindstone on which they were polished was fixed and not rotatory, and -in nearly all cases the striæ running along the stone hatchets are -longitudinal, thus proving that they were rubbed lengthways and not -crossways on the grinding-bed. This is a criterion of some service in -detecting modern forgeries. The grinding-stones met with in Denmark -and Scandinavia are generally of compact sandstone or quartzite, and -are usually of two forms—flat slabs, often worn hollow by use, and -polygonal prisms smallest in the middle, these latter having frequently -hollow facets in which gouges or the more convex-faced hatchets might -be ground, and sometimes rounded ridges such as would grind the hollow -part of gouges. From the coarse striation on the body of most flint -hatchets, especially the large ones, it would appear that they were -not ground immediately on such fine-grained stones, but that some -coarse and hard grit must have been used to assist the action of the -grindstone. M. Morlot[134] thought that some mechanical pressure was -also used to aid in the operation, and that the hatchet to be ground -was weighted in some manner, possibly by means of a lever. In grinding -and polishing the hollowed faces of different forms of stone axes, it -would appear that certain rubbers formed of stone were used, probably -in conjunction with sand. These will be more particularly described -in a subsequent page. The surface of hard rocks or of large boulders -fixed in the ground was often used for the purpose of grinding stone -implements. Instances will be given hereafter. - -Closely allied to the process of grinding is that of sawing -stone. It is however rarely, if ever, that in this country any -of the stone implements show signs of having been reduced into -shape by this process. Among the small hatchets in fibrolite, so -common in the Auvergne and in the south of France, and among the -greenstone, and especially the nephrite celts found in the |44| Swiss -Pfahlbauten,[135] many show evident traces of having been partially -fashioned by means of sawing. I have also remarked it on a specimen -from Portugal, and on many fibrolite hatchets from Spain.[136] Dr. -Keller has noticed the process, and suggests that the incisions on the -flat surface of the stone chosen for the purpose of being converted -into a celt were made sometimes on one side, and sometimes on both, by -means of a sharp saw-like tool. He has since[137] gone more deeply into -the question, and has suggested that the stone to be sawn was placed -on the ground near a tree, and then sawn by means of a splinter of -flint fixed in the end of a staff, which at its other end was forked, -and as it were hinged under one of the boughs of the tree sufficiently -flexible to give pressure to the flint when a weight was suspended from -it. The staff was, he supposed, to have been grasped in the hand, and -moved backwards and forwards while water was applied to the flint to -facilitate the sawing. The objection to this suggestion is, that in -case of the flint being brought to the edge of the stone it would be -liable to be driven into the ground by the weight on the bough, and -thus constantly hinder the operation; nevertheless some such mechanical -aids in sawing may have been in use. - -M. Troyon[138] considered that the blade of flint was used in -connection with sand as well as water. This latter view appears, at -first sight, far more probable, as the sawing instrument has in some -instances cut nearly 3∕4 of an inch into the stone, which, it would -seem, could hardly have been accomplished with a simple flint saw; and -the sides of the saw-kerf or notch show, moreover, parallel striæ, -as if resulting from the use of sand. The objection that at first -occurred to my mind against regarding the sawing instrument as having -been of flint was of a negative character only, and arose from my not -having seen in any of the Swiss collections any flint flakes that had -indisputably been used for sawing by means of sand. At one time I -fancied, from the character of the bottom and sides of the notches, -that a string stretched like that of a bow might have been used with -sand in the manner in which, according to Oviedo,[139] the American -Indians sawed in two their iron fetters, and I succeeded in cutting -off the |45| end of an ancient Swiss hatchet of hard steatite by this -means. I found, however, that the bottom of the kerf thus formed was -convex longitudinally, whereas in the ancient examples it was slightly -concave. It is therefore evident that whatever was used as the saw must -have been of a comparatively unyielding nature, and probably shorter -than the pebble or block of stone it was used to saw, for even the iron -blades used in conjunction with sand and water by modern masons become -concave by wear, and, therefore, the bottom of the kerf they produce -is convex longitudinally. I accordingly made some further experiments, -and this time upon a fragment of a greenstone celt of such hardness -that it would readily scratch window-glass. I found, however, that -with a flint flake I was able to work a groove along it, and that -whether I used sand or no, my progress was equally certain, though it -must be confessed, very slow. I am indeed doubtful whether the flint -did not produce most effect without the sand, as the latter to become -effective requires a softer body in which it may become embedded; while -by working with the points and projections in the slightly notched -edge of the flake, its scratching action soon discoloured the water in -the notch. What was most remarkable, and served in a great measure to -discredit the negative evidence to which I before referred, was that -the edges of the flake when not used with sand showed but slight traces -of wear or polish. - -On the whole, I am inclined to think that both the Swiss antiquaries -are in the right, and that the blocks of stone were sawn both with -and without sand, by means of flint flakes, but principally of strips -of wood and bone used in conjunction with sand.[140] The reader may -consult Munro’s Lake-Dwellings, 1890, p. 505. - -Professor Flinders Petrie, in addition to the flint implements of the -“New Race,” which he discovered near Abydos, found a number of stone -implements at Kahun, and Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell has contributed to -his[141] book an interesting chapter on their character and the method -of their manufacture. - -Most of the jade implements from New Zealand and N.W. America have -been partially shaped by sawing, and in the British Museum is a large -block of jade from the former country deeply grooved by sawing, and -almost ready to be split, so as to be of the |46| right thickness for a -_mere_. The natives[142] use stone hammers for chipping, flakes of trap -or of some other hard rock for sawing, and blocks of sandstone and a -micaceous rock for grinding and polishing. Obsidian is said to be used -for boring jade. I have a flat piece of jade, apparently part of a thin -hatchet, on one face of which two notches have been sawn converging at -an angle of 135° and marking out what when detached and ground would -have formed a curved ear-ring. It was given me by the late Mr. H. N. -Moseley, who brought it from New Zealand. - -There is another peculiarity to be seen in some of the greenstone -hatchets and perforated axes, of which perhaps the most characteristic -examples occur in Switzerland, though the same may occasionally be -observed in British specimens. It is that the blocks of stone have -been reduced into form, not only by chipping with a hammer, as is the -case with flint hatchets, but by working upon the surface with some -sort of pick or chisel, which was not improbably formed of flint. -In some instances, where the hatchets were intended for insertion -into sockets of stag’s horn or other materials, their butt-end was -purposely roughened by means of a pick after the whole surface had been -polished. Instances of this roughening are common in Switzerland, rare -in France, and rarer still in England. The greenstone hatchet found -in a gravel-pit near Malton[143] (Fig. 81) has its butt-end roughened -in this manner. The shaft-holes in some few perforated axes appear -to have been worked out by means of such picks or chisels, the hole -having been bored from opposite sides of the axe, and generally with a -gradually decreasing diameter. In some rare instances the perforation -is oval. The cup, or funnel-shaped depressions, in some hammer-stones -seem to have been made in a similar manner. The inner surface of -the shaft holes in perforated axes is also frequently ground, and -occasionally polished. This has in most cases been effected by turning -a cylindrical grinder within the hole; though in some few instances the -grinding instrument has been rubbed backwards and forwards in the hole -after the manner of a file. M. Franck de Truguet,[144] of Treytel, in -Switzerland, thinks he has found in a lake-dwelling an instrument used -for finishing and enlarging the holes. It is a fragment of sandstone -about 2 1∕2 inches long, and rounded on one face, which is worn by -friction. - -But, besides the mode of chipping out the shaft-hole in |47| -perforated implements, several other methods were employed, especially -in the days when the use of bronze was known, to which period most of -the highly-finished perforated axes found in this country are to be -referred. In some cases it would appear that, after chipping out a -recess so as to form a guide for the boring tool, the perforation was -effected by giving a rotatory motion, either constant or intermittent, -to the tool. I have, indeed, seen some specimens in which, from the -marks visible in the hole, I am inclined to think a metallic drill -was used. But whether, where metal was not employed, and no central -core, as subsequently mentioned, was left in the hole, the boring tool -was of flint, and acted like a drill, or whether it was a round stone -used in conjunction with sand, as suggested by the late Sir Daniel -Wilson[145] and Sir W. Wilde,[146] so that the hole was actually ground -away, it is impossible to say. I have never seen any flint tools that -could unhesitatingly be referred to this use; but Herr Grewingk, in -his “Steinalter der Ostseeprovinzen,”[147] mentions several implements -in the form of truncated cones, which he regards as boring-tools -(_Bohrstempel_), used for perforating stone axes and hammers. He -suggests the employment of a drill-bow to make them revolve, and thinks -that, in some cases, the boring tools were fixed, and the axe itself -caused to revolve. Not having seen the specimens, I cannot pronounce -upon them; but the fact that several of these conical pieces show -signs of fracture at the base, and that they are all of the same kinds -of stone (diorite, augite, porphyry, and syenite) as those of which -the stone axes of the district are made, is suggestive of their being -merely the cores, resulting from boring with a tube, in the manner -about to be described, in some cases from each face of the axe, and in -others where the base of the cone is smooth, from one face only. One of -these central cores found in Lithuania is figured by Mortillet,[148] -and is regarded by him as being probably the result of boring by means -of a metal tube; others, from Switzerland, presumably of the Stone Age, -are cited by Keller.[149] Bellucci[150] thinks that he has found them -in Northern Italy. - -Worsaae[151] has suggested that in early times the boring may have -been effected with a pointed stick and sand and water; and, |48| -indeed, if any grinding process was used, it is a question whether some -softer substance, such as wood, in which the sand or abrasive material -could become imbedded, would not be more effective than flint. By way -of experiment I bored a hole through the Swiss hatchet of steatite -before mentioned, and I found that in that case a flint flake could be -used as a sort of drill; but that for grinding, a stick of elder was -superior to both flint and bone, inasmuch as it formed a better bed for -the sand. - -Professor Rau, of New York, has made some interesting experiments in -boring stone by means of a drilling-stock and sand, which are described -in the “Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute for 1868.”[152] -He operated on a piece of hard diorite an inch and three-eighths in -thickness, and employed as a drilling agent a wooden wand of ash, or -at times, of pine, in conjunction with sharp quartz sand. Attached to -the wand was a heavy disc, to act as a fly-wheel, and an alternating -rotatory motion was obtained by means of a bow and cord attached at its -centre to the apex of the drilling-stock, and giving motion to it after -the manner of a “pump-drill,” such as is used by the Dacotahs[153] and -Iroquois[154] for producing fire by friction, or what is sometimes -called the Chinese drill. So slow was the process, that two hours of -constant drilling added, on an average, not more than the thickness of -an ordinary lead-pencil line to the depth of the hole. - -The use of a drill of some form or other, to which rotatory motion in -alternate directions was communicated by means of a cord, is of great -antiquity. We find it practised with the ordinary bow by the ancient -Egyptians;[155] and Ulysses is described by Homer[156] as drilling out -the eye of the Cyclops by means of a stake with a thong of leather -wound round it, and pulled alternately at each end, “like a shipwright -boring timber.” The “fire-drill,” for producing fire by friction, which -is precisely analogous to the ordinary drill, is, or was, in use in -most parts of the world. Among the Aleutian Islanders the thong-drill, -and among the New Zealanders a modification of it, is used for boring -holes in stone. Those who wish to see more on the subject must consult -Tylor’s “Early History of Mankind”[157] and a “Study of the Primitive -Methods of Drilling,”[158] by Mr. J. D. McGuire. |49| - -Professor Carl Vogt[159] has suggested that the small roundels of -stone (like Worsaae, “Afb.” No. 86) too large to have been used as -spindle-whorls, which are occasionally found in Denmark, may have been -the fly-wheels of vertical pump-drills, used for boring stone tools. -They may, however, be heads of war-maces. - -In the case of some of the unfinished and broken axes found in the -Swiss lakes, and even in some of the objects made of stag’s horn,[160] -there is a projecting core[161] at the bottom of the unfinished hole. -This is also often seen in[162] Scandinavian and German specimens. -Dr. Keller has shown that this core indicates the employment of some -kind of tube as a boring tool; as indeed had been pointed out so long -ago as 1832 by Gutsmuths,[163] who, in his paper “Wie durchbohrte -der alte Germane seine Streitaxt?” suggested that a copper or bronze -tube was used in conjunction with powdered quartz, or sand and water. -In the Klemm collection, formerly at Dresden, is a bronze tube, five -inches long and three quarters of an inch in diameter, found near -Camenz, in Saxony, which its late owner regarded[164] as one of the -boring tools used in the manufacture of stone axes. This is now in the -British Museum, but does not appear to me to have been employed for -such a purpose. The Danish antiquaries[165] have arrived at the same -conclusion as to tubes being used for boring. Von Estorff[166] goes so -far as to say that the shaft-holes are in some cases so regular and -straight, and their inner surface so smooth, that they can only have -been bored by means of a metallic cylinder and emery. Lindenschmit[167] -considers the boring to have been effected either by means of a hard -stone, or a plug of hard wood with sand and water, or else, in some -cases, by means of a metallic tube, as described by Gutsmuths. He -engraves some specimens, in which the commencement of the hole, instead -of being a mere depression, is a sunk ring. Similar specimens are -mentioned by Lisch.[168] Dr. Keller’s translator, Mr. Lee, cites a -friend as suggesting the |50| employment of a hollow stick, such as a -piece of elder, for the boring tool. My experience confirms this; but -I found that the coarse sand was liable to clog and accumulate in the -hollow part of the stick, and thus grind away the top of the core. If I -had used finer sand this probably would not have been the case. - -Mr. Rose[169] has suggested the use of a hollow bone; but, as already -observed, I found bone less effective than wood, in consequence of its -not being so good a medium for carrying the sand. - -Mr. Sehested,[170] however, who carried out a series of interesting -experiments in grinding, sawing, and boring stone implements, found dry -sand better than wet, and a bone of lamb better than either elder or -cow’s-horn for boring. - -Most of the holes drilled in the stone instruments and pipes of North -America appear to have been produced by hollow drills, which Professor -Rau[171] suggests may have been formed of a hard and tough cane, the -_Arundinaria macrosperma_, which grows abundantly in the southern parts -of the United States. He finds reason for supposing that the Indian -workmen were acquainted with the ordinary form of drill driven by a -pulley and bow. The tubes of steatite, one foot in length, found in -some of the minor mounds of the Ohio Valley,[172] must probably have -been bored with metal. - -Dr. Keller, after making some experiments with a hollow bone and -quartz-sand, tried a portion of ox-horn, which he found surprisingly -more effective, the sand becoming embedded in the horn and acting like -a file. He comments on the absence of any bronze tubes that could -have been used for boring in this manner, and on the impossibility of -making flint tools for the purpose. The perishable nature of ox-horn -accounts for its absence in the Lake settlements.[173] On the whole -this suggestion appears to me the most reasonable. Experiments have -also been made in boring with stag’s-horn.[174] - -M. Troyon[175] considered that these holes were not bored by means of -a hollow cylinder, inasmuch as this would not produce so conical an -opening, and he thought that the axe was made to revolve in some sort -of lathe, while the boring was effected by |51| means of a bronze -tool used in conjunction with sand and water. He mentions some stone -axes found in Bohemia, and in the collection of the Baron de Neuberg, -at Prague, which have so little space left between the body of the axe -and the central cores, that in his opinion they must have been bored -by means of a metal point and not of a hollow cylinder. Mortillet[176] -thinks that some of the Swiss axes were bored in a similar manner. The -small holes for suspension, drilled through some of the Danish celts, -he thinks were drilled with a pointed stone.[177] Not having seen the -specimens cited by M. Troyon, I am unable to offer any opinion upon -them; but it appears to me very doubtful whether anything in character -like a lathe was known at the early period to which the perforated -axes belong, for were such an appliance in use we should probably -find it extended to the manufacture of pottery in the shape of the -potter’s wheel, whereas the contemporary pottery is all hand-made. M. -Desor,[178] though admitting that a hollow metallic tube would have -afforded the best means of drilling these holes, is inclined to refer -the axes to a period when the use of metals was unknown. He suggests -that thin flakes of flint may have been fastened round a stick and -thus used to bore the hole, leaving a solid core in the middle. I do -not however think that such a method is practicable. In some of the -Swiss[179] specimens in which the boring is incomplete there is a -small hole in advance of the larger, so that the section is like that -of a trifoliated Gothic arch. In this case the borer would appear to -have somewhat resembled a centre-bit or pin-drill. In others[180] the -holes are oval, and must have been much modified after they were first -bored. The process of boring holes of large diameter in hard rocks -such as diorite and basalt by means of tubes was in common use among -the Egyptians. These tubes are supposed to have been made of bronze, -and corundum to have been employed with them. Professor Flinders -Petrie[181] has suggested that they had jewelled edges like the modern -diamond crown drill, and that they could penetrate diorite at the rate -of one inch in depth for 27 feet of forward motion. I think, however, -that this is an over-estimate. Saws of the same kind were also used. - -Kirchner,[182] the ingenious but perverse author of “Thor’s -Donnerkeil,” considers that steel boring tools must have been used -|52| for the shaft-holes in stone axes; and even Nilsson,[183] who -comments on the rarity of the axes with the central core in the holes, -is inclined to refer them to the Iron Age. He[184] considers it an -impossibility to bore “such holes” with a wooden pin and wet sand, and -is no doubt right, if he means that a wooden pin would not leave a core -standing in the centre of the hole. - -The drilling the holes through the handles of the New Zealand[185] -_meres_ is stated to be a very slow process, but effected by means of a -wetted stick dipped in emery powder. I have seen one in which the hole -was unfinished, and was only represented by a conical depression on -each face. - -In some stones, however, such holes can be readily bored with wood -and sand; and in all cases where the stone to be worked upon can be -scratched by sand, the boring by means of wood is possible, given -sufficient time, and the patience of a savage. - -To what a degree this extends may be estimated by what Lafitau[186] -says of the North American Indians sometimes spending their whole life -in making a stone tomahawk without entirely finishing it; and by the -years spent by members of tribes on the Rio Negro[187] in perforating -cylinders of rock crystal, by twirling a flexible leaf-shoot of wild -plantain between the hands, and thus grinding the hole with the aid of -sand and water. The North American[188] tobacco-pipes of stone were -more easily bored, but for them also a reed in conjunction with sand -and water seems to have been employed. - -On the whole, we may conclude that the holes were bored in various -manners, of which the principal were— - -1. By chiselling, or picking with a sharp stone. - -2. By grinding with a solid grinder, probably of wood. - -3. By grinding with a tubular grinder, probably of ox-horn. - -4. By drilling with a stone drill. - -5. By drilling with a metallic drill. - -Holes produced by any of these means could, of course, receive their -final polish by grinding. - -With regard to the external shaping of the perforated stone axes -not much need be said. They appear to have been in some |53| cases -wrought into shape by means of a pick or chisel, and subsequently -ground; in other cases to have been fashioned almost exclusively by -grinding. In some of the axe-hammers made of compact quartzite, the -form of the pebble from which they have been made has evidently given -the general contour, in the same manner as has been observed on some -fibrolite hatchets, which have been made by sawing a flat pebble in two -longitudinally, and then sharpening the end, or ends, the rest of the -surface being left unaltered in form. This is also the case with some -stone hatchets, to form which a suitable pebble has been selected, and -one end ground to an edge. - -Such is a general review of the more usual processes adopted in -the manufacture of stone implements in prehistoric times, which I -have thought it best should precede the account of the implements -themselves. I can hardly quit the subject without just mentioning that -here, as elsewhere, we find traces of improvement and progress, both in -adapting forms to the ends they had to subserve, and in the manner of -treating the stubborn materials of which these implements were made. -Such progress may not have been, and probably was not, uniform, even -in any one country; and, indeed, there are breaks in the chronology of -stone implements which it is hard to fill up; but any one comparing, -for instance, the exquisitely made axe-hammers and delicately chipped -flint arrow-heads of the Bronze Age, with the rude implements of the -Palæolithic Period—neatly chipped as some of these latter are—cannot -but perceive the advances that had been made in skill, and in -adaptation of means to ends. If, for the sake of illustration, we -divide the lapse of time embraced between these two extremes into four -Periods, it appears— - -1. That in the Palæolithic, River-gravel, or Drift Period, implements -were fashioned by chipping only, and not ground or polished. The -material used in Europe was, moreover, as far as at present known, -mainly flint, chert, or quartzite. - -2. That in the Reindeer or Cavern Period of Central France, though -grinding was almost if not quite unused, except in finishing bone -instruments, yet greater skill in flaking flint and in working up -flakes into serviceable tools was exhibited. In some places, as at -Laugerie-haute, surface-chipping is found on the flint arrow-heads, and -cup-shaped recesses have been worked in other hard stones than flint, -though no other stones have been used for cutting purposes. |54| - -3. That in the Neolithic or Surface Stone Period of Western Europe, -other materials besides flint were largely used for the manufacture -of hatchets; grinding at the edge and on the surface was generally -practised, and the art of flaking flint by pressure from the edge -was probably known. The stone axes, at least in Britain, were rarely -perforated. - -4. That in the Bronze Period such stone implements, with the exception -of mere flakes and scrapers, as remained in use, were, as a rule, -highly finished, many of the axes being perforated and of graceful -form, and some of the flint arrow-heads evincing the highest degree of -manual skill. The subsequent manufacture of stone implements in Roman -and later times needs no further mention. - -Having said thus much on the methods by which the stone implements of -antiquity were manufactured, I pass on to the consideration of their -different forms, commencing with those of the Neolithic Age, and with -the form which is perhaps the best known in all countries—the celt. - - - - -|55| - -IMPLEMENTS OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -CELTS. - - -The name of Celt, which has long been given to hatchets, adzes, -or chisels of stone, is so well known and has been so universally -employed, that though its use has at times led to considerable -misapprehension, I have thought it best to retain it. It has been -fancied by some that the name bore reference to the Celtic people, by -whom the implements were supposed to have been made; and among those -who have thought fit to adopt the modern fashion of calling the Celts -“Kelts” there have been not a few who have given the instruments the -novel name of “kelts” also. In the same manner, many French antiquaries -have given the plural form of the word as _Celtæ_. Notwithstanding this -misapprehension, there can be no doubt as to the derivation of the -word, it being no other than the English form of the doubtful Latin -word _Celtis_ or _Celtes_, a chisel. This word, however, is curiously -enough almost an ἅπαξλεγόμενον in this sense, being best known -through the Vulgate translation of Job,[189] though it is repeated -in a forged inscription recorded by Gruter and Aldus.[190] The usual -derivation given is à _cælando_, and it is regarded as the equivalent -of _cælum_. The first use of the term that I have met with, as applied -to antiquities, is in Beger’s “Thesaurus Brandenburgicus,”[191] 1696, -where a bronze celt, adapted for insertion in its haft, is described -under the name of _Celtes_. - -I have said that the word _celte_, which occurs in the Vulgate, is -|56| of doubtful authenticity. Mr. Knight Watson,[192] in a paper -communicated to the Society of Antiquaries, has shown that the reading -in many MSS. is _certe_, and the question has been fully discussed by -Mr. J. A. Picton,[193] Mr. E. Marshall,[194] Dr. M. Much,[195] and -others. K. v. Becker[196] suggests that the error in writing _celte_ -for _certe_ originated between A.D. 800 and 1400, and he points out -that Conrad Pickel, the poet laureate, who died in 1508, latinized -his surname by _Celtes_. Treating the subject as one of probability, -it appears much more unlikely that a scribe should place a newfangled -word _celte_ in the place of such a well-known word as _certe_, than -that _certe_ should have been substituted for a word that had become -obsolete. I am, therefore, unwilling absolutely to condemn the word, -especially having regard to there being a recognized equivalent in -Latin, _Cælum_. - -It has been suggested that there may originally have been some -connection between the Latin _celtis_ and the British or Welsh _cellt_, -a flint; but this seems rather an instance of fortuitous resemblance -than of affinity.[197] A Welsh triad says there are three hard things -in the world—_Maen Cellt_ (a flint stone), steel, and a miser’s heart. - -The general form of stone celts is well known, being usually that of -blades, approaching an oval in section, with the sides more or less -straight, and one end broader and also sharper than the other. In -length they vary from about two inches to as much as sixteen inches. I -do not, however, propose to enter at once into any description of the -varieties in their form and character, but to pass in review some of -the opinions that have been held concerning their nature and origin. - -One of the most universal of these is a belief, which may almost be -described as having been held “_semper_, _ubique et ab omnibus_,” in -their having been thunderbolts. - -“The country folks[198] of the West of England still hold that the -‘thunder-axes’ they find, once fell from the sky.” In Cornwall[199] -they still have medical virtues assigned to them; the water in which -“a thunderbolt,” or celt, has been boiled being a specific |57| for -rheumatism. In the North of England, and in parts of Scotland, they are -known as thunderbolts,[200] and, like flint arrow-heads, are supposed -to have preservative virtues, especially against diseases of cattle. -In Ireland the same superstition prevails, and I have myself known an -instance where, on account of its healing powers, a stone celt was lent -among neighbours to place in the troughs from which cattle drank. - -In the British Museum is a thin highly polished celt of jadeite, -reputed to be from Scotland, in form like Fig. 52, mounted in a silver -frame, and with a hole bored through it at either end. It is said to -have been attached to a belt and worn round the waist as a cure for -renal affections, against which the material nephrite was a sovereign -remedy. - -In most parts of France,[201] and in the Channel Islands, the stone -celt is known by no other name than “_Coin de foudre_,” or “_Pierre de -tonnerre_”; and Mr. F. C. Lukis[202] gives an instance of a flint celt -having been found near the spot where a signal-staff had been struck -by lightning, which was proved to have been the bolt by its peculiar -smell when broken. M. Ed. Jacquard has written an interesting paper on -“Céraunies ou pierres de tonnerre.”[203] - -In Brittany[204] a stone celt is frequently thrown into the well for -purifying the water or securing a continued supply; and in Savoy it is -not rare to find one of these instruments rolled up in the wool of the -sheep, or the hair of the goat, for good luck, or for the prevention of -the rot or putrid decay. - -In Sweden[205] they are preserved as a protection against lightning, -being regarded as the stone-bolts that have fallen during thunderstorms. - -In Norway they are known as Tonderkiler, and in Denmark the old name -for a celt was Torden-steen.[206] The test of their being really -thunderbolts was to tie a thread round them, and place them on hot -coals, when, if genuine, the thread was not burnt, but rather rendered -moist. Such celts promote sleep. - -In Germany[207] both celts and perforated stone axes are regarded -|58| as thunderbolts (_Donnerkeile or Thorskeile_); and, on account -of their valuable properties, are sometimes preserved in families -for hundreds of years. I possess a specimen from North Germany, on -which is inscribed the date 1571, being probably the year in which -it was discovered. The curious perforated axe or hammer found early -in the last century, now preserved in the Museum of Antiquities at -Upsala,[208] seems to have been a family treasure of the same kind. -It bears upon it, in early Runes, an inscription thus interpreted by -Professor Stephens—“Owns Oltha this Axe.” Another, with four[209] -Runic characters upon it, was found in Denmark, and it has been -suggested that the letters on it represent the names of Loki, Thor, -Odin, and Belgthor.[210] The appearance of the American inscribed axe -from Pemberton,[211] New Jersey, described by my namesake, Dr. J. C. -Evans, and published by Sir Daniel Wilson, is not calculated to inspire -confidence in its authenticity. - -The German belief is much the same as the Irish. Stone celts are held -to preserve from lightning the house in which they are kept. They -perspire when a storm is approaching; they are good for diseases of man -and beast; they increase the milk of cows; they assist the birth of -children; and powder scraped from them may be taken with advantage for -various childish disorders. It is usually nine days after their fall -before they are found on the surface. - -In the ruins of a Cistercian nunnery, Martha’s Hof, at Bonn,[212] a -large polished celt of jadeite, like Fig. 52, was found, which had been -presumably brought there as a protection against lightning. It had been -placed in the roof of a granary. - -In Bavaria[213] and Moravia[214] stone axes, whether perforated or not, -are regarded as thunderbolts. - -In Holland,[215] in like manner, they are known as _donder-beitels_, or -thunder-chisels. - -In Spain they are known as _rayos_ or _centellos_, and are regarded -as thunder-stones, while among the Portuguese[216] |59| and in -Brazil[217] the name for a stone axe-blade is _corisco_, or lightning. - -In Italy[218] a similar belief that these stone implements are -thunderbolts prevails, and Moscardo[219] has figured two polished celts -as _Saette o Fulmini_; and in Greece[220] the stone celts are known as -_Astropelekia_, and have long been held in veneration. - -About the year 1081 we find the Byzantine emperor, Alexius -Comnenus,[221] sending, among other presents, to the Emperor Henry III. -of Germany, ἀστροπέλεκυν δεδεμένον μετὰ χρυσαφίου, an expression which -appears to have puzzled Ducange and Gibbon, but which probably means -a celt of meteoric origin mounted in gold. About 1670[222] a stone -hatchet was brought from Turkey by the French Ambassador, and presented -to Prince François de Lorraine, bishop of Verdun. It still exists in -the Musée Lorrain at Nancy. - -Nor is the belief in the meteoric and supernatural origin of celts -confined to Europe. Throughout a great part of Asia the same name of -thunderbolts or lightning-stones is applied to them. Dr. Tylor[223] -cites an interesting passage from a Chinese encyclopædia of the -seventeenth century respecting lightning-stones, some of which have the -shape of a hatchet. - -In Japan[224] they are known as thunderbolts, or as the battle-axe of -Tengu,[225] the Guardian of Heaven. They are there of great use[226] -medicinally; in Java[227] they are known as lightning-teeth. The old -naturalist Rumph,[228] towards the end of the seventeenth century, -met with many such in Java and Amboyna, which he says were known as -“Dondersteenen.” - -In Burma[229] and Assam[230] stone adzes are called lightning-stones, -and are said to be always to be found on the spot where a thunderbolt -has fallen, provided it is dug for, three years afterwards. When -reduced to powder they are an infallible specific |60| for ophthalmia. -They[231] also render those who carry them invulnerable, and possess -other valuable properties. The same is the case in[232] Cambodia. - -Among the Malays[233] the idea of the celestial origin of these stones -generally prevails, though they are also supposed to have been used in -aërial combats between angels and demons[234]; while in China they are -revered as relics of long-deceased ancestors. - -I am not aware whether they are regarded as thunderbolts in India,[235] -though a fragment of jade is held to be a preservative against -lightning.[236] Throughout the whole of Hindostan, however, they appear -to be venerated as sacred, and placed against the Mahadeos, or adorned -with red paint as Mahadeo. - -It is the same in Western Africa.[237] Sir Richard Burton[238] -has described stone hatchets from the Gold Coast, which are there -regarded as “Thunder-stones.” Mr. Bowen, a missionary, states that -there also the stones, or thunderbolts, which Saugo, the Thunder god, -casts down from heaven, are preserved as sacred relics. Among the -Niam-Niam,[239] in central Africa, they are regarded as thunderbolts. -An instructive article by Richard Andrée on the place of prehistoric -stone weapons in vulgar beliefs will be found in the _Mittheilungen_ -of the Anthropological Society of Vienna,[240] and an article[241] by -Dr. A. Bastian on “Stone Worship in Ethnography” in the _Archiv für -Anthropologie_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.—Celt with Gnostic Inscription. (The upper -figure actual size, the lower enlarged.)] - -The very remarkable celt of nephrite (now in the Christy collection), -procured in Egypt many years ago by Colonel Milner, and exhibited to -the Archæological Institute in 1868[242] by the late Sir Henry Lefroy, -F.R.S., affords another instance of the superstitions attaching to -these instruments, and has been the subject of a very interesting -memoir by the late Mr. C. W. King,[243] the well-known authority on -ancient gems. In this case both faces of the celt have been engraved -with gnostic inscriptions in Greek, arranged on one |61| face in the -form of a wreath; and it was doubtless regarded as in itself possessed -of mystic power, by some Greek of Alexandria, where it seems to have -been engraved. It is shown in Fig. 11, here reproduced from the -_Archæological Journal_. Another celt not from Egypt, but from Greece -proper, |62| with three personages and a Greek inscription engraved -upon it, is mentioned by Mortillet.[244] It seems to reproduce a -Mithraic[245] scene. A perforated axe, with a Chaldæan[246] inscription -upon it, is in the Borgia collection, and has been figured and -described by Lenormant. - -Curiously enough, the hatchet appears in ancient times to have had -some sacred importance among the Greeks. It was from a hatchet that, -according to Plutarch,[247] Jupiter Labrandeus received that title; and -M. de Longpérier[248] has pointed out a passage, from which it appears -that Bacchus was in one instance, at all events, worshipped under -the form of a hatchet, or πέλεκυς. He has also published a Chaldæan -cylinder on which a priest is represented as making an offering to a -hatchet placed upright on a throne, and has shown that the Egyptian -hieroglyph for _Nouter_, God, is simply the figure of an axe. - -In India the hammer was the attribute of the god Indra[249] as -Vágrâkarti. A similar worship appears to have prevailed in the North. -Saxo Grammaticus mentions that the Danish prince Magnus Nilsson, after -a successful expedition against the Goths, brought back among his -trophies some Thor’s hammers, “malleos joviales,” of unusual weight, -which had been objects of veneration in an island in which he had -destroyed a temple. In Brittany the figures of stone celts are in -several instances engraved on the large stones of chambered tumuli and -dolmens. - -There are two[250] deductions which may readily be drawn from the facts -just stated; first, that in nearly, if not, indeed, all parts of the -globe which are now civilized, there was a period when the use of stone -implements prevailed; and, secondly, that this period is so remote, -that what were then the common implements of every-day life have now -for centuries been regarded with superstitious reverence, or as being -in some sense of celestial origin, and not the work of man’s hands. - -Nor was such a belief even in Europe, and in comparatively modern -times, confined to the uneducated. On the contrary, Mercati,[251] -physician to Clement VIII., at the end of the sixteenth |63| century, -appears to have been the first to maintain that what were regarded as -thunderbolts were the arms of a primitive people unacquainted with the -use of bronze or iron. Helwing[252] at Königsberg in 1717 showed the -artificial character of the so-called thunderbolts, and in France, De -Jussieu in 1723, and Mahudel,[253] about 1734, reproduced Mercati’s -view to the Académie des Inscriptions. In our own country, Dr. Plot, -in his “History of Staffordshire”[254] (1686), also recognized the -true character of these relics; and, citing an axe of stone made of -speckled flint ground to an edge, says that either the Britons or -Romans, or both, made use of such axes; and adds that “how they might -be fastened to a helve may be seen in the Museum Ashmoleanum, where -there are several Indian ones of the like kind fitted up in the same -order as when formerly used.” Dr. Plot’s views were not, however, -accepted by all his countrymen, for in the _Philosophical Transactions -of the Royal Society_,[255] we find Dr. Lister regarding unmistakeable -stone weapons as having been fashioned naturally and without any -artifice. Some of the old German[256] authors have written long -dissertations about these stone hatchets and axes under the name of -Cerauniæ, and given representations of various forms, which were known -as _Malleus fulmineus_, _Cuneus fulminis_, Donnerstein, Strahlhammer, -&c. Aldrovandus says that these stones are usually about five inches -long and three wide, of a substance like flint, some so hard that a -file will not touch them. About the centre of gravity of the stone is -usually a hole an inch in diameter, quite round. They all imitate in -form a hammer, a wedge, or an axe, or some such instrument, with a hole -to receive a haft, so that some think them not to be thunderbolts, but -iron implements petrified by time. But many explode such an opinion, -and relate how such stones have been found under trees and houses -struck by lightning; and assert that trustworthy persons were present, -and saw them dug out, after the lightning had struck.[257] Kentmann -informs us how, in the month of May, 1561, there was dug out at Torgau -such a bolt projected by |64| thunder. It was five inches long, and -of a stone harder than basalt, which in some parts of Germany was -used instead of anvils. He also relates how near Jülich another stone -was driven by thunder through an enormous oak, and was then dug up. -Aldrovandus gives a highly philosophical view as to the formation of -these stones. He regards them as due to an admixture of a certain -exhalation of thunder and lightning with metallic matter, chiefly -in dark clouds, which is coagulated by the circumfused moisture and -conglutinated into a mass (like flour with water), and subsequently -indurated by heat, like a brick. - -Georgius[258] Agricola draws a distinction between the _Brontia_ and -the _Ceraunia_. The former, he says, is like the head of a tortoise, -but has stripes upon it, the latter is smooth and without stripes. The -_Brontia_ seems to be a fossil echinus, and the _Ceraunia_ a stone -celt, but both are thunderbolts. Going a little further back, we find -Marbodæus,[259] Bishop of Rennes, who died in the year 1123, and who -wrote a metrical work concerning gems, ascribing the following origin -and virtues to the _Ceraunius_:—— - - “Ventorum rabie cum turbidus æstuat äer, - Cum tonat horrendum, cum fulgurat igneus æther, - Nubibus elisus cœlo cadit ille lapillus. - Cujus apud Græcos extat de fulmine nomen: - Illis quippe locis, quos constat fulmine tactos, - Iste lapis tantum reperiri posse putatur, - Unde κεράυνιος est Græco sermone vocatus: - Nam quod nos fulmen, Græci dixere κεραυνὸν. - Qui caste gerit hune à fulmine non ferietur, - Nec domus aut villæ, quibus affuerit lapis ille: - Sed neque navigio per flumina vel mare vectus, - Turbine mergetur, nec fulmine percutietur: - Ad causas etiam, vincendaque prælia prodest, - Et dulces somnos, et dulcia somnia præstat.” - -It was not, however, purely from the belief of his own day that -Marbodæus derived this catalogue of the virtues of the Cerauniæ, -but from the pages of writers of a much earlier date. Pliny,[260] -giving an account of the precious stones known as Cerauniæ, quotes -an earlier author still, Sotacus, who, to use the words of Philemon -Holland’s translation, “hath set downe two kinds more of Ceraunia, to -wit, the blacke and the red, saying that they do resemble halberds -or axeheads. And by his saying, the blacke, |65| such especially as -bee round withall, are endued with this vertue, that by the meanes -of them, cities may be forced, and whole navies at sea discomfited; -and these (forsooth) be called[261] Betuli, whereas the long ones be -named properly Cerauniæ.” Pliny goes on to say, “that there is one -more Ceraunia yet, but very geason[262] it is, and hard to be found, -which the Parthian magicians set much store by, and they only can find -it, for that it is no where to bee had than in a place which hath -been shot with a thunderbolt.” There is a very remarkable passage in -Suetonius[263] illustrative of this belief among the Romans. After -relating one prodigy, which was interpreted as significant of the -accession of Galba to the purple, he records that, “shortly afterwards -lightning fell in a lake in Cantabria and twelve axes were found, a -by no means ambiguous omen of Empire.” The twelve axes were regarded -as referring to those of the twelve lictors, and were therefore -portentous; but their being found where the lightning fell would seem -to have been considered a natural occurrence, except so far as related -to the number. It appears by no means improbable that if the lake could -be now identified, some ancient pile settlement might be found to have -existed on its shores. - -The exact period when Sotacus, the most ancient of these authorities, -wrote is not known, but he was among the earliest of Greek authors who -treated of stones, and is cited by Apollonius Dyscolus, and Solinus, -as well as by Pliny. We cannot be far wrong in assigning him to an age -at least two thousand years before our time, and yet at that remote -period the use of these stone “halberds or axeheads” had so long ceased -in Greece, that when found they were regarded as of superhuman origin -and invested with magical virtues. We have already seen that flint -arrow-heads were mounted, probably as charms, in Etruscan necklaces, -and we shall subsequently see that superstitions, almost similar to -those relating to celts, have been attached to stone arrow-heads in -various countries. - -To return from the superstitious veneration attaching to them, to -the objects themselves. The materials[264] of which celts in Great -Britain are usually formed are flint, chert, clay-slate, porphyry, |66| -quartzite, felstone, serpentine, and various kinds of greenstone, -and of metamorphic rocks. M. A. Damour,[265] in his “Essays on the -Composition of Stone Hatchets, Ancient and Modern,” gives the following -list of materials: quartz, agate, flint, jasper, obsidian, fibrolite, -jade, jadeite, chloromelanite, amphibolite, aphanite, diorite, -saussurite, and staurotide; but even to these many other varieties of -rock might be added. - -The material most commonly in use in the southern and eastern parts of -Britain was flint derived from the chalk; in the north and west, on the -contrary, owing to the scarcity of flint, different hard metamorphic -and eruptive rocks were more frequently employed, not on account of any -superior qualities, but simply from being more accessible. So far as -general character is concerned, stone celts or hatchets may be divided -into three classes, which I propose to treat separately, as follows:— - -1. Those merely chipped out in a more or less careful manner, and not -ground or polished; - -2. Those which, after being fashioned by chipping, have been ground or -polished at the edge only; and - -3. Those which are more or less ground or polished, not only at the -edge, but over the whole surface. - -In describing them I propose to term the end opposite to the cutting -edge, the butt-end; the two principal surfaces, which are usually -convex, I shall speak of as the faces. These are either bounded by, or -merge in, what I shall call the sides, according as these sides are -sharp, rounded, or flat. In the figures the celts are all engraved on -the scale of half an inch to the inch, or half linear measure, and are -presented in front and side-view, with a section beneath. - - - - -|67| - -CHAPTER IV. - -CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS. - - -Celts which have been merely chipped into form, and left unground, -even at the edge, are of frequent occurrence in England, especially in -those counties where flint is abundant. They are not, however, nearly -so common in collections of antiquities as those which have been ground -either wholly or in part; and this, no doubt, arises from the fact that -many of them are so rudely chipped out, that it requires a practised -eye to recognize them, when associated, as they usually are, with -numerous other flints of natural and accidental forms. No doubt many -of these chipped celts, especially where, from the numbers discovered, -there appears to have been a manufactory on the spot, were intended to -be eventually ground; but there are some which are roughly chipped, and -which may possibly have been used as agricultural implements without -further preparation; and others, the edges of which are so minutely -and symmetrically chipped, that they appear to be adapted for use as -hatchets or cutting-tools without requiring to be farther sharpened by -grinding. There are others again, as already mentioned at page 32, the -edges of which have been produced by the intersection of two facets -only, and are yet so symmetrical and sharp, that whetting their edge on -a grindstone would be superfluous. - - * * * * * - -Of this character I possess several specimens from Suffolk, of which -one from Mildenhall is engraved in Fig. 12. As will be observed, the -edge is nearly semicircular, but it is nevertheless formed merely by -the intersection of two facets, each resulting from a single chip or -flake of flint having been removed. I have in my collection another -hatchet from the same place, which is so curiously similar to this in -all respects, that it was probably made by the same hand. I am not, -however, aware whether the two were found together. - -There is in these implements a peculiar curvature on one face, as -shown in the side view, which, I think, must be connected with the -method by which they were attached to their handles. From the form, -|68| it seems probable that they were mounted as adzes, with the edge -transversely to the line of the handle, and not as axes. I have a more -roughly-chipped specimen of the same type, found near Wanlud’s Bank, -Luton, Beds, by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., in which the same curvature of -one of the faces is observable. It is not so conspicuous in a larger -implement of the same class, also from Mildenhall (Fig. 13), but this -likewise is slightly curved longitudinally. In the Christy Collection -is another, found at Burwell, Cambridgeshire, of the same type. It -is rounded at the butt, but nearly square at the cutting edge, which -is formed by the junction of two facets, from which flakes have been -struck off. I have seen others of the same character from near the -Bartlow Hills, Cambs, and from Sussex. Others, from 4 3∕4 to 6 inches -in length, from Burwell, Wicken, and Bottisham Fens, are preserved -in the museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, and in my own -collection. In the Greenwell collection is a specimen 7 3∕4 inches -long, from Burnt Fen. I have also a French implement of this kind from -the neighbourhood of Abbeville. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.—Near Mildenhall. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.—Near Mildenhall. 1∕2] - -Implements with this peculiar edge, are found in Denmark. Indeed, the -edges of the common form of Kjökken-mödding axes[266] are usually -produced in the same manner, by the intersection of two facets, each -formed by a single blow, though the resulting edge is generally almost -straight. - -Closely approaching this Danish form, is that of a celt of brown |69| -flint, shown in Fig. 14, and found near Thetford by the late Mr. J. -W. Flower, F.G.S., with one face nearly flat, and the edge formed by a -single transverse facet. The implements, however, of this type, with -the chisel edge, are rarely met with in this country; and, generally -speaking, axes similar to those which occur in such numbers in the -Danish Kjökken-möddings and Coast-finds are of very rare occurrence -elsewhere. I have, however, a small nearly-triangular hatchet of the -Danish type, and with the sides bruised in the same manner (probably -with a view of preventing their cutting the ligaments by which the -instruments were attached to their handles, or, possibly, to prevent -their cutting the hand when held), which I found in the circular -encampment known as Maiden Bower, near Dunstable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.—Near Thetford. 1∕2] - -Hatchets of this type have also been found in some numbers in the -valley of the Somme, at Montiers, near Amiens, as well as in the -neighbourhood of Pontlevoy (Loir et Cher), in the Camp de Catenoy -(Oise), and in Champagne.[267] I have also specimens from the -neighbourhood of Pressigny-le-Grand and of Châtellerault. It would -therefore appear that this form of implement is not confined to -maritime districts, and that it can hardly be regarded as merely a -weight for a fishing-line,[268] as has been suggested by Professor -Steenstrup.[269] - -A few of the large Polynesian adzes of basalt have their edges produced -by a similar method of chipping and are left unground. - -Capt. G. V. Smith[270] has experimented in Jutland with the -Kjökken-mödding axes, and has cut down fir-trees of seven inches -diameter with them. The trees for Mr. Sehested’s[271] wooden hut were -cut down and trimmed with stone hatchets ground at the edge. - -In the British Museum are several roughly-chipped flints that seem -to present a peculiar type. They are from about 4 to 6 inches long, -nearly flat on one face, coarsely worked to an almost semicircular -bevel edge at one end, and with a broad rounded notch on each side, as -if to enable them to be secured to a handle, possibly as agricultural -implements. They formed part of the Durden collection, and were found -in the neighbourhood of Blandford. - -Another and more common form of roughly-chipped celt is that of which -an example is given in Fig. 15, from my own collection. It was found at -Oving, near Chichester, and was given me by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, -F.R.S. The edge, in this instance, is formed in the same manner, by the -intersection of two facets, but the section is nearly |70| triangular. -If attached to a handle it was probably after the manner of an adze -rather than of an axe. I have a smaller specimen of the same type, and -another, flatter and more neatly chipped, 7 3∕4 inches long, from the -Cambridge Fens. - -I have seen implements of much the same form which have been found -at Bemerton, near Salisbury (Blackmore Museum); at St. Mary Bourne, -Andover; at Santon Downham, near Thetford; at Little Dunham, Norfolk; -near Ware; and near Canterbury; but the edge is sometimes formed by -several chips, in the same manner as the sides, and not merely by the -junction of two planes of fracture. - -There are also smaller rough celts with the subtriangular section, -of which I have a good example, 4 1∕2 inches long, found by Mr. W. -Whitaker, F.R.S., near Maiden Castle, Dorsetshire. It is curiously -similar to one that I found near Store Lyngby, in Denmark. - -The same form occurs in France. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.—Oving, near Chichester. 1∕2] - -Other roughly-chipped implements are to be found in various parts of -Britain, lying scattered over the fields, some of them so rude that -they may be regarded as merely flints chipped into form, to serve some -temporary purpose; as wasters thrown away as useless by those who were -trying to manufacture stone implements which were eventually destined -to be ground; or as the rude implements of the merest savage. Certainly -some of the stone hatchets of the Australian natives are quite as rude -or ruder, and yet we find them carefully provided with handles. In -Hertfordshire, I have myself picked up several such implements; and -they have been found in considerable numbers in the neighbourhood of -Icklingham in Suffolk, near Andover, and in other places. An adze-like -celt of this kind (4 1∕2 inches) is recorded from Wishmoor,[272] -Surrey. Were proper search made for them, there are probably not many -districts where it would be fruitless. In Ireland they appear to be -rare; but numerous roughly-shaped |71| implements of this class have -been found in Poitou and in other parts of France. They are also met -with in Belgium and Denmark. - -As has already been suggested, it is by no means improbable that some -of these ruder unpolished implements were employed in agriculture, like -the so-called shovels and hoes of flint of North America, described by -Professor Rau. I have a flat celt-like implement about 6 1∕2 inches -long and 3 inches broad, found in Cayuga County, New York, which, -though unground, has its broad end beautifully polished on both faces, -apparently by friction of the silty soil in which it has been used -as a hoe. It is, as Professor Rau has pointed out in other cases, -slightly striated in the direction in which the implement penetrated -the ground.[273] I have also an Egyptian chipped flint hoe from Qûrnah, -polished in a precisely similar manner. It is doubtful whether many of -the rough implements from the neighbourhood of Thebes are Neolithic or -Palæolithic.[274] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.—Near Newhaven. 1∕2] - -The implement represented in Fig. 16, rude as it is, is more -symmetrical and more carefully chipped than many of this class. I -found it, with several other worked flints, on the surface of the -soil in a field between Newhaven and Telscombe, Sussex, where had -formerly stood a barrow, one of a group of four, the positions of -which are shown on the Ordnance Map, though they are now all levelled -to the ground. It is, of course, possible that such an implement may -have been merely blocked out, with the intention of finishing it by -subsequent chipping and grinding, and that it was not intended for use -in its present condition; or it may possibly have been deposited in -the tumulus as a votive offering, or in compliance with some ancient -custom, as suggested hereafter. (See p. 282.) It will be observed -that the original crust of the block of flint from which it was -fashioned is left at the butt end. A somewhat similar specimen, from -the neighbourhood of Hastings, and another from a tumulus at Seaford -are figured in the _Sussex Archæological Collections_[275]; and I have -one from the Thames at Battersea, and others from Suffolk and from the -Cambridge Fens. The late Sir Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., found one of -the same character at Shoreham, near Sevenoaks, and the late Mr. J. F. -Lucas had |72| another, 4 inches long, from Arbor Low, Derbyshire. A -small chipped celt was found in a barrow at Pelynt,[276] Cornwall. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.—Near Dunstable. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.—Burwell Fen. 1∕2] - -Fig. 17 shows an implement found by my eldest son, at the foot of the -Downs, near Dunstable. It has been chipped from a piece of tabular -flint, and can hardly have been intended to be ground or polished. It -is more than usually oval in form, and in general character approaches -very closely to the ovate implements from the River gravels; from the -manner in which it is fashioned, and from its being found in company -with worked flints unquestionably belonging to the Surface Period, I -regard it, however, as of Neolithic and not of Palæolithic age.[277] -Another implement of much the same form, found near Grime’s Graves, -in Norfolk,[278] has been figured by Canon Greenwell, F.R.S. Others -were found at Cissbury,[279] Sussex, and at Dunmer,[280] and near -Ellisfield Camp, Hants. Mr. C. Monkman had another, 5 3∕4 inches long, -and rather narrower in its proportions, found at Bempton, Yorkshire. I -have implements of much the same shape, though larger, from some of the -ancient flint-implement manufactories of Belgium. - -The next specimen (Fig. 18) is from Burwell Fen, Cambridge, and -|73| is in my own collection. It is of beautiful workmanship, most -skilfully and symmetrically chipped, and thinner than is usual with -implements of this class. The edge is perfectly regular, and has been -formed by delicate secondary chipping. So sharp is it, that I should -almost doubt its ever having been intended to be ground or polished. -That a sufficient edge for cutting purposes could be obtained by -careful chipping without grinding, seems to be evinced by the fact that -some stone celts, the whole body of which has been polished, are found -with the edge merely chipped and not ground. No doubt when these blades -were new, they were polished all over; but as the edge became broken -away by wear, it would appear as if the owners had contented themselves -by chipping out a fresh edge, without taking the trouble of grinding -it. Still it must be borne in mind, that a vast amount of labour in -grinding was saved by the implement being brought as nearly to the -required shape as possible by chipping only, so that the circumstance -of polished celts having unground edges may be due to merely accidental -causes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.—Mildenhall. 1∕2] - -These neatly-chipped flint celts are found also in Ireland. I have one -of the same section as Fig. 18, but longer and narrower. It was found -in Ulster. I have also specimens from Poitou. - -They are of occasional but rare occurrence with this section in Denmark. - -A neatly-chipped flint hatchet of small size and remarkably square at -the edge is shown in Fig. 19. It was found at Mildenhall, Suffolk, and -is in the Greenwell collection, now Dr. Sturge’s. There are traces -of grinding on some portions of the faces. In the same collection is -another hatchet of the same character from Ganton Wold, Yorkshire, the -edge of which is ground. I have an unground example of this type from -Lakenheath. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.—Bottisham Fen. 1∕2] - -The original of Fig. 20 is in the Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian -Society, and was found in Bottisham Fen. In neatness of workmanship it -much resembles the last; but it is slightly curved longitudinally, and -has the inner face more ridged than the outer. It was probably intended -to be mounted as an adze. - -I have a beautiful implement of the same general form, but nearly flat -on one face, found in Burwell Fen. It has been manufactured from a -large flake. |74| - -The hatchet engraved as Fig. 21, was found in ploughing near -Bournemouth, and was kindly brought under my notice by the late Mr. -Albert Way, F.S.A. Its principal peculiarity is the inward curvature of -the sides, rendering it somewhat narrower in the middle than at either -end. Its greatest expansion is, however, at what appears to have been -intended for the cutting edge, so that at this end its outline much -resembles that of one of the Scandinavian forms. The sides, however, -instead of being square are sharp. The specimen from Burwell Fen, Fig. -36, exhibits nearly the same form, but has the edge ground. A thinner -specimen, also from Burwell Fen, and in the Museum of the Cambridge -Antiquarian Society, is unground. It is 5 3∕8 inches long, 2 1∕8 inches -broad at one end and 1 1∕2 inches at the other, but only 1 1∕4 inches -broad towards the middle of the blade. Mr. T. Layton, F.S.A., possesses -a celt found in the Thames, that presents this peculiarity in a still -more exaggerated manner. It is 6 3∕4 inches long, 2 3∕4 inches broad at -one end and 2 1∕4 inches at the other, but only 1 1∕2 inches in width -at the middle of the blade. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.—Near Bournemouth. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.—Thetford. 1∕2] - -A remarkably elegant specimen of similar character is shown in Fig. -22. It was found on the surface at Thetford Warren, Suffolk, and was -formerly in the collection of Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S., but |75| now -in mine. It is of grey flint, and has been formed from a large flake, a -considerable portion of the flat face of which has been left untouched -by the subsequent working. All along the sides, however, as well as at -the ends, it has been chipped on both faces to a symmetrical form. The -outer surface of the original flake has almost entirely disappeared -during the process of manufacturing the adze, for such it appears to -have been rather than an axe. The form is suggestive of the tool having -been copied from one in metal, and is very like that of the flat bronze -celts. It may belong to the transitional period, when bronze was coming -into use, but was still too scarce to have superseded flint. - -The commonest form of the symmetrically-chipped but unground celts is -that shown in Fig. 23. The particular specimen engraved is in my own -collection; and, like so many other antiquities of this class, came -from the Fen district, having been found in Reach Fen in 1852. - -It is equally convex on both faces, and, from its close resemblance in -form to so many of the polished celts, it was probably destined for -grinding. I have another of the same form, 6 1∕2 inches long, from the -neighbourhood of Thetford. - -A magnificent specimen of this class, but wider in proportion to its -length, found near Mildenhall, is preserved in the Christy Collection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.—Reach Fen, Cambridge. 1∕2] - -I have a very fine specimen 9 inches long, from the Thames, and others -6 1∕2 and 5 1∕4 inches long, of a wider form, and delicately chipped -all round, from Burwell Fen. The late Mr. James Carter, of Cambridge, -had one of the narrower kind, 9 inches long, found at Blunt’s Hill, -near Witham, Essex. The same form, with numerous modifications, was -found in the pits at Cissbury,[281] which will shortly be described. -One about 8 1∕4 inches long, in outline like Fig. 20, was found in -Anglesea.[282] Another 9 1∕2 inches long, was found near Farnham,[283] -Dorset. - -One of the most remarkable discoveries of celts of this character, is -that of which I have seen a MS. memorandum in the hands of the late -Mrs. Dickinson,[284] of Hurstpierpoint, Sussex, who herself had four of -the |76| implements. According to this account, a man digging flints -on Clayton Hill, on the South Downs, Sussex, in 1803, found near the -windmill, just beneath the sod, and lying side by side, eight celts of -grey flint, chipped into form and not ground. One of these was as much -as 13 inches long. Those in Mrs. Dickinson’s collection were—(1) 11 3∕4 -long by 3 1∕2 broad and 2 1∕8 thick, (2) 9 1∕2 by 3 1∕4 by 1 3∕4, -(3) 7 1∕2 by 3 1∕8 by 2 1∕8, and (4) 6 1∕2 by 3 by 1 5∕8. Four such, -7 1∕4 to 9 inches long, chipped only, were found buried in a row at -Teddington.[285] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.—Scamridge, Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -These deposits seem to have been intentional. “In the Hervey -Islands[286] it was customary on the eve of battle to bury the stone -adzes of the family in some out-of-the-way place. Beds of these (in -heathen times) priceless treasures are still occasionally discovered. -About a dozen adzes, large and small, were arranged in a circle, the -points being towards the centre. The knowledge of the localities where -to find them was carefully handed down from one generation to another.” -At Northmavine,[287] Orkney, seven celts were found, arranged in a -circle with the points towards the centre. From two to eight flint axes -are sometimes found together in Denmark, and by Dr. Sophus Müller[288] -are regarded as funeral offerings or ex-votos. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.—Forest of Bere, near Horndean. 1∕2] - -Such roughly-chipped celts have been found in immense numbers in the -neighbourhood of Eastbourne. A large collection of them is in the -Museum at Lewes. I have seen a large celt of this section, but with -flatter edge[289] and straighter sides, which was found in peat at -Thatcham, near Newbury, Berks. Of the same class is a celt |77| found -near Norwich, engraved in the _Geologist_.[290] I have seen several -other specimens from Norfolk, as well as from Wilts, Cambridgeshire, -Dorsetshire, and other counties. Some specimens from the neighbourhood -of Grime’s Graves, Norfolk, have been figured.[291] Flint celts of this -class are occasionally found in Yorkshire, but the edge is usually -less round in outline than Fig. 23. In some cases it is straight, like -Fig. 19. Some of those from Yorkshire are extremely small, as will be -seen by Fig. 24, from Scamridge, in the North Riding. I have other -specimens, 2 and 2 1∕2 inches long and about 1 1∕2 inches broad, from -the Yorkshire Wolds. I have also one of the ordinary form from Lough -Neagh, Ireland; but it has been slightly ground near the edge. - -Though rare in Ireland, flint celts of this form and character are of -common occurrence in France[292] and Belgium. Many such have been found -at Spiennes, near Mons, where there appears to have been a manufactory, -as already mentioned; and I have specimens from Amiens (including one -from Montiers, 10 inches), from various parts of Poitou, and from -the Seine, at Paris. A broad, thin instrument of this class, made of -Silurian schist, and found in the dolmen of Bernac, Charente,[293] is -engraved by De Rochebrune. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25A.—Isle of Wight. 1∕2] - -They occur also in Denmark and Sweden in considerable numbers. - -A slightly different and narrower form of implement is shown in Fig. -25, which first appeared in the _Archæological Journal_, vol. xx., p. -371. The original is of yellow flint, and was found in the Forest of -Bere, Hampshire. I may add that I have picked up several in the |78| -parish of Abbot’s Langley, Herts. One like Fig. 25, but smaller, found -at Bedmond,[294] has been figured. A narrow specimen (6 inches, like -Fig. 25) from Aldbourne, Hungerford, is in the collection of Mr. J. W. -Brooke, of Marlborough. - -Many of the other forms of polished celts occur in the unground -condition, of the same shape, for instance, as Fig. 35. It is needless -to multiply illustrations, though I must mention a remarkable -instrument of this character preserved in the Greenwell collection. It -is of flint 6 1∕4 inches long, and in outline closely resembling Fig. -35. It is, however, much curved longitudinally, the curve being more -rapid towards the butt-end, which is also somewhat thickened. The chord -of the rather irregular arc thus produced is 1∕2 an inch. Such a tool -can only have been mounted as an adze or hoe with the concave face -towards the helve. It was found at Kenny Hill, Mildenhall. - -A singular instrument chipped out of flint, like three celts conjoined -into one, so as to form a sort of tribrach, is said to have been found -in the Isle of Wight. It is shown in Fig. 25A, kindly lent by the -Society of Antiquaries.[295] In form it is of much the same character -as some of the implements from Yucatan,[296] and from Vladimir,[297] -Russia. It may be compared with some examples of strange forms from -Honduras.[298] - - * * * * * - -I have already spoken of the method in which these and other allied -forms of stone implements were manufactured; but, before quitting the -subject of chipped or rough-hewn celts, I must devote a little space to -the interesting discovery made by General Pitt Rivers, F.R.S., on the -site of an ancient manufactory of flint implements, among which celts -predominated, within the entrenchment known as Cissbury, near Worthing, -where Colonel Ayre, R.A.,[299] found, some years ago, a very perfect -flint celt. The entrenchment has now been proved to be of more recent -date than the pits shortly to be mentioned. - -Accounts of the investigations of General Pitt Rivers and of some -subsequently carried on by Mr. Ernest Willett are given in the -_Archæologia_,[300] from which most of the following particulars are -abstracted. Canon Greenwell, F.R.S., also assisted at a part of the -exploration, and some of my illustrations are taken from specimens in -his collection. The earthwork, of irregularly oval form, surrounds -the summit of a chalk hill, near Worthing, in Sussex, on the western -slope of which, within the rampart, are some fifty funnel or cup-shaped -depressions, some of small size, but others about seventy feet in -diameter and twelve feet in depth. At the base of these there seem to -have been originally shafts |79| sunk into the chalk, and similar -shafts have now been found beneath the rampart. Many of these were -opened, and were found to contain, amongst the rubble with which -they were partially filled, well-chipped celts and ruder implements, -quantities of splinters and minute chippings of flint; flakes, some -worked on one or both faces; some few boring-tools and scrapers; and -many stones that had been used as hammers. Most of the flints had -become quite white on the surface, as is often the case when they rest -in a porous soil. Parts of antlers of red deer, remains of horse, -goat, boar, and ox (_Bos longifrons_), oyster and a few other marine -shells and snail-shells, as well as fragments of charcoal and rude -pottery, were also found. At the base of one of the pits explored by -Mr. Willett, galleries were found of precisely the same character as -those at Grime’s Graves, near Brandon, and at Spiennes, near Mons, -in Belgium, which I have already described, and it is evident that -they were excavated for the purpose of procuring flint, to be chipped -into the form of implements upon the spot. It does not appear certain -that the portions of antler which were found had been used, as in -the other cases, as picks for digging in the chalk; but, possibly, -some of the roughly-chipped flints, adapted for being held in the -hand,[301] and not unlike in form to the chopper-like flints from the -far older deposit in the cave of Le Moustier, Dordogne,[302] may have -been thus used, or as wedges to split the chalk. This is by no means -inconsistent with their having been originally flints partially trimmed -into shape, in order to be made into celts, and used for a secondary -purpose when it was found that they were not adapted for what they -were at first intended to be. In chipping them out, the part of the -nodule best suited for being held in the hand would be thus grasped, -and the opposite edge be trimmed by the hammer, and in this manner the -semblance of a chopper would be produced in what was merely an inchoate -celt. I have found flints on the Sussex Downs, with one side trimmed in -much the same manner as the Cissbury specimens, but which, from their -form, can hardly have been intended for “choppers.” - -Looking at a series of the worked flints from Cissbury, exclusive of -flakes and mere rough blocks, the general _facies_ is such as to show -that the ordinary forms of celts, or hatchets, were those at which, -in the main, the workmen aimed. A small proportion of them are highly -finished specimens, not improbably hidden |80| away in the loose chalk -when chipped out and accidentally left there. Others are broken; not, -I think, in use, but in the process of manufacture. A great proportion -are very rude, and ill-adapted for being ground. They are, in fact, -such as may be regarded, if not as wasters, yet, at all events, as -unmarketable; for it seems probable that at Cissbury, as well as at -other manufactories of flint implements, they were produced, not for -immediate use by those who made them, but to be bartered away for -some other commodities. In Central America,[303] at the present day, -the natives use cutting instruments of flint, which must, apparently, -have been brought from a distance of four hundred miles; while, among -the aborigines of Australia,[304] flints were articles of barter -between distant tribes; and some of the chalcedony implements in the -early Belgian caves are made of material presumed to have come from -the south of France. Mr. W. H. Holmes,[305] has described an ancient -quarry in the Indian territory, Missouri, from which chert was obtained -and roughed out on the spot. Some of the rude forms exactly resemble -the “turtle backs” of Trenton, by many regarded as palæolithic. The -antiquity of the quarry does not, however, exceed two hundred years. -Only a single fragment of a polished celt was found by General Pitt -Rivers within the inclosure; though another was found by Lord Northesk -in a pit that he subsequently opened. They are equally rare in -proportion at Spiennes. This fact, and the absence of grinding-stones, -also seem to show that the process of grinding was carried on -elsewhere, in cases where a ground edge was required. - -General Pitt Rivers suggests a question, whether the implements found -at Cissbury belong to the Neolithic or Palæolithic age, and seems -almost to regard the distinction between the implements of those -two ages as founded merely on the minor point of whether they are -chipped simply, or also polished. The associated fauna in this case -is however purely Neolithic or, as Professor Boyd Dawkins would call -it, Pre-historic; and whatever may be the case with a few of the -specimens which resemble in form implements from the River Drift, the -greater number are unmistakeably of forms such as are constantly found -polished, and are undoubtedly Neolithic. Indeed, as already stated, a -portion of at all events one polished specimen has been found in one of -the |81| pits. I need not, however, dwell longer on the circumstances -of this discovery, nor on the speculations to which it may give -rise, but will proceed to give illustrations of a few of the forms -of implements found at Cissbury, referring for others to the memoirs -already cited. A fine series of the implements has been presented to -the Christy Collection, now in the British Museum. - - * * * * * - -One of the most highly-finished forms, of which, in all, a considerable -number were found, is a long, narrow instrument, as shown in Fig. -26. So narrow and pointed are they, that General Pitt Rivers thought -that they may have been intended to be used with the pointed end as -spear-heads. Such instruments, however, are occasionally found with -the broad end ground to an edge. It is also to be observed that this -circular edge is generally more carefully chipped into form than the -pointed butt, and was therefore considered of more importance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.—Cissbury. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.—Cissbury. 1∕2] - -Another specimen is figured in the _Archæologia_;[306] and a narrow -flint celt of this character, 5 1∕4 inches long, found with a larger -celt in a barrow in Hampshire,[307] is in the British Museum. - -Another rough-hewn celt is shown in Fig. 27. Like several others, both -from Cissbury and Spiennes, the two ends are almost similar in form, -so that it is difficult to say at which extremity the cutting edge was -intended to be. Possibly it was found convenient to fashion some of -the |82| implements, in the first instance, into this comparatively -regular oval contour, and subsequently to chip an edge at whichever -end seemed best adapted for the purpose. This instrument is not unlike -that from the Forest of Bere, Fig. 25. Another from Cissbury, with more -parallel sides, has been figured.[308] Others from the same place are -like Figs. 16, 17, and 23, and like Fig. 35, though not ground at the -edge. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.—Cissbury. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.—Cissbury. 1∕2] - -Others, again, but much fewer in number, are of a wedge-shaped form, -with the thin end rounded. The specimen of this kind shown in Fig. 28 -is in the Greenwell Collection, and is very symmetrical. The butt-end -is considerably battered at one part, but not at its extremity; so -that this bruising may possibly have been on the block of flint before -the implement was chipped out. A less symmetrical specimen is figured -by General Pitt Rivers, having the butt formed of the natural crust -of the flint. That here engraved appears well adapted for holding in -the hand, so as to be used as a kind of chopper: but the rounded edge -is uninjured. Can it have been used as a wedge for splitting open the -chalk? or is it to be regarded as a special form of implement? If -so, it seems singular that, if such a form was in use in Britain, no -specimens have hitherto been met with having the edge ground. I should -be more satisfied as to the form being intentional and for a certain -purpose, had it occurred elsewhere than among what is evidently the -refuse of a manufactory; and yet a somewhat similar hand-tool is in use -among the natives of Australia. A polished implement of analogous form -is moreover shown in Fig. 83A. Two or three pointed implements, in form -like Fig. 417, were found at Cissbury. Judging from shape alone, they -might be regarded as being of Palæolithic age, but their surroundings -prove them to be Neolithic. |83| - -Fig. 29 also forms part of the Greenwell Collection, and presents a -very remarkable form, which, at first sight, has the appearance of -being a chisel or hatchet, with a large tang, intended for insertion -in a socket. The lower part is symmetrically chipped, like the cutting -end of a narrow celt, with sharp sides, such as Fig. 26; but at a point -a little more than half way along the blade, it rapidly expands, so -as to have an almost circular section. Much as I am tempted to regard -this as presenting a special type, I am almost convinced that the form -is due rather to accident than design. It appears to me, that a piece -of flint, partially chipped into shape for a larger and thicker celt, -had been broken in the process of manufacture, and a second attempt had -been made to convert it into a celt, this time of smaller size. The -lower part of this was successfully chipped out, but on arriving at -that portion of the blade where the section was nearly circular, the -flint was either so refractory, or the projections on which blows could -be administered to detach splinters were so small, that the manufacture -was abandoned, not, however, before many blows had been fruitlessly -struck, as the sides and projections of the face of the celt at this -part are considerably battered. - - * * * * * - -Dr. C. B. Plowright has described a number of rough-hewn instruments -of flint from what seems to have been the site of an ancient flint -manufactory on Massingham Heath, in West Norfolk. He has figured -several, including a wedge-formed implement like Fig. 28, and one of -shoe-shape, not unlike a palæolithic form.[309] - -An interesting instance of the discovery of a flint celt, merely -chipped out, but associated with polished celts, and other objects, is -that recorded in the _Archæologia_,[310] and Hoare’s “Wiltshire.”[311] -In a barrow opened by Mr. W. Cunnington, in 1802, was a grave of oval -form, containing a large skeleton lying on its back, and slightly on -one side, and above it a smaller skeleton in a contracted posture. At -the feet of the larger skeleton were more than three dozen perforated -pins and other instruments of bone, and three celts of white flint, -two of which were neatly polished, with a fine circular edge; and -the third was “only chipped to the intended form and size.” With -these lay what was apparently a grinding stone to polish the celts -or similar implements; and some grooved sandstones, like Fig. 185. -About the legs were several boars’ teeth perforated, and some cups -made of hollow flints; near the breast was a flat circular stone, and -a perforated stone axe, shown in Fig. 141, and two dozen more of the -bone instruments. Some jet or cannel-coal beads and a ring of the same -substance were also |84| found, as well as a small bronze awl; but it -is doubtful to which of the bodies this belonged. - -It will subsequently be seen that perforated axes similar to that in -this barrow are frequently associated with bronze daggers, so that we -seem to have, in this instance, evidence of the contemporaneous use of -unground, polished, and perforated stone axes at a period when bronze -was at all events not unknown in this country. - -If the chipped celt is to be regarded as unfinished, it may be -that the survivors, in burying it, together with the grinding and -polishing stones, in company with the original occupant of the barrow, -entertained a belief that in some future state of existence he might be -at leisure to complete the process of polishing. - -Very roughly-chipped pieces of flint, apparently blocked-out celts, are -occasionally found in barrows. Two such, 8 inches by 3 1∕2, and 7 by -3 1∕2, from a barrow near Alfriston, Sussex, examined by Dr. Mantell, -are in the British Museum. They may have been deposited under a similar -belief, or as votive offerings. Possibly this custom of placing -roughly-chipped implements, like, for instance, Fig. 16, in graves, may -be a “survival” from the times when warriors or hunters were buried -with the arms or weapons they had worn when living, and the burials -which they accompany may belong to a late part of the stone period. It -is worthy of notice that in the cemetery of Hallstatt, which belongs to -a date when iron was just coming into use, many of the ornaments appear -to have been manufactured expressly for funereal purposes, being like -the gold wreaths in Etruscan tombs, almost too light and fragile to be -worn by the living. In Denmark, however, the weapons of flint which -accompanied interments seem usually to have been highly finished and -perfect. - -Celts, merely chipped into form and unground, occur also in other kinds -of stone. They are, however, much rarer than those of flint. One of -iron-stone, from Sussex, 8 inches long and 3 1∕4 wide at the broad -end, is in the Blackmore Museum. A very fine specimen from Anglesey, -formed of felstone, is preserved in the Museum of Economic Geology, in -Jermyn Street. I have a fragment of one in greenstone, found by Mr. R. -D. Darbishire, F.G.S., at Dwygyfylchi, Carnarvonshire, and another of -felstone, extremely rude, found by him on Pen-maen-mawr. Some rough -celts of greenstone, found in barrows near St. Just, Cornwall, are in -the Truro Museum. - -In Ireland, where flint celts are comparatively rare, those in |85| -the unpolished condition appear to be relatively more abundant in that -material than in other rocks. In the large collection of the Royal -Irish Academy there are but few of either class, and I certainly have -seen some hundreds of Irish stone celts with the edges ground, for one -in which it had been left as originally chipped out. - -In France the chipped celts of flint are not uncommon, but those of -other materials are extremely rare. - -In Denmark, and Sweden also, the unpolished celts of flint are -abundant, but principally of a class not found in Britain, with square -sides and neatly worked wavy angles. Some of the other forms, however, -also occur, as has been already mentioned. In other materials than -flint they are almost unknown. - -In North America the roughly-chipped hatchets are scarce, but are more -common in flint or horn-stone than in other materials. - -In Western Australia, where the hatchets are made of rough splinters -of basalt and of silicious rocks, grinding seems but little practised. -Hatchets ground at the edge seem more common in Northern Australia. It -is, however, by no means improbable that in many countries the ruder -forms of stone implements have to a great extent escaped observation. I -much doubt whether the stone blades of the Australian hatchets, one of -which is engraved in Fig. 106, would, if detached from their handles, -be thought worthy of notice by the large majority of travellers, or -even be regarded as of human workmanship. - -However this may be, it appears that in Western Europe the practice -of grinding the edges of hatchets and adzes was more universal in the -case of those formed of other stones than flint, than with those of -purely silicious material. This circumstance rather strengthens the -probability of some of the flint implements which are found in the -unground condition, having been destined for use in that state, as was -the case with the North American hoe-like implements already mentioned. - -It seems almost demonstrable that some at least of these unpolished -celts must be among the earliest of the Neolithic implements of -this country; for though, in Neolithic times, some naturally-shaped -stones have been sharpened for use by grinding only, yet the art of -chipping stone into shape must in all probability have preceded that -of grinding or polishing its edges. So far as at present ascertained, -the practice of sharpening stone tools on the grindstone was unknown in -Palæolithic times; and, |86| assuming the occupation of this country -to have been continuous, into Neolithic times the transition from one -stage of civilization to the other has still to be traced. Under any -circumstances, we have as yet, in Britain, no means at command for -assigning with certainty any of these roughly-chipped forms to an -antiquity more remote than that of the carefully finished celts with -their edges sharpened by grinding, though in all probability some of -them must date back to a far remoter period. - -We have, on the contrary, good evidence that whatever may have been -the date when the roughly-chipped implements of this form were first -manufactured, they continued to be chipped out in much the same manner -at a time when the practice of sharpening by grinding was well known. -Though some may have been used without being ground, they bear, for the -most part, the same relation to the finished forms, as the blade of -steel rough from the forge bears to the polished knife. - - - - -|87| - -CHAPTER V. - -CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY. - - -The implements belonging to this class testify to a greater amount of -pains having been bestowed upon them than on those which have been -chipped only; yet the labour in grinding them has been far less than -with those which are polished over their entire surface. There are some -which occupy an intermediate position between those ground at the edge -only, and those which are polished all over; inasmuch as not only has -their edge been sharpened by grinding, but the principal asperities -both of the sides and faces have been removed in a similar manner, -yet without polishing anything like the entire surface. These may be -classed among polished celts; and, indeed, any distinction that can be -drawn between celts partly and wholly polished is imaginary rather than -real, as it is only a difference in degree. The specimens of this class -which I have selected for engraving present, as a rule, some slight -peculiarity either in form or in other respects. - - * * * * * - -The first of these, Fig. 30, is remarkable for the extremely rude -manner in which it is chipped out, and for the small portion of -its surface which is polished. So rude, indeed, is it, that an -inexperienced eye would hardly accept it as being of human workmanship. -The edge, however, has unmistakeably been ground. Possibly the -implement may have been chipped out from a fragment of a larger -polished celt, of which the edge had been preserved. It is of flint, -quite whitened by exposure, and was found by myself upon the Downs, -near Eastbourne, on September 12th, 1852, being the first stone -implement I ever discovered. I have since found a similar but larger -celt in a field of my own at Abbot’s Langley, Herts. It is 4 1∕2 inches -long, and the edge has been intentionally blunted by grinding, so that -it was possibly a battle-axe. I have some other specimens which appear -to have been made from fragments of larger polished celts. One of -these, found near Icklingham, 2 1∕4 inches wide and 2 3∕4 inches long, -is almost pear-shaped in outline, but truncated at the butt, where it -is about an inch wide. I have several similar implements from France -and Belgium, the butt-ends of which are battered, as if they had been -used as wedges. |88| - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.—Downs near Eastbourne. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.—Culford, Suffolk. 1∕2] - -The original of Fig. 31 is curious in another aspect, it having been -shaped, with the exception of the edge, entirely by nature, and not -by art. The tendency of certain kinds of flint to split up into more -or less regular prisms by assuming a sort of columnar structure, much -like that which is exhibited by starch in drying, is well known. The -maker of this implement has judiciously selected one of these prisms, -which required no more than a moderate amount of grinding at one end -to convert it into a neat and useful tool. It was found at Culford, in -Suffolk, and formerly belonged to Mr. Warren, of Ixworth, but is now in -my own collection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.—Near Mildenhall, Suffolk. 1∕2] - -The celt represented in Fig. 32 is also mine, and was found in the same -neighbourhood, near Mildenhall. It is pointed and entirely unpolished -at the butt-end, which, had that part only been preserved, would have -had all the appearance of being the point of an implement of the -Palæolithic period. It is, however, ground to a thin circular edge at -the broad end. Another, nearly similar, from Burwell Fen, is in the -Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. I have another, rather -straighter at the edge, but even more sharply pointed at the butt, from -Reach Fen, and several others from the Eastern Counties. One[312] of -the three celts found in the Upton Lovel Barrow was of much the same -shape, only larger and more rudely chipped. It had also apparently -more of its surface polished. General Pitt Rivers has a large Indian -celt of this character, but broader in its |89| proportions, found in -Bundelcund. It is not of flint. I have smaller specimens from Madras, -but more like Fig. 33. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.—Sawdon, North Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -Approaching to the form of Fig. 32, but rather broader at the edge -and more truncated at the butt, where a cavity in the flint has -interfered with the symmetry, is another celt in my own collection, -found at Sawdon, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, and engraved as -Fig. 33. It has been skilfully rubbed to a sharp segmental edge, but -no labour has been wasted in grinding any portion of the face beyond -what was necessary to produce the edge. Towards the butt-end some -few of the facets and projections are, however, highly polished, -but by friction only, as the surface is still uneven and not ground -down. These polished patches, as has been pointed out by Professor -Steenstrup, are probably significant of the blade having been mounted -in a horn or wooden socket, though not so firmly but that there was -some little motion in it, so that the resulting friction produced -the polish. A celt of this class, formed of ochreous flint, with a -semicircular edge, the sides straight, and partly ground away, is in -the Fitch Collection at Norwich. It is 6 1∕2 inches long, and was -found at Martlesham Hill, Suffolk. A good example found in 1880 at -Hinchcombe,[313] Gloucestershire has been figured. Another, about 9 -inches long, rounded at the sides, and partly ground on the faces, -was found in a barrow at Hartland, Devon, and is preserved in the -museum at Truro. One of black flint, 4 1∕8 inches long, was found at -Pen-y-bonc,[314] Holyhead Island, in 1873. It is curved, and may have -been used as an adze. Small specimens of this form are occasionally -found in Suffolk. In Yorkshire, they occur of still smaller size. In -the Greenwell Collection is one from Willerby Wold, 2 inches long -and nearly triangular in outline; and another with an oblique edge -from Helperthorpe, 2 1∕8 inches long. One from Ganton Wold, 2 3∕4 -inches long, has a straight edge. I have a very rude specimen from the -Yorkshire Wolds about 1 3∕4 inches long, 1 3∕4 inches wide at the edge, -and 1 inch at the butt. They occur also in Scotland. The late Dr. John -Stuart showed me a sketch of a flint celt of this type, 4 3∕4 inches -long, from Bogingarry, Old Deer, Aberdeenshire. Another, 1 5∕8 inches -by 1 inch, was found near Dundee.[315] One very like |90| the figure -was found at Urquhart,[316] Elgin. I have a celt of this character (4 -inches), from the neighbourhood of Mons, in Belgium. - -Another much more elongated form, but still belonging to the same class -of implements, is that represented by Fig. 34. The original is of grey -flint, and was found at Weston, Norfolk. The grinding is continued -farther along the body of the implement than in the former examples, -especially on one of the faces, and the asperities of the sides have -in places been removed by the same process. About half-way along the -blade, some of the facets have been polished by friction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.—Weston, Norfolk. 1∕2] - -In the Greenwell Collection is a beautiful specimen, 8 1∕4 inches -long, 2 inches broad at edge, and 3∕4 inch at butt, and nowhere more -than 5∕8 inch thick. It is most skilfully chipped, and the grinding -extends only 1∕2 inch back from the edge. The sides have been made -straight by |91| grinding, and are slightly rounded. It was found at -Kinlochew, Ross-shire. Another in the same collection, 9 1∕4 inches -long, was found at Kilham, in the East Riding of Yorkshire. I have seen -one 8 inches long from Leighton Buzzard. One of the same length from -Fordoun,[317] Kincardineshire, has been figured. - -I have two shorter specimens, about the same breadth as Fig. 34 at -the cutting edge, from the neighbourhood of Bury St. Edmunds and -Mildenhall. They do not, however, present any of the polished marks. -The sides of both have to a certain extent been made straight by -grinding. One of these with the natural crust of the flint still left -at the butt-end is shown in Fig. 35. I have several others from the -Eastern Counties, and two of much the same form from Carnaby Moor and -King’s Field, near Bridlington. The Greenwell Collection has specimens -found at Woodhall, near Harbottle, Northumberland, and at Stanford, -Norfolk. The latter is sharp at the butt. Others have been found in -the Thames, and are now in the British Museum. I have a note of one 6 -inches long from the Priory Valley, Dover. - -Others from Debenham, Suffolk, from Dunham, Norfolk, and from Thorpe, -are in the Norwich Museum. - -One of white flint 4 1∕2 inches long, with square butt, made straight -by grinding, and with the faces chipped in such a manner as to form -a central ridge, so that the grinding at the edge shows an almost -triangular facet, was found at Kirby Underdale, and is in the Greenwell -Collection. The sides in this specimen curve slightly inward. - -The two celts found by the late Mr. Bateman, in Liff’s Low,[318] near -Biggin, in company with a curious cup, a stag’s horn hammer, and -numerous worked flints, including two flakes ground at the edge, were -of this form and character. The larger of the two is about 7 inches -long. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.—Mildenhall. 1∕2] - -Mr. Cunnington, F.G.S., has a small celt of this kind from Morton, near -Dorchester. Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, have specimens of the same -class. One of these (4 3∕4 inches) is from Garton, Yorkshire; another -similar, but less taper (4 3∕8 inches), is from Lady Graves, near -Fimber, where also a ruder celt of the same character was found. I have -a small celt 3 inches long of the same class, from Seamer, Yorkshire. -One of dark flint, slightly curved (5 1∕4 inches), found at South -Slipperfield, West Linton, Peeblesshire, is preserved in the National -Museum at Edinburgh.[319] - -It was the cutting end of a celt of this class, sharp at the sides, -and |92| ground at the edge only, which is said to have been found -embedded in the skull of a _Bos primigenius_,[320] in a fen near -Cambridge. The skull and implement are in the Woodwardian Museum. In -the Fitch Collection is a small flint adze of this character, but -rather narrower, and very much thinner in proportion. It is 4 1∕2 -inches long, about 1 3∕8 inches broad, and only 1∕4 inch thick. It is -considerably curved in the direction of its length, and bears only -slight traces of grinding at the edge, which is segmental. It was found -at Santon Downham, Suffolk. I have two such thin adzes nearly flat -(4 3∕4 and 4 1∕4 inches) from West Stow, Suffolk, and Thetford. They -are both ground to a sharp edge. - -A celt, in form like Fig. 35, found with flint knives and other -implements in some beds of sand near York, has been figured by Mr. C. -Monkman.[321] Similar implements are found in Ireland. I have two such, -almost identical in form with those from Suffolk. They are both from -Ulster. The same form occurs in Belgium. - -One of these more adze-like implements with a considerable part of the -convex face polished, was found in Reach Fen, and is shown in Fig. 35A. -Fig. 84A, which is polished all over, belongs to the same class. - -I have a fine bowed narrow adze (7 inches) ground at the edge only, -from Hampshire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35A.—Reach Fen. 1∕2] - -The celt represented in Fig. 36 is of remarkable form, inasmuch as, -like the unground specimen, Fig. 21, the sides expand at the butt-end. -It was found in Burwell Fen, and is in the collection of the Cambridge -Antiquarian Society. It is formed of chalcedonic flint, and the sharp -sides are partially smoothed by grinding. It is slightly curved in the -direction of its length, and may have been used as an adze. I have one -of the same character (5 5∕8 inches) from Swaffham, Cambs, and another -(4 3∕4 inches) from Oldbury, Ightham, given me by Mr. B. Harrison, -in which the narrowing in the middle of the blade is even more -conspicuous. One much like the figure, but with shorter sides (5 7∕8 -inches) was found near Dundee.[322] Another smaller, and somewhat -similar implement, but expanding more towards the edge and less at the -butt, was found at Bridge Farm, near North Tawton, Devon, and was in -the possession of Mr. W. Vicary, F.G.S., of Exeter. - -A few celts expanding at the edge, and polished all over, will be -subsequently described. |93| - -In Fig. 37 is shown a flint celt, found near Thetford, and formerly in -the collection of Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S. It is partially ground at -the edge and on the projecting portion of one face, which is curved -lengthwise. The other face is rather ogival, and much resembles that of -the chipped celt from Mildenhall, Fig. 12. I have a shorter specimen of -the same character from Icklingham. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.—Burwell Fen. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.—Thetford. 1∕2] - -Flint celts of the form of Fig. 23, but having the edge ground, -frequently occur. I have specimens from Burwell Fen, Icklingham, and -other places in the Eastern Counties. One was found at Stifford, -near Gray’s Thurrock, Essex, 6 1∕2 inches long.[323] The late Mrs. -Dickinson, of Hurstpierpoint, had another, 6 inches long, found at -Pycombe Hill, Sussex. The late Mr. Durden, of Blandford, had one, now -in the British Museum, from the encampment on Hod Hill, Dorsetshire. -I have one or two such from the site of the ancient manufactory at -Spiennes, near Mons, and others from the North of France. - -The next specimen, Fig. 38, I have engraved on account of the -peculiarity in its form. The butt-end, for nearly 2 1∕2 inches along -it, has the sides nearly parallel, the blade then suddenly expands -with a rounded shoulder, and terminates in a semicircular edge, which -is neatly |94| ground, the rest of the celt being left in the state -in which it was chipped out. From the form, it would appear as if this -implement had been intended to be mounted by the insertion of the -butt-end in a socket, like that shown in Fig. 98, so that it could be -used as an axe. The axis of the butt is not quite in the same line as -that of the rest of the blade. It was found at Undley Common, near -Lakenheath, and is in the Greenwell Collection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.—Undley Common, Lakenheath. 1∕2] - -A remarkable specimen of an allied kind is shown in Fig. 38A. The edge -only is ground and a flat surface has been left at the butt-end, which -is almost circular. It was found on Ringwood Gore Farm, East Dean, -Sussex, and was given to me by Mr. R. Hilton. - -Another form, apparently intended for use as an adze, is also of -rare occurrence. The specimen shown in Fig. 39 was found at Ganton, -Yorkshire, and is in my own collection. It is very much more convex on -one face than the other, which, indeed, is nearly flat. The grinding is -confined to the edge, but some parts of the flat face are polished as -if by friction. - -The late Dr. John Stuart, F.S.A.Scot., showed me a sketch of a large -implement of this type, and considerably bowed longitudinally, found at -Bogingarry, Old Deer, Aberdeenshire. It is of flint, 4 1∕2 inches long, -and 2 inches wide. |95| - -[Illustration: Fig. 38A.—East Dean. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.—Ganton. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.—Swaffham Fen. 1∕2] - -Another form of adze, if such it be, remarkably flat on one face and -narrow at the butt, is shown in Fig. 40. This specimen was found in -Swaffham Fen, Cambridge, and is in my own collection. The flat face has -been produced at a single blow, and has been left almost untouched, -except where trimmed by chipping to form the edge, which, however, -|96| has been rendered blunt by grinding. The sides are very minutely -chipped along the angles, and there seems some possibility of the -instrument having been used as a rimer or boring tool. - -The celts of other materials than flint, and ground only at the edge, -are of rarer occurrence than those in flint. That engraved as Fig. 41 -was found at Grindale, near Bridlington. It is of felstone, and is -remarkable as being so much curved in the direction of its length. I -have another smaller specimen from the same place, but the blade is -straight. The edge, however, is slightly gouge-like. - -Mr. J. W. Brooke has a small adze of flint (2 1∕4 inches) in outline -almost identical with Fig. 41. It came from near Aldbourne, Wilts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.—Grindale, Bridlington. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.—North Burton. 1∕2] - -Another of these instruments expanding towards the edge, and apparently -adapted for insertion in a socket, is shown in Fig. 42. It is made -of hone-stone, and the flat butt is the result of a natural joint -in the stone. It was found at North Burton, in the East Riding of -Yorkshire, and is in the Greenwell Collection, where is also a celt of -greenstone much like Fig. 41, found in a barrow with a burnt interment -on Seamer Moor, Yorkshire; and another of the same class, 3 3∕4 inches -long and 2 3∕4 inches wide, also from Seamer Moor. A third specimen, -rather smaller, was found in a barrow at Uncleby, Yorkshire. One of -greenstone, 2 1∕2 inches long, and nearly triangular in outline, was -found near Keswick, and is in the Blackmore Museum. A longer adze of -greenstone, considerably curved in the blade, lay in company with -various implements of flint in some sand-beds near York.[324] In the -Mayer Collection at Liverpool is a celt of clay-slate, 4 inches long -and ground at the edge, found at Toxteth. In the collection of the late -Mr. J. F. Lucas, of Fenny Bentley Hall, near Ashbourne, were two celts -(5 1∕2 and 7 inches) of the same type as Fig. 35, but more adze-like in -character, and formed of felstone. They were found on Middleton Moor, -and at Wormhill, near Buxton, Derbyshire. - -In my own collection, is a greenstone celt with the sides sharp and -nearly parallel, 7 1∕2 inches long and nearly 3 inches broad, with -a semicircular edge partly ground, found at Shrub Hill, Feltwell, -Norfolk. |97| - -I have also a large specimen in form more resembling Fig. 23, six -inches long. It is ground at the edge, which is nearly semicircular, -and along the sides. It was found at Thurston, Suffolk, and is formed -of a piece of tough mica-schist, with garnets[325] in it, a material, -no doubt, derived from the Glacial beds of that district. Another from -Troston, in the same neighbourhood, is formed from a rough fragment -of micaceous grit ground to an edge at one end. In Scotland some -wedge-shaped blades of granite, exhibiting traces of a very small -amount of artificial adaptation, have been found. Two such, from -Aberdeenshire, described as axes, have been figured.[326] The small -stone celts found in Orkney,[327] though tolerably sharp at the edge, -are described as rough on the sides. - - * * * * * - -Turning to foreign countries, the discovery of flint instruments of -this class, ground at the edge only, or on some small portions of their -surface, is, as has already been observed, not uncommon in France and -Belgium. In Denmark they are also very abundant, but the most common -Danish form with a thick rectangular section does not appear to occur -in Britain. Among the North American stone hatchets, many present this -feature of being ground at the edge only, and the same is the case with -some of the tools of the native Australians, such as that engraved in -Fig. 105. A rough celt from Borneo, ground at the edge only, has been -engraved by General Pitt Rivers.[328] The type also occurs in India and -Japan. - -In all European countries instruments of this form and character, but -made of other materials than flint, are, like those entirely unground, -of very rare occurrence. This rarity may arise from two causes, the -one, that the tools or weapons made of these materials have not so -sharp a cutting edge produced by chipping only as those formed of -flint; and the second, that being usually somewhat softer than flint it -required less time and trouble to grind them all over. - -None of the rough celts, nor those ground at the edge only, seem so -well adapted for use as hand-tools without a haft, as do some of those -which are polished all over. Looking, however, at some of the rough -Australian tools which are hafted with gum in a piece of skin, and thus -used in the hand, it is hardly safe to express a decided opinion. The -majority were, notwithstanding, in all probability, mounted with shafts -after the manner of axes or adzes. - - - - -|98| - -CHAPTER VI. - -POLISHED CELTS. - - -The last of the three classes into which, for the sake of convenience -of arrangement, I have divided these instruments, viz., that comprising -the celts ground or polished, not only at the edge, but over a great -portion, or the whole, of their surface, is also that which is usually -most numerously represented in collections of antiquities. Whether -this excess in number over the other classes arises from the greater -original abundance of these polished implements, or from their being -better calculated to attract observation, and, therefore, more likely -to be collected and preserved than those of a less finished character, -is a difficult question. From my own experience it appears that, so far -as relates to the implements of this character formed of flint, and -still lying unnoticed on the surface of the soil, the proportions which -usually obtain in collections are as nearly as may be reversed, and the -chipped, or but partially polished, celts are in a large majority. - -Among the polished celts there is a great range in size, and much -variation in form, though the general character is in the main, -uniform. The readiest method of classification is, I think, in -accordance with the section presented by the middle of the blade, and -I, therefore, propose to arrange them as follows:— - -1. Those sharp or but slightly rounded at the sides, and presenting a -pointed oval or _vesica piscis_ in section. - -2. Those with flat sides. - -3. Those with an oval section. - -4. Those presenting abnormal peculiarities. - -In each subdivision there will, of course, be several varieties, -according as the sides are more or less parallel, the blade thicker -or thinner, the butt-end more or less pointed, and the edge flat, -segmental, or oblique. There are also intermediate forms between these -merely arbitrary classes. |99| - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.—Santon Downham, Suffolk. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -I commence with those of the first sub-division, in flint. The first -specimen I have engraved, Fig. 43, is a representative of a common -type, and was found at Santon Downham, between Brandon and Thetford, -on the borders of Norfolk and Suffolk, where, also, implements -belonging to the Palæolithic Period have been discovered. The sides -were originally sharp, but have been slightly rounded by grinding. The -faces still show, in many places, the surface originally produced by -chipping, but all projections have been ground away. |100| - -I have also a larger specimen, 9 1∕2 inches long, from the same spot, -and found, I believe, at the same time. - -This form is of common occurrence in the Eastern Counties. I have -specimens from Hilgay Fen, Norfolk (8 1∕2 inches), and Botesdale (7 -inches), Hepworth (6 1∕4 inches), Undley Hall, near Lakenheath (5 3∕4 -inches), in Suffolk. Some of these are ground over almost the entire -face. A fine specimen (10 inches) is in the Woodwardian Museum, at -Cambridge. In the Fitch Collection is a fine series of them. One of -these, 9 3∕4 inches long, 3 1∕2 inches broad, and 2 1∕2 inches thick, -weighing 3 lbs. 6 1∕2 ozs., was found at Narborough, near Swaffham. -Another (9 1∕2 inches), weighing 3 3∕4 lbs., was found near Ipswich. -A third (8 3∕4 inches) was discovered at Bolton, near Great Yarmouth. -Others from 5 3∕4 inches to 7 1∕4 inches long, are from Beachamwell, -Elsing, Grundisburgh, Aylsham, and Breccles, in the counties of Suffolk -and Norfolk. That from the last-named locality has one face flatter -than the other. - -There are others in the Norwich Museum, including one from Blofield, -8 1∕2 inches long. - -There are numerous specimens of this type in the British Museum. One -from Barton Bendish, Norfolk, is 7 3∕4 inches long; another from -Oxburgh, in the same county, 6 3∕4 inches. Others, 6 1∕2 inches and -5 1∕2 inches long, are from Market Weston and Kesgrave, Suffolk. The -former is semicircular at both ends. - -Mr. A. C. Savin has a well-finished example (6 1∕2 inches) from -Trimingham, five miles south of Cromer. - -The Rev. S. Banks, of Cottenham, had a fine specimen, of white flint, -8 1∕2 inches long, found at Stow Heath, Suffolk. - -Several celts of this form found in the Fen district are in the Museum -of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. I have some from the same -neighbourhood, of which two are unusually wide in proportion to their -length, and in outline much resemble Fig. 48, though the edge is more -semicircular. One of these is 7 inches long, 3 1∕4 inches wide, and -1 3∕4 inches thick; the other 5 1∕2 inches long, 2 3∕4 inches wide, and -1 3∕8 inches thick. - -I have seen a celt presenting a narrow variety of this form, which was -found at Albury, near Bishop’s Stortford. It is 6 3∕4 inches long, and -1 5∕8 inches wide, and polished all over. - -The ordinary form, though apparently of most frequent occurrence in the -East Anglian counties, is not by any means confined to that district. -One, 8 1∕2 inches long, the sides very slightly flattened; and three -others, 6 inches and 5 inches long, with the sides more rounded, all -found in the Thames, at London, are in the British Museum. I have one -from the Thames, at Teddington (6 inches), and three, 5 1∕4 to 6 inches -long, found together in[329] Temple Mills Lane, Stratford, Essex, in -1882. In the Greenwell Collection is one 7 1∕2 inches long, found at -Holme, on Spalding Moor, Yorkshire. - -A flint celt of this form (6 1∕2 inches), from Reigate,[330] is -in the British Museum, as well as another (6 1∕4 inches), rather -oblique at the edge, found in a barrow in Hampshire, engraved in the -_Archæologia_.[331] |101| Another, 7 inches long, was found near -Egham,[332] Surrey. Two from Ash[333] near Farnham, and Wisley in the -same county have been figured. I have a short, thick specimen (4 1∕2 -inches) found at Eynsham, Oxfordshire. It sometimes happens that celts -of this general character have one side much curved while the other is -nearly straight, so that in outline they resemble Fig. 86. One such, -5 inches long and 2 inches broad in the middle, found at Bishopstow, -is in the Blackmore Museum. Another (6 1∕2 inches) with the sides -less curved, from Stanton Fitzwarren, Wilts, has been engraved by the -Archæological Institute.[334] Two, 7 1∕4 and 5 1∕4 inches long, were -found at Jarrow.[335] - -The same type as Fig. 43 occasionally occurs in other materials than -flint. The late Mr. James Wyatt, F.G.S., had a celt of greenstone -9 3∕4 inches long, 3 1∕2 inches wide at the edge, which is slightly -oblique, found many years ago in Miller’s Bog, Pavenham, Beds. There is -an engraving of it, on which it is described as of flint, but such is -not the fact. The form is also sometimes found in France and Belgium. -I have specimens from both countries; and one from Périgord, 8 inches -long, is in the Museum at Le Puy. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.—Coton, Cambridge. 1∕2] - -Allied to this form, but usually more rounded at the sides, and flatter -on the faces, are the implements of which an example is given in Fig. -44. The original was found at Coton, Cambridgeshire, in 1863. The type -is the same as that of Fig. 35; but in this case the celt is polished -all over. The butt-end is ground to a semicircular outline, but is, -like the sides, rounded. The same is the case with some of the thicker -celts of the form last described. A celt of much the same character, -but with the sides apparently rather flatter (7 1∕3 inches), was found -at Panshanger, Herts.[336] One (5 inches), from the Isle of Wight, is -in the British Museum. The edge is oblique, as is that of another of -the same length found on the South Downs, and now in the Museum at -Lewes. Another of grey flint, 7 inches long, tapering from 2 inches -at edge to 1 inch at butt, 7∕8 inch thick, semicircular at the butt -and edge, the faces polished nearly all over, but the sides sharp and -left unground, was found during the Main Drainage Works for London, -and is also in the British Museum. Others have been described from -Playford,[337] Suffolk (6 7∕8 inches) and Chalvey Grove,[338] Eton -Wick, Bucks (7 3∕8 inches), and part of one from Croydon.[339] |102| - -I have seen specimens of the same kind, with the sides straight -and sharp though slightly rounded, tapering towards the butt which -is semicircular, and varying in length from 5 1∕4 inches to 7 1∕4 -inches, found at Alderton, Suffolk; Thorn Marsh, Yorkshire; Norton, -near Malton; Westacre Hall, Norfolk; and elsewhere. The late Mr. J. -Brent, F.S.A., showed me a drawing of one about 7 inches long, found at -Bigborough Wood, Tunford, Canterbury. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.—Reach Fen, Cambridge. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 46—Great Bedwin, Wilts. 1∕2] - -The celt shown in Fig. 45 belongs to the same class, though it is -rather flatter at the sides. It is polished over the greater part of -its surface, but is on one face quite unpolished at the edge. I have -engraved it as an example of the manner in which, after the edge of -a hatchet of this kind had become damaged by use, a fresh edge was -obtained by chipping, which, in some instances, the owner of the -implement was not at the pains to sharpen by grinding. - -Fig. 46 gives another variety of the flint celts with sharp or slightly -rounded sides. It is slightly ridged along each face, and the faces -instead of being uniformly convex to the edge have at the lower part a -nearly flat facet of triangular form, the base of which forms the edge. -This specimen was found at Great Bedwin, Wilts, and is in the Greenwell -Collection. - -I have a nearly similar specimen (6 1∕4 inches) from Northwood, -Harefield, Middlesex, and another of the same length, found at -Hepworth, |103| Suffolk, but the facet at the edge is not quite so -distinct. A third from Abingdon is only 4 1∕2 inches long. - -A long narrow chisel-like celt of this pointed oval section (8 -inches) from Aberdeenshire[340] has been figured. A flint celt from -Chiriqui,[341] found with a sort of flint punch and some burnishing -pebbles in a grave, presumed to be that of one of the native workers in -gold, is remarkably like Fig. 46 in form. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.—Burradon, Northumberland. 1∕2] - -In the Fitch Collection is a large thick specimen (9 5∕8 inches) found -at Heckingham Common, Norfolk, and a shorter, broader one with a -faceted edge, from Pentney. Another of flint (6 1∕2 inches) with the -sides much rounded, but with a similar facet at the edge, was found at -Histon, Cambs, and belonged to the late Rev. S. Banks. - -It seems probable that these instruments when first made did not -exhibit the facet at the edge, but that it has resulted from repeated -grinding as the edge became injured by wear. - -A celt, apparently of this section, but more truncated at the butt, and -with a narrow facet running along the centre of the face, was found in -Llangwyllog,[342] Anglesey. It is not of flint but of “white magnesian -stone.” - -Fig. 47 exhibits a beautiful implement of a different character, and -of a very rare form, inasmuch as it expands towards the edge. It is -of ochreous-coloured flint polished all over, and is in the Greenwell -Collection. It was found at Burradon, Northumberland, and in outline -much resembles that from Gilmerton, Fig. 76, but this latter has the -sides flat and a cutting edge at each end. - -A celt of similar form, but only 6 1∕2 inches long, found at Cliff -Hill, is in the Museum at Leicester. Four flint hatchets, found at -Bexley, Kent, seem from the description given of them to be nearly of -this type.[343] |104| - -A few specimens of this form, both unground and ground merely at the -edge, have already been mentioned, and specimens engraved, as Figs. -21 and 36. Hatchets expanding towards the edge are of more common -occurrence in Denmark than in this country, though even there they are -rather rare when the expansion is well-defined. - -In the British Museum is a magnificent celt of this section, but -in outline like Fig. 77. It is ground over nearly the whole of its -surface, but the edge at each end has only been chipped out. It is made -of some felspathic rock, and is no less than 14 5∕8 inches in length. -It was found near Conishead Priory, Lancashire. - -The next specimens that I shall describe are also principally made of -other materials than flint. - -Fig. 48, in my own collection, is of porphyritic greenstone, and was -found at Coton, Cambridgeshire. It is polished all over, equally convex -on both faces, and has the sides rather more rounded than most of those -of nearly similar section in flint. The butt is rather sharper than the -sides. I have an analogous implement, found at Nunnington, Yorkshire, -but with the sides straighter and rather more converging towards the -butt. Others have been found in the same district. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.—Coton, Cambridge. 1∕2] - -Other specimens made of greenstone have been found in the Fens, some of -which are in the Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. - -Some “stone” celts from Kate’s Bridge[344] and Digby Fen have been -figured in Miller and Skertchly’s “Fenland.” One (7 inches) of -greenstone, and apparently of this type, was found at Hartford,[345] -Hunts, and is now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. - -In the Newcastle Museum is a compact greenstone celt of this character -(5 3∕4 inches) with the edge slightly oblique, found at Penrith Beacon, -Cumberland. Some celts of the same general character have been found in -Anglesea. - -Implements of this class are frequently more tapering at the butt than -the one shown in the figure. I have several such from the Cambridge -Fens, and have seen an example from Towcester. One of flint (4 inches), -so much rounded at the edge as to be almost oval in outline, found near -Mildenhall, is in the Christy Collection. One of greenstone (4 1∕4 -inches) was found at Wormhill, Buxton, Derbyshire. - -Fig. 49, of dark-grey whin-stone, is of much the same character, but -has an oblique cutting edge. The butt-end is ground to a blunted |105| -curve. The original is in the Greenwell Collection, and was dug up in -draining at Ponteland, Northumberland. Another, in the same collection, -similar, but much rougher (6 inches) was found at Halton Chesters, in -the same county. I have one of the same kind (6 5∕8 inches) found near -Raby Castle, Durham. - -A flint hatchet of nearly the same form, 4 1∕2 inches long, was found -at Kempston, near Bedford. The Earl of Ducie, F.R.S., has another of -flint (5 inches) from Bembridge, Isle of Wight. A celt, from Andalusia, -of this character, but with the edge straighter, has been figured.[346] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.—Ponteland, Northumberland. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.—Fridaythorpe, Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -The celt engraved in Fig. 50 is likewise in the Greenwell Collection, -and was found at Fridaythorpe, in the East Riding of Yorkshire. It is -formed of green hone-stone. Another, similar but thicker, and having -the sides more convergent and the edge less oblique, was found at -the same place and is in the same collection, in which also is the -fragment of a larger implement of the same class from Amotherby, near -Malton, Yorkshire. With these is another (4 3∕4 inches) which was found -in a barrow with a burnt interment on Seamer Moor, Yorkshire. It is -apparently of clay-slate which has become red by burning with the body. - -Messrs. Mortimer have one of this form in greenstone (5 3∕8 inches) -found near Malton, and also one in flint (4 1∕8 inches) found near -Fimber. |106| - -I have a well-finished celt of hone-stone, rather thicker -proportionally than that figured (5 5∕8 inches), probably found in -Cumberland, it having formed part of the Crosthwaite Collection -at Keswick. In the Greenwell Collection is another of basalt, -with straight sides, tapering from 2 3∕4 inches at edge to 1 3∕4 -at butt, 9 1∕2 in length, and 1 3∕4 thick, from a peat moss at -Cowshill-in-Weardale, Durham. - -A thin, flat form of celt, still presenting the same character of -section, is represented in Fig. 51. The original is formed of a hard, -nearly black clay-slate, and was found at Oulston, in the North Riding -of Yorkshire. Like many others which I have described, it is in the -Greenwell Collection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.—Oulston. 1∕2] - -One of flint like Fig. 51 (5 inches) was found at Shelley,[347] Suffolk. - -A celt of greenstone (4 3∕4 inches), of the same character but -thicker and with straighter sides, from Newton, Aberdeenshire, is in -the National Museum at Edinburgh, where is also another, in outline -more like the figure, but broader at the butt-end, and with one side -somewhat flattened. It is 4 3∕8 long, and was found at Redhall, near -Edinburgh. - -Some Irish celts, formed of different metamorphic rocks, present the -same forms as those of Figs. 48 to 51. As a rule, however, the sides of -Irish specimens are more rounded. - -Fig. 52 represents an exquisitely polished celt, of a mottled, pale -|107| green colour, found in Burwell Fen, Cambridge, and, through -the kindness of Mr. Marlborough Pryor, now in my own collection. The -material appears to be a very hard diorite; and as both faces are -highly polished all over, the labour bestowed in the manufacture of -such an instrument must have been immense. It is somewhat curved -lengthways, and on the inner face is a slight depression, as if, in -chipping it out, one of the lines of fracture had run in too far; but -even this depression is polished, and no trace of the original chipped -surface remains. The point is quite sharp, and the sides are only in -the slightest degree rounded. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.—Burwell Fen. 1∕2] - -A beautiful example of the kind is said to have been found in a barrow -near Stonehenge.[348] Another of a green-grey colour (6 1∕2 inches) was -found at Lopham Ford, near the source of the Waveney, and was submitted -to me in 1884, by the late Mr. T. E. Amyot, of Diss. - -The late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S., bequeathed to me a somewhat larger -specimen of the same character, found at Daviot, Inverness. It is -slightly broken at the pointed butt, but must have been about 8 inches -long and 3 5∕8 broad. The material may be a diorite, but perhaps more -nearly approaches what the French term jadeite. In the Truro Museum is -another highly polished celt of the same form, and similar material, -found near Falmouth. - -Mr. J. W. Brooke has a beautifully polished specimen, made of a green -transparent stone, from Breamore, Salisbury. It has lost a small piece -at the butt-end, but is still 8 inches long. It is only 2 5∕8 inches -broad at the cutting end. - -Another celt, 7 3∕4 inches long, “the edges thin, rising gradually to -about the thickness of half an inch in the middle,” was found in 1791 -near Hopton, Derbyshire.[349] The material is described as appearing -“to be marble, of a light colour tinged with yellow, and a mixture of -pale red and green veins.” - -In the collection of the late Mr. J. F. Lucas was a celt of this type -|108| 5 1∕2 inches long, slightly unsymmetrical in outline, owing to -the cleavage of the stone. It is said to have been found near Brierlow, -Buxton. The material is a green jade-like stone, but so fibrous in -appearance as to resemble fibrolite. - -Another, of “a fine granite stone, highly polished, 9 inches long, -4 1∕4 broad at one end, tapering to the other, its thickness in the -middle 3∕4 of an inch, and quite sharp at the edges all round,” was -found at Mains,[350] near Dumfries, in 1779. It was discovered in -blowing up some large stones, possibly those of a dolmen, and is now in -the possession of Sir R. S. Riddell, Bart., of Strontian. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52A.—Berwickshire. 1∕2] - -Several other specimens have been found in Scotland. A beautiful celt -from Berwickshire[351] is, through the kindness of the Society of |109| -Antiquaries of Scotland, shown in Fig. 52A. It is made of green quartz -and has the edge intentionally blunted. A smaller celt (7 1∕2 inches) -was found at Cunzierton near Jedburgh[352]; another (8 inches) at -Rattray,[353] Perthshire; another (8 1∕4 inches), only 3∕4 inch thick -at most, near Glenluce,[354] Wigtownshire; and others (8 inches) at -Aberfeldy,[355] Perthshire, and Dunfermline.[356] - -Several of these highly polished jadeite celts have been found in -dolmens in Brittany and there are some fine specimens in the museum -at Vannes. Some of them[357] have small holes bored through them. -The various types of Brittany celts have been classified by the -Société Polymathique du Morbihan.[358] In the Musée de St. Germain -is a specimen (unbored) 9 inches long, found near Paris,[359] as -also a hoard of fifteen, originally seventeen, mostly of jadeite and -fibrolite, some perforated, found at Bernon,[360] near Arzon, Morbihan, -in 1893. I have one 7 1∕2 inches long from St. Jean, Châteaudun, and -others 5 3∕8 to 7 inches in length, of beautiful varieties of jade-like -stone, found at Eu (Seine Inférieure), Miannay, near Abbeville (Somme), -and Breteuil (Oise). The two latter are rounded and not sharp at the -sides. One about 6 1∕2 inches long, from the environs of Soissons, is -in the museum at Lyons. - -One of jade, of analogous form to these, and found near Brussels, is -engraved by Le Hon.[361] Another was found at Maffles.[362] - -Five specimens of the same character, of different sizes, the longest -about 9 1∕2 inches in length, and the shortest about 4 inches, -are said to have been found with Roman remains at Kästrich, near -Gonsenheim,[363] and are preserved in the museum at Mainz. The smallest -is of greenstone, and the others of chloritic albite. They are said to -have been buried in a sort of leather case, arranged alternately with -the pointed and broad ends downwards, and in accordance with their size. - -Eight specimens from museums at Weimar, Rudolstadt, and Leipzig were -exhibited at Berlin.[364] in 1880. One from Wesseling,[365] on the -Rhine (8 inches), is thought to have been associated with Roman remains. - -Both with the English and Continental specimens, there appears to be -considerable doubt as to the exact localities whence the materials were -derived from which these celts are formed. - -Instruments for which such beautiful and intractable materials -were selected, can hardly have been in common use; but we have not -sufficient ground for arriving at any trustworthy conclusion as -to the purpose for which they were intended. I have, however, a -short celt, 3 1∕2 inches long, from Burwell Fen, and made of this -jade-like material, which has evidently been much in use, and was once -considerably longer. It appears, indeed, to be the butt-end of an -instrument like Fig. 52. - -A detailed account of the jade and jadeite celts in the British Museum -is given in the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_.[366] |110| - -It was formerly supposed that the jade of which many hatchets found in -Switzerland and other European countries are made, came of necessity -from the East, and theories as to the early migrations of mankind have -been based upon this supposition. As a fact, jade has now been found -in Europe, and notably in Styria[367] and Silesia.[368] Below[369] are -given some references to comments on the sources of jade. An account of -the method of working jade in Western Yun-nan is given in Anderson’s -Report[370] on the Expedition to that country; and a complete and -well-illustrated catalogue of objects in jade and nephrite, by Dr. A. -B. Meyer, forms part of the publications of the Royal Ethnographical -Museum, at Dresden, for 1883. - - * * * * * - -I now come to the second of the subdivisions under which I have -arranged this class of implements, viz., those having the sides -flattened. The flat sides, of course, taper away to a point at the -cutting edge of the celts, and usually diminish much in width toward -the butt-end, which is commonly ground to a semicircular blunted edge. -The implements of this kind are generally very symmetrical in form. - - * * * * * - -I have selected a large specimen for engraving in Fig. 53. It is of -grey mottled flint, ground all over to such an extent, that hardly any -traces of the original chipping remain. It was found at Botesdale, -Suffolk, and was formerly in the collection of Mr. Warren, of Ixworth, -but is now in my own. I have another (4 3∕4 inches) from Redgrave, -Suffolk, and a third (5 1∕2 inches) from Bottisham Lode, Cambs. - -One of the same form, found near Stowmarket, is engraved in the -_Archæologia_.[371] If the account there given be correct, it was -12 3∕4 inches long. A specimen from Cardiff, now in the British Museum -(4 1∕2 inches), has lost a considerable portion of its original length -by use, and is ground so that the edge bounds a facet on the face. The -sides at the butt-end are somewhat rounded, but near the edge they are -flat and 1∕4 inch wide. - -A fine specimen of this character, formed of ochreous flint (9 inches), -found in Swaffham Fen, Cambridgeshire, is in the Christy Collection, as -well as one from Mildenhall (5 1∕2 inches), the butt-end of which is -sharper than is usual. - -In the Fitch Collection is a flint celt of this type, 7 1∕2 inches -long and 2 1∕2 broad at the edge, which however, has been broken off. -It is said to have been found in a tumulus at Swannington, Norfolk, in -1855. In the Northampton Museum is a specimen (6 inches) of ochreous -flint, found at Gilsborough, Northamptonshire. The late Mr. James -Wyatt, F.G.S., had a beautiful implement of this type, but narrower in -proportion to its length, being 7 inches long and only 1 3∕4 wide at -the edge, found in the Thames at Coway Stakes, near Egham. I have one -(6 inches) from the Thames at Hampton Court. A fine specimen, 9 1∕2 -inches long, and 3 wide at the edge, with the sides quite flat, but -|111| less than 1∕4 inch wide, of ochreous flint, polished all over, -was found at Crudwell, Wilts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.—Botesdale, Suffolk. 1∕2] - -Others, in flint, have been found at Sutton, Suffolk (8 inches); -Wishford, Great Bedwin, Wilts[372] (7 inches); Portsmouth;[373] -Cherbury Camp, Pusey, Faringdon[374] (5 1∕2 inches long, edge faceted), -and Rampton, Cambridge.[375] I have seen one (5 1∕2 inches) that was -found near Loughborough. Mr. G. F. Lawrence has a fine specimen (7 5∕8 -inches) from the Lea Marshes. |112| - -In the National Museum at Edinburgh is one of white flint (10 inches) -from Fochabers,[376] Elginshire, and another from the same place (7 1∕4 -inches). They are in shape much like Fig. 61. There is another of grey -flint, from Skye (7 1∕2 inches). One 5 1∕2 inches long, in the same -museum, from Roxburghshire, has the middle part of the faces ground -flat, so that the section is a sort of compressed octagon; the edge is -nearly straight. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.—Lackford, Suffolk. 1∕2] - -Much the same form occurs in other materials than flint. I have a -specimen, formed of flinty clay-slate, with one side less flat than the -other, 10 1∕4 inches long, 3 wide, and 1 5∕8 thick, said to have been -found with four others in a cairn on Druim-a-shi, Culloden, Inverness. -I have another of whin-stone (9 1∕4 inches) from Kirkcaldy, Fife. - -The fine celt from Gilmerton, Fig. 76, is of the same class, but has -a cutting edge at each end. Some Cumberland and Westmorland specimens -partake much of this character. |113| - -Implements of nearly similar form to that last described, but having -the edge oblique, are also met with. That engraved in Fig. 54 was found -at Lackford, Suffolk, and was formerly in the collection of Mr. Warren, -of Ixworth, but is now in mine. It is of grey flint. I have another, -of white flint, of the same length but a trifle narrower, and with the -grinding for the edge forming more of a facet with the body of the -celt. It was found in the Isle of Portland. The obliquity of the edge -was no doubt intentional, and may have originated in the manner in -which these hatchets were mounted with hafts. Professor Nilsson[377] -has suggested that the obliquity is due to the front part of the blade -being worn away in use more quickly than the back. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.—Dalmeny, Linlithgow. 1∕2] - -To this class, though very different in appearance, belongs a -beautifully made celt of grey flint, in the British Museum. It is -probably of English origin, though the place of finding is unknown. The -sides are straight and flat, but only about 1∕16 of an inch wide, the -faces equally convex and polished all over. It is 9 inches long, and -tapers from 1 1∕2 inches wide at the edge, which is broken, to 5∕8 at -the butt. Its greatest thickness is 1∕2 an inch. It is engraved in the -_Archæological Journal_.[378] - -Flint celts of the type of both Fig. 53 and 54 are not uncommon in -France and Belgium. They are also found, though rarely, in Ireland. - -The cutting end of one formed of nearly transparent quartz, and found -in Egypt, is in the Museum at Geneva. - -Celts with the sides flattened are of not unfrequent occurrence -in other materials than flint. That figured as No. 55 is of -ochreous-coloured quartzite, and was found at Dalmeny, Linlithgow. -It is preserved in the National Museum at Edinburgh. The form is -remarkable, as being so broad in proportion to the length. The sides -are flat, but the angles they make with the faces are slightly rounded. -The butt-end is rounded in both directions, and appears to have been -worked with a pointed tool or pick. - -Another celt, of greenstone, of much the same form but with the |114| -sides more tapering, 6 inches long and 3 1∕4 wide, which was found -in Lochleven[379] in 1860, is in the same museum. This latter more -nearly resembles Fig. 51 in outline. A small highly-polished celt of -flinty slate (2 5∕8 inches), found near Dundee,[380] has been figured. -Another, more triangular in outline, 6 1∕2 inches long, was found at -Barugh, Yorkshire, and is in the Greenwell Collection. I have a celt of -rather narrower proportions that was found between Hitchin and Pirton, -Herts. It is made of a kind of _lapis lydius_. - -Many of the Danish greenstone celts, which are perforated at the butt, -present much the same outline and section. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.—Sprouston, near Kelso. 1∕2] - -Stone hatchets of this character occur, though rarely, in France. I -have seen one in the collection of the late M. Aymard, at Le Puy. -Dr. Finlay, of Athens, had a thin, flat hatchet of this form made of -heliotrope, 3 1∕2 inches long, with flat sides, found in Greece. The -form occurs also in Sicily.[381] - -Several celts of this type have been brought from different parts -of Asia. One, of basalt, 2 inches long, wedge-shaped, found at -Muquier,[382] in Southern Babylonia, is in the British Museum; and -several of jade, 3 to 4 inches long, procured by Major Sladen from the -province of Yun-nan in Southern China, are in the Christy Collection. -By Major Sladen’s kindness, I have also a specimen. Mr. Joseph Edkins -has published some notes on “Stone Hatchets in China.”[383] Others from -Perak[384] have also been described. - -The same form, also in jade, has been found in Assam.[385] Some from -Java, in the museum at Leyden, formed of flint, present the same -section, but the sides expand towards the edge. A nearly similar form -occurs in Japan.[386] - -Fig. 56 is of the same character as Fig. 55, but narrower at the |115| -butt-end. The original is in the Greenwell Collection, and is formed -of Lydian stone. It was found at Sprouston, near Kelso, Roxburghshire. -Though flat at the sides along most of the blade, the section becomes -oval near the butt-end. - -I have a smaller example of this type in clay-slate, 3 1∕2 inches long -and 1 3∕4 wide at the edge, found at Carnaby, near Bridlington. The -butt-end is in this case rectangular in section. It closely resembles -the flat-sided hatchets so commonly found in France. I have an Irish -celt of the same form found near Armagh, and made of clay-slate. -Flat-sided celts are, however, rare in Ireland. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.—Nunnington, Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -A celt of grey flint, 4 1∕2 inches long, of much the same outline, -but having the sides rounded and not flat, and the butt brought to -a straight sharp edge, was found in Burwell Fen, and is now in the -Christy Collection. - -A celt of the same section, but of peculiar form, with the sides curved -slightly inwards, and tapering considerably to the butt, is shown in -Fig. 57. The sides are flat, but have the angles slightly rounded; a -narrow flattened face is carried round the butt-end. It would appear to -have been made from a calcareous nodule found in some argillaceous bed, -like the septaria in the London clay. Both of |116| its faces present -a series of diverging cracks, of slight depth, apparently resulting -from the dissolution of calcareous veins in the stone. It was found at -Nunnington, Yorkshire, and now forms part of the Greenwell Collection. - -The original of Fig. 58 was discovered at Burradon, Northumberland, -where also the fine flint celt, Fig. 47, was found. This likewise -is in the Greenwell Collection. It is of porphyritic stone, and has -the angles of the flat sides slightly rounded. Another, in the same -collection, 4 inches long, from Doddington, in the same county, is of -similar character. Celts of much the same shape and size have been -found in the Shetland Isles; one of these, 5 1∕2 inches long, from -West Burrafirth, is in the British Museum. A similar form is found in -Japan.[387] - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.—Burradon, Northumberland. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.—Livermere, Suffolk. 1∕2] - -Fig. 59 shows a celt of much the same kind, found at Livermere, near -Bury St. Edmunds. It is formed of a close-grained greenstone, and is -in my own collection. The angles at the sides are slightly rounded. -I have others of nearly the same size and of similar material, found -near Cirencester, and at Soham and Bottisham, Cambs. Greenstone celts -of about this size, and with the sides more or less flat, so as to -range between Figs. 48 and 58, are of not uncommon occurrence in the -Fen country. Mr. Fisher, of Ely, has one, found near Manea, and several -from Bottisham. I have one, of felstone, 3 1∕2 inches long, found at -Coton, Cambs., one side of which presents a flat surface 3∕8 inch wide, -while the other is but slightly flattened. One (4 3∕10 inches) was -found near Torquay, Devon.[388] - -A still more triangular form, more convex on the faces, and -having |117| the flat sides much narrower, is shown in Fig. 60, -from a specimen in the Greenwell Collection, found at Ilderton, -Northumberland. It is formed of a hard, slaty rock or hone-stone. The -angles of the sides are rounded. - -In the National Museum at Edinburgh are two implements of greenstone -(2 3∕4 and 3 inches) of nearly similar form to Fig. 60, but having the -sides sharp. They were found in the Isle of Skye.[389] - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.—Ilderton, Northumberland.] - -A smaller celt of the same character, 2 1∕2 inches long, found in a -cairn at Brindy Hill, Aberdeenshire,[390] is in the British Museum. - -One 2 5∕8 inches long, from Sardis,[391] in Lydia, and in the same -collection, is of much the same form, but rounder at the sides and less -pointed at the butt. - -Implements of the form represented in Fig. 61 occur most frequently in -the northern part of Britain, especially in Cumberland and Westmorland, -in consequence, it may be supposed, of the felspathic rocks, of -which they are usually formed, being there found in the greatest -abundance. That here figured is in the British Museum. It is of mottled -close-grained stone, beautifully finished, and was found in a turf pit -on Windy Harbour Farm, near Pendle, Lancashire.[392] It is more slender -than the generality of the implements of this class, which in outline -usually more closely resemble Fig. 77, which, however, has a cutting -edge at each end. They sometimes slightly expand towards the butt-end. - -I have a more roughly-finished implement of this class, with the two -faces faceted longitudinally, found near Wigton, Cumberland, and -formerly in the Crosthwaite Museum, at Keswick. It is of felspathic -ash, much decomposed on the surface, and 9 inches long. I have also a -small example of the type (7 1∕2 inches) made of whin-stone, and found -by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., near Sudbury, Suffolk, in 1873. Some larger -specimens of similar character are in the Christy Collection. One of -them is 13 3∕4 inches in length. - -In the Greenwell Collection is an implement of this type, but with the -sides straighter, and the angles rounded, found at Holme, on Spalding -Moor, Yorkshire. It is of hone-stone, 7 inches long, 2 1∕2 inches broad -at the edge, but tapering to 1 1∕4 inches at the butt. There is also -another of felstone, 12 3∕4 long, found at Great Salkeld, Cumberland. - -There is a celt of this type in the Blackmore Museum (13 1∕8 inches), -the butt-end round and sharpened, though the edge has been removed by -grinding. It is said to have been found, 5 or 6 feet deep in gravel, -|118| at Shaw Hall,[393] near Flixton, Lancashire. Another, in the -same collection (8 inches), was found near Keswick. - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.—Near Pendle, Lancashire. 1∕2] - -What from the engraving would appear to be a large implement of -this kind, has been described by Mr. Cuming[394] as a club. “It is -wrought of fawn-coloured hone-slate, much like that obtained in the -neighbourhood of Snowdon. It weighs 6 1∕4 pounds, and measures 17 5∕8 -inches in length, nearly 3 3∕4 inches across its greatest breadth, and -nearly 2 1∕8 inches in its greatest thickness. The faces are convex, -the edges blunt and thinning off at both of the rounded extremities.” -It was found near Newton, Lancashire. Another so-called club is -mentioned as having been found near Keswick.[395] - -Clumsy and unwieldy as implements of such a length appear to be if -mounted as axes, there can be no doubt of their having been intended -for use as cutting tools; and though, from their size, they might be -considered to be clubs, yet their form is but ill-adapted for such a -weapon, even if we assume that, as is said to be the case with the -New Zealand _mere_, they were sometimes employed for thrusting as -well as for striking, and, therefore, had the broad end sharpened. -The Stirlingshire specimen, Fig. 77, which is 13 1∕4 inches long, is, -however, sharp at both ends. There have been, moreover, discovered in -Denmark what are indubitably celts, longer than the Newton so-called -club. They are sometimes more than 18 inches long, and I have myself -such an implement from Jutland, of ochreous flint, 16 inches long and 3 -inches broad at the edge, which is carefully sharpened. I have another -roughly-chipped Danish celt of flint, 14 1∕2 inches long, which weighs -6 lbs. 14 oz., or more than that from Newton. |119| - -The celt found in Solway Moss, with its handle still preserved, as -will subsequently be mentioned, is of the form of Fig. 61. It is of -felspathic rock, 9 1∕2 inches long and 2 1∕4 inches broad, the edge -slightly oblique. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.—Ness. 1∕2] - -One of felstone (15 1∕2 inches), was found at Drumour,[396] in -Glenshee, Forfarshire, with another 13 inches long. This latter widens -out suddenly at the butt. The larger of these two presents on its -surface a transverse mark, not unlike that on the Solway Moss specimen, -such as may have resulted from that portion of the surface having been -protected for a time by a wooden handle, which eventually decayed and -perished. - -Another from Lempitlaw, in the Kelso Museum, is 13 inches long. - -The flattening of the sides and faces of celts is sometimes, though -rarely, carried to such an extent that they become almost rectangular -in section. - -That shown in Fig. 62 was found near the Rye bank, at Ness,[397] in the -North Riding of Yorkshire, and is formed of a dark, much altered slaty -rock, containing a good deal of iron. The butt-end, though brought to -an edge, is not so sharp as the broader or cutting end. The surface is -somewhat decomposed. It is in the Greenwell Collection, in which also -is the somewhat analogous implement shown in Fig. 63. - -This also is from the same part of Yorkshire, having been found, in -1868, at Gilling,[398] in the Vale of Mowbray, 4 ft. deep in peaty -clay. It |120| is formed of clay iron-stone, and has the angles -somewhat rounded. The edge is oblique and slightly chipped away. -Another celt of close-grained schist (5 3∕4 inches), found in the same -parish, and preserved in the same collection, more resembles in outline -that from Ness, though not sharp at the butt, and having an oblique -edge. In the Greenwell Collection is a thinner celt of the same type, -found at Heslerton Carr. - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.—Gilling. 1∕2] - -I have a specimen (5 1∕4 inches) of hone-stone, rather flatter on one -face than the other, from Kirkcaldy, Fife. - -An Italian celt, of much the same character as Fig. 62, but of -greenstone, has been figured by Gastaldi.[399] - -The next celt which I have to describe is even more chisel-like in -|121| appearance, both the faces and sides being almost flat and -nearly parallel. This peculiarity of form is no doubt mainly due to -the schistose character of the rock from which the implement is made; -which, in the case of the original of Fig. 64, is a close-grained slate -or hone-stone. It was found at Swinton, near Malton, Yorkshire, and -was given to me by the late Mr. C. Monkman. The angles are slightly -rounded, and the butt-end is tapered off as if to an edge, which, -however, is now broken away. - -Long, narrow celts of this rectangular section are of very rare -occurrence both in Britain and Ireland, and, so far as I am aware, -have never been found of flint. In Denmark, on the contrary, they are -common in flint, but generally of a larger size than the specimen here -engraved. The faces also are usually rather more convex. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.—Swinton, near Malton. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.—Scamridge Dykes, Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -They are to be found among the North American[400] forms, sometimes -with a hole towards the butt-end, as if for suspension. - -Somewhat the same form occurs in Siam and in the Malay Peninsula. - -The next specimen, shown in Fig. 65, is of the same material as the -last, and was found in the same neighbourhood, at the Dykes, Scamridge, -in the North Riding of Yorkshire. Owing to the irregular fissure of -the stone, it is considerably thicker at one side than the other. The -broader side is flat with the angles chamfered, and the narrower side -is rounded. The faces taper at the butt-end, which is ground to a |122| -regular curve and blunted. This also was given to me by the late Mr. -C. Monkman, of Malton. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.—Whitwell, Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -A curious variety of celt is shown in Fig. 66, the original of which -was found at Whitwell, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, and forms part -of the Greenwell Collection. It is made of a hard, shelly limestone, -apparently of Oolitic age, the surface of which has been partially -eroded. It is nearly flat on one face, and seems to have been intended -for mounting as an adze. Other celts of similar material have been -found in the same district, and Canon Greenwell has kindly presented -me with one of much the same character as this, though far broader in -proportion to its thickness. This specimen, which was found at Osgodby, -closely resembles in section that from Truro, Fig. 84. - -A specimen of the type of Fig. 66 (7 1∕4 inches) is in the British -Museum. It was found at Creekmoor, near Poole, Dorset. - -Some of the large celts from the Shetland Isles present the same -peculiarity of being flat on one face, but, as the sides are much -rounded, I shall include them among those of oval section. - - * * * * * - -These, of oval section, form the third subdivision of polished celts, -which I now proceed to describe. - - * * * * * - -It will be observed that implements of this character, formed of flint, -are extremely rare. The reason for this appears to be, that from the -method in which, in this country, flint celts were chipped out, the -sides were in all cases originally sharp, and they had a pointed oval, -or _vesica piscis_, section. In polishing, this form was to a great -extent preserved, though the edges were, as has been seen, sometimes -ground flat and sometimes rounded. It rarely happens, however, that the -rounding is carried to so great an extent as to produce such a contour -that it is impossible to say within a little where the faces end and -the sides begin; though this is often the case with celts of greenstone -and other materials, which were shaped out in a somewhat different -manner, and in the formation of which grinding played a more important -part. It is almost needless to say that I use the word oval in its -popular sense, and not as significant of a mathematically true ellipse. -At the part where the edge of the celts commences, the section is of -course a _vesica piscis_. - -The first specimen engraved, Fig. 67, is in my own collection, and was -found in the Thames at London. It is of dark greenstone, and, owing -to a defect in the piece of stone of which it was made, there is a -hollow place in one of the faces. General Pitt Rivers has a similar -but more symmetrical celt, of the same material, also found in the -Thames. Another, smaller, from the same source, is in the British |123| -Museum; and another (8 inches) from the collection of the late Rev. -T. Hugo, F.S.A.,[401] is now mine. Its edge is rather oblique. I have -another from the Thames (7 1∕2 inches) with a symmetrical edge. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.—Thames, London. 1∕2] - -Large implements of this form are of not uncommon occurrence in -Scotland and in the Shetland Isles. There are several in the National -Museum at Edinburgh, and also in the British Museum, and in that of -Newcastle. The butt-end is occasionally pointed, and the faces in broad -specimens, flatter than in Fig. 67. Several of these celts |124| in -the British Museum were found in the middle of the last century, in -Shetland. The largest is 11 inches long, 3 inches wide at the edge, -and 1 3∕4 inches thick. It was found in Selter,[402] parish of Walls. -Others are from 8 inches to 9 inches long. In the case of one, 12 -inches long, from Shetland, and in the Edinburgh Museum, the edge is -oblique. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.—Near Bridlington. 1∕2] - -Mr. J. W. Cursiter, of Kirkwall, has a beautiful, long, narrow celt of -oval section, from Lunnasting, Shetland. It is formed of spherulitic -felstone, and is 9 1∕4 inches long, but only 2 1∕8 inches wide at the -broadest part. Another, 12 inches long, from Trondra, is of felstone, -and slightly curved longitudinally, so that it was probably an adze. - -Others[403] (14, 11, 10 1∕2, and 9 inches) have been figured. - -In the Greenwell Collection is a celt of this kind formed of -porphyritic greenstone, 13 inches long, from Sandsting, Shetland. - -A celt of greenstone (8 inches), in outline much resembling Fig. 72, -was found, in 1758, at Tresta, in the parish of Aithsting, Shetland, -and is now in the British Museum. It is flat on one face, the other -being convex, so that the section is an oval with a segment removed. -Such an instrument must, in all probability, have been mounted as an -adze, though the flat face may have originally been due to the cleavage -of the material, which is a porphyritic greenstone. - -Another celt (6 1∕4 inches), flat on one face, so that the section -presents little more than half an oval, was found in the island of -Yell, and is now in the Newcastle Museum. - -I have a large heavy celt less tapering at the butt than Fig. 67, 8 1∕2 -inches long, 3 1∕2 inches wide, and 2 1∕4 inches thick, said to have -been found at Spalding, Lincolnshire. One of flint (7 inches) nearly -oval in section, and found at Northampton, is in the museum at that -town. - -Celts of the same form and character as Fig. 67 are found both in -Ireland and in France. - -Fig. 68 shows another variety of this type, which becomes almost -conical at the butt. The original was found near Bridlington, and is -|125| now in my own collection. The material is greenstone. Implements -of this form, but rarely expanding at the edge, are of common -occurrence in that part of Yorkshire. Some of them have been made of -a variety of greenstone liable to decomposition from atmospheric or -other causes, and the celts when found present a surface so excessively -eroded that their form can with difficulty be recognized. In the -Greenwell Collection are celts of the type of Fig. 68, from Willerby, -in the East Riding (6 1∕4 inches and 5 1∕2 inches), and Crambe, in -the North Riding of Yorkshire (6 1∕4 inches), as well as another -(5 3∕4 inches) from Sherburn, Durham. I have one nearly 8 inches long, -from Speeton, near Bridlington, and several (5 1∕2 to 6 inches) from -the Cambridge Fens. The surface of one of them is for the most part -decomposed, but along a vein of harder material the original polish is -preserved. - -Mr. F. Spalding has found one (8 inches), with a sideways curve, on the -shore at Walton-on-the-Naze. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.—Lakenheath, Suffolk. 1∕2] - -A greenstone celt of this form (8 1∕2 inches) was found at Minley -Manor,[404] Blackwater, Hants. - -In the Fitch Collection is one of serpentine (6 1∕4 inches), from -Dull’s Lane, near Loddon, Norfolk, and the late Mr. J. W. Flower had -one of greenstone (4 1∕4 inches), found at Melyn Works, Neath. The -greenstone celt found in Grime’s Graves,[405] Norfolk, was of this -form, but rather longer in its proportions, being 7 1∕2 inches long -and 2 1∕4 inches broad at the edge, which is oblique. The late Mr. H. -Durden, of Blandford, had a greenstone celt of this type (5 inches), -found at Langton, near Blandford, the butt-end of which is roughened -by picking, probably for insertion in a socket; and the late Rev. E. -Duke, of Lake, near Salisbury, had a celt of this character, found in a -tumulus in that parish. I have both French and Danish specimens of the -same form at the butt, though narrower at the edge. - -Another variety, in which the butt-end is less pointed and more oval, -is given in Fig. 69. The original is of dark green hornblende schist, -and was found at Lakenheath, Suffolk. I have a large implement of -similar form and material (5 1∕2 inches), with the edge slightly -oblique, from Swaffham, Cambridgeshire; another of serpentine (3 1∕4 -inches), from Coldham’s Common, Cambridge; others of greenstone (4 -and 3 3∕4 inches), from Kempston, Bedford, and Burwell Fen, Cambs.; -as well as one of greenstone (4 3∕8 inches), from Standlake, Oxon. A -celt of this type, of porphyritic stone (5 1∕2 inches), found |126| -at Branton, Northumberland, is in the Greenwell Collection. It is -slightly oblique at the edge. Another of the same character, of -greenstone (6 3∕4 inches), found at Sproughton, Suffolk, is in the -Fitch Collection. Another, 5 inches long, found at Kingston-on-Thames, -is in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries. - -Another of green serpentine, faceted to form the edge, and rounded -at butt, 4 inches long, was found in a cairn in Fifeshire, and is -preserved in the National Museum at Edinburgh. - -In the Blackmore Museum is a celt of granite tapering to the rounded -point at the butt, 6 1∕2 inches long, which has been roughened at the -upper end, and is polished towards the edge. It was found in the River -Lambourn, Berks. - -I have seen another of this form, but of flint (4 1∕2 inches), with the -sides much rounded, so as to be almost oval, found near Eastbourne, -where also this form has occurred in greenstone. The late Mr. H. -Durden, of Blandford, had a celt of greenstone of this form 4 3∕8 -inches long, found at Tarrant Launceston, Dorset. Many of the celts -found in India are of this type. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70.—Seamer, Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -A shorter form, which also seems to be most prevalent in Yorkshire, -is represented in Fig. 70. The specimen figured is from Seamer, -formed of greenstone, and belongs to the Greenwell Collection. In the -same collection is another (4 inches), rather larger and thicker, -from Scampston. Another of quartzite (5 inches), polished all over, -but showing traces of having been worked with a pick, was found at -Birdsall, near Malton, and is in the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, of -Driffield. I have one of greenstone (4 1∕2 inches), also from Seamer. - -A celt of greenstone, of the same section, but broader and more -truncated at the butt, 3 inches long, and found near Bellingham, North -Tyne, is in the Newcastle Museum. Another (4 inches), in outline more -like Fig. 60, was found in a sepulchral cave at Rhos Digre,[406] -Denbighshire. - -Some of the stone celts from Italy, Greece, Asia Minor[407] and -India, are of much the same form, but usually rather longer in their -proportions. I have some Greek specimens more like Fig. 71—kindly given -to me by Captain H. Thurburn, F.G.S. Celts of this character are said -to have been in use among the North American Indians[408] as fleshing -|127| instruments, employed by the women in the preparation of skins. -They were not hafted, but held in the hand like chisels. I have a celt -almost identical in form and material with Fig. 70, but from Central -India. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71.—Guernsey. 1∕2] - -The form shown in Fig. 71 is inserted among those of Britain, though -geographically it may be regarded as French rather than British, having -been found in Guernsey. I have engraved it from a cast presented to the -Society of Antiquaries by the late Mr. F. C. Lukis, F.S.A. The form -occurs in various materials—rarely flint—and is common through the -whole of France. A specimen from Surrey is in the British Museum. I -have seen one which was said to have been found in the neighbourhood of -London, but it was not improbably an imported specimen. - -Should authenticated instances of the finding of celts of this class in -our southern counties be adduced, they will be of interest as affording -_primâ facie_ evidence of intercourse with the Continent at an early -period. - -Small hatchets, both oval and circular in section, have been found at -Accra,[409] West Africa, and others, larger, on the Gold Coast.[410] -The same form is not uncommon in Greece and Asia Minor. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.—Wareham. 1∕2] - - -Major Sladen brought several small jade celts of this form, but flatter -at the sides, from Yun-nan, in Southern China. Through his liberality -several are in the Christy Collection, and one in my own. Some hæmatite -celts found in North America[411] are of much the same size and form. - -The specimen engraved as Fig. 72 was found in the neighbourhood of -Wareham, Dorsetshire, and is in my own collection. It is formed of -syenite, and, unlike the instruments previously described, is narrower -at the edge than in the middle of the blade; the section shows that -the faces are nearly flat. I have another celt, in which these -peculiarities are exaggerated, the |128| faces being flatter, the -blade thinner, and also wider in the middle in proportion to the edge, -it being 5 1∕2 inches long, 2 1∕4 inches wide in the middle, and 1 1∕2 -inches at the edge, and rather less than an inch in thickness. The -material is a _Serpula_ limestone, and the celt was no doubt formed -from a travelled block, as it was found in a Boulder-clay district at -Troston, near Bury St. Edmunds. I have a much heavier implement from -the same locality, and formed of the same kind of stone. It is 10 -inches long, and rather wider in proportion than Fig. 72. It does not -narrow towards the edge, but in section and general form may be classed -with the specimen there figured. - -A large celt, 10 inches long, of the same section, but thinner -proportionally, and with straighter and more parallel sides, in -outline more like Fig. 79, was found at Pilmoor, in the North Riding -of Yorkshire, and forms part of the Greenwell Collection. It is of -clay-slate. Another in the same collection, and from North Holme, -in the same Riding (10 inches), is broader and flatter, with the -sides somewhat more square, and the edge more curved. One face is -somewhat hollowed towards one side, possibly to grind out the trace -of a too deep chip. A third is from Barmston, in the East Riding -(10 1∕2 inches), and a beautiful celt of hornblendic serpentine -(10 5∕8 inches), oval in section and pointed at the butt, was found at -Cunningsburgh,[412] Shetland, and another of diorite (10 1∕8 inches), -rather broader in its proportions than Fig. 72, on Ambrisbeg Hill,[413] -Island of Bute. An analogous form from Japan is in the museum at Leyden. - -[Illustration: Fig. 73.—Forfarshire. 1∕2] - -A long narrow chisel-like celt, with an oval section, is given in Fig. -73. The original is of dark greenstone, and was found in Forfarshire. -It is in the National Museum at Edinburgh. I have a larger celt of the -same form (5 1∕2 inches), formed of a close-grained grit, and found at -Sherburn, Yorkshire. Messrs. Mortimer have another of schist (4 1∕2 -inches), from Thixendale, Yorkshire. This form occurs, though rarely, -in Ireland. - -A much larger celt, of metamorphic rock, 8 1∕2 inches long, 3 inches -broad at the edge, and 1 3∕4 inches at the butt, 1 3∕8 inches thick, -was found on Throckley Fell, Northumberland, and is in the Museum at -Newcastle. - -Fig. 74 gives a shorter form of implement truncated at the butt. The -original, which is in my own collection, is formed of greenstone, -and was found at Easton, near Bridlington. It is carefully polished -towards the edge, but at the butt it is roughened, apparently with -the intention of rendering it more capable of adhesion to its socket. -The celt from Malton, Fig. 81, is roughened in a similar manner, -and the same is the case with many of the hatchets from the Swiss -lake-dwellings, which have been frequently found still fixed in their -sockets of stag’s horn. |129| - -I have another specimen, from South Back Lane, Bridlington, which, -however, is not roughened at the butt, and the sides of which have had -a narrow flat facet ground along them. It is 6 inches long, and 3 1∕2 -inches wide at the edge. Mr. W. Tucker has shown me a broken specimen -like Fig. 74, found near Loughborough. - -[Illustration: Fig. 74.—Bridlington. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 75.—Caithness. 1∕2] - -Another form presents a rather pointed, and unusually elongated -oval in section, and is pointed at the butt. Fig. 75 represents a -highly-finished celt of this kind made of light green, almost jade-like -stone, preserved in the National Museum at Edinburgh, and said to -have been found in Caithness. It is so thoroughly Carib in character, -and so closely resembles specimens I possess from the West Indian -Islands, that for some time I hesitated to engrave it. There are, -however, sufficiently numerous instances of other implements of the -same form having been found in this country for the type to be accepted -as British. The celt found at Glasgow,[414] in a canoe at a depth of -twenty-five feet below the surface, was of this kind. In the Greenwell -Collection is one of porphyritic greenstone (7 inches), and of nearly -this form, found at Grantchester, Cambridge. Two celts of this -character, the one from Jamaica and the other from the North of Italy, -are engraved in the _Archæologia_.[415] Both are in the British Museum. - -A celt like Fig. 75 (4 1∕2 inches), of a material like jadeite, is said -to |130| have been found about 60 years ago at King’s Sutton,[416] -Northamptonshire. It has much the appearance of being Carib. - -Four greenstone celts of this type, one of them rather crooked -laterally, were found in 1869 at Bochym,[417] Cury, Cornwall. - -Another of aphanite (11 1∕2 inches) from Cornwall[418] is in the -Edinburgh Museum, where is also one of the same material and form -(10 1∕2 inches) from Berwickshire,[419] two others of grey porphyritic -stone (9 inches) from Aberdeenshire,[420] and another of porphyrite (10 -inches) found near Lerwick,[421] Shetland. - -I have specimens of the same type from various parts of France. In the -Greenwell Collection is a Spanish celt of the same form found near -Cadiz. - -The bulk of the celts found in Ireland, and formed of other materials -than flint, approximate in form to Figs. 69 to 75, though usually -rather thinner in their proportion. They range, however, widely in -shape, and vary much in their degree of finish. - - * * * * * - -I now come to the fourth of the subdivisions under which, mainly for -the sake of having some basis for classification, I have arranged the -polished celts. In it, I have placed those which present any abnormal -peculiarities; and the first of these which I shall notice are such as -do not materially affect the outline of the celts; as, for instance, -the existence of a second cutting edge at the butt-end, at a part -where, though the blade is usually tapered away and ground, yet it -very rarely happens that it has been left sharp. Indeed, in almost all -cases, if in shaping and polishing the celt the butt-end has at one -time been sharpened, the edge has been afterwards carefully removed by -grinding it away. - - * * * * * - -The beautifully-formed implement of ochreously-stained flint -represented in Fig. 76, was found at Gilmerton, in East Lothian, -and is preserved in the National Museum at Edinburgh. The sides are -flat with the angles rounded off, and the blade expands slightly at -the ends, both of which are sharpened. It is carefully polished all -over, so as to show no traces of its having been chipped out, except -a slight depression on one face, and this is polished like the rest -of the blade. It is upwards of a century since this instrument was -turned up by the plough, as described in the _Minutes of the Society of -Antiquaries of Scotland_[422] for April 2, 1782, where it is mentioned -as the “head of a hatchet of polished yellow marble, sharpened at both -ends.” - -Another from Shetland[423] (11 1∕2 inches) is made of serpentine and -has both ends “formed to a rounded cutting edge.” |131| - -A celt from Kirklauchline, Wigtownshire, mentioned at page 135, is -much like Fig. 76 in outline. - -[Illustration: Fig. 76.—Gilmerton, East Lothian] - -A somewhat similar instrument, but narrower at the butt, formed of jade -(?) and 11 inches long, found at Nougaroulet, is engraved in the _Revue -de Gascogne_.[424] - -[Illustration: Fig. 77.—Stirlingshire. 1∕2] - -Fig. 77 represents another celt, in the Edinburgh Museum, of similar -section, but expanding only at the butt-end, which is sharpened, |133| -and contracting from the middle towards the broader end, which, as -usual, seems to have been the principal cutting end. It is formed of -compact greenstone, and was found in Stirlingshire. In general outline, -it closely resembles a common Cumberland form, of which, however, the -butt is not sharp. Several such were found in Ehenside Tarn,[425] -Cumberland, varying in length from 6 to 14 1∕2 inches. One of them was -in its original haft. The whole are now in the British Museum. Another -celt (10 3∕4 inches), made of a fine volcanic ash, was found in 1873 -near Loughrigg Tarn,[426] Westmorland. Two celts of much the same form -from Drumour,[427] Glenshee, Forfarshire, in 1870, are mentioned on -page 119. - -Celts with an edge at each end are rare on the Continent, though they -are of more frequent occurrence in Ireland. One of this character, -found in Dauphiné, France,[428] has been engraved by M. Chantre. - -Another from Portugal[429] has been described by myself elsewhere. - -[Illustration: Fig. 78.—Harome. 1∕2] - -A celt of shorter proportions, but also provided with a cutting edge at -each end, is shown in Fig. 78. It is in the Greenwell Collection, and -was found at Harome, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, where several -stone implements of rare form have been discovered. The material is a -hard clay-slate. The tool seems quite as well adapted for being used in -the hand without any mounting, as for attachment to a haft. |135| - -[Illustration: Fig. 79.—Daviot, near Inverness.] - -Another of these implements, with a cutting edge at either end, is -shown in Fig. 79. - -As will be observed, it is curved longitudinally, so that if attached -to a handle, it must have been after the manner of an adze and not -of an axe. The sides curve slightly inwards, which would render any -attachment to a handle more secure. - -The material of which it is formed is a dark green porphyry. It was -found in a cairn at Daviot,[430] near Inverness, in company with a -celt of oval section, and pointed at the butt (9 1∕2 inches); and -also with a greenstone pestle (?) (10 1∕4 inches), rounded at each -end. This latter was probably formed from a long pebble. They are all -preserved in the National Museum at Edinburgh. A curved celt of this -character but pointed at the butt-end (14 inches), formed of indurated -clay-stone, was found in Shetland.[431] A straighter celt of felstone -(13 inches), blunt at the butt-end, was found at Kirklauchline,[432] -Wigtownshire. - -The next peculiarity which I have to notice, is that of the tapering -sides of the celt being curved inwards, as if for the purpose of being -more securely fixed either to a handle or in a socket. In the last -implement described, the reduction in width towards the middle of -the blade would appear to have been intended to assist in fastening -it at the end of a handle, as an adze cutting at each end. In Fig. -80 the reduction in width is more abrupt, and the blade would appear -to have been mounted as an axe. It is formed of a compact light grey -metamorphic rock, and was formerly in the collection of the Rev. S. -Banks, of Cottenham, Cambridgeshire. I have a greenstone celt found -at Carnac, Brittany, with shoulders of the same character about the -middle of the blade. A form of celt expanding into a kind of knob at -the butt-end is peculiar to the Lower Loire.[433] It is known as the -“_hâche à bouton_,” or “_hâche à tête_.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 80.—Near Cottenham. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 81.—Near Malton. 1∕2] - -The original of Fig. 81 was found in a gravel-pit near Malton, -Yorkshire. It was at first supposed to have been found in undisturbed -|136| drift, and some correspondence upon the subject appeared in -the Times newspaper.[434] The gravel, however, in which it was found -seems to belong to the series of Glacial deposits, and if so, is of -considerably greater antiquity than any of the old River-gravels, in -which the unpolished flint implements have been discovered. This celt -is of greenstone, carefully polished at the edge, and towards the butt -slightly roughened by being picked with a sharp pointed tool. This -roughening is in character similar to that which has been observed on -many of the celts from the Swiss Lake-dwellings and from France,[435] -and was no doubt intended in their case to make the stone adhere -more firmly in the socket of stag’s horn in which it was inserted. -The object in this case would appear to be the same; and, like other -polished celts, it belongs to the Neolithic Period. The expansion of -the blade towards the edge is very remarkable. - -A celt of the same type as that from Malton, but somewhat oblique at -the edge, and formed of quartz containing pyrites, found at Soden, is -in the Museum at Bonn. - -A flat form of stone hatchet, expanding rapidly from a slightly -tapering butt about half the entire length of the blade, so as to form -a semicircular cutting-edge, has been found in South Carolina.[436] -There is a small perforation in the centre, as if for a pin, to assist -in securing it in its handle. - -Another form, with the blade reduced for about half its length, so as -to form a sort of tang, is engraved by Squier and Davis.[437] - -[Illustration: Fig. 82.—Mennithorpe, Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -The celt engraved in Fig. 82 presents an abrupt shoulder on one side -only, which, however, is in this case probably due to the form of the -pebble from which it was made, a portion of which had split off along -a line of natural cleavage. It is formed of a reddish, close-grained -porphyritic rock, and is subquadrate in section at the butt. It was -found at Mennithorpe, Yorkshire, and is in the Greenwell Collection. In -the same collection is a thin celt of clay-slate, 4 3∕4 inches long, -of much the same form, but rounded at the shoulder. It was found at -Ryedale, in the North Riding of Yorkshire. - -Some of the shouldered implements may have been intended for use -in the hand, without hafting. This appears to be the case with the -greenstone celt shown in Fig. 83. It was found on Middleton Moor, -Derbyshire, and was in the collection of the late Mr. J. F. Lucas. -The shallow grooves at the sides seem intended to receive the fingers -much in the same manner as the grooves in the handles of some of |137| -the tools of the Eskimos or the handles of the bronze sickles of the -Swiss Lake-dwellers.[438] An Irish celt, 8 inches long, and now in the -Blackmore Museum, has two notches on one side only, and more distinctly -formed, “seemingly to receive the fingers and give a firmer hold when -used in the hand without a haft.” - -Another peculiar instrument adapted for being held in the hand is shown -in Fig. 83A. It was found at Keystone, Huntingdonshire,[439] and is now -in the British Museum. It is made of greenstone, and in form resembles -the sharp end of a celt with flat sides let into a spherical handle. -Some hand-hatchets from Australia are of much the same character, but -in their case the knob is distinct from the blade, and formed of hard -_xanthorrhæa_ gum. |138| - -[Illustration: Fig. 83.—Middleton Moor.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 83A.—Keystone. 1∕2] - -The original of Fig. 84 is in the Greenwell Collection, and was found -near Truro. It is of serpentine, with an oblique edge, and seems to -have been formed from a pebble with little labour beyond that of -sharpening one end. Though much flatter on one face than the other, it -would appear, from the slanting edge, to have been used as an axe and -not as an adze, unless indeed it were a hand-tool. - -A beautiful adze formed of chalcedonic flint is shown in Fig. 84A. -kindly lent by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. The original was -found at Fernie Brae,[440] Slains, Aberdeenshire. It is 7 inches long, -and of nearly triangular section. A somewhat similar adze of greenstone -was found at Little Barras,[441] Drumlithie, Kincardineshire. I have a -flint adze (5 inches) of much the same character, but not so flat and -blunt at the butt-end, and ground at the edge only, which was found in -Reach Fen, Cambs. It is shown in Fig. 35A at page 92. - -[Illustration: Fig. 84.—Near Truro.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 84A.—Slains (7 inches long).] - -Another peculiarity of form is where the edge, instead of being as -usual nearly in the centre of the blade, is almost in the same plane as -one of the faces, like that of a joiner’s chisel. An implement of this -character, from a “Pict’s castle,” Clickemin, near Lerwick, Shetland, -is shown in Fig. 85. - -It was presented to me by the late Rev. Dr. Knowles, F.S.A. The -material appears to be a hard clay-slate. The form is well adapted for -being mounted as an adze, much in the same manner as the nearly similar -implements in use by the South Sea Islanders. A New Zealand[442] adze -of precisely the same character has been figured. - -Sometimes the edge of a celt, instead of being sharp, has been -carefully removed by grinding, so as to present a flat or rounded -surface. |139| In Fig. 86 is represented a singular implement of this -kind in flint. It is polished all over; one side is straight, and the -other curved; both ends are curved, but one is rounded at the edge -and the other flat. It is difficult to understand for what purpose -such an instrument can have been intended. There is no reason for -supposing that the grinding at the ends was later in date than the -formation of the other parts. I have others like Fig. 30 with the edge -also flattened, one of these I found, as already mentioned, at Abbot’s -Langley; and I have seen another flint celt of much the same form, -found at Chesterford, Cambs., with a somewhat flat edge, but rounded -and worn away, as if by scraping some soft substance. Small transverse -_striæ_, such as might have been caused by particles of sand, are -visible on the worn edge. In the Greenwell Collection is a portion of a -celt of greenstone, the fractured face ground flat and a portion of the -edge also ground away. - -[Illustration: Fig. 85.—Near Lerwick. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 86.—Weston, Norfolk. 1∕2] - -A small flint celt, with a round polished edge instead of a cutting one -as usual, was found, with other objects, in a barrow on Elton Moor, -Derbyshire.[443] I have seen a small flint celt like Fig. 33, with -the edge perfectly rounded by grinding. It was found between Deal and -Dover, near Kingsdown, by Mr. Hazzeldine Warren, of Waltham Cross. - -It is hard to say for what purpose the edge was thus made blunt. In -some cases, however, the instruments may have been used as battle-axes, -the edges of which when of the perforated forms are usually flattened -or rounded, probably with the view of preventing accidental injury -to those who carried them. In some celts, however, the broad end is -so much rounded that they can hardly be said to have an edge, and -they have more the appearance of having-been burnishing or |140| -calendering tools. I have observed this rounding of the end in some -Irish and French specimens, not made of flint, as well as in one from -India. - -Occasionally, but very seldom, a circular concave recess is worked on -each face of the celt, apparently for the purpose of preventing it from -slipping when held in the hand and used either as a chopping or cutting -instrument. That engraved as Fig. 87 was kindly lent me by Mr. J. R. -Mortimer, who found it on Acklam Wold, Yorkshire. It is of greenstone, -and has been polished over almost the entire surface. The butt-end -is nearly flat transversely, and ground in the other direction to a -sweep, so as to fit beneath the forefinger, when held by the thumb and -middle-finger placed in the recesses on the faces. Such recesses are -by no means uncommon on the stones intended for use as hammers, and -farther on (p. 242) I have engraved a hammer-stone of this class which -would seem to have been originally a celt such as this, but which has -entirely lost any approach to an edge by continual battering. In Mr. -Mortimer’s specimen the edge is fairly sharp, though it has lost some -splinters from it in ancient times. - -[Illustration: Fig. 87.—Acklam Wold. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 88.—Fimber. 1∕2] - -In the same collection is another specimen, found near Fimber, formed -of a green metamorphic rock. The butt-end is ground flat, and the sides -nearly so. There is a slight depression worked on each face. The edge -is slightly rounded, and shows longitudinal _striæ_. By the owner’s -kindness I am able to engrave it as Fig. 88. - -In General Pitt Rivers’s Collection is a celt from Hindostan, with -a cup-shaped depression on one of its faces. A celt of basalt from -Portugal[444] has such a depression on each face. - -In the fine and extensive Greenwell Collection, so often referred to, -is another remarkable celt, Fig. 89, which, though entirely different -in character from those last described, may also have been intended -for holding in the hand. It is of greenstone, the surface of which is -considerably decomposed, and was found at Duggleby, in the East Riding -of Yorkshire. On each side is an elongated concavity, well adapted -for receiving the end of the forefinger when the instrument is held -in the hand with the thumb on one face and the middle finger on the -other. At first sight it might appear that the depressions had been -made |141| with the view of perforating the blade, so as to make it -like Fig. 133. It is, however, too thin for such a purpose, and as the -depressions can hardly be connected with any method of hafting, it -appears probable that they are merely for the purpose of giving the -hand a secure grip, when using the instrument as a cutting tool. This -form is not uncommon in India. - -Some of the stone hatchets from British Guiana[445] have a notch on -either side, apparently to assist in fastening them to their haft. A -form with projecting lugs half-way down the blade has been found in -Armenia.[446] - -[Illustration: Fig. 89.—Duggleby. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 90.—Guernsey. 1∕2] - -The last peculiarity I have to notice is when the blade of the -celt assumes an ornamental character, by being fluted or otherwise -ornamented. That represented in Fig. 90 is deeply fluted on either -face. I have engraved the figure from a cast in the Museum of the -Society of Antiquaries, the original of which was in the possession of -F. C. Lukis, Esq., M.D. It was found at St. Sampson, Guernsey. Assuming -the figure given by M. Brouillet to be correct, a somewhat similar -celt of red flint was found with skeletons in the Tombelle de Brioux, -Poitou.[447] Another with three hollow facets on the lower parts of -one face was found in Finistère.[448] I have a small celt of nearly -similar form, but not so hollow on the faces, from Costa Rica. Such -specimens are extremely rare, and I cannot at present point to any -other examples. Indeed, it may be questioned how far the implements -found in the Channel Islands come within the scope of the present work. -The |142| grooves in the faces of the celt found at Trinity, near -Edinburgh,[449] can hardly have been intended for ornament. - -A kind of celt, not uncommon in Denmark, like Fig. 55, but with a small -hole drilled through it at the butt-end, as if for suspension, like -a sailor’s knife, has very rarely been found in England, but I have -a broken specimen from Cavenham, Suffolk, formed of greenstone. When -perfect the celt must have been in outline like Fig. 69, but thinner. - -[Illustration: Fig. 90A.—Wereham. 1∕2] - -A perfect example is shown in Fig. 90A. It is formed of whin-stone and -was found in 1896 at Wereham, near Stoke Ferry, Norfolk. It is in the -collection of Mr. E. M. Beloe, F.S.A., who has kindly permitted me to -figure it. It is curiously striated towards the butt-end, possibly -from friction in a socket. One from Thetford, perforated through the -centre of the face, is in the National Museum at Edinburgh. Another -of felstone (11 1∕4 inches), oval in section, found at Melness, -Sutherlandshire, was exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries of -Scotland in March, 1897. Bored celts, though rare in Britain, occur in -Brittany[450] and other parts of France, as well as in Italy.[451] A -few have also been found in Ireland.[452] A stone hatchet from Quito -in the Christy Collection, though of somewhat different form, is -perforated at the end in this manner. - -A vastly greater number of instances of the discovery in Britain of -stone hatchets or celts might have been cited; but inasmuch as in most -cases where mention is made of celts, no particulars are given of their -form, and as they occur in all parts of the country, it seems needless -to encumber my pages with references. As an instance of |143| their -abundance, I may mention that the late Mr. Bateman[453] records the -discovery of upwards of thirty, at fourteen different localities within -a small district of Derbyshire. Numerous discoveries in Yorkshire are -cited by Mr. C. Monkman.[454] - -Dr. Joseph Stevens has recorded several from the Thames near -Reading,[455] and a very large number of those in my own and various -public collections I have had to leave unnoticed for want of space. - - * * * * * - -The circumstances under which stone celts of various forms have been -discovered must now be considered, with a view of throwing some light -on their antiquity, and the length of time they have remained in -use. And it must at the outset be confessed that we have but little -to guide us on these points. We have already seen that they have -been found with objects of bronze; for in the barrow on Upton Lovel -Down,[456] examined by Sir R. Colt Hoare, flint celts, both rough and -polished, were discovered in company with a perforated stone axe, and -a bronze pin, though in this instance there were two interments. The -Ravenhill tumulus, near Scarborough,[457] is more conclusive; for -in it was an urn containing burnt bones, a broken flint celt, flint -arrow-heads, and a beautiful bronze pin one and a-half inches long. -The evidence of other recorded cases is but weak. Near Tynewydd, in -the parish of Llansilin, Denbighshire,[458] a greenstone celt and a -bronze socketed celt were found together in moving an accumulation of -stones, which did not, however, appear to have been a cairn. In another -instance,[459] three stone celts, one roughly chipped, the others -polished, are stated to have been found with a bronze socketed celt in -the parish of Southend, Kintyre, Argyllshire. At Campbelton, in the -same district,[460] were found two polished stone celts, and with them, -on the same spot, two stone moulds for casting looped spear-heads of -bronze. - - * * * * * - -Though there may be doubts as to the true association of stone celts -with instruments of bronze in some of these cases, the presumptive -evidence is strong of their having remained in use, as might indeed -have been reasonably expected, after the introduction of bronze for -cutting-tools. By the time bronze knife-daggers had become common, -perforated battle-axes had also come to form part of a warrior’s -ordinary equipment. These are often found with the daggers in graves, -and there can be no doubt of the ordinary form of stone hatchet having -preceded that with a shaft-hole. There are, however, a number of facts -in connection with the occurrence of the ordinary |144| stone celt -that must not be passed over, inasmuch as at first sight they tend -to raise a presumption of celts having remained in use even during -the period of the Roman occupation of this country. I will shortly -recapitulate the principal facts to which I allude. - -In excavating a Roman building at Ickleton,[461] Cambs., the late -Lord Braybrooke found a greenstone celt; and another is said to have -been found with Roman remains at Alchester, Oxfordshire.[462] A flint -celt is also described as having been found with Roman antiquities at -Eastbourne.[463] - -Among the relics discovered by Samuel Lysons, F.R.S., in the Roman -villa at Great Witcombe,[464] Gloucestershire, is described “a British -hatchet of flint.” Another flint celt was found close by a Roman -villa at Titsey.[465] Flint celts and scrapers were found in the -Romano-British village in Woodcuts Common,[466] Dorset, by General Pitt -Rivers. - -A stone celt, like Fig. 70, has been engraved by Artis[467] as a -polishing stone used in the manufactory of Roman earthen vessels, but -no evidence is given as to the cause of its being thus regarded. - -At Leicester, a fragment of a flint celt was found at a depth of twelve -feet from the surface on an old “ground line,” and accompanied by bone -objects which Sir Wollaston Franks assigned to a late Roman or even -possibly to an early Saxon period.[468] - -In the Saxon burial-place at Ash, in Kent, were found a polished flint -celt, “a circular flint stone,” and a Roman fibula.[469] - -In 1868, a fibrolite hatchet was found within a building at Mont -Beuvray, the ancient Bibracte,[470] with three Gaulish coins of the -time of Augustus. - -Others of flint were found in a Merovingian cemetery at Labruyère, in -the Côte d’Or.[471] - -The occurrence at Gonsenheim, near Mainz, of a series of thin polished -celts with remains presumably Roman, has already been mentioned. In -two, if not more, instances in Denmark,[472] fragments of iron have -been found in tumuli, and apparently in association with polished -hatchets and other instruments of flint and stone. It seems doubtful, -however, whether in these cases the iron was not subsequently -introduced. - - * * * * * - -The association of these stone implements with Roman, and even -Post-Roman, remains in so many different places, would at first -sight appear to argue their contemporaneity; but in the case of the -celts being found on the sites of Roman villas, two things are to -be remarked—First, that sites once occupied may, and constantly do, -continue in occupation for an indefinite length of time, so that the -imperishable relics of one age, such as those in |145| stone, may -become mixed in the soil with those of a long subsequent date; and -second, that had these stone implements been in common use in Roman -times, their presence among Roman remains would have been the rule and -not the exception, and we should have found them mentioned by Latin -authors. Moreover, if their use had survived in this manner into Roman -times, we should expect to find them still more abundantly associated -with tools of the Bronze Age. We have, however, seen how rarely this -class of stone instruments is found with bronze. - -As to the stone celt discovered at Ash, Mr. Douglas remarks it may -not “be improbable that this stone instrument was deposited with the -dead, as an amulet; and which the owner had found and preserved with -a superstitious reverence.” In a tumulus in Flanders,[473] six celts -were found placed upright in a circle round the interment, but from -the difference in the condition of their surface they appeared to -be of different ages, so that it has been suggested that they also -were gathered from the surface of the soil and placed in the tomb -as amulets. We shall subsequently see that flint arrow-heads were -frequently thus preserved in Merovingian cemeteries. - -In many cases in Germany,[474] stone axes, for the most part -perforated, are said to have been found in association with objects -of iron; but the proofs of the contemporaneity of the two classes of -objects are not satisfactory. The religious veneration attaching to the -Thor’s hammers may, however, have had to do with their interment in -graves, at a time when they had ceased to be in ordinary use. Moreover, -the axes may have been preserved to ward off lightning. - -Another argument in favour of these instruments having remained in use -in Britain until a comparatively late period, has been derived from -the circumstance of the words _stan-æx_ and _stan-bill_, occurring in -Ælfric’s Saxon glossary. These words are translated by Lye[475] as -a stone axe, a stone bill—terms which have naturally been regarded -as referring to axes and bills made of stone, which, therefore, it -might be reasonably inferred were in use at the time when the glossary -was written, or about A.D. 1000. On examination, however, it appears -that no such inference is warranted. The glossary is Latin with the -Saxon equivalents annexed to each word, and the two words referred to -are |146| _Bipennis_, rendered _twibille_ and _stan-æx_; and Marra, -rendered _stan-bill_. Now _Bipennis_ is an axe cutting at either end, -and the word is accurately rendered by “twibille;”[476]—the axe having -“bill” or steel at its two edges. But a double-cutting axe in stone is -a form of very rare occurrence, and this alone raises a presumption of -the _stan_ in _stan-æx_ referring to stone in some other manner than -as the material of which the axe was made. The second word, _Marra_, -seems to clear up the question, for this was a mattock or pick-axe, or -some such tool, and this is rendered _stan-bill_,—the steel for use on -or among stones. The stone axe may be one for cutting stones, like the -mill-bill of the present day, which is used for dressing mill-stones, -and this being usually sharp at each end, might not inaptly be regarded -as the equivalent of the ancient _bipennis_. An axe is still a -bricklayer’s tool, and is also occasionally used by stone-cutters. It -seems, then, that the “_stan_” in these two Saxon words refers, not to -the material of which the axes or bills were made, but to the stones on -or among which they were used. In Halliwell’s “Dictionary of Archaic -and Provincial Words,”[477] the interpretation of Stone-axe is given as -“A stone-worker’s axe,” but it is not stated where the term occurs. - -In the “_Matériaux_”[478] M. Soreil has called attention to a very -early German poem, possibly of the fifth century, in which the heroes -are described as contending with stone axes. The subject has been -discussed by Dr. Much,[479] who suggests that the name survived long -after the actual use of the weapons, and points out that the modern -word Hellebarde (halberd) has the same meaning, _hella_ in Old German -signifying “stone,” and _barte_ being still used to signify an “axe” or -“chopper.” He also hints at a connection between the _scrama-seax_ or -large knife, with _saxum_. The whole paper is worth reading. - -In the Song of Hildebrand and Hadubrand, probably of the eighth -century, stone hammers, _staim-borts_, are also mentioned. - - “Do stoptun tosamane staimbort chludun - Hewun harmlicco huitte scilti.”[480] - -The passage in “William of Poitiers,”[481]—“Jactant cuspides ac |147| -diversorum generum tela, sævissimas quasque secures ac lignis imposita -saxa,”—which has been cited as proving that some of the Anglo-Saxons -fought with weapons of stone at the battle of Hastings, seems only -to refer to stone missiles probably discharged from some engines of -war, and serving the same purpose as the stone cannon-balls of more -recent times. Professor Nilsson[482] has pointed out that _jactare_ -often signifies to brandish, and argues that the large stone axes were -too heavy either for brandishing or throwing as weapons. It seems to -me, however, that _jactare_ in this passage is used in the sense of -throwing, the same as in Virgil,[483]— - - “Deucalion vacuum lapides jactavit in orbem, - Unde homines nati, durum genus.” - -If it be uncertain to how late a period these Neolithic implements -remained in use in this country, it is still more uncertain to how -early a period their introduction may be referred. If we take the -possible limits in either direction, the date at which they fell into -disuse becomes approximately fixed as compared with that at which they -may first have come into use in Britain. For we may safely say that -the use of bronze must have been known in this country 500 or 600 -years B.C., and, therefore, that at that time cutting tools of stone -began to be superseded; while by A.D. 1100, it will be agreed on all -hands that they were no longer in use. We can, therefore, absolutely -fix the date of their desuetude within at the outside two thousand -years; but who can tell within any such limits the time when a people -acquainted with the use of polished stone implements first settled in -this island, or when the process of grinding them may have been first -developed among native tribes? The long duration of the period which -intervened between the deposit of the River-gravels (containing, so -far as at present known, implements chipped only and not polished), -and the first appearance of polished hatchets, is not in this country -so well illustrated as in France; but even there, all that can be said -as to the introduction of polished stone hatchets, is that it took -place subsequently to the accumulation in the caves of the south of -France, of the deposits belonging to an age when reindeer constituted -one of the principal articles of food of the cave-dwellers. As to the -date at which those cave-deposits were formed, history and tradition -are silent, and at present even Geology affords but little aid in -determining the question. |148| - -But though we cannot fix the range in time of these implements, it -will be well to notice some of the circumstances under which they have -been found, if only as illustrative of the habits and customs of the -ancient people who used them. Of course the most instructive cases are -those in which they have occurred with interments, and some of these I -have already incidentally mentioned; as, for instance, the discovery -in a barrow on Upton Lovel Down of a roughly chipped celt, with others -polished at the edge, and other objects; and that of two very roughly -chipped flint celts found by Dr. Mantell, in a barrow at Alfriston, -Sussex. - - * * * * * - -A celt of greenstone, ground at the edge only, was found in a barrow -with a burnt body on Seamer Moor, Yorkshire, by the Rev. F. Porter; and -in another[484] barrow on the same moor, Canon Greenwell found a celt -of clay-slate, like Fig. 50, burnt red, in association with a deposit -of burnt bones. In a third tumulus on the same moor, opened by the late -Lord Londesborough, there were numerous interments, but one of these -consisted of a small portion of human bones,[485] four flint celts, -five beautifully formed arrow-heads of flint, two rude spear-heads of -flint, two well-formed knives and spear-heads of flint, two very large -tusks of the wild boar, and a piece of deer-horn, perforated at the end -and drilled through, which was thought to be the handle for one of the -celts. - -In these three instances the polished celts accompany interments by -cremation, and probably belong to a late period of the Stone Age in -Britain. They have, however, been frequently found with the remains -of unburnt bodies. In one of the banks of an ancient settlement near -Knook Castle, Upton Lovel, Sir R. Colt Hoare[486] discovered a skeleton -with its head towards the north and at its feet a fine black celt. -In a barrow about seven miles east of Pickering,[487] besides other -interments is said to have been one of a skeleton with the head towards -the south, and a “beautiful stone adze or celt, 3 1∕2 inches long, -wrought in green basalt, and a very elaborately chipped spear of flint, -near four inches long, near its right hand.” - -In another barrow in the same district[488] the skeleton was -accompanied by “a very small celt or chisel of grey flint, smoothly -rubbed, and a plain spear-head of the same material.” - -In another barrow on Elton Moor, Derbyshire,[489] there lay behind the -skeleton a neatly ornamented “drinking cup,” containing three pebbles -of quartz, a flat piece of polished iron ore, a small celt of flint, -with a rounded instead of a cutting edge, a beautifully chipped cutting -tool, twenty-one circular-ended instruments, and seventeen rude pieces -of flint. - -In Liffs Low, near Biggin,[490] Mr. Bateman found a skeleton in the -|149| contracted position, and with it two flint celts beautifully -chipped and polished at the cutting edges; two flint arrow-heads -delicately chipped, two flint knives polished on the edge, and one of -them serrated on the back to serve as a saw; numerous other objects of -flint, some red ochre, a small earthenware cup, and a hammer-head of -stag’s horn. - -In Cross Low, near Parwich,[491] a fragment of a celt and a small piece -of chipped flint were with a human skeleton in a cist; and a kind of -flint axe or tomahawk is reported to have been similarly found in a -barrow near Pickering.[492] - -In the Gospel Hillock barrow, near Buxton, Captain Lukis, F.S.A., found -near the shoulder of a contracted skeleton, a polished flint celt, of -which an engraving is given in the _Reliquary_.[493] - -In what appears to have been a tumulus at Seaford,[494] Sussex, celts -both whole and broken, and other forms of worked flint, were found, but -the account given of the exploration is rather confused. - -It will be observed that in these cases stone celts accompany the -earliest form of interment with which we are acquainted, that in which -the body is deposited in the contracted position. The reason why -bodies were interred in that posture appears to be that it was in all -probability the usual attitude of sleep, at a period when the small -cloak of the day must generally have served as the only covering at -night. - -In Scotland stone celts seem to be of frequent occurrence in cairns. I -have one, already mentioned,[495] which is said to have been found with -four others in a cairn on Druim-a-shi, near Culloden. - -Three others, of which two have been already described,[496] were -discovered in a cairn in Daviot parish, Inverness, together with a -cylindrical implement, possibly a pestle, and are now in the National -Museum at Edinburgh. Not improbably my specimen came from the same -cairn. - -Another[497] was found in the Cat’s Cairn, Cromartyshire. A -second,[498] pointed at the butt, is said to have been found in a -“Druidical circle,” Aberdeenshire. A third,[499] of black flint, from -the parish of Cruden, Aberdeenshire, would seem to have accompanied an -interment, as with it was found a necklace of large oblong beads of -jet, and rudely shaped pieces of amber. - -None, however, of these instances afford any absolute testimony as to -their exact or even approximate age, unless, indeed, the jet and amber, -if they really accompanied the flint celt, point in that case to a date -at all events not far removed from that of the bronze objects with -which such necklaces have frequently been found. - -In the other cases of interments in barrows, however ancient they may -be, it seems probable that they are not those of the earliest occupants -of this country, by whom polished stone celts, or those of the same -character rough hewn only, were in use. The labour bestowed in the -formation of the graves and the erection of the barrows must |150| -have been immense, and could hardly have been undertaken until a stage -of civilization had been reached higher than that of some of the ruder -savage races of the present day. - -It may be mentioned that stone celts are not unfrequently found in the -soil of which barrows are composed, but in no way connected with the -interments in the barrow. - -There are a few instances of the finding of these instruments, not in -association with interments, where the circumstances under which they -have been discovered testify to a great, though still indeterminate -antiquity. One, for instance, of greenstone, in the Museum of the -Society of Antiquaries, is stated to have been “found deep in the clay -whilst digging the Chelsea Waterworks at Kingston.”[500] Others in a -sand-bed near York[501] were 6 or 7 feet below the surface, and nearly -a quarter of a mile from the river which is thought to have deposited -the sand. - -In Wilson’s “Prehistoric Annals of Scotland”[502] is recorded the -finding of a greenstone celt in a primitive canoe, formed of a hollowed -trunk of oak, at a depth of 25 feet from the surface, at Glasgow; and -in the Norwich Museum is one of brown flint, ground all over, 4 1∕4 -inches long, similar to Fig. 54, but with facets towards the edge, as -if from repeated grinding, which is stated to have been found fixed -in a tree in the submarine forest at Hunstanton, by the Rev. George -Mumford, of East Winch, in the year 1829. - - * * * * * - -On the whole evidence it would appear, from the number of implements -of this class which has been discovered, from the various characters -of the interments with which they are associated, and from the -circumstances under which they have been found, that these stone celts -must have been in use in this country during a long period of years; -though we still revert to our first confession, that it is impossible -to determine at how early a date this period commenced, or to how late -a date it may have extended. If, however, the occupation of this part -of the globe by man was continuous from the period of the deposit of -the old River-gravels unto the present day, it seems probable that some -of these implements may claim an almost fabulous antiquity, while in -certain remote districts of Britain into which civilization made but a -tardy approach, it is possible that their use may have lingered on to a -time when in other parts of the country, owing to the superiority and -abundance of metallic tools, these stone hatchets had long fallen into -disuse. - -Instances of this comparatively late use of stone celts appear to be -afforded by some of the discoveries made in the Orkney and Shetland -Isles; and it is doubtful whether in Ireland the use of |151| stone -implements did not survive in some parts of the country to a far more -recent date than would at first sight appear probable. I have, however, -remarked on this subject elsewhere.[503] Sir Arthur Mitchell’s book, -“The Past in the Present,” may also be consulted. - -The methods in which these instruments were used and mounted must to -some extent have varied in accordance with the purposes to which they -were applied. In describing the forms, I have pointed out that in some -cases they were used as axes or hatchets, and in other cases as adzes, -and that there are some celts which not improbably were used in the -hand without any handle at all, or else were mounted in short handles, -and used after the manner of chisels or knives. - -The instances of their being found in this country still attached -to their handles are rare. In the case of the celt found near -Tranmere,[504] Cheshire, and now in the Mayer Museum at Liverpool, “the -greater part of the wood had perished, but enough remained to show that -the handle had passed in a slightly diagonal direction towards the -upper end of the stone.” In the Christy Collection is a large felstone -celt 12 1∕4 inches long and 3 1∕4 inches broad, of the same section -as Fig. 43, slightly flattened at the sides, on the face of which the -mark of the handle is still visible, crossing it obliquely near the -middle. This specimen was found at Pentney, Norfolk. Similar marks may -not improbably be observed on other specimens, like that from Drumour -already mentioned at page 119. - -[Illustration: Fig. 91.—Solway Moss.] - -In the Solway Moss, near Longtown, a hafted hatchet was found by a -labourer digging peat, at the depth of rather more than six feet, but -the handle appears to have been broken, even at the time when the -sketch was made from which the woodcut |152| given in the _Proceedings -of the Society of Antiquaries_[505] was engraved, which is, by -permission, here reproduced. The instrument is now in the British -Museum, but the haft, in drying, has, unfortunately, quite lost its -form, and is still further broken. The process of preserving wood when -in the tender condition in which it is found after long burial in peat -was probably not known at the time. It has been adopted with great -success by Mr. Engelhardt in preserving the wooden antiquities from the -Danish peat bogs, and consists in keeping the objects moist until they -have been well steeped, or even boiled, in a strong solution of alum, -after which they are allowed to dry gradually, and are found to retain -their form in a remarkable manner. - -It is probably owing to the broken and distorted condition of the wood -that the sketch was inaccurate as to the position of the blade with -regard to the handle, for the mark of the wood where it was in contact -with the stone is still visible, and proves that the central line of -the blade was inclined outwards at an angle of about 100° to the haft, -instead of being nearly vertical, as shown. The edge of the hatchet is -oblique to nearly the same extent as the inclination of the blade to -the haft. It would seem from this, that the obliquity of the edge was -in some cases connected with the method of hafting, and not always, as -suggested by Nilsson,[506] the result of the blade being most worn away -in the part farthest from the hand holding the shaft. - -The preservation of the wooden handle has been more successfully -effected in the case of the celt shown in Fig. 92, engraved from a -photograph kindly supplied me by Mr. R. D. Darbishire, F.G.S. It is -figured on a larger scale in the _Archæologia_,[507] where all the -circumstances of the discovery are set forth in detail. The axe was -found, in the year 1871, in peat which had once formed the bed of a -small lake, known as Ehenside Tarn, near Egremont, in Cumberland, -which has now been drained. With it were found another haft of the -same character, and several stone celts, one of them 14 1∕2 inches -in length, with the sides but slightly curved, and almost equally -broad at each end. Some wooden paddles and clubs formed of beech -and oak, pottery and other objects, were also found. The farmer who -cultivates the former bed of the lake had previously discovered some -stone antiquities which were brought under the notice of Sir Wollaston -Franks, |153| who induced Mr. Darbishire to make the search which was -so amply rewarded. The haft is formed of a hard root of beech-wood, -and has been most carefully carved, the surface exhibiting alternate -cuts and ridges forming small concave facets about 1∕8-inch apart, and -arranged spirally. The other haft for a celt is of oak-wood, and is not -so well preserved. It will be noticed that the end of the beech-wood -handle has originally been recurved, possibly with a view of steadying -the butt-end of the celt. - -[Illustration: Fig. 92.—Cumberland. 1∕4] - -Curiously enough, in the outline of a celt in its handle, carved on -the under side of the roof-stone of a dolmen, known as La Table des -Marchands, near Locmariaker, Brittany,[508] the end of the handle seems -also to be curved back beyond the socket for the blade, which however -it does not touch. At the other end of the handle there is a loop like -a sword guard, for the insertion of the hand. There is some little -difficulty in determining the exact form of this incised carving, as -the lines are shallow, and the light does not fall upon them. I speak -from a sketch I made on the spot in 1863. Other such representations -occur in Brittany.[509] - -In a paper[510] on a neolithic flint weapon in a wooden haft, Mr. -C. Dawson has given an account of a discovery made by Mr. Stephen -Blackmore, a shepherd of East Dean, near Eastbourne, of a flint hatchet -at Mitchdean. It was lying in its wooden haft which was perfectly -carbonized, but Mr. Blackmore made a |154| drawing of it, apparently -from memory. He describes the blade, which seems to have been unground, -as lying in a horizontal groove cut in one side of the shaft, which -was 2 feet 6 inches long. At one end of the shaft were two projections -supposed to serve for holding the ligatures by which the blade was -attached, and nearer the hand were a number of grooves running round -the haft. Neither the description nor the drawings of this and other -objects found with it are such as to inspire complete confidence. - -About 1822, in sinking a well at Ferry Harty, Isle of Sheppey,[511] -there were found, according to newspaper reports, the remains of a hut, -two skeletons, and “flints and hard stones, apparently intended for -axes and cutting implements, with handles of wood quite complete and in -good preservation.” Nothing farther seems to be known of this discovery. - -At Ervie,[512] near Glenluce, Wigtownshire, a celt of indurated -clay-stone in form like Fig. 77 (8 inches) was found, which shows a -band of dark colour about 1 1∕2 inch wide and about 2 inches from the -butt-end, crossing it at an angle of about 20°. This band probably -shows the position of the haft in which the blade was fixed. Another -celt from Glenshee, Forfarshire, likewise in the Edinburgh Museum, -shows a fainter mark of the kind. On a third from Dolphinton,[513] -Lanarkshire, the mark is very distinct and at a right angle to the axis -of the blade. Montelius[514] mentions a Swedish specimen, and A. de -Mortillet[515] a French one of flint similarly marked. - -[Illustration: Fig. 93.—Monaghan.] - -In the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy[516] is a drawing of a celt -in its handle (which is apparently of pine) found in the county of -Monaghan. This handle was 13 1∕2 inches long, and more clumsy at the -socketed end than that from Solway Moss. The woodcut given by Sir W. -Wilde is here, by permission, reproduced as Fig. 93. - -Another nearly similar specimen was discovered near |155| -Cookstown,[517] in the county of Tyrone. What may be the haft of a -stone hatchet was found in another Irish crannog.[518] Another is in -the collection of General Pitt Rivers, F.R.S. Some of the hatchets -from the Swiss Lake-dwellings were hafted in a similar manner. In one -such haft, formed of ash, from Robenhausen,[519] the blade is inclined -towards the hand; in another, also of ash, the blade is at right angles -to the shaft.[520] Some of these club-like hafts resemble in character -those in use for iron blades in Southern and Central Africa.[521] The -copper or bronze axes of the Mexicans[522] were hafted in the same -manner. - -A method of hafting, which implies fixity of residence, is said to -have been in use among the Caribs[523] of Guadaloupe. The blade of the -axe had a groove round it at the butt-end, and a deep hole having been -cut in the branch of a growing tree, this end of the blade was placed -in it, and as the branch grew became firmly embedded in it, the wood -which grasped it having formed a collar that filled the groove. The -Hurons[524] are said to have adopted the same plan. - -[Illustration: Fig. 94.—Axe from the Rio Frio. 1∕6] - -I have engraved in Fig. 94, an extremely rude example of hafting by -fitting the blade into a socket, from an original kindly lent me by the -late Mr. Thomas Belt, F.G.S., who procured it among the Indians of the -Rio Frio, a tributary of the San Juan del Norte in Nicaragua. The blade -is of trachyte entirely unground and most rudely chipped. The club-like -haft is formed of some endogenous wood, and has evidently been chopped -into shape by means of stone tools. - -[Illustration: Fig. 95.—War-axe—Gaveoë Indians, Brazil.] - -In these instances Clavigero’s[525] remark with regard to the copper -|156| or bronze axes of the Mexicans holds good; they are like -“those of modern times, except that we put the handle in an eye of -the axe while they put the axe in an eye of the handle.” A similarly -hafted hatchet with the blade ground is in use among the Botocudo -Indians. In the Island of New Hanover[526] the axe blade is inserted -about the middle of the club-like haft. Some hatchets from the -Admiralty Islands[527] are curiously like those from the Swiss |157| -Lake-dwellings. Excessively long hafts in which the blades are let -into a socket are occasionally in use among the Chamacocos[528] of -south-east Bolivia. - -Many stone and metallic axes in use among other modern savages are -hafted in much the same manner by insertion in a socket. In some -instances it would appear as if the hole for receiving the stone did -not extend through the haft, but was merely a shallow depression—even a -notch. Such seems to be the case with a war-axe of the Gaveoë Indians -of Brazil in the British Museum, figured in the _Proceedings of the -Society of Antiquaries_,[529] and here, by permission, reproduced, as -Fig. 95. Some of their axes have longer hafts. In the Over Yssel Museum -is a Brazilian stone axe with a blade of this kind, which is said to -have been used in an insurrection at Deventer[530] in 1787. - -[Illustration: Fig. 96.—Axe of Montezuma II.] - -The “securis lapidea in sacrificiis Indorum usitata,” engraved by -Aldrovandus,[531] seems to have the blade inserted in a socket without -being tied, but in most axes of the same kind the blade is secured in -its place by a plaited binding artistically interlaced. The stone axe -said to be that of Montezuma II., preserved in the Ambras Museum at -Vienna, is a good example of the kind.[532] I have engraved it as Fig. -96, from a sketch I made in 1866. - -In some cases the whole handle is covered with the binding. Two such in -the Dresden Historical Museum are engraved by Klemm.[533] Others have -been figured by Prof. Giglioli.[534] - -Some of the war-axes (called taawisch or tsuskiah) in use among the -natives of Nootka Sound[535] are mounted in this manner, but the socket -end of the shaft is carved into the form of a grotesque human head, in -the mouth of which the stone blade is |158| secured with cement, as in -Fig. 97. In another instance the handle is carved into the form of a -bird[536] and inlaid with mother-of-pearl, or, more properly speaking, -shell of _haliotis_. The blade of basalt projects from the breast of -the bird, the tail of which forms the handle. In some the blade goes -right through the handle, so as to project equally on both sides of it, -and is sharpened at both ends. - -[Illustration: Fig. 97.—Axe—Nootka Sound.] - -The socket in all these handles is usually at some little distance from -their end, but even with this precaution, the wedge-like form of the -celt must have rendered them very liable to split. It was probably with -a view of avoiding this, that the intermediate socket of stag’s horn, -so common in the Lake-dwellings of Switzerland, was adopted. The stone -was firmly bedded in the horn, the end of which was usually worked -into a square form, but slightly tapering, and with a shoulder all -round to prevent its being driven into the wood. In the annexed woodcut -(Fig. 98) is shown one of these sockets with the hatchet inserted. It -was found at Concise, in the Lake of Neuchâtel. An analogous system -for preventing the stone blade from splitting the haft was adopted -in Burma, Cambodia, |159| and Eastern India, but the shoulders were -there cut in the stone-blades themselves. One of the Swiss instruments -in its complete form is shown in Fig. 99, which I have copied from -Keller.[537] It was found at Robenhausen, and the club-like handle is -of ash. Several other specimens are engraved by the same author and -Professor Desor,[538] and by other more recent writers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 98.—Axe in stag’s-horn socket—Concise. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 99.—Axe—Robenhausen. 1∕1] - -In some instances the stone was inserted lengthways[539] into the end -of a tine of a stag’s horn at the part where it had been severed from -the antler, so as to form a sort of chisel.[540] In other cases the -socket was worked through the tine, and the stone blade fixed in it -after the manner of an axe, though the handle was too short for the -tool to be used for chopping. Some wooden handles[541] are also but a -few inches long, so that the celts mounted in them must have been used -for cutting by drawing them along the object to be cut. - -Such stag’s-horn sockets have occurred, though rarely, in France. M. -Perrault found some in his researches in the Camp de Chassey, |160| -(Saône et Loire).[542] Some seem to have been found at Vauvray,[543] -in making the railway from Paris to Rouen. Others were discovered in -company with arrow-heads, celts, and trimmed flakes of flint, in the -Dolmen,[544] or _Allée couverte_, of Argenteuil (Seine et Oise). These -are now in the Musée de St. Germain. Others were found in a cavern on -Mont Sargel (Aveyron).[545] They occasionally occur in Germany. One -from Dienheim is in the Central Museum at Mayence. - -Discoveries of these stag’s-horn sockets for stone tools in England -seem to be extremely rare. Mr. Albert Way describes one, of which a -woodcut is given in the _Archæological Journal_.[546] It is formed -of the horn of the red deer (which is erroneously described as being -extinct), and is said to have been found with human remains and -pottery of an early character at Cockshott Hill, in Wychwood Forest, -Oxfordshire. It seems better adapted for mounting a small celt as a -chisel, like that of bronze found in a barrow at Everley,[547] than -for forming part of a hatchet. Mr. Way[548] cites several cases of -the discovery of these stag’s-horn sockets in France and elsewhere on -the continent of Europe. I may add, by way of caution, that numerous -forgeries of them have been produced at Amiens. In some of the genuine -specimens from the peat of the valley of the Somme,[549] the stone was -fixed in a socket bored in one end of the piece of stag’s horn, and the -shaft was inserted in another hole bored through the horn. M. Boucher -de Perthes describes the handle of one as made of a branch of oak, -burnt at each end. - -An example of this method of mounting is given in Fig. 99A. The -original was found at Penhouet, Saint Nazaire sur Loire,[550] in 1877. -The length of the haft is 19 1∕2 inches. A fine socket with the blade -still in it, but without the shaft, has been figured by the Baron -Joseph de Baye.[551] It was found in La Marne, in which department -funereal grottoes have been discovered, at the entrances of which -similar hafted axes were sculptured. - -The socket discovered by the late Lord Londesborough in a barrow, -near Scarborough,[552] appears to have been a hammer, |161| although -he describes it as a piece of deer horn, perforated at the end, and -drilled through, and imagined it to have been the handle for one of -the celts found with it, “much in the manner of that in the museum of -M. de Courvale, at his Castle of Pinon, in France,” of which he sent a -drawing to the Archæological Association. A stag’s-horn socket, with a -transverse hole for the haft, and a circular socket bored in the end, -from which the main body of the horn was cut off, was found in the -Thames, near Kew, and is in the possession of Mr. Thomas Layton, F.S.A. -In the circular socket was a portion of a tine of stag’s horn, so that -it seems rather to have been intended for mounting such tines for use -as picks, than for hafting celts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 99A.—Penhouet. 1∕6] - -[Illustration: Fig. 99B.—New Guinea.] - -A celt, mounted in a socket of stag’s horn, bored through to receive -the wooden shaft, found in the Lake-dwellings at Concise, and in -the collection of Dr. Clément, has been engraved by Desor;[553] and -another, found near Aerschot,[554] in Belgium, by Le Hon. A hatchet, -mounted in a socket of this kind, is figured by Dupont[555] |162| and -Van Overloop.[556] Some of the stag’s-horn sockets are ornamented by -having patterns engraved upon them.[557] - -[Illustration: Fig. 99C.—New Guinea Adze.] - -In New Guinea and Celebes a plan has been adopted of inserting the -stone blade into the end of a tapering piece of wood, which is -securely bound round to prevent its splitting. The small end of this -fits in a hole in the club-like haft. An example is shown in Fig. -99B,[558] obligingly lent by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. -By turning round the pivot an axe is converted into an adze. In some -New Guinea and New Caledonia adzes and axes the blade is let into a -socket at a nearly right angle to the haft, and either forming part -of it or attached to it. Such an adze is shown in Fig. 99C, kindly -lent by the same Society. A similar method of hafting is in use in the -Entrecasteaux Islands.[559] - -Some ingenious suggestions as to the probable method of mounting stone -implements in ancient times have been made by the Vicomte Lepic.[560] -With a polished Danish flint hatchet 8 inches long, hafted in part -of the root of an oak, an oak-tree 8 inches in diameter was cut down -without injury to the blade. - -Another method of hafting, adopted by the Swiss Lake-dwellers for their -stone hatchets, is described by Dr. Keller,[561] from whose work I have -copied the annexed woodcut, Fig. 100. |163| - -The haft was usually formed of a stem of hazel, “with a root running -from it at right angles. A cleft was then made in this shorter part, -forming a kind of beak in which the celt was fixed with cord and -asphalte.” A woodcut of a handle of the same character, found near -Schraplau, in company with its stone blade, is given by Klemm,[562] -and is here reproduced as Fig. 101. A handle of much the same kind, -consisting of a shaft with a branch at right angles to it, in which was -fixed a flint axe, was found with a skeleton and a wooden shield in a -tumulus near Lang Eichstätt, in Saxony,[563] and has been engraved by -Lindenschmit. Another is said to have been found at Winterswyk. - -[Illustration: Fig. 100.—Axe—Robenhausen.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 101.—Schraplau.] - -The discovery in the district between the Weser and the Elbe of several -stone hatchets mounted in hafts of wood, stag’s-horn, and bone, has -been recorded by Mr. A. Poppe,[564] but the authenticity of the hafting -seems to me open to question. The compound haft of a stone axe, said to -have been found at Berlin,[565] is also not above all suspicion. The -handles of bronze palstaves, found in the salt mines near Salzburg, -Austria, are forked in the same manner as Figs. 100 and 101. One of -them, formerly in the Klemm Collection, is now in the British Museum. - -[Illustration: Fig. 102.—Adze—New Caledonia.] - -The same system of hafting has been in use among the savages in -recent times, as will be seen from the annexed figure of a stone adze -from New Caledonia,[566] Fig. 102, lent to me by the late Mr. Henry -Christy. Another is engraved in the _Proceedings of the Society of -|164| Antiquaries of Scotland_.[567] Several other varieties of New -Caledonian and Fiji handles have been engraved by M. Chantre.[568] In -some countries, probably in consequence of the difficulty of procuring -forked boughs of trees of the proper kind, the wood which forms the -socket for the blade is bound on at the desired angle to the end of -the wooden handle. An adze of stone from the Caroline Islands, thus -mounted, is engraved in the _Comptes Rendus_;[569] and a |165| handle -of this kind from North America, but with a small iron blade, is -figured by Klemm.[570] - -[Illustration: Fig. 103.—Adze—Clalam Indians.] - -We are left in a great degree to conjecture as to the other methods of -mounting stone hatchets and adzes on handles in prehistoric times; but -doubtless some besides those already mentioned were practised. A very -common method among existing savages is to bind the blade of stone on -to the face of a branch at the end of the handle, which in some cases -projects upwards, and in others downwards, and is inclined at an angle -more or less perpendicular to the handle. - -Figs. 103 and 104 are kindly lent me by the Society of Antiquaries of -Scotland.[571] The short-handled adze, Fig. 103, is one |166| used -by the Schlalum or Clalam Indians, of the Pacific Coast, to the south -of the Straits of De Fuca and on Puget’s Sound, to hollow out their -canoes. The group, Fig. 104, exhibits various methods of attachment of -stone adzes to their handles employed by the South-Sea Islanders. - -[Illustration: Fig. 104.—South-Sea Island Axes.] - -The Australians occasionally mounted their tomahawks in much the -same manner as that shown in the central figure. An example has been -engraved by the Rev. J. G. Wood.[572] The right-hand figure probably -represents an adze from the Savage Islands. Some Brazilian and Aleutian -Island adzes are mounted in much the same fashion. - -The jade adzes of the New Zealanders are hafted in a somewhat similar -manner; but the hafts are often beautifully carved and inlaid. A -fine example is in the Blackmore Museum, and a handle in the Christy -Collection. I have also a haft with the original |167| jade blade, -but the binding has been taken off. One of them is engraved by the -Rev. J. G. Wood.[573] The axe to the left, in Fig. 104, as well as -that in the centre, is from Tahiti. The axes from Mangaia, so common -in collections, exhibit great skill in the mounting and in the carving -of the handles. Some have been engraved by the Rev. J. G. Wood.[574] -A ceremonial stone adze with a very remarkable carved haft from New -Ireland[575] has been figured by Professor Giglioli. - -In some instances the ligaments for attaching the stone blade against -the end of the handle pass through a hole towards its end. A North -American adze in the Ethnological Museum, at Copenhagen, is thus -mounted, the cord being apparently of gut. - -A similar method of mounting their adzes, by binding them against the -haft, was in use among the Egyptians.[576] Although it is extremely -probable that some of the ancient stone adzes of other countries may -have been mounted in this manner, there have not, so far as I am aware, -been any of the handles of this class discovered. I have, however, -two Swiss celts of Lydian stone, and of rectangular section, found at -Nussdorf and Sipplingen, in the Ueberlinger See, and on the flatter of -the two faces of each, there is a slight hollow worn away apparently -by friction, which was, I think, due to their having been attached -against a handle in this manner. The blade in which the depression is -most evident has lost its edge, seemingly from its having been broken -in use. I have not up to the present time found any similarly worn -surfaces upon British celts. - -Another method of hafting adopted by various savage tribes is that of -winding a flexible branch of wood round the stone, and securing the -two ends of the branch by binding them together in such a manner as -tightly to embrace the blade. A stone axe from Northern Australia thus -hafted, is figured in the _Archæologia_,[577] whence I have borrowed -the cut, Fig. 105. Another used by natives on the Murray river[578] has -been figured by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. This method of -hafting has been mentioned by White,[579] who describes the binding as -being effected by strips |168| of bark, and in his figure shows the -two ends of the stick more firmly bound together. - -[Illustration: Fig. 105.—Axe—Northern Australia.] - -Another example has been engraved by the Rev. J. G. Wood.[580] This -mode is very similar to that in common use among blacksmiths for their -chisels and swages, which are held by means of a withy twisted round -them, and secured in its place by a ring. - -It seems extremely probable that so simple a method may have been in -use in early times in this country, though we have no direct evidence -as to the fact. A “fancy sketch” of a celt in a withy handle will be -found in the _Archæologia_.[581] It resembles in a singular manner the -actual implements employed by the Ojibway Indians,[582] of which there -is a specimen in the Christy Collection, engraved by the Rev. J. G. -Wood.[583] Some of the other North American tribes[584] mounted their -hatchets in much the same manner. A hatchet thus hafted is engraved by -Schoolcraft.[585] - -In some instances a groove of greater or less depth has been worked -round the axes mounted in this manner, though undoubtedly British -examples are scarce. An axe-hammer of diorite (13 inches), found near -Newburgh,[586] Aberdeenshire, has a groove round it instead of the -usual haft-hole. The blade engraved in the _Archæological Journal_[587] -and found near Coldstream, Northumberland, is probably of Carib origin, -like others which have also been supposed to have been British. -Another from the Liverpool |169| Docks is mentioned by Mr. H. Ecroyd -Smith.[588] In the British Museum are two such axes, and some other -stone implements, found near Alexandria, but which probably are Carib, -as would also seem to be those in the Museum of Douai,[589] on which -are sculptured representations of the human face. - -Stone axe-heads with a groove round their middle, for receiving a -handle, have been found in Denmark,[590] but are of rare occurrence. -The form has been found in the salt-mines of Koulpe,[591] Caucasus, -and in Russian Armenia. The large stone mauls found so commonly in -the neighbourhood of ancient copper-mines, in this and many other -countries in both hemispheres, were hafted much in the same manner as -the Australian axe. - -In other cases axe-heads are mounted by being fixed in a cleft stick -for a handle, the stick being then lashed round so as to secure the -stone and retain it in its place. This method was employed by some of -the North American Indians,[592] and the aborigines in the colony of -Victoria.[593] In the Blackmore Museum is a stone axe thus mounted, -from British Guiana. There is a small hole through the butt which is -carved into a series of small spikes. Others from Guiana[594] have -notches at the sides to receive a cord which bound the haft in a -groove running along the butt-end. The same form has been found in -Surinam.[595] An Egyptian[596] stone hammer is mounted in much the same -way. The notches practically produce lugs at the butt-end of the blade. -I have an iron hatchet, edged with steel, brought home by the late Mr. -David Forbes, F.R.S., from among the Aymara Indians of Bolivia, which -is mounted in a stick cleft at the end. The blade is T-shaped at the -butt, and is tied in such a manner, by means of a strip of leather, -that the arms of the T rest on two of the coils, so as to prevent its -falling out, while other two coils pass over the butt and prevent its -being driven back, and the whole binds the two sides of the cleft -stick together so as tightly to grasp the blade and prevent lateral or -endways motion. The ancient Egyptian bronze hatchets were merely placed -in a groove and bound to the handle by the lugs, and sometimes by the -cord being passed through holes in the blade. The same shape is |170| -found in flint hatchets ascribed by Professor Flinders Petrie[597] to -the twelfth dynasty. What may be a stone hatchet mounted occurs in a -painting at Medum.[598] - -[Illustration: Fig. 106.—Hatchet—Western Australia.] - -Another Australian method of mounting implies the possession of some -resinous material susceptible of being softened by heat, and again -becoming hard and tough when cold. This mode is exhibited in Fig. 106, -which represents a rude instrument from Western Australia, now in my -collection, engraved in the _Archæologia_.[599] It is hammer-like at -one end, axe-like at the other, and is formed of either one or two -roughly chipped pieces of basalt-like stone entirely unground, and -secured in a mass of resinous gum, in which the handle is inserted. In -most implements of this kind there appear to be two separate stones -used to form the double blade, and these are sometimes of different -kinds of rock. It would seem that the shaft, either cleft or uncleft, -passed between them, and that the stones, when bound with string to -hold them in their places, were further secured with a mass of the gum -of the _Xanthorrhæa_ or grass-tree.[600] - -Such a method of hafting cannot, I think, have been in general use in -this country, for want of the necessary cementing material, though, -from discoveries made in Scandinavia, it would appear that a resinous -pitch was in common use for fixing bronze implements to their handles; -so that the practice may also have applied to those of stone. In the -Swiss Lake-dwellings, bitumen was used as a cement for attaching stone -to wood. In the case of the axes of the Indians on the River Napo,[601] -Ecuador, the binding of |171| the blades, which are formed with -lugs like those of Guiana, is covered with a thick coating formed of -bees-wax and mastic. - -Besides those that were hafted as axes or adzes, it seems probable that -not a few of the implements known as celts may have been for use in the -hand as cutting tools, either mounted in short handles or unmounted. -There can be but little doubt that the tools, Fig. 83 and 83A, were -thus used in the hand, as also the implement with a depression on each -face (Fig. 87), and that with the notches at the side (Fig. 89); and -they can hardly have been unique of their kind. - -Dr. Lukis,[602] indeed, at one time expressed an opinion that the stone -celt was not intended to be secured “in a handle, but was held in the -hand and applied to particular uses which are not now evident, but to -which neither the hammer nor the hatchet were applicable.” But in the -face of the fact that numerous handles have since been found, such an -opinion is no longer tenable except in a very limited sense. - -Among modern savages we have instances of similar tools being used -in the hand without the intervention of any haft, giving a form much -like that of Fig. 83A, though among the Australians the butt-end is -sometimes enveloped in a mass of resinous matter, so as to form a knob -which fits the hand. According to Prinz Neuwied,[603] the Botocudos -used their stone blades both unmounted in the hand and hafted as -hatchets. The South Australians[604] and Tasmanians[605] likewise use -celts in a similar manner. - -There are cases in which the hatchet and haft have been formed from -one piece of stone. Such a one, of chloritic stone, found in a mound -in Tennessee,[606] is in outline like Fig. 92, and has a small loop -for suspension at the end of the handle. Mr. Cursiter, of Kirkwall, -has an instrument of the same kind from Orkney, formed of hard slate. -In extreme length it measures 9 3∕4 inches. It cannot, however, be -assigned to a very early date. For a comparison of celts from different -countries Westropp’s “Prehistoric Phases”[607] may be consulted. - -With regard to the uses to which these instruments were applied, -they must have been still more varied than the methods of mounting, -which, as we have seen, adapted them for the purposes of hatchets and -adzes; while, mounted in other ways, or |172| unmounted, they may -have served as wedges, chisels, and knives. The purposes which similar -instruments serve among modern savages must be much the same as those -for which the stone celts found in this country were employed by our -barbarian predecessors. An admirable summary of the uses to which stone -hatchets—the “Toki” of the Maori—are, or were applied in New Zealand, -has been given by Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay.[608] They were used chiefly -for cutting down timber, and for scooping canoes[609] out of the trunks -of forest trees; for dressing posts for huts; for grubbing up roots, -and killing animals for food; for preparing firewood; for scraping the -flesh from the bones when eating, and for various other purposes in the -domestic arts. But they were also employed in times of war, as weapons -of offence and defence, as a supplementary kind of tomahawk. - -For all these purposes stone celts must also have been employed in -Britain, and some may even have been used in agriculture. We can add to -the list at least one other service to which they were applied, that of -mining in the chalk in pursuit of flint, as the raw material from which -similar instruments might be fashioned. - - - - -|173| - -CHAPTER VII. - -PICKS, CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC. - - -I now come to several forms of implements which, though approximating -closely to those to which the name of celts has been applied, may -perhaps be regarded with some degree of certainty as forming a separate -class of tools. Among these, the long narrow form to which, for want of -a better name, that of “Picks” has been given, may be first described. -It is, however, hard to draw a line between them and chisels. - -[Illustration: Fig. 107.—Great Easton. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -An idea of the prevailing form will be gathered from Fig. 107, which -represents a specimen in my own collection found at Great Easton, near -Dunmow, Essex, and given me by Colonel A. J. Copeland, F.S.A. Its -surfaces are partially ground, especially towards the upper end, which -appears to have been pointed, though now somewhat broken. The lower -end is chipped to a rounded outline, but this end is not ground, and -the outer or more convex face of the implement, in one part shows the -original crust of the flint. - -In the Fitch Collection is a finer and more symmetrical specimen of -the same kind from North Walsham. It is 7 1∕2 inches long, rather more -than 1 inch wide, and 7∕8 inch thick. It is polished nearly all over, -both faces are ridged, so that it is almost rhomboidal in section, -though the angles are rounded; one face is curved lengthways much more -than the other, which is nearly straight. At one end it is ground to -a semicircular edge, but at the other it is merely chipped, and still -shows part of the original crust of the flint. Another implement of -this character, but 11 1∕2 inches long, and 2 7∕8 inches wide in the -broadest part, was found at Melbourn,[610] Cambridgeshire, and was in -the collection of the late Lord Braybrooke. |174| - -I have seen another nearly 6 inches long, but little polished, and -almost oval in section, which was found at Melton, near Woodbridge, -Suffolk. This also is blunt at one end, and ground to a semicircular -edge at the other. A fragment of a tool of this class, found near -Maidenhead, is in the Geological Museum in Jermyn Street. Another, more -roughly chipped out and but partially polished, was found on Mount -Harry, near Lewes, and is preserved in the Museum in that town. It is -narrow at one end, where it is ground to a sharp edge. - -The late Mr. H. Durden, of Blandford, had another, found on Iwerne -Minster Down, Dorset, 5 1∕2 inches long and 1 1∕4 inches broad, more -celt-like in type. One face is more convex than the other; the sides -are sharp, and one end is squarer than the other, which comes to a -rounded point. - -In my own collection is one of oval section (5 inches), polished nearly -all over, from Burwell Fen, Cambridge; another (4 3∕8 inches), much -polished on the surface, is from the Thames at Twickenham. A third, -from Quy Fen, Cambridge (4 7∕8 inches), is rather broader in its -proportions, and of pointed oval section. A fourth, from Bottisham Fen -(4 3∕4 inches), has a narrow segmental edge, and is rounded at the -butt, where it is slightly battered. These may perhaps be regarded as -chisels. - -[Illustration: Fig. 108.—Bury St. Edmunds. 1∕2] - -In the Greenwell Collection is what appears to be a fragment of a -chisel, still about 4 inches long, found at Northdale, Bridlington. The -same form of implement is found in France. I have a fragment of one -which was found by M. Dimpre, of Abbeville, in the old encampment known -as the Camp de César, near Pontrémy. - -In the case of some very similar implements of flint from Scandinavia -it is the broad end that is usually sharp, though some are entirely -unground. - -Occasionally these implements occur in this country in the same -unpolished condition, like Fig. 108, from the neighbourhood of Bury -St. Edmunds. This also presents on the more highly ridged face the -same curvature in the direction of its length as is to be observed on -the polished specimens, and the pointed end seems the sharper and the -better adapted for use. - -I have a fine unground specimen (6 inches) from Feltwell, Norfolk, and -another (4 1∕2 inches) from Chart Farm, Ightham, Kent, given to me by -Mr. B. Harrison. - -Unfortunately there are no indications by which to judge of the method -of hafting such instruments. It appears probable, however, that the -broader end may have been attached at the end of a handle, like those -in Fig. 104, and that the tool was a sort of narrow adze or pick, -adapted for working out cavities in wood, or it may be for |175| -grubbing in the ground. Some rough instruments of this character are -found in Ireland,[611] but are usually more clumsy in their proportions -than the English specimens that I have figured. They are often of a -sub-triangular section, and pointed at one or both ends, though rarely -ground. I have, however, a tapering pointed tool of black chert, and -belonging to the same class of implements, found in Lough Neagh.[612] -It appears adapted for boring holes in leather or other soft substances. - -[Illustration: Fig. 109.—Burwell.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 110.—Near Bridlington. 1∕2] - -A very remarkable implement belonging to the same group is shown in -Fig. 109. It was found in the Fen country near Burwell, Cambridge, and -was given me by the late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S. At the broad end it -is much like the instruments just described. A portion of both faces -has been polished, the sides have been rounded by grinding, and though -it has been chipped to an edge at the broad end, this also has been -rendered blunt in the same manner, possibly with the view of preventing -it from cutting the ligaments by which it was attached to a handle. The -narrow end is ground to a chisel edge, which is at right angles to that -of the broad end. In form and character this chisel end is exactly like -that of a narrow “cold chisel” of steel, in use by engineers. Whether -it was used as a narrow adze or axe, or after the manner of a chisel, -it is difficult to say. - -Fig. 110 is still more chisel-like in character. It is of flint -weathered white, but stained in places by iron-mould, from having been -brought |176| in contact with modern agricultural implements, while -lying on the surface of the ground. It was found at Charleston, near -Bridlington. It is unground except at the edge, where it is very sharp, -and at one or two places along the sides, where slight projections have -been removed or rounded off by grinding. The butt-end is truncated, but -is not at all battered, so that if a hammer or mallet was used with -it, without the intervention of a socket or handle, it was probably -of wood. I have another specimen of rather smaller size from the same -locality. It is, however, of porphyritic greenstone, and the butt-end, -instead of being truncated, has been chipped to a comparatively sharp -edge, which has subsequently been partially rounded by grinding. If -used as a chisel at all, this implement must have been inserted in a -socket. - -Mr. H. Durden had a chisel of the same character found at Hod Hill, -Dorset, 5 1∕2 inches long, and 1 3∕8 inches broad, with the sides -ground straight. - -The Greenwell Collection contains a flint chisel of this form 5 inches -long and 1∕2 inch broad, found near Icklingham, Suffolk. It is ground -at the sides as well as at the edge. Another, 4 3∕4 inches long, in -the same collection, was found at North Stow, Suffolk. There is also a -small chisel of hone-stone, 2 7∕8 inches long, found at Rudstone, near -Bridlington, and another 3 3∕4 inches long, of subquadrate section, -found in a barrow at Cowlam,[613] Yorkshire. - -The form occurs in France. A beautiful chisel (7 inches), polished all -over, and brought to a narrow edge at either end, was found in the Camp -de Catenoy (Oise).[614] It is nearly round in section. Another, of dark -jade-like material (4 inches), polished all over, was obtained from a -dolmen at Pornic[615] (Loire Inférieure). - -There are occasionally found some small chisels apparently intended for -holding in the hand, as if for carving wood. One of these, from Dalton, -on the Yorkshire Wolds, and in the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, is -shown in Fig. 111. It is of grey flint, slightly curved longitudinally, -nearly semicircular in section, with the side angles rounded, the butt -truncated, but all its sharp angles worn or ground away, and with a -circular edge slightly gouge-like in character. It has been ground -transversely or obliquely on both faces, but the _striæ_ from the -grinding are at the edge longitudinal. I have a nearly similar tool -from West Stow, Suffolk (5 1∕4 inches), and one from the neighbourhood -of Bridlington, Yorkshire, but the butt-end is broken. - -[Illustration: Fig. 111.—Dalton, Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -Another flint chisel, from the same neighbourhood, 3 1∕2 inches long -and 7∕8 inch wide, in my collection, presents the peculiarity of having -the butt-end ground to a sharp narrow semicircular edge, the principal -edge at the other end being broader and less curved. There can be |177| -little doubt of this having been merely a hand tool. A portion of the -edge at the narrow end is worn away as if by scraping bone or something -equally hard. This wearing away does not extend to the end of the tool. -Another specimen from Yorkshire is in the Blackmore Museum.[616] - -A chisel from Suffolk,[617] ground at both ends, has been figured. - -The implement shown in Fig. 112 appears to belong to this same class -of tools, though closely resembling some of those which will hereafter -be described as “arrow-flakers,” from which it differs only in not -showing any signs of being worn away at the ends. It is of flint neatly -chipped, and was found at Helperthorpe, Yorkshire. I have another of -the same form, but a trifle longer, found by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., -near Baldock, Herts. Neither of them shows any traces of grinding. - -A similar chisel of flint, square at the edge, and found near -Londinières[618] (Seine Inférieure), is engraved by the Abbé Cochet. - -[Illustration: Fig. 112.—Helperthorpe. 1∕2] - -Implements, which can without hesitation be classed as chisels, are -rare in Ireland, though long narrow celts approximating to the chisel -form are not uncommon. These are usually of clay-slate, or of some -metamorphic rock. I have, however, specimens of oval section not more -than an inch wide, and as much as 5 inches long, with narrow straight -edges, which seem to be undoubtedly chisels. I do not remember to have -seen a specimen in flint, those described by Sir W. Wilde[619] being -more celt-like in character. - -Narrow chisels, occasionally 10 and 12 inches long, and usually square -in section, and either polished all over or merely ground at the -edge, are of common occurrence in Denmark and Sweden.[620] They are -sometimes, but more rarely, oval in section. - -In Germany and Switzerland the form is scarce, but one from the -Sigmaringen district is engraved by Lindenschmit,[621] and a Swiss -specimen, in serpentine, by Perrin.[622] - -Some of the small celts found in the Swiss lakes appear to have -been rather chisels than hatchets or adzes, as they were mounted in -sockets[623] bored axially in hafts of stag’s horn. In some instances -the hole was bored transversely through the piece of horn, but even -then, the tools are so small that they must have been used rather as -knives or drawing chisels than as hatchets. Chisels made of bone are -abundant in the Swiss Lake-settlements. They are also plentiful in -some of the caverns in the French Pyrenees, which have been inhabited -in Neolithic times. Several have also occurred in the Gibraltar caves. -|178| - -Among the Maories of New Zealand small hand-chisels of jade are used -for carving wood and for other purposes. They are sometimes attached -to their handles by a curiously intertwined cord,[624] and sometimes -by a more simple binding. For the sketch of that shown in Fig. 113, -I am indebted to the late Mr. Gay. The original is in the British -Museum.[625] It will be observed that the end of the handle, which has -been battered in use, is tied round with a strip of bark to prevent its -splitting. The blade seems to rest against a shoulder in the handle, to -which it is firmly bound by a cord of vegetable fibre. A stone chisel -from S. E. Bolivia[626] is mounted in the same fashion, but the blade -is shorter. The stone chisels in use in ancient times in Britain were, -when hafted at all, probably mounted in a somewhat analogous manner. - -[Illustration: Fig. 113.—New Zealand Chisel. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -Considering the great numbers of gouges or hollow chisels of flint -which have been found in Denmark and Sweden, their extreme rarity -in Britain is remarkable. It seems possible that the celts with an -almost semicircular edge, some of which, when the two faces of the -blade are not equally convex, are of a gouge-like character, may have -answered the same purpose as gouges. It is to be observed that this -class of celts is scarce in Denmark, where gouges are abundant; but -possibly the ancient inhabitants of that country may have been more of -a canoe-forming race than those of Britain, so that, in consequence, -implements for hollowing out the trunks of trees were in greater demand -among them. The best-formed gouges discovered in England, have, so far -as I am aware, been found in the Fen country, where it is probable that -canoes would be in constant use. - - * * * * * - -Two such, found in Burwell Fen, are preserved in the Museum of the -Cambridge Antiquarian Society, one of which is shown in Fig. 114. The -other is rather smaller, being 5 1∕4 inches long and 1 7∕8 inches -broad. They are entirely unpolished, with the sides nearly straight and -sharp, and one face more convex than the other. At the butt-end they -are truncated, or show the natural crust of the flint. The cutting edge -at |179| the other end is approximately at right angles to the blade, -and is chipped hollow, so that the edge is like that of a carpenter’s -gouge. - -In Fig. 114A, is shown a fine gouge of white flint in my own -collection. It was found in 1871 on the Westleton Walks, Suffolk, and -was ceded to me by Mr. F. Spalding. It has been most skilfully and -symmetrically chipped out, but both the surface and the edge are left -entirely unground. What may be termed the front face is flatter than in -the specimens last described. The cutting edge is more rounded. - -[Illustration: Fig. 114.—Burwell. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 114A.—Westleton Walks. 1∕2] - -The next specimen, Fig. 115, is less decidedly gouge-like in character. -It is of grey flint, and was in the collection of the late Mr. -Caldecott, of Mead Street, having been found at Eastbourne, Sussex. The -sides are sharp, but rounded towards the butt, which is also round. A -large flake has been taken lengthways off the hollow face, and it may -be mainly to this circumstance rather than to original design, that the -gouge-like character of the implement is due. - -Most of the Danish gouges have a rectangular section at the middle of -the blade, and the butt-end is usually truncated, and sometimes |180| -shows marks of having been hammered, so that these implements were -probably used without hafting and in conjunction with a mallet or -hammer of wood or stag’s horn. Another and rarer form of gouge with a -sharp elliptical section, tapers to the butt, and may have been used -for paring away charred surfaces without the aid of a mallet. Some -small examples of this class show, however, polished markings, as if -from having been inserted in handles. - -Under the head of gouges I must comprise a few of those celt-like -implements already mentioned, which, without being actually ground -hollow, yet, by having one of their faces much flatter transversely -than the other, present at the edge a gouge-like appearance, somewhat -after the manner of the “round-nosed chisels” of engineers. One of -these was discovered in a barrow on Willerby Wold,[627] Yorkshire, by -Canon Greenwell, F.R.S., though it was not associated with any burial. - -[Illustration: Fig. 115.—Eastbourne.] - -It is shown in Fig. 116, and is formed of a light green hone-stone, -carefully ground and even polished, and presents a beautifully regular -and sharp cutting edge. It would appear to have been intended for -mounting as a hollow adze rather than as a gouge, and would when thus -mounted have formed a useful tool for hollowing canoes, or for other -similar purposes. - -In the Greenwell Collection is also another implement of the same -character and material, but smaller, being 4 inches long and 2 3∕8 -inches |181| broad. It was found at Ganthorpe, Yorkshire. The sides in -this case are flat. - -The implement shown in Fig. 117 has, when the convex face is seen, -much the same appearance as Fig. 68. The other face, however, is -slightly hollowed towards the middle longitudinally, and is nearly flat -transversely, so that the edge presents a gouge-like appearance. It was -found at Huntow, near Bridlington, and is in my own collection. The -material is greenstone, the surface of which is somewhat decomposed, -and seems in places to have been scratched by the plough or the harrow. - -[Illustration: Fig. 116.—Willerby Wold. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 117.—Bridlington. 1∕2] - -A considerable number of gouges of this bastard kind have been found -in Ireland, and I have figured one from Lough Neagh.[628] A few of the -Irish celts are actually hollowed at the edge, so as to become more -truly gouge-like in character. - -Besides occurring in abundance in Scandinavia, gouges, properly so -called, are also found in Northern Germany and Lithuania. They also -occur in Russia,[629] Finland, and Western Siberia, and even in Japan -and Cambodia. |182| - -One of flint, 5 inches long, from the neighbourhood of Beauvais -(Oise), is in the Blackmore Museum. The same form has also been found -in Portugal[630] and Algeria.[631] - -A stone implement,[632] “a square chisel at one end and a gouge at the -other,” was found in one of the Gibraltar caves. - -In North America,[633] including Canada and Newfoundland, gouges formed -of other varieties of stone than flint are by no means uncommon, and -among the Caribs of Barbados, where stone was not to be procured, we -find gouge-like instruments formed from the _columella_ of the large -_Strombus gigas_. On the western coast of North America, mussel-shell -adzes are still preferred by the Ahts[634] to the best English chisels, -for canoe-making purposes. - -Some narrow bastard gouges, almost semicircular on one face and flat -transversely on the other, but not hollowed, have been found in the -Swiss Lake-settlements. I have one of diorite, 5 3∕4 inches long and 1 -inch broad, from Sipplingen. The butt is roughened as if for insertion -in a socket. A similar form is found in Germany. I have a specimen -9 1∕2 inches long found in the neighbourhood of Mainz. - -A bastard form of gouge, mounted as an adze, is in use in the Solomon -Islands. One tied to its haft with rattan is in the Christy Collection. - - - - -|183| - -CHAPTER VIII. - -PERFORATED AXES. - - -I now come to a very important class of antiquities, the stone axes and -axe-hammers with a hole for the insertion of a shaft, like the ordinary -axes and hammers of the present day. As to the method by which these -shaft-holes were bored, I have already spoken in a previous chapter. I -have also mentioned that many of them appear to belong to a time when -bronze was already in use, at all events for knife-like daggers, and -that they have in many countries shared with the more simply-formed -celts the attribution of a heavenly origin as thunderbolts, together -with the superstitious reverence due to their supernatural descent. I -have, therefore, but little here to add beyond a classification and -description of the various forms; but I may mention that the name by -which such implements were “popularly known in Scotland almost till the -close of last century was that of the Purgatory Hammer,” buried with -its owner that he might have the wherewithal “to thunder at the gates -of Purgatory till the heavenly janitor appeared.”[635] - -They are for the most part made from metamorphic or volcanic rocks, and -occasionally from quartzite, but I have never seen a British perforated -axe made from ordinary flint, though hammers of this material are -known. Stukeley,[636] indeed, mentions that in cleansing the moat at -Tabley, near Knutsford, “they found an old British axe, or some such -thing, made of large flint, neatly ground into an edge, with a hole in -the middle to fasten into a handle; it would serve for a battle-axe.” -Stukeley was probably mistaken as to the material; but there are in -the Museum at Copenhagen one or two flint axes ground to an edge, -the |184| shaft-holes in which are natural, and no doubt led to the -stones being selected for the purpose to which they were applied. An -artificially-perforated French specimen will subsequently be mentioned. -Flints both naturally and artificially perforated, have also been -occasionally converted into hammers and maces. - -In Scandinavia and Northern Germany, perforated axes and axe-hammers -are frequently known as Thor’s hammers, as already mentioned,[637] -and some authors have maintained that they were in use for warlike -purposes so late as eight or ten centuries after our era. Kruse,[638] -however, has urged that though found in the neighbourhood of graves -of the Iron Age in Livonia and Courland, they are never found in the -graves themselves, and that their use is not mentioned in any ancient -histories. - -The principal forms may be classified as follows:— - -1. Double-edged axes, or those with a cutting, or but slightly blunted -edge at either end. - -2. Adzes, or implements with the edge at right angles to the shaft-hole. - -3. Axes with the edge at one end only, the hole being near the other -end, which is rounded. These shade off into— - -4. Axe-hammers sharp at one end, and more or less hammer-like at the -other, the shaft-hole being usually near the centre. - -To the weapons of the first of these classes the name of Amazon Axe -has been applied by Professor Nilsson;[639] but the Scandinavian axes -expanding considerably at the cutting ends, resemble the _Amazonia -securis_ of classical sculpture more than do the English specimens. - - * * * * * - -Fig. 118 represents a beautifully formed axe of the first class, in -my own collection. It is of greenstone, and was found near Hunmanby, -Yorkshire. The two sides are concave longitudinally, so that it expands -towards the edges. They are also slightly concave transversely. The -angles are rounded, and the edges are blunt, especially that at the -shorter end. The shaft-hole is oval, and tapers slightly from each end -towards the middle. It would appear to have been worked out with some -sort of chisel, and to have been afterwards made smoother by grinding. - -A broader weapon of granite, expanding more at the ends (5 1∕2 inches) -was found in the Tay,[640] near Newburgh, Fife. A flatter specimen -of porphyritic stone (4 inches) was found on the shore of Cobbinshaw -Loch,[641] West Calder, Midlothian, in 1885. |185| - -A specimen of nearly the same type, found near Uelzen, Hanover, is -engraved by von Estorff;[642] another from Sweden, by Sjöborg.[643] - -In the Museum at Geneva is a very similar axe of greenstone (5 1∕4 -inches), found in the neighbourhood of that town. One of serpentine, -much longer in its proportions (9 1∕4 inches), and with an oval -shaft-hole, is in the Museum at Lausanne. It was found at Agiez, Canton -de Vaud. - -[Illustration: Fig. 118.—Hunmanby. 1∕2] - -In the _Collections_[644] published by the Sussex Archælogical Society -is a figure, obligingly lent to me, of a beautiful axe-head of this -class (Fig. 119) found with the remains of a skeleton, an amber cup -(Fig. 307), a whetstone (Fig. 186), and a small bronze dagger with two -rivet holes, in an oaken coffin in a barrow at Hove, near Brighton. The -|186| axe-head is said to be formed of some kind of ironstone, and is -5 inches long. The hole is described as neatly drilled. A weapon of -the same kind (3 1∕2 inches) blunter at the ends and described as a -hammer, was found with a deer’s-horn hammer, and a bronze knife in a -barrow at Lambourn, Berks.[645] A small black stone axe-head of nearly -similar form was found near the head of a contracted skeleton at a -depth of 12 feet in a barrow in Rolston Field, Wilts.[646] A somewhat -similar specimen, with the sides faceted and blunt at one end, has -been engraved as having been found in Yorkshire.[647] It is, however, -doubtful whether, like many other objects in the same plate, it is not -foreign. The original is now in the Christy Collection. - -A double-edged axe-head of basalt, injured by fire, and 4 1∕2 -inches long, was found by the late Mr. Bateman, in a large urn with -calcined bones, bone pins, a tubular bone laterally perforated, a -flint “spear-head,” and a bronze awl, in a barrow near Throwley, -Derbyshire.[648] This was the only instance in which he found a -perforated stone axe accompanying an interment by cremation. - -An axe-head of basalt, with a double edge to cut either way, was also -dug up in the neighbourhood of Tideswell, Derbyshire.[649] - -[Illustration: Fig. 119.—Hove. 1∕2] - -A specimen of this kind (5 inches), edged at both ends, but “the one -end rather blunted and lessened a little by use,” was found near -Grimley, Worcestershire, and is figured by Allies.[650] - -I have a specimen (5 1∕8 inches), much weathered, which is said to have -come from Bewdley in that county, but which may be that from Grimley. - -An example, 5 inches long, engraved in the Salisbury volume[651] of the -Archæological Institute, from a barrow on Windmill Hill, Abury, Wilts, -is described as double-edged.[652] - -The Danish and German axe-heads of this form have usually, but not -always, one edge much more blunted than the other. Occasionally there -is a ridge on each side at the blunt end, which shows that this -thickening was intentional. A fine double-edged axe-head of this -form from Brandenburg is engraved in the “Horæ Ferales.”[653] The -double-edged form is found also in Finland.[654] - -The form likewise occurs in France, but the faces are usually flatter. -I have one from the Seine at Paris (5 1∕2 inches). Another from the -|187| department of the Charente is engraved by de Rochebrune;[655] -and a third from the department of Seine et Oise is in the Musée de -St. Germain.[656] A fine example of the same form is in the Museum -at Tours, and another in that of Blois. In the collection of M. -Reboux[657] was a curious implement from the Seine, formed of flint, -pointed at each end, and perforated in the middle. Another, in flint, -from Mesnil en Arronaise[658] (Somme) (8 1∕2 inches), has been figured. -The perforations may be natural, though improved by art. In my own -collection is one of the finest specimens that I have ever seen. It is -also from the Seine at Paris. It is 9 3∕4 inches long, and slightly -curved in the direction of its length; on either side there is a long -sunk lozenge, in the centre of which is the cylindrical shaft-hole, -and the ends expand into flat semicircular blades about 2 1∕4 inches -across. The material is a hard basaltic rock, and the preservation -perfect. It was found in 1876. - -A stone axe in the Museum of the Royal Institution at Swansea, and -found at Llanmadock, in Gower, has been kindly lent me for engraving, -and is shown in Fig. 120. It expands at the sharper end much more -suddenly and to a much greater extent than does that from Hunmanby. -The edge at that end, which is almost semicircular in outline, has -suffered from ill-usage since it was discovered; the material of which -it is made being felspathic ash, the surface of which has become soft -by decomposition. The other and narrower end is flattened to about half -an inch in width. The implement has already been engraved on a smaller -scale.[659] - -In Bartlett’s “History and Antiquities of Manceter, Warwickshire,”[660] -is engraved an axe of the same character as this, but expanding at the -blunter end almost as much, as it does at the edge, which is described -as being very sharp. It is said to have been formed of the hard blue -stone of the country, but “from age or the soil in which it has lain” -to be “now coloured with an elegant olive-coloured patina.” It was -found on Hartshill Common, in 1770, where a small tumulus had been cut -through, “the bottom of which, was paved with brick, which by the heat -of the fire had been nearly vitrified.” There is probably some mistake -as to the bricks. - -Another axe-head like Fig. 120, 8 inches in length, and more distinctly -hammer-like at the narrow end, was found in the parish of Abernethy, -Perthshire, and has been engraved by Wilson.[661] - -In character these axes with expanded ends more nearly resemble some -of the Scandinavian and North German types than do most of the other -British forms. Broken stone axes expanding at the edge have been found -on the site of Troy. - -In the Museum of the Leeds Philosophical Society is a double-edged -axe-head of a larger and coarser kind, which, is said to have been -found near Whitby. Its authenticity was strongly vouched for by the -late Mr. Denny, but I fear that it is a modern fabrication. - -An implement of the same form, from Gerdauen, East Prussia, is |188| -preserved in the Berlin Museum; and another of greenstone was found at -Hallstatt.[662] A singular variety from the same spot has the edge at -one end at right angles to that at the other. - -[Illustration: Fig. 120.—Llanmadock. 1∕2] - -A small sketch of a very remarkable curved blade, pointed at one end -and with an axe-like edge at the other, is given in the _Journal of the -Archæological Association_.[663] It is of greenstone, 11 inches long -and 2 1∕2 inches across, and was found in Guernsey. By the kindness -of the late Rev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A., of Wath, I am enabled to give -an engraving of the type in Fig. 121. A number of specimens have been -found in the Channel Islands, to which the form seems peculiar. - - * * * * * - -The second class into which I proposed to divide these implements -consists of adzes, or blades having the edge at right angles to the -shaft-hole. Apart from a short notice by Mr. Monkman, I believe that -attention was for the first time called in the former edition of this -book, to the occurrence of this form in Britain. |189| - - * * * * * - -The specimen I have selected for engraving, as Fig. 122, gives a good -idea of the typical character. It is of greenstone, with the shaft-hole -tapering inwards from both faces, one of which is less convex than the -other. It was found at Fireburn Mill, near Coldstream, Berwickshire, -and is in the Greenwell Collection. In the same collection is another -of similar character, but having the butt-end broken off and the edge -more circular, found at Willerby Carr, in the East Riding of Yorkshire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 121.—Guernsey. 1∕2] - -I have a smaller specimen (4 3∕4 inches), of a hard micaceous grit, -found at Allerston, in the North Riding; as also a remarkably fine and -perfect adze of porphyritic greenstone (6 3∕8 inches), ground to a -|190| rounded edge at the butt, instead of being truncated like Fig. -122. The shaft-hole, like that of all the others, tapers inwards from -both faces, in this instance from 1 3∕8 inch to 7∕8 inch. This specimen -was found at South Dalton, near Beverley. An adze or hoe of the same -kind, found at Wellbury,[664] near Offley, Herts, is in the collection -of Mr. W. Ransom, F.S.A. - -[Illustration: Fig. 122.—Fireburn Mill, Coldstream. 1∕2] - -Another implement of the same class (9 inches), flat on one face, and -much like Fig. 122, is in the National Museum at Edinburgh. It is of -greenstone, much decomposed, and was found at Ormiston Abdie, Fife. -A shorter specimen (3 3∕4 inches) sharpened at each end, found at -Sandwick, Shetland, is in the fine collection of Mr. J. W. Cursiter, at -Kirkwall. - -Another, in outline more like the celt Fig. 57, though sharp at the -sides, is also in the Greenwell Collection. It is formed of red |191| -micaceous sandstone (6 3∕4 inches), and was found at Seackleton, in -the North Riding of Yorkshire. A rough sketch of it has been published -by Mr. Monkman.[665] In the same collection is another, rather narrower -in its proportions, being 7 1∕2 inches long and 3 inches broad, found -at Pilmoor, as well as one 6 inches long and 2 3∕8 inches broad, found -at Nunnington. - -Another, 5 1∕2 inches long, square at both ends, found near Whitby, is -in the Museum at Leeds. - -The form is known in Denmark, but is rare. A more celt-shaped specimen -is engraved by Worsaae.[666] He terms it a hoe (_hakke_), and it is, of -course, possible that these instruments may have been used for digging -purposes. - -Two short, broad hoes (_hacken_), of Taunus slate, found near Mainz, -are given by Lindenschmit.[667] Another is in the Museum at Brunswick. - -Some hoe-like, perforated stone implements from Mexico, are in the -Ethnological Museum at Copenhagen. The so-called stone hoes of North -America[668] are not perforated, though sometimes notched at the sides. -Dr. Keller[669] has suggested that a circular perforated disc from one -of the Swiss Lake-settlements may have been a hoe. - -In the Museum of the Deutsche Gesellschaft at Leipzig, is a greenstone -implement resembling these adzes or hoes at its broader end, but at the -other, instead of being square or rounded, presenting an axe-like edge. - -A narrow, thick adze of this character, flat on one face, rounded on -the other, 4 1∕2 inches long, found at Scudnitz, near Schweinitz, -Prussian Saxony, is in the Berlin Museum. A rather similar form has -been found in Bohemia.[670] - -An intermediate form between a hammer and an adze will be subsequently -described at p. 231. - -A small perforated adze in the Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian -Society, Fig. 123, is more truly celt-like in character, and appears, -indeed, to have been made from an ordinary celt by boring a shaft-hole -through it. It is formed of a hard, green, slaty rock, and was found in -Burwell Fen. I believe that another, but larger, specimen of the same -type, was found in the same district in Swaffham Fen. - -[Illustration: Fig. 123.—Burwell Fen. 1∕2] - -The late Mr. G. W. Ormerod, F.G.S., brought under my notice another -|192| specimen found, in 1865, at North Bovey, Devon. It is of -greenstone, about 3 3∕4 inches long. The sides taper towards the -butt-end, which is rounded, and the hole in the middle appears to be -only about 1∕2 inch in diameter, but bell-mouthed at each face. It -is now in the Museum at Exeter. Another (3 7∕8 inches) was found at -Ugborough, Devon.[671] - -[Illustration: Fig. 124.—Stourton. 1∕2] - -The implement shown in Fig. 124 seems to be an unfinished specimen -belonging to this class. It is formed of greenstone, portions of the -natural joints of which are still visible on its surface. It seems to -have been worked into shape by picking rather than by grinding; but the -hole appears, from the character of the surface, to have been ground. -Had it been continued through the stone, it would probably have been -considerably enlarged in diameter, and if so, the implement would have -been much weakened around the hole. It seems possible that it was on -this account that it was left unfinished. It was found near Stourton, -on the borders of Somerset and Wilts. - - * * * * * - -The third of the classes into which, for the sake of convenience, I -have divided these instruments, consists of axe-heads with a cutting -edge at one end only, the shaft-hole being near the other end, which is -rounded. - - * * * * * - -Fig. 125 represents an elegant specimen of this class, found at -Bardwell, in Suffolk, and formerly in the collection of Mr. Joseph -Warren, of Ixworth, but now in my own. The material appears to be -felstone. The edge is slightly rounded, the shaft-hole carefully -finished, and the two faces ground hollow, probably in the manner -suggested at p. 43. |193| - -I have another made from a quartzite pebble (4 5∕8 inches) with the -sides hollowed transversely, but rounded longitudinally, found with an -urn on Wilton Heath, near Brandon, in 1873. The blunt end is bruised -and flattened by wear. I have a second, also of quartzite (5 3∕8 -inches), rounded in all directions, found near Ipswich, in 1865. It -retains much of the form of the original pebble. - -[Illustration: Fig. 125.—Bardwell. 1∕2] - -In the Museum at Newcastle is preserved a specimen very similar to -Fig. 125, of mottled greenstone, beautifully finished; the sides -are, however, flat and not hollowed. It is 6 1∕2 inches long, the -faces are rounded, and the hole, which is about 7∕8 inch in diameter, -tapers slightly towards the middle. It was found in the River Wear at -Sunderland. Another of the same character, formed from a beautifully -veined stone, accompanied a bronze dagger in a barrow near East Kennet, -Wilts.[672] - -I have another axe of the same kind, with both sides flat, 6 1∕8 inches -long, formed of porphyritic greenstone, and found near Colchester. -|194| Another, formed of basalt, 6 1∕4 inches long, the sides slightly -hollowed, from Chesterford, Cambridge,[673] was in the possession of -the late Mr. Joshua Clarke, of Saffron Walden. - -Another, 5 inches long, was found in the Thames off Parliament Stairs, -and passed with the Roach Smith Collection into the British Museum. -One, 5 3∕4 inches long, from Cumberland, is in the Christy Collection. - -One of sandstone (4 1∕2 inches) was discovered at Northenden,[674] -Cheshire, in 1883. - -In the Greenwell Collection is one of greenstone, 6 3∕4 inches long, -found at Millfield, near Sunderland. The hole is somewhat oval, and -tapers inwards from each side. There is also one of basalt, 4 1∕4 -inches long, with an oval hole and slightly convex sides, from -Holystone, Northumberland. The edge, as usual, is blunt. - -An axe-head of this kind, from a chambered tumulus or dolmen at -Craigengelt, near Stirling, Scotland, is engraved by Bonstetten.[675] - -One with flat sides (6 1∕4 inches) was found in the Tay, near Mugdrum -Island, Perth,[676] and another (7 inches) at Sorbie, Wigtownshire.[677] - -Implements or weapons of this character occasionally occur in -Ireland,[678] but the sides are usually flat. - -The exact form is rare in Denmark and North Germany. Lindenschmit[679] -engraves a thin specimen from Lüneburg. It occurs also in Styria. -A specimen from Lithuania, more square at the butt, is engraved by -Mortillet.[680] I do not remember to have met with it in France. - -In one of the barrows on Potter Brompton Wold,[681] Yorkshire, explored -by Canon Greenwell, accompanying an interment by cremation, he found a -beautifully-formed axe-head of serpentine(?) the surface of which was -in places scaling off from decomposition, arising from its having been -partly calcined. A single view of it is given in Fig. 126. The hole is -about 1 1∕4 inches in diameter on each side, but rather smaller in the -middle. The cutting edge has been rounded as well as the angles round -the sides, but this process has been carried to a greater extent on one -than the other; possibly this was the outer side. - -[Illustration: Fig. 126.—Potter Brompton Wold. 1∕2] - -A somewhat similar, but rather broader, axe-head of basalt, 5 1∕4 -inches long, was found by the late Mr. T. Bateman in a barrow called -Carder Low,[682] near Hartington, in company with a small bronze -dagger, and near the elbow of a contracted skeleton. |195| - -Another, expanding rather more at the edge, from a barrow in -Devonshire,[683] was in the Meyrick Collection. - -A somewhat similar axe-head, more rounded at the butt and rather more -expanded at the cutting edge, was found in Annandale in 1870, and was -described to me by the late Mr. Joseph Clarke, F.S.A. - -One of granite, much like Fig. 126, came to light in a cairn at -Breckigoe,[684] Caithness. - -[Illustration: Fig. 127.—Rudstone.] - -In the same barrow at Rudstone,[685] near Bridlington, as that in which -the block of pyrites and flint scraper, subsequently to be described -(Fig. 223), were found, but with a different interment, Canon Greenwell -discovered the beautifully formed axe-hammer shown in Fig. 127. It -is of very close-grained, slightly micaceous grit, and presents the -peculiarity of having the rounded faces slightly chamfered all round -the flat sides. The edge is carefully rounded, and the broad end -somewhat flattened. It lay behind the shoulders of the skeleton of an -old man lying on his left side, with his right hand on his head, and -his left to his face. Before the face, was a bronze knife 4 inches -long, with a single rivet to fasten it to its handle, and close to -the axe-hammer lay a pointed flint flake re-chipped on both faces. In -a barrow at Sledmere[686] with burnt bones lay a weapon of this kind -battered at the blunt end. - -An axe-head (6 1∕4 inches), with convex faces, rounded at the butt, and -with an oval shaft-hole, was dredged from the Thames at London,[687] -and is now in the British Museum. - -It seems almost indisputable that these elegantly formed axe-heads -belong to the period when bronze was in use, and from their occurrence -in the graves they appear to have formed part of the equipment of -warriors. |196| - -The careful manner in which their edges are blunted shows that they -cannot have been intended for cutting tools, but that they must have -been weapons of war. A blow from a battle-axe with a blunted edge would -be just as fatal as if the edge had been sharp and trenchant, while the -risk of accidental injury to the scantily-clothed warrior who carried -the axe was next to none when the edge of the weapon was thus blunted. -The practice of removing the edge by grinding was, no doubt, introduced -in consequence of some painful experience. - -[Illustration: Fig. 128.—Borrowash. 1∕2] - -Fig. 128 is of still more ornamental character, having a beaded -moulding towards each edge of the faces and following the curvature -of the sides. The drawing is taken from a cast in the Museum of the -Society of Antiquaries, presented by Sir W. Tite. M.P.[688] The -original is said to have been found near Whitby. A fine axe-head “of -red granite, ornamented with raised mouldings,” was, however, found -with |197| human bones near Borrowash, Derbyshire, in 1841,[689] and -is in the Bateman Collection, now at Sheffield. To judge from the -woodcut in the Catalogue, the cast must have been taken from this -specimen. - -“A very elegant axe-head, 5 inches long, of reddish basalt, beautifully -wrought, with a slight moulding round the angles, and a perforation for -the shaft,” is described by Mr. Bateman[690] as having been found on a -barrow eleven miles E. of Pickering, Yorkshire. - -Mouldings of various kinds occur on Danish and German axe-hammers of -the Bronze Age,[691] but this form of small axe with a rounded butt is -of rare occurrence. The longitudinal line in relief which occurs on the -sides of some German battle-axes[692] has been regarded as an imitation -of the mark left on bronze axes by the junction of the two halves of -the mould. The small axe-heads from Germany[693] are wider at the butt, -and more like Figs. 118 and 120 in outline. - -[Illustration: Fig. 129.—Crichie, Aberdeenshire.] - -The beautiful battle-axe, formed of fine-grained mica schist, found -placed on burnt bones in a “Druidical” circle at Crichie, near -Inverurie, Aberdeenshire,[694] and presented by the Earl of Kintore to -the National Museum at Edinburgh, has deeply-incised lines round the -margins of the hollow sides at the mouth of the shaft-hole. This weapon -is 4 inches in length, and is considerably sharper at the broader end -than at the other, though the edge is well rounded. For the loan of -Fig. 129 I am indebted to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. In -general character this specimen approximates to a somewhat rare Irish -form, shortly to be mentioned, of which I possess a |198| specimen. -The battle-axe from the barrow at Selwood, Fig. 140, is also slightly -ornamented by lines on the sides, and that from Skelton Moors, Fig. -139, is fluted. - -Two axe-hammers of granite and greenstone (4 1∕2 and 5 inches) of -much the same type as Fig. 129, but more elongated, so as in form to -resemble Fig. 136, were found near Ardrossan,[695] Ayrshire. - -An unfinished axe-head of the same kind was found at Middleton,[696] -Stevenston, Ayrshire. - -An axe-head of porphyritic greenstone (7 3∕4 inches long), from -Stainton Dale, near Scarborough,[697] is said to resemble in form an -Irish axe-head engraved in the _Ulster Journal of Archæology_.[698] If -so, the sides through which the hole is bored were hollow, as in Fig. -129, and there was also a moulding round them. This Irish axe-head is -formed of a kind of pale green hone-stone, and is now in the British -Museum. Instead of incised lines there are raised flanges on each face, -bordering the concave side in which is the shaft-hole. The length is -5 1∕4 inches, and the butt-end is half an oval, just flattened at the -end. It was found in the river Bann. - -Axe-heads of a much more clumsy character than any of those last -described are of more frequent occurrence in this country. The -one I have selected for illustration as Fig. 130, is rather small -of its kind. It is made of greenstone, the surface of which has -considerably suffered from weathering, and was found in draining at -Walsgrave-upon-Sowe, near Coventry. It was presented to my collection -by the late Mr. J. S. Whittem, F.G.S. The shaft-hole, as usual, tapers -inwards from both sides; its surface is more polished than that of the -exterior of the implement. A small portion of the end of the butt is -flat, but this appears due to accident rather than design. I have a -rather longer axe-head, of porphyritic greenstone, which was washed -out of the ground by a brook at Ayside, near Newby Bridge, Windermere, -and was given to me by Mr. Harrison, of Manchester. It is considerably -rounded in both directions at the butt, the edge is narrow, and one -side, probably the outer, much more rounded than the other. The edge is -carefully ground, but farther up the face, the surface shows that it -has been picked into form. The shaft-hole is much like that of Fig. 130. - -[Illustration: Fig. 130.—Walsgrave-upon-Sowe. 1∕2] - -I have another specimen from Plumpton, near Penrith (9 1∕2 inches), -rounded at the butt, but unsymmetrical, owing to a natural plane of -cleavage interfering with the shape, and, as it were, taking off -a slice of the stone. The shaft-hole is oval, the longer diameter -being lengthwise of the blade, and the edge is oblique. The sides -are flatter than those of Fig. 130. In my collection are others -from Mawbray and Inglewood Forest, Cumberland (7 1∕2 and 8 inches), -and one (7 inches) from Cader Idris, Merionethshire. Another (10 -inches) was found at Llanfairfechan,[699] Carnarvonshire, another at -Llanidloes,[700] Montgomeryshire, and a third in Anglesey.[701] The -late Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A., had a flatter and longer specimen -of this form (10 inches), found at Winster, Derbyshire. Implements -of this character, but often |199| approximating in shape to Fig. -131, have been found in considerable numbers, though as isolated -specimens, in the North. One found in Aberdeenshire (8 1∕2 inches -long), of this class, but with the butt-end slightly hollowed, and -having a well-marked shoulder on each face, as if by continual -reduction by sharpening at the edge, is engraved in the _Archæological -Journal_.[702] One from Scotland[703] (10 1∕4 inches) was exhibited by -the Marquis of Breadalbane at Edinburgh, in 1856, and one (12 inches) -from Alnwick.[704] Others have been found at Tillicoultry Bridge,[705] -Clackmannan; Kelton,[706] Kircudbrightshire; in Wigtownshire[707]; -|200| Silvermine,[708] Torphichen, Linlithgow; and Laurie Street,[709] -Leith; another from the coast of Scotland is engraved in Skelton’s -“Meyrick’s Armour,”[710] but is there regarded as having been -brought over by Danish invaders. Other Scottish[711] specimens are -numerous. There are thirteen in the Grierson Museum, Thornhill, -Dumfriesshire. One of the same form as the figure (9 3∕8 inches) was -found at Dean,[712] near Bolton, Lancashire, and others at Hopwood -and Saddleworth in the same county. One of grit (7 1∕2 inches) was -found at Siddington,[713] near Macclesfield. Another (8 inches), found -at Kirkoswald, Cumberland, is in the museum at Newcastle, together -with a similar specimen from Haydon Bridge; and others have been -found at Thirstone, Shilbottle, Barrasford,[714] and Hipsburn,[715] -Northumberland; and in Yorkshire.[716] One (10 1∕2 inches) was found at -Ehenside Tarn,[717] Cumberland. Others at Rusland, North Lonsdale, and -Troutbeck. A long list of stone-hammers, &c., found in Cumberland and -Westmorland, has been given by Chancellor R. S. Ferguson, F.S.A.,[718] -and a similar list has been compiled for Lancashire and Cheshire.[719] -They occur also in more southern districts. I have seen one (8 inches) -from the neighbourhood of Glastonbury. Another of the same length was -found on Dartmoor, near Burnt Tor. Others (8 1∕2 and 9 inches) from -Ashbury and Holsworthy,[720] Devon, are in the Museum of the Plymouth -Institute. One was found at Withycombe Raleigh,[721] Devon. A fine -specimen (8 inches long), with the sides somewhat hollowed, was found -at Tasburgh, Norfolk. Another of greenstone (5 1∕2 inches), and rather -curved longitudinally, was found in the same parish. Other specimens -from Norfolk are mentioned in the Norwich volume of the Archæological -Institute. I have one of serpentine from Chatteris Fen, which has been -broken diagonally, and had a fresh edge ground quite away from the -middle. The Rev. S. Banks had one of hard sandstone (7 3∕4 inches), -found in Cottenham Fen. Its faces are more parallel, so that the edge -is more obtuse. I have seen one, found near Stourton (9 1∕2 inches), -Somersetshire, straighter at the sides, and having the angles rounded. -They occur in Leicestershire.[722] One (7 inches) from the Cemetery at -Leicester, and one (9 1∕2 inches) from Barrow-on-Soar, are recorded. An -axe of the same kind, but smaller, found near Imola, has been engraved -by Gastaldi.[723] - -Perhaps the more common variety, in Cumberland, is that which is -somewhat flattened at the butt, like Fig. 131, and which is, more -|201| properly speaking, an axe-hammer. This specimen was found near -Bed Dial, Wigton, Cumberland, and is in my own collection. The two -sides are nearly flat and parallel, and the edge appears to have been -re-sharpened since the axe-head was first formed, as it is ground away -to a shoulder a little below where it is perforated. It is formed of an -igneous rock. A very symmetrical example, 8 1∕2 inches long, with the -sides nearly flat, from Aikbrae, Culter, Lanarkshire, is engraved in -the _Journal of the Archæological Association_.[724] - -[Illustration: Fig. 131.—Wigton. 1∕2] - -A very similar specimen, 11 inches long, found in a turf moss near -Haversham, Westmorland, is engraved in the _Archæologia_,[725] as -is |202| another from Furness.[726] Another, with the sides more -parallel, and rounder at the end, 8 inches in length, was found -near Carlisle upwards of a century ago, and forms the subject of an -interesting paper by Bishop Lyttelton.[727] Two also were found at -Scalby,[728] near Scarborough. In the Greenwell Collection are several -implements of this character, obtained in the North of England. They -are 8 to 9 inches long, and 4 to 5 inches broad. One (10 inches) is -from Helton, in the parish of Chalton, Northumberland; and another, -of nearly the same size and form as Fig. 131, from Castle Douglas, -Kircudbrightshire; another of greenstone (6 inches) from Brompton Carr, -Yorkshire; and others, varying in form, from Ousby Moor, Cumberland, -and Heslerton Wold, Yorkshire. A fine example (8 inches), truncated at -the butt, from Dunse Castle,[729] Berwickshire, has been figured. - -In the British Museum are several axe-heads of this form. One, 9 inches -long, of a porphyritic rock, is said to have been found in a barrow on -Salisbury Plain. One, 12 inches long, is from Stone, Staffordshire, as -well as another in which the boring is incomplete, there being only a -conical depression on each side. A third, thinner (8 inches), was found -near Hull. A fourth, of compact felspathic material, 8 1∕4 inches long, -is from the parish of Balmerino, Fife. A fifth, of similar material, 8 -inches long, is from Llanbrynmair, Montgomeryshire.[730] It is worked -to a flat oval at the butt-end, but with the angles rounded. The hole, -as usual, tapers inwards from each side, but is not at right angles to -the central line of the axe. I have a fine implement of this class, but -larger and narrower than the figure, and concave on the sides, so that -the edge is wider than the butt. It is of basalt, much eroded on the -surface, and was found at Hardwick, near Bishop’s Castle, Shropshire. -It is 10 1∕2 inches long, about 4 1∕4 inches wide at the butt, where it -is 3 inches thick. The shaft-hole is nearly 2 inches in diameter, and -almost parallel; the weight, 8 1∕2 lbs. - -One (9 1∕2 inches) was found at Grimley,[731] Worcestershire. Another, -of porphyry, nearly triangular in outline (7 inches), from Necton, -Norfolk, is in the Norwich Museum. The shaft-hole, in this case, is -parallel, but in most, it tapers both ways, contracting from about -1 3∕4 or 2 inches on each face to about 1 1∕4 inches in diameter in the -middle. One of greenstone (6 inches), found near Ely, has an oval hole. - -[Illustration: Fig. 132.—Wollaton Park. 1∕2] - -The late Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A., had an axe-hammer of this -class (7 1∕2 inches), but still more flattened at one end, found in -Cambridgeshire. At the edge the faces form an angle of 45° to each -other, and there is little doubt that the implement has lost much of -its original length through continual sharpening. He also kindly lent -me for engraving the curious axe-hammer shown in Fig. 132, and has -made use of my wood-cut in his “Grave Mounds and their Contents.”[732] -It is formed of a very fine-grained, hard, and slightly micaceous -grit, and its weight exceeds 7 3∕4 lbs. It is somewhat rounded at the -hammer-end, which appears to have lost some splinters by use, though -the broken surface has since been partially re-ground. The blade is -slightly curved longitudinally, and both the |203| outer and inner -sides have been hollowed from the point, as far as the perforation. The -faces have each four parallel grooves worked in them, so that they are, -as it were, corrugated into five ribs, extending from near the edge to -opposite the centre of the hole. The hollows on the sides also show two -slight ribs parallel with the faces of the blade, the angles of which -are rounded. The shaft-hole tapers slightly in both directions towards -the centre, where it is about 1 3∕8 inch in diameter. |204| The -grooves seem to have been produced by picking, but have subsequently -been made smoother by grinding. It was found at a spot known as the -Sand Hills, in Lord Middleton’s Park,[733] near Wollaton, Notts. The -Rev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A., had a closely similar specimen (10 inches), -found at Jervaux, near Bedale, Yorkshire. It is not, however, fluted on -the faces. - -[Illustration: Fig. 133.—Buckthorpe. 1∕2] - -Some of these instruments are so heavy that they can hardly have -been wielded in the ordinary manner as axes, though they may have -served for splitting wood, either by direct blows or by being used as -wedges. Bishop Lyttelton thought they might have been battle-axes, but -Pegge[734] pointed out that they were too heavy for such a purpose or -for use as missiles, and came to the conclusion “that these perforated -stones were not originally applied to any warlike purpose, but rather -to some domestic service, either as a hammer or beetle for common -use.” Professor Nilsson,[735] at a later date, has arrived at the same -conclusion, and considers them most suitable for being held in the left -hand by a short handle, and driven into wood by blows from a |205| -club held in the right hand. He has suggested for them the name of -“handled wedges.” In some parts of France I have seen extremely heavy -iron axes, much resembling these stone implements in form, used for -splitting wood. It seems possible that in old times these heavy stone -implements may also have been employed in agriculture. - -Axes of this character, usually formed of greenstone, are very common -in Denmark and Northern Germany. They are much rarer in France, partly, -no doubt, in consequence of the less abundance of suitable material. -They also occur in Russia[736] and in Italy.[737] - -A small specimen of the same form but rather more square at the butt -than Fig. 131, made of dark serpentine, and only 3 5∕8 inches long, was -found at Tanagra, in Bœotia, and was formerly in the collection of Dr. -G. Finlay,[738] of Athens. - - * * * * * - -Some of the forms last described, having square butt-ends, might, -perhaps, with greater propriety, have been included in the fourth -class into which I have proposed to divide these instruments, viz., -axe-hammers, sharpened at one end and more or less hammer-like at the -other, and with the shaft-hole usually about the centre. - - * * * * * - -One of the simplest, and at the same time the rarest varieties of this -class, is where an implement of the form of an ordinary celt, like Fig. -69, has been bored through in the same direction as the edge. Fig. 133 -represents such a specimen, in the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, of -Driffield. It was found at Buckthorpe, Yorkshire, and is formed of -close-grained greenstone. The butt-end is circular and flat, and the -shaft-hole, which is oval, tapers considerably both ways. - -An axe-hammer of diorite, of nearly similar form, found at Groningen, -in the Netherlands, is in the museum at Leyden. - -[Illustration: Fig. 134.—Aldro’. 1∕2] - -Another simple form is that exhibited in Fig. 134, taken from a -specimen in greenstone found at Aldro’, near Malton, Yorkshire, and -in the possession of Mr. Hartley, of Malton. Its principal interest -consists in its having been left in the unfinished state, previous to -its perforation. We thus learn that the same practice of working the -axe-heads into shape before proceeding to bore the shaft-hole, |206| -prevailed here as in Denmark. In that country numerous specimens -have been found, finished in all respects except the boring, and in -many instances this has been commenced though not completed. It would -appear from this circumstance that the process of boring was one -which required a considerable amount of time, but that it was most -satisfactorily performed after the instrument had been brought into -shape; the position of the hole being adjusted to the form of the -implement, and not the latter to the hole. In the extensive Greenwell -Collection is the cutting end of an axe which has been broken half-way -across the hole, which, though commenced on both faces, was never -finished. The conical, cup-shaped depressions produced by the boring -instrument, extend to some depth in the stone, but are still 1∕4 inch -from meeting. The fragment is 3 1∕8 inches long, and was found at -Sprouston, near Kelso. - -In the same collection is a small unfinished axe-head of greenstone, 4 -inches long, in which the hole has not been commenced. It was found at -Coxwold, in the North Riding of Yorkshire. - -An unpierced axe-head of greenstone, 4 inches long, in form much like -Fig. 136, but with the hollowed face shorter, was found in a grave in -Stronsay, one of the Orkney islands, and is now in the National Museum -at Edinburgh. There are slight recesses on each face, showing the spots -at which the perforation was to have been commenced. - -[Illustration: Fig. 135.—Cowlam. 1∕2] - -A perforated axe of serpentine, of the same character as Fig. 134, but -wider at the butt, was found in the Thames, and is now in the British -Museum. It is 4 inches long and has the peculiarity of being much -thicker at the cutting end than at the butt; the two sides tapering -from 1 1∕2 inch at the edge to 3∕4 inch at the butt. - -A similar feature is to be observed in another axe of hornblende schist -(5 3∕4 inches), and of rather more elongated form than Fig. 134, found -at Cawton, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, and in the Greenwell -Collection. - -A partially-finished axe-head, with one side and about two-thirds of -the width of the faces worked into form, is engraved in the “Horæ -Ferales.”[739] It is not a British specimen, but its place of finding -is unknown. Perforated hammers, in form much like Fig. 134 and 135, -occurred among the early remains at Troy.[740] - -A rather more elaborate form, having the two sides curved |207| -longitudinally inwards, and the edge broader than the hammer-end, -is shown in Fig. 135. The cutting edge is carefully removed, so that -it was probably a battle-axe. The original, which is of porphyritic -greenstone, was discovered by Canon Greenwell, in a barrow at -Cowlam,[741] near Weaverthorpe, Yorkshire. It lay in front of the face -of a contracted skeleton, the edge towards the face, and the remains of -the wooden handle still grasped by the right hand. Connected with this -grave was that of a woman with two bronze ear-rings at her head. - -[Illustration: Fig. 136.—Seghill. 1∕2] - -Another of much the same form, but of coarser work and heavier, was -found near Pickering, and is preserved in the Museum at Scarborough. - -I have seen a small axe of similar type, but with the edge almost -semicircular, and the hole nearer the butt, found at Felixstowe, -Suffolk. It is of quartzite, 4 1∕2 inches long. The hole, though 1 3∕4 -inch in diameter |208| at the sides, diminishes to 1∕2 an inch in the -centre. In this respect it resembles some of the hammer-stones shortly -to be described. - -Fig. 136 presents a rather more elaborate form, which is, however, -partly due to that of the flat oval quartzite pebble from which this -axe-hammer was made. The hammer-end seems to preserve the form of -the pebble almost intact; it is, however, slightly flattened at the -extremity. The original is preserved in the Greenwell Collection, and -was found in a cist at Seghill,[742] near Newcastle, in 1866. The -bones, by which it was no doubt originally accompanied, had entirely -gone to decay. A Scotch example, made of basalt, the sides of which are -much more concave, is shown in Fig. 136A, kindly lent by the Society of -Antiquaries of Scotland. It was found at Wick,[743] Caithness. - -[Illustration: Fig. 136A.—Wick, Caithness. 1∕2] - -It was an axe-head somewhat of the character of Fig. 136, but sharper -at the hammer-end, that was found in an urn, near Broughton in Craven, -in 1675, and with it a small bronze dagger (with a tang and single -rivet hole) and a hone. It is described and figured by Thoresby.[744] -Hearne[745] regarded it as Danish. It is described as of speckled -marble polished, 6 inches long and 3 1∕2 inches broad, with the edge -at one end blunted by use. A nearly similar form (4 1∕2 inches) has -occurred in Shetland.[746] What appears to be an unbored axe of this -kind is in the Powysland Museum.[747] |209| - -A still greater elaboration of form is exhibited in Fig. 137, from -an implement found at Kirklington, Yorkshire, and in the Greenwell -Collection. It is of basalt, worked to a flat oval at the hammer-end, -and to a curved cutting edge at the other. The two sides are ground -concave, and the shaft-hole is nearly parallel. This axe-hammer is of -larger size than usual when of this form, being 8 inches in length. - -[Illustration: Fig. 137.—Kirklington. 1∕2] - -Nearly similar weapons have been frequently found in barrows. |210| -One such, of greenstone, about 4 inches long, was found by the late -Mr. Charles Warne, F.S.A., in a barrow at Winterbourn Steepleton, near -Dorchester, associated with burnt bones. He has given a figure[748] of -it, which, by his kindness, I here reproduce, as Fig. 138. Another (4 -inches) was found in a barrow at Trevelgue,[749] Cornwall, in 1872. - -An extremely similar specimen, found near Claughton Hall, Garstang, -Lancashire, has been figured.[750] It is said to have been found, in -cutting through a tumulus in 1822, in a wooden case, together with -an iron axe, spear-head, sword, and hammer. There must, however, be -an error in this account; and as an urn, containing burnt bones, was -found in the same tumulus with the Saxon or Danish interment, it seems -probable that the objects belonging to different burials, primary and -secondary in the barrow, became mixed during the twenty-seven years -that elapsed between their discovery and the communication to the -Archæological Institute. Another weapon of much the same shape, but -4 3∕4 inches long, and formed of dark greenstone, is in the British -Museum. It was found in the Thames, at London. The process by which -these hollow sides appear to have been ground will be described at page -266. - -[Illustration: Fig. 138.—Winterbourn Steepleton. 1∕2] - -Sir R. Colt Hoare has engraved two axe-hammers of this form, but -slightly varying in size and details, from barrows in the Ashton -Valley.[751] In both cases they accompanied interments of burnt bones, -in one instance placed beneath an inverted urn; in the other there was -no urn, but an arrow-head of bone lay with the axe. - -An axe (5 1∕4 inches), of nearly the same form, but having a small oval -projection on each face opposite the shaft-hole, was found in the bed -of the Severn, at Ribbesford, Worcestershire, and is now in the Museum -of the Society of Antiquaries. It has been somewhat incorrectly figured -by Allies,[752] and rather better by Wright.[753] - -An axe-head (5 4∕10 inches), of the same character as Fig. 138, but -in outline more nearly resembling Fig. 137, found near Stanwick, -Yorkshire, is in the British Museum.[754] The cutting end of such -a weapon was dredged with gravel from the Trent, at Beeston, near -Nottingham, in 1862. |211| - -Another axe-hammer of greenstone, with projections on the faces -opposite the centre of the hole, and with a hollow fluting near each -margin, that is carried round on the sides below the holes, is shown -in Fig. 139. The original was found by the Rev. J. C. Atkinson, who -kindly lent it me for engraving. It lay in an urn about 17 inches high, -containing burnt bones and some fragments of burnt flint, in a large -barrow on the Skelton Moors, Yorkshire. In the same barrow were found -eight other urns, all containing secondary interments. In another -barrow, on Westerdale Moors, Mr. Atkinson found a second axe-hammer of -nearly the same size and form, but more hammer-like at the end. This -also has the channels on the faces. It is of fine-grained granite, -and lay in an urn with burnt bones, a small “incense-cup,” and a sort -of long bone bead, having a spiral pattern upon it and a transverse -orifice into the perforation, about the centre. In this case, also, the -interment was not that over which the barrow was originally raised. -In another barrow, on Danby North Moors, also opened by Mr. Atkinson, -a rather larger axe-hammer of much the same outline, lay with the -hole in a vertical position, about 15 inches above a deposit of burnt -bones. It is of basalt much decayed. An axe-hammer from Inveraray,[755] -Argyllshire (5 3∕4 inches), in outline rather like Fig. 143, has small -projections on each face opposite to the centre of the shaft-hole. - -[Illustration: Fig. 139.—Skelton Moors. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 140.—Selwood Barrow. 1∕2] - -A longer and more slender form has also occasionally been found in -tumuli. Sir R. Colt Hoare has given an engraving of a beautiful -specimen from the Selwood Barrow,[756] near Stourton, which is here -reproduced as Fig. 140. The axe is of syenite, 5 1∕2 inches long, -and lay in a cist, in company with burnt bones and a small bronze -dagger, which in the description is erroneously termed a lance-head. -Parallel with each side, there appears to be a small groove worked -on the face of the weapon. A very pretty example of the same form -|212| accompanied an interment in a barrow at Snowshill,[757] -Gloucestershire. With it were associated two bronze daggers and a -bronze pin. - -In the Christy Collection is a similar but larger specimen, 7 inches -long, formed of dark greenstone. It also has the grooves along the -margin of the faces, and has an oval flat face about 1 inch by 7∕8 inch -at the hammer-end. The hole, which is 1 1∕8 inch full in diameter at -one side, contracts rather suddenly to 1 inch at the other. This weapon -was formerly in the Leverian Museum, and is said to have been found -in a barrow near Stonehenge, which, from its similarity to Sir R. C. -Hoare’s specimen, there seems no reason to doubt. - -[Illustration: Fig. 140A.—Longniddry. 1∕2] - -An axe-hammer of clay-stone porphyry, 4 3∕4 inches long, and in form -the same as those last described—except that there appears to be more -of a shoulder at the hammer-end—was found in a barrow at Winwick,[758] -near Warrington, Lancashire. It was broken clean across the hole, and -had been buried in an urn with burnt bones. With them was also a bronze -dagger with a tang, and one rivet hole to secure it in the handle. - -An axe-hammer of much the same proportions, but more square at the -hammer-end, was discovered in a dolmen near Carnac,[759] in Brittany. A -beautiful axe of the same character with ornamental grooves and |213| -mouldings is in the Museum at Edinburgh, and is here, by favour of the -Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, shown as Fig. 140A. The original is -of diorite, and was dug up in 1800 at Longniddry,[760] East Lothian. - -[Illustration: Fig. 141.—Upton Lovel. 1∕2] - -Another variety of form is shown in Fig. 141, reduced from Sir R. Colt -Hoare’s great work.[761] In this case the hammer-end would appear to be -lozenge-shaped, as there is a central ridge shown on the face. It was -found in the Upton Lovel barrow, on the breast of the larger skeleton, -near the feet of which the flint celts, polished and unpolished, and -various other objects in bone and stone, were found, as previously -mentioned.[762] The engraving of this weapon in the _Archæologia_ -differs considerably from that given by Sir R. C. Hoare. - -[Illustration: Fig. 142.—Thames, London. 1∕2] - -In Fig. 142 is shown another form, in which the hammer-end, though flat -in one direction, forms a semicircular sweep, answering in form to -the cutting edge at the other end. The two faces are ornamented with -a slight groove, extending across them parallel to the centre of the -shaft-hole. The material of which this axe-hammer is made appears to -be serpentine. It was found in the Thames, at London, and is in the -British Museum. A “hammer” from a barrow at Wilsford,[763] Wilts, which -was associated with a flat bronze celt and other articles of bronze, -was of the same type as Fig. 142, but without the grooves. - -The very neatly formed instrument represented in Fig. 143, seems -to occupy an intermediate place between a battle-axe and a mace or -fighting hammer. It is rounded in both directions at the butt-end, but -instead of having a sharp edge at the other end it is brought to a -somewhat rounded point. The inner side is concave, though hardly to the -extent shown by the dotted line in the cut. The shaft-hole is nearly -parallel, though somewhat expanding at each end. The |214| material is -greenstone. This weapon was found in the middle of a barrow, or rather -cairn, formed of stones, in the parish of Pelynt, Cornwall.[764] It lay -among a considerable quantity of black ashes, which had evidently been -burnt on the natural surface of the ground at the spot. There was no -urn, nor any other work of art in company with it. In another barrow, -in the same field, was a bronze dagger with two rivets. I have never -seen any other stone hammer of this form found in Britain, nor can I -call to mind any such in continental museums. The nearest approach to -it is to be observed in some of the Scandinavian weapons, in which the -outer side is much more rounded than the inner, but in these there is -usually an axe-like edge, though very narrow. A shuttle-shaped weapon -of porphyritic stone, found in Upper Egypt,[765] is not unlike it, but -is equally pointed at both ends. The perforation narrows from 3∕4 inch -to 1∕4. The concave side of the Pelynt weapon is so much like that of -some of the battle-axes, such as Fig. 137, as to suggest the idea that -originally it may have been of this form, but having in some manner -been damaged, it has been re-worked into its present exceptional shape. - -[Illustration: Fig. 143.—Pelynt, Cornwall. 1∕2] - -It will have been observed that instruments, such as most of those -engraved, have accompanied interments both by cremation and inhumation, -and have, in some cases, been found in association with small daggers, -celts, and pins or awls of bronze. Other instances may be adduced from -the writings of the late Mr. T. Bateman, though sometimes the exact -form of the weapons is not recorded. In the Parcelly Hay Barrow,[766] -near Hartington, an axe-head of granite, with a hole for the shaft, and -a bronze dagger, with three rivets for fastening the handle, had been -buried with a contracted body, above the covering stones of the primary -interment.[767] Another, of basalt, apparently like Fig. 126, broken in -the middle, is said to have lain between two skeletons at full length, -placed side by side in a barrow at Kens Low Farm.[768] On the breast -of one lay a circular brooch of copper or bronze. With the axe was a -polished porphyry-slate pebble, the ends of which were ground flat. -|215| - - * * * * * - -Looking at the whole series, it seems probable that they were -intended to serve more than one purpose, and that while the adze-like -instruments may have been tools either for agriculture or for -carpentry, and the large heavy axe-hammers also served some analogous -purposes, the smaller class of instruments, whether sharpened at both -ends or at one only, may with some degree of certainty be regarded as -weapons. That the perforated form of axe was of later invention than -the solid stone hatchet is almost self-evident; and that many of the -battle-axe class belong to a period when bronze was coming into use -is well established. That all instruments of this form belong to so -late a period there is no evidence to prove; but in other countries -where perforated axes are common, as in Scandinavia and Switzerland, -those who have most carefully studied the antiquities, find reason for -assigning a considerable number to a period when the use of bronze -was unknown. On the other hand, it is possible that in some instances -the large heavy axe-hammer may have remained in use even in the days -when bronze and iron were well known. Sir W. Wilde mentions one in the -museum of the Royal Irish Academy, 10 3∕4 inches long, which is said to -have been recently in use. Canon Greenwell had another which was used -for felling pigs in Yorkshire. Such, however, may be but instances of -adapting ancient implements, accidentally met with, to modern uses. - -I have already, in the description of the various figures, mentioned -when analogous forms were found in other parts of Western Europe, so -that it is needless again to cite instances of discoveries on the -Continent. I may, however, notice a curious series from Northern Russia -and Finland.[769] They are for the most part pointed at one end, the -other being sometimes carved to represent the head of an animal. Some -are pointed at each end. In several there is a projection on both sides -of the shaft-hole, designed to add strength to a weak part, but at the -same time made ornamental. The animal’s head occurs also on bronze axes. - -Out of Europe this class of perforated instruments is almost unknown. - -Turning to modern savages, the comparative absence of perforated -axes is striking. In North America, it is true that some specimens -occur, but the material is usually too soft for cutting purposes, and -the haft-holes are so small that the handles would |216| be liable -to break. It has therefore been inferred that they were probably -used as weapons of parade. They are, however, occasionally formed -of quartz.[770] Schoolcraft,[771] moreover, regards the semilunar -perforated maces as actual weapons of war. One of them, pointed at each -end, he describes as being 8 inches long, and weighing half a pound. -The more hatchet-like forms he considers to be tomahawks. In some -instances[772] the hole does not extend through the blade. - -In Central America, Southern Africa, and New Zealand, where the art of -drilling holes through stone is, or was, well known, perforated axes -appear to be absent. I have, however, heard of an instrument of the -kind having been discovered in New Zealand, but have not seen either -the original or a sketch. Some perforated hoe-like implements have been -found in Mexico. - -The nearest approach to such instruments is perhaps afforded by -the sharp-rimmed perforated discs of stone, mounted on shafts so -as to present an edge all round, which are in use, apparently as -weapons, in the Southern part of New Guinea, and Torres Straits. Some -perforated sharp-rimmed discs of flint and serpentine, have been -found in France.[773] They are probably heads of war-maces. In New -Caledonia,[774] flat discs of jade, ground to a sharp edge all round, -are mounted as axes, being let into a notch at the end of the haft and -secured by a lashing that passes through two small holes in the edge of -the blade. - -The cause of this scarcity of perforated weapons appears to be, that -though it might involve rather more trouble and skill to attach a -solid hatchet to its shaft, yet this was more than compensated by the -smaller amount of labour involved in making that kind of blade, than -in fashioning and boring the perforated kind. These latter, moreover, -would be more liable to break in use. Looking at our own stone axes -from this point of view, it seems that with the very large implements -the shaft-hole became almost a necessity; while with those used for -warlike purposes, where the contingencies of wear and breakage were -but small, it seems probable that the possession of a weapon, on the -production of which a more than ordinary amount of labour had been -bestowed, was regarded as a mark of distinction, as is the case among -some savages of the present day. - - - - -|217| - -CHAPTER IX. - -PERFORATED AND GROOVED HAMMERS. - - -Closely allied to the axe-hammers, so closely indeed that the forms -seem to merge in each other, are the perforated hammer-heads of stone, -which are found of various shapes, and are formed of several different -kinds of rocks. In many instances, the whole of the external surface -has been carefully fashioned and ground into shape, but it is at least -as commonly the case that a symmetrical oval pebble has been selected -for the hammer-head, and has been thus used without any labour being -bestowed upon it, beyond that necessary for boring the shaft-hole. -By some antiquaries, these perforated pebbles have been regarded as -weights, for sinking nets, or for some such purpose; but in most cases -this is, I think, an erroneous view—firstly, because the majority of -these implements show traces, at their extremities, of having been used -as hammers; and, secondly, because if wanted as weights, there can be -no doubt that the softer kinds of stone, easily susceptible of being -pierced, would be selected; whereas these perforated pebbles are almost -invariably of quartzite or some equally hard and tough material. - -There are some instances, indeed, in which the perforation would -appear to be almost too small for a shaft of sufficient strength to -wield the hammer, if such it were; but even in such cases, where hard -silicious pebbles have been used, they must, in all probability, have -been intended for other purposes than for weights. I am inclined to -think that some means of hafting, not now in use, may have been adopted -in such cases, and that possibly the handles may have been formed -of twisted hide or sinews, passed through the hole in a wet state, -secured by knots on either side, and then allowed to harden by drying. -Such hafts would be more elastic and tough than any of the same size -in wood; but it must be confessed that there is no evidence of their -having been actually employed, though there is of the stones having -been in use |218| as hammers. I have an Irish specimen, 3 3∕4 inches -long, with the perforation tapering from about 1 3∕4 inch diameter on -either side, to less than 1∕2 an inch in the middle, and yet each end -of the stone is worn away by use, to the extent of 1∕4 inch below the -original oval contour. It is possible that these deep cavities may -have been intended to assist in keeping a firm hold of the stone when -used in the hand as a hammer without any shaft, in the same manner as -did the shallow indentations, which occasionally occur on the faces -of pebbles which thus served; but this is hardly probable when the -cavities meet in the centre to form a hole exactly like the ordinary -shaft-holes, except in its disproportionately small size. It is worthy -of notice, that even in axe-hammers the shaft-hole appears to be -sometimes absurdly small for the size of the implement. I have a Danish -specimen of greenstone, carefully finished, 6 3∕4 inches long, and -weighing 1 lb. 15 ozs. avoirdupois, and yet the shaft-hole is only 3∕4 -inch in diameter on either side, and but 1∕2 an inch in the centre. The -axe from Felixstowe, already mentioned, presents the same peculiarity. - -It has been suggested that one of the methods of hafting these -implements with the double bell-mouthed perforations, was by placing -them over a branch of a tree, and leaving them there until secured in -their position by the natural growth of the wood, the branch being then -cut off at the proper places, and serving as a handle. I have, however, -found by experience that even with a fast-growing tree, such a process -requires two or three years at the least, and that when removed, the -shrinkage of the branch in drying, leaves the hammer-head loose on -its haft. Such a system of hafting would, moreover, imply a fixity -of residence on the part of the savage owners of the tools, which -appears hardly compatible with the stage of civilization to which such -instruments are probably to be referred. - -At the same time, it must be remembered that the Caribs of Guadaloupe -and the Hurons are, as has been mentioned at page 155, credited with an -analogous system of hafting imperforate hatchets. - -It has also been suggested that some of these pierced stones were -offensive weapons, having been attached by a thong of leather to a -handle,[775] and used as “flail-stones,” after the manner of the -“morning-stars” of the middle ages. Such a method of mounting, though -possible, appears to me by no means probable in the |219| majority -of cases, though among the Eskimos[776] a weapon has been in use, -consisting of a stone ball with a drilled hole, through which a strip -of raw hide is passed to serve as a handle. - - * * * * * - -The first specimen that I have selected for illustration, Fig. 144, -might, with almost equal propriety, have been placed among the -perforated axes, though it has three blunt edges instead of one or -two. It was found at Balmaclellan, in New Galloway, and is now in -the National Museum at Edinburgh. It is of very peculiar triangular -form, 1 1∕2 inches in thickness, and with a perforation expanding -from an inch in diameter in the centre, to 1 3∕4 inches on each side. -An engraving of it is given in the _Proceedings of the Society of -Antiquaries of Scotland_.[777] This I have here reproduced on a larger -scale, so as to correspond in its proportions with the other woodcuts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 144.—Balmaclellan.] - -A curious hammer, of brown hæmatite, not quite so equilateral as the -Scotch specimen, and much thicker in proportion, found in Alabama, has -been engraved by Schoolcraft.[778] The holes, from each side, do not -meet in the middle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 145.—Thames, London. 1∕2] - -The specimen shown in Fig. 145 was found in the Thames, at London, -and is now in the British Museum. In form it is curiously like |220| -a metallic hammer, swelling out around the shaft-hole, and tapering -down to a round flat face at each extremity. So far as I know, it is -unique of its kind in this country. It is more probably the head of a -war mace than that of an ordinary hammer. A somewhat similar hammer, of -porphyry, is in the museum of the Deutsche Gesellschaft at Leipzig. It -is, however, shorter in its proportions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 145A.—Kirkinner. 1∕2] - -A stone hammer found at Claycrop, Kirkinner,[779] Wigtownshire, is, by -the courtesy of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, shown in Fig. -145A. In form, it is very like Fig. 136A from Wick, but blunter at the -edge. - -The instrument shown in Fig. 146 is perhaps more like a blunted -axe-hammer than a simple hammer. It has at one end a much-rounded -point, and at the other is nearly straight across, though rounded in -the other direction. It would appear to be a weapon |221| rather than -a tool. It is formed of greenstone, and was found near Scarborough, -being now in the museum at the Leeds Philosophical Hall. A similar form -has been found in Italy.[780] - -[Illustration: Fig. 146.—Scarborough. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 147.—Shetland. 1∕2] - -A beautifully finished hammer-head, cross-paned at both ends, and with -a parallel polished shaft-hole, is shown in Fig. 147. It is of pale -mottled green gneissose rock, with veins of transparent pale green, -like jade, and was found in a barrow in Shetland. It is preserved -in the National Museum at Edinburgh, where is also another of the -same form, but broader and much more weathered, which was found at -Scarpiegarth,[781] also in Shetland. Mr. J. W. Cursiter has another -of these ruder examples (3 1∕2 inches) from Firth. He has also a very -highly polished specimen made of serpentine (4 inches) subquadrate -in section, and with hemispherical ends, from Lingrow, Orkney. The -perforation is conical, being 1 inch in diameter on one face and only -1∕2 inch on the other. A remarkably elegant instrument of this kind, -formed of a quartzose metamorphic rock, striped green and white, and -evidently selected for its beauty, is in the well-known Greenwell -Collection. It was found in Caithness. It is polished all over, and -4 1∕4 inches long, of oval section, with the ends slightly rounded. -The shaft-hole is parallel, 1∕2 inch in diameter, and about 3∕4 -inch nearer to one end than to the other. In the same collection is -another specimen, rather more elongated in form, and of more ordinary -material, found near Harome, in Yorkshire, in a district where a -number of stone implements of rare types have been discovered. It is -of clay-slate, 5 1∕4 inches long, and of oval section. The shaft-hole -tapers from 1 inch at the faces to 9∕16 inch in the centre. A shorter -hammer, of gneiss, 3 3∕4 inches long, and of similar section, |222| -with a parallel shaft-hole 5∕8 inch in diameter, was found near -Blair-Drummond, and is now in the National Museum at Edinburgh. It has -a thin rounded edge at one end, and is obtuse at the other, as if it -had been broken and subsequently rounded over. The form occasionally -occurs in the South of England. In the British Museum is a beautiful -specimen (4 1∕4 inches) from Twickenham, and another of more ordinary -stone from the Thames, which was formerly in the Roots Collection. - -Another polished hammer (of grey granite) with curved sides, -and narrower at one end than the other, was found in a cairn in -Caithness,[782] in company with a flint flake ground at the edge, some -arrow-heads, and scrapers. By permission of the Society of Antiquaries -of Scotland, it is shown in Fig. 148. A somewhat similar form of hammer -has been obtained in Denmark.[783] - -[Illustration: Fig. 148.—Caithness. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 149.—Leeds. 1∕2] - -The hammer-head shown in Fig. 149 resembles the Shetland implements -in character, though, besides being far less highly finished, it is -shorter and broader, and shows more wear at the end. The hole, also, -is not parallel, but tapers from both faces. It is stated to have been -found 12 feet deep in gravel, while sinking for foundations for the -works of the North-Eastern Railway in Neville Street, Leeds. It is -formed of greenstone, and has all the appearance of having been made -out of a portion of a celt. - -I have a somewhat smaller hammer-head, of much the same form, from -Reach Fen, Cambridge, which also seems to have been made from a -fragment of a broken celt. I have seen one of the same kind, found near -Brixham, in Devonshire. - -I have another specimen, from Orwell, Wimpole, Cambs., in which a -portion of an implement of larger size has also been utilized for |223| -a fresh purpose. In this case the sharper end of a large axe-head -of stone, probably much like Fig. 131, having been broken off, the -wedge-shaped fragment, which is about 3 inches long and 2 inches broad, -has been bored through in a direction at right angles to the edge, -and probably to the original shaft-hole, and a somewhat adze-like -hammer-head has been the result, what was formerly the edge of the axe -being rounded and battered. - -Fragments of celts which, when the edge was lost, subsequently served -as hammers, but without any perforation, have not unfrequently been -found, both here and on the Continent. The Eskimo hammer, already -mentioned, has much the same appearance and character as if it had been -made from a portion of a jade celt. - -The form of hammer shown in Fig. 150, may be described as a frustum of -a cone with convex ends. The specimen here figured is of quartzite, -and was found near Rockland, Norfolk. It is preserved in the Norwich -Museum. The hole, as usual with this type, is nearly parallel. The -lower half of a similar hammer, but of flint, 2 inches in diameter, and -showing one-half of the shaft-hole, which is 5∕8 inch in diameter, is -in the British Museum. It came from Grundisburgh, Suffolk. - -A more conical specimen, tapering from 2 3∕8 inches to 1 7∕8 inches -in diameter, and 3 inches long, with a shaft-hole 7∕8 inch in -diameter within 3∕4 inch of the top, is in the Greenwell Collection. -It is of basalt, and was found at Twisel, in the parish of Norham, -Northumberland. - -[Illustration: Fig. 150.—Rockland. 1∕2] - -Some rather larger and more cylindrical instruments of analogous -form have been obtained in Yorkshire. One such, about 4 inches long, -and with a small parallel shaft-hole about 3∕4 inch in diameter, was -found with an urn in a barrow at Weapon Ness, and is in the museum at -Scarborough. With it was a flint spear-head or javelin-head. It is -described as rather kidney-shaped in the _Archæologia_.[784] I have the -half of another, made of compact sandstone, and found on the Yorkshire -Wolds. - -The same form occurs in Ireland, but the sides curve inwards and the -section is somewhat oval. Sir W. Wilde[785] describes two such of -polished gneiss, and a third is engraved in Shirley’s “Account of -Farney.”[786] Sir William suggests that such implements were, in all -probability, used in metal working, especially in the manufacture -of gold and silver. Certainly, in most cases, they can hardly have -been destined for any ordinary purposes of savage life, as the labour -involved in boring such shaft-holes in quartzite, and especially in -|224| flint, must have been immense. It seems quite as probable that -these were weapons as tools, and, in that case, we can understand an -amount of time and care being bestowed on their preparation such as -in modern days we find savages so often lavishing on their warlike -accoutrements. Another argument in favour of these being weapons, may -be derived from the beauty of the material of which they are sometimes -composed. That from Farney is of a light green colour and nicely -polished, and one in my own collection, found near Tullamore, King’s -County, is formed of a piece of black and white gneissose rock, which -must have been selected for its beauty. One in the British Museum from -Lough Gur is of black hornblende. - -The type with the oval section is not, however, confined to Ireland. In -the Greenwell Collection is a beautiful hammer of this class, which is -represented in Fig. 151. It is made of a veined quartzose gneiss, and -was found on Heslerton Wold, Yorkshire. As will be seen, it is somewhat -oval in section. The sides are straight, but the faces from which the -hole is bored are somewhat hollow. I have a specimen of the same form, -but made of greenstone (3 inches), from the neighbourhood of Sutton -Coldfield,[787] Warwickshire. - -A barrel-shaped hammer (3 3∕4 inches) was found on the hill of -Ashogall,[788] Turriff, Aberdeenshire, and a rude triangular hammer on -the Gallow Hill of Turriff. - -[Illustration: Fig. 151.—Heslerton Wold. 1∕2] - -A smaller hammer-head, curiously like those from Farney and Tullamore, -both in form and material, was found with a small “food vessel” -accompanying an interment near Doune,[789] Perthshire. It is 2 5∕8 -inches long, with a parallel shaft-hole 5∕8 inch in diameter. - -Another, of small-grained black porphyry, neatly polished, and about -3 1∕4 inches long, similar in outline to Fig. 150, but of oval section, -and little more than an inch in thickness, was dredged up in the Tidal -Basin, at Montrose, and is preserved in the local museum. - -A cylindrical hammer of grey granite (2 3∕4 inches) only partially -bored from both faces, was found in the parish of Glammis,[790] -Forfarshire. Mr. J. W. Cursiter, of Kirkwall, has a beautiful specimen -formed of striped gneiss (3 1∕4 inches) with well-rounded ends, and the -sides much curved inwards. It was found at Whiteness, Shetland. Another -of his hammers (2 3∕4 inches) with a parallel hole (7∕8 inch) has the -sides straight and is of oval section. It is of beautifully mottled -gneiss. - -Another variety, allied to the last, has an egg-shaped instead of a -quasi-conical form; the shaft-hole being towards the small end of the -egg. The specimen here engraved, Fig. 152, is apparently of serpentine, -and was found at Hallgaard Farm, near Birdoswald, Cumberland. It is in -the Greenwell Collection. - -I have a smaller but nearly similar specimen in greenstone, from |225| -the neighbourhood of Flamborough, Yorkshire. The hole in this is more -bell-mouthed than in the other specimen, and a little nearer the centre -of the stone. - -One of nearly similar form, but rather flatter on one face, -3 1∕4 inches long, found in Newport, Lincoln, is engraved in the -_Archæological Journal_.[791] - -Another in size and shape, much like Fig. 152, was dug up at -Llanrhaiadr-yn-Mochnant, Montgomeryshire.[792] Another in the British -Museum came from the neighbourhood of Keswick. - -An egg-shaped hammer, 3 inches long, of mica schist, and found in -the Isle of Arran,[793] is in the National Museum at Edinburgh. The -shaft-hole is in the centre. - -[Illustration: Fig. 152.—Birdoswald. 1∕2] - -Sometimes these hammer-heads are, in outline, of an intermediate form -between Figs. 151 and 152, being oval in section, and more rounded -at the smaller end than the larger, which is somewhat flattened. One -such, in the Christy Collection, is formed of granite, and was found at -Burns, near Keswick, Cumberland. Another, of quartzite, 3 1∕4 inches -long, found on Breadsale Moor, is in the Museum at Derby. Neither -of them presents the same high degree of finish as Fig. 151. They -seem, indeed, to have been made from pebbles, which were but slightly -modified in form by their conversion into hammer-heads. - -Occasionally, though rarely, flint pebbles naturally perforated have -been used as hammers. In excavating a barrow at Thorverton,[794] near -Exeter, the Rev. R. Kirwan discovered a flint pebble about 3 3∕4 -inches long, with a natural perforation rather nearer one end than the -other, but which on each face has been artificially enlarged. Each -end of the pebble is considerably abraded by use. No other relics, -with the |226| exception of charcoal, were found in the barrow. Mr. -Kirwan suggests that the stone may have been used by placing the thumb -and forefinger in each orifice of the aperture; but not improbably -it may have been hafted. In the Museum at Copenhagen are one or two -axes of flint, ground at the edge, but with the shaft-holes formed -by natural perforations of the stone. And in M. Boucher de Perthes’ -Collection[795] were two hammer-heads, with central holes of the same -character. - -[Illustration: Fig. 153.—Maesmore, Corwen.] - -The beautiful and elaborately finished hammer-head found at Maesmore, -near Corwen, Merionethshire, and now in the National Museum at -Edinburgh, is to some extent connected in form with those like Fig. -152. It is shown in Fig. 153, on the scale of 1∕2 linear, but a full -size representation of it is given elsewhere.[796] It is of dusky -white chalcedony, or of very compact quartzite, and weighs 10 1∕2 -ounces. “The reticulated ornamentation is worked with great precision, -and must have cost great labour. The perforation for the haft is -formed with singular symmetry and perfection; the lozengy grooved -decoration covering the entire surface is remarkably symmetrical and -skilfully finished.” The Rev. E. L. Barnwell,[797] who presented it -to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, has observed that “the -enormous amount of labour that must have been bestowed on cutting and -polishing, would indicate that it was not intended for ordinary use -as a common hammer.” “Some have considered it as the war implement of -a distinguished chief; others, that it was intended for sacrificial -or other religious purpose, or as a badge of high office.” Other -conjectures are mentioned which it is needless to repeat. My own -opinion is in favour of regarding it as a weapon of war, such as, like -the jade _mere_ of the New Zealander, implied a sort of chieftainship -in its possessor. At the time of its discovery it was unique of its -kind. But since then a second example has been found, though in an -unfinished condition,[798] at Urquhart, near Elgin, and has also been -placed in the museum at Edinburgh. It is rather smaller, but of similar -type and material to the Welsh specimen. The shaft-hole is finished, -but the boring process has not been skilfully carried out, the meeting -at the centre of the holes bored from either face not having |227| -been perfect; and though the hole has been made straight by subsequent -grinding out, there is still a lateral cavity left. The faceted pattern -is complete at the small end, and commenced on both sides. Along the -edge of the face small notches are ground, showing the manner in which -the pattern was laid out before grinding the hollow facets. - -A third but ruder example of the same kind was found in the Thames, at -Windsor,[799] and was exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries in 1895 -by Mr. F. Tress Barry, F.S.A., who has kindly presented it to me. It is -of nearly the same size as the others, but the perforation is natural, -and there is no attempt at ornamentation, though much of the surface -has been ground in irregular facets. - -The end of a naturally perforated flint nodule from Aldbourne, Wilts, -in the collection of Mr. J. W. Brooke, seems to be part of a hammer. It -is neatly faceted like the nucleus, Fig. 189, and has been rounded by -grinding. The hole has been partially ground. - -[Illustration: Fig. 154.—Normanton, Wilts. 1∕2] - -A very peculiar hammer, discovered by Sir Richard Colt Hoare,[800] in -Bush barrow, near Normanton, Wilts, is reproduced in Fig. 154. It lay -on the right side of a skeleton, which was accompanied by a bronze -celt without side flanges, a magnificent bronze dagger, the handle -of which was ornamented with gold, a lance-head of bronze, and a -large lozenge-shaped plate of gold. The hammer-head is “made out of a -fossil mass of _tubularia_, and polished, rather of an egg form,” or -“resembling the top of a large gimlet. It had a wooden handle, which -was fixed into the perforation in the centre, and encircled by a neat -ornament of brass, part of which still adheres to the stone.” As it -bore no marks of wear or attrition, Sir Richard hardly considered -it to have been used as a domestic implement, and thought that the -stone as containing a mass of _serpularia_, or little serpents, might -have been held in great veneration, and therefore have been deposited -with the other valuable relics in the grave. Judging from the other -objects accompanying this interment, it seems more probable that this -hammer was a weapon of offence, though whether the material of which -it was formed were selected from any superstitious motive, rather than -for the beauty of the stone, may be an open question. I have already -mentioned instances of _serpula_[801] limestone having been employed -as a material for celts of the ordinary character. The hole in this -instrument appears to be parallel, and may possibly have been bored -with a metallic tool. The occurrence of this hammer in association with -such highly-finished and |228| tastefully-decorated objects of bronze -and gold, shows conclusively that stone remained in use for certain -purposes, long after the knowledge of some of the metals had been -acquired. - -The hammer-heads of the next form to be noticed are of a simpler -character, being made from ovoid pebbles, usually of quartzite, by -boring shaft-holes through their centres. The specimen I have selected -for illustration, Fig. 155, is in my own collection, and was found in -Redgrave Park, Suffolk. It is said to have been exhumed ten feet below -the surface, by men digging stone in Deer’s Hill. The pebble is of -quartzite, probably from one of the conglomerates of the Trias, but -more immediately derived from the gravels of the Glacial Period, which -abound in the Eastern Counties. The hole as usual tapers towards the -middle of the stone. The pebble is battered at both ends, and slightly -worn away by use. I have a rather smaller, and more kidney-shaped -hammer, also slightly worn away at the ends, found at Willerby Carr, in -the East Riding of Yorkshire, and one (4 inches), that is considerably -worn at both ends, from Stanifield, Bury St. Edmunds. An example was -found at Normandy,[802] near Wanborough, Surrey. I have seen one formed -from a sandstone pebble (4 1∕2 inches) found near Ware. - -[Illustration: Fig. 155.—Redgrave Park. 1∕2] - -In the Greenwell Collection is a large specimen, made from a flat -pebble (7 1∕2 inches) obtained at Salton, York, N.R. - -[Illustration: Fig. 156.—Redmore Fen. 1∕2] - -Fig. 156 shows a smaller variety of the same type, but rather square in -outline, and with the shaft-hole much more bell-mouthed. The original -is in my own collection, and was found in Redmore Fen, near Littleport, -Cambridgeshire. I have others from Icklingham (2 3∕8 inches) and -Harleston, Norfolk (3 1∕4 inches). Hammers of this and the preceding -type are by no means |229| uncommon. Mr. Joshua W. Brooke has one -(3 1∕4 inches) from Liddington, Wilts. One of quartzite, 5 inches -long, was found in a vallum of Clare Castle, Suffolk,[803] and is in -the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries; another (4 1∕2 inches) at -Sunninghill, Berks;[804] another (2 1∕2 inches) near Reigate.[805] One, -in form like Fig. 156 (4 1∕4 inches), was discovered in Furness.[806] -Others were found at Pallingham Quay,[807] and St. Leonard’s -Forest,[808] Horsham (5 inches), both in Sussex. What seems to be a -broken hammer (2 3∕8 inches) and not a spindle-whorl was obtained at -Mount Caburn,[809] Lewes. Another, circular in outline, and 3 inches -in diameter, was found at Stifford,[810] near Grays Thurrock, and is -engraved in the _Archæological Journal_.[811] I have here reproduced -the figure (Fig. 157), though the scale is somewhat larger than that of -my other illustrations. - -In the British Museum is a specimen, originally about 3 1∕2 inches by -2 1∕4 inches, and 3∕4 inch thick, with the end battered, which was -found in a tumulus at Cliffe, near Lewes. Another, 3 3∕4 inches in -diameter, from the Thames; a subtriangular example from Marlborough -(4 1∕4 inches); and an oval one (3 7∕8 inches) from Sandridge, Herts, -are in the same collection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 157.—Stifford.] - -A longer form (6 1∕4 inches by 3 1∕8) was found at Epping Uplands, -Essex,[812] and another about 5 inches, rather hoe-like in form, in the -Lea, at Waltham. Another (4 1∕2 inches) was found in London.[813] - -In the Norwich Museum are two hammer-heads of this type, one from -Sporle, near Swaffham (3 1∕8 inches), of quartzite; and the other of -jasper, from Eye, Suffolk, 5 inches by 2 3∕4 inches. In the Fitch -Collection are also specimens from Yarmouth (3 1∕2 inches), from Lyng -(5 inches), and Congham, Norfolk (6 inches), as well as a fragment of -one found at Caistor. - -The late Mr. Warren, of Ixworth, had one from Great Wratting, near -Haverhill (4 inches), and the late Mr. James Carter, of Cambridge, one -3 1∕4 inches in diameter, from Chesterton. - -In the Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society is one of irregular -form, found near Newmarket. A thin perforated stone, 6 inches by 3 -inches, from Luton,[814] in Bedfordshire, may belong to this class, -though it was regarded as an unfinished axe-head. - -In the collection formed by Canon Greenwell is one found at Coves -Houses, Wolsingham, Durham (3 1∕2 inches), and another of quartzite -(4 1∕2 inches), with both ends battered, from Mildenhall Fen. He -discovered another of small size, only 2 1∕4 inches in length, with the -perforation not |230| more than 7∕16 inch in diameter in the centre, -in the soil of a barrow at Rudstone,[815] near Bridlington. - -The late Mr. H. Durden, of Blandford, had two fragments of these -hammers, made from quartzite pebbles, one of them from Hod Hill, -Dorset, and the other from the same neighbourhood. A perforated oval -boulder of chert was also found near Marlborough.[816] - -Both round and oval hammer-stones are in the Leicester Museum.[817] -One (6 1∕2 inches) was found at Doddenham, Worcestershire, and -others (3 3∕8 inches) at Silverdale,[818] Torver,[819] and elsewhere -in Lancashire.[820] A large specimen (8 inches) was found at Abbey -Cwm Hir,[821] Radnorshire, and a small one near Rhayader,[822] -Montgomeryshire. A circular example (4 1∕4 inches), with a very small -central hole, was discovered in Pembrokeshire.[823] Quartzite pebbles -converted into hammer-heads occur also in Scotland. The hole in one -from Pitlochrie[824] is only 1∕8 inch in diameter at its centre. In one -from Ythanside, Gight,[825] Aberdeenshire (4 3∕4 inches), it is only -1∕4 inch. - -Besides quartzite and silicious pebbles, these hammer-heads were made -from fragments of several other rocks. The Rev. S. Banks had one of -greenstone, 5 3∕4 inches by 3 1∕4 inches, found at Mildenhall. A -disc of dolerite[826] (4 inches) with convex faces and perforated -in the centre in the usual manner, was found at Caer Leb, in the -parish of Llanidan, Anglesea. Several hammer-stones of this kind were -obtained by the late Hon. W. O. Stanley, M.P., in his researches in -the Island of Holyhead.[827] One of them, now in the British Museum, -is of trap, 4 1∕2 inches long and 3 inches broad, somewhat square at -the ends; another is of schist, 3 3∕8 inches long, and much thinner -in proportion. Both were found at Pen-y-Bonc. A fragment of a third, -formed of granite (?), was found at Ty Mawr, in the same island. One -of granite (?)[828] was found at Titsey Park, Surrey. A small one -of “light grey burr stone,” 2 3∕8 inches in diameter, was found at -Haydock,[829] near Newton, Lancashire. I have a subquadrate example (4 -inches) of felsite, from Belper, Derbyshire. The Scottish specimens are -often of other materials than quartzite. A circular “flailstone,” found -at Culter, Lanarkshire, has been figured,[830] but the material is not -stated. The same is the case with an oval one, 4 inches long, found -near Longman,[831] Macduff, Banff; another from Forfarshire;[832] and a -third, 4 inches by 3 inches, from Alloa.[833] - -Others from Portpatrick[834] (6 3∕4 inches), and from a cist at -Cleugh,[835] Glenbervie, Kincardineshire, have been figured. I have a -disc (3 inches), nearly flat round the circumference like a Danish -“child’s |231| wheel” from Ballachulish, Inverness. It is formed -of hornblendic gneiss. A hammer-stone of this kind from Poyanne, -Landes,[836] has been recorded. - -Some of these circular pebbles may have formed the heads of war-maces, -such as seem to have been in use in Denmark in ancient times and in a -modified form, among various savage tribes in recent days. - -A curious variety of this type, flat on one face and convex on the -other, is shown in Fig. 158. It is made from a quartzite pebble, -that has in some manner been split, and was found at Sutton, near -Woodbridge. It is now in the collection of General Pitt Rivers, F.R.S. - -[Illustration: Fig. 158.—Sutton. 1∕2] - -In the Christy Collection is another implement of much the same size, -material, and character, which was found at Narford, Norfolk. The ends -are somewhat hollowed after the manner of a gouge, but the edges are -rounded. It seems to occupy a sort of intermediate position between a -hammer and an adze. - -One of similar, but more elongated form, found at Auquemesnil[837] -(Seine Inférieure), has been figured by the Abbé Cochet. - -It is difficult to say for what purpose hammers of this perforated -kind were destined. I can hardly think that such an enormous amount of -labour would have been bestowed in piercing them, if they had merely -been intended to serve in the manufacture of other stone implements, -a service in which they would certainly be soon broken. If they were -not intended for weapons of war or the chase, they were probably used -for lighter work than chipping other stones; and yet the bruising at -the ends, so apparent on many of them, betokens their having seen hard -service. We have little, in the customs of modern savages, to guide us -as to their probable uses, as perforated hammers are almost unknown -among them. The perforated spheroidal stones of Southern Africa[838] -act merely as weights to give impetus to the digging sticks, and such -stones are said to have been in use in Chili[839] and California.[840] -The perforated discs of North America appear to be the fly-wheels of -drilling sticks. Some quartz pebbles perforated with small central -holes, and brought from the African Gold Coast,[841] seem to have been -worn as charms. |232| - -In Ireland, perforated hammer-stones are much more abundant than in -England. They are usually formed of some igneous or metamorphic rock, -and vary considerably in size, some being as much as 10 or 12 inches in -length. Sir W. Wilde observes that stone hammers, and not unfrequently -stone anvils, have been employed by smiths and tinkers in some of the -remote country districts until a comparatively recent period. If, -however, these hammers were perforated, there can be but little doubt -that they must have been ancient tools again brought into use, as the -labour in manufacturing a stone hammer of this kind would be greater -than that of making one in iron, which would, moreover, be ten times as -serviceable. If, however, the stone hammers came to hand ready made, -they might claim a preference. For heavy work, where iron was scarce, -large mauls, such as those shortly to be described, might have been in -use rather than iron sledges; but the more usual form of stone hammer -would probably be a pebble held in the hand, as is constantly the case -with the workers in iron of Southern Africa. Even in Peru and Bolivia, -the late Mr. David Forbes, F.R.S., informed me that the masons skilful -in working hard stone with steel chisels, make use of no other mallet -or hammer than a stone pebble held in the hand. The anvils and hammers -used in Patagonia[842] in working silver are generally of stone, but -the latter are not perforated. - -In Germany, as already[843] incidentally remarked, anvils formed of -basalt were in frequent use in the sixteenth century. - -In Scandinavia and Germany the same forms of hammers as those found in -the British Isles occur, both in quartzite and in other kinds of stone. -They are not, however, abundant. Worsaae does not give the type in his -“Nordiske Oldsager,” and Nilsson gives but a single instance.[844] -Lindenschmit[845] engraves a specimen from Oldenstadt, Lüneburg, and -another from Gelderland.[846] - -In Switzerland they are extremely rare. In the Neuchâtel Museum, -however, is a perforated hammer, formed from an oval pebble, and found -in the Lake-habitations at Concise; another, 2 inches in diameter, with -a small perforation deeply countersunk on each face, has been regarded -by M. de Mortillet[847] as a sink-stone for a net. - -I have a lenticular mace-head, 3 inches in diameter and 2 inches thick, -formed of a silicious breccia from Pergamum. The hole tapers from 3∕4 -inch to 1∕2 inch. - -The half of a small perforated hammer made of greenstone and polished -is recorded to have been found at Arconum,[848] west of Madras. A -perforated stone, possibly a hammer, was found in the Jubbulpore -district, Central India;[849] and a fine example from the Central -Provinces,[850] rather more oval than Fig. 157, has been figured by the -late Mr. V. Ball. - -In the British Museum is a perforated ball of hard red stone of a -different type from any of those which I have described, which came -from Peru. It is about 3 inches in diameter, with a parallel hole an -inch across. Around the outside are engraved four human faces, each -surmounted by a sort of mitre. It may be the head of a mace. |233| - -Spherical mace-heads of marble and of harder rocks occur among -Egyptian antiquities. They are sometimes decorated by carving. - - * * * * * - -In this place perhaps it will be well to mention a class of large -hammer-stones, or mauls, as they have been termed, which, though -belonging to a period when metal was in use, are in all probability -of a high degree of antiquity. They consist, as a rule, of large oval -pebbles or boulders, usually of some tough form of greenstone or grit, -around which, somewhere about the middle of their length, a shallow -groove has been chipped or “picked,” from 3∕4 inch to 1 inch in width. -On the two opposite sides of the pebble, and intersecting this groove, -two flat or slightly hollowed faces have often been worked, the purpose -of which is doubtless connected with the method of hafting the stones -for use as hammers. This was evidently by means of a withe twisted -round them, much in the same manner as a blacksmith’s chisel is mounted -at the present day. In the case of the mauls, however, the withe -appears to have been secured by tying, like the haft of one form of -Australian stone hatchets (Fig. 105), and then to have been tightened -around the stone by means of wedges driven in between the withe loop -and the flat faces before mentioned. - -A[851] German stone axe seems to have been fastened to its haft in the -same manner. - - * * * * * - -In many of the Welsh specimens about to be mentioned, the flat faces -are absent, and the notch or groove does not extend all round the -stone, but exists only on the two sides through which the longer -transverse axis of the pebble passes. In this case the wedges, if any, -were probably driven in on the flatter side of the boulder. - -The ends of the pebbles are usually much worn and broken by hammering, -and not unfrequently the stone has been split by the violence of -the blows that it has administered. It is uncertain whether they -were merely used for crushing and pounding metallic ores, or also in -mining operations; but with very few exceptions they occur in the -neighbourhood of old mines, principally copper-mines. - -In some copper mines at Llandudno,[852] near the great Orme’s Head, -Carnarvonshire, an old working was broken into about sixty years ago, -and in it were found a broken stag’s horn, and parts of what were -regarded as of two mining implements or picks of bronze, one about 3 -inches and the other about 1 inch in length. In 1850, another ancient -working was found, and on the floor a number of these stone mauls, -described as weighing from about 2 lbs. to 40 lbs. each. They had been -formed from water-worn boulders, probably selected from |234| the -beach at Pen-maen-mawr. One of the mauls in the Warrington Museum[853] -is 6 5∕8 inches long, and weighs 3 lbs. 14 ozs. One of basalt, -measuring nearly a foot in length, was found in ancient workings at -Amlwch Parys Mine,[854] in Anglesea. Others have been discovered -in old workings in Llangynfelin Mine,[855] Cardiganshire, and at -Llanidan,[856] Anglesea. - -A ponderous ball of stone, about 5 inches in diameter, probably used -in crushing and pounding the ore, a portion of stag’s horn, fashioned -so as to be suited for the handle of some implement, and an _iron_ -pick-axe, were found in some old workings in the Snow Brook Lead Mines, -Plinlimmon, Montgomeryshire.[857] - -Two of these hammer-stones, 4 1∕2 and 5 inches in length, were obtained -by the late Hon. W. O. Stanley, within hut circles, possibly the -remains of the habitations of copper miners in ancient times, at Ty -Mawr, in the Island of Holyhead. Some of these mauls are figured in the -_Archæological Journal_,[858] and are of much the same form as Fig. -159, the original of which probably served another purpose. Others of -the same character, formed of quartzite, were found at Pen-y-Bonc,[859] -Holyhead, and Old Geir,[860] Anglesea. They have also been found at -Alderley Edge,[861] Cheshire. - -A boulder, like those from Llandudno, but found at Long Low, near -Wetton, Staffordshire, is in the Bateman Collection.[862] One from -Wigtownshire[863] has been regarded as a weight. - -They are of not uncommon occurrence in the south of Ireland,[864] -especially in the neighbourhood of Killarney, where, as also in Cork, -many of them have been found in ancient mines. They have, in Ireland, -been denominated miners’ hammers. One of them is engraved in “Flint -Chips.”[865] I have seen an example from Shetland. - -They have also been found in ancient copper mines in the province of -Cordova,[866] at Cerro Muriano, Villanueva del Rey,[867] and Milagro, -in Spain; in those of Ruy Gomes,[868] in Alemtejo, Portugal; and at the -salt mines of Hallstatt,[869] in the Salzkammergut of Austria, and at -Mitterberg,[870] near Bischofshofen. - -A large hammer of the same class, but with a deeper groove all round, -has been recorded from Savoy.[871] - -They are not, however, confined to European countries, for similar -stone hammers were found by Mr. Bauerman in the old mines of Wady -Maghara,[872] which were worked for turquoises (if not also for -|235| copper ore) by the ancient Egyptians, so early as the third -Manethonian Dynasty. It is hard to say whether the grooved stone found -by Schliemann at Troy[873] was used as a hammer or a weight. - -What is more remarkable still, in the New World similar stone hammers -are found in the ancient copper mines near Lake Superior.[874] As -described by Sir Daniel Wilson,[875] “many of these mauls are mere -water-worn oblong boulders of greenstone or porphyry, roughly chipped -in the centre, so as to admit of their being secured by a withe around -them.” They weigh from 10 to 40 lbs., and are found in enormous -numbers. M. Marcou[876] has given an account of the discovery of some -of those mauls in the Mine de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, at Point -Kievenau, Lake Superior. He describes them as formed of leptynite -(quartz and felspar), quartz, and porphyry, and weighing from 5 to 8 -lbs. each; and mentions having seen one of quartz weighing about 5 -lbs., which was in the possession of some Kioway Indians, and was bound -to a handle with a strip of bison skin. - -This similarity or identity in form of implements used in countries -so wide apart, and at such different ages, does not, I think, point -of necessity to any common origin, nor to any so-called “continuity -of form,” but appears to offer another instance of similar wants -with similar means at command, resulting in similar implements for -fulfilling those wants. Grooved hammers for other purposes, as evinced -by their smaller size, and a few grooved axes, occur in Scandinavia. -An example among one of the lower races in modern times is afforded by -a large crystal of quartz, with its terminal planes preserved at both -ends, which has been slightly grooved at the sides for the purpose of -attaching it to a handle, and was brought by Captain Cook, from St. -George’s Sound, where it appears to have been used as a hammer or pick. -It is now in the British Museum, and has been described by Dr. Henry -Woodward.[877] - -Even in Britain the hammer-stones of this form are not absolutely -confined to mining districts. Canon Greenwell, in one of the barrows at -Rudstone,[878] near Bridlington, found on the lid of a stone-cist two -large greenstone pebbles 8 and 9 3∕4 inches long, each with a sort of -“waist” chipped in it, as if to receive a withe, and having marks at -the ends of having been in use as hammers. - -Closely connected in form and character with the mining hammers, -though as a rule much smaller in size, and in all probability intended -for a totally different purpose, is the class of stone objects of -one of which Fig. 159 gives a representation, reproduced from the -_Archæological Journal_.[879] This was found in company with two others -at Burns, near Ambleside, Westmorland; and another, almost precisely -similar in size and form, was found at Percy’s Leap, and is preserved -at Alnwick Castle. Another, from Westmorland, is in the Liverpool -Museum, and they have, I believe, been observed in some numbers in that -district. A stone of the same character, but more elaborately worked, -|236| having somewhat acorn-shaped ends, was found by the late Hon. W. -O. Stanley, at Old Geir,[880] Anglesea. Others from Anglesea,[881] one -of them ornamented, have been figured. They were originally regarded as -hammer-stones, but such as I have examined are made of a softer stone -than those usually employed for hammers, and they are not battered or -worn at the ends. It is, therefore, probable that they were used as -sinkers for nets or lines, for which purpose they are well adapted, -the groove being deep enough to protect small cord around it from wear -by friction. They seem also usually to occur in the neighbourhood -either of lakes, rivers, or the sea. A water-worn nodule of sandstone, -5 inches long, with a deep groove round it, and described as probably -a sinker for a net or line, was found in Aberdeenshire,[882] and is -in the National Museum at Edinburgh; and I have one of soft grit, and -about the same length, given me by Mr. R. D. Darbishire, F.G.S., and -found by him near Nantlle, Carnarvonshire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 159.—Ambleside. 1∕2] - -Many of these sink-stones are probably of no great antiquity. With two -transverse grooves, they are still in use in Shetland.[883] - -The Fishing Indians of Vancouver’s Island[884] go out trolling for -salmon in a fast canoe, towing behind them a long line made of tough -seaweed, to which is attached, by slips of deer hide, an oval piece of -granite perfectly smooth, and the size and shape of a goose’s egg. It -acts as a sinker, and is said to spin the bait. A net-sinker, formed -of a pebble slightly notched or grooved, is among the antiquities from -|237| Lake Erie, engraved by Schoolcraft.[885] Others have been found -in the State of New York.[886] See C. Rau’s “Prehistoric Fishing.”[887] - -Sink-stones are by no means rare in Ireland, and continue in use -to the present day. One of the same class as Fig. 159, but grooved -round the long axis of the pebble, is engraved by Sir W. Wilde.[888] -Similar stones occur in Denmark, and were regarded by Worsaae[889] as -sink-stones, though some of them, to judge from the wear at the ends, -and the hardness of the material, were used as hammers. I have seen, in -Sweden, the leg bones of animals used as weights for sinking nets. - -Another form of sink-stone, weight, or plummet, was formed by boring a -hole towards one end of a flattish stone. Such a one, weighing 14 1∕4 -oz., was dredged from the Thames at Battersea.[890] - -Another, of oval form, pierced at one end, from Tyrie,[891] -Aberdeenshire, is in the National Museum at Edinburgh; and a -wedge-shaped perforated stone from Culter, Lanarkshire,[892] was -probably intended for the same purpose. These may have been in use for -stretching the warp in the loom when weaving. They are found of this -form with Roman remains.[893] - - - - -|238| - -CHAPTER X. - -HAMMER-STONES, ETC. - - -Under this head I propose to treat of those implements which have -apparently been used as hammers, but which, for that purpose, were -probably held in the hand alone, and not provided with a shaft, as -the groove or shaft-hole characteristic of the class last described, -is absent. At the same time there are some hammer-stones in which -there are cavities worked on either face, so deep and so identical -in character with those which, in meeting each other, produce the -bell-mouthed perforations commonly present in the hammers intended for -hafting, that at first sight it seems difficult to say whether they -are finished implements, or whether they would have become perforated -hammer-heads had the process of manufacture been completed. Certainly -in some cases the cavities appear to be needlessly deep and conical for -the mere purpose of receiving the finger and thumb, so as to prevent -the stone slipping out of the hand; and yet such apparently unfinished -instruments occur in different countries, in sufficient numbers to -raise a presumption that the form is intentional and complete. There -are some instances where, as was thought to be the case with a quartz -pebble from Firth,[894] in Orkney, the unfinished implements may have -been cast aside owing to the stone having cracked, or to the holes -bored on each face not being quite opposite to each other, so as to -form a proper shaft-hole. - -In other instances, as in Figs. 160 and 161, the battering of the -end proves that the stones have been in actual use as hammers. It is -of course possible that these cavities may have been worked for the -purpose of mounting the stones in some other manner than by fixing the -haft in a socket. A split stick may, for instance, have been used, with -a part of the wood on each side of the fissure worked away, so as to -leave projections to fit the |239| cavities, and have then been bound -together so as to securely grasp the pebble. A stone mallet, consisting -of a large pebble mounted between two curved pieces of wood, somewhat -resembling the hames of a horse collar, and firmly bound together at -each end, is still used by the quarrymen of Trichinopoly,[895] in -India. Another method of hafting stones, by tying them on to the side -of a stick with little or no previous preparation, is practised by the -Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru.[896] Mr. D. Forbes, F.R.S., in his -interesting account of this people, has engraved a pebble thus mounted, -which was in use as a clod crusher. One of them is preserved in the -Christy Collection. Among the Apaches,[897] in Mexico, hammers are made -of rounded pebbles hafted in twisted withes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 160.—Helmsley. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -A remarkable hammer-head, found at Helmsley, in the North Riding of -Yorkshire, is in the collection formed by Canon Greenwell. It is shown -in Fig. 160, and has been made from a rather coarse-grained quartzite -pebble, both ends of which have, however, been worn away by use to -an extent probably of an inch in each case, or of two inches in the -whole pebble. The worn ends are rounded, but somewhat hollow in the -middle, as if they had at that part been used for striking against some -cylindrical or sharp surface. The funnel-shaped cavities appear almost -too deep and too sharp at their edges to have been intended merely to -assist in holding the hammer in the hand, and it seems possible that -their original purpose may have been in connection with some method -of hafting. The hammer has, however, eventually been used in the hand -alone, for the wear of the ends extends over the face, quite to the -margin of one of the cavities, and at such an angle, that it would have -been almost impossible for any handle to have been present. But if the -stone be held in the hand, with the middle finger in the cavity, the -wear is precisely on that part of the stone which would come in contact -with a flat surface, in hammering upon it. What substance it was used -to pound or crush it is impossible to determine, but not improbably -it may have been animal food; and bones as well as meat may have been -pounded with it. - -A quasi-cubical hammer-stone, with recesses on two opposite faces, -found at Moel Fenlli,[898] Ruthin, Denbighshire, has been figured. It -is now in my collection. |240| - -The specimen engraved as Fig. 161 has been made from a quartzite -pebble, and has the conical depression deeper on one face than the -other. It was found at Winterbourn Bassett, Wilts, and is now in the -British Museum. - -[Illustration: Fig. 161.—Winterbourn Bassett. 1∕2] - -In the Norwich Museum is a similar pebble, from Sporle, near Swaffham. -It is 3 3∕4 inches long, recessed on each face, with a conical -depression, the apex rounded. These cavities are about 1 1∕4 inches -diameter on the face of the stone, and about 3∕4 inch in depth. The -Rev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A., had a hammer-stone of this kind, 3 inches -long, found at Melmerby, Cumberland. One (6 inches) was found at -Langtree,[899] Devon, another (3 1∕8 inches) at Trefeglwys,[900] -Montgomeryshire. I have one (3 inches) from Ryton-on-Dunsmore, -Coventry, and a thinner example, 2 3∕4 inches, much worn at the ends, -from Litlington, Cambs. - -A circular rough-grained stone, 3 inches in diameter, with deep -cup-like indentations on each face, found on Goldenoch Moor, -Wigtownshire,[901] is in the National Museum at Edinburgh; where is -also another hammer formed of a greenstone pebble (3 1∕2 inches), -with broad and deep cup-shaped depressions on each face, and much -worn at one end, which came from Dunning, Perthshire. There are other -examples of the same kind in the same museum. Many have, indeed, |241| -been found in Scotland. A good example from Machermore Loch,[902] -Wigtownshire, and several others,[903] have been figured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 161A.—Goldenoch. 1∕2] - -That from Goldenoch, shown in Fig. 161A,[904] has a deep recess on each -face. Others from Fife[905] have the recess on one face only. In the -case of one from the Island of Coll[906] the recesses are at the sides -instead of on the faces. - -In some cases the depressions are shallower, and concave rather than -conical. I have a flat irregular disc of greenstone, about 2 1∕4 -inches diameter and 5∕8 inch thick, thinning off to the edges, which -are rounded, and having in the centre of each face a slight cup-like -depression, about 5∕8 inch in diameter. It was found in a trench at -Ganton, Yorkshire. In the Greenwell Collection is a somewhat larger -disc of sandstone, worn on both faces and round the whole edge, and -with a slight central depression. It was found in a cairn at Harbottle -Peels, Northumberland. In form, these instruments are identical with -the _Tilhuggersteene_[907] of the Danish antiquaries, and it is -possible that some of them, especially those of the circular form, may -have been used for the purpose of chipping out other kinds of stone -implements. - -The type is not of uncommon occurrence in Ireland.[908] It is rare in -France, but a broken example from the neighbourhood of Amiens is in the -Blackmore Museum. - -I have a specimen which might be mistaken for Danish or Irish, but -which was brought me from Port Beaufort, Cape of Good Hope, by Captain -H. Thurburn, F.G.S. It must have been in use there at no very remote -period. - -An oval stone, with what appears to be a cup-shaped depression on one -face, 3∕8 inch deep, is engraved by Schoolcraft[909] as a relic of -the Congarees. Another, from the Delaware River, of the Danish form, -is described by Nilsson[910] as a tool for making arrow-points. He -also engraves one from Greenland. Other so-called hammer-stones in the -same plate are more probably “strike-a-light” stones, and under any -circumstances belong to the Early Iron Period. Abbott[911] and Rau[912] -also describe Indian hammer-stones, some like Fig. 161. - -Highly polished, and deep cup-shaped or conical depressions are -occasionally to be observed occurring on one or both faces of large -pebbles, usually of quartz, and sometimes in two or three places -on |242| the same face. Though very similar to the hollows on the -hammer-stones, they are due to a very different cause, being merely the -results of stone bearings or journals having been employed, instead -of those of brass, for the upright spindles of corn mills. It seems -strange that for such a purpose stone should have gone out of use, -it being retained, and indeed regarded as almost indispensable for -durability, in the case of watches, the pivot-holes of which are so -frequently “jewelled.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 162.—St. Botolph’s Priory. 1∕2] - -Fig. 162, which I have reproduced from the Sussex Archæological -Collections[913] on the same scale as the other figures, shows a -pivot-stone of quartzite (?) found in the ruins of St. Botolph’s -Priory, Pembrokeshire, a few yards from a pebble (4 1∕2 inches) of -similar material, in which a hole had been bored to the depth of -half an inch apparently by the friction of the pointed end of the -smaller pebble. Another pivot-stone of the same kind was found at -Bochym,[914] Cornwall. Such socket-stones were, until recently, in -use in Scotland[915] and Piedmont[916] for the iron spindles of the -upper mill-stones of small water-mills. Pivot-stones with larger -socket-stones were also used for field-gates. Similar socket-stones -occur in Switzerland,[917] and have puzzled Dr. Keller. - -A stone, with a well-polished cavity, found on the site of an old mill -near Carluke, Lanarkshire,[918] was exhibited at Edinburgh in 1856. -Another was found in Argyllshire; and I have seen other specimens -from Ireland. The socket of the hinge of the great gate at Dunnottar -Castle is said to have consisted of a similar stone. Stones with -highly-polished hollows in them, in which apparently the ends of -drill-sticks revolved, are common on the site of ancient Naukratis.[919] - -[Illustration: Fig. 163.—Bridlington. 1∕2] - -As has already been observed at page 223, it is by no means uncommon -to find portions of polished celts which, after the edge has been by -some means broken away, have been converted into hammers. Very rarely, -there is a cup-like cavity worked on either face in the same manner as -in the celts shown in Figs. 87 and 88. A specimen of this character, -from the neighbourhood of Bridlington, is shown in Fig. 163. It is -of close-grained greenstone, and, to judge from the thickness of the -battered end, the celt, of which this originally formed the butt, must -have been at least half as long again as it is in its present form. The -cavities have been worked out with some kind of pick or pointed tool, -and from their position so near the butt-end, it seems probable that -they did |243| not exist in the original celt, but were subsequently -added when it had lost its cutting edge, and was destined to be turned -into a hammer-stone. In the Greenwell Collection is a similar specimen, -4 inches long, found at Wold Newton, in the East Riding of Yorkshire. -In the celts with cup-shaped depressions on their faces, but still -retaining their edge, the depressions are nearer the centre of the -blade. - -This hollowing of a portion of the surface is sometimes so slight as -to amount to no more than a roughening of the face, such as would -enable the thumb and fingers to take a sufficiently secure hold of -the stone, to prevent its readily falling out of the hand when not -tightly grasped; a certain looseness of hold being desirable, to -prevent a disagreeable jarring when the blows were struck. If, as seems -probable, many of these hammers or pounders were used for the purpose -of splitting bones, so as to lay bare the marrow, we can understand the -necessity of roughening a portion of the greasy surface of the stone, -to assist the hold. - -[Illustration: Fig. 164.—Bridlington. 1∕2] - -In Fig. 164 I have represented a large quartz pebble found in Easton -Field, Bridlington, which has the roughened depression on both faces -rather more strongly marked than usual, especially on the face here -shown. It is more battered at one end than the other, and has evidently -been long in use. It shows some traces of grinding at the lower end -in the figure, as if it had been desirable for it to have a sort of -transverse ridge at the end, to adapt it to the purpose for which it -was used. - -Canon Greenwell found in a barrow at Weaverthorpe,[920] Yorkshire, a -hammer-stone of this kind, but nearly circular in form. It is a flat -quartz pebble, about 1 3∕4 inches in diameter, battered all round, and -broken at one part, and having the centre of one face artificially -roughened. - -A round hammer (2 1∕2-inches), with depressions on each face, was found -at Gatley,[921] Cheshire. Hammer-stones of the same character occurred -abundantly on the site of ancient Naukratis.[922] The _wallong_,[923] -or stone used by the Australian natives for grinding nardoo seeds on -the _yow wi_, a large flat stone, is curiously like Fig. 164. - -[Illustration: Fig. 165.—Bridlington. 1∕2] - -To the same class, belongs the hammer-stone shown in Fig. 165, found -at Huntow, near Bridlington. It has been made from a quartz pebble, -of the original surface of which but little remains, and has a |244| -well-marked depression about 1∕8 inch deep in the centre of each face. -The periphery is much worn away by use. - -A fine-grained sandstone pebble, in form like a small cheese, about 3 -inches in diameter, having the two faces smooth and perfectly flat, was -found at Red Hill,[924] near Reigate, and was regarded as a muller or -pounding-stone used possibly in husking or bruising grain; or even for -chipping flint, its surface bearing the mark of long-continued use as -a pestle or hammer.[925] “Precisely similar objects have been found in -Northumberland, and other parts of England.” - -Canon Greenwell informs me that about twenty such, differing in size -and thickness, were found on Corbridge Fell, together with several -stone balls. He thinks they may possibly have been used in some game. -A paper on the stone hammer and its various uses has been published by -Mr. J. D. McGuire.[926] - -The circular stone from Upton Lovel Barrow,[927] engraved by Sir R. -Colt Hoare, appears to be a hammer or, more probably, a rubbing-stone, -but it is worn to a ridge all round the periphery. I have a precisely -similar instrument from Ireland. Other mullers from Wiltshire[928] -barrows have been figured by Dr. Thurnam. Several such discoidal -stones, somewhat faceted on their periphery, were found by the late -Hon. W. O. Stanley, in his examination of the ancient circular -habitations in Holyhead Island, and some have been engraved.[929] - -An almost spherical stone, but flattened above and below, where -the surface is slightly polished, was found in Whittington Wood, -Gloucestershire, and exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries -in 1866.[930] It is of quartzite, about 3 inches in diameter. -Another, of the same size, of depressed, spherical form, was -found in Denbighshire,[931] and another flat disc of quartz in -Aberdeenshire.[932] - -Pebbles that have been used in this way, as pounders or mullers, belong -to various ages and different degrees of civilization. Some well worn -have been found in Yorkshire[933] barrows and elsewhere.[934] One from -Philiphaugh,[935] Selkirkshire, has been figured. I have one such, worn -into an almost cubical form, which was found with Roman remains at -Poitiers, and I have seen several others said to be of Roman date. A -pounding-stone of much the same form as Fig. 165, found on the summit -of the Mont d’Or, Lyonnais,[936] has been engraved by M. Chantre, with -others of the same character. I have seen examples in Germany. - -I have a flat granite pebble, about 3 1∕2 inches by 3 inches, the sides -straight, the ends round, and with well-marked circular depressions in -each face, from Cayuga County, New York. It has certainly been used as -a hammer-stone. Such mullers are by no means uncommon in North America. -Some of the American[937] stone discs, which are |245| occasionally -pierced, appear to have been more probably used in certain games. - -Cup-shaped cavities occasionally occur on stones which have not -apparently been intended for use as hammers. In the soil of one of the -barrows at Rudstone, near Bridlington, Canon Greenwell found a fragment -of a greenstone pebble, nearly flat on one face, in which a concave -depression, about an inch over and 1∕4 inch deep, had been picked. In -the National Museum at Edinburgh is a subquadrate flat piece of grit, -1 inch thick and about 3 1∕2 inches long, on each face of which is -a cup-shaped depression about 1 1∕4 inches in diameter. It does not -appear to have been used as a hammer. Mr. James Wyatt, F.G.S., had a -piece of close-grained grit, in shape somewhat like a thick axe-head, -4 1∕2 inches long, 3 inches wide, and 3 inches thick, with four concave -depressions, one on each face and side, found at Kempston Road, near -Bedford. What purpose these hollows fulfilled, it is difficult to -guess. The stones in which they occur may, however, have been used as -anvils or mortars on which to hammer or pound; or the cavities may have -served to steady objects of bone, stone, or wood in the process of -manufacture. Anvil stones, with pits worn on their faces, probably by -flints having been broken upon them, have been found in Scotland.[938] -A sandstone[939] with a concave depression on each of its six faces -has been regarded by Mortillet as a grindstone for fashioning stone -buttons or the convex ends of other implements. I have seen analogous -cavities produced, on a larger scale, on blocks of granite which have -been used as anvils, on which to break road materials. The cup and -ring cuttings[940] common on ancient stone monuments, especially in -Scotland, do not come within my province. Flat stones, with cup-shaped -markings upon them, sometimes as many as seven on a stone, were found -in considerable abundance in some of the Yorkshire[941] barrows -examined by Canon Greenwell. - -The stones with cup-shaped[942] depressions in them, found in the caves -of the Reindeer Period in the south of France, have the hollows, in -nearly all instances, upon one of their faces only, and have therefore -more probably served as mortars than as hammers. The pebbles, from the -same caves, which have been used as knapping or chipping stones, are -usually left in their natural condition on the faces, though worn away -at the edges, sometimes over the whole periphery. A very few of the -hollowed stones show signs of use at the edges. - -Stones with cup-shaped[943] depressions, like those from the French -caves, are in use in Siberia for crushing nuts and the seeds of the -Cembro Pine; and among the natives of Australia[944] for pounding a -bulbous root called _bellilah_, and the roasted bark of trees and -shrubs for food. Some Carib examples of the same kind are in the -Ethnological Museum at Copenhagen, as well as some from Africa, used in -the preparation of poison. |246| - -Some of the so-called corn-crushers[945] and mealing-stones from the -Swiss Lake-dwellings have shallow depressions on the faces, but for the -most part they belong to the class to be subsequently described. I have -one of granite, from Nussdorf, with a depression on one face, in which -the thumb can be placed, while the forefinger lies in a groove, like -that of a pulley, which extends about half-way round the stone. The -opposite part of the edge is much worn by hammering. It approximates in -form to the pulley-like stones to which the name of sling-stones has -been given, but the use of which is at present a mystery. - -A hammer-stone, curiously like that which I have engraved as Fig. 165, -is among those found in the settlements of the Lac du Bourget,[946] by -M. Rabut. This or a similar one is in the British Museum. Another from -Picardy[947] has been figured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 166.—Scamridge. 1∕2] - -A hammer-stone, if so it may be called, of bronze, is among the -antiquities from Greenland in the Ethnological Museum at Copenhagen. - -Occasionally the depression is reduced to a minimum, and consists of -merely a slight notch or roughening on one or both faces of the pebble -which has served as a hammer or pounding-stone. - -The irregular, flat greenstone pebble, worn away at both ends, shown -in Fig. 166, has on one face only a notch, apparently intended to -receive the thumb. It was found at Scamridge, Yorkshire, and is in -the Greenwell Collection. It will be observed that it is worn into a -curved ridge at one end. In the same collection is an oval quartzite -pebble (4 1∕2 inches), battered at both ends, and with a slight -diagonal ridge at that most worn away. This was found in a barrow at -Weaverthorpe,[948] with an unburnt body. I have a flat greenstone -pebble from |247| Scamridge, Yorkshire, worn away at one end to a -curved ridge somewhat oblique to the faces of the pebble, one of -which is slightly polished as if by constant rubbing. There is in the -Greenwell Collection a granite pebble (3 1∕2 inches), from the same -place, battered at one end, and the other much worn away by use, which -also has one face flat and slightly polished. In the camp at Little -Solsbury Hill,[949] near Bath, I found two quartzite implements of -rudely quadrangular prismatic form, each having one end worn away to -a ridge. Another quartzite pebble, rubbed to an obtuse edge at one -end, was found by General Pitt Rivers, F.R.S.,[950] within an ancient -earthwork at Dorchester, Oxfordshire. - -A hammer-stone of close-grained grit, having a ridge all round -the periphery, was found in Anglesea.[951] Others with ridged -ends have occurred in crannogs at Lochlee,[952] Ayrshire, and in -Wigtownshire.[953] Some of them seem to belong to the Iron Age. - -Among the specimens just described, there are three peculiarities -which, though not occurring together on all, are worthy of notice—the -notch on the face, the ridge at the end, and the polished face. - -There can be no doubt of the notch on the face being, like the -cup-shaped depressions, merely intended as an aid in holding the stone. -On the hammer-stones discovered by the late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S., -in a post-Roman kjökken-mödding, in the island of Herm,[954] there were -usually one or two rough notches or indentations on each face, exactly -adapted to receive the ends of the thumb and some of the fingers; and, -curiously enough, I have a pebble notched in precisely the same manner -from Delaware Water Gap, Pennsylvania, and no doubt intended for a -hand-hammer or pounder. - -In the same kjökken-mödding at Herm were several[955] celt-like -implements of porphyry and greenstone which, instead of an edge, had -the end blunt, but with a ridge obliquely across it, as on these -pebbles. Somewhat similar pounding-stones have been found by the late -Hon. W. O. Stanley, at Pen-y-Bonc,[956] Holyhead, in some instances -provided with a depression fitting the thumb or finger, and several -having the ridge at the end. - -The same sort of ridge occurs on pounding-stones from Denmark, -Portugal,[957] Spain,[958] Ireland, and elsewhere, and occasionally -extends all round the stone when it happens to be disc-shaped, like -those already mentioned from Upton Lovel and elsewhere. Hammer-stones -worn to a ridge are also found in Egypt.[959] It would appear that -the face of the hammer was ground away, either by a rocking motion -on a flat stone, or by the blows given with it being administered -alternately from the right and from the left, so as to keep any matter -that was being pounded with it from being driven out of position. |248| - -I have, lastly, to notice the more or less polished condition of one -of the faces of these stones, which may be due to their being used for -grinding the material already pounded by their edges to a finer powder -on the slab, which served instead of a mortar. One of the flat pebbles -found in the Cave of La Madelaine, Dordogne, appears to have served as -a muller for grinding the hæmatite used as paint. - -Sometimes these hammer-stones are mere pebbles without any previous -preparation, and indeed it is but natural that such should have been -the case. Canon Greenwell has found pebbles of quartz and greenstone, -worn and battered at the ends, accompanying interments on the Yorkshire -Wolds, and such are also occasionally present on the surface, though -they are, of course, liable to escape observation. A quartzite pebble -that has served as a hammer-stone, and is much worn and fractured -by use, was found at Ty Mawr, and is figured in the _Archæological -Journal_,[960] as are also several from hut-circles in Holyhead and -Anglesea.[961] A large sarsen-stone pebble, weighing 4 3∕4 lbs., and -which had obviously been used as a hammer, was found in the Long -Barrow, at West Kennet,[962] Wiltshire. A large conical sort of muller -of sarsen-stone,[963] weighing 12 1∕2 lbs., was discovered with -twenty-two skeletons, various animal remains, and pottery, in a large -cist, in a barrow near Avebury. Mr. G. Clinch has a hammer from West -Wickham, made from a nearly cylindrical quartz pebble, much worn at -both ends, one of which is more rounded than the other. - -[Illustration: Figs. 167 and 168.—Yorkshire Wolds. 1∕2] - -On the Downs of Sussex, in the pits of Cissbury, in Yorkshire, Suffolk, -Dorsetshire, and other counties, hammer-stones of flint, apparently -used for chipping other flints, have been found, but from their -rudeness it seems hardly worth while to engrave any specimens. At -Grime’s Graves the hammer-stones consisted principally of quartzite -pebbles, though some were of flint. In many instances the hammers -made of flint seem to be cores from which flakes have been struck, -but which, proving to be of refractory stone, have been found more -serviceable as hammers. Some of the cores found at Spiennes, near -Mons, have been thus used, as well as fragments of celts. Some of the -hammer-stones from the French caves consist also of such cores. Stone -mullers are in common use in most countries at the present day, for -grinding paint and similar purposes. They occur at the Cape of Good -Hope,[964] but were there, no doubt, originally intended for other uses. - -The general character of the chipped flint hammer-stones will be -gathered from Figs. 167 and 168, both from the Yorkshire Wolds. |249| -Neither of them shows any trace of the original surface or crust of the -flint from which it has been fashioned. The larger one has been chipped -with numerous facets somewhat into the shape of a broad bivalve shell, -and is much battered round the margin. Fig. 168 is much smaller than -usual, and is more disc-like in character. - -[Illustration: Fig. 168A.—Culbin Sands. 1∕2] - -A large number of discoidal stones, formed from flattish quartzite -pebbles, have been found on the Culbin Sands,[965] Elginshire. By the -kindness of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, one of them is -shown in Fig. 168A. They may be hammer-stones, but show no traces of -use. - -[Illustration: Fig. 169—Bridlington. 1∕2] - -More commonly, perhaps, the form is approximately spherical. Fig. -169 is, however, a more symmetrical specimen than usual. It was -found by Mr. E. Tindall at Grindale, near Bridlington, and its -surface is battered all over by continual pounding. I have others of -similar character from Icklingham, Suffolk; Jordan Hill, Weymouth; -and elsewhere. Two from Old Geir, Anglesea, are engraved in the -_Archæological Journal_.[966] - -Others were found in a tumulus at Seaford,[967] and at Mount -Caburn,[968] Sussex. - -Numerous rude hammer-stones have been found at Carnac,[969] Brittany. - -One of chert, 3 inches in diameter, was found in the Isle of -Portland,[970] and several have been found in Dorsetshire[971] which -were supposed to have been used in fashioning flint implements; and -balls of chert, 2 1∕2 inches and 2 1∕4 inches in diameter, found -at West Coker, Somersetshire,[972] and another from Comb-Pyne, -Devonshire,[973] have been thought to have been “intended for the -sling, or else to be tied up in a leather thong attached to a staff, -and employed as a sort of mace.” |250| - -A globular nodule of flint, one pound in weight, and chipped all -over, found with numerous flint flakes in the long-chambered barrow -at West Kennet,[974] appeared to Dr. Thurnam to have been used in -their production. Several others found together in the parish of -Benlochy,[975] near Blairgowrie, were regarded as sling-stones. A -lump of red flint found in a barrow near Pickering,[976] in company -with a flint spear-head and two arrow-heads at the right hand of a -skeleton, was considered by Mr. Bateman to have been used as a hammer -for chipping other flints. A more highly-decorated class of stone balls -will be described at a subsequent page. Stone balls, such as were in -common use for cannon in the Middle Ages, and those thrown by catapults -and other military engines, do not come within my province. - - * * * * * - -Judging from the battered surface of the spherical stones now under -consideration, there can be no doubt of their having been in use -as hammers or pounders; but they were probably not in all cases -used merely for fashioning other implements of stone, but also for -triturating grain, roots, and other substances for food, in the same -manner as round pebbles are still used by the native Australians.[977] -One such root, abundant in this country, is a principal article of food -consumed by the Ahts[978] of North America, among whom “the roots of -the common fern or bracken are much used as a regular meal. They are -simply washed and boiled, or beaten with a stone till they become soft, -and are then roasted.” In New Zealand also fern roots are pounded for -food, with pestles of basalt. The corn-crushers and mealing-stones -found in the Swiss Lake-dwellings have evidently been intended for -the purposes which their names denote; and at the present day among -many savage tribes, the only form of mill that is known is that of -a flat or slightly concave bed-stone, with a stone rolling-pin or -muller. Among the Kaffirs[979] and in West Africa the mill is of this -character, the bed-stone being large and heavy, slightly hollowed on -its upper surface; the muller, a large oval pebble which is used with -a peculiar rocking and grinding motion. The corn (maize or millet) -is often boiled before grinding. In Abyssinia[980] the bed-stone of -gneiss or granite is about 2 feet in length and 14 inches in width. -The face of this is roughened by beating it with a sharp-pointed -piece of harder stone, such as quartz or hornblende, and the grain is -reduced to flour by repeated grinding or rubbing |251| with a stone -rolling-pin. Such mealing-stones are also in use in South America.[981] -They have been occasionally found in Britain, and the annexed figure -shows a pair found in a hut-circle at Ty Mawr,[982] in the island of -Holyhead. Others have been found in Anglesea.[983] Similar specimens -have been obtained in Cambridgeshire and Cornwall, and Mr. Tindall had -a pair found near Bridlington. A mealing-stone with the muller was -found in Ehenside Tarn,[984] Cumberland. I have myself found a muller -at Osbaston, Leicestershire. A pair of stones from the Fens[985] is in -the museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. Some large blocks of -flint, having a flat face bruised all over by hammering, have also been -found in the Fens, and may have served as mealing-stones. - -[Illustration: Fig. 170.—Holyhead.] - -The same form of mill is found also in Ireland,[986] and not improbably -remained in occasional use until a comparatively late period. Fynes -Moryson[987] mentions having seen in Cork “young maides, stark naked, -grinding corne with certaine stones, to make cakes thereof;” and the -form of the expression seems to point to something different from a -hand-mill or quern, which at that time was in common use in England. -The name of saddle-quern has been given to this form of grinding -apparatus. In the Blackmore Museum is one from the pit-dwellings at -Highfield,[988] near Salisbury, which are not improbably of post-Roman -date; and in the British Museum is one found near Macclesfield. |252| - -They are also known in Scotland. One of granite, found near Wick,[989] -is in the National Museum at Edinburgh; as is also another, 20 inches -by 12 inches, with a rubber 12 inches by 8 inches, found in a cave near -Cullen, Banffshire.[990] - -They likewise occur in Shetland.[991] Mr. J. W. Cursiter has a long -narrow muller with a curved back, in which are five grooves to receive -the fingers, so as to give it the appearance of being a fragment of an -ammonite. - -Saddle-querns of the same character occur also in France.[992] I have a -small example from Chateaudun. One from Chassemy[993] (Aisne) has been -figured. - -Some were likewise found in the Genista Cave at Gibraltar.[994] They -are common in West Prussia and in the Island of Rügen, as well as in -Scandinavia generally. - -A German saddle-quern, from the ancient cemetery at Monsheim, has been -engraved by Lindenschmit.[995] Others are mentioned by Klemm.[996] MM. -Siret have also found them in their explorations in Spain. - -It will have been observed, in the instances I have cited, that the -movable muller or grinding-stone is not spherical, but elongated; but -what is possibly the more ancient form approached more closely to a -pestle and mortar in character, and consisted of a bed-stone with -a slight concavity in it, and a more or less spherical stone for a -pounder. - - * * * * * - -A grinding-stone of granite, with a cavity, apparently for bruising -grain by a globular stone, was found in Cornwall,[997] and undressed -slabs with concavities of the size and shape of an ordinary soup-plate, -are of frequent occurrence in the Hebrides.[998] Others have been found -in company with stone balls, in the ancient habitations in Anglesea. - -Fig. 171 shows a trough of stone, found at Ty Mawr,[999] Holyhead, by -the late Hon. W. O. Stanley, who kindly lent me the wood-cuts of Figs. -170 and 171. The cylindrical grinding-stone or muller was found within -it, and has a central cavity on each face, to give the hand a better -hold in grinding. A similar appliance was found at Pen-y-Bonc[1000] in -the same island. - -A triturating trough from Cleveland[1001] has been figured. |253| - -They have been found in Cornwall[1002] and in Ireland.[1003] - -Others have been discovered in Brittany. - -Hand-mills of granite formed in much the same manner have been in use -until lately in Brandenburg. The lower stones are described as from 2 -feet to 4 feet long, and nearly as wide, with channels, after long use, -as much as 6 inches deep; the mullers are either spherical or oval, and -of such a size that they can be held in the hand.[1004] - -A large sandstone, with a small bowl-shaped concavity worked in it, was -found near burnt bones, in a barrow at Elkstone,[1005] Staffordshire; -and two others in barrows near Sheen.[1006] Another, with a cup-shaped -concavity, 2 1∕2 inches in diameter, occurred in a barrow near -Pickering;[1007] and in other barrows were found sandstone balls -roughly chipped all over, from 4 inches to 1 inch in diameter, in one -instance associated with a bronze dagger. A ball of sandstone, 2 1∕2 -inches in diameter, was found with flint instruments accompanying a -contracted skeleton in a barrow near Middleton.[1008] A round stone -like a cannon-ball was also found in a barrow near Cromer,[1009] and -three balls of stone, from 2 1∕4 inches to 1 3∕4 inches in diameter, -were picked up in a camp at Weetwood,[1010] Northumberland. - -[Illustration: Fig. 171.—Ty Mawr.] - -Mealing-stones, both flat and hollowed, were found in -Schliemann’s[1011] excavations at Troy. - -In grinding and pounding a considerable amount of grit must have been -worn off the stones and been mixed with the meal. The usual worn -condition of the teeth in the skulls from ancient barrows may be -connected with this attrition. Mr. Charters-White,[1012] by examination -of |254| some teeth from a long barrow at Heytesbury, Wilts, was able -to show the presence of grains of sand of different kinds in the dental -tartar. - - * * * * * - -There are two other forms of grinding apparatus still in use—the pestle -and mortar, and the rotatory mill—both of which date back to an early -period, and concerning which it will be well to say a few words in this -place. The ordinary form of pestle—a frustum of a very elongated cone -with the ends rounded, is so well known that it appears needless to -engrave a specimen on the same scale as the other objects. In Fig. 172 -is shown one of a more than usually club-shaped form, 11 inches long, -found in Holyhead Island.[1013] - -[Illustration: Fig. 172.—Holyhead.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 173.—Pulborough.] - - * * * * * - -This cut originally appeared in illustration of an interesting paper -by Mr. Albert Way, F.S.A., on some relics found in and near ancient -circular dwellings in Holyhead Island, in which paper some of the -other discoveries about to be mentioned are also cited. A pestle like -a small club, 9 1∕4 inches long, was found in a gravel-pit near Audley -End,[1014] with a Roman cinerary urn. Another, of grey granite, more -cylindrical in form, and flatter at one end, 11 1∕2 inches long and -2 inches in diameter, was found at Pulborough,[1015] Sussex, and is -engraved in Fig. 173. A limestone pestle of the same character, 12 -inches long and 2 1∕2 inches in diameter, found at Cliff Hill, is in -the museum at Leicester. A fine pestle of granite or gneiss (12 5∕8 -inches) from Epping Forest[1016] has been figured, as has been a -shorter one from a barrow at Collingbourn Ducis,[1017] Wilts. Another -of greenstone, probably a naturally-formed pebble, 10 1∕4 inches long -and 2 1∕2 inches in diameter, rounded at both ends, was found with -three porphyry celts in a cairn at Daviot,[1018] near Inverness. It is -now in the National Museum at |255| Edinburgh. Another of greenstone, -16 inches long, was found near Carlisle[1019]; and the late Mr. J. W. -Flower, F.G.S., had one of the same material 10 inches long, tapering -from 2 inches in diameter to 1 1∕4 inches, found in Hilgay Fen, -Norfolk. A similar pestle-like stone, 6 inches long, found in Styria, -is engraved by Professor Unger.[1020] Another of the same length was -among the objects found in the Casa da Moura,[1021] Portugal. Many -pestles, more or less well finished in form, have been discovered by -the late Dr. Hunt, Dr. Mitchell, Mr. Petrie, Mr. Long, and others in -the Orkney and Shetland Isles, and in different parts of Scotland. - -Those who wish to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the -different circumstances of these discoveries, and with the various -forms of rough implements brought to light, will have to consult the -original memoirs[1022] which have been written concerning them. Both in -cists or graves, and in the remains of ancient circular habitations, -have numerous hammer-stones and pestles been found, associated with -various other articles manufactured from stone and bone. Some of -these are extremely rude, and appear hardly deserving of the names -of spear-heads, knives, chisels, battle-axes, &c., which have been -bestowed upon them. There can, however, be no doubt of their being -of human manufacture, whatever purpose they may have served. A few -well-formed and polished stone celts were found in company with the -objects of this class in the “Underground House of Skaill,” Orkney, -which, however, was not, strictly speaking, subterranean. In the -building, and in the midden around it, were very great numbers of oval -sandstone pounding-stones and of large sandstone flakes, probably -knives of a rude kind, a pebble with a groove round it like a ship’s -block, and a few celts. In Shetland these rude stone implements have -been found with human skeletons interred in cists, sometimes with -polished weapons.[1023] A very curious implement, somewhat T-shaped, -with pointed extremities, and grooves round the transverse part, was -found in the broch of Quoyness,[1024] Sanday, Orkney, and has been -figured. - -Many of the pestle-like stones are merely chipped into a somewhat -cylindrical form, but others have been picked or ground all over, so as -to give them a circular or oval section. The ends in many instances are -more or less splintered, as if by hammering some hard substance rather -than by pounding, and the exact purpose to which they were applied it -is extremely difficult to divine. - -Four of them are shown, on a small scale, in Figs. 174 to 177. - -[Illustration: Fig. 174.—Shetland. 20 1∕2 in.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 175.—Shetland. 19 in.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 176.—Shetland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 177.—Shetland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 178.—Shetland. 21 in.] - -Some are more club-like[1025] in character, as in Fig. 178, and -are even occasionally wrought to a handle at one end, as was the -case |256| with one found in the heart of a burnt stone tumulus at -Bressay[1026] (Fig. 179), so as to give them much of the appearance -of the short batlet or batting-staff used in the primitive mode of -washing linen, such as is still so commonly practised in many parts -of the Continent. Nearly similar rough instruments have been found -at Baldoon,[1027] Wigtownshire. Is it possible that these stone bats -can have served a similar purpose? In the Northern counties[1028] a -large smooth-faced stone, set in a sloping position by the side of a -stream, on which washerwomen |257| beat their linen, is still called -a battling-stone,[1029] and the club is called a batter, batlet, -battledore, or battling-staff. Such clubs may also have been used in -the preparation of hemp and flax. - -[Illustration: Fig. 179.—Shetland.] - -A stone club, from St. Isabel,[1030] Bahia, Brazil, is described as -13 3∕8 inches long, 2 1∕2 inches wide, and 1 1∕4 inch thick. It may, -however, be a celt, like the supposed clubs from Lancashire[1031] and -Cumberland. - -There can be no doubt of several of the pestles, though probably not -all, belonging to the same period as stone implements of other forms. -The mortars in which they were used, were probably merely depressions -in blocks of stone, or even of wood. Some rude mortars have, as already -mentioned, been found in Holyhead Island, and Anglesea, but it is -uncertain to what age they belong. A portion of a mortar of granite, -with a channelled lip, found with fragments of urns and calcined bones -in a grave at Kerris Vaen, Cornwall, is engraved in the _Archæologia -Cambrensis_.[1032] - -Very similar stone pestles to those from Orkney were in use among the -North American Indians[1033] for pounding maize, and some are engraved -by Squier and Davis.[1034] - -They also employed[1035] a small form of mortar for pounding quartz, -felspar, or shell, with which to temper the clay for pottery. Stone -mortars and pestles were in use among the Toltecs and Aztecs in making -tortillas, and are found in South Carolina,[1036] and elsewhere in -the United States. Among the ancient Pennacooks[1037] of the Merrimac -valley, the heavy stone pestle was suspended from the elastic bough -of a tree, which relieved the operator in her work; and among the -Tahitians[1038] the pestle of stone, used for pounding the bread fruit -on a wooden block, is provided with a crutch-like handle. - -Some large circular discs of stone, apparently used for grinding, and -others with deep cup-shaped depressions in them, found on Dartmoor, -and probably connected with some ancient metallurgical operations on -the spot, have been engraved and described in the _Transactions of the -Devonshire Association_.[1039] |258| - -The hand-mill formed with an upper rotatory stone is a mere -modification of the pestle and mortar, and dates back to a very early -period, though it has continued in use in some parts of the British -Isles even unto our own day. The name quern, by which such mills are -usually known, occurs in closely similar forms, in all the Teutonic -dialects. In Anglo-Saxon it appears under the form Cweorn or Cwyrn, and -in modern Danish as Qværn. An excellent example of this instrument, -which had been, up to 1850, in use in the cabin of a Kilkenny peasant, -was presented by the Rev. J. Graves to the Archæological Institute, and -is described and engraved in their Journal.[1040] The upper stone is of -granite, the lower of millstone grit. The lower stone is recessed to -receive the upper, and has a central depression, in which a small block -of oak is fixed, from which projects a small pin—also of oak—to carry -the upper stone. This is about 2 feet in diameter, and is perforated at -its centre with a hopper-like hole, across the bottom of which a small -bar of oak is secured, having a recess in it to receive the pin, but -only of such a depth as to keep the upper stone at a slight distance -from the lower. Through the upper stone, and near its verge, a vertical -hole is drilled to receive a peg, which forms the handle for turning -it. When in use it is worked, as in ancient times among the Jews, by -two women seated opposite each other, who alternately seize and propel -the handle, so as to drive the stone at considerable speed. The corn, -highly dried, is fed by handfuls into the hopper in the runner or upper -stone, and the meal passes out by a notch in the rim of the nether -stone. Pennant,[1041] in his “Tour in Scotland,” describes querns as -still in use in the Hebrides in 1772. They were said to cost about -fourteen shillings, and to grind a bushel of corn in four hours, with -two pair of hands. He gives a representation of a quern at work, with -a long stick, hanging from the branch of a tree, inserted in the hole -in the runner, so as to form the handle. A somewhat similar method -of driving the hand-mill indoors, taken from a German MS. of the -fourteenth century, has been reproduced from a work by Drs. Von Hefner -and Wolf in the _Archæological Journal_.[1042] - -A sketch of a hand-mill in use at the present day, at Abbeville, is -given in C. Roach Smith’s “Collectanea Antiqua.”[1043] - -Even in the neighbourhood of water-mills, when the charge for grinding -was at all high, we find these hand-mills in use in mediæval times. -Such use, by the townsmen of St. Albans, was, in the beginning of -the fourteenth century, a fruitful source of litigation between -them and the abbots, who claimed the monopoly of grinding for their -tenants.[1044] Thirteen of these, however, maintained their right -of using hand-mills, as having been enjoyed of old, and some claims -were raised to the privilege of grinding oat-meal only, by means of a -hand-mill. - -It seems probable that these mediæval hand-mills were of large size, -and with a comparatively flat upper stone, like the modern Irish -form, which is sometimes 3 feet 6 inches in diameter. One, 3 feet in -diameter, found near Hollingbourne,[1045] Kent, was probably of no -great antiquity. |259| The same may be said of a six-sided quern, -with an iron pivot, found in Edinburgh.[1046] A quern, found at West -Coker,[1047] Somerset, with a fleur-de-lis over the passage by which -the meal escaped, has been assigned to the thirteenth century. The -lower stone of a quern accompanied an apparently Saxon interment at -Winster,[1048] Derbyshire. It was of the beehive[1049] shape, and made -of millstone grit. Similar querns, with iron pins, have been found at -Breedon,[1050] Leicestershire, as well as others with the upper stone -more conical. One of this class was also found near Rugby.[1051] They -frequently accompany Roman[1052] remains, but these are generally of -smaller size, and of a more hemispherical form, the favourite material -being the Lower Tertiary conglomerate, or Hertfordshire pudding-stone. -Those of Andernach lava, from the Rhine, are usually flat. - -A complete quern was found at Ehenside Tarn,[1053] Cumberland. The -upper half of another was in a post-Roman circular dwelling, near -Birtley,[1054] Northumberland. - -Querns of various forms are of frequent occurrence in Wales, especially -in Anglesea. An upper stone from Lampeter,[1055] Cardiganshire, has a -semicircular projection at the margin round the hole for the handle. -In some districts[1056] they have been in use until quite recent -times.[1057] - -In Scotland, querns are of frequent occurrence in the ancient brochs -and hill forts. In one of the former, at Kettleburn,[1058] Caithness, -a stone in preparation for a quern was found; in another, in -Aberdeenshire, an upper stone, 18 inches in diameter, was discovered. -Another stone of the same size, surrounded by four border stones to -prevent the scattering of the grain in grinding, was discovered in -a subterranean chamber in a hill fort at Dunsinane,[1059] Perth. A -curious pot-quern, the lower stone decorated with a carved human face, -was found in East Lothian, and is engraved by Wilson.[1060] - -Some interesting notices of Scottish querns have been given by Sir -Arthur Mitchell.[1061] - -The upper stone, ornamented with raised lines, shown in Fig. 180, from -a cut kindly lent me by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, was -found in trenching a moss in the parish of Balmaclellan, New Galloway, -with some curious bronze objects of “late-Celtic” workmanship.[1062] - -An upper stone (18 inches), ornamented in a nearly similar way, was -found near Stranraer,[1063] Wigtownshire, and another, with a tribrach -instead of a cross, at Roy Bridge,[1064] Inverness-shire. |260| - -Some ornamentally carved upper stones of querns, one of them with -spiral and leaf-shaped patterns upon it, much like those on the -bronze ornaments of the “late-Celtic” Period, have been discovered in -Anglesea.[1065] - -[Illustration: Fig. 180.—Balmaclellan.] - -Querns of green sandstone are stated, by Sir R. Colt Hoare,[1066] to be -numerous in British villages and pit-dwellings in Wiltshire, as indeed -they are in other counties,[1067] though formed of various kinds of -grit. They rarely occur in barrows, though burnt granite querns have -been found with burnt bones in cromlechs in Jersey.[1068] - -Some observations on querns by the Rev. Dr. A. Hume, are published in -the _Archæologia Cambrensis_.[1069] As these utensils belong, for the -most part, to Roman and post-Roman times, I have thought it needless -to enter into any more minute description of their forms, or of the -circumstances under which they have been found. - - - - -|261| - -CHAPTER XI. - -GRINDING-STONES AND WHETSTONES. - - -Before proceeding to the consideration of other forms of implements, -it will be well to say a few words with regard to those which have -served for grinding, polishing, or sharpening tools and weapons, and -more especially such as there is every reason to suppose, were employed -to give an edge or finish to other materials than metal, though the -whetstones of the Bronze Period must not be passed by unnoticed. - -I have already mentioned the fact that the grindstones on which stone -celts and axes were polished and sharpened, were not like those of the -present day, revolving discs against the periphery of which the object -to be ground was held; but stationary slabs on which the implements -to be polished or sharpened were rubbed. Considering the numbers of -polished implements that have been discovered in this country, it -appears not a little remarkable that such slabs have not been more -frequently noticed, though not improbably they have, from their -simple character, for the most part escaped observation; and even -if found, there is usually little, unless the circumstances of the -discovery are peculiar, to connect them with any particular stage of -civilization or period of antiquity. In Denmark and Sweden, however, -these grinding-stones, both of the flat and polygonal forms already -described, are of comparatively frequent occurrence. Specimens are -figured by Worsaae,[1070] Sophus Müller, and others, and were also -given by Thomsen,[1071] so long ago as 1832. He states that they have -been found in Scandinavia, in barrows and elsewhere in the ground, -with half-finished stone celts lying with them, so that there can be -no doubt as to the purpose for which they were intended. They are -also described by Nilsson[1072] and Montelius.[1073] |262| Both -slabs and prismatic pieces of sandstone have been found in the Swiss -Lake-dwellings,[1074] several of the former with concavities on one -or both faces, resulting from stone hatchets having been ground upon -them.[1075] - - * * * * * - -In France the discovery of numerous ‘_polissoirs_’ has been noticed, -some of them of very large dimensions. They are abundant in the -Departments of la Charente[1076] and la Dordogne,[1077] and some fine -examples are in the Museum of Troyes (Aube). One, nearly 3 feet long, -with hollows of different characters, apparently for grinding different -parts of tools and weapons, is figured by M. Peigné Delacourt;[1078] -an oval concavity upon it is 2 feet 3 inches long by 1 foot wide, and -seems well adapted for grinding the faces of large celts. Another -fine example was in the possession of Dr. Léveillé,[1079] at Grand -Pressigny, and a large specimen, also from Poitou, is in the Musée de -St. Germain. Several have been found in Luxembourg[1080] and Belgium. - -Flat grinding-stones of smaller dimensions have been found in the -turbaries of the Somme and in the Camp de Catenoy.[1081] A narrow -sharpening stone 5 inches long is recorded to have been found with -stone hatchets and other implements in the Cueva de los Murciélagos, in -Spain.[1082] _Polissoirs_ have also been observed in India.[1083] - -The Carreg y Saelhau,[1084] or Stone of the Arrows, near Aber, -Carnarvonshire, has numerous scorings upon it, a quarter or half an -inch in depth; and, though doubtless used for sharpening tools and -weapons of some kind, it seems to belong to the metallic age. Canon -Greenwell informs me that he observed a rock close to a camp on Lazenby -Fell, Cumberland, with about seventy grooves upon it from 4 to 7 -inches long and about 1 inch wide and deep, pointed at either end, as -if from sharp-ended tools or weapons having been ground in them. The -grooves are in various directions, though sometimes in groups of four -or five together, which are parallel with each other. In the course -of his investigations in the barrows on the Yorkshire Wolds[1085] he -has found a few of the flat slabs for grinding or polishing, though -of small size. One of them, formed of a flat piece of red sandstone -about 4 1∕2 inches by 3 1∕2 inches, with both faces bearing marks of -having been in use for grinding, lay close to a deposit of burnt bones. -Another somewhat similar fragment of sandstone (2 3∕4 inches by 2 1∕2 -inches), which also bore traces of attrition, was found in a barrow at -Helperthorpe. - -In another barrow at Cowlam,[1086] Yorkshire, E. R., was a rough piece -|263| of grit, 2 1∕4 inches long, with one end slightly hollowed, -apparently by grinding celts, and a large flat compact laminated red -sandstone pebble about 8 3∕4 inches by 3 inches, with both faces ground -away, the one being evenly flat and the other uneven. In the same -barrow occurred one of the flint rubbers to be subsequently described, -and also a quartzite pebble (2 1∕2 inches long) that had been used as -a hammer-stone. A portion of a whetstone of Pennant or Coal-measure -sandstone was found in the long barrow at West Kennet, Wiltshire,[1087] -in which also occurred a thin ovoidal knife of flint, ground at the -edges. - -I have in my own collection a very interesting specimen of this kind -from Burwell Fen, near Cambridge. It is a thin slab of close-grained -micaceous sandstone, about 5 1∕2 by 4 inches, slightly hollowed and -polished on both faces by grinding. With it were found two celts -of flint, 4 1∕2 and 5 inches long, of pointed oval section, one of -them polished all over, and the other at the edge only, which in all -probability had been sharpened on this very stone. In the same place -were two long subangular fragments of greenstone of the right form, -size, and character to be manufactured into celts, and which had no -doubt been selected for that purpose. - -A grinding-stone with a celt lying in it, found at Glenluce,[1088] -Wigtownshire, has been figured. - -On the Sussex Downs I have found flat pebbles 3 or 4 inches long, which -have evidently been used as hones, but whether for stone or metallic -tools it is impossible to say. Fragments of polished celts and numerous -flakes and “scrapers” of flint were, however, in their immediate -neighbourhood. Among the modern savages of Tahiti[1089] who used -hatchets of basalt, a whetstone and water appear to have been always at -hand, as constant sharpening was necessary. It seems probable therefore -that there must have been a constant demand for such sharpening-stones -in this country, and that many of them ought still to exist. With flint -hatchets, the constant whetting was, however, no doubt less necessary -than with those of the different kinds of basalt. Their edges, if -carefully chipped, will indeed cut wood without being ground at all. - - * * * * * - -Mr. Bateman mentions “a flat piece of sandstone rubbed hollow at one -side” as having been found in a barrow at Castern, Staffordshire,[1090] -but it is uncertain whether this was a grindstone. It may have been -used only as a mortar, for with it was a round piece of ruddle or -red ochre, “which from its abraded appearance must have been in much -request for colouring the skin of its owner.”[1091] In a barrow on the -West Coast of Kintyre, there also occurred a piece of red Lancashire -or Westmoreland iron-ore or hæmatite worn flat on the side, apparently -by having been rubbed upon some other substance. Nodules of ruddle are -also said to |264| have occurred, interspersed with the charcoal in a -barrow at Broad Down, near Honiton.[1092] - -In one of the ancient habitations in Holyhead,[1093] was a large stone -11 inches long, probably used for grinding hæmatite, with which it was -deeply tinged; and a small stone box found with celts and other relics -at Skara, Skaill, Orkney,[1094] contained a red pigment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 180A.—Lamberton Moor.] - -There can be little doubt of this red pigment having been in use for -what was considered a personal decoration by the early occupants of -Britain. But this use of red paint dates back to a far earlier period, -for pieces of hæmatite with the surface scraped, apparently by means of -flint-flakes, have been found in the French and Belgian caves of the -Reindeer Period, so that this red pigment appears to have been in all -ages a favourite with savage man. The practice of interring war-paint -with the dead is still observed among the North American Indians.[1095] - - “The paints that warriors love to use - Place here within his hand, - That he may shine with ruddy hues - Amidst the spirit land.” - - * * * * * - -Some few of the grinding-stones found in this country resemble those -of polygonal form found in Denmark,[1096] in so far as they are -symmetrically shaped and have been used on all their faces. One 13 1∕2 -inches long, found on Lamberton Moor,[1097] Berwickshire, is shown in -Fig. 180A., kindly lent by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. - -In the Christy Collection is such a sharpening-stone, nearly square in -section, about 9 1∕4 inches long, and of the form shown in Fig. 181. -Both the faces and sides are worn slightly concave, as if from grinding -convex surfaces such as the edges of celts, though it is impossible to -say with any degree of certainty that this was really the purpose to -which it was applied. It is said to have been found near Barcoot, in -the parish of Dorchester, Oxon, in 1835, not far from a spot where a -|265| stone celt had been found a few years previously. In the same -collection is a Danish whetstone of precisely the same character, but -rather broader at one end than at the other. - -[Illustration: Fig. 181.—Dorchester. 1∕2] - -A grinding-stone, 26 inches long, was found at Ehenside Tarn,[1098] -Cumberland. - -[Illustration: Fig. 182.—Rudstone. 1∕1] - -In Fig. 182 is shown, full size, a very curious object formed of -compact mica-schist, which has the appearance of having served as a -whetstone or hone. It has been ground over its whole surface. The -flatter face is towards the middle somewhat hollowed—rather more so -than is shown in the section—and shows some oblique scratches upon it -as if from rubbing a rather rough object upon it. It was found in 1870 -by Canon Greenwell, with other relics accompanying an unburnt body in -a barrow at Rudstone, near Bridlington.[1099] About midway between the -head and the knees was a series of articles in this descending order. -On the top was this whetstone—if such it be—resting on a carved jet -ring, like Fig. 372, which lay on the boss of a large jet button. Below -this was another jet button, like Fig. 371, face downwards. Close by -lay a half-nodule of pyrites and a round-ended flint flake, which will -be subsequently noticed. Nearer the face was a dagger-knife of bronze, -with three rivets through it, and two more for fastening together -the two plates of ox-horn of which the hilt had been composed. The -whetstone may have been that used for sharpening this instrument. - -An instrument of slate of nearly the same |266| form was found in a -cairn at Penbeacon,[1100] Dartmoor, and was regarded by Mr. Spence -Bate as a tool used in fashioning clay vessels. Dr. Thurnam[1101] has -suggested that if covered with leather these stones may have served as -bracers or arm-guards for archers. - -Two pieces of a dark-coloured slaty kind of stone, of nearly the same -form and size as the Yorkshire specimen, and lying parallel with each -other, were found by Sir R. Colt Hoare[1102] at the feet of a skeleton, -together with a little rude drinking-cup, in a barrow near Winterbourn -Stoke. A stud and ring of jet, probably of the same character as those -from Rudstone, and a piece of flint rudely chipped, as if intended for -a dagger or spear, were also found. No bronze objects were discovered, -but the cist appears to have been imperfectly examined. - -[Illustration: Fig. 183.—Fimber. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -I have already mentioned[1103] that in grinding and polishing the -concave faces of different forms of perforated stone axes, it is -probable that stone rubbers were used in conjunction with sand. Even -the smaller flat and rounded faces may have been wrought by similar -means. That rubbers of some kind must have been used, is, I think, -evident from the character of the surfaces, especially of those which -are hollowed; and the most readily available material for the formation -of such rubbers, was doubtless stone. There is therefore an _à priori_ -probability of such stone grinding-tools having been in use; and if -we find specimens which present the conditions which such tools would -exhibit, we are almost justified in assuming them to have served such -purposes. Now in the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, -Yorkshire, are several pieces of flint and portions of pebbles of -schist, flint, and quartz found in that neighbourhood, which are ground -at one end into a more or less rounded form, and exhibit striæ running -along, and not across, the rounded surface. They have, in fact, all -the appearance of having been used with coarse sand for grinding a -concavity in another stone, such, for instance, as the concave face -of the stone axe shown in Fig. 125. I am indebted to their kindness -for the specimen shown in Fig. 183, which consists of a short piece of -a conical nodule of flint, the large end of which has been used for -grinding in ancient times, the striated face being now considerably -weathered. In the Greenwell Collection is a rubber of the same kind -from Weaverthorpe on the Yorkshire Wolds. Mr. H. S. Harland[1104] has -found other specimens in Yorkshire, of which he has kindly given me -several. Polishers[1105] are also found in Scotland. A polisher of -somewhat similar character, but made of serpentine, was found in the -|267| Lago di Varese, near Como, where a number of stone implements -were also discovered. - -At a later period larger rubbers of the same kind were used to smooth -the flutings of Doric columns. I have seen some among the ruins of the -temples at Selinunto, in Sicily. - -Some long narrow rubbers, apparently intended for grinding out -the shaft-holes of perforated axes, have been found in the Swiss -Lake-dwellings; and I have a slightly conical stone, about an inch in -diameter, from Mainz, which may have been used for the same purpose. - - * * * * * - -In the barrow at Cowlam, already mentioned, besides the grinding-stones -of grit, there was a piece of flint roughly chipped into a cubical -form, and having one face partly ground smooth. It may have been used -for polishing the surfaces of other stone implements, or possibly -merely as a muller. It is shown in Fig. 184. The striæ run diagonally -of the square face. - -In the collection formed by Canon Greenwell, is also a sandstone -pebble, 2 1∕2 inches in diameter, which has been “picked” into shape, -and has one face smooth as if used for grinding. It was found in a -barrow on Ganton Wold, East Riding. A roughly conical piece of oolitic -sandstone, 2 1∕2 inches high, in places “picked” on the surface, and -with the base apparently used for grinding, was found with a contracted -body and some flint flakes, in another barrow on Ganton Wold.[1106] - -[Illustration: Fig. 184.—Cowlam. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 185.—Amesbury. 1∕2] - -In the Wiltshire barrows several rubbing-stones (or what appear to be -such) of a peculiar form have been found, of which one is shown in Fig. -185. It is of close-grained grit, possibly from the Lower Greensand, -and was discovered with two others in a harrow on Normanton Down, near -Amesbury. Two more were in the collection of the late Rev. Edward -Duke, of Lake, near Salisbury, to whose kindness I am indebted for -the loan of the specimen. Both are now in the British Museum. These -instruments vary but little in shape, size, or character, being usually -of a truncated half-ovoid form, with a rounded groove along the flat -surface, and are formed of sandstone. - -One was found in a barrow at Upton Lovel,[1107] with flint celts, a -perforated stone axe-head, various implements of bone, a bronze pin -or |268| awl, and other objects. Another occurred in a barrow at -Everley,[1108] with a bronze chisel, an unused whetstone of freestone, -and a hone of bluish colour; and another with a skeleton, a stone -hammer, a bronze celt, a bone tube, and various other articles in a -barrow at Wilsford.[1109] Two or three of these sharpening stones, -found in a barrow at Roundway, near Devizes, are in the Museum of the -Wilts Archæological Society. One of these has been figured.[1110] -A pebble with shallow grooves on each face found at Mount Caburn, -Lewes,[1111] may possibly belong to this class of implements, though -it may have been a hammer. A rubbing-stone of this kind was found at -Topcliffe,[1112] Yorkshire, but not in a barrow. - -Sir R. C. Hoare considered whetstones of this kind to have been used -for sharpening and bringing to a point, pins and other implements of -bone, and they seem well adapted for such a purpose, and are still -so used by the Eskimos. They may also have served for smoothing the -shafts of arrows. Serpentine pebbles with a groove in them are used -for straightening arrow-shafts by the Indians of California,[1113] and -shaft rubbers of sandstone have been found in Pennsylvania.[1114] - -The Rev. W. C. Lukis found a similar stone (4 1∕4 inches) in a barrow -in Brittany. It is now in the British Museum. Another from a dolmen -in Lozère[1115] has been thought to be for sharpening the points of -bone instruments. Stones of the same form have been found in Germany; -two from the cemetery near Monsheim[1116] are preserved in the Museum -at Mainz. They are rather more elongated than the English examples. -A specimen very like Fig. 185 has been found in Denmark.[1117] They -seem also to occur in Hungary.[1118] I have a grooved stone of this -kind from the Lago di Varese, Como, where the manufacture of flint -arrow-heads was carried on extensively. An object found with polished -stone instruments in the cave Casa da Moura, Portugal,[1119] not -improbably belongs to this class of grooved sharpening stones. - -[Illustration: Fig. 186.—Hove. 1∕2] - -From their association with bronze objects, they appear to belong to -the Bronze rather than to the Stone Period; and the same holds good -with the more ordinary form of whetstone, of which an example is given -in Fig. 186. The original was found in the tumulus at Hove,[1120] -near Brighton, which contained the stone axe-head already mentioned, -a beautiful amber cup, and a bronze dagger. Another, of compact -red sandstone, 3 3∕8 inches long, with the perforated end rounded, -was found in a barrow on Bow Hill,[1121] Sussex, and is now in the -British Museum. Another, 3 inches long, bluish grey in |269| colour, -was found with a bronze dagger and a stone axe-hammer in an urn at -Broughton[1122] in Craven, in 1675. - -Two perforated whetstones were found with a bronze dagger and pin -in the Silk Hill Barrow,[1123] Wilts. Another, with the perforation -in a sort of loop at the end, was found with two daggers and a -crutched pin of bronze, associated with burnt bones in a barrow at -Normanton.[1124] Whetstones, in some cases not perforated, have -occurred in other Wiltshire barrows, associated with bronze daggers at -Wilsford[1125] and Lake,[1126] and with flint daggers or spear-heads -at Durrington.[1127] The smooth stone found with a flint dagger in a -barrow near Stonehenge,[1128] may also possibly have been a whetstone. -Two from barrows at Knowle,[1129] Dorset, and Camerton, Somerset, have -been figured by Dr. Thurnam. Another of the same kind was found in a -barrow at Tregaseal,[1130] St. Just, Cornwall, and two others with urns -at Brane Common,[1131] in the same neighbourhood. Others not perforated -are recorded from Cottenham,[1132] Cambs. One from Anglesea[1133] has -been figured. - -Two of greenish stone (chlorite?) one 2 5∕8 inches long, perforated -at the end, were found at Drewton,[1134] near North Cave, Yorkshire; -and another of similar material, 2 inches long, was found near some -“Picts’ houses,”[1135] Shapinsay, Orkney. Half of a whetstone was -found with a bronze dagger and numerous flint flakes by Mr. Morgan in -a barrow at Penhow,[1136] Monmouthshire; and a much-used whetstone -was found in a barrow near Scarborough,[1137] but the form of neither -is specified. Several, both pierced and otherwise, have been recorded -from Scotland.[1138] One with the boring incomplete was found with a -flint knife in a cist at Stenton,[1139] East Lothian, and another, -perforated, with a thin bronze blade and an urn at Glenluce,[1140] -Wigtownshire. It appears possible that some of the stones found in -Scotland and perforated at one end, described by Wilson[1141] as -flail-stones, may after all be merely whetstones. The perforated -form is common in Ireland, and is usually found in connection with -metal objects.[1142] I have a narrow hone of rag-stone, perforated at -one end, which was found with a remarkable hoard of bronze objects, -including moulds for socketed celts and for a gouge, in the Isle of -Harty, Sheppey. An almost identical whetstone is in the Zurich Museum. - -Whetstones, perforated at one end, have occurred in the Swiss -Lake-dwellings.[1143] Most of those found in the ancient cemetery -of Hallstatt,[1144] in the Salzkammergut, were perforated in the -same manner, and in |270| some cases provided with an iron loop for -suspension. They are usually of sandstone, and not formed from slaty -rocks. - -A whetstone, 5 1∕4 inches long, the two flat faces of which had -evidently been used for sharpening flat blades, while in the centre of -each is a deep groove, probably caused by sharpening pointed tools, -such as awls or needles of bronze, was found at Ty Mawr, Anglesea, near -a spot where a number of bronze celts, spear-heads, &c., had previously -been dug up. It has been figured by the late Hon. W. O. Stanley,[1145] -whose cut is here reproduced as Fig. 187. The ends of the stone are -somewhat battered from its having been also used as a hammer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 187.—Ty Mawr.] - -The same explorer discovered in hut-circles in Holyhead Island[1146] -other whetstones of the same character, in one instance with two -principal grooves and minor scorings crossing each other at an acute -angle, and in another with three parallel grooves in the face of the -stone. There can be little doubt that these sharpening stones belong to -a period when the use of metal for cutting and piercing instruments was -fully established. - - * * * * * - -There are frequently found in Ireland and Scotland flat pebbles of -quartz and quartzite, sometimes ground on the edges or faces, or on -both, and having on each face an indentation running in a somewhat -oblique direction to the longer axis of the pebble. Specimens[1147] -have been figured by Sir William Wilde, who describes them as -sling-stones. The flat faces of some have all the appearance of -having been abraded by a pointed instrument. I have never met with -this form in England, but in the National Museum at Edinburgh is a -grooved pebble exactly like those found in Ireland, from the broch, -at Kintradwell,[1148] Sutherlandshire, and another from that at -Lingrow, Orkney. One from Borness,[1149] |271| Kirkcudbrightshire, -has been figured. Others have been found at Dunino,[1150] Fife, and -Dunnichen,[1151] Forfarshire. This latter has an oval hollow on one -face and a groove on the other. - -This pebble variety is rarely found in Scandinavia, but another and -probably rather later form, in which the pebbles have been wrought -into a long shuttle-like shape, is abundant. Some of these are -provided with a groove along the sides, which would admit of a cord -being fastened round them, by which to suspend them from the girdle. -On one or both faces there is often a similar indentation to those -on the Irish specimens, on which, however, it is, as a rule, deeper -than on the Scandinavian. On the latter, the grooves have sometimes -more the appearance of having been produced by repeated slight -blows than by friction. Specimens are engraved by Worsaae[1152] and -Nilsson.[1153] The latter regards them as belonging to the Stone Age. -They occurred, however, with numerous objects of the early Iron Age at -Thorsbjerg,[1154] and have even been found with remains of both bronze -and iron bands around them, instead of any more perishable cord. - -These grooved stones are not to be confounded with the ordinary form of -hammer-stone,[1155] but belong to a distinct category. They were, in -all probability, used as a means for obtaining fire, by striking them -with a pointed piece of iron. They constitute, in fact, the “flint” -part of a modification of the ordinary “flint and steel.” - -Whetstones are, of course, commonly found with Roman domestic -antiquities; with Saxon, which are usually of a more purely sepulchral -character, they are rarely discovered. Canon Greenwell found, however, -two whetstones, one as much as 24 inches long, in graves of this -period, at Uncleby, Yorkshire. - -In one of the German cemeteries on the Rhine, corresponding to ours of -Anglo-Saxon date, a small rubbing or sharpening stone, almost celt-like -in form, was found.[1156] - -In Dutch Guiana[1157] a small form of grinding-stone of quartz, -apparently of the same age as the stone hatchets of that country, is -known as a thunderstone, and great medicinal powers are ascribed to it -by the natives. I must, however, return to the sharper forms of stone -implements. - - - - -|272| - -CHAPTER XII. - -FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. - - -The different forms of implements and weapons which have been treated -of in the preceding pages have, for the most part, been fashioned from -larger or smaller blocks of stone, reduced into shape by chipping; the -chips having apparently been mere waste products, while the block from -which they were struck was eventually converted into the tool or weapon -required. With the majority, though by no means all, of the Neolithic -forms which we still have to pass in review, the reverse holds good; -for the raw materials, if I may so term them, from which the bulk of -them were made, were flakes or splinters of flint struck off from -larger blocks, in such a manner that it was the splinters that were -utilized. The block from which they were struck, instead of being the -object of the manufacture, became, when all the available flakes had -been removed from it, mere refuse, to be thrown away as useless. - -Before considering any of the various tools and weapons into which -these flakes or splinters were converted by subsequent or secondary -working, it will be well to say a few words about the simpler forms of -flakes, and the cores or _nuclei_ from which they were struck. - -I have already, in speaking of the manufacture of stone implements, -described the manner in which flakes or spalls are, at the present day, -struck off by successive blows from the parent block or core, and have -suggested the probable methods employed in ancient times for producing -similar results. Remarks on the method of production of flint flakes -have also been made by Sir W. Wilde,[1158] Sir John Lubbock,[1159] Mr. -S. J. Mackie,[1160] Prof. T. McK. Hughes,[1161] and others. I need not, -therefore, re-open the subject, |273| though it will be well again to -call attention to some of the distinctive marks by which artificially -formed flakes may be distinguished from mere splinters of natural -origin. The formation of these latter is usually due either to the -flint, while still embedded in the chalk, having received some violent -shock from disturbance of the stratum; or to unequal expansion, which -sometimes causes flints to split up into rudely prismatic forms, much -like those assumed by starch in drying, and sometimes causes cracks -on the surface, which enable water and frost to complete the work -of splitting them. Occasionally, nearly flat planes of fissure are -caused by the expansion of some small included particle of a different -mineralogical character from the surrounding flint. In such cases -a series of concentric and more or less circular rings may usually -be traced on the surface surrounding the central particle, which -apparently mark the intervals of repose, when its expansion had ceased -for a time to exert sufficient force to continue the fissure. This kind -of fracture is most prevalent in flints upon or near the surface of the -ground, such as those in drift-deposits. - -In hardly any instances of natural fracture does the surface of the -splinter show any trace of its having been produced by a blow, though -the violent impact of one stone upon another, by means of a fall from a -cliff, or of other natural causes, might produce a splinter of the same -form as if it had been struck off by a hammer. There would, however, be -the mark of the blow on one face only of such a splinter, whereas in a -perfectly artificial flake the traces of the blow by which each facet -was produced would be discernible. On the sea-shore, natural splinters -of flint, resulting from the blow of one wave-borne pebble on another, -may occasionally be found, some of them having a kind of secondary -working at the edges, the result of attrition among the pebbles on the -shore. - -If a blow from a spherical-ended hammer be delivered at right angles -on a large flat surface of flint, the part struck is only a minute -portion of the surface, which may be represented by a circle of very -small diameter. If flint were malleable, instead of being slightly -elastic, a dent would be produced at the spot; but, being elastic, this -small circle is driven slightly inwards into the body of the flint, and -the result is that a circular fissure is produced between that part -of the flint which is condensed for the moment by the blow, and that -part which is left untouched. As each particle in the small circle on -which the hammer impinges may be considered to rest on more than one -other particle, it is |274| evident that the circular fissure, as it -descends into the body of the flint, will have a tendency to enlarge -in diameter, so that the piece of flint it includes will be of conical -form, the small circle struck by the hammer forming the slightly -truncated apex. That this is not mere theory will be seen from the -annexed woodcut, Fig. 188, showing a cone of flint produced by a single -blow of a hammer.[1162] - -[Illustration: Fig. 188.—Artificial Cone of Flint.] - -Sometimes, as has been shown by Prof. T. McK. Hughes, F.R.S., the sides -of the cone are in steps, the inclination varying from 30° to 110°. -This is probably to some extent due to the character of the blow, and -the form of the hammer. - -If the blow be administered near the edge, instead of in the middle of -the surface of the block, a somewhat similar effect will be produced, -but the cone in that case will be imperfect, as a splinter of flint -will be struck off, the fissure probably running along the line of -least resistance; though, owing to the suddenness of the blow, the -conical character of fracture is at first produced at the point of -impact. This fracture will vary to some extent in accordance with the -angle at which the blow is given, and the character of the hammer; but -in all cases where a splinter of flint is struck off by a blow, there -will be a bulb or projection, of a more or less conical form, at the -end where the blow was administered, and a corresponding hollow in the -block from which it was dislodged. This projection is usually known as -the “bulb of percussion,” a term, I believe, first applied to it by the -late Dr. Hugh Falconer, F.R.S.; and on every flake, all the facets of -which are purely artificial, this bulb will be found at the butt-end -of the larger flat face, and the hollow depressions, or portions of -depressions, on all the other facets. If on a splinter of flint such a -bulb occurs, it proves that it must have resulted from a blow, in all -probability, but not of necessity, given by human agency; but where the -bulb is on the principal face, and analogous depressions, or portions -of them, are visible on the several other faces, and at the same end -of a flake, all of them presenting the same character, |275| and in a -definite arrangement, it is in the highest degree probable that such -a combination of blows must be the result of design, and the features -presented are almost as good a warrant for the human origin of the -flake as would be the maker’s name upon it. When, however, several of -such flakes are found together, each bearing these marks of being the -result of several successive blows, all conducing to form a symmetrical -knife-like flake,[1163] it becomes a certainty that they have been the -work of intelligent beings. - -In size and proportions flakes vary considerably, the longest English -specimens that I have seen being as much as 8 or 9 inches long, while -some, which still appear to have been made use of as tools, are not -more than an inch in length. Their proportional breadth is almost as -variable. - -With regard to the classification and nomenclature of these objects, -I would suggest that the name of flake should be limited to such -artificial splinters of flint as, either in their section or outline, -or in both, present a certain amount of symmetry, and appearance of -design; and that the ruder forms, such as would result from chipping -some large object into shape, without any regard to the form of the -parts removed, should be called chips or spalls.[1164] Such as show -no bulb of percussion may be termed splinters. The Scottish name for -flakes is “skelbs.” - -The inner, or flat face of a flake, is that produced by the blow which -dislodged it from the parent block, core, or nucleus. The outer, ridged -or convex face comprises the other facets, or, in some instances, the -natural surface of the flint. The base, or butt-end of a flake, is that -at which the blows to form it were administered; the other end is the -point. - -Flakes may be subdivided into— - -1. External, or those which have been struck off by a single blow -from the outer surface of a nodule of flint. Many of these are as -symmetrical as those resulting from a more complicated process of -manufacture, and they have frequently been utilized, especially for -scrapers. - -2. Ridged flakes, or those presenting a triangular section. One face -of these sometimes presents the external crust of the flint, as in -Fig. 190. In others, the ridge has been formed by transverse |276| -chipping, as is the case with the long flakes from Pressigny (Fig. 6), -but this method appears to have been almost unknown in Britain. - -3. Flat, where the external face is nearly parallel to the internal, -and the two edges are formed by narrow facets, as in Fig. 200. - -4. Polygonal, where the external face consists of many facets, as in -Fig. 192. - -These several varieties may be long or short, broad or narrow, straight -or curved, thick or thin, pointed or obtuse. The character of the base -may also vary, being rounded or flat, thick or thin, broad or narrow. - -The cores from which flakes have been struck are, of course, of various -forms, some having had only one or two flakes removed from them, -and others several. In the latter case they are often more or less -regularly polygonal, though only few of the facets will be of the full -breadth of the flakes, as the external face of every successive flake -carries off some part of the traces of those previously struck off. Not -unfrequently some of the facets are arrested at a little distance from -the end where the blows were struck, in consequence of the flake having -broken short off, instead of the fissure continuing to the end of the -block. Occasionally, and more especially on the Yorkshire Wolds, the -nuclei are very small, and much resemble in character those found, with -numerous flakes, in India, in the neighbourhood of Jubbulpore.[1165] - -It has been suggested[1166] that cores were occasionally made on -purpose for use as tools; but this appears very doubtful. Of course, -if a core were at hand, and seemed capable of serving some special -purpose, it would be utilized. - -[Illustration: Fig. 189.—Weaverthorpe. 1∕1] - - * * * * * - -The core here engraved of the full size in Fig. 189 was found by myself -at Weaverthorpe, Yorkshire. I have already suggested that in striking -off such small flakes as those removed from this core, some sort of -punch may have been used, instead of the blows being administered -directly by a hammer. We have no conclusive evidence as to the purpose -to which such minute flakes were applied, but they may have been -fashioned into drills or scraping or boring tools, of very diminutive -size. Such small objects are so liable to escape observation, that -though they may exist in considerable numbers, they are but rarely -found on the |277| surface of the ground. Numerous flakes, however, -quite as minute, with their edges showing evident signs of wear, are -present among the refuse left by the cave-dwellers of the Reindeer -Period of the South of France. As will subsequently be seen, these -minute flakes have been also found in Egypt and in Asia, as well as -in Britain. See Fig. 232 A to 232 F. There is a class of ancient -Scandinavian harpoon-heads, the stems of which are formed of bone with -small flint flakes cemented into a groove on either side so as to form -barbs. Knives of the same kind are subsequently mentioned. - -Among the Australians[1167] we find very minute splinters of flint and -quartz secured to wooden handles by “black-boy” gum, and forming the -teeth of rude saws and the barbs of javelins. Some remarkably small -flakes have also been found in the diamond-diggings of South Africa in -company with fragments of ostrich-egg shell, such as with the aid of -the flakes might have been converted into the small perforated discs -still worn as ornaments by the Bushmen. - -There are but few published notices of the discovery of English cores -of flint, though they are to be found in numbers over a considerable -tract of country, especially where flint abounds. - -I have recorded their finding at Redhill,[1168] near Reigate, and -at Little Solsbury Hill,[1169] near Bath. I also possess numerous -specimens from Herts, Gloucestershire, Sussex, Bedfordshire, Suffolk, -and Yorkshire. In several instances two series of flakes have been -struck off, the one set at right angles to the other. More rarely the -flakes have been obtained from both ends of the block. - -A core from the Fens[1170] is in the Museum of the Cambridge -Antiquarian Society, and several were found, with other worked flints, -in the chambered Long Barrow at West Kennet, Wiltshire. - -Numerous specimens from Peter’s Finger, near Salisbury, and elsewhere, -are in the Blackmore Museum; and a number were found by General Pitt -Rivers in his researches at Cissbury, Sussex, and by Canon Greenwell -at Grime’s Graves.[1171] Mr. Joseph Stevens has described specimens -from St. Mary Bourne,[1172] Hants. They are recorded also as found with -flakes at Port St. Mary,[1173] Isle of Man. - -A long bludgeon-shaped nodule of flint, from one end of which a -succession of flakes had been struck, was found in a grave, with a -contracted skeleton, in a barrow near Winterbourn Stoke,[1174] Wilts. - -Illustrations of cores, and of the manner in which flakes have been -struck from them, have been given by various authors.[1175] - -The existence of flakes involves the necessity of there having been -cores from which they were struck; and as silicious flakes occur in -almost all known countries, so also do cores. A series of French -_nuclei_ is |278| figured by Mortillet,[1176] and a fine example from -Olonetz,[1177] Russia, by Worsaae. They have also been found in the -Arabian desert.[1178] Those of large size and of regular polygonal form -are rare in Britain and Ireland, and, indeed, generally in Europe. -Some of the largest and most regular occur in Scandinavia. I have also -some good examples from Belgium. Many of the cores from Spiennes, near -Mons, were subsequently utilized as celts; and the same was the case to -some extent at Pressigny, the large cores from which have already been -described. The Mexican[1179] and East Indian[1180] forms, in obsidian -and cherty flint, have also been mentioned. They are unsurpassed for -symmetry and for the skill exhibited in removing flakes from them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 190.—Newhaven. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 191.—Redhill. Reigate. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 192.—Icklingham. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 193.—Seaford. 1∕2] - -It is worthy of remark that cores and flakes of obsidian, almost -identical in character with those from Mexico, but generally of -small size, have been found in Greece, principally in the island of -Melos.[1181] Specimens are in the Christy Collection, and I possess -several. Obsidian nuclei are also found in Hungary. - -Simple flakes and splinters of flint have been found in considerable -numbers over almost the whole of Britain. Of the four here shown, -Fig. 190 was found near Newhaven, Sussex; Fig. 191 near Reigate, -Surrey; Fig. 192 near Icklingham, Suffolk; and Fig. 193 at Seaford, -Sussex. At each of these places they occur in great numbers on the -surface, and near Reigate some thousands were collected nearly forty -years ago by Mr. Shelley,[1182] of whose discoveries I have given an -account elsewhere. The counties in which they principally abound are -perhaps |279| Cornwall,[1183] Devonshire,[1184] Dorsetshire, Wilts, -Hants,[1185] Surrey,[1186] Oxfordshire,[1187] Sussex, Suffolk, Norfolk, -Derbyshire, Lancashire,[1188] and Yorkshire; but they may be said to be -ubiquitous. In some parts of Devonshire, and especially near Croyde, -they occur in great numbers, so great, indeed, as to have led Mr. -Whitley[1189] to suppose them to have been formed by natural causes -rather than by human agency. Far more rational accounts of them have -been given by Mr. Townshend M. Hall,[1190] Mr. H. S. Ellis,[1191] and -Mr. C. Spence Bate.[1192] - -Flakes and splinters of flint frequently occur in and around ancient -encampments and settlements, as well as in association with interments -both by cremation and inhumation. Many of the immense number of -“spear-heads” collected by Mr. Bateman in his investigations were -of the simple flake form, and others were flakes with but slight -secondary working at the edges, such as will hereafter be noticed. -Many other instruments which he discovered were merely flakes, such -as the thick-backed cutting instrument of flint three inches long, -with a bronze dagger and two small balls of stone, in a barrow -containing a skeleton near Pickering,[1193] which would appear to -have been of this character. They occurred with burnt bones in -cinerary urns at Broughton,[1194] Lincolnshire, in one case with a -flat bronze arrow-head; at Summer Hill,[1195] near Canterbury; with a -flint arrow-head at Sittingbourne;[1196] with burnt bones and bronze -daggers in a barrow at Teddington,[1197] Middlesex; at Penhow,[1198] -Monmouth; and in the Gristhorpe Barrow,[1199] near Scarborough; with -burnt bones in a circle of stones near Llanaber,[1200] Merionethshire, -where no flint occurs naturally; with burnt bones in an urn beneath -a tumulus at Brynbugeilen,[1201] Llangollen; in a barrow near -Blackbury Castle,[1202] Devon; and in one on Dartmoor;[1203] and -at Hollingsclough and Upper Edge,[1204] Derbyshire. Flakes, not of -flint, but of a hard silicious grit, occurred in a cist with burnt -bones near Harlech;[1205] and of some other hard stone in a cist in -Merionethshire.[1206] Other instances have been cited by General Pitt -Rivers,[1207] who found several rough flakes and splinters of grit -and felspathic ash in cairns near Bangor, North Wales. Some of these -showed signs of rubbing and use on their edges; in some cases they had -the appearance of having been scraped by metal. Whether they were the -weapons and tools of the people buried in the cairns, or |280| merely -votive offerings, appeared to be somewhat doubtful. The urns associated -with them were such as might well belong to the Bronze Period. - -Flint flakes are described as found in graves with contracted -interments at Amble,[1208] Northumberland; Driffield,[1209] Yorkshire; -Ballidon Moor,[1210] Derbyshire; Littleton Drew,[1211] and Winterbourn -Stoke,[1212] Wilts. Canon Greenwell[1213] has also found them in -great numbers with interments of different characters. They occurred -with extended burials at Oakley Park,[1214] near Cirencester. In some -of the long barrows they are especially numerous, upwards of three -hundred having been found by Dr. Thurnam at West Kennet,[1215] while -there were three only in that of Rodmarton,[1216] and two were found -at the base of the cairn in the chambered tumulus at Uley,[1217] -Gloucestershire. Another accompanied a skeleton in a long barrow near -Littleton Drew.[1218] Sir Richard Colt Hoare speaks of a great quantity -of chipped flints, prepared for arrows or lances, as having been found -in barrows on Long Street Down,[1219] and at Brigmilston, Wilts;[1220] -but, as a rule, he seems not to have taken much notice of such simple -forms. Others have been discovered with ashes at Helmingham,[1221] -Suffolk. - -It is, however, needless, to cite more instances of their occurrence -with interments belonging to the Stone and Bronze Ages, as the presence -of flakes and chippings of flint is in such cases the rule rather than -the exception. - -In Scotland, where flint is a scarcer natural product, they are also -found. As instances, I may cite one found in an urn within a cist at -Tillicoultry,[1222] Clackmannanshire; and in a cist in Arran.[1223] In -some parts of Aberdeenshire[1224] and Banffshire they are numerous, -and in the Buchan district are associated with shell mounds, or -kjökken-möddings. They occur also in Lanarkshire and Elgin.[1225] In -Orkney[1226] they abound: as also at the Bin of Cullen,[1227] where -a manufactory of arrow-heads seems to have existed. In cists in -Roxburghshire[1228] were sepulchral urns and numerous flint flakes; -and in Argyllshire[1229] there were in a cist with a skeleton flint -flakes in such numbers as to form a heap from eighteen inches to two -feet in height. Some of white quartz have been found associated with -arrow-heads in Banffshire.[1230] Little heaps[1231] of six or eight -were found in each corner of a grave at Clashfarquhar, Aberdeen. They -abound on the sand-hills near Glenluce and on the Culbin Sands. - -Of ancient encampments or settlements where flint flakes occur in -|281| numbers, I may mention Maiden Bower, near Dunstable; Pulpit -Wood, near Prince’s Risborough; Cissbury,[1232] Beltout Castle, -and other encampments in Sussex; Little Solsbury Hill, near Bath; -Castle Ring,[1233] Cannock Chase; Avebury,[1234] Wilts; and Callow -Hill,[1235] Oxfordshire. They have been found in wonderful abundance -on the surface in the counties already mentioned, and their occurrence -has been noticed near Bradford Abbas;[1236] near Folkestone;[1237] -at Possingworth Manor,[1238] Uckfield; near Hastings;[1239] at -Stonham[1240] and Icklingham, Suffolk; near Grime’s Graves, -Norfolk;[1241] at St. Mary Bourne,[1242] Hants; and in a turbary -at Heneglwys,[1243] Anglesea, an island in which no flint occurs -naturally. Two from Carno, Montgomeryshire, are engraved in the -_Archæologia Cambrensis_.[1244] They have also been found under a -submerged forest on the coast of West Somerset.[1245] I have seen a few -flakes made from Lower Tertiary conglomerate. - -In districts where flint was an imported luxury, other stones, usually -containing a large proportion of silica, and when broken presenting a -conchoidal fracture, served, so far as the material allowed, the same -purposes as flint. Of this a few instances have already been given. -In some cases even laminated sandstones, shales, and slates seem to -have been utilized. Numerous relics of this kind, some so rude that -their purposes may appear doubtful, were found by the late Mr. S. -Laing,[1246] in Caithness. Large oval flakes, made from sandstone -pebbles, occurred in very great numbers in and around the ancient -dwelling at Skaill, Orkney. In form, however, these approximate more -nearly to the Pict’s knives, of which hereafter, than to ordinary -flakes. The method of their manufacture has been described by Mr. -Laing.[1247] - -A curious stone knife or dagger, found beside a stone cist in -Perthshire,[1248] is described as a natural formation of mica-schist, -the peculiar shape of which has suggested its adaptation as a rude but -efficient implement. - -Some rude spear-heads of flint and greenstone are said to have been -found near Pytchley,[1249] Northamptonshire; and some of Kentish rag at -Maidstone.[1250] I have also seen them made of Oolitic flint. - -Flakes of quartzite have been found, together with some of flint and -quartz and with polished celts, in some of the caverns inhabited during -the Neolithic Period in the Pyrenees of the Ariège,[1251] and also in -the Lake Settlement of Greug.[1252] - - * * * * * - -When we consider how well adapted for cutting purposes were |282| -these simple flakes of flint, and how they constituted, as it were, -the raw material for so many of the more finished forms, such as -arrow-heads, of which the consumption in ancient times must have been -enormous; and when, moreover, we take into account that in producing a -well-formed flake many waste flakes and mere splinters must probably -have been struck off, and that in forming the large implements of flint -almost innumerable chips or spalls must have been made, their abundance -on the sites of ancient dwelling-places is by no means surprising, -especially as the material of which they are formed is almost -indestructible. - -Such fragments of flint must have been among the daily necessities of -ancient savage life, and we can well understand the feeling which led -the survivors of the departed hunter to place in his grave not only -the finished weapons of the chase, but the material from which to form -them, as a provision for him in “the happy hunting grounds,” the only -entrance to which was through the gate of Death. - -The occurrence of flint chips and potsherds in the soil of which -barrows are composed, may in some cases be merely the result of their -being made up of earth gathered from the surface of the ground, which -from previous occupation by man was bestrewn with such remains. It is, -however, often otherwise, especially when the flakes are in immediate -association with the interment. The practice of throwing a stone on -a cairn is no doubt a relic of an ancient custom.[1253] The “shards, -flint, and pebbles” which Ophelia should have had thrown on her in her -grave may, as has been suggested by Canon Greenwell,[1254] point to -a sacred Pagan custom remembered in Christian times, but then deemed -irreligious and unholy. - -The presence of flint flakes in ancient graves is not, however, -limited to those of the so-called Stone and Bronze Periods, but they -occur with even more recent interments. For it seems probable that -the flint was in some cases buried as a fire-producing agent, and not -as the material for tools or weapons. In a cist at Lesmurdie,[1255] -Banffshire, apparently of early date, were some chips of flint which -appeared to the discoverer to have been originally accompanied by a -steel or piece of iron and tinder. The oxide of iron may, however, -have been merely the result of |283| the decomposition of a piece -of iron pyrites. At Worle Hill,[1256] Somersetshire, “flint flakes, -prepared for arrow-heads,” were found with iron spear-heads and -other objects, though it is very doubtful whether they were in true -association. In Saxon graves,[1257] however, small nests of chipped -flints are not unfrequent, and the same is the case with Merovingian -and Frankish interments, sometimes accompanied by the steels or -_briquets_,[1258] at other times without them. I have a wrought flint -of this class, curiously like a modern gun-flint, from an early -German grave near Wiesbaden. Occasionally flakes of other materials -than flint occur. Their presence in graves is regarded by M. Baudot -as due to a reminiscence of some ancient rite of sepulchre. In the -Anglo-Saxon burial-ground at Harnham Hill,[1259] near Salisbury, and -at Ozengal, steels were also found. Canon Greenwell found a steel, in -form much like those of modern date, in a Saxon grave at Uncleby in -the East Riding of Yorkshire. As has been pointed out by Mr. Akerman, -Scheffer[1260] informs us that so late as the seventeenth century, the -Lapps were buried with their axe, bow, and arrows, and a flint and -steel, to be used both in a life to come and in finding their way to -the scene of their future existence. - -Flakes and rudely chipped pieces of flint are also of very common -occurrence on the sites of Roman occupation, as, for instance, at -Hardham,[1261] Sussex, where Prof. Boyd Dawkins found them associated -with Roman pottery. At Moel Fenlli,[1262] also, in the vale of Clwyd, -there occurred with Roman pottery some flint flakes which have been -figured as arrow-heads, and with them what is termed a stone knife, -but which is, however, more probably a whetstone used to sharpen those -of steel. I have myself noticed flint flakes at Regulbium (Reculver), -Verulamium (St. Alban’s), and on other Roman sites. Many of them were -no doubt used for producing fire, but the more finished flakes may -possibly have served as carpenters’ tools for scraping, in the same way -as fragments of glass are in use at the present day. - -There is, however, another cause why rude splinters of flint |284| -should accompany Roman remains, especially in the case of villas -in country districts, for the _tribulum_, or threshing implement -employed both by the Romans and other ancient civilized nations, -was a “sharp threshing instrument having teeth,”[1263] in most -cases of flint. Varro[1264] thus describes the _tribulum_:—“Id fit -e tabulâ lapidibus aut ferro exasperatâ, quæ imposito auriga aut -pondere grandi trahitur jumentis junctis ut discutiat e spicâ grana.” -Another form of the instrument was called _traha_ or _trahea_. In the -East, in Northern Africa, Spain, Portugal, Madeira, Teneriffe, and -probably other parts of the world, threshing implements, which no -doubt closely resemble the original _tribula_, are still in use. The -name is still preserved in the Italian _trebbiatrice_, the Spanish -_trilla_, and the Portuguese _trilho_, but survives, metaphorically -alone, in our English _tribulation_. In Egypt their name is _nureg_, -and in Greece ἁλωνίιστρα, from ἁλωνία, a threshing-floor. Drawings of -various _tribula_ have been given by various travellers,[1265] and -the implements themselves from different countries may be seen in the -Christy Collection and in the Blackmore Museum. They are flat sledges -of wood, five to six feet in length, and two or three in breadth, the -under side pitted with a number of square or lozenge-shaped holes, -mortised a little distance into the wood, and having in each hole a -flake or splinter of stone. I have seen them in Spain mounted with -simple pebbles. In those from Madeira the stone is a volcanic rock, -but in that from Aleppo—preserved in the Christy Collection,[1266] -and shown in Fig. 194—each flake is of cherty flint and has been -artificially shaped. Occasionally there are a few projecting ribs or -runners of iron along part of the machine, but in most instances the -whole of the armature is of stone. As each _trilho_ is provided with -some hundreds of chipped stones, we can readily understand what a -number of rough flakes might be left in the soil at places where they -were long in use, in addition to the flakes and splinters which for -centuries have been used for striking a light. - -[Illustration: Fig. 194—Tribulum from Aleppo.] - -Flakes and splinters of silicious stone, whether flint, jasper, chert, -iron-stone, quartzite, or obsidian, are to be found in almost all -known countries, and belong to all ages. They are in fact |285| the -most catholic of all stone implements, and have been in use “semper, -ubique, et ab omnibus.” Whether we look in our old River-gravels of the -age of the mammoth, in our old cave-deposits, our ancient encampments, -or our modern gun-flint manufactories, |286| there is the inevitable -flake. And it is almost universally the same in other countries—in -Greenland or South Africa, on the field of Marathon or in the backwoods -of Australia, among the sands of Arabia[1267] or on the plains of -America,—wherever such flakes and splinters are sought for, they are -almost sure to be found, either in use among the savage occupants of -the country at the present day, or among civilized nations, left in the -soil as memorials of their more or less remote barbarian ancestors. - - * * * * * - -Flint flakes are found in great abundance in Ireland, especially in -Ulster, where the raw material occurs in the chalk. At Toome Bridge, -on the shores of Lough Neagh, many thousands have been found, and -they occur in abundance in the valley of the Bann,[1268] and in -slightly raised beaches along the shores of Belfast Lough. They are -rarely more than 4 or 5 inches in length; and symmetrical, flat, -parallel flakes are extremely rare. Many pointed flakes have been -slightly trimmed[1269] at the butt-end, and converted into a sort of -lance-head without further preparation. Such flakes may have pointed -fishing-spears. They are occasionally formed of Lydian stone. - -In Scandinavia, the art of flaking flint attained to great perfection, -and flat or ridged symmetrical flakes, as much as 6 inches long, and -not more than 3∕4-inch wide, are by no means uncommon. Occasionally -they are no less than 13 inches long.[1270] Two in the Museum at -Copenhagen[1271] (9 inches) fit the one on the other. The ridge is -sometimes formed by cross-chipping. The bulk of the flakes from the -kjökken-möddings are of a rude character, though very many show traces -of use. - -In Germany, long flakes of flint are rare, but one about 6 1∕2 inches -long, found in Rhenish-Hesse, is engraved by Lindenschmit.[1272] - -In some parts of France they are extremely plentiful, especially on and -around the sites of ancient flint _ateliers_. Some flakes, like those -produced at Pressigny, were of great length. One not less than 13 1∕4 -inches long, and not more than 1 1∕2 inches broad at the butt, found at -Pauilhac, in the Valley of the Gers, has been figured in the _Revue de -Gascogne_.[1273] A flake from Gergovia, 9 inches long, is in the Museum -at Clermont Ferrand. - -One 8 3∕4 inches long was found in the Camp de Catenoy[1274] (Oise). - -Long flakes found in France have been engraved by numerous -authors,[1275] and some from Belgium by Le Hon.[1276] - -Obsidian cores and flakes have been found in Lorraine,[1277] the -material having been brought from Auvergne. |287| - -Flakes occur, but not so abundantly, in Spain and Portugal. A -fragment of a ridged flake of jasper, found in the cave of Albuñol in -Spain,[1278] is 1 1∕2 inches long. In one of the Genista Caves[1279] at -Gibraltar there was found one of the long flakes, but of which a part -had been broken off. Another was 6 1∕2 inches long and 5∕8 inch wide. -In Algarve,[1280] Portugal, they have been found up to 15 inches in -length; some of them are beautifully serrated at the edges. - -In Italy they are by no means uncommon, sometimes of great length. One, -7 inches long, is figured by Nicolucci.[1281] - -Among the Swiss Lake-dwellers considerable use was made of flint -flakes, not only as the material for arrow-heads, but for cutting -tools. So great was the abundance of flint left on the site of some of -their habitations, as at Nussdorf,[1282] that in after ages the spot -was resorted to for generations, in order to procure flints for use -with steel. It was by their being thus known as flint-producing spots -that some of the Lake-dwellings were discovered. A flake nearly 7 -inches long, from peat, in the Canton de Vaud, has been engraved by De -Bonstetten.[1283] - -A flake 9 inches long from Transcaucasia[1284] has been figured. - -In Egypt[1285] flakes of flint have been found in considerable -numbers in certain localities, some of them associated with polished -stone hatchets; others are possibly of no extreme antiquity, though -undoubtedly of artificial origin, and not of merely natural formation, -as has been suggested by Lepsius.[1286] That distinguished antiquary -has, however, found a number of well-formed ridged and polygonal flakes -in Egypt, some of them in a grave which he has reason to assign to -about 2500 B.C. - -A vast number of discoveries of flint flakes and other forms of worked -flints has, of late years, been made in Egypt. It will probably be -sufficient to indicate in a note[1287] some of the principal memoirs -relating to the subject. They are found also in the Libyan[1288] -desert. The discoveries at Helouan will be subsequently mentioned. - -The presence of numerous flakes, scrapers and other forms of flint -instruments, has also been noticed in Algeria.[1289] They are for the -most part rude and small. - -Flint flakes and tools are found on Mount Lebanon,[1290] and on the -Nablus[1291] road from Jerusalem there are mounds entirely composed of -flint chippings. |288| - -[Illustration: Fig. 195.—Admiralty Islands.] - -In Southern Africa,[1292] near Capetown and Grahamstown, flakes abound -on the surface of the ground, sometimes of chert or flint, but often of -basaltic rock. I have one from Grahamstown 8 inches in length. - -Their occurrence in India has already been noticed. The flakes from -Jubbulpore[1293] are for the most part of small size, but some of those -removed from the cores found in the river Indus must have been at least -5 or 6 inches long. - -In America, flint, or rather horn-stone flakes, are not uncommon, -though not so often noticed as the more finished forms. Some found in -the mounds of Ohio are of considerable length, one engraved by Squier -and Davis[1294] being 5 1∕2 inches long. Some of the Mexican flakes of -obsidian are fully 6 inches in length. - - * * * * * - -In ancient times the Ichthyophagi are described by Diodorus[1295] as -using antelopes’ horns and stones broken to a sharp edge in their -fishing, “for necessity teaches everything.” Flakes are still in some -cases used without any secondary chipping or working into form. - -We find, for instance, flakes of flint or obsidian, and even of glass, -almost in the condition in which they were struck from the parent -block, employed as lance and javelin-heads, among several savage -people, such as the natives of Australia,[1296] and of the Admiralty -Islands.[1297] One of those said to be in use among the latter people -is shown, half-size, in Fig. 195,[1298] and exhibits the method of -attachment to the shaft. The butt-end of the flake is let into a socket -in a short tapering piece of wood, into the other extremity of which -the end of the long |289| light shaft is inserted; both flake and -shaft are next secured by tying, and then the whole of the socket and -ligatures is covered up with a coating of resinous gum, occasionally -decorated with zigzag and other patterns. Some flakes are mounted as -daggers. - -Some of the long parallel flakes also appear to have been hafted. -One such, probably from Mexico, has been engraved by Aldrovandus as -a _culter lapideus_.[1299] A tool in use among the natives of Easter -Island[1300] consisted of a broad flake of obsidian, with a roughly -chipped tang which was inserted in a slit in the handle to which it was -bound, the binding being tightened by means of wooden wedges driven in -under the string. - -To return, however, to the flakes of flint which were used in this -country for scraping or cutting purposes, at an early period, when -metal was either unknown or comparatively scarce. Each flake, when -dexterously made, has on either side a cutting edge, so sharp that it -almost might, like the obsidian flakes of Mexico, be used as a razor. -Some flakes indeed seem to have served as surgical instruments, as -the practice of trephining was known in the Stone Period. So long as -the edge is used merely for cutting soft substances it may remain for -some time comparatively uninjured, and even if slightly jagged its -cutting power is not impaired. If long in use, the sides of the blade -become rather polished by wear, and I have specimens, both English -and foreign, on which the polish thus produced can be observed. If -the flake has been used for scraping a surface, say, for instance, of -bone or wood, the edge will be found to wear away, by extremely minute -portions chipping off nearly at right angles to the scraping edge, and -with the lines of fracture running back from it. The coarseness of -these minute chips will vary in accordance with the amount of pressure -used, and the material scraped; but generally speaking, I think that -I am right in saying that they are more delicate and at a more obtuse -angle to the face, than the small chipping produced by the secondary -working of the edge of a flake, of which I shall presently speak. In -all cases where any considerable number of flakes of flint occur, such -as there appears to be good reason for attributing to a remote period, -a greater or less proportion of them will, on examination, be found to -bear these signs of wear upon them, extending over, at all events, some -portion of their edges. |290| - -It is, however, difficult if not impossible, always to determine -whether the chipping away of the edge of a flake is merely the result -of use, or whether it is intentional. There can be no doubt that for -many purposes the acute edge of a flake, as originally formed, was too -delicate and brittle, and that it was therefore re-worked by subsequent -chipping, so as to make the angle more obtuse, and thus strengthen -the edge of the tool. It is curious to observe how rarely the edges -of flakes were sharpened by grinding. It was probably considered less -troublesome to form a new flake than to sharpen an old one; in the -same way as it is recorded that the Mexican barbers threw away their -obsidian flakes as soon as they were dull and made use of new ones. -Dr. E. B. Tylor, in the free translation of the passage in Torquemada -relating to these razors, appears, as has been pointed out by Messrs. -Daubrée and Roulin,[1301] to have fallen into a mistake in representing -them to have been sharpened on a hone, the original author having -merely said that the edge of the obsidian flakes was as keen as if they -had been forged in iron, ground on a stone, and finished on a hone. - - * * * * * - -British flakes with ground edges are by no means common. One from -Yorkshire, in my own collection, is a thin, flat, external flake, -having both edges (which are parallel) ground from both faces to an -angle of about 60°. It has, unfortunately, been broken square across, -about 2 inches from the butt-end, and is 1 inch wide at the fracture. -Another, from Bridlington, is an ovate flat external flake, produced, -not by art, but by natural fracture, and having one side brought to a -sharp edge by grinding on both faces. With the exception of its being -partially chipped into shape at both ends, this grinding is all that -has been done to convert a mere splinter of flint into a serviceable -tool. It is an interesting example of the selection of a natural form, -where adapted for a particular purpose, in preference to making the -whole implement by hand. The small celt, Fig. 31, affords an analogous -instance. In the Greenwell Collection are also two or three very rude -flakes from the Yorkshire Wolds, which are ground at some portion of -their edges. - -In a barrow on Seamer Moor, Yorkshire, the late Lord -Londesborough[1302] found, with other relics, a delicate knife made -from a flake of flint, 4 1∕4 inches long, and dexterously ground. -A trimmed flake, like Fig. 239, some small celts, and delicate -lozenge-shaped arrow-heads, like Fig. 276, were also present. The whole -are now in the British Museum. - -A flake, from Charleston, in the East Riding, presented to me by Canon -Greenwell, is shown in Fig. 196. It is of thin triangular section, -slightly bowed longitudinally, having one edge, which appears to have -|291| been originally blunt, sharpened by secondary working. The other -edge has been sharpened to an angle of about 45° by grinding both on -the inner and outer faces of the flake. The point, which is irregular -in shape, is rounded over either by friction or by grinding. It seems -well adapted for use as a knife when held between the ball of the thumb -and the end of the first finger, without the intervention of any handle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 196.—Charleston. 1∕2] - -Another specimen, 4 inches long, ground to a sharp edge along one side, -was in the collection of the late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S., and is now -in mine. It was found near Thetford. - -Mr. Flower had also a flake from High Street, near Chislet, Kent, with -both edges completely blunted by grinding, perhaps in scraping stone. - -I have two trimmed flakes with the edges carefully ground, from the -neighbourhood of Icklingham, Suffolk, and another ridged flake, 2 3∕8 -inches long, pointed at one end and rounded at the other, one side of -which has been carefully ground at the edge. I found it in a field -of my own, in the parish of Abbot’s Langley, Herts. Canon Greenwell -obtained another 2 1∕2 inches long, ground on both edges, from -Mildenhall Fen. - -I have seen a flake about 3 inches long, with the edge ground, that -had been found on the top of the cliffs at Bournemouth; and another, -from a barrow near Stonehenge, in the possession of the late Mr. Frank -Buckland. - -A flat flake, with a semicircular end, and ground at the edges so as -to form “a beautiful thin ovoidal knife three and a half inches long,” -was found by Dr. Thurnam,[1303] with many other worked flints, in the -chambered long barrow at West Kennet, Wilts. Another, carefully ground -at one edge, was found by Sir R. Colt Hoare,[1304] at Everley. - -An oval knife, about 2 inches long, ground at the edge and over a great -part of the convex face, found at Micheldean, Gloucestershire, is in -the museum at Truro. - -A cutting instrument, with a very keen edge, nicely polished, is -recorded as having been found, with twenty other flint implements or -tools of various shapes, accompanying a skeleton, in a barrow near -Pickering.[1305] A so-called spear-head, neatly chipped and rubbed, was -found with burnt bones in another barrow near the same place.[1306] - -A few flat flakes, ground at the edge, have been discovered -in Scotland. One 2 1∕2 inches long was found at Cromar,[1307] -Aberdeenshire; and a portion of another in a cairn in Caithness,[1308] -in company with a polished perforated hammer and other objects. - -Irish flakes are rarely sharpened by grinding. I have, however, one of -Lydian stone,[1309] found in Lough Neagh, and ground to an edge at the -end. - -In form the Charleston flake, Fig. 196, much resembles some of the -Swiss flakes, which, from examples that have been found in the |292| -Lake-dwellings, are proved to have been mounted in handles. One of -these, from Nussdorf, in the Ueberlinger See,[1310] is in my own -collection, and is shown in Fig. 197. It is fastened into a yew-wood -handle by an apparently bituminous cement. The edge has been formed -by secondary chipping on the ridged face of the flake. I am unable to -say whether the edge of the flake still embedded in the wood is left -as originally produced or no, but several unmounted flakes from the -same locality have been re-chipped on both edges. In some instances, -however, only one edge is thus worked. In the case of many of the small -narrow flakes from the Dordogne caves, one edge is much worn away, -and the other as sharp as ever, as if it had been protected by being -inserted in a wooden handle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 197.—Nussdorf. 1∕2] - -From the hole in the handle, this form of instrument would appear -to have been carried attached to a string, like a sailor’s knife at -the present day—a similarity probably due to the somewhat analogous -conditions of life of the old Lake-dwellers to those of seamen. In some -French and Swiss flakes[1311] which seem to have been used in a similar -manner, the ends are squared, and a central notch worked in each, -apparently for the reception of a cord. In this case, a loop at the end -of the cord would answer the same purpose as the hole in the handle, -which with these flakes seem to have been needless. They are abundant -at Pressigny. - -A pointed flake in the museum at Berne[1312] is hafted like a dagger, -in a wooden handle, which is bound round with a cord made from rushes. - -Some of the Swiss handles are not bored, and occasionally they are -prolonged at one end to twice the length of the flint, so as to form -a handle like that of a table-knife, the flint flake, though let in -to a continuation of the handle, projecting and forming the blade. In -some cases there is a handle at each end, like those of a spoke-shave. -The handles are of yew, deal, and more rarely of stags’-horn; and the -implements, though usually termed saws, are not regularly serrated, and -may with equal propriety be termed knives. - -The late Sir Edward Belcher showed me an Eskimo “flensing knife,” from -Icy Cape, hafted in much the same manner. The blade is an ovate piece -of slate about 5 inches long, and is let into a handle made of several -pieces of wood, extending along nearly half the circumference, and -secured together by resin. Other specimens of the same kind are in the -British Museum, and in the Ethnological Museum at Copenhagen. The stone -blades are more like the flat Picts’[1313] knives, |293| such as Fig. -263, than ordinary flint flakes. An iron blade, hafted in a closely -analogous manner by the Eskimos, is engraved by Nilsson.[1314] - -As already mentioned, some of the Australian savages about King -George’s Sound make knives or saws on a somewhat similar plan; but -instead of one long flake they attach a number of small flakes in a row -in a matrix of hard resin at one end of a stick. Spears are formed in -the same manner. - -In other cases, however, flakes are differently hafted. One such is -shown in Fig. 198, from an original in the Christy Collection. One -edge of this flake has been entirely removed by chipping so as to -form a thick, somewhat rounded back, not unlike that of an ordinary -knife-blade, though rather thicker in proportion to the width of the -blade. The butt-end has then had a portion of the hairy skin of some -animal bound over it with a cord, so as to give it a sort of haft, and -effectually protect the hand that held it. The material of the flake -appears to be horn-stone. Another knife of the same character, from -Queensland, is in the Museum of the Hartley Institution at Southampton. - -[Illustration: Fig. 198.—Australia. 1∕2] - -Another example, from the Murray River,[1315] but without the skin -handle, has been figured. - -A friend in Queensland tried to procure one of these knives for me, but -what he obtained was a flake of glass made from a gin bottle, and the -wrapping was of calico instead of kangaroo-skin. Iron blades[1316] are -sometimes hafted in the same way with a piece of skin. Some Australian -jasper or flint knives,[1317] from Carandotta, are hafted with gum, and -provided with sheaths made of sedge. These gum-hafted knives are in use -on the Herbert River[1318] for certain surgical operations. - -Some surface-chipped obsidian knives from California are hafted by -having a strip of otter skin wound round them, and Prof. Flinders -Petrie[1319] has found an Egyptian flint knife hafted with fibre lashed -round with a cord. - -Occasionally flakes of quartz or other silicious stone were mounted at -the end of short handles by the Australians, so as to form a kind of -dagger or chisel. One such has been engraved by the Rev. J. G. |294| -Wood.[1320] Another is in the Museum of the Hartley Institution at -Southampton. - -In the Berlin Museum[1321] is a curious knife, found, I believe, -in Prussia, which shows great skill in the adaptation of flint for -cutting purposes. It consists of a somewhat lanceolate piece of bone, -about 7 1∕4 inches long, and at the utmost 1∕2 inch wide, and 1∕4 -inch thick. The section is approximately oval, but along one of the -narrow sides a groove has been worked, and in this are inserted a -series of segments of thin flakes of flint, so carefully chosen as -to be almost of one thickness, and so dexterously fitted together -that their edges constitute one continuous sharp blade, projecting -about three-sixteenths of an inch from the bone. In some examples -from Scandinavia the flint flakes are let in on both edges of the -blade.[1322] The flakes sometimes form barbs, as already mentioned. - -The Mexican[1323] swords, formed of flakes of obsidian attached to a -blade of wood, were of somewhat the same character, and remains of what -appears to have been an analogous sword, armed with flint flakes, have -been found in one of the mounds of the Iroquois country. - -Another use to which pointed flint flakes have occasionally been -applied is for the formation of fishing-hooks. Such a hook, the stem -formed of bone, and the returning point made of flint bound at an -acute angle to the end of the bone, has been engraved by Klemm.[1324] -It was found in a grave in Greenland. Fishhooks formed entirely of -flint, and found in Sweden, have been engraved by Nilsson,[1325] and -others, presumed to have been found in Holderness, by Mr. T. Wright, -F.S.A.[1326] These latter are, however, in all probability, forgeries. - - * * * * * - -Besides the flakes which may be regarded as merely tools for cutting -or scraping, there are some which may with safety be reckoned as saws, -their edges having been intentionally and regularly serrated, though in -other respects they have been left entirely unaltered in form. - - * * * * * - -A specimen, found in a pit which appeared to have been excavated by -the primitive inhabitants of the district, at Brighthampton, Oxon, has -been figured;[1327] and another oblong flint flake, with a regularly -serrated edge, but the teeth not so deep or well defined as in this -instance, was found by Dr. Thurnam in a chambered long barrow at West -Kennet, Wilts, with numerous flakes and “scrapers.”[1328] - -Figs. 199 to 201 represent similar instruments in my own collection -from the Yorkshire Wolds. The largest has been serrated on both edges, -but has had the teeth much broken and worn away on the thinner edge. -|295| - -[Illustration: Fig. 199.—Willerby Wold. 1∕1] - -Fig. 200 is very minutely toothed on both edges, and has a line of -brilliant polish on each margin of its flat face, showing the friction -the saw had undergone in use, not improbably in sawing bone or horn. - -[Illustration: Fig. 200.—Yorkshire Wolds. 1∕1] - -Fig. 201 is more coarsely serrated, and shows less of this -characteristic polish, which is observable on a large proportion of -these flint saws. The teeth are on many so minute that without careful -examination they may be overlooked. Others, however, are coarsely -toothed. Canon Greenwell has found saws in considerable numbers, -and varying in the fineness of their serration, in the barrows on -the Yorkshire Wolds, near Sherburn and elsewhere. In the soil of -a single barrow at Rudstone there were no less than seventy-eight -of these saws. Some have been found by Mr. E. Tindall in barrows -near Bridlington,[1329] as well as on the surface. Some well-formed -flint saws have also been found near Whitby,[1330] and some of small -size at West Wickham,[1331] Kent. In the Greenwell Collection is a -finely-toothed saw, made from a curved flake, found at Kenny Hill, -Mildenhall. - -Five flint saws, finely serrated, were found in a barrow at -Seaford,[1332] and another on St. Leonard’s Forest,[1333] Horsham. One -was also found in a barrow on Overton Hill,[1334] Wilts. Seven saws, -thirteen scrapers, and other worked flints were among the materials of -another barrow at Rudstone.[1335] - -The teeth are usually but not universally worked in the side edges of -the flakes. In Fig. 202 it is the chisel-like broad end of a flake that -has been converted into a saw. This specimen was found by the late -Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S., in a barrow at West Cranmore, Somerset, in -company with numerous flint flakes and “scrapers.” A bronze dagger was -found in the same barrow. - -Near Newhaven, Sussex, I found on the downs a flat flake, about 2 1∕2 -inches long, and slightly curved sideways towards the point. At this -part the inner curve is neatly worked into a saw, and the outer curve -carefully chipped into a rounded edge as a scraping tool. - -A flint knife serrated at the back to serve as a saw was found by Mr. -Bateman in Liff’s Low, near Biggin.[1336] - -In Scotland several saws have been procured from the Culbin -Sands,[1337] |296| and near Glenluce.[1338] They are also recorded -from Forglen,[1339] near Banff, and Craigsfordmains,[1340] -Roxburghshire. - -In Ireland, flakes converted into saws are scarce; they occur -occasionally, though but rarely, with neolithic interments in France. -In the Museum at le Puy is a very good specimen of a flat flake, neatly -serrated with small teeth, found with a skeleton near that town. -Another, found in a dolmen in Poitou,[1341] has been published by M. -de Longuemar. Mortillet[1342] includes several forms under the general -denomination of _scies_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 201.—Scamridge. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 202.—West Cranmore. 1∕1] - -Similar saws to those first described, and made from flakes more or -less coarsely toothed, have been found in the cave-deposits of the -Reindeer Period of the South of France, but in some caves, as, for -instance, that at Bruniquel explored by M. V. Brun, they were much more -abundant than in others. In the Vicomte de Lastic’s cave at the same -place but few occurred, and in most of the caves of the Dordogne they -appear to be absent. An irregularly-notched flake was probably almost -as efficient a saw as one more carefully and uniformly toothed. - -Flakes of flint, carefully serrated at the edge, have been found in -the Danish kjökken-möddings[1343]; in Posen,[1344] Prussia; and with -relics of the Early Bronze Period in Spain.[1345] One is recorded from -the Algerian Sahara.[1346] It has been suggested that some serrated -flints were potters’ tools, by which parallel mouldings were produced -on vessels.[1347] - -Among the more highly finished Scandinavian stone implements there -is some difficulty in determining exactly which have served the -purpose of saws. The flat, straight tapering instrument, with serrated -edges, which, from its many teeth at regular distances from each -other, Nilsson[1348] is disposed to think has probably been a saw, -Worsaae[1349] |297| regards as a lance-point. I am inclined to think -that they were not saws, for on such specimens as I have examined -minutely I find no trace of the teeth being polished by use. They -cannot, however, in all cases have been lance-heads, as I have one of -those serrated instruments, 8 1∕4 inches long, with the sides nearly -parallel and both ends square. - -Some of the crescent-shaped[1350] blades have almost similar teeth -on the straighter edge, and some of these are polished on both faces -as if by being worked backwards and forwards in a groove, and have -no polish between the teeth, such as would result from their being -used crossways like combs. From this I infer that such specimens at -all events have been used for cutting purposes, and not, as may have -been the case with others, as instruments[1351] for dressing skins, -or heckling flax or hemp. As has been pointed out by Professor J. J. -Steenstrup, many of these crescent-shaped blades seem to have had -their convex edges inserted in wooden handles, which would render them -convenient for use as saws. Their action on wood, though not rapid, -is effectual, and with the aid of a little water I have with one of -them cut through a stick of dry sycamore seven-eighths of an inch in -diameter in seven minutes. In Thomsen’s[1352] opinion, these implements -with teeth were intended for saws. Nilsson[1353] also regards some of -them in the same light. The form seems to be confined to the North of -Germany and Scandinavia.[1354] They are frequently found in pairs, one -being smaller than the other. Mr. T. Wright,[1355] after engraving one -of these Danish saws as a British specimen, remarks that several have -been found in different parts of England. I believe this statement -to be entirely without foundation, so far as this particular form is -concerned. - -I have left what I originally wrote upon this subject with very little -modification, but Prof. Flinders Petrie’s[1356] discoveries have -thrown a flood of light upon the purposes for which serrated flints -were used. We now know that the Egyptian sickle was formed of a curved -piece of wood in shape much like the jaw-bone of a horse, armed along -the inner edge with a series of serrated flint flakes, cemented into -a groove. Not only are there numerous pictorial representations of -such instruments going back so far as the 4th dynasty, but the sickles -themselves have been found in a complete state, as well as numbers of -the serrated flakes that formed their edge. Similar flakes, which no -doubt served the same purpose, were found by Schliemann on the site of -Troy.[1357] Others have been found at Helouan.[1358] The whole subject -has been treated exhaustively by Mr. Spurrell,[1359] to whose paper the -reader is referred.[1360] Dr. Munro is, however, inclined to regard -most European examples as saws. - -I now pass on to an instrument of very frequent occurrence in Britain. - - - - -|298| - -CHAPTER XIII. - -SCRAPERS. - - -One of the simple forms into which flakes are susceptible of being -readily converted has, in consequence of its similarity in character to -a stone implement in use among the Eskimos for scraping skins and other -purposes, received the name of a “scraper,” or to use the term first -I believe employed by the late M. E. Lartet, a _grattoir_. A typical -scraper may be defined as a broad flake, the end of which has been -chipped to a semicircular bevelled edge round the margin of the inner -face, similar in character to that of a “round-nosed turning chisel.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 203.—Eskimo Scraper.] - -A very good specimen of an Eskimo scraper of flint, mounted in a handle -of fossil ivory, is in the Christy Collection, and has been engraved -for the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.”[1361] For the loan of the woodcut, -Fig. 203, there given, I am indebted to the |299| representatives of -the late Mr. Christy. Sometimes the hafts are of wood, and they have -frequently indentations intended to receive the ends of the fingers -and thumb, so as to secure a good grasp. In the collection of Sir John -Lubbock is another specimen much like Fig. 203, with a flint blade -almost like a lance-head in character, but with the more pointed end -inserted in the handle; there is also another short straight-sided -blade of jade bound in a wooden haft, which is notched along one side -to receive the fingers, and recessed on the face for the thumb. This -latter seems well adapted for use as a knife or chisel; in fact, Sir -John Lubbock, who has figured the instruments in his “Prehistoric -Times,”[1362] terms them both knives. Another example has been engraved -by the Rev. J. G. Wood.[1363] - -These instruments are said to be used for scraping skins,[1364] for -which indeed they seem well suited, if the flat face of the stone -be held vertically to the hide that is to be scraped. The handles, -however, are better adapted for pushing the scrapers forward on a flat -surface, and judging from the wear upon them they must have been so -used. The late Sir Edward Belcher[1365] has described them as Eskimo -planes, for the manufacture of bows and other articles of wood, but in -this respect he may have been mistaken. - -The scrapers in use among the Fuegians[1366] are drawn towards the -operator and not pushed. Some North American varieties are mounted -after the manner of adzes.[1367] Mr. Otis T. Mason in his Paper “on -Aboriginal skin-dressing” has exhaustively treated the subject. - -A form of Skin-scraper, straight at the edge, was in use among the -Pennacook tribe[1368] of North America, and though some of the Eskimo -instruments may have been used as planes, no doubt many were employed -in dressing hides. A peculiar form in use among the Gallas[1369] of -Southern Shoa has been figured by Giglioli,[1370] who has also recorded -the fact that flat scrapers of stone are still in use in Italy and -France for dressing hides. - -Whether the instruments were used vertically as scrapers, or -horizontally as planes, the term “scrapers” seems almost equally |300| -applicable to them; and there appears no valid reason why, for the sake -of convenience, the same term should not be extended to their ancient -analogues, especially as their edges, as will subsequently be seen, are -in many cases worn away in a manner indicative of their having been -used for scraping. - - * * * * * - -The names of “thumb-flints” and “finger-flints” which have sometimes -been applied to the shorter and longer varieties of these instruments, -though colloquially convenient, appear to me not sufficiently definite -in meaning to be worthy of being retained. - -Scrapers may be classified and described—firstly, in accordance with -the character of the flakes from which they have been made; and, -secondly, in accordance with the outline of the portion of the margin -which has been chipped into form, and the general contour of the -implement. - -[Illustration: Fig. 204.—Weaverthorpe.] - -Their outline is in some cases horseshoe-shaped or kite-shaped, in -others it is discoidal or nearly circular, and in others again it may -be compared with that of a duck’s bill or of an oyster-shell. To these -may be added side-scrapers, or such as are broader than they are long, -and the hollow scrapers with a rounded notch in them instead of a -semicircular end. - -When the flakes have been chipped into the scraper form at both ends -they may be termed double-ended scrapers—to which class circular -scrapers also belong; where a sort of handle has been worked they may -be termed spoon-shaped, and where the butt has been chipped to a sharp -chisel-edge, at right angles to the flat face, they have been called -tanged scrapers. - -In speaking of the sides as right or left, I do it with reference to -the flat face of the scraper, as shown in the first of the three views -of Fig. 204. - -It will be well to pass some of the forms in review before entering -into any more general considerations. - -The figures are all of full size, Fig. 204, from Weaverthorpe, on the -Yorkshire Wolds, is a good example of a symmetrical horseshoe-shaped -scraper. It is made from a broad flat flake, of rather pink |301| -flint, with the point chipped to a neat semicircular bevelled edge, -and one of the sides trimmed so as to correspond with the other. The -bulb of percussion visible on the flat face and side views has been -slightly splintered by the blow. It gives a graceful ogee curve to the -face longitudinally, which brings forward the scraping or cutting edge -at the end. In the centre this is slightly rounded and worn away by use. - -I have other specimens almost identical in form from other parts of -the Yorkshire Wolds, from Suffolk, Sussex, and Dorsetshire. They are -abundantly found of smaller dimensions, and occasionally of larger, -sometimes as much as 2 1∕2 inches in diameter. - -[Illustration: Fig. 205.—Sussex Downs.] - -Fig. 205 shows another horseshoe-shaped scraper, which has become -white and grey by exposure. I picked it up on the Downs near Berling -Gap, on the Sussex coast, a few miles west of Eastbourne; a district -so prolific, that I have there found as many as twenty of these -instruments, of various degrees of perfection, within an hour. In -this case the scraper has been made from a broad ridged flake, and it -will be observed that not only the end but one of the sides has been -carefully trimmed, while the other has been left untouched, and has, -moreover, a flat facet on it, as shown in the side view. It would -appear from this that probably the side as well as the end was used -for scraping purposes, that whoever used it was right-handed and not -left-handed, and, moreover, that it is doubtful whether the implement -was ever inserted in a handle, at all events at the butt-end. I have a -nearly similar specimen, but trimmed at the end only, which I found in -the _vallum_ of the camp of Poundbury, near Dorchester, Dorset. I have -smaller instruments of the same form which I have found on the surface -of the ground at Abbot’s Langley, Herts; at Oundle, Northamptonshire; -and in the ancient encampment of Maiden Bower, near Dunstable. Large -scrapers are abundant in some parts of Suffolk. - -The form is of common occurrence in Yorkshire, in all sizes from 2 1∕2 -inches to one inch in length. To show the great range in size, and -|302| the variations in the relative thickness of the instruments, I -have engraved, in Fig. 206, a small specimen from the Yorkshire Wolds. - -[Illustration: Fig. 206.—Yorkshire.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 207—Helperthorpe.] - -When the chipping to an edge is continued beyond a semicircle, in the -case of scrapers made from broad short flakes, an almost circular -instrument is the result. These discoidal scrapers are of extremely -common occurrence on the Yorkshire Wolds. Fig. 207 shows a specimen -from Helperthorpe. - -They are not unfrequently formed from external flakes or splinters, and -are sometimes made from fragments broken from long flakes, inasmuch as -there is no bulb of percussion on the flat face. In rare cases the flat -face is the result of a natural fracture, and, more rarely still, it is -the external face of a flint nodule. - -[Illustration: Fig. 208.—Weaverthorpe.] - -When the instrument is broader than it is long, it has been termed a -side scraper. One in what is now white flint, made from a portion of -a flake, and showing no bulb on the flat face, is engraved in Fig. -208. It was found at Weaverthorpe. Occasionally the arc is flatter and -longer in proportion to the height than in this instance. - -Fig. 209 may be called a long horseshoe-shaped scraper. It has been -made from a thick flat flake, which there had evidently been |303| -some difficulty in shaping, as at least two blows had failed of their -desired effect before the flake was finally dislodged. The back of the -scraper is disfigured by the marks of the abortive flakes produced by -these two blows. The end, and part of the right side are neatly trimmed -into form. This specimen also I found on the Sussex Downs, near Berling -Gap. - -[Illustration: Fig. 209.—Sussex Downs.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 210.—Yorkshire.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 211.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -The implements of this form are often neatly chipped along both sides -as well as at the end. An example of the kind is given in Fig. 210, the -original of which is in milky chalcedonic flint, and was found on the -Yorkshire Wolds. - -Fig. 211 shows another specimen from the Yorkshire Wolds. It is |304| -made from a flat flake, considerably curved longitudinally, and -trimmed at the end as well as along a small portion of the left side. -Some are more oval in form, and have been chipped along the sides, and -somewhat rounded at the butt. In several instances the chipped edge at -the butt-end is slightly worn away by friction, the edge of the rounded -end being unworn. - -[Illustration: Fig. 212.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 213.—Sussex Downs.] - -Fig. 212 gives a kite-shaped scraper from Yorkshire, also made from a -flat flake, but showing a considerable extent of the original crust -of the flint of which it was made. It comes almost to a point at the -butt-end, and both edges are somewhat chipped away as if the instrument -had at that end been used as a boring tool. The point is somewhat -rounded by friction. Occasionally, scrapers of this form are chipped -on both faces at the pointed base, so as to make them closely resemble -arrow-heads. It seems possible that this pointing was for the purpose -of hafting the tool more readily in wood. - -Fig. 213 shows one of what may be termed the duck-bill scrapers. It -is made from a flat flake as usual, somewhat curved, and showing all -along one side the original crust of the flint. It is neatly worked -to a semicircular edge at the end, but the sides are left entirely -untouched. I found it on the Sussex Downs, near Cuckmare Haven. - -[Illustration: Fig. 214.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -A smaller analogous instrument, from the Yorkshire Wolds, is shown in -Fig. 214. It is made from an external flake, struck from a nodule of -flint of small diameter. The end alone is trimmed. Scrapers made from -such external flakes and splinters of flint are by no means uncommon. -I have one which appears to have been made |305| from a splinter of a -hammer-stone—a portion of the surface being bruised all over. - -In Fig. 215 is shown another duck-bill scraper, with parallel sides, -found by myself on the Sussex Downs, near Berling Gap. It is a thick -instrument, with both sides and end trimmed into form, the flake -from which it is made having in all probability been originally much -broader, and more circular. The bulb of percussion is not in the middle -of the butt, but within three-eighths of an inch of the left side. - -[Illustration: Fig. 215.—Sussex Downs.] - -Another form of these instruments is not unlike the flat valve of an -oyster shell, being usually somewhat unsymmetrical either to the right -or to the left. A specimen of this class from the Downs, near Berling -Gap, is shown in Fig. 216. The end is neatly chipped to an almost -elliptical sweep, but the sides in this instance are left untrimmed; -the right side shown in the side view being flat and almost square with -the face. In some instances the trimming of the sides extends all the -way round to the butt. - -Occasionally, though rarely, one of the sides, either right or left, is -trimmed in such a manner that its more or less straight edge meets the -curved edge of the end at an angle, so as to form an obtuse point. An -example of this kind is shown in Fig. 217, from the Downs, near Berling -Gap. This instrument is made from an external splinter of flint, the -edge at the end and front of one side alone being carefully chipped -into shape. It approaches in form to the _grattoir-bec_[1371] of French -antiquaries. - -In most scrapers the bulb of percussion of the flake from which they -have been made is, as has already been said, at the opposite end to -that which has been trimmed to form the curved edge; but this is by no -means universally the case, for sometimes the bulb is at the side of -the scraper, and sometimes, though more rarely, it has been at the end -which has been worked to the scraper edge. - -[Illustration: Fig. 216.—Sussex Downs.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 217.—Sussex Downs.] - -It seems needless to engrave examples of these varieties, which are -|306| only indicative of the manufacturers of the implements having -made use of that part of the piece of flint which seemed best adapted -to be chipped into the form they required. For the same reason we find -scrapers of an endless variety of forms, some of them exceedingly -irregular, as any one who has examined a series from the Yorkshire -Wolds will know. I have not, however, thought it necessary to give -|307| representations of all these minor varieties, as even more than -enough are engraved to show the general character of the instruments. -It is perhaps worth mentioning, that the flakes selected for conversion -into scrapers are usually such as expand in width at the point. It -is doubtful whether the long narrow flakes worked to a scraper-like -termination at one or both ends properly come under the category of -scrapers. I shall consequently treat of them under the head of wrought -flakes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 218.—Bridlington.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 219.—Bridlington.] - -I must now pass on to the consideration of the forms showing a greater -extent of trimming at the edge than those hitherto described. Of these -the double-ended scrapers, or those presenting a semicircular edge -at either end, first demand notice. They are of by no means common -occurrence. Those I have seen have been for the most part found in -Yorkshire and Suffolk. Fig. 218 exhibits a specimen from Bridlington. -As is not unfrequently the case, it is rather thinner at the end -nearest to what was the butt-end of the flake. The sides are left -almost untrimmed, but each end is worked to a nearly semicircular -curve. In the Greenwell Collection is a specimen from one of the -barrows at Rudstone; as well as a large one from Lakenheath, and others -from Suffolk. Occasionally the length and breadth are so nearly the -same, that the scraper assumes the form of a disc, with sharp edges—a -kind of plano-convex lens. A specimen of this form from Bridlington -is shown in Fig. 219. It is, however, exceptionally regular in form. -I have another smaller specimen, not quite so circular or so well -chipped, which I found on the Downs between Newhaven and Brighton, and -I have others from Suffolk. Such a form was probably not intended for -insertion in a haft. - -[Illustration: Fig. 220.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -Sometimes, where the scraper has been made from a flat flake, the -trimmed edge curves slightly inwards at one part, so as to produce a -sort of ear-shaped form. I have such, both with the inward curve on the -left side, as shown in Fig. 220, and also with it on the right side. - -A deeply-notched tool, to which the name of hollow scraper has been -applied, will be subsequently mentioned.[1372] |308| - -There are some scrapers which at the butt-end of the flake are chipped -into what has the appearance of being a kind of handle, somewhat like -that of a short spoon. That engraved in Fig. 221 is from the Yorkshire -Wolds, and is in the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield. It -is chipped from both faces to an edge at each side in the handle-like -part. I have an implement of the same character, found at Sewerby, the -handle of which is slighter but less symmetrical. I have from the same -district another large discoidal scraper, 1 3∕4 inches in diameter, -and chipped all round, with a rounded projection, about 3∕4 of an inch -wide, left at the thicker end of the flake. - -The Greenwell Collection contains specimens of the same character as -Fig. 221, found near Rudstone. - -A nearly similar implement, in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, -has been engraved by Sir W. Wilde.[1373] - -Some of the large Danish scrapers are provided with a sort of handle, -and have been termed by Worsaae[1374] “skee-formet,” or spoon-shaped. - -[Illustration: Fig. 221.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -It will be well now to refer to some of the published notices of the -discovery of these implements, which seem to have met with little -attention from antiquaries until within the last forty years. There is, -however, in the British Museum a fine horseshoe-shaped scraper, which -was found long ago by the late Dr. Mantell, in company with broken urns -and ashes, in a barrow on Windore Hill, near Alfriston. In the same -collection are four or five others of various sizes from barrows on -Lambourn Downs, Berks, as well as those from the Greenwell Collection. -Sir R. Colt Hoare has recorded the discovery of what appear to be two -discoidal scrapers, with a flint spear-head or dagger, a small hone or -whetstone, and a cone and ring of jet, like a pulley, accompanying an -interment, near Durrington Walls.[1375] He terms them little buttons -of chalk or marl; but from the engraving it would seem that they were -scrapers—probably of flint, much weathered, or altered in structure. -It seems likely that many more may have escaped his notice, as they -are of common occurrence in the tumuli in Wiltshire, as well as in the -other parts of Britain. They are also recorded |309| from Morgan’s -Hill[1376] and Winterbourn Stoke. The late Dean Merewether[1377] found -several in barrows on Avebury Down, together with numerous flint flakes. - -Some were found with burnt bodies in barrows at Cockmarsh,[1378] Berks, -and others in a barrow at Great Shefford.[1379] - -They occurred in barrows at Seaford,[1380] Sussex, and Lichfield,[1381] -Hants, as well as in Devonshire[1382] barrows. - -Ten or twelve were also found by Dr. Thurnam in the chambered Long -Barrow, at West Kennet,[1383] with about three hundred flint flakes. -There was no trace of metal, nor of cremation in this barrow. - -A neat scraper was found in a hut-circle on Carn Brê,[1384] Cornwall. - -In the Yorkshire barrows they abound in company both with burnt and -unburnt bodies,[1385] without any metal being present. Canon Greenwell -has in some cases found them with the edge worn smooth by use. - -Mr. Bateman found many in Derbyshire barrows, as, for instance, at -the head of a contracted skeleton on Cronkstone Hill,[1386] and with -another contracted skeleton with two sets of Kimmeridge coal beads, at -Cow Low, Buxton,[1387] and with four skeletons in a cist, in a barrow -near Monsal Dale.[1388] - -They not unfrequently occur with interments in association with bronze -weapons. In a barrow on Parwich Moor, Staffordshire,[1389] called -Shuttlestone, Mr. Bateman found a skeleton, with a bronze dagger at the -left arm, and a plain flat bronze celt at the left thigh, and close to -the head a jet bead and a “circular flint.” As before stated, the late -Mr. J. W. Flower, obtained three, and a bronze dagger, from the same -barrow as the saw engraved at p. 266. They were also found with bronze -in barrows in Rushmore Park.[1390] - -They are frequently to be seen on the surface of the ground. One -such, found by the late Mr. C. Wykeham Martin, F.S.A., at Leeds -Castle, Kent,[1391] has been figured. Others from the neighbourhood -of Hastings,[1392] the Isle of Thanet,[1393] and Bradford Abbas, -Dorset,[1394] have also been engraved. Many of those from Bradford -are said to have a notch on the left side, but I am doubtful whether -it is intentional. Gen. Pitt Rivers has found them at Callow Hill, -Oxon,[1395] and at Rotherley. They are also recorded from Holyhead -Island,[1396] Anglesea,[1397] |310| Tunbridge,[1398] Milton,[1399] -and West Wickham,[1400] Kent; Stoke Newington,[1401] Middlesex; and -Walton-on-the-Naze,[1402] Essex. - -I have found them in considerable numbers in and near ancient -encampments. At Maiden Bower, near Dunstable, a party of three or four -have on more than one occasion picked up upwards of forty specimens. -I have examples from Hod Hill, Badbury Rings, and Poundbury Camp, -Dorsetshire; from Little Solsbury Hill, Bath; Pulpit Wood, near -Wendover, Bucks, and several localities in Suffolk, Cambs, and other -counties. Some are very thick, though quite symmetrical in outline. -On the Yorkshire Wolds, the Sussex Downs,[1403] and in parts of Wilts -and Suffolk, they are extremely numerous; but in any chalk country -where flint is abundant, this form of implement can be found. In other -districts, into which flint has to be imported, they are of course more -scarce. They seem, however, to occur in greater or less abundance over -the whole of England. - -They are very numerous in Scotland, and extensive collections of them -from Elgin, Wigtown, and other counties are to be seen in the National -Museum at Edinburgh. - -Specimens from a crannog in Ayrshire,[1404] Urquhart, Elgin,[1405] and -Gullane Links,[1406] Haddingtonshire, have been published. - -They are found of nearly similar forms in Ireland, but are there rarer -than in England, though fairly numerous in Antrim.[1407] - -In France the same form of instrument occurs, and I have a number of -specimens from different parts of Belgium. - -A spoon-shaped scraper from Neverstorff,[1408] Schleswig Holstein, is -figured. They are likewise found in South Russia.[1409] - -In Denmark scrapers of various forms are found, and are not uncommon in -the kjökken-möddings and coast-finds. Sir John Lubbock[1410] records -having picked up as many as thirty-nine scrapers at a spot on the coast -of Jutland, near Aarhuus. - -In the Swiss Lake-dwellings they occasionally occur. I have a fine, -almost kite-shaped, specimen from Auvernier, given me by Professor -Desor, and others from Nussdorf. Some are engraved by Keller. They are -also found in Italy. I have a small specimen from the Isle of Elba. - -I possess specimens formed of obsidian, from Mexico; and instruments -of jasper, of scraper-like forms, have been found at the Cape of Good -Hope.[1411] As already mentioned, they are well known in America. Some -are found in Newfoundland.[1412] |311| - -Instruments of the same character date back to very remote times, as -numbers have been found in the cave deposits of the Reindeer Period of -the South of France, as well as in a few in our English bone caves, as -will subsequently be mentioned. A somewhat similar form occurs, though -rarely, among the implements found in the ancient River Gravels. - - * * * * * - -Besides being used for scraping hides, and preparing leather, it -has been suggested, by Canon Greenwell,[1413] that they might have -served for making pins and other small articles of bone, and also for -fabricating arrow-heads and knives of flint. As to this latter use I am -doubtful, but before entering into the question of the purposes which -implements of the “scraper” form were in ancient times intended to -serve, it will be well to examine the evidence of wear afforded by the -implements themselves. This evidence is various in its character, and -seems to prove that the implements were employed in more than one kind -of work. - -Among some hundreds of scrapers, principally from the Yorkshire Wolds, -I have met with between twenty and thirty which show decided marks of -being worn away along the circular edge, by friction. In some, the edge -is only worn away sufficiently to remove all keenness or asperity, -and to make it feel smooth to the touch, and this perhaps along one -part only of the arc. In others, the whole edge is completely rounded, -and many of the small facets by which it was originally surrounded, -entirely effaced. The small striæ, resulting from the friction which -has rounded the edge, are at right angles to the flat face of the -implement, and the whole edge presents the appearance of having been -worn away by scraping some comparatively soft substance—such, for -instance, as leather. When we consider what an important part the skins -of animals play in the daily life of most savage tribes, and especially -of those exposed to a cold climate; and when we remember the amount of -preparation, in the way of dressing and scraping, the hides require -before they can be available for the purposes of clothing, or even tent -making, it becomes evident that some instruments must have been in use -by the ancient occupants of the country for the purpose of dressing -skins; and the probability of these scrapers having been devoted to -this purpose is strengthened by their being worn in just such a manner -as they would have been, had they been in use for scraping some greasy -dressing off not over-clean leather. The scrapers thus worn away -are for the most part of the horseshoe form. There are some, |312| -however, which have the edge worn away, not at the circular end but -along the edge towards the butt. In this case also they appear to have -been employed for scraping, but the evidence as to the character of the -substance scraped is not so distinct. It is, however, probable that -in the fashioning of perforated axes and other implements, made of -greenstone and other rocks not purely silicious, some scraping as well -as grinding tools may have been employed, and possibly the wear of the -edge of some of these tools may be due to such a cause. Even among the -cave-dwellers of the Dordogne we find scrapers bearing similar marks of -attrition, and we also know that flint flakes were used for scraping -the hard hæmatitic iron ore, to produce the red pigment—the paint with -which the men of those times seem to have adorned themselves.[1414] - -It will of course be urged that it is, after all, only a small -proportion of these implements which bear these unmistakeable marks -of wear upon them. It must, however, be remembered, that to produce -much abrasion of the edge of an instrument made of so hard a material -as flint, an enormous amount of wear against so soft a substance as -hide would be necessary. It is indeed possible that the edge would -remain for years comparatively unworn were the substance to be scraped -perfectly free from grit and dirt. If we find identically the same -forms of instruments, both worn and unworn, there is a fair presumption -that both were intended for the same purpose, though the one, from -accidental causes, has escaped the wear and tear visible on the other. - -There are, however, circumstances which in this case point to an almost -similar form having served two totally distinct purposes; for besides -those showing the marks of use already described, we find some of these -instruments with the edge battered and bruised to such an extent that -it can hardly have been the result of scraping in the ordinary sense of -the word. - -To account for such a character of wear, there seems no need of going -so far afield as among the Eskimos, or any other semi-civilized or -savage people, to seek for analogies on which to base a conclusion—how -far satisfactory it must be left to others to judge. Among the primary -necessities of man (who has been defined as a cooking animal) is that -of fire. It is no doubt a question difficult of solution whether our -primitive predecessors were acquainted with any more ready means of -producing it than |313| by friction of two pieces of wood, especially -at a time when there is reason to suppose they were unacquainted -with the existence of iron as a metal. I have, however, already -mentioned[1415] that for the purpose of producing sparks, pyrites is -as effective as iron, and was indeed in use among the Romans. Now -the lower beds of our English chalk are prolific of pyrites, though -not to the same extent as the upper beds are of flint; and it is not -impossible that the use of a hammer-stone of pyrites, in order to form -some instrument of flint, gave rise to the discovery of that method -of producing fire, the invention of which the old myth attributed to -Pyrodes, the son of Cilix. When exposed upon or near the surface of the -ground, pyrites is very liable to decomposition, and even if occurring -with ancient interments it would be very likely to be disregarded. This -may account for the paucity of the notices of its discovery. Some, -however, exist, and I have already mentioned[1416] instances where -nodules of pyrites have been discovered on the Continent in association -with worked flints, both of Neolithic and Palæolithic age. - -There are also instances of its occurrence in British barrows. That -careful observer, the late Mr. Thomas Bateman, found, in the year 1844, -in a barrow on Elton Moor,[1417] near the head of a skeleton, “a piece -of spherical iron pyrites, now for the first time noticed as being -occasionally found with other relics in the British tumuli. Subsequent -discoveries,” he says, “have proved that it was prized by the Britons, -and not unfrequently deposited in the grave, along with the weapons -and ornaments which formed the most valued part of their store.” With -the same skeleton, in a “drinking-cup,” with a small celt and other -objects of flint, was a flat piece of polished iron ore, and twenty-one -“circular instruments.” In another barrow, Green Low,[1418] Mr. -Bateman discovered a contracted skeleton, having behind the shoulders -a drinking-cup, a splendid flint dagger, a piece of spherical pyrites -or iron ore, and a flint instrument of the circular-headed form. Lower -down were barbed flint arrow-heads and some bone instruments. In Dowe -Low,[1419] a skeleton was accompanied by a bronze dagger and an “amulet -or ornament of iron ore,” together with a large flint implement that -had seen a good deal of service. A broken nodule of pyrites showing -signs of friction was found with a bronze dagger in a |314| barrow at -Angrowse[1420] Mullion, Cornwall. In a barrow at Brigmilston,[1421] -between Everley and Amesbury, Sir R. Colt Hoare found, with an urn -containing ashes, “the fragment of a bone article like a whetstone, -some chipped flints prepared for arrow-heads, a long piece of flint and -a _pyrites_, both evidently smoothed by usage.” - -A piece of iron pyrites with a groove worn in it and a peculiarly -shaped implement of flint with evident marks of use at the larger end -were found with an interment near Basingstoke Station.[1422] Flint -arrow-heads and flakes were also present. - -Nodules of pyrites occurred in such numbers in a barrow on Broad -Down,[1423] near Honiton, as to suggest the idea of their having been -placed there designedly, but none of them are described as abraded. - -We have here, at all events, instances of the association of lumps -of iron pyrites with circular-ended flint instruments in ancient -interments. Can they have been in use together for producing fire? In -order to judge of this our best guide will probably be, so far at all -events as the flints are concerned, those in use for the same purpose -in later times, and even at the present day. - -In the Abbé Hamard’s researches at Hermes[1424] (Oise), two flint -scrapers mounted in wooden handles round which were iron ferrules are -said to have been discovered in Merovingian graves. - -[Illustration: Fig. 222.—French “Strike-a-Light.”] - -The Abbé Cochet[1425] describes some of the flints found with -Merovingian interments as resembling gun-flints; one of these was -apparently carried at the waist, in a purse with money and other -necessaries. A steel and a small piece of flint were found in a -Saxon grave at High Down, Ferring,[1426] Sussex. A similar practice -of carrying in the pocket a piece of flint and some prepared tinder -prevails in some parts of Europe to the present day; and, as I have -before remarked, flints for this purpose are articles of sale. Fig. -222 shows one of these modern “strike-a-lights” which I purchased some -years ago at Pontlevoy, in France. It is made of a segment of a flake, -one edge and the sides of which have been trimmed to a scraper-like -edge, and the other merely made straight. The resemblance between -this and |315| some of the ancient “scrapers” is manifest. Another -strike-a-light flint, which I bought at a stall in Trier, is about -2 inches long by 1 3∕8 inches broad, and is made from a flat flake, -trimmed to a nearly square edge at the butt-end, and to a very flat -arc at the point, both the trimmed edges being of precisely the same -character as those of scrapers. I find, moreover, that by working such -a flint and a steel or _briquet_ together, much the same bruising of -the edge is produced as that apparent on some of the old “scrapers.” I -come, therefore, to the conclusion, that a certain proportion of these -instruments were in use, not for scraping hides like the others, but -for scraping iron pyrites, and not improbably, in later days, even -iron or steel for procuring fire. Were they used for such a purpose -we can readily understand why they should so often present a bruising -of the edge and an irregularity of form. We can also find a means of -accounting for their great abundance. - -Looking at the question from a slightly different point of view, this -method of solution receives additional support. Everyone will, I -think, readily concede that, putting for the moment pyrites out of the -question, the inhabitants of this country must have been acquainted -with the method of producing fire by means of flint and steel or -iron, at all events so long ago as when their intercourse with the -Romans commenced, if not at an even earlier period. We may, in any -case, assume that flints have been in use as fire-producing agents for -something like 2,000 years, and that consequently the number of them -that have thus served must be enormous. What has become of them all? -They cannot, like some antiquities, be “only now rare because they were -always valueless,” for in their nature they are almost indestructible. -Many, no doubt, were mere irregular lumps of flint, broken from time -to time to produce such an edge as would scrape the steel; but is it -not in the highest degree probable that many were of the same class as -those sold for the same purpose at the present day—flakes chipped into -a more or less scraper-like form at one end? - -There is yet another argument. In many instances these circular-ended -flints, when found upon the surface, have a comparatively fresh and -unweathered appearance; and, what is more, have the chipped parts -stained by iron-mould. In some cases there are particles of iron, in -an oxidized condition, still adherent. Such iron marks, especially on -flint which has weathered white, may, and indeed commonly do, arise -from the passage of harrows |316| and other agricultural implements, -and of horses shod with iron, over the fields; but did the marks arise -merely from this cause, it appears hardly probable that in any instance -they should be confined to the chipped edge, and not occur on other -parts of the flint. - -[Illustration: Fig. 223.—Rudstone.] - -I had written most of the foregoing remarks when, in November, 1870, -an interesting discovery, made by Canon Greenwell, F.R.S., in his -exploration of a barrow[1427] at Rudstone, near Bridlington, in -Yorkshire, came to corroborate my views. I have already described -a whetstone found with one of the interments in this barrow, and -mentioned that between the knees and the head were found, with other -objects, the half of a nodule of iron pyrites, and a long round-ended -flake of flint which lay underneath it. They are both represented full -size in accompanying figure (Fig. 223). A portion of the outside of the -pyrites has been ground smooth, and a projecting knob has been worked -down, so as to bring it to an approximately hemispherical shape, and -adapt it for being comfortably held in the hand. The fractured surface, -where the nodule was broken in two, is somewhat oval, and in the -centre, in the direction of the longer diameter, is worn a wide shallow -groove, of just the same character as would have been produced by -constant sharp scraping blows from a round-ended flake or scraper, such -as that which was found with it. The whole surface is somewhat worn and -striated, in the same direction as the principal central groove; and -the edge of the flat face of the pyrites is more worn away at the top -and bottom of the groove than at the other parts. - -The scraper is made from a narrow thick external flake, the end of -which has been trimmed to a semicircular bevelled edge—a |317| portion -of one side has also been trimmed. At the end, and along some parts of -the sides, this edge is worn quite smooth, and rounded by friction, and -there are traces of similar wear at the butt-end. In a second grave -in the same barrow there lay, behind the back, two jet buttons and a -similar pyrites and flint. There can, I think, be no reasonable doubt -of their having been, in these instances, fire-producing implements, -used in the manner indicated in the annexed figure. The finding of the -two materials together, in two separate instances, in both of which -the pyrites and the flint presented the same forms and appearance, -establishes the fact of their connection; and it is hard to imagine -any other purpose for which pyrites could be scraped by flint except -that of producing fire. Moreover, in another barrow on Crosby Garrett -Fell,[1428] Westmoreland, Canon Greenwell found a piece of iron ore -(oxidized pyrites) held in the hand of a skeleton, and a long thick -flake of flint, evidently a “flint and steel.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 224.—Method of using Pyrites and “Scraper” for -Striking a Light.] - -It cannot have been merely for the purpose of producing a paint or -colour that they were brought together, as though the outer crust of -a nodule of pyrites might, if ground, give a dull red pigment, yet -the inner freshly-broken face would not do so; and, if it would, the -colour would be more readily procured by grinding on a flat stone than -by scraping. It would be interesting to compare these objects with the -pyrites and pebbles in use among the Fuegians[1429], who employ dried -moss or fungus by way of tinder, but appear to find some difficulty in -producing fire. The Eskimos[1430] and some North American tribes also -obtain fire from pyrites. - -Sir Wollaston Franks has called my attention to another half |318| -nodule of pyrites preserved in the British Museum, which is somewhat -abraded in the middle of its flat face, though not so much so as that -from Yorkshire. It was discovered with flint flakes in a barrow on -Lambourn Down,[1431] Berkshire, by Mr. E. Martin Atkins, in 1850. In a -barrow at Flowerburn,[1432] Ross-shire, in 1885, a similar half nodule -and a flint scraper were found, and a discovery of the same kind was -made by Lord Northesk, at Teindside,[1433] near Minto, Roxburghshire, -about 1870. A fine piece of pyrites in company with worked flints was -found in 1881, in a ruined dolmen, in the Ile d’Arz,[1434] Brittany, -by the Abbé Luco. A well striated block of pyrites was also found with -numerous objects formed of flint and other kinds of stone, on the -Rocher de Beg-er-Goallenner, Quiberon, by M. F. Gaillard.[1435] - -A nodule of pyrites, with a deep scoring upon it, and found in one of -the Belgian bone caves, the _Trou de Chaleux_, has been engraved by Dr. -E. Dupont,[1436] who regards it as having been used as a fire-producing -agent. The flint that produced the scoring appears to have had a -pointed, rather than a rounded end. Possibly the wearing away of the -ends of certain flakes, for which it has been difficult to account, may -be due to their having been used in this manner for striking a light. - -There are yet some other long flakes which are trimmed to a -scraper-like edge at one or both ends; but in these cases the trimming -appears to have been rather for the purpose of enabling the flake to be -conveniently held in the hand, so as to make use of its cutting edge, -than with the intention of converting the trimmed end into a scraping -or cutting tool. The ends of some of the hafted knives or saws found in -the Swiss Lake-dwellings are thus trimmed. - -On the whole, we may conclude, with some appearance of probability, -that a certain proportion of these instruments, and more especially -those of regular shape, and those of large size, were destined to -be used as scrapers in the process of dressing hides and for other -purposes; that others again, and chiefly those of moderate size with -bruised and battered edges, were used at one period with iron pyrites, -and at a subsequent date with iron or steel, for the |319| production -of fire; and lastly that others have had their ends trimmed into shape, -so as to render them symmetrical in form, or to enable them to be -conveniently handled or hafted. - -[Illustration: Fig. 225.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 226.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - - * * * * * - -There are still one or two other forms to which, from the character of -their edge, the designation of scraper may be given. The instrument -from the Yorkshire Wolds, shown in Fig. 225, may, for instance, be -called a straight scraper. It is made from a broad flat flake, with a -well-developed bulb of percussion on the face, and the counterpart of -another at the back, so that the section at the base is much curved. -The point of the flake and its left side have been chipped away, so -that they are nearly straight, and form between them an angle of -about 60°. The edge is sharper, and the form, I think, more regular -than if it had been used in conjunction with pyrites or steel, and I -am therefore inclined to regard it as a tool. The late Mr. Charles -Monkman, who gave me this specimen, also gave me another, more -crescent-shaped in form, the base being roughly chipped to a regular -sweep. I have another larger flint, similar to Fig. 225, found by the -late Mr. Whitbourn, F.S.A., in the neighbourhood of Godalming. Before -pronouncing definitely as to the degree of antiquity to be assigned -to such instruments, it will be well to have authenticated instances -of their discovery in association with other remains, and not merely -on the surface. In character, however, they much resemble other flint -instruments of undoubtedly high antiquity, though they present the -peculiarity of having the edge at right angles to the axis of the flake -from which they are made, instead of being parallel to it. - -A singular flint instrument of a rudely heart-shaped form, with one -straight serrated edge, is figured with other tools, &c., from the -Culbin Sands.[1437] - -To another of these forms, of which a not very first-rate example is -given in Fig. 226, the designation of hollow scraper may be applied, -the scraping edge being concave, instead of as usual, convex. This -specimen also is from the Yorkshire Wolds. I have, however, found -analogous instruments on the Sussex Downs, the hollowed edges of -which appear to have been used for scraping some cylindrical objects. -In |320| Ireland this form not unfrequently occurs. I have several -specimens with the hollow as regular in its sweep as any of the -scrapers of the ordinary form, and I have thought it advisable to -figure a typical example as Fig. 226A. They seem well adapted for -scraping into regular shape the stems of arrows or the shafts of -spears, or for fashioning bone pins. Among modern artificers in wood, -bone, ivory, or metal, scraping tools play a far more important part -than would at first sight appear probable, looking at the abundance -and perfection of our cutting tools and files. The latter, indeed, are -merely compound forms of “scrapers.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 226A.—North of Ireland.] - -A less symmetrical hollow scraper from the Culbin Sands[1438] has been -engraved; as has been another which Dr. Joseph Anderson[1439] used -in the production of an arrow-shaft, and which he found to be a very -efficient tool. Some writers have regarded these hollow-edged scrapers -as saws[1440], but I think erroneously. - -Implements of the same character have been found in Egypt[1441], and in -France, and probably exist in other countries. - - - - -|321| - -CHAPTER XIV. - -BORERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS. - - -Another of the purposes to which flint flakes were applied appears to -have been that of boring holes in various materials. Portions of stags’ -horns, destined to serve either as hammers, or as sockets for hatchets -of stone, had either to be perforated or to have recesses bored in -them; and holes in wood were, no doubt, requisite for many purposes, -though in this country we have but few wooden relics dating back to -the time when flint was the principal if not the only material for -boring-tools. To form some idea of the character of the objects in the -preparation of which such tools were necessary, we cannot do better -than refer to the vivid picture of ancient life placed before us by -the discoveries in the Swiss Lake-dwellings. Besides perforated stone -axes and hammers, such as have been already described in these pages, -we find stag’s horn and wooden hafts or helves, with holes and sockets -bored in them, plates of stone, teeth of animals, bone and stag’s horn -instruments, and wooden knife handles pierced for suspension, and -portions of bark perforated, so as to serve like corks for floating -fishing-nets. - -Even in the caverns of the Reindeer Period of the South of France we -find the reindeer horns with holes bored through them in regular rows, -and delicate needles of hard bone with exquisitely formed eyes drilled -through them—one of which has also been found in Kent’s Cavern—as well -as teeth, shells and fossils perforated for suspension as ornaments or -amulets. So beautifully are the eyes in these ancient needles formed, -that I was at one time much inclined to doubt the possibility of their -having been drilled by means of flint flakes; but the late Mons. -E. Lartet demonstrated the feasibility of this process, by himself -drilling the eye of a similar needle with a flint borer, found in one -of the French caves. I have myself bored perfectly round and smooth -holes through both stag’s horn and wood with flint flakes, and when a -|322| little water is used to facilitate the operation, it is almost -surprising to find how quickly it proceeds, and how little the edge of -the flint suffers when once its thinnest part has been worn or chipped -away, so as to leave a sufficient thickness of flint to stand the -strain without being broken off. - -[Illustration: Fig. 227.—Yorkshire Wolds. 1∕1] - - * * * * * - -The most common form of boring tool, to which by some writers the name -of awl or drill[1442] has been given, is that shown in Fig. 227, from -the Yorkshire Wolds. It is formed from a flat splinter of flint, and -shows the natural crust of the stone at the broad end. At the other, -each edge has been chipped away from the flat face, so as to reduce -it by a rapid curve on each side to a somewhat tapering blade, with -a sharp point. The section of this portion of the blade is almost of -the form of half a hexagon when divided by a line joining opposite -angles. A borer of this kind makes a very true hole, as whether turned -round continuously or alternately in each direction, it acts as a -half-round broach or rimer, enlarging the mouth of the hole all the -time it is being deepened by the drilling of the point. The broad base -of the flake serves as a handle by which to turn the tool. Several -boring instruments of this form were found in the pits at Grime’s -Graves,[1443] already so often mentioned. - -A borer of this kind has been experimentally[1444] tried and found -efficient for drilling a hole in jet. - -[Illustration: Fig. 228. Bridlington. 1∕1] - -Borers of the same character occur in Ireland[1445] and in -Scotland,[1446] where natural crystals[1447] of quartz seem also -occasionally to have been used as drills. I have also seen several -found near Pontlevoy, France, in the collection of the Abbé Bourgeois. - -Similar boring instruments of flint have been found in Denmark, in -company with scrapers and other tools. Two of them have been engraved -by Mr. C. F. Herbst.[1448] - -They are common in some parts of North America, and finely chipped -tools of the kind occur in Patagonia.[1449] They are also found in -Natal[1450] and in Japan. - -Sometimes the borer consists of merely a long narrow pointed flake, -which has had the point trimmed to a scraping edge on either side. A -specimen of the kind, found near Bridlington, is shown in Fig. 228. The -point, for about a |323| sixteenth of an inch in width, has been ground -to a nearly square edge, so that it acts like a drill. Such a form was -probably attached to a wooden handle for use, but I doubt whether any -mechanical means were used for giving it a rotary motion as a drill, -and regard these borers rather as hand-tools to be used much in the -same way as a broach or rimer. - -Some implements from the lake settlement at Meilen, regarded by Dr. -Keller[1451] as awls or piercers, are perforated at one end, and appear -to be ground over their whole surface. - -Occasionally some projecting spur at the side of the flake has been -utilized to form the borer, as is the case in Fig. 229, also from the -Yorkshire Wolds. In this instance, the two curved sweeps, by which the -boring part of the tool is formed, have been chipped from the opposite -faces of the flake, so that the cutting edges are at opposite angles -of the blade, which is of rhomboidal section. This is the case with -some of the Scottish specimens,[1452] which closely resemble Fig. 229. -Such a tool seems best adapted for boring by being turned in the hole -continuously in one direction. In some instances the projecting spur -is so short that it can have produced but a very shallow cavity in the -object to be bored. - -[Illustration: Fig. 229.—Yorkshire Wolds. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 230.—Bridlington. 1∕1] - -The tools, of which a specimen is shown in Fig. 230, also appear to -have been intended for boring. It is, however, possible that after all -they may have served some other purpose. That here engraved was found -near Bridlington, and is weathered white all over. It is made from a -flake, and the edge of the blade on the left in the figure is formed as -usual by chipping from the flat face. The other edge is more acute, and -has been formed by secondary chipping on both faces. The spur to the -left, which may have served as a handle for turning the tool round when -in use, has originally been longer, but the end has been lost through -an ancient fracture. The edges at the point of the tool are somewhat -worn away by friction. - -I am uncertain whether the instruments shown in Figs. 231 and 232 -|324| can be with propriety classed among boring tools, as it is -possible that they may have been intended and used for some totally -different purpose, such, for instance, as forming the tips of arrows, -for which, from their symmetrical form, they are not ill adapted. -Though the points of those, like Fig. 231, are much rounded, it -may be that they were mounted like the chisel-edged Egyptian flint -arrow-heads, of which hereafter. A number of instruments of this form -have been found in Derbyshire and Suffolk, but that here figured came -from the Yorkshire Wolds, and has been made from a part of a thin flat -flake, one edge of which forms the base opposite to the semicircular -point. The side edges, which expand with a sweep to the base, are -carefully chipped to a sharp angle with the face of the flake; but in -some instances this secondary working extends over a greater or less -portion of both faces. Some specimens are also much longer in their -proportions. The original edge of the flake, which extends along the -base, is usually unworn by use, so that if these objects were boring -tools this part may have been protected by being inserted in a notch in -a piece of wood, which in such a case would serve as a handle for using -the tool after the manner of an auger. A few examples of this kind have -been found on the Culbin Sands[1453], Elginshire. The same form has -been found in the Camp de Chassey[1454] (Saône et Loire). - -[Illustration: Fig. 231.—Yorkshire Wolds. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 232.—Yorkshire Wolds. 1∕1] - -Fig. 232 is also from the Yorkshire Wolds. Though more acutely pointed -than Fig. 231, it seems to have been intended for much the same -purpose, and it has been formed in a similar manner. The secondary -working is principally on the convex face of the flake, but owing to -an irregularity in the surface of the flat face, a portion of it has -been removed by secondary chipping along one edge, so as to bring it as -nearly as possible in the same plane as the other. For whatever purpose -this instrument may have been designed, its symmetry is remarkable. - -I have a somewhat similar instrument from Bridlington, but triangular -in form, with the sides curved slightly inwards, and the two most -highly wrought edges produced by chipping almost equally on both faces -of the flake. Such a form approximates most closely to some of those -which there appears reason for regarding as triangular arrow-heads. -In America, some forms which might be taken for arrow-heads have been -regarded as drills. - -There is a series of minute tools of flint to which special attention -|325| has been called by Mr. J. Allen Brown, F.G.S., the Rev. Reginald -A. Gatty[1455], and Mr. W. J. Lewis Abbott, F.G.S.[1456] Through the -kindness of the last, specimens from a kjökken mödding at Hastings are -shown in Figs. 232A, 232B, and 232C. They have been made from small -flakes and are of various forms, though I have only selected three for -illustration. In two of these the end of the flake has been chipped -into a straight scraping edge at an acute angle to the body of the -flake, so as to form a tool which can be held in the hand and used for -scraping a flat surface, perhaps of bone. Whether the chipping of the -edge is intentional or the result of wear, or arising partly from both -of these causes, is a question of secondary importance. The oblique -ends resemble those of the flakes from Kent’s Cavern, Figs. 398–400, -and the _selci romboidale_[1457] of Italian antiquaries. In the other -form, one side of a flake has been chipped in a similar manner, so as -to form a segment of a circle, or occasionally an obtuse angle; the -other side being left intact. This may possibly have been inserted -in wood, and the tool thus formed may have been used for scraping or -carving. Mr. Abbott disagrees with this view, and thinks that many of -the flakes may have been utilized in the formation of fish-hooks. Such -tools have been found in Lancashire, far from the sea, and a series -from hills in the eastern part of that county has been presented to the -British Museum by Dr. Colley March. Owing to their diminutive size they -may readily escape observation. Mr. Gatty has found some thousands of -these “Pygmy flints” on the surface in the valley of the Don between -Sheffield and Doncaster. They no doubt exist in many other districts. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 232A. Fig. 232B. Fig. 232C. 1∕1 - -Hastings.] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 232D. Fig. 232E. Fig. 232F. 1∕1 - -Vindhya Hills.] - -Curiously enough, identical forms have been found in some abundance -on the Vindhya Hills[1458] and the Banda district, India; at -Helouan,[1459] Egypt, in France, and in the district of the -Meuse,[1460] Belgium. Such an identity of form at places geographically -so remote does not imply any actual communication between those who -made the tools, but merely shows that some of the requirements of daily -life, and the means at command for fulfilling them being the same, -tools of the same character have been developed, irrespective of time -or space. - - - - -|326| - -CHAPTER XV. - -TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC. - - -Besides being converted into round-ended scrapers, and pointed -boring-tools, flint flakes were trimmed on one or both faces into a -variety of forms of cutting, scraping, and piercing tools, and weapons. -In one direction these forms pass through daggers and lance-heads, into -javelin and arrow heads; and in another through cutting tools, wrought -into symmetrical shape, and ground at the edges, into hatchets or celts -adapted for use in the hand without being hafted. - -[Illustration: Fig. 233.—Cambridge (1). 1∕2] - -The first I shall notice are flakes trimmed into form by secondary -working on both edges, but only on the convex face, the flat face being -left either almost or quite intact. The illustrations of these forms -are no longer full size, but on the scale of one half, linear measure. - - * * * * * - -The simplest form of such instruments is when merely the edge of the -flake is worked, so as to reduce it to a regular leaf-like shape. A -beautiful specimen of this kind is preserved in the Christy Collection, -and is shown in Fig. 233. It was probably found in the neighbourhood -of Cambridge, having formed part of the collection of the late Mr. -Litchfield of that town. It is of grey flint, curved lengthwise, as -is usually the case with flint flakes, and worked to a point at each -end, though rather more rounded at the butt-end of the flake. Such -instruments have sometimes been regarded as poignards, though not -improbably they were used for various cutting and scraping purposes. - -They rarely occur in Britain of so great a length as this flake, which -is 5 1∕2 inches long, but those of shorter proportions are not uncommon. - -In Ireland also the long flakes are scarce. - -In France they are more abundant, though still rare. Some of those -formed from the Pressigny flints were, judging from the cores, as -much |327| as 12 inches long, but none have as yet been found of -this length. One trimmed on both edges, and 8 1∕4 inches long, was -dredged from the bed of the Seine[1461] at Paris, and is now in the -Musée d’Artillerie, with another nearly as long found about the same -time in the same place. Both appear to be of Pressigny flint. Others -have been found in different parts of France.[1462] A beautiful flake, -8 3∕4 inches long, trimmed on its external face, and found near -Soissons,[1463] was in the collection of M. Boucher de Perthes. I have -one of the same character, 8 1∕2 inches long and 1 3∕8 inches broad in -the middle, most symmetrically shaped and perfectly uninjured, which -was formerly in the collection of M. Meillet, of Poitiers. It is said -to have been found at Savanseau, and in places has a red incrustation -upon it, as if it had been embedded in a cave. In the Grotte de St. -Jean d’Alcas,[1464] was found a blade of the same kind, together with -some lance-heads of flint worked on both faces. Occasionally they -are found in the dolmens. The _Allée couverte_[1465] of Argenteuil -furnished one, 7 1∕4 inches long; and one of the dolmens in the -Lozère[1466] another, 8 inches in length. One almost 10 inches long and -1 inch broad, found at Neuilly-sur-Eure,[1467] has on the convex face -the delicate secondary working, like ripple marks, such as is seen in -perfection on some of the Danish and Egyptian blades of flint. - -Others have been found in the dolmen at Caranda[1468] (Aisne), du -Charnier[1469] (Ardèche), and in the Grotte Duruthy (Landes).[1470] - -Curiously enough, the long flakes found in some abundance in -Scandinavia are rarely, if ever, worked on the convex face alone, but -are either left in their original form, or converted by secondary -working on both faces, into some of the more highly finished tools or -weapons. - -In the Swiss Lake-dwellings flakes trimmed at the edges and ends are of -not unfrequent occurrence. Some of these, as already described, have -been regarded as saws. - -Two long trimmed flakes, from Chevroux, tied to wooden handles, -both string and handle partially preserved, are in the Museum at -Lausanne.[1471] There is a small pommel at the end of the handle. - -A remarkably fine Italian specimen of a ridged flake, 11 inches in -length, and carefully trimmed along both edges, is in the British -Museum. It is stated to have been found at Telese, near Pæstum.[1472] - -Many of these trimmed flakes, as well as in some cases those entirely -untrimmed, have been called by antiquaries spear-heads and lance-heads. -They have frequently been found with interments in barrows. - -Not to mention numerous instances recorded by Mr. Bateman, I may -cite a flake found in company with a barbed flint arrow-head at |328| -the foot of a contracted skeleton in a barrow[1473] at Monkton Down, -Avebury, and a “triangular spear-head of stone curiously serrated -at the edges,” found with a flint arrow-head and perforated boar’s -tusk, in an urn at the foot of a skeleton, in a barrow on Ridgeway -Hill,[1474] Dorsetshire. - -Among the flint implements occurring on the surface of the Yorkshire -Wolds and elsewhere, flakes trimmed to a greater or less extent along -both edges, and over the convex face, are frequently found. The point -as well as the base is often neatly rounded, though the former is -sometimes chipped to a sharp angle. - -There is a considerable difference in the inclination of the edge to -the face, it being sometimes at an angle of 60° or upwards, like the -edge of some scrapers, at other times acute like a knife-edge. - -There is so great a range in the dimensions and proportions of this -class of instruments that it is almost impossible to figure all the -varieties. I have, therefore, contented myself with the selection of a -few examples, and will commence with those having the more obtuse edges. - -[Illustration: Fig. 234.—Yorkshire Wolds. 1∕2] - -Fig. 234, from the Yorkshire Wolds, is an external flat flake, -weathered white, and trimmed all round the face, showing the natural -crust of the flint, to a point in form like a Gothic arch. A part of -the edge is bruised, but it is impossible to say for what weapon such -an instrument was intended. It can hardly have been for a javelin-head, -though from the outline it would seem well adapted for such a weapon; -for in that case the edge would not have become bruised. It may -possibly be an abnormal form of scraper. - -A nearly similar specimen, but narrower in proportion, was found by -the late Lord Londesborough[1475] in a barrow near Driffield, and is -described as a spear-head. - -[Illustration: Fig. 235.—Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -Another form, usually very thick in proportion to its breadth, and -neatly worked over the whole of the convex face, is shown in Fig. 235. -This specimen, also from the Yorkshire Wolds, is in the Greenwell -Collection, now Dr. Sturge’s. I have seen another from a barrow near -Hay, Breconshire; and in the National Museum at Edinburgh is a specimen -found near Urquhart, Elgin. In an implement of the same form in my -own possession some small irregularities on the flat face have been -removed by delicate chipping. I have several examples from Suffolk. -There is nothing to guide us in attempting to determine the use of such -instruments, but if inserted in handles they would be well adapted for -boring holes in wood or other soft substances. The same form occurs in -Ireland. In the Greenwell Collection is an Irish specimen ground all -along the ridge, and over the whole of the butt-end. A pointed flattish -flake (4 1∕2 inches), worked over the whole of the outer face, from -Rousay,[1476] Orkney, has been figured. |329| - -Another much coarser but somewhat similar form is shown in Fig. 236. -The instrument in this case is made from a very thick curved flake, -roughly chipped into a boat-like form, and then more carefully trimmed -along the edges. It may possibly have been used as a borer, as the -edges near the point show some signs of attrition. It is of flint -weathered grey, and was found near Bridlington. I have found a similar -scaphoid form in Ireland.[1477] - -[Illustration: Fig. 236.—Bridlington. 1∕2] - -A rather thick external flake, worked over nearly the whole of its -convex face and reduced to about half its breadth for about a third of -its length from the point, is shown in Fig. 237. The narrower part is -nearly semicircular in section. It is difficult to imagine a purpose -for this reduction in width; and it hardly seems due to wear. I have, -however, another specimen, also from the Yorkshire Wolds, reduced in -the same manner along fully three-quarters of its length. - -Some of the worked flakes from the Dordogne Caves[1478] show a somewhat -similar shoulder, but it seems possible that with them the broader part -may have been protected by some sort of handle, as the original edge of -the flake is there preserved. - -I now come to the instruments with more acute edges, made by dressing -the convex face of flint flakes. Of these the form shown in Fig. -238 is allied to that of Fig. 235, but is considerably flatter in -section and more distinctly oval in outline. The original was found -near Bridlington. A hard particle of the flint has interfered with -the regular convexity of the worked face, but in some specimens the -form is almost as regular as a slice taken lengthways off a lemon, -though in others the outline presents an irregular curve. The flat -face is generally more or less curved longitudinally, and the ends -are sometimes more pointed than in the specimen engraved. I have -an exquisitely chipped and perfectly symmetrical implement of this -character (3 inches) from the neighbourhood of Icklingham, Suffolk, -in which county the type is not uncommon. The flaking on the convex -surface is very even and regular, and produces a slightly corrugated -surface, with the low ridges following each other like ripple marks on -sand. The edge is minutely and evenly chipped, and is very sharp. The -instrument may perhaps be regarded as a sort of knife. - -[Illustration: Fig. 237. 1∕2 Yorkshire.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 238. 1∕2 Bridlington.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 239. 1∕2 Castle Carrock.] - -The form is well known in Ireland, but I do not remember to have seen -it in foreign collections. - -The beautifully wrought blade of flint, shown in Fig. 239, presents -|330| a more elongated variety of this form. It was found by Canon -Greenwell, with a burnt body, in a barrow at Castle Carrock,[1479] -Cumberland. Another blade, curiously similar in workmanship and -character, was found by the same explorer in a barrow near Rudstone, -Yorkshire, but in this case the body was unburnt. Another, with -both ends rounded and the edges more serrated, was found in a -barrow at Robin Hood Butts, near Scarborough, and is preserved -in the museum of that town. Mounted with it on the same card are -arrow-heads—leaf-shaped, lozenge-shaped, and stemmed and barbed. Mr. -Carrington[1480] describes a flake flat on one face, and laboriously -chipped to a convex shape on the other, as found with burnt bones in -a barrow at Musdin, Staffordshire. A similar specimen in Ribden Low -accompanied a contracted interment. Mr. Bateman terms them lance-heads. -In the Greenwell Collection is a leaf-shaped blade of this kind, flat -on one face, found in Burnt Fen. A knife of the same kind (2 inches) -was found with an interment at Chollerford,[1481] Northumberland. - -[Illustration: Fig. 240.—Ford, Northumberland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 240A.—Etton. 1∕1] - -The skilful character of the surface chipping on these blades is -perhaps better shown in Fig. 240, which is drawn full-size from -another specimen, also in Canon Greenwell’s collection, which was -found in a cist with the remains of a burnt body, on Ford Common, -Northumberland.[1482] |331| - -Canon Greenwell found other knives in barrows at Sherburn[1483] and -Etton,[1484] Yorkshire. The latter is beautifully serrated and I am -enabled to reproduce his figure of it as Fig. 240A.[1485] He found -another of the same character in a barrow at Bishop’s Burton,[1486] -Yorkshire. Knives not serrated have been found at Carn Brê,[1487] -Cornwall; Chagford,[1488] Devon; and Grovehurst[1489] near Milton, Kent. - -[Illustration: Fig. 241.—Weaverthorpe. 1∕2] - -A serrated knife was found in a barrow at Dalmore,[1490] Alness, -Ross-shire, and another, less distinctly serrated, at Tarland,[1491] -Aberdeenshire. In some instruments, evidently belonging to the same -class, the secondary flaking does not extend over the whole of the -convex surface of the blade, but some of the facets of the original -flake are still visible, or if it has been an external flake, some -portion of the original crust of the flint remains. This is the case -with the blade engraved in Fig. 241, which was found by Canon Greenwell -in a barrow near Weaverthorpe,[1492] Yorkshire. In another barrow at -Rudstone, Yorkshire, also opened by him, was a rather smaller but -similar instrument, very neatly formed, and somewhat serrated at the -edge. It lay at the feet of a skeleton. General Pitt Rivers found one -nearly similar in a pit in the Isle of Thanet.[1493] - -Knives of much the same form, but more rudely chipped, from Udny, -Aberdeenshire, and Urquhart, Elgin, are in the National Museum -at Edinburgh. They have also been found on the Culbin Sands, -Elginshire.[1494] - -[Illustration: Fig. 242.—Wykeham Moor. 1∕2] - -Some of these blades are left blunt at the butt-end of the flake, or -else not so carefully worked round at that end, but that the square -end of the original flake may be discerned. A very fine specimen of -this kind was obtained by Canon Greenwell in a barrow on Wykeham Moor, -Yorkshire,[1495] and is shown in Fig. 242. It was found lying side -by side with a fluted bronze dagger, affording, as Canon Greenwell -observes, a valuable illustration of the contemporaneous use of bronze -and stone. He has found others, both with burnt and unburnt bodies, -in barrows in Yorkshire and Northumberland. I have a beautiful blade -of the same general form, but rather more rounded at the point and -curved slightly in the other direction, |332| and but little more -than half the length of this specimen, which was found by Mr. E. -Tindall, with another nearly similar, in a barrow near Bridlington. -Dr. Travis in 1836 described another (2 3∕4 inches) from a barrow near -Scarborough. Another (2 inches) was found with food-vessels in a barrow -at Marton,[1496] Yorkshire, E.R. A knife of the same kind from a cave -at Kozarnia,[1497] Poland, has been figured by Dr. F. Römer. - -Among other English examples I may mention a thin flake (4 1∕4 inches), -somewhat curved laterally, and trimmed along both edges and rounded -at the point, found in Burwell Fen, Cambridge. Another from the same -locality (3 3∕4 inches) is even more curved on the concave edge. A -recurved flake or knife of flint, 3 1∕2 inches long, finely chipped -at the sharp convex edge, was found with jet ornaments and an ovoid -instrument of serpentine, accompanying a skeleton, in a barrow near -Avebury, Wilts.[1498] I have several from the surface, Suffolk, and -from the Cambridge Fens. In a larger instrument from Icklingham, both -edges are worn smooth and rounded by use, as if in scraping some soft -but gritty substance, possibly hides in the process of preparation as -leather. - -In some of these instruments the point is sharp instead of being -rounded. One of them, found by Canon Greenwell in a barrow on Potter -Brompton Wold,[1499] is shown in Fig. 243. - -I have a more triangular form of implement, of the same kind, 3 3∕4 -inches long, showing the crust of the flint at the base, found near -Icklingham, Suffolk. Another from the same locality is of the same form -as the figure. - -Instruments of the same character as these were discovered by the late -Mr. Bateman in many of the Derbyshire Barrows. What appears to be one -of the same kind was found with a flake and burnt bones in an urn at -Broughton, Lincolnshire.[1500] It may, however, have been convex on -both faces. A fragment of another was found at Dorchester Dykes,[1501] -Oxfordshire, by General Pitt Rivers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 243.—Potter Brompton Wold. 1∕2] - -The sharp-edged instruments of the forms last described seem to have -been intended for use as cutting, or occasionally as scraping tools, -and may not improperly be termed knives, as has been proposed by Canon -Greenwell.[1502] Even the last described, though sharply pointed, -cannot with certainty be accepted as a spear-head. To regarding the -other form, Fig. 242, as such, Canon Greenwell objects that “the people -who fashioned the arrow-heads so beautifully, if they fabricated -a spear-head in flint, would not have made one side straight, the -other curved, and carefully rounded it off at the sharper end.” One -of these pointed instruments (3 inches), trimmed on one face and -slightly curved, was found with an urn and a whetstone in a cairn at -Stenton,[1503] East Lothian. |333| - -Sometimes the secondary working extends over part of both faces of the -flake, the central ridge of which is still discernible. Canon Greenwell -found a fine instrument of this kind (3 1∕4 inches), made from a ridged -flake, with neat secondary chipping along both sides, and on both -faces, with a burnt body, in a barrow on Sherburn Wold.[1504] The flint -itself is partially calcined. It is difficult to determine the claims -of such an instrument to be regarded as a knife or as a lance-head. - -[Illustration: Fig. 244.—Snainton Moor. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 245.—Ford. 1∕2] - -The pointed instrument from Snainton Moor, Yorkshire, which is shown -in Fig. 244, and was kindly lent to me by the late Mr. C. Monkman, of -Malton, has more the appearance of having been a lance-head. A fragment -of another weapon of this kind was found in Aberdeenshire.[1505] Larger -lance-heads of this form have been found in tumuli in the South of -France.[1506] A closely similar javelin-head, found at Vercelli, has -been engraved by Gastaldi,[1507] as well as another longer and more -distinctly tanged, from Telese.[1508] A third from Tuscany has been -engraved by Cocchi.[1509] A fourth of the same form, but slightly -notched on each side near the base, was found with skeletons in -Andalusia.[1510] In the English specimen the secondary flaking extends -over the whole, or nearly the whole, of both faces of the original -flake; and the same is the case with the other instruments of this -class which I am now about to describe. - -Fig. 245 represents an implement of dark grey almost unweathered flint, -found with burnt bones in a barrow at Ford.[1511] Northumberland, -examined by Canon Greenwell. It has been made from an external flake -subsequently brought into shape by working on both faces. Judging -from its form only, it would appear to have been a lance-head; but -there are some signs of wear of the edge at the |334| butt-end, which -seem hardly compatible with this assumption, unless, indeed, like the -natives of Tierra del Fuego,[1512] who are said to make use of their -arrow-heads for cutting purposes, its owner used it also as a sort of -knife. Mr. C. Monkman had a blade of this character (3 3∕8 inches) from -Northdale, Yorkshire. Some lance-heads (3 and 2 1∕2 inches) have been -found at West Wickham,[1513] Kent; and Carn Brê,[1514] Cornwall. - -[Illustration: Fig. 246.—Bridlington. 1∕2] - -The original of Fig. 246 was found at West Huntow, near Bridlington. -It is boldly chipped on both faces, so that hardly any portion of the -original surface of the flake remains. It has a sharp edge all round, -which is, however, slightly abraded at the blunter end; a small portion -of the point at the other end has been broken off. In character it -so closely resembles a leaf-shaped arrow-head that there seem some -grounds for regarding this form as that of a lance-head, though from -the doubtful character of other specimens of nearby similar form I -have thought it better to place it here. A much larger specimen of -brown flint (3 3∕4 by 2 3∕8 inches), but of nearly the same form and -character, was found by the late Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, at Hounslow -Heath. In the Greenwell Collection is one of almost the same dimensions -found on Willerby Wold, and others not quite so large from Rudstone, -Yorkshire. - -Some blades, similar in general form, were found, with various other -stone implements, in sand-beds, near York, and have been described by -Mr. C. Monkman.[1515] - -I have collected somewhat similar blades to that here engraved, -though of rather smaller dimensions, in the ancient encampment of -Maiden Bower, near Dunstable; and I have several found on the surface -near Lakenheath and Icklingham, Suffolk. I have seen one of the same -character, which was found near Ware, Herts. General Pitt Rivers found -in the Isle of Thanet[1516] two lance-heads, curiously like this and -the preceding figure. - -[Illustration: Fig. 247.—Cambridge Fens. 1∕2] - -A far more highly-finished blade, but still preserving the same general -character, is shown in Fig. 247. The original, of brown flint, was -found in the Cambridge Fens, and is now in my own collection. Though -ground on some portions of both faces, apparently for the purpose of -removing asperities, the edges are left unground. They are, however, -very carefully and delicately |335| chipped by secondary working to -a regular sweep. I think this instrument must be regarded rather as -a form of knife than as a head for a javelin or lance. In size, and -to some extent in shape, it corresponds with the more crescent-like -or triangular tools described under Fig. 256. I have a rather smaller -example from Bottisham, ground along one side only. - -This correspondence is still more evident in a blade now in the -Blackmore Museum, Salisbury, of nearly the same shape but somewhat less -curved on one edge than the other, which has been ground along the more -highly curved edge. It was found at Hamptworth, near Salisbury. - -A narrower form of blade is shown in Fig. 248. The original, of flint -weathered nearly white, was found at Scamridge, Yorkshire, and is -preserved in the Greenwell Collection. It is, as will be observed, -slightly unsymmetrical in form, so that it would appear to have been -intended for a knife rather than for a lance-head. A remarkably fine -specimen in the same collection, found at Flixton, Yorkshire[1517] -(5 1∕8 inches), is in form much like that from Scamridge. A part of -the edge towards the point on the flatter side is slightly worn. There -is a considerable diversity of form amongst the instruments of this -character, some having the sides almost symmetrical, while others have -them curved in different degrees, so much so as to make the instrument -resemble in form some of the crescent-shaped Danish blades. In a -specimen which I possess, from Ganton Wold, one side presents the -natural crust of the flint along the greater part of its length, and -has been left unworked; the other side has been chipped to an obtuse -edge, which is considerably bruised and worn. I have others from -Suffolk, sharpened by cross-flaking on one edge only. Some such knives -are rounded at one or both ends instead of being pointed. A blade from -the neighbourhood of Bridlington, in my collection, is pointed at one -end but rounded at the other, where also the edge is completely worn -away by attrition. In the case of another symmetrical and flat blade, -from Icklingham (3 3∕4 inches), rather more convex on one face than the -other, the edge on one side at the more pointed end is also completely -rubbed away. I have as yet been unable to trace on the face of any of -these pointed specimens signs of those polished markings which occur so -frequently at a little distance within the more highly curved margin of -the Danish semi-lunar blades, and from which Professor Steenstrup has -inferred that they were inserted in handles of wood or bone. A specimen -from Craigfordmains,[1518] Roxburghshire, has been figured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 248.—Scamridge. 1∕2] - -A blade of the same kind as Fig. 248, 3 5∕8 inches long, found in -the Department of the Charente, is engraved by de Rochebrune.[1519] -Others of larger size were found in the Grotto des Morts, Durfort -(Gard).[1520] |336| - -The view that many of these blades were used as knives rather than as -lance-heads, seems to be supported by a specimen from Burwell Fen, in -the Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, and engraved in Fig. -249. This blade is rather more convex on one face than the other, and -shows along half of its flatter face the original inner surface of the -flake from which it was made. One of its side edges has been rounded by -grinding along its entire length, so that it can be conveniently held -in the hand; the other edge is left sharp, and is polished as if by use. - -[Illustration: Fig. 249.—Burwell Fen. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 250.—Saffron Walden. 1∕2] - -A remarkably large specimen of this kind, but with no traces of -grinding upon it, was found in digging the foundations of a house -on Windmill Hill, Saffron Walden, and was in the possession of Mr. -William Tuke,[1521] of that town. It is shown in Fig. 250. One face -is somewhat flatter than the other, but both faces are dexterously -and symmetrically chipped over their whole surface. The small flakes -have been taken off so skilfully and at such regular intervals, that, -so far as workmanship is concerned, this instrument approaches in -character the elegant Danish blades. The form seems well adapted for a -lance-head, but on examination the edges appear to be slightly chipped -and worn away, as if by scraping some hard material. It would appear, -then, more probably to have been used in the hand. In the often-cited -Greenwell Collection is a blade of grey flint, also 5 3∕8 inches long, -but rather narrower than the figure, and straighter on one edge than -the other, found in Mildenhall Fen. In the same collection is a large -thin flat |337| blade of flint, 8 3∕8 inches long and 3 inches broad, -more curved on one edge than the other, and rounded at one end. The -straighter edge is also the sharper. It was found at Cross Bank, near -Mildenhall. In general outline it is not unlike some of the Danish -lunate implements. It may, however, be only the result of a somewhat -unskilful attempt to produce a symmetrical dagger or spear-head, such -as Fig. 264. I have several instruments of this kind, found near -Icklingham and at other places in Suffolk. - -A lance-head of almost the same size and form as Fig. 250, from the -neighbourhood of Brescia, has been engraved by Gastaldi.[1522] They are -also said to be found in Greece.[1523] - -They sometimes occur among American antiquities. One of them, 11 inches -in length, pointed at each end, is engraved by Squier and Davis.[1524] -I have a beautiful blade of pale buff chalcedony, acutely pointed at -one end and rounded at the other, which was found in company with a -second of the same size and character, near Comayagua, in Spanish -Honduras. It is 6 3∕8 inches long and 1 1∕8 inches broad. Other -lance-heads from Honduras have been published.[1525] A flint sword or -spear-head 22 inches long, serrated at the end towards the point, is -said to have been found in Tennessee.[1526] Lance-heads of flint, not -unlike Figs. 249 and 250, are found in South Africa.[1527] - -[Illustration: Fig. 251.—Fimber. 1∕2] - -Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, Yorkshire, have in their collection -a remarkable specimen belonging to this class of instrument, which -instead of being pointed is almost semicircular at both ends. They have -kindly allowed me to engrave it in Fig. 251. It has been neatly chipped -from a piece of tabular flint, and not from a flake, and is equally -convex on both faces; some of the salient parts along both edges are -polished, as if by wear, and on either face are some of the polished -“Steenstrup’s markings,” possibly arising from its having been inserted -in a handle. This form is perhaps more closely connected with some of -those which will shortly follow than with those which precede it. A -somewhat similar oval blade 3 3∕4 inches long and 2 3∕4 inches wide, -found in the Thames at Long Wittenham, and formerly belonging to the -Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, is ground along both sides, and is now in the -Oxford Museum. - -A blade of the same form was found in the Grotte des Morts, Durfort -(Gard).[1528] - - * * * * * - -In none of the specimens hitherto figured in this chapter, have the -edges been sharpened by grinding; in the only instances |338| where -that process has been used, it has been for the purpose of removing, -not of sharpening the edge. In the case of the next examples which I -am about to describe, one or both edges, and in some the whole of both -faces, have been ground. - - * * * * * - -I have already mentioned instances of untrimmed flakes of flint having -been ground on the edge, but knives of a similar character made from -carefully chipped blades also occur, though so far as I have at present -observed, principally in Scotland. - -[Illustration: Fig. 252.—Argyllshire. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 253.—Glen Urquhart.] - -One of these, carefully worked on both faces, and with one edge -sharpened by grinding, was found at Strachur,[1529] Argyllshire, and -is shown full size in Fig. 252. Another, 2 1∕2 inches long and 7∕8 -inch broad, with less grinding on the surface, was found at Cromar, -Aberdeenshire. A third, of almost the same size, with the edge nearly -straight and the back curved, and with neatly chipped faces but little -ground, was found in a chambered cairn at Camster,[1530] Caithness. -A nodule of iron ore was found with it, but whether this was for -fire-producing purposes is not apparent. A fragment of another knife of -the same kind was found, in 1865, by Messrs. Anderson and Shearer in a -cairn at Ormiegill Ulbster, Caithness; and among the numerous articles -of flint found at Urquhart,[1531] Elgin, is a very perfect knife of -this kind, which is shown in Fig. 253. All five specimens are in the -National Museum at |339| Edinburgh. I have two English specimens -of the same kind but pointed at the butt, from the neighbourhood of -Icklingham. - -The sharpened ends of stone celts, when broken off, have occasionally -been converted into knives. One such, from Gilling, Yorkshire, with the -fractured surface rounded by grinding, is in the Greenwell Collection. - -Another form of knife closely allied to the type of Fig. 251, is -broader, and has all its edges sharpened. The instrument shown in Fig. -254 was found near Bridlington. It is made from a large broad flake, -the outer face of which has been re-worked to such an extent that not -more than one-fourth of the original surface remains intact. The inner -face, on the contrary, is left almost untouched, except just at the two -ends. As will be seen from the engraving, a portion of the original -edge has been chipped away, apparently in modern times, by the first -finder having used it as a “strike-a-light” flint. What remains of the -original edge has been carefully sharpened, and the angles between some -of the facets on the convex face have also been removed by grinding. -An example of the same kind from Butterlaw,[1532] near Coldstream, has -been figured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 254.—Bridlington. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 255.—Overton. 1∕2] - -Others more or less perfect have been found at Glenluce,[1533] -Earlston, and on the Culbin Sands.[1534] - -A nearly similar instrument, from Sweden, has been engraved by -Nilsson,[1535] but its edges are not described as ground. - -A more highly finished form of the same implement is shown in Fig. -255. The original was found at Pick Rudge Farm,[1536] Overton, Wilts, -in company with the large barbed arrow or javelin-head, Fig. 305, and -both are now in the Blackmore Museum. Like Fig. 254, it is flatter on -one face than the other; it is, however, polished all over as well as -ground at the edges. These are rather sharper at the two ends than -at the sides. Another specimen of the same form, and of almost |340| -identically the same dimensions, was found at Pentrefoelas,[1537] -Denbighshire. A third specimen, 3 1∕2 inches long and 2 1∕4 inches -wide, was found at Lean Low, near Newhaven, Derbyshire, and is in the -Bateman collection.[1538] - -In my own collection are two very fine and perfect specimens of this -class of instrument, both from the neighbourhood of Cambridge. The -larger of these is 4 1∕4 inches long, 2 3∕4 inches broad at one end, -and 2 5∕8 inches at the other. The ends are ground to a regular sweep, -and the sides are somewhat hollowed. It has been made from a very -broad thin flake, and is ground over nearly the whole of the outer and -over part of the inner face, and brought to a sharp edge all round. -It was found in Burwell Fen. The smaller instrument has been even -more highly finished in the same manner, every trace of the original -chipping of the convex face having been removed by grinding. The edge -is sharp all round, but the ends are more highly curved than in the -larger instrument. It is 3 1∕4 inches long, 2 1∕8 inches broad at one -end, and 1 7∕8 inches at the other, and was found in Quy Fen. In the -Greenwell Collection is a portion of what appears to have been another -of these instruments, ground on both faces and sharp at the edges, from -Lakenheath. - -[Illustration: Fig. 256.—Kempston. 1∕2] - -I have the half of another, 2 inches wide, found near Bridlington, -and one of the same character, but oval in outline, from the same -place. The latter has lost one of its ends. Its original dimensions -must have been about 3 inches in length by 1 7∕8 inches in extreme -breadth, and 3∕16 inch in thickness. Both faces are coarsely ground, -the striæ running crossways of the blade. The edges appear to have been -sharpened on a finer stone. It has been supposed that these instruments -were intended to serve for dressing[1539] the flesh side of skins, -or for flaying-knives.[1540] Mr. Albert Way has called attention -to the analogy they present to an unique bronze implement found at -Ploucour,[1541] Brittany. - -The beautifully-formed instrument shown in Fig. 256 belongs apparently -to the same class. It was found at Kempston, near Bedford, and was -kindly lent to me for engraving by the late Mr. James Wyatt, F.G.S., -who afterwards presented it to the Blackmore Museum.[1542] It is of -dark flint, the two faces equally convex, and neatly chipped out -but not polished. Regarding it as of triangular form, with the apex -rounded, the edges on what may be described as the two sides in the -|341| [1543] engraving have been carefully sharpened, while that of -the base has been removed by grinding. In the same field was found a -flint lance-head or dagger of fine workmanship, which will subsequently -be mentioned. - -Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, possess an instrument of the same -character found near Fimber. It is more equilaterally triangular in -form than the Kempston specimen, though the sides are all curved and -the angles rounded. It is polished all over on one face, though some -traces of the original flaking are still apparent. On the other face, -which is rather more convex, the grinding is confined to two sides -of the triangle, which are thus brought to a sharp edge. The edge on -the third side, which is rather straighter than the others, is very -slightly rounded. It seems probable that this blunter edge was next the -hand when the instrument was in use. - -[Illustration: Fig.—256A.—Eastbourne. 1∕2] - -Another specimen, even more triangular in outline, was found in the -Thames, at Windsor; it is of ochreous flint, and the base, which is -3 3∕8 inches long, exhibits the natural crust of the flint; each of -the other two sides, which are ground to a sharp edge, is about 2 3∕4 -inches long. Another from Lakenheath, 3 1∕4 inches long and 3 inches -wide at the unground base, was in the collection of the late Rev. W. -Weller Poley, of Brandon. - -I have an implement of this kind, much like that from Kempston, but -more curved at what is the base in the figure. All along this sweep the -edge produced by chipping out the form has been removed by grinding. -All round the other sweep the edge has been carefully sharpened by the -same means. A portion only of each face is ground. This specimen was -found near Mildenhall. I have another, more curved both at the edge and -the base, found near Icklingham. From the same district I have the form -entirely unground. Other specimens found in Derbyshire are preserved in -the Bateman Collection. There are several in the Museum at Oxford. - -In Fig. 256A is shown an almost circular knife of this kind found at -Willington Mill, near Eastbourne, which was kindly given to me by Mr. -R. Hilton, of East Dean. - -In the Greenwell Collection is another nearly circular tool, about 2 -inches in diameter, ground to an edge along most of the periphery, -and found in Yorkshire. Another rather smaller disc, in the same -collection, |342| and found at Huntow, near Bridlington, is partly -ground on both faces, but not at the edge. A circular knife of the -same kind was found at Trefeglwys,[1544] Montgomeryshire. It is 2 3∕4 -inches in diameter and ground to an edge all round except at two places -at opposite ends of one of its diameters, where for a short distance -the edge is left as it was originally chipped out. It is now in the -Powysland Museum. A circular knife from Mam Tor,[1545] Derbyshire, is -in the Castleton Museum. - -[Illustration: Fig. 257.—Kintore. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 258.—Newhaven, Derbyshire.] - -In the Greenwell Collection is an implement, about 2 inches in -diameter, found at Sherburn Carr, Yorkshire, and in outline like a -scraper, but with the greater part of the semicircular edge sharpened -by grinding. In character it much resembles some instruments -occasionally found both in Britain and Ireland, of which an example is -given in Fig. 257. This is a horseshoe-shaped blade of flint, 3 inches -over, with the rounded part of the circumference ground to a fine -cutting edge, so that it was probably used as a knife. It is in the -National Museum at Edinburgh, and was presumably found near Kintore, -Aberdeenshire. In the same Museum is another instrument of the same -kind, but somewhat kidney-shaped in outline, found in Lanarkshire. It -is 3 3∕8 inches in length, and 2 5∕8 inches in extreme width. On a part -of the hollowed side it shows the natural crust of the flint, but the -rest of the periphery is ground to a sharp edge, and the projections -on the faces have been removed by grinding. Others were found at -Pitlochrie,[1546] Kincardineshire, and Turriff,[1547] Aberdeenshire. -Mr. C. Monkman, of Malton, had a knife much like Fig. 257, 2 3∕4 inches -across, which was found at Huntow, near Bridlington. I have an Irish -specimen from near Ballymena almost like that from Kintore, as well as -one of longer horseshoe shape found at Swan Brake, North Stow, Bury St. -Edmunds, another large |343| one more subtriangular (3 8∕10 by 3 1∕2 -inches) found near Wallingford, and a broad hatchet-shaped one from the -Cambridge Fens. - -In the collection (now in the British Museum) of the late Mr. J. F. -Lucas, is an instrument of this kind, 3 inches over, found at Arbor -Low, Derbyshire, in 1867. He kindly presented me with another, closely -resembling Fig. 257, and found at Mining Low. He also possessed a -remarkably fine knife of this form, but with the edge unground, which -was found at Newhaven, Derbyshire, and is shown in Fig. 258. An example -more pear-shaped in outline and ground half-way round the edge, found -near Whitby, has been figured.[1548] I have a fine one (4 inches) more -rhomboidal from Swaffham Fen, Cambridge, and another smaller from -Burwell. From the latter place I have an oval knife made from a broad -external flake (2 3∕4 inches) ground along one side, and a thick one -also of oval form from Icklingham. - -In all the specimens with the circular edge sharpened by grinding, the -flat side has been purposely made blunt, as if for being held in the -hand. The backs, however, may have been let into wooden handles, in -which case these instruments would have been the exact counterparts of -the Ulus, or Women’s knives of the Eskimos.[1549] - -[Illustration: Fig. 259.—Harome, Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -Though not formed of flint, but of a hard slaty rock of the nature -of hone-stone, an implement of much the same form as that from -Fimber[1550] may be here described. It was found at Harome, in -Ryedale, Yorkshire, and is in the Greenwell Collection, now Dr. Allen -Sturge’s. As will be seen from Fig. 259, it approximates in form to an -equilateral spherical triangle with the apices rounded. It is carefully -polished over the whole of both faces, except where small portions -have broken away, owing to the lamination of the stone. Each of the -three sides is ground to a cutting edge, which however is not continued -over the angles; these are rounded in both directions, as each would -probably be in contact with the palm of the hand when the opposite edge -was used for cutting. |344| - -There can be no doubt that all these triangular instruments, whether -of flint or other material, were used as cutting tools; and the name -of skinning-knife, which has been applied to them as well as to the -quadrangular instruments, not improbably denotes one of the principal -purposes for which they were made. - -[Illustration: Fig. 260.—Harome, Yorkshire. 1∕2] - -In the Greenwell Collection is another curious instrument, from the -same locality as that last described, which is shown in Fig. 260. It -is formed of a hard slaty stone, having one side ground to a regularly -curved and sharp edge, and the others rounded by grinding. The two -faces, which are equally convex, are also ground to such an extent -that but little of the original chipped surface can be discerned. In -the face shown in the figure there is a slight central depression, -and on the other face two such at about 2 inches apart, and in a line -parallel with the top or back of the instrument. When it is held in the -right hand, with the fore-finger over the end, the thumb fits into the -depression on the one face and the middle and fourth fingers into those -on the other, so that it is firmly grasped. It is evident that this -must have been a cutting or chopping tool: but the materials on which -it was employed would seem to have been soft, as the edge is by no -means sharp, and is also entirely uninjured by use. These depressions -for the thumb and fingers resemble in character those on the handles of -some of the Eskimo[1551] scrapers and knives already described. - -Another implement, of nearly the same form, but rather longer and -narrower, is in the same collection, and was found in Ryedale, -Yorkshire. It is of hard clay-slate, 5 1∕8 inches long at the blade -and 2 1∕2 inches wide, with a curved sharp edge, and a straight back -rounded transversely. It is bevelled at one end, which is flat, -apparently owing to a joint in the slate; and somewhat rounded -at the other, where it fits the hand. Neither in this nor in a -third instrument of the same class, also from Harome, are there -any depressions on the face. This last has been formed from a flat -kidney-shaped pebble of clay-slate, the hollow side and one end left -almost in the natural condition so as to fit the hand, and the curved -side ground to a sharp edge, which is returned round the end almost -at a right angle. The edge at the end |345| is polished as if by -rubbing, and looks as if it might have been used in the same manner as -bookbinders’ tools for indenting lines on leather. This instrument is -6 inches long, 3 inches wide at the butt-end, and 2 1∕2 inches at the -sharp end. It is nearly 1 1∕4 inches thick. - -Besides the three which I have mentioned several other instruments of -the same description have been found in the same part of Yorkshire. - -I have never seen any specimens of precisely this character from -other localities; but they were apparently destined for much the same -purposes as the “Picts’ knives,” shortly to be mentioned, unless -possibly they were merely used in the manner just indicated. It is -very remarkable that the form should appear to be limited to so small -an area in England; and though the specimens occur under the same -circumstances as polished celts, it seems probable that for stone -antiquities they belong to a late period. - -[Illustration: Fig 261.—Crambe. 1∕2] - -The large thin flat blades, usually subquadrangular or irregularly -oval in form, of which a large number has been found in the Shetland -Islands, and which are known as “Pech’s knives,” or “Picts’ knives,” -apparently belong to the same class of instruments as the quadrangular -and triangular tools lately described, and this would therefore appear -to be the proper place for making mention of them. They are never -formed of flint; the principal materials of which they are made being -slate and compact greenstone, porphyry, and other felspathic rocks, and -madreporite. Their usual length is from 6 inches to 9 inches, and the -breadth from 3 inches to 5 inches; their thickness is rarely more than -1∕2 inch in the middle, and sometimes not more than 1∕10 of an inch. -They are usually polished all over, and ground to an edge all round. -Sometimes, however, the edge on one or more sides is rounded, and -occasionally an end or side is left of the full thickness of the blade, -and rounded as if for being held in the hand. I have a specimen, 4 1∕2 -inches long, and 3 1∕4 inches wide at the base, formed of porphyritic -greenstone, and found at Hillswick, in Shetland, which was given me by -the late Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S. Its cutting edge may be described -as forming nearly half of a pointed ellipse, of which the thick side -for holding forms the conjugate diameter. This side is rounded and -curved slightly inwards; one of the angles between this base and the -elliptical edge is rounded, and a portion of the edge is also left -thick and rounded, so that when the base is applied to the palm of -the hand the lower part of the forefinger may rest upon it. When thus -held it forms a cutting tool not unlike a leather-cutter’s knife. -Instruments of this character are extremely rare in England, but in -the extensive Greenwell Collection is a specimen which I have engraved -as Fig. 261. It was found at Crambe, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, -and is formed of an oolitic shelly limestone, a material also used -for the manufacture of celts in |346| that district. Though smaller, -and rather more deeply notched at the base than my Shetland knife, it -is curiously like it in general form. The edge, however, only extends -along one side, and is not carried round the point. - -[Illustration: Fig. 262.—Walls, Shetland. 1∕2] - -The specimens that I have engraved as Figs. 262 and 263, are in the -Museum of the Society of Antiquaries of London. They are formed of -thin laminæ of what is said to be madreporite, and are sharp all -round.[1552] They were found with fourteen others at the depth of six -feet in a peat-moss, the whole of them being arranged in a horizontal -line, and overlapping each other like slates upon the roof of a house. -There are several specimens formed of felspathic rocks, and from -various localities in Shetland, preserved in the British Museum. A note -attached to one of them states that twelve were found in Easterskild, -in the parish of Sandsting. An engraving of one of them is given in -the “Horæ Ferales.”[1553] I possess several; one of porphyritic stone, -oval, 8 inches long, is polished all over both faces, one side is sharp -and the other rounded. - -In the National Museum at Edinburgh[1554] are other examples, also -from Shetland. Several have been figured.[1555] Some have a kind of -haft.[1556] They occasionally have a hole for suspension.[1557] Sir -Daniel Wilson[1558] states that a considerable number of implements, -mostly of the same class, were found under the clay in the ancient -mosses of |347| Blairdrummond and Meiklewood, but in this he was in -error. There are some fine specimens from Shetland in the Ethnological -Museum at Copenhagen. Mr. J. W. Cursiter, of Kirkwall, has fine -examples of such knives from Shetland. One in his collection is 8 -inches long and 5 3∕4 inches broad, being in form much like Fig. 262. - -[Illustration: Fig. 263.—Walls, Shetland. 1∕2] - -There can be little doubt of these implements having been cutting tools -for holding in the hand, though they have been described by Dr. Hibbert -and Mr. Bryden[1559] in “The Statistical Account of the Shetland Isles” -as double or single-edged battle-axes. They appear, however, as Mr. -Albert Way[1560] has pointed out, to be too thin and fragile for any -warlike purpose. Those with the cutting edge all round were probably -provided with a sort of handle along one side, like the flensing-knife -from Icy Cape in the possession of Sir Edward Belcher, of which mention -has already been made. This is a flat thin blade, about 5 inches long, -and of subquadrangular form. It is sharp at the edge, but has a guard -or handle along the opposite side, made of split twigs attached by -resinous gum. In some Eskimo knives of the same kind in the Christy -Collection and in the Ethnological Museum at Copenhagen the |348| -wooden back is tied on by a cord which passes through a hole in the -blade. It is possible that the “Picts’ knives” may in some cases have -been used, like those of the Eskimos, for removing the blubber from -whales. - -It is difficult to assign a date to these instruments, which are almost -peculiar to the Shetland Islands. There are traditions extant of their -having been seen in use within the present century, in one instance -by an old woman for cutting kail, and in Lewis,[1561] a sharp stone -was used in 1829, for cutting out a wedding dress. In the latter case -the reason assigned was the want of scissors, but it would appear to -have probably been merely an experimental trial of the cutting powers -of a stone which may not have been one of these primitive tools. The -occurrence of Picts’ knives under so thick a deposit of peat shows, -however, that they do not belong to any recent period, though five or -six feet of peat do not of necessity indicate any very high degree of -antiquity. - -When the Princess Leonora Christina[1562] was imprisoned in Copenhagen -in 1663 and she was deprived of scissors and cutting instruments, she -records, in 1665, that, “Christian had given me some pieces of flint -which are so sharp that I can cut fine linen with them by the thread. -The pieces are still in my possession, and with this implement I -executed various things.” - -Stone knives of any form, having the edges ground, are of rare -occurrence on the Continent, though in Norway and Sweden[1563] those -of what have been termed Arctic types are found. Nearly similar forms -occur in North America. A peculiar knife, with a rectangular handle, -much like a common table-knife, has been found in the Lake Settlement -of Inkwyl.[1564] - -A North American knife,[1565] with a somewhat similar handle, has a -curved blade very thick at the back. - - * * * * * - -To return to the implements made of flint. Those which I have next -to describe have been termed spear-heads, lance-heads, knives, and -daggers. Their ordinary length is from 5 to 7 inches, and their extreme -width from 1 1∕2 to 2 1∕2 inches. Their general form is lanceolate, -but the greater breadth is usually nearer the point of the blade than -the butt, which is in most instances either truncated or rounded. -They exhibit remarkable skill in the treatment of flint in their -manufacture, being as a rule symmetrical in form, with the edge in -one plane, and equally convex on the two faces—which are dexterously -chipped into broad flat facets—while the edges are still more carefully -shaped by secondary working. Towards the butt, the converging sides are -usually nearly straight, and in many, the edge at this part has been -rounded by grinding, and the butt-end has had its angles removed in a -similar manner. |349| This may have been done either with the view of -rendering the instrument more convenient for holding in the hand, or -in order to prevent the blade from cutting the ligaments by which it -was attached to a handle. For the latter purpose, however, there would -be no advantage in rounding the butt-end; and as this, moreover, is -frequently the thickest part of the blade, it seems probable that the -majority of the instruments were intended for holding in the hand, so -that the term dagger appears most appropriate to this form. - -Other blades, with notches on the opposite sides, seem to have been -mounted with handles or shafts, and may have served either as daggers -or possibly as spear-heads. - -I have figured four specimens showing some difference in shape, mainly -in consequence of the different relative positions of the broadest part -of the blades. This in Fig. 265 may be, to some extent, due to the -point having been chipped away by successive sharpening of the edge by -secondary chipping, in the same manner as we find some of the Danish -daggers worn to a stump, by nearly the whole of the blade having been -sharpened away. - -[Illustration: Fig. 264.—Lambourn Down. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -In Fig. 264 is shown a beautiful dagger of white flint, which was -found in a barrow on Lambourn Down, Berks, in company with a celt -and some exquisitely-finished stemmed and barbed arrow-heads of the -same material. It is now in the British Museum. Its edges are sharp -all along, and not blunted towards the butt-end. It may have been -an entirely new weapon, buried with the occupant of the barrow for -use in another state of existence, or it may have had moss wrapped -round that part, so as to protect the hand; like the blade[1566] of -flint with _Hypnum brevirostre_ wrapped round its butt-end to form a -substitute for a handle, which was found in the bed of the River Bann, -in Ireland. Some North American implements of similar character are, as -Sir Wollaston Franks[1567] has pointed out, hafted by insertion into a -split piece of wood in which |350| they are bound by a cord. One from -the north-west coast, thus mounted, is in the British Museum. - -Professor Nilsson[1568] has engraved another American knife, in the -same collection, but erroneously refers it to New Zealand. - -A good specimen (6 1∕2 inches) was found in 1890 in a field known as -Little Wansford, near Great Weldon, Northamptonshire. I have specimens -(6 1∕4 inches) from Fiskerton, Lincolnshire, and from Bottisham Fen, -Cambs (4 5∕8 inches). There is a slight shoulder on the latter rather -nearer the butt than the point. A beautiful specimen (6 3∕4 inches) -from a barrow at Garton.[1569] Yorkshire, E. R., has been figured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 265.—Thames. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 266.—Burnt Fen.] - -The blade shown in Fig. 265 is in the British Museum, having been -formerly in the Roach Smith Collection. It is of nearly black flint, -and was found in the Thames. Its length is still 7 inches, but from the -form of the point it seems possible that it may, as already suggested, -originally have been even longer. There is in the Museum another -specimen from the Thames,[1570] 5 3∕4 inches long, in form like Fig. -264. Both of these have the edges towards the butt rendered more or -less blunt, and have had any prominences removed by grinding. The same -is the case with a blade 6 inches long and 2 3∕8 inches wide, found -|351| in Quy Fen in 1849, and now in the Museum of the Cambridge -Antiquarian Society. In the same collection is a smaller specimen, -4 3∕4 inches long and 1 5∕8 inches wide, from Burwell Fen. This has -its edges sharp, and shows the natural crust of the flint at the butt, -as does also one 7 inches long by 2 1∕2 inches wide, found at Jackdaw -Hill, near Cambridge.[1571] Another blade (5 3∕8 inches) found at -Wolseys, near Dunmow, Essex, is in the British Museum. A blade of this -type from a garden at Walton-on-Thames[1572] is recorded. - -A remarkably fine spear-head of the notched class, 6 3∕4 inches long, -was exhibited some years ago to the British Archæological Association, -and their _Proceedings_,[1573] without giving any information as to the -size, shape, or character of the specimen, record as an interesting -fact that it weighs nearly four ounces. It was found in Burnt Fen, -Prickwillow, Ely, and is now in my own collection. It is engraved as -Fig. 266. It is of black flint, and has in the first instance been -boldly chipped into approximately the requisite form, and then been -carefully finished by neat secondary working at the edges, no part of -which has been rounded by grinding. On either side, at rather less -than half way along the blade from the base, are two deep rounded -indentations not quite half an inch apart, in character much like the -notches between the barbs and stems of one form of flint arrow-heads. -The same peculiarity is to be observed in a somewhat smaller spear-head -found at Carshalton,[1574] in Surrey, and forming part of the Meyrick -Collection. Of this it is observed that it “was let into a slit in -the wooden shaft, and bound over with nerves diagonally from the four -notches which appear on the sides.” There can, I think, be little doubt -of the correctness of this view, nor of the method of attachment to -the shafts or handles having been much the same as that in use among -the American tribes for their arrow-and lance-heads with a notch on -either side. Whether the British blades were mounted with a short -handle or a long shaft, we have no means of judging; but if those with -the edges rounded towards the butt were knives or daggers, there seems -some probability of these also having served the same purpose, though -provided with handles like some North American and Mexican examples, -and of their not having been spear-or lance-heads. - -I have another blade of this kind found in Burwell Fen, Cambridge, -about 5 3∕4 inches in length, and 1 7∕8 inch in width. At about 3 1∕2 -inches from the point there is on either side a slight notch; beyond -this there is a narrow projection, and then the width of the blade is -suddenly reduced by a full eighth of an inch on either side, so as -to leave a sort of shoulder. Between this and the butt, at intervals -of about an inch, there are on each side two other notches, as if to -assist in fastening the blade into a shaft or handle. There has in this -case been no attempt to remove the edges by grinding. - -A flint dagger (6 3∕8 inches) found in the Thames,[1575] near London -Bridge, has a notch on each side 2 7∕8 inches from the base. A smaller -notched example was found at Hurlingham. - -In the Christy Collection is another of these blades, 5 3∕8 inches -long, |352| with a notch on either side about 1 3∕4 inches from the -butt. It is uncertain where it was found. - -One with a notch at each side about mid-length was found at Hare -Park,[1576] Cambridge. - -A blade remarkably like Fig. 266 was found in the Dolmen of -Vinnac[1577] (Aveyron). - -A beautifully formed blade, chipped square at the base, and with a -series of notches along the sides towards the butt, was found at Arbor -Low, Derbyshire.[1578] The late Mr. J. F. Lucas obligingly lent it -to me for engraving, as Fig. 267. It is now preserved in the British -Museum. - -[Illustration: Fig. 267.—Arbor Low. 1∕2] - -In the Wiltshire Barrows, explored by Sir R. Colt Hoare, were several -of these daggers. One,[1579] 6 1∕2 inches long, was found with a -skeleton beneath a large “sarsen stone” near Durrington Walls, in -company with a small whetstone, a cone and ring of jet like a pulley, -and two small discoidal scrapers. Another,[1580] of much the same form -and size as Fig. 264, occurred in company with a drinking-cup, and what -was probably a whetstone of “ligniformed asbestos,” at the feet of a -skeleton in a barrow near Stonehenge. - -Others have been found in the barrows of Derbyshire and Yorkshire. In -Green Low, on Alsop Moor,[1581] a dagger-blade of flint, 6 inches long, -stemmed and barbed arrow-heads, a bone pin, and other bone instruments, -were associated with a contracted interment. It was in this barrow also -that the pyrites and scrapers, previously mentioned at p. 313, were -found. Another leaf-shaped dagger of white flint, 4 1∕2 inches long, -with the narrow half curiously serrated—as boldly as Fig. 266, but -with many more notches—was found by Mr. Bateman beneath the head of -a contracted skeleton in Nether Low,[1582] near Chelmorton. Another, -4 1∕4 inches long, was found with burnt bones in one of the Three -Lows,[1583] near Wetton. A flint dagger,[1584] elegantly chipped, 5 1∕4 -inches long, was found on Blake Low, near Matlock, in 1786. Fragments -of similar daggers have been found with interments in barrows near -Pickering;[1585] and in Messrs. Mortimer’s rich collection is a fine -specimen from a barrow on the Yorkshire Wolds. - -One like Fig. 264, but of coarser workmanship, 5 3∕4 inches long and -2 3∕8 inches wide, was found in 1862, with a skeleton and an earthen -vessel, at Norton, near Daventry, and particulars sent to me by the -|353| late Mr. S. Sharp, F.S.A., F.G.S.; and what would appear to have -been an instrument of the same character, 8 inches long, was found near -Maidstone.[1586] A very good specimen, of fine workmanship, is in the -Museum at Canterbury, but its place of finding is unknown. - -Another, more like Fig. 267, but not serrated, 6 3∕4 inches long and 2 -inches broad, was found with an urn at Ty ddu Llanelieu,[1587] Brecon, -and has been engraved. - -In the Greenwell Collection is a blade like Fig. 264, 6 inches long and -2 1∕4 inches wide, finely chipped along the edges for 4 inches from the -point, which was found at Kempston, near Bedford, in the same field as -that shown in Fig. 256. There is also a specimen rather more rudely -chipped, and pointed at each end, from Irthington, Cumberland, which -has more of the character of a spear-head. In the Fitch Collection is a -fine but imperfect dagger from the neighbourhood of Ipswich, and I have -one in similar condition from Peasemarsh, near Godalming. - -In Scotland one has been found in a cairn at Guthrie, Forfarshire, -6 3∕4 inches long and 1 1∕2 inches wide, which is engraved in the -_Gentleman’s Magazine_.[1588] Sir Daniel Wilson[1589] also mentions one -15 inches long, found in a cairn at Craigengelt, near Stirling, but I -think there must be some error as to the length. - -Mr. J. W. Cursiter, of Kirkwall, has a very symmetrical blade like Fig. -264, but smaller, found in Blows Moss, South Ronaldsay, Orkney. A blade -from Nunraw,[1590] Haddingtonshire (7 1∕4 inches) with notches at the -side for hafting, has been engraved. Another (3 3∕8 inches), was found -in a cairn near Kirkmichael, Ayrshire.[1591] - -Though occurring in so many parts of England and Scotland, these -daggers appear to be unknown in Ireland, where, however, some large -lozenge-shaped blades, ground on both faces, occur. Sword-like -blades made of slaty stone are also found in Ireland[1592] and in -Shetland.[1593] I have Irish specimens up to 15 inches in length, and -have seen the sketch of one of subquadrate section, and pointed at each -end, 20 3∕4 inches in length. It was found in the Lower Bann, near -Portglenone, co. Antrim. - -In some Continental countries, and especially in Denmark, Sweden, and -Northern Germany, similar weapons are far more abundant than here. The -shape is somewhat different, for the English specimens are as a rule -broader in proportion, and more obtusely pointed than the Scandinavian. -These latter frequently exhibit the blunting at the edges towards -the butt-end, such as has been already mentioned. Occasionally they -have the notches at the sides. Daggers with square or fish-tailed -handles, like Worsaae, Nos. 52 and 53, some of which present delicately -ornamented and crinkled edges, have not as yet been found in Britain, -though somewhat analogous forms occur in Honduras and in North America. -The crinkling is seen on some Egyptian knives. - -Nearly similar blades to those from Britain are found in other parts -of Europe. Two lance-heads, made from flakes 5 1∕4 inches and 5 3∕4 -inches long, more or less worked on both faces, and reduced in width -at the |354| butt, so as to facilitate insertion in a handle, were -found in the sepulchral cave of St. Jean d’Alcas,[1594] in the Aveyron. -Another, worked on both faces, about 7 inches long and 1 1∕4 inches -broad, notched in two or three places on each side at the base, was -found in one of the dolmens of the Lozère.[1595] A third, shorter and -broader, but also notched at the base, was in the dolmen[1596] of -Grailhe (Gard). - -A finely-worked, somewhat lozenge-shaped, blade of flint, 10 inches in -length, was found at Spiennes,[1597] near Mons, in Belgium. - -A lance-head (6 3∕4 inches) from the Government of Vladimir,[1598] -Russia, has been figured. - -A lance-head of flint, 9 inches long and 2 1∕8 broad, tanged at the -butt, and with a notch on each side of the tang, has been figured by -Gastaldi[1599] from a specimen in the Museum at Naples, found at Telese. - -In Egypt, associated with other objects betokening a considerable -civilization, have been found several thin blades of flint, of much the -same character as the highly-finished European specimens. A magnificent -lance-head (14 1∕2 inches) has been presented to the Ashmolean Museum -by Prof. Flinders Petrie[1600]. It is delicately serrated along the -edges for most of its length. A smaller blade is more leaf-shaped and -minutely serrated all round. Another appears to have been hafted as -a dagger. In my own collection is a leaf-shaped blade 7 inches long, -most delicately made and serrated. Others are, however, thick at the -back, and provided with a tang like a metallic knife. Two of these -in the Berlin Museum,[1601] are 7 1∕4 inches and 6 3∕4 inches long -respectively, and 2 1∕4 inches and 2 inches wide; I have one 5 1∕8 -inches in length. There are other specimens in the Egyptian Museums -at Leyden and Turin, and in the National Museum[1602] at Edinburgh. A -larger blade, and even more closely resembling some of the Scandinavian -lunate instruments in form, being leaf-shaped, but more curved on -one edge than the other, is also in the Berlin Museum.[1603] It is 9 -inches long and 2 1∕2 inches wide. A curved scimitar-like knife from -Egypt[1604] is figured, as is one with a notch on each side of the -butt.[1605] Another blade, of ovate form, and without tang, 2 3∕4 -inches long and 1 inch wide, is preserved in the Mayer Collection in -the Museum[1606] at Liverpool. - -Some other Egyptian blades will be subsequently mentioned. - -A dagger-blade of flint, still mounted in its original handle, is in -the British Museum,[1607] and has already been described. - -Some of the dagger-blades in use in Mexico in ancient times were of -|355| much the same character as these, being in some cases of flint, -in others of obsidian. A beautiful blade of chalcedony, 8 inches long, -found at Tezcuco, is in the Christy Collection, as well as another of -chert; but the most remarkable is of chalcedony, still in its original -wooden handle in form of a kneeling figure, encrusted with precious -materials, including turquoise, malachite, and coral.[1608] An almost -similar specimen was engraved by Aldrovandus.[1609] - -There are Japanese[1610] stone knives and daggers polished all over and -with the blade and hilt in one piece. Some are as much as 15 inches -long. - -[Illustration: Fig. 267A.—Sewerby. 1∕2] - -A peculiar form of knife, closely resembling in character some of -the crescent-shaped blades from Scandinavia, is shown in Fig. 267A. -It was found in the parish of Sewerby,[1611] near Bridlington, and -somewhat resembles the blade from Balveny, subsequently mentioned. I -have described it in some detail[1611] elsewhere. A similar form occurs -in Arctic America.[1612] A wider form from New Jersey[1613] has been -regarded as a scalping-knife. - -Another form of curved knife—for as such it would seem the instrument -must be regarded—seems to be more abundant in Britain than in other -European countries, unless possibly in Russia. A somewhat similar -form is known in Denmark,[1614] of which a highly finished variety -is engraved by Worsaae[1615] from an almost, if not quite, unique -example. Examples of analogous knives from other countries will also -be subsequently cited. As the form has not hitherto received much -attention from antiquaries, I have engraved three specimens slightly -differing in character, and found in different parts of England. |356| - -Fig. 268 represents a beautifully formed knife, with a curved blade -tapering to a point, and found in draining at Fimber, Yorkshire. It -is preserved in the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, who -have kindly allowed me to engrave it. It is about 7 inches in length, -formed of flint, which has now become ochreous in colour, and exhibits -a portion of the natural crust at the butt-end. The blade is nearly -equally convex on the two faces, but thickens out at the butt, which -seems to have formed the handle, as the side edges which are elsewhere -sharp are there slightly blunted. The faces present no signs of having -been ground or polished. - -[Illustration: Fig. 268.—Fimber. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 269.—Yarmouth. 1∕2] - -I have two or three fragments of similar knives also from the Yorkshire -Wolds; and one almost perfect, but only 4 1∕2 inches long, from Ganton -Wold. In the Greenwell Collection is a fragment of one from Wetwang, -and the point of another from Rudstone. I have one (5 inches) perfect -except at the butt, found at North Stow, Bury St. Edmunds. - -Fig. 269 represents a nearly similar knife, which has, however, -been already described, though not figured, in the _Archæological -Journal_[1616] and in the _Proceedings of the Society of -Antiquaries_.[1617] It was found on Corton Beach, midway between -Yarmouth and Lowestoft, and belonged |357| to the late Mr. C. Cory, -of Yarmouth, who kindly lent it to me for engraving. It has been -suggested that it was fixed to a haft, possibly of stag’s horn or of -wood, but there are no _indiciæ_ of this having been the case, though -the side-edges are blunted towards the butt-end, where also remains -a considerable portion of the crust of the long nodule of flint from -which the instrument was chipped. - -For the loan of the original of Fig. 270 I am indebted to the late Mr. -Caldecott, of Mead Street, near Eastbourne, near which place it was -found. It is of grey flint, and presents the peculiarity of having -one face partially polished by grinding, which extends to the point, -but does not touch the edges, which, as in the other instances, are -produced by chipping only. It is rather more convex on the polished -face than on the other, and it appears probable that recourse was had -to grinding in order to remove a hard projection of the flint which had -been too refractory to be chipped off. As usual, there is a portion of -the crust of the original flint visible at the butt, where also the -side edges have been blunted, in this case by grinding. This instrument -has already been described and figured.[1618] - -A curved knife (7 3∕4 inches) now in the British Museum, much like Fig. -270, was found at Grovehurst,[1619] near Milton, Kent. - -[Illustration: Fig. 270.—Eastbourne. 1∕2] - -In the same museum is a beautifully-chipped knife, 8 1∕4 inches long, -without any traces of grinding, and of much the same form as this, but -with the point more sharply curved. It was found in the Thames, at -London, in 1868. - -One from Bexley, Kent, is in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, and -another from the Thames at Greenwich in the Jermyn Street Museum. - -The Greenwell Collection contains an implement of this class, but -of broader proportions, 4 inches long and 1 3∕4 inches wide, with a -portion of the natural crust of the flint left on the convex side, not -far from the point. It is sharp at the base, which is semicircular, and -the edge shows signs of wear. It was found on Heslerton Wold. - -A thinner form of curved knife (6 1∕2 inches), found at Balveny,[1620] -Banffshire, has been figured. - -The point of what appears to have been a curved knife of this character -was found in the Lake-dwelling of Bodmann.[1621] Some curved knives -from one at Attersee[1622] have been engraved. A long flint knife from -Majorca,[1623] nearly straight at the edge, but curved at the back, may -also be mentioned. |358| - -Some curved knives of polished slate, about 5 inches long, notched at -the base as if for suspension by means of a string, have been found in -Norway. Small blades of chipped flint with a neck for the same purpose -are not uncommon in Japan, and occur more rarely in Russia.[1624] In -the Greenwell Collection is preserved a curved knife of slate sharpened -on the concave side, found in Antrim. - -Curved knives of flint, as well as some of the crescent shape, have -been found in Volhynia.[1625] - -I have seen flint knives in outline very like Fig. 240 in the museums -at Cracow, Moscow, and Kiev. Some are highly polished by friction and -may have served as sickles. - -It is difficult to assign any definite use to the British form of -knife, but as the curvature is evidently intentional, and as probably -it was more difficult to chip out such curved blades than it would -have been to make them straight, there must have been some advantage -resulting from the form. As both edges of the blade are sharp, it -is hard to say whether the convex or concave edge was the principal -object. But inasmuch as the convex edge might more readily be obtained, -and that twice over, in a leaf-shaped blade, it appears that the -concave edge was the desideratum. The blunting of the edges at the -butt-end suggests the probability of the instruments having been held -immediately in the hand without the intervention of any form of haft; -and the view of the concave edge being the principal one is supported -by the circumstance that in the short knife from Ganton Wold, already -mentioned, a considerable portion of the crust of the round-ended -nodule of flint from which it was made is left along the convex side -at the butt-end, while on the opposite side the edge extends the whole -length, so that it cannot be comfortably held in the hand except with -that edge outwards from the palm. It seems, indeed, adapted for holding -in the hand and cutting towards rather than from the operator; and -looking at the form universally adopted for reaping instruments, which -seem to require a concave edge, so as to gather within them all the -stalks that have to be cut, I am inclined to think that these curved -flint knives may not impossibly have supplied the place of sickles -or reaping hooks, whether for cutting grass to serve as provender or -bedding, or for removing the ears of corn from the straw. We know that -amongst the inhabitants of the Swiss Lake-dwellings some who were -unacquainted with the use of metals had already several domesticated -animals, and cultivated more than one kind of cereal, and it is not -unfair to infer that the same was the case in Britain. It has already -been suggested that some serrated flint flakes may have served for the -armature of another form of sickle, like that in use in Egypt at an -early period. - -The analogy in form between these flint blades and those of the bronze -reaping-hooks occasionally found in Britain is striking, when we leave -the sockets by which the latter were secured to their handles out of -view. These also have usually the outer edge sharp as well as the -inner, but for what purpose I cannot say. - -This seems a fitting place to say a few words with regard to some -|359| Egyptian flint knives, for the knowledge of which we are mainly -indebted to Prof. Flinders Petrie, and the workmanship of which is -absolutely unrivalled. They are of two kinds, both presenting an -outline curved on one or both sides. For the one kind a flake from 8 to -9 inches long of triangular section with a thick back and sharp edge -has been taken: the back has been most carefully retouched and left -slightly convex: the ridge of the flake has been wrought so as to show -a crinkled line like that on the handles of some Danish daggers, the -edge has been more or less re-worked, producing a bold convex sweep, -and what was originally the inner face of the flake has first been -delicately fluted by cross-flaking and then still more finely retouched -along both the back and the edge. - -For the other kind the whole surface of the original flake has, as -Mr. Spurrell[1626] has pointed out, been carefully ground, one face -being made rather more convex that the other. The flatter face has -been left almost untouched, but one side has been trimmed by flaking -at the edge into almost a straight or slightly concave line: the -other side is boldly curved, the general outline having been produced -during the grinding process. The more convex face has been fluted or -“ripple-marked” by cross-flaking from either side in the most skilful -manner, the whole of the original polished surface being sometimes -removed. The projections at the butt-end between the successive flakes -have next been levelled down by secondary chipping, and finally the -curved edge has been minutely serrated, there being about 36 teeth -to the inch. These blades are from 7 to 9 1∕4 inches in length, and -occasionally made of beautiful chalcedonic flint. They are attributed -by Professor Flinders Petrie[1627] to a period between the fourth -and the twelfth Dynasty, but may possibly be of even earlier date. -As already mentioned, some beautiful leaf-shaped lance-heads with -finely-serrated edges have been made in the same manner. - -One of the fluted knives in the Ghizeh Museum[1628] is hafted for a -distance of about 4 inches in a thin plate of gold, engraved on the one -face with well-drawn figures of animals, and on the other with floral -ornaments arranged between two serpents. The plates of gold are not -soldered together, but sewn one to the other with gold wire. - - - - -|360| - -CHAPTER XVI. - -JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS. - - -I now come to a series of flint weapons, small but varying in size, -which though presenting a general resemblance in character to each -other, are still susceptible of being classified under several types. -The similarity is probably due to their having been all intended for -the same purpose—that of piercing the skin, whether of enemies in war, -or of animals in the chase; the differences may result from some of -the weapons having served for warlike and others for hunting purposes. -The variation in size probably arises from some of them having tipped -spears to be held in the hand for close encounters, while others may -have been attached to lighter shafts, and formed javelins to be thrown -at objects at some distance; and the majority of the smaller kind were, -beyond doubt, the heads of arrows discharged from bows. - -The possibly successive ideas of pointing a stake as a weapon of -offence, of hardening the point by means of fire, and of substituting -a still harder point made of horn, bone, or stone, must have occurred -to mankind at the earliest period of its history, and weapons of one or -all of these kinds are to be found among savage tribes in all parts of -the world. The discovery of the bow, as a means of propelling javelins -on a small scale to a distance, seems to belong to a rather higher -grade of culture, and its use is not universal among modern savages. -The use of the bow and arrow was totally unknown to the aborigines -of Australia,[1629] and even the Maories[1630] of New Zealand—who -were by no means in the lowest stage of civilization—had, when first -discovered, no bows and arrows, nor even slings; in fact, no missile -weapon except the lance, which was thrown by hand. - -In Europe, however, the use of the bow seems to date back to a -|361| very remote period, as in some of the cave-deposits of the -Reindeer Period of the South of France, what appear to be undoubtedly -arrow-heads are found. In other caves, possibly, though not certainly, -inhabited at a somewhat later period, such arrow-heads are absent, -though what may be regarded as harpoon-heads of bone occur; and in the -River Gravel deposits, nothing that can positively be said to be an -arrow-head has as yet been found, though it is barely possible that -some of the pointed flakes may have served to tip arrows. - -The Greek myth[1631] that bows and arrows were invented by Scythes, -the son of Jove, or by Perses, the son of Perseus, though pointing -to an extreme antiquity for the invention, not improbably embodies -a tradition of the skill in archery of the ancient Scythians and -Persians.[1632] - -The simplest form of stone-pointed spear or lance at present in use -among savages, consists of a long sharp flake of obsidian, or some -silicious stone, attached to a shaft, like that shown in Fig. 195; -and arrows, tipped with smaller flakes, having but little secondary -working at the sides, beyond what was necessary to complete the point, -and to form a small tang for insertion into the shaft, may also be -seen in Ethnological collections. Between these almost simple flakes -and skilfully and symmetrically-chipped lance and arrow heads, all the -intermediate stages may be traced among weapons still, or until quite -recently, in use among savages; as well as among those which once -served to point the weapons of the early occupants of this country. - -It is indeed probable that besides these stone-tipped weapons, other -seemingly less effective, but actually more deadly missiles, were -in use among them in the form of poisoned arrows; but as these at -the present day are usually tipped with hard wood or bone, as better -adapted than stone for retaining the poison, the same was probably the -case in ancient times; and while those of wood have perished, those of -bone, if found, have not as yet been recognized. Such arrow-heads of -bone were also in use without being poisoned, as, for instance, among -the Finns, or Fenni, as Tacitus calls them, whose principal weapons -were, for want of iron, bone-pointed arrows.[1633] The use of poisoned -arrows had, among the Greeks and Romans, long ceased in classical -times,[1634] and is always represented |362| by authors, from the -time of Homer downwards, as a characteristic of barbarous nations; and -yet, in our own language, a word in common use survives as a memorial -of this barbarous custom having been practised by the Greeks probably -long before the days of Homer. For from τόξον a bow (or occasionally -an arrow[1635]), was derived τοξικὸν—_toxicum_—the poison for arrows; -a term which gradually included all poisons, even those of the milder -form, such as alcohol, the too free use of which results in that form -of poisoning still known among us as _intoxication_. - -One of the first to mention the discovery of flint arrow-heads -in Britain was Dr. Plot, who, in his “Natural History of -Staffordshire”[1636] (1686), speaking of the use of iron by “the -Britains” in Cæsar’s time, observes: “we have reason to believe that, -for the most part at lest, they sharpen’d their warlike instruments -rather with stones than metall, especiall in the more northerly and -inland countries, where they sometimes meet with flints in shape of -arrow-heads, whereof I had one sent me by the learned and ingenious -Charles Cotton, Esq., found not far from his pleasant mansion at -Beresford, exactly in the form of a bearded arrow, jagg’d at each -side, with a larger stemm in the middle, whereby I suppose it was fixt -to the wood.” “These they find in Scotland in much greater plenty, -especially in the prefectury of Aberdeen, which, as the learned S^r -Robert Sibbald[1637] informs us, they there call Elf-arrows—_Lamiarum -Sagittas_—imagining they drop from the clouds, not being to be found -upon a diligent search, but now and then by chance in the high beaten -roads.” “Nor did the Britans only head their arrows with flint, but -also their _mataræ_ or British darts, which were thrown by those that -fought _in essedis_, whereof I guess this is one I had given me, found -near Leek, by my worthy friend Mr. Thomas Gent, curiously jagg’d at -the edges with such-like teeth as a sickle, and otherwise wrought upon -the flat, by which we may conclude, not only that these arrow and -spear-heads are all artificial, whatever is pretended, but also that -they had anciently some way of working of flints by the toole, which -may be seen by the marks, as well as they had of the Egyptian porphyry; -which, as the aforesaid worthy Gent. Sir Robert Sibbald, thinks, they -learned of the Romans, who, as Aldrovandus[1638] assures us, anciently -used such weapons made of stones. However, still, |363| it not being -hence deducible, but they may be British, they are not ill-placed here, -whatever original they have had from either nation.” - -Plot gives engravings both of a stemmed and barbed arrow-head, and of a -leaf-shaped lance-head or knife. - -Sir Robert Sibbald, in his[1639] “Scotia Illustrata,” 1684, expresses -his belief that the flint arrow-heads are artificial. He possessed -two, one like the head of a lance and the other like the end of an -anchor, or tanged and barbed. He also relates the account given him by -the Laird of Straloch, in Aberdeenshire, which he had passed on to the -historian of Staffordshire. - -It will be observed that Plot alludes to different opinions regarding -these instruments, it being a matter in dispute whether they were -artificial, natural, or partly natural; in the same manner as at the -time when the flint implements were first discovered in the River -Gravels doubts were expressed by some as to their artificial origin, -while others regarded them as fossils of natural formation; and others -again carried their unconscious Manichæism so far as to ascribe all -fossils, and we may presume these included, to diabolical agency. -The old Danish collector, Olaf Worm, speaks of a flint of a dark -colour[1640] exhibiting the form of a spear-head with such accuracy -that it may be doubted whether it is a work of art or of nature, and -of others like daggers, which, as being found in ancient grave-hills, -are regarded by some as the arms of an early people; while others doubt -whether they are the work of art or nature; and others consider them to -be thunderbolts. One reason in former times for doubting the artificial -origin of the most highly finished instruments was ignorance of how -such objects could have been chipped out. After describing one of the -beautiful Danish daggers, with the delicately “ripple-marked” blade and -the square ornamented handle, Worm remarks—“si silex ullo modo arte -foret tractabilis, potius Arte quam Naturâ elaboratum esse hoc corpus -jurares.”[1641] - -Aldrovandus[1642] engraves a flint arrow-head as a Glossopetra—a stone -which, according to Pliny,[1643] “resembleth a man’s tongue, and -groweth not upon the ground, but in the eclipse of the moone falleth -from heaven,” and which “is thought by the magicians to be verie -necessarie for those that court faire women.” - -But perhaps one of the most curious of these early notices of flint -|364| arrow-heads is that given in the “Catalogue and Description of -the Natural and Artificial Rarities belonging to the Royal Society -and preserved at Gresham College,”[1644] made by Nehemiah Grew, M.D., -F.R.S. In Part III., Chap. V., Of Regular Stones, Dr. Grew speaks of -“The flat Bolthead—_Anchorites_. Of affinity with that well described -by Wormius[1645] with the title of _Silex venabuli ferreum cuspidem -exacte referens_. By Moscardo[1646] with that of _Pietre Ceraunie_; -who also figures it with three or four varieties. This like those -of a perfect Flint and semiperspicuous. ’Tis likewise, in the same -manner, pointed, like a _Speer_, having at the other end, like those of -Moscardo, a short handle. But, moreover, hath this peculiar, that ’tis -pointed or spiked also backward on both sides of the Handle, with some -resemblance to an Anchor or the head of a Bearded Dart, from whence I -have named it. ’Tis likewise tooth’d on the edges, and the sides as -it were wrought with a kind of undulated sculpture, as those before -mentioned. Another different from the former, in that it is longer, -hath a deeper indenture, but no handle. Both of them strike fire like -other _flints_.” There is a representation given of this Anchorites, -which shows it to have been a common barbed arrow-head with a central -stem. - -Moscardo’s[1647] figures which are here cited represent for the most -part tanged arrow-heads. He says that Bonardo relates that they fall -from the clouds, and that those who carry them cannot be drowned or -struck by lightning. They produce, moreover, pleasant dreams. - -Mention has already been made of the superstition attaching to flint -arrow-heads in Scotland, where they were popularly regarded as the -missiles of Elves. In speaking of them Dr. Stuart[1648] quotes Robert -Gordon of Straloch, the well-known Scottish geographer, who wrote about -1661. After giving some details concerning elf-darts, this writer says -that these wonderful stones are sometimes found in the fields and in -public and beaten roads, but never by searching for them; to-day, -perhaps one will be found where yesterday nothing could be seen, and -in the afternoon in places where before noon there was none, and this -most frequently under |365| clear skies and on summer days. He then -gives instances related to him by a man and a woman of credit, each -of whom while riding found an arrow-head in their clothes in this -unexpected way. Mr. F. C. Lukis, F.S.A.,[1649] draws a distinction -between the elf-shot or elf-arrow and the elf-dart, the latter being -of larger dimensions and leaf-shaped. He gives an engraving of one -which has been mounted in a silver frame and worn as a charm. The cut -is here reproduced, as Fig. 271. The initials at the back are probably -those of the owner, who mounted the amulet in silver, and of his wife. -It was worn by an old Scottish lady for half a century. Others thus -mounted were exhibited in the Museum of the Archæological Institute at -Edinburgh in 1856.[1650] - -[Illustration: Fig. 271.—Elf-Shot.] - -Another arrow-head, also thus mounted, is engraved by Douglas,[1651] -but in this instance it was found in Ireland, where “the peasants call -them elf-arrows, and frequently set them in silver, and wear them on -their necks as amulets against the AITHADH or elf-shot.” Others are -engraved in the _Philosophical Transactions_[1652] and in Gough’s -“Camden’s Britannia.”[1653] Sir W. Wilde[1654] informs us that in the -North of Ireland, when cattle are sick and the cattle doctor or fairy -doctor is sent for, he often says that the beast has been elf-shot, or -stricken by fairy or elfin darts, and by some legerdemain contrives to -find in its skin one or more poisoned weapons, which, with some coins, -are then placed in the water which is given the animal to drink, and a -cure is said to be effected. The Rev. Dr. Buick,[1655] in an article on -Irish flint arrow-heads, has given some particulars as to their use in -curing cattle that are bewitched, and the Folklore Society[1656] has -published some details as to the beliefs still existing with regard to -fairy darts. The same view of disease being caused by weapons shot by -fairies at cattle, and |366| much the same method of cure, prevailed, -and indeed in places even now prevails, in Scotland.[1657] - -The late Dr. J. Hill Burton informed me that it is still an article of -faith that elf-bolts after finding should not be exposed to the sun, or -they are liable to be recovered by the fairies, who then work mischief -with them. - -Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt has recorded a similar elf-arrow -superstition[1658] as obtaining in Derbyshire, where flint arrow and -spear heads are by some regarded as fairy darts, and supposed to -have been used by the fairies in injuring and wounding cattle. It -was with reference to discoveries near Buxton, in that county, that -Stukeley wrote—“Little flint arrow-heads of the ancient Britons, called -elfs’-arrows, are frequently ploughed up here.”[1659] - -The late Sir Daniel Wilson[1660] gives many interesting particulars -regarding the elf-bolt, elf-shot, or elfin-arrow, which bears the -synonymous Gaelic name of _Sciat-hee_, and cites from Pitcairn’s -“Criminal Trials,” the description of a cavern where the archfiend -carries on the manufacture of elf-arrows with the help of his attendant -imps, who rough-hewed them for him to finish. He also mentions the -passage in a letter from Dr. Hickes[1661] to Pepys, recording that my -Lord Tarbut, or some other lord, did produce one of those elf-arrows -which one of his tenants or neighbours took out of the heart of one of -his cattle that died of an usual death (_sic_). Dr. Hickes had another -strange story, but very well attested, of an elf-arrow that was shot at -a venerable Irish bishop by an evil spirit, in a terrible noise louder -than thunder, which shaked the house where the bishop was. - -Similar superstitions prevailed among the Scandinavian[1662] nations, -by whom a peculiar virtue was supposed to be inherent in flint -arrow-heads, which was not to be found in those of metal. - -The fact, already mentioned, of arrow-heads of flint being appended to -Etruscan[1663] necklaces of gold, apparently as a sort of charm, seems -to show that a belief in the supernatural origin of these weapons, and -their consequent miraculous powers, was of |367| very ancient date. -It has still survived in Italy,[1664] where the peasants keep flint -arrow-heads to preserve their houses from lightning, believing that -the lightning comes down to strike with a similar stone—a superstition -which Professor Gastaldi also found prevalent in Piedmont. In some -instances they are carried on the person as preservatives against -lightning, and in parts of the Abruzzo[1665] they are known as _lingue -di S. Paolo_, and the countryman who finds one devoutly kneels down, -picks it up with his own tongue, and jealously preserves it as a most -potent amulet. In the Foresi Collection[1666] at the Paris Exhibition -were some arrow-heads mounted in silver as amulets, like those in -Scotland, but brought from the Isle of Elba. Another has been engraved -by Dr. C. Rosa.[1667] - -M. Cartailhac[1668] has published an interesting pamphlet on such -superstitions, and Professor Bellucci has also dilated upon them. They -are abundant in the neighbourhood of Perugia.[1669] - -It is a curious circumstance, that necklaces formed of cornelian beads, -much of the shape of stemmed arrow-heads, with the perforation through -the central tang, are worn by the Arabs of Northern Africa at the -present day, being regarded, as I was informed by the Rev. J. Greville -Chester, as good for the blood. Similar charms are also worn in Turkey. -I have a necklace of fifteen such arrow-head-like beads, with a central -amulet, which was purchased by my son in a shop at Kostainicza,[1670] -in Turkish Croatia. Among the Zuñis[1671] of New Mexico, stone -arrow-heads are frequently attached to figures of animals so as to form -charms or fetishes. - -Enough, however, has been said with regard to the superstitions -attaching to these arrow-heads of stone; the existence of such a -belief in their supernatural origin, dating, as it seems to do, to a -comparatively remote period, goes to prove that even in the days when -the belief originated, the use of stone arrow-heads was not known, -nor was there any tradition extant of a people whose weapons they had -been. And yet it is probable that of all the |368| instruments made -of stone, arrow-heads would be among the last to drop out of use, -being both well adapted for the purpose they served, and at the same -time formed of a material so abundant, that with weapons so liable -to be lost as arrows, it would be preferred to metal, at a time when -this was scarce and costly. In this country, at all events, the -extreme scarcity of bronze arrow-heads is remarkable, while we know -from interments that flint arrow-heads were in common use by those -who employed bronze for other weapons or implements. There appears to -be some doubt as to whether the arrow-heads, or rather the flakes of -black flint or obsidian which have been found in considerable numbers -associated with bronze arrow-heads on the field of Marathon, were made -in Greece, or whether they were not rather in use among some of the -barbarian allies of the Persian King. M. Lenormant[1672] is clearly -of the opinion that they are not of Greek origin,[1673] but this is -contested by others, and probably with reason. Whatever their origin, -there is a strong argument against stone arrow-heads having been in use -among the Greeks at so late a period as the battle of Marathon, B.C. -490, in the fact that Herodotus,[1674] writing but shortly afterwards, -records, as an exceptional case, that in the army of Xerxes, _circa_ -B.C. 480, the arrows of some of the Æthiopian contingent were tipped -with stone, while those of some Indian nations were even pointed with -iron. So early as the days of Homer the arrow-heads of the Greeks were -of bronze, and had the three longitudinal ribs upon them, like those in -that metal found at Marathon, for he speaks of the χαλκήρἐ ὀϊστόν[1675] -and applies to it the epithet τριγλώχιν.[1676] - -Even among such rude tribes as the Massagetæ and Scythians, the -arrow-heads, in the days of Herodotus, were of bronze; as he records -an ingenious method adopted by one Ariantas,[1677] a king of the -Scythians, to take a census of his people by levying an arrow-head from -each, all of which were afterwards cast into an enormous bronze vessel. - -Besides the Æthiopians there was another nation which made use of -stone-pointed arrows in Africa, as is proved by the arrows from -Egyptian tombs, of which specimens are preserved in several of our -museums. The head, which is of flint, differs however from |369| -all the ordinary forms, inasmuch as it is chisel-shaped rather than -pointed, and in form much resembles a small gun-flint. The tip of -one of these, secured to the shaft by bitumen, is shown in Fig. 272. -The original is in the British Museum. In my own collection are some -specimens of such arrows. Their total length is about 35 inches and -the shafts for about two-thirds of their length are made of reed, the -remainder towards the point being of wood. Near the notch for the -string are distinct traces of there having been a feather on either -side, in the same plane as the notch. It is probable that arrow-heads -of similar character may have been in use in Britain, though they have -hitherto almost escaped observation, owing to the extreme simplicity of -their form. To these I shall subsequently recur. - -[Illustration: Fig. 272.—Egypt. 1∕1] - -Some of the Egyptian arrows[1678] have supplemental flakes at the -sides, so as practically to make the edge of the arrow-head wider. - -In October, 1894, the Ghizeh Museum acquired from a Sixth Dynasty tomb -at Assiut, two squadrons of soldiers, each of forty figures carved in -wood. The figures of one set, presumed to be Egyptians, have a brown -complexion and are armed with bronze-tipped spears and with shields. -The figures are about 13 inches high. The other group is shorter, and -the soldiers are black-skinned and armed with bow and arrows only; -each has a bow in his left hand, and in his right four arrows with -chisel-shaped heads of flint.[1679] - -The better-known forms of arrow-heads which occur in Britain may be -classed as the leaf-shaped, the lozenge-shaped, the tanged or stemmed, -and the triangular, each presenting several varieties. The arrow-heads -of the third class are in this country usually barbed; those of the -fourth but rarely. - - * * * * * - -Whether the forms were successively developed in this order is a -question difficult of solution; but in an ingenious paper by Mr. W. -C. Little, of Liberton, published early in this century, being “An -Inquiry into the Expedients used by the Scotts before the Discovery of -Metals,”[1680] the lozenge-shaped are regarded as the earliest; next, -those |370| barbed with two witters,[1681] but no middle tang; and -last, the tanged. The same author argues from analogy that the ancients -could extend this flint manufacture to other purposes, “as the same -ingenuity which formed the head of an arrow could also produce a knife, -a saw, and a piercer.” - -Colonel A. Lane-Fox, now General Pitt Rivers, in his second lecture on -“Primitive Warfare,”[1682] arranges the forms of arrow-heads in the -same manner as I have here adopted, and shows that the transition from -one form to the other is easy and natural. There are, indeed, some -arrow-heads of which it would be impossible to say whether they were -leaf-shaped or lozenge-shaped, or whether they were lozenge-shaped or -tanged. - -Sir William Wilde regards the triangular as the primary form, and the -leaf-shaped and lozenge-shaped as the last. - -Mr. W. J. Knowles[1683] has suggested a somewhat different -classification, but it seems unnecessary to alter the arrangement here -adopted. He does not enter into the question of the development of the -forms. An exhaustive paper on Irish flint arrow-heads, by the Rev. Dr. -Buick,[1684] may be usefully consulted. - -Whatever may have been the order of the development of the forms, it -would, in my opinion, be unwarrantable to attempt any chronological -arrangement founded upon mere form, as there is little doubt of the -whole of these varieties having been in use in one and the same -district at the same time, the shape being to some extent adapted to -the flake of flint from which the arrow-heads were made, and to some -extent to the purposes which the arrows were to serve. The arrow-heads -in use among the North American Indians,[1685] when intended for -hunting, were so contrived that they could be drawn out of the wound, -but those destined for war were formed and attached to the shaft in -such a manner, that when it was attempted to pull out the arrow, its -head became detached, and remained in the wound. The poisoned arrows -of the Bushmen of South Africa[1686] are in like manner made with -triangular heads of iron, which become detached in the body if an -attempt is made to withdraw the arrow from the wound that it has caused. - -I have already remarked on the difficulty of distinguishing between -javelin and arrow heads; but, from their size, I think that the late -Dr. Thurnam was justified in regarding those engraved as Figs. 273, -274, 275, as heads of javelins; and they may therefore be taken -first in order. Two of them have already been engraved.[1687] Their -beautifully worked surfaces had, however, hardly had justice done them, -and, by |371| the kindness of Dr. Thurnam, I was able to have them -engraved afresh full size. They were found in 1864, in company with -another almost identical in form with the middle figure, in an oval -barrow on Winterbourn Stoke Down, about a mile and a half north-west of -Stonehenge, close to the head of a contracted skeleton. They are most -skilfully chipped on both faces, which are equally convex, and they are -not more than a quarter of an inch in thickness. Three are leaf-shaped, -and one lozenge-shaped, and this latter, though larger, is thinner and -more delicate. They have acquired a milky, porcellanous surface while -lying in the earth. They are all four now in the British Museum. As has -been remarked by Dr. Thurnam, objects of this description have rarely -been found in barrows. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 273. Fig. 274. Fig. 275. - -Winterbourn Stoke.] - -The two javelin-heads, if such they be, found by Mr. J. R. Mortimer -in the Calais Wold barrow, near Pocklington, Yorkshire,[1688] are -lozenge-shaped and much more acutely pointed, and were accompanied -by two lozenge-shaped arrow-heads. By the kindness of the late Mr. -Llewellynn Jewitt they are all four here reproduced as Figs. 276 -to 279. A similar javelin-head to Fig. 277, 2 3∕4 inches long, now -in the British Museum, was found by the late Lord Londesborough -in a barrow on Seamer |372| Moor, near Scarborough.[1689] A fine -lozenge-shaped javelin-head (5 inches) was found with arrow-heads, -scrapers, and knives, near Longcliffe,[1690] Derbyshire, and some -delicate arrow-heads, broken, at Harborough Rocks,[1691] in the same -county. Javelin-heads of much the same form as those from Winterbourn -Stoke and Calais Wold occur not unfrequently in Ireland, but are rarely -quite so delicately chipped. Lozenge-shaped arrow-heads are recorded -from a cairn at Unstan,[1692] Orkney, and from the Culbin Sands.[1693] -The class having both faces polished, though still only chipped at the -edges, like Wilde’s[1694] Fig. 27, has not, except in Portugal, as -yet occurred out of Ireland. A few of these may have served as knives -or daggers, as they are intentionally rounded by grinding at the more -tapered end, which at first sight appears to have been intended for the -point and not for the handle. The long lozenge-shaped form is found in -the Government of Vladimir, Russia.[1695] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 276. Fig. 277. Fig. 278. Fig. 279. - -Calais Wold Barrow.] - -Large lozenge-shaped lance-heads were occasionally in use among the -North American Indians;[1696] but the more usual form is a long blade, -notched at the base to receive the ligature which binds it to the -shaft. |373| - - * * * * * - -Of leaf-shaped arrow-heads, which form the first class now to be -described, there are several minor varieties, both in outline and -section, some being longer in proportion to their breadth than others, -rounder or more pointed at the base, thicker or thinner, or more -carefully chipped on one face than the other. A few typical examples -are given full size in the annexed woodcuts. The originals are all in -my own collection, unless otherwise specified. - - * * * * * - -Fig. 280 is from the neighbourhood of Icklingham, Suffolk, of flint -become nearly white by weathering, and carefully chipped on both -faces, one of which is, however, more convex than the other. I have a -larger but imperfect specimen of the same form from Oundle. A nearly -similar arrow-head, of yellow flint, from Hoxne, Suffolk, has been -figured.[1697] It was supposed to have occurred in the same deposit as -that containing large palæolithic implements and elephant remains; but -nothing certain is known on this point, and from the form there can be -no hesitation in assigning it to the Neolithic Period. A rather smaller -arrow-head, but of much the same character, was found at Bradford -Abbas, Dorset.[1698] Professor Buckman had several leaf-shaped arrows -from the same neighbourhood. Some of them were long and slender, more -like Fig. 286. - -In Fig. 281 is shown an arrow-head of rather broader proportions, -from Gunthorpe, Lincolnshire, which has been engraved in the -_Reliquary_,[1699] whence the block is borrowed. I have specimens -of the same form, delicately chipped on both faces, and found near -Icklingham and Lakenheath, Suffolk. Occasionally, one face of the -arrow-heads of this form is left nearly flat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 280.—Icklingham.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 281.—Gunthorpe.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 282.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -Fig. 282 shows a smaller specimen in the extensive Greenwell -Collection. In this instance, the flake from which the arrow-head was -made has been but little retouched on the flat face. It is slightly -curved |374| longitudinally, but probably not to a sufficient extent -to affect the flight of the arrow. This form is of common occurrence on -the Yorkshire Wolds, though very variable in its proportions, and also -in point of symmetry, both as regards outline and similarity of the two -faces. - -[Illustration: Fig. 283.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 284.—Little Solsbury Hill.] - -In Fig. 283 is shown another and broader form, from Butterwick, on the -Yorkshire Wolds. It is in the same collection, and is worked on both -faces. The sides are slightly ogival, so as to produce a sharper point. - -[Illustration: Fig. 285.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 286.—Bridlington.] - -Occasionally, instead of being sharply pointed, arrow-heads are more -oval in form. An instance of this kind is given in Fig. 284, the -original of which was found by Mr. Francis Galton, F.R.S., on the -occasion of a visit with me to the camp of Little Solsbury Hill, near -Bath. It is of flint that has become white with exposure, equally -convex on the two faces, and rather thick in proportion to its size. I -have a somewhat similar but broader specimen from the camp of Maiden -Bower, near Dunstable, and others even more rounded at the point, and -larger and thinner, from Willerby Wold, Yorkshire, and from Icklingham. -I have one Yorkshire specimen, which is almost circular in form, -and bears traces of grinding on one of its faces. In the Greenwell -Collection are specimens of almost all intermediate proportions between -an oval like Fig. 284 and a perfect circle. |375| - -More lanceolate forms are shown in Figs. 285 and 286, both from -Yorkshire. Fig. 285, though worked on both faces, still exhibits -portions of the original surface of the flake from which it was made; -but Fig. 286, from Grindale, near Bridlington, is of transparent -chalcedonic flint, beautifully and symmetrically worked over both -faces. This elongated form is not of common occurrence. I have a -beautiful example, of the same general character, but pointed at either -end, found near Icklingham, Suffolk. A large example of this form, from -Derbyshire, in the Bateman Collection, may have been a javelin-head. - -[Illustration: Figs. 287 and 288.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -Other and shorter forms are shown in Figs. 287 and 288, the former of -which has been made from a flat flake, the original surface of which -remains intact on a large portion of each face. Fig. 288, on the -contrary, is carefully chipped over the whole of both faces, which are -equally convex. It has a slightly heart-shaped form. - - * * * * * - -It will have been observed that in all these specimens the base of the -arrow-head is much more rounded that the point. This, however, is by no -means universally the case with the leaf-shaped arrow-heads, the bases -of which are in some instances almost, if not quite, as acute as the -points. It is, in fact, sometimes difficult to say which of the ends -was intended for the point. - -[Illustration: Fig. 289.—Lakenheath.] - -[Illustration: Figs. 290 and 291.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - - * * * * * - -Fig. 289 shows a large arrow-head from Lakenheath, Suffolk, from the -collection of the late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S. It is equally convex -on both faces, and almost equally sharp at both ends. In the Greenwell -Collection are similar specimens from Burnt Fen, Cambs. |376| Others, -of the same character, but of smaller size, are engraved in Figs. 290 -and 291. Both the originals are from the Yorkshire Wolds. - -That shown in Fig. 290 is in the Greenwell Collection. It is thin, -slightly curved longitudinally, and very neatly worked into shape at -the edges. It is a form of not unfrequent occurrence in the Yorkshire -Wolds, sometimes of larger dimensions, and more roughly chipped, but -more commonly of smaller size. I have a beautifully-made arrow-head of -nearly the same size and shape, found at Lakenheath, Suffolk. It is not -more than one-eighth of an inch in thickness. One of wider proportions -from Burnt Fen is in the Greenwell Collection. Fig. 291 is thicker in -proportion to its width, more convex on one face than the other, and -less acutely pointed at the base. - -In Figs. 292 and 293 are shown some more or less unsymmetrical -varieties of form. Fig. 292 is, towards the point, equally convex on -each face; but at the base the flat inner face of the original flake -has been left untouched, so that the edge is like that of a “scraper,” -or of a round-nosed chisel. Though the point is, in all respects, -identical with that of undoubted arrow-heads, and though I have placed -it here among them, it is possible that that end may, after all, have -been intended for insertion in a handle, and that it was a small -cutting tool, and not an arrow-head. - -[Illustration: Figs. 292 and 293.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -There can be no doubt of the purpose of Fig. 293, which is of white -flint delicately chipped, and is equally convex on the two faces. On -one side the outline is almost angular, instead of forming a regular -sweep, so that it shows how easy is the passage from the leaf-shape to -the lozenge form. - -There are often instances like that afforded by the arrow-head engraved -in Fig. 294, where it is hard to say under which form a specimen should -be placed. The original of this figure forms part of the Greenwell -Collection, and is neatly worked on both faces. I have a somewhat -broader arrow-head of the same character, which I found in the camp of -Maiden Bower, near Dunstable. General Pitt Rivers found one of the same -form, and one like Fig. 311, within an earthwork at Callow Hill,[1700] -Oxfordshire. Another was found with a perforated hammer, a flint flake -ground at the edge, some scrapers, and other objects, in a cairn in -Caithness.[1701] One like Fig. 294, but smaller, was found in the -Horned Cairn[1702] of Get, at Garrywhin, Caithness. A large specimen -from Glenluce[1703] has been figured. Another, very thin, found at -Urquhart, Elgin, is in the Edinburgh Museum. - -[Illustration: Fig. 294.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - - * * * * * - -It is to arrow-heads of this leaf-shaped form, but approximating |377| -closely to the lozenge-shaped, that Dr. Thurnam[1704] is inclined to -assign a connection with the class of tumuli known as long barrows; and -in support of this view he has cited several cases of their discovery -in this form of barrow, in which no barbed arrow-heads have hitherto -been found. Some leaf-shaped arrow-heads were found in a long barrow at -Walker’s Hill, Wilts.[1705] - - * * * * * - -The annexed cut, kindly furnished by the Society of Antiquaries, shows -an arrow-head from a long barrow near Fyfield, Wilts. It is delicately -chipped, and weighs only forty-three grains. Another, 1 1∕2 inches in -length, from a long barrow on Alton Down, is of surprising thinness, -and weighs only thirty grains. Others, it would seem purposely injured -at the point, were found in the long chambered barrow at Rodmarton, -Gloucestershire.[1706] Others, again, were found by Mr. Bateman in -long barrows in Derbyshire and Staffordshire. One of these, from -Ringham Low, is 2 1∕4 inches long and 1 inch broad, yet weighs less -than forty-eight grains. In Long Low, Wetton,[1707] were three such -arrow-heads, and many flakes of flint. Dr. Thurnam, in speaking of the -leaf-shaped as the long-barrow type of arrow-head, does not restrict it -to that form of tumulus, but merely indicates it as that which is alone -found there. The form indeed occurred elsewhere, thus, one was found in -a bowl-shaped barrow at Ogbourne,[1708] Wilts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 295.—Fyfield.] - -The Calais Wold barrow,[1709] already mentioned as having produced -four lozenge-shaped javelin and arrow heads, is circular, while -that on Pistle Down, Dorsetshire,[1710] which contained four -beautifully-chipped arrow-heads of this type, is oblong. - -Leaf-shaped arrow-heads are mentioned as having been found with burnt -bones in Grub Low, Staffordshire.[1711] The same forms, more or less -carefully chipped, and occasionally almost flat on the face, are -frequently found on the surface in various parts of Scotland,[1712] -especially in the counties of Aberdeen, Banff, Elgin, and Moray. -One not of flint, but apparently of quartzite, was found near -Glenluce,[1713] Wigtownshire. Numbers have been found on the Culbin -Sands,[1714] and at Urquhart.[1715] They are comparatively abundant -in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Suffolk, but rarer in the southern -counties of England. They |378| have been found at Grovehurst,[1716] -near Milton, Kent, and I have picked up a specimen near Kit’s Coty -House. I have seen specimens found at Redhill, near Reigate;[1717] near -Bournemouth; at Prince Town, Dartmoor; and near Oundle; besides the -localities already mentioned. - -[Illustration: Fig. 296.—Bridlington.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 297.—Newton Ketton.] - -Typical lozenge-shaped arrow-heads are, in Britain, and, indeed, in -other countries, rarer than the leaf-shaped. That shown in Fig. 296 -has been made from a flat flake, and is nicely chipped on both faces, -though not quite straight longitudinally. It was found at Northdale -Farm, Grindale, Bridlington. A Scottish specimen, from Urquhart,[1718] -Elginshire, slightly smaller, has been figured. The original of Fig. -297 forms part of the Greenwell Collection, and has been made from -a very thin, transparent flake. It is rather less worked on the -face opposite to that here shown. It was found at Newton Ketton, -Durham. One like Fig. 297 was found on Bull Hill,[1719] Lancashire. -A regularly-chipped arrow-head of lozenge shape is said to have been -found at Cutterly Clump, Wilts;[1720] and I have seen a few specimens -from Derbyshire. Those from the Calais Wold Barrow have already been -mentioned. - -A diamond-shaped arrow-head was found at Cregneesh,[1721] Isle of Man; -and another, as well as one of leaf shape, within a stone circle near -Port Erin.[1722] Lozenge-shaped arrow-heads are frequently found in -Scotland. - -[Illustration: Figs. 298 and 299.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -A more elongated form is shown in Figs. 298 and 299, taken from -specimens found on the Yorkshire Wolds. Both of them are neatly chipped -on either face, and have but little left of the original surface of the -flakes from which they were formed. One of the shorter sides of Fig. -299 is somewhat hollowed, _possibly_ to give a slight shoulder, and -thus prevent its being driven into the shaft. - -This is more evidently the case with the arrow-head represented in -|379| Fig. 300, which, like so many others, comes from the Wolds of -Yorkshire. It is made from a slightly curved flake, and is more convex -on one face than the other, especially at the stem or tang. - -In the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, is another -Yorkshire arrow-head, which is leaf-shaped, but provided with a slight -tang. - -Leaf-shaped arrow-heads, with a decided stem like that of the leaf, -found in Arabia and Japan, will be mentioned at a subsequent page. - -[Illustration: Fig. 300.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 301.—Amotherby.] - -Another of these stemmed but barbless arrow-heads, from the same -district, is shown in Fig. 301. It was found at Amotherby, near Malton, -and was given to me by the late Mr. Charles Monkman, of that place. It -has been made from a flat flake, and has been worked into shape by a -slight amount of chipping along the edges, which does not extend over -the face. There are numerous arrow-heads of the same class, though -not of the same form, which have been made from flakes of the proper -thickness, by a little secondary working to give them a point, and by -slightly trimming the butt-end of the flake. They usually approximate -to the leaf-shape in form, but, as might be expected, vary considerably -in size, proportions, and the amount of symmetry displayed. It seems -needless to engrave specimens. - -[Illustration: Fig. 302.—Iwerne Minster.] - -The weapon point shown in Fig. 302 is so large that possibly it may -be regarded as that of a javelin, and not of an arrow. In was in the -collection of Mr. H. Durden, of Blandford, and is now in the British -Museum. It was found on Iwerne Minster Down, Dorsetshire. It is boldly -and symmetrically chipped, thick in proportion to its breadth, and -equally convex on both faces; though distinctly stemmed, it can hardly -be said to be barbed. It much resembles an Italian specimen in the -Arsenal of Turin.[1723] - -A somewhat more distinctly-barbed arrow-head from the Yorkshire Wolds -is represented in Fig. 303. Its thickness, 5∕16 inch, is great in -proportion to its size; the two faces are equally convex, and the -stem widens out slightly at the base. The same is the case with a -smaller and thinner arrow-head in my collection, of somewhat similar -form, found near the camp of Maiden Bower, Dunstable. A third, from -the Yorkshire Wolds, presents the same peculiarity, which is still -more apparent in an arrow-head from a barrow on Seamer Moor, near -Scarborough,[1724] if indeed it has been correctly figured. |380| - -A magnificent specimen of much the same type as Fig. 303, but nearly -twice as long, has been kindly lent me for engraving by Messrs. -Mortimer, of Driffield, Yorkshire. It was found in the neighbourhood -of Fimber, and is shown in Fig. 304. It is neatly chipped over both -faces, which are equally convex, and the stem is carefully shaped and -of considerable thickness. The edges, as is not unfrequently the case, -are serrated. - -[Illustration: Fig. 303.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -The fine arrow-head engraved as Fig. 305 shows the barbs or “witters” -still more strongly developed. One of them is, however, less pointed -than the other. From its size, this and others may have formed the -heads of javelins rather than of arrows, though arrow-heads as large -are still in use among some savage tribes. It was found at Pick Rudge -Farm,[1725] Overton, Wilts, in company with the oblong implement -engraved as Fig. 255. It is now in the Blackmore Museum, the Trustees -of which kindly allowed me to figure it. - -I have a very fine specimen with even longer barbs, from Ashwell, -Herts, which is shown in Fig. 305A. - -[Illustration: Fig. 304.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 305.—Pick Rudge Farm.] - -Fig. 306 represents another unusually large specimen, found on Sherburn -Wold, Yorkshire. It is nicely worked on both faces, and the end of the -stem or tang has been carefully chipped to a sharp semicircular edge, -well adapted for fixing into the split shaft. One similar to it was -found on Bull Hill,[1726] Lancashire. Mr. A. C. Savin, of Cromer, |381| -has a rather smaller arrow-head of this type, but with the sides more -curved outwards, like Fig. 313, found near Aylsham. Barbed arrow-heads -of various forms and sizes are of frequent occurrence in some parts of -the Yorkshire Wolds and Moors, and in parts of Berkshire, Oxfordshire, -Gloucestershire, Suffolk and Derbyshire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 305A.—Ashwell.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 306.—Sherburn Wold.] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 307. Fig. 308. Fig. 309. - - Fig. 310. Fig. 311. Fig. 312. - -Yorkshire Wolds.] - -It would be tedious to attempt to exhibit all the different varieties, -but specimens of the more ordinary forms are given in Figs. 307 to 312, -from originals principally in the Greenwell Collection. As a rule, -there is but little difference in the convexity of the two faces, -though very |382| frequently one face is decidedly flatter than the -other; and occasionally the flat face of the original flake has been -left almost untouched. Fig. 311 affords an example of this kind, -being nearly flat on the face not shown, while the other face still -retains part of the crust of the flint nodule from which the flake was -struck. The central stem or tang varies much in its proportions to the -size of the arrow-head, and occasionally forms but an inconsiderable -projection, as in Fig. 309, making the form approximate to the -triangular. Sometimes, as in Fig. 312, the ends of the barbs are -carefully chipped straight, as is the case with many arrow-heads from -the more southern parts of England, some of which will shortly be -noticed. An arrow-head like Fig. 312 was found near Ashwell,[1727] -Herts. - -[Illustration: Figs. 313 and 314.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -Before quitting the arrow-heads of the Yorkshire Wolds, I must insert -figures of two other specimens illustrative of another form. Of -these, that shown in Fig. 313 was found at Northdale Farm, Grindale, -Bridlington. It is thick in proportion to its size, and skilfully -chipped on both faces. The tang is thin and slight. The other -arrow-head Fig. 314 is not so thick in proportion. In both, if the -sweep of the outline were continued past the barbs, it would about -meet the extremity of the tang, and give a leaf-shaped form; so that -it seems probable that this class was made by first chipping out the -simple leaf-shaped form, and then working in a notch on either side -to produce the tangs and barbs. The same type occurs in Suffolk. An -exaggerated example, rather like Fig. 320 but broader, found near -Icklingham, is shown in Fig. 314A. - -[Illustration: Fig. 314A.—Icklingham.] - -The next specimen that I have selected for engraving, Fig. 315, is -from another part of the country, having been found by myself in -1866 on the surface of a field, at the foot of the Chalk escarpment -between Eddlesborough and Tring, Herts. It can hardly be regarded as -unfinished, though one of the surfaces is very rough and the outline -far from symmetrical. It rather shows how rude were some of the -appliances of our savage predecessors in Britain. Curiously enough, -some barbed flint arrow-heads of nearly similar form, and but little -more |383| symmetrical (to judge from the engravings), were found in -1763 at Tring Grove, Herts,[1728] with an extended skeleton. They lay -between the legs, and at the feet were some of the perforated plates -of greenish stone of the character of Fig. 354. An arrow-head of much -the same form was found in a barrow near Tenby,[1729] with human bones -and a part of a curious ring-shaped ornament, supposed to be of ivory. -The long tapering arrow-head shown in Fig. 316 affords a contrast to -this broad form. Its barbs are unfortunately not quite perfect, but -the form being uncommon I have engraved it. It was found in Reach Fen, -Cambridgeshire. A ruder example of the same form as Fig. 316, from -Bourn Fen, has been figured in Miller and Skertchly’s “Fen-land.”[1730] -A longer specimen, almost as acutely pointed, and with square-ended -barbs, found on Lanchester Common,[1731] Durham, is in the Museum of -the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle. I have several others of the -same type from Suffolk, some with the sides curved slightly inwards. - -[Illustration: Fig. 315.—Eddlesborough.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 316.—Reach Fen.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 317.—Isleham.] - -The next Figure (317) is illustrative of the extraordinary amount -of care and skill that was sometimes bestowed on the manufacture of -objects so liable to be broken or lost in use as arrow-heads. This -specimen was found at Isleham, Cambridgeshire, and has unfortunately -lost its central stem, the outline of which I have restored from a -nearly similar arrow-head found at Icklingham, Suffolk, which has lost -both its barbs. It is very thin, so much so that its weight is only -thirty-eight grains, but it is neatly chipped over the whole of both -faces. Nothing, however, can exceed the beautiful regularity of the -minute chipping by which the final outline was given to the edges, -extremely small flakes having been removed at regular intervals so -close to each other that there are twenty of them in an inch. The inner -sides and ends of the barbs are worked perfectly straight, the ends -forming right angles to the sides of the arrow-head, and the inner -sides being nearly parallel with each other, so that the barbs are -somewhat dovetailed in form. - -The broader, but almost equally beautiful arrow-head shown in Fig. -|384| 318 was found in front of the face of an unburnt body, in a -barrow at Rudstone, near Bridlington, by Canon Greenwell. I have a -beautiful specimen of the same type from Dorchester Dykes, Oxon, given -to me by the late Mr. Davey, of Wantage. It is shown in Fig 318A. A -less highly finished example from Chatteris Fen[1732] has been figured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 318.—Rudstone.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 318A.—Dorchester Dykes.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 319.—Lambourn Down.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 320.—Fovant.] - -The ends of the barbs thus chipped straight sometimes, as in Fig. -312, form a straight line. Occasionally, as in the arrow-heads found -by Sir R. Colt Hoare[1733] in one of the Everley barrows, the base -of the barbs forms an obtuse angle with the sides of the arrow-head, -so that there is a sharp point at the inner side of the barbs. In -others the end forms an acute angle with the sides of the arrow-head, -so that the point of each barb is at the outer side. A beautiful -specimen of this kind is shown in Fig. 319. It is one of six, varying -in size and somewhat in shape, but all beautifully worked, found in -barrows on Lambourn Down, Berks, and now in the British Museum. In -some few instances the sides of the arrow-head are rather ogival -in form (like the Scotch |385| specimen, Fig. 326), which adds to -the acuteness of the point. In one of this character from a barrow -on the Ridgeway Hill,[1734] Dorsetshire, and others from one of the -Woodyates barrows,[1735] the barbs are also acutely pointed at the -outer side. I have a rather smaller specimen than that figured, from -Lakenheath, Suffolk, and others from Thetford and Reach Fen, with the -sides even more ogival than in Fig. 326. Others of the same character, -found in Derbyshire, are in the Bateman Collection. In some of the -arrow-heads[1736] from the Wiltshire barrows the barbs are inordinately -prolonged beyond the central tang, which is very small. Fig. 320, -copied from Hoare,[1737] gives one of those from a barrow near Fovant, -found with a contracted interment, in company with a bronze dagger and -pin, and some jet ornaments. One of similar character was found in a -barrow on Windmill Hill,[1738] Avebury, but its barbs are not so long. -An arrow-head with equally long barbs, but with the central tang of the -same length as the barbs, was found in a dolmen in the Morbihan, and is -in the Musée de St. Germain. - -[Illustration: Fig. 321.—Yorkshire Moors.] - -Before proceeding to notice one or two Scottish specimens, I must -devote a short space to an exceptional form of arrow-head shown in -Fig. 321. Like so many others, it is from the Yorkshire Moors, and was -probably either barbed on both sides or intended to have been so. But -one of the barbs having been broken off, possibly in the course of -manufacture, the design has been modified, and the stump, so to speak, -of the barb, has been rounded off in a neat manner by surface-flaking -on both faces. The one-barbed arrow-head thus resulting presents some -analogies with several of the triangular form, such as Figs. 336 to -338, about to be described. - -[Illustration: Figs. 322 and 323.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -Arrow-heads either accidentally lost before they were finished, or -thrown away as “wasters,” in consequence of having been spoilt in -the making, are occasionally found. Examples, apparently of both -classes, are shown in Figs. 322 and 323. The originals form part of the -Greenwell Collection. Fig. 322, from Sherburn Wold, appears to have -been completely finished, with the exception of the notch on one side -of the central tang. The face not shown in the figure exhibits on the -left side a considerable portion of the surface of the original flake, -the edge of which has been neatly trimmed along the right side of the -face here shown. The base has been chipped on both faces to a sharp -hollow edge, in which one notch has been neatly worked to form the -barb and one side of the stem. There is no apparent reason why |386| -the other notch should not have been formed, so that the probability -is that the arrow-head was lost just before completion. In the other -case the arrow-head, after being skilfully chipped on both faces into a -triangular form, has had one of the notches worked in its base; but in -effecting this the tool has been brought so near the centre of the head -as to leave insufficient material for the tang, and the barb has also -been broken off. In this condition it appears to have been thrown away -as a waster. - -Whether these views be correct or not, one deduction seems allowable, -viz., that the barbed flint arrow-heads were, as a rule, finished at -their points, and approximately brought into shape at their base, -before the notches were worked to form the central tang and develop the -barbs. - -A curious double-pointed arrow-head from Brompton,[1739] Yorkshire, is, -by the kindness of the Society of Antiquaries, shown in Fig. 323A. It -had probably at first only a single point, and having been broken was -trimmed into its present shape. Some of the “exceptional” forms from -Brionio, in the Veronese, approximate to this, but with all respect to -the Italian archæologists, I agree with Mr. Thomas Wilson,[1740] and -cannot accept these forms as genuine. - -[Illustration: Fig. 323A. Brompton. 1∕1] - -I must now give a few examples of the stemmed and barbed flint -arrow-heads found in Scotland, which, however, do not essentially -differ in character from those of the more southern part of Britain. -First among them I would place a remarkably fine specimen found in the -Isle of Skye,[1741] which has already been published more than once. It -is very acutely pointed, and expands at the base so as to give strength -to the barbs, which are slightly curved inwards. From its size it may -have served to point a javelin rather than an arrow. - -The edges of some of the Scottish arrows are sometimes neatly serrated. -An example of this kind is given in Fig. 325, from a specimen in the -National Museum at Edinburgh. It is formed of chalcedonic flint, and -was found with others of ordinary types at Urquhart,[1742] Elgin. - -The original of Fig. 326 is in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries -of London, and was found in Aberdeenshire. Its sides (like those of -some in the National Museum at Edinburgh) are slightly ogival, so as to -give sharpness to the point. Another from Urquhart,[1743] Elgin, has -been figured, as well as one from Ballachulish,[1744] with straighter -sides. One from Montblairy, Banff,[1745] is of the same type, as is one -from Kilmarnock.[1746] The sides of Fig. 327 are curved outwards. This -arrow-head was found in Glenlivet, Banff, a district where arrow-heads -are common, and is in the Greenwell Collection, now the property of Dr. -Allen Sturge, at Nice. |387| - -I have already mentioned the counties of Scotland in which “elf-bolts” -are most abundantly found. I may now enumerate a few of the spots, -and the characters of the specimens of this form. One much like Fig. -327, but with the barbs more pointed, is figured by Wilson,[1747] as -well as another[1748] like Fig. 305, found in a tumulus at Killearn, -Stirlingshire. One from the Isle of Skye,[1749] like Fig. 316, and -another from Shapinsay, Orkney,[1750] like Fig. 312, have been figured -by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Others, found with burnt -bones in an urn deposited in a cairn in Banff, have been engraved by -Pennant,[1751] and some from Lanarkshire are given in the _Journal of -the Archæological Association_.[1752] - -[Illustration: Fig. 324.—Isle of Skye.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 325.—Urquhart.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 326.—Aberdeenshire.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 327.—Glenlivet.] - -Stemmed and barbed arrow-heads are recorded to have been found -in |388| Aberdeenshire at the following localities:—Slains,[1753] -Forgue,[1754] Kintore;[1755] Kildrummy,[1756] Strathdon,[1757] -and Cruden;[1758] one 3 inches long and 2 1∕2 inches wide, at -Tarland,[1759] and a large number at Cloister-Seat Farm,[1760] Udny. - -In Banff, at Mains of Auchmedden,[1761] Eden[1762] and Bowiebank, King -Edward; Cullen of Buchan,[1763] Glen Avon,[1764] Alvah,[1765] and -Longman,[1766] Macduff. - -In Elgin, at St. Andrew’s, Lhanbryd;[1767] Urquhart, and elsewhere. - -In Forfarshire, at Carmyllie[1768] and elsewhere. Some Ayrshire[1769] -specimens have been figured. - -They have also been found near Gretna Green[1770] and Linton,[1771] -Peebles, and in numbers on the Culbin Sandhills,[1772] Morayshire, -and Killearn,[1773] Stirlingshire. In Fifeshire, in a cist at -Dairsie;[1774] near Fordoun,[1775] Kincardineshire; Glenluce,[1776] -Wigtownshire; and stemmed but not barbed, at Philiphaugh,[1777] -Selkirkshire. This last is shown in Fig. 327A. - -[Illustration: Fig. 327A. Philiphaugh.] - -Other specimens, of which the form is not mentioned, were exhibited in -a temporary Museum of the Archæological Institute at Edinburgh from -the following localities:—Caithness,[1778] Cruden, Cromar, Kinellar, -Aberdeenshire; Robgill, Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire; Arbuthnot, Bervie -and Garvoch, Kincardineshire; Braidwood and Carluke, Lanarkshire; and -Burgh-head, Wigtownshire. - -Other have been found at Elchies, Keith,[1779] and Oldtown of -Roseisle,[1780] Morayshire; Abernethy,[1781] Inverness; and at -Mortlach[1782] and Lesmurdie,[1783] Banff. - -In this place, also, it will be well to mention some of the discoveries -of stemmed and barbed flint arrow-heads in England which have not -already been cited. The following have been engraved:—One much like -Fig. 303, found in the Kielder Burn,[1784] North Tyne; one like -Fig. 327, found with burnt bones in an urn on Baildon Common,[1785] -Yorkshire; another from Lake, Wilts;[1786] others, like Figs. 312 -and 319, from the Green Low Barrow,[1787] Derbyshire; one like Fig. -308, from |389| Hastings;[1788] one like Fig. 307, found near -urns, scrapers, &c., at Wavertree, near Liverpool;[1789] some like -Fig. 307, with ashes, at Carno,[1790] Montgomeryshire; and several -others from barrows in Wilts,[1791] Dorsetshire, and Derbyshire. A -considerable number of flint arrow-heads are engraved in a plate -in the _Transactions of the Historical Society of Lancashire and -Cheshire_.[1792] They are, however, for the most part forgeries. Others -from East Lancashire[1793] and Rochdale[1794] have been described. -Besides the discoveries recorded by Hoare and Bateman, and those made -in Yorkshire,[1795] such arrow-heads are mentioned as having been found -in the Thames;[1796] in the cemetery at Standlake,[1797] Oxon; in West -Surrey,[1798] from which a number of arrow-heads of various forms have -been figured by Mr. F. Lasham; St. Leonard’s Forest,[1799] Horsham; -Plymouth,[1800] on Dartmoor,[1801] Devonshire; at Horndean,[1802] -Hants; and in large numbers in Derbyshire, especially on Middleton -Moor.[1803] Both the leaf-shaped and the barbed forms have been found -near Leicester.[1804] A number have been found at Carn Brê,[1805] -Cornwall. - -Arrow-heads, of which the form is not specified, have been found at -Wangford,[1806] Suffolk; Cliffe,[1807] near Carlebury, on the Yorkshire -side of the Tees; Priddy,[1808] Somerset; Sutton Courtney,[1809] Berks; -Lingfield Mark Camp,[1810] Surrey; near Ramsgate;[1811] Bigberry -Hill,[1812] near Canterbury; Manton,[1813] Lincolnshire; Anstie -Camp[1814] and Chart Park, Dorking. - -Besides specimens already cited, and many from the Yorkshire Wolds -and Moors, there are in my collection stemmed and barbed arrow-heads -from the following localities:—One much like Fig. 307, from Staunton, -near Ixworth, Suffolk; many others from West Stow, Lakenheath, and -Icklingham, in the same county; from Hunsdon, near Ware, Brassington, -Derbyshire, and Turkdean, Gloucestershire, much like Fig. 308; one -from Abingdon, like Fig. 327; and one from St. Agnes, Truro, of the -same form as Fig. 317, but not so delicately worked; and others from -Wicken and Reach Fens, Cambs. I have also |390| numerous examples of -different forms from Stow-on-the-Wold, Gloucestershire, and from the -neighbourhood of Wallingford. The Earl of Ducie has a series found near -Sarsden House, Chipping Norton. - -In the British Museum is a stemmed and barbed arrow-head, rather more -curved at the sides than Fig. 307, found at Hoxne, Suffolk. Another -of the same class, from Necton, Norfolk, is in the Norwich Museum, -together with a smaller specimen like Fig. 308, from Attleborough. In -the Cambridge Antiquarian Society’s Museum is one like Fig. 306, but -with one of the barbs square-ended. It is 2 5∕8 inches long, and 1 1∕2 -inch wide, and very thin, and was found in Burwell Fen. Another, like -it, but 2 1∕4 inches long, was found near Aldreth, Cambs., and was in -the collection of the Rev. S. Banks. Canon Greenwell obtained one of -somewhat similar character, but narrow, from Barton Mills, Suffolk; -and the Rev. C. R. Manning found one like Fig. 311 on a tumulus near -Grime’s Graves, Norfolk. One of the same class is in the Penzance -Museum; and Mr. Spence Bate, F.R.S., has shown me a broken one like -Fig. 308, found under six feet of peat at Prince Town, Dartmoor, where -also a leaf-shaped arrow-head was found. Prof. Buckman had one much -like Fig. 327, found at Barwick, Somersetshire. One like Fig. 309, from -Milton, near Pewsey, Wilts, is in the collection of Mr. W. H. Penning, -F.G.S. Mr. Durden had one rather smaller than Fig. 308 from the -neighbourhood of Blandford. I have seen them both stemmed and barbed -and leaf-shaped, found near Bournemouth. Sir John Lubbock has one with -square-ended stem, and barbs separated from it by a very narrow notch, -found at Shrub Hill, Feltwell, Norfolk; and numerous specimens exist in -other collections. - -[Illustration: Fig. 328.—Icklingham.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 329.—Langdale End.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 330.—Amotherby.] - -Before entering into the circumstances under which flint arrow-heads -have been discovered, it will be well to describe the remaining -class—the triangular. Some of these differ only from those last -described in the absence of the central stem. Although this form is -very common in Ireland and in Scandinavia, it occurs but rarely in -Britain. The arrow-head shown in Fig. 328 was found near Icklingham, -Suffolk, and was formerly in the collection of Mr. H. Trigg, of Bury -St. Edmunds. Messrs. Mortimer possess a very similar specimen from -the Yorkshire Wolds near Fimber. One has also been figured by Mr. -C. Monkman[1815] as from Yorkshire. An arrow-head from Forfarshire, -and one or two others of this type, are in the National Museum at -Edinburgh. One from Ellon,[1816] Aberdeenshire, has been engraved, as -|391| well as one of much more elongated form, with a semicircular -notch at the base, from Glenluce,[1817] Wigtownshire. A broader -arrow-head of the same type was found by the Rev. James M. Joass at -Golspie, Sutherland, and is now in the Dunrobin Museum. An example -was also found by Canon Greenwell in the material of a barrow at -Childrey,[1818] Berks. Prof. Flinders Petrie has found the type in -Egypt.[1819] - -A beautiful specimen of another double-barbed triangular form is shown -in Fig. 329. It was found at Langdale End, on the Moors of the North -Riding of Yorkshire, and is in the Greenwell Collection. It has been -surface-chipped over part of one face, but on the other it still shows -the central ridge of the flake from which it was made. The sides are -neatly serrated. - -Fig. 330 represents a broader and less distinctly barbed form. The -original was found at Amotherby, near Malton, and is chipped over both -faces. I have another longer specimen from Sherburn, the base of which -is less indented. Allied to this longer form, but having the sides -more curved, is that shown in Fig. 331. The original was found by -Canon Greenwell in one of the barrows examined by him at Weaverthorpe, -Yorkshire. Varieties of this form, with the sides more or less -straight, are of not unfrequent occurrence in Yorkshire. The same type -has been found near Mantua.[1820] - -[Illustration: Fig. 331.—Weaverthorpe.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 332.—Lakenheath.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 333.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -The more perfectly triangular form shown in Fig. 332 is of rather rare -occurrence. This arrow-head was found near Lakenheath, Suffolk, and is -now in the Greenwell Collection. It is neatly chipped over both faces, -which are equally convex. I possess other specimens from Suffolk. -Some arrow-heads of the same shape from Gelderland are in the Christy -Collection. - -In many instances rude triangular arrow-heads have been formed from -flakes and splinters of flint, which were evidently selected as being -nearly of the desired form, and were brought into shape by the least -possible amount of subsequent chipping. The secondary working on Fig. -333 nowhere extends back so much as an eighth of an inch from the -edges, and the bulb of percussion of the splinter of flint from which -it was made is at the right-hand angle of the base, but not on the face -here figured. |392| - -In Fig. 334 the bulb is at the back of the left-hand angle, but this -specimen is much thicker, and shows a considerable amount of skilful -chipping on both faces. The angle at the bulb is rounded, while on -the opposite side of the base it is somewhat curved downwards, so as -to form a kind of barb. This obliquity of the face is more apparent -in Fig. 335, though the barb is less pronounced. The flat face of the -original flake is in this instance left nearly untouched, but the ridge -side has been neatly wrought by removing a series of minute parallel -flakes. This form occurs in Ireland,[1821] and has been regarded as -rather a knife than an arrow-head. I have seen an arrow-head of much -the same form found at Bournemouth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 334.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 335.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 336.—Bridlington.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 337.—Bridlington.] - -The character of surface-flaking, observable in Figs. 335, 336 and 337, -is almost peculiar to Yorkshire; and one of the most beautiful examples -that I have seen of it is on the arrow-head engraved as Fig. 336, which -was found on Northdale Farm, Grindale, Bridlington. The ripple-like -flaking extends over nearly two-thirds of one face, the remainder of -which is a flat portion of the original surface of the flake from which -the arrow-head was made. On the other face a rather larger portion of -the original surface is left, but the |393| surface-chipping, though, -neat, is not of this regular character. The base is chipped on both -faces, so as to leave a sharp edge with a delicate projecting barb -at one angle only. The other angle is perfect, and has never been -continued so as to form a barb. I have fragments of other arrow-heads -of the same kind, from the same neighbourhood, and on some the fluting -along the base is as regular as that on the side, and the two series -of narrow shallow grooves “mitre” together with great accuracy. I -have arrow-heads of the same general form and character from the -neighbourhood of Icklingham, Suffolk; and in the Greenwell Collection -is a small and elegant example from Lakenheath; but these are devoid -of the parallel flaking, as are also some of the Yorkshire specimens. -The late Mr. J. F. Lucas, however, had an arrow-head of this form, with -the fluted chipping, from Middleton Moor, Derbyshire. Such regular -fluting can, I think, only have been produced by pressure, probably -with a pointed instrument of stag’s-horn, as before described. It comes -nearer in character to the wonderful “ripple-mark flaking” on some of -the Danish daggers or lance-heads, and of the Egyptian knives, than the -workmanship of any other British specimens. - -The same style of work is observable on another arrow-head, Fig. 337, -found on the same farm, though it is not of equal delicacy. In this -case, however, the flaking extends along both sides, and the two series -meet in the middle of the face, where but a very small portion of the -original surface of the flake is visible. The face not shown is chipped -in the same manner, but less neatly. One of the angles at the base has -unfortunately been broken off, but there is no appearance of there -having been more than one barb. - -In some Egyptian arrow-heads from Abydos the surface seems to have been -made smooth by grinding before the final flaking, just as was the case -with the large blades mentioned on p. 359. - -Less finely executed arrow-heads, with a long projecting wing or barb -at one of the angles of the base, are of common occurrence in Yorkshire -and Suffolk. They usually retain a considerable portion of the surface -of the flakes from which they have been manufactured. They are also -found in Gloucestershire[1822] and Worcestershire.[1823] - -[Illustration: Fig. 338.—Fimber] - -An unusually well-finished specimen of this class is engraved as Fig. -338. It was found in the neighbourhood of Fimber, Yorkshire, and is -in the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, who have kindly allowed me to -figure it. It has been made from an external flake, as there is a -portion of the crust of the flint visible on one of the faces, both -of which are neatly chipped. It is barbed at both angles of the base, -though the projection is far longer and more curved on the one side -than on the other. In most instances, however, there can hardly be said -to be any barb at all at one of the angles. - -The form with the long single barb appears to be common on the |394| -Derbyshire Moors. In one instance a rectangular notch has been worked -in the curved side, with what object it is hard to say. This specimen, -shown in Fig. 339, was found in a barrow at Hungry Bentley, Derbyshire, -by the late Mr. J. F. Lucas. It had been buried together with a jet -ornament and beads, subsequently described, in an urn containing burnt -bones. - -The single-winged form is of rare occurrence in Scotland, but what -appears to be an arrow-head of this kind, from Caithness,[1824] has -been engraved by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and the cut is -here, by their kindness, reproduced. Another from Urquhart and several -from the Culbin Sands, Elginshire, and Glenluce Sands, Wigtownshire, -are in the Edinburgh Museum. By some[1825] they are regarded as knives, -with the tang for insertion in a handle. The same form is found in -greater abundance in the North of Ireland. A somewhat analogous shape -from Italy has been figured by Dr. C. Rosa.[1826] The type also occurs -in Egypt. - -[Illustration: Fig. 339.—Hungry Bentley.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 340.—Caithness.] - -The varieties here engraved of single-barbed triangular arrow-headeds -of flint are, I think, enough to establish them as a distinct class, -though they have received but little attention among the antiquities of -any other country than the United Kingdom, nor have they been observed -in use among modern savages. Many of the early bone harpoons, as well -as those of the Eskimos, are barbed along one side only; and some of -the Persian iron arrow-heads, as well as those of the Mandingoes,[1827] -and of some South American tribes, are also single-barbed. The same is -the case with some arrow-heads of iron belonging to the Merovingian -period.[1828] - -Another form of triangular arrow-head is round instead of hollow -at the base, and bears an affinity with the leaf-shaped rather than -the barbed variety. One of these from the neighbourhood of |395| -Lakenheath, in the Greenwell Collection, is shown in Fig. 341. It is -surface-chipped on both faces. - -The chisel-ended type in use among the ancient Egyptians has already -been mentioned, and a specimen engraved in Fig. 272. - -Another and much longer[1829] Egyptian form has now become known. It -approaches a triangle in form, but the base is indented like the tail -of many homocercal fishes. The specimens vary in length from 3 or 4 -inches to as much as 7 or 8 inches, so that some appear to have been -javelin-heads. The flaking is wonderfully delicate, and the edges, -for the most part, minutely serrated. Mr. Spurrell has described and -figured a triangular blade, 4 1∕2 inches long, which much resembles -the Egyptian form so far as general character is concerned. It was -found in Cumberland,[1830] and is now in the British Museum. I have -specimens from Abydos of a small, narrow, pointed and tanged arrow-head -beautifully serrated at the sides. Other forms are figured by De Morgan. - -[Illustration: Fig. 341.—Lakenheath.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 342.—Urguhart.] - -In Fig. 342 is shown what appears to be a large example of the -chisel-ended type, which was found at Urquhart,[1831] Elgin, and is in -the National Museum at Edinburgh. The edge is formed by the sharp side -of a flake, and the sharp angles at the two sides of the arrow-head -have been removed by chipping, probably to prevent their cutting the -ligaments that attached it to the shaft. Another was found at the same -place. A small specimen from Suffolk is in the Christy Collection, and -I have a few from the same county. Canon Greenwell has obtained others -from Yorkshire. It is questionable whether the specimens like Fig. 231 -ought not also to have been classed as arrow-heads. - -A similar form to Fig. 342 occurs in France. In one of the dolmens on -the plateau of Thorus, near Poitiers, I found a small chisel-ended -wrought flint, closely resembling the Egyptian arrow-heads; and I -have observed in the collection of the late Rev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A., -others of the same form from chambered tumuli in Brittany. They have -been discovered with ancient interments in other parts of France,[1832] -|396| and I have specimens found on the surface of the soil near -Pontlevoy, and given to me by the Abbé Bourgeois. - -Baron Joseph de Baye has found them in considerable numbers in -sepulchres of the Stone Age in the department of La Marne.[1833] One -was found embedded in a human vertebra. They also occur in the Camp de -Catenoy, Oise. - -One from St. Clement’s, Jersey, is in the British Museum. - -Some are recorded from Namur and other parts of Belgium.[1834] - -Two arrow-heads of this class, found in Denmark, have been engraved -by Madsen;[1835] one of them, to which I shall again refer, was still -attached to a portion of its shaft. - -Nilsson[1836] has also engraved some specimens of this form found in -Scandinavia. A considerable number of them were found at Lindormabacken -in Scania,[1837] some of which, by the kindness of Dr. Hans Hildebrand, -are in my collection. I have also specimens from Denmark. There are -others from the same countries in the Christy Collection, where is also -an example of the same kind from Southern Italy. Several are engraved -by Bellucci.[1838] - -They occur also in Germany,[1839] Spain,[1840] and Portugal.[1841] Some -crescent-shaped flints with sharp edges and a central tang, found on an -island in the Lake of Varese,[1842] may possibly be arrow-heads. Forms -of nearly the same kind have been found near Perugia.[1843] - -In General Pitt Rivers’s collection are some Persian arrows with -chisel-edged tips of iron. Crescent-like[1844] arrow-heads or -bolt-heads, with a broad hollowed edge, were used in hunting in -the Middle Ages, and some are preserved in museums. The Emperor -Commodus[1845] is related to have shown his skill in archery by -beheading the ostrich when at full speed with crescent-headed arrows. - -There still remains to be noticed another form of triangular -arrow-head, of which, however, I have never had the opportunity of -seeing a British specimen. It has a notch on either side near the base, -which is slightly hollowed, and in general form closely resembles a -common type of North American arrow-heads. A specimen of this form, -said to have been found at Hamden Hill,[1846] near Ilchester, has been -engraved. Another, described as of much the same shape, was found in a -barrow in Rookdale, Yorkshire.[1847] A broken specimen, with the base -flat instead of hollowed, and found in Lanarkshire,[1848] has also been -figured. - -I am not, however, satisfied that this triangular form, with notches in -the sides, is a really British type, though lance-heads notched in this -manner have been found in France. - -Both in Yorkshire and on the Wiltshire Downs arrow-heads have from -time to time been found with their surface much abraded. There |397| -seems little doubt that this wearing away has been effected during -their sojourn in the gizzards of bustards. - - * * * * * - -Having now described the principal types of arrow-heads found in -Britain, it will be well to notice some of the circumstances of their -discovery in barrows and with interments, which throw light on the -manners and the stage of civilization of those who used them. - -I am not aware of any well-established discovery of flint arrow-heads -in this country in association with iron weapons, and certainly such -a mixture of materials would require careful sifting of evidence to -establish it. And yet we can readily conceive conditions under which -flint arrow-heads might be present in Saxon graves, either from -their having been dug in barrows of an earlier period, in which case -a flint arrow-head might already exist in the soil with which the -grave was filled; or from the occupant of the tomb having carried an -“elf-bolt” as a charm, or even as the flint for his _briquet à feu_. -In the Frankish cemetery of Samson,[1849] near Namur, a broken flint -arrow-head, almost of a lozenge form, accompanied a human skeleton -with an iron sword and a lance; and another stemmed arrow-head (now -in the Namur Museum) was found in the soil. At Sablonnières[1850] -(Aisne) flint arrow-heads were associated with Merovingian remains, and -numerous instances of such associations have been adduced by the Baron -de Baye.[1851] Even in modern times flint arrow-heads have served for -this fire-producing purpose. The late Earl of Enniskillen informed me -that with flint-guns and muskets in Ireland[1852] the gun-flint was -frequently neither more nor less than an “elf-bolt” often but slightly -modified in form. - -The occurrence in Northern Italy of a flint arrow-head, in company -with ten of the degenerate imitations of the gold coin of Philip II. -of Macedon, known by the Germans as Regenbogen-schüsseln, recorded -by Promis,[1853] may also have been accidental. I have in my own -collection a stone celt which is said to have been found with a hoard -of Anglo-Saxon coins of the tenth century in Ireland,[1854] but which -can hardly be regarded as contemporaneous with them. There are, -however, as I have already observed, many well-attested instances -in which flint arrow-heads have been discovered in this and other -countries in true association with weapons of bronze. Sir R. Colt -Hoare records several such in his |398| examination of the barrows of -South Wilts. In one near Woodyates[1855] a skeleton in a contracted -position was buried with a bronze dagger and pin or awl, a jet button -and pulley-like ornament, four arrow-heads (one of them engraved as -Fig. 320), and “some pieces of flint, chipped and prepared for similar -weapons; in another bowl-shaped barrow at Wilsford an interment of -burnt bones was accompanied by a small bronze dagger, some whetstones, -and instruments formed of stag’s horn, an arrow-head of flint, and -another in an unfinished condition.” - -It is stated in the _Archæologia_[1856] that with the well-known -interment in the hollowed oak-trunk found in the Gristhorpe tumulus, -near Scarborough, were “a brass and a flint spear-head and flint -arrow-heads,” &c. The flints[1857] were, however, in this instance, -merely flakes and the “brass spear-head” a bronze dagger. - -In Borther Low,[1858] near Middleton, Derbyshire, Mr. Bateman found by -the side of a skeleton a flint arrow-head, a pair of canine teeth of -fox or dog, and a diminutive bronze celt; and in a barrow on Roundway -Hill,[1859] North Wilts, a barbed flint arrow-head, like Fig. 327, was -found close to the skull of a skeleton in a contracted posture, with a -tanged bronze dagger at its left hand. Another bronze fragment, and a -small plate of chlorite slate engraved as Fig. 355, were found at the -same time. Similar plates, as well as flint arrow-heads, accompanied -the skeleton at Tring Grove,[1860] Herts, and an interment at Cruden, -Aberdeen.[1861] - -A stemmed and barbed arrow-head of calcined flint was found in one of -the urns containing burnt bones in the cemetery at Standlake,[1862] -Oxfordshire. In another urn was a spiral finger-ring of bronze, the -only fragment of metal brought to light during the excavations. - -Flint arrow-heads have been so frequently found in barrows containing -both burnt and unburnt interments, and in company with other implements -of stone and with pottery, that it seems needless to adduce all the -recorded instances of such discoveries. I give a few references -below.[1863] |399| - -The stemmed and barbed variety is of the most common occurrence in -tumuli; but, as has already been shown, one leaf-shaped form appears -to be, to some extent, peculiar to a class of long barrows, though the -stemmed and barbed,[1864] lozenge and leaf-shaped forms have been found -in the soil of the same grave mound. - -In several instances, stemmed and barbed arrow-heads have been -discovered with skeletons, accompanied also by the finely-chipped -leaf-shaped knife-daggers of flint. In Green Low,[1865] Alsop Moor, -Derbyshire, the dagger-blade lay behind the shoulders, and three -arrow-heads behind the back; in one, as already mentioned, on Seamer -Moor, near Scarborough,[1866] “two beautifully formed knives and -spear-heads of flint,” and four flint celts, accompanied “beautifully -formed arrow-heads of flint;” and the dagger (Fig. 264) appears to have -been found in the same barrow as the arrow-heads, on Lambourn Down. - -Occasionally arrow-heads are found in the “drinking-cups” accompanying -the skeleton, as in Mouse Low,[1867] Staffordshire. - -It remains for me to say a few words as to the points of difference -and resemblance between the arrow-heads of Britain and those of other -countries;[1868] and also as to the method of shafting in use in -ancient times. - -In comparing the arrow-heads of Great Britain with those of what is now -the sister kingdom of Ireland, we cannot but be struck, in the first -place, with the far greater abundance found in Ireland, especially -in its northern parts. How far this is due to their use having come -down into later times, and how far to the character of the country, -it is difficult to say. It is, however, evident that over so large an -area of morass and bog, the number of arrows lost in the chase during -a long series of years must have been immense; that when once lost -they would be preserved uninjured, and remain undiscovered until the -operations of draining and obtaining peat for fuel again brought them -to light; and further, that the former of these operations has only -been carried on to a large extent within the last few years, while -the latter has also in all probability increased. On hard and stony -soil, on the contrary, even assuming an originally equal abundance of -arrow-heads, agricultural operations, after being carried on for a few -|400| centuries, would infallibly destroy a large number of them, and -what were left would not be so instantly apparent to the eye as those -in a peaty soil, and would consequently be found in fewer numbers. In -districts where flint is scarce many ancient arrow-heads must have been -used as strike-a-lights and gun-flints. In Ireland,[1869] as already -stated, they were highly esteemed for the latter purpose. Even on -land recently enclosed, and where arrow-heads and worked flints may -exist in abundance, unless some unusual inducement is offered, they -remain unnoticed by the farm-labourers; and it is only owing to the -diligence of local collectors that such numbers have been found on the -Yorkshire Wolds, the Derbyshire Moors, and in parts of Gloucestershire, -Oxfordshire and Suffolk. There seems, however, either from the -character of the game pursued, or from some different customs of the -early occupants of the country, to have been a far greater production -of arrow-heads in these districts than in some other parts of Britain, -such, for instance, as the Sussex Downs,[1870] where on land but -recently enclosed, almost innumerable flakes, scrapers, and other -instruments of flint may be found, but where I have hitherto never -succeeded in finding a single arrow-point. It is possible that in some -districts, bone may have been preferred to stone. - -Apart from the greater general abundance in Ireland, there is a far -greater relative abundance of some particular forms, especially of -the barbed triangular arrow-heads without a central stem, and of the -elongated form with the stem and barbs. Lozenge-shaped arrow-heads -are also more frequent, and some of the varieties of this form do not -appear to occur in Britain. As a rule, Irish arrow-heads are also of -larger size than the British. Their forms have been described by Sir W. -Wilde,[1871] Mr. Wakeman[1872] and others. - - * * * * * - -In France, flint arrow-heads are at least as rare as in England, if -not indeed rarer. In some of the dolmens of Brittany explored by the -Rev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A.,[1873] he has found them both leaf-shaped -and stemmed and barbed. Among the latter there are some of extremely -neat workmanship, and closely resembling in form Fig. 312. I have -seen the same form from the Côtes du Nord. Some beautiful examples, -more elongated than Fig. 319 and with very small tangs, were found -in a tumulus at Cruguel,[1874] Morbihan. The more common |401| -French form is like Fig. 311, but with both stem and barb rather -longer and the sides straighter. Specimens have been engraved from -the neighbourhood of Londinières;[1875] from a dolmen at Villaigre, -Poitou;[1876] a lake-habitation at La Péruse[1877] (Charente); the -Valley of the Saône,[1878] the department of the Aisne,[1879] the Camp -de Chassey,[1880] and other places. - -Various forms from the Landes,[1881] Gironde,[1882] Marne,[1883] -Gard,[1884] and other Departments[1885] have been figured. Dr. Leith -Adams traced a manufactory of flint arrow-heads in Guernsey.[1886] - -I have several tanged, and stemmed and barbed arrow-heads from Poitou, -as well as some of triangular form, both with a rounded segmental base -and with barbs. I have also leaf-shaped, lozenge-shaped, and tanged and -barbed examples from the neighbourhood of Clermont Ferrand. Twenty-two -of the latter form were found together, in company with a bronze -dagger, in a cist in Brittany.[1887] - -Another common variety is stemmed and but very slightly barbed. Some -of these approximate in form to a lozenge, with two of its sides -curved inwards. Specimens from the dolmen of Bernac[1888] (Charente), -the Grotte de St. Jean d’Alcas,[1889] and Argenteuil (Seine et -Oise),[1890] and the dolmens of Taurine, Pilande, and des Costes -(Aveyron), may be cited. In several of the latter both leaf-shaped and -lozenge-shaped specimens were also found. Many are neatly serrated -at the edges, sometimes so as to form a sort of regular pattern, -with only two or three projections on each of the sides. A pointed -leaf-shaped arrow-head in a human vertebra was found in the Grotte du -Castellet[1891] (Gard). - -The same varieties, as well as some triangular arrow-heads, occurred in -the Camp de Chassey.[1892] Some of them are barbed without having the -central tang. - -A large arrow-head from the dolmen of Bernac, with pointed barbs, -has a strongly dovetailed central stem. I have seen other much more -elongated javelin-heads, four and five inches long, and an inch or an -inch and a quarter broad, with similar tangs, but without barbs, the -tang being formed by notches on either side at the base, as is the case -with so many North American specimens, which these resemble in form. -They were found at Corente, in Auvergne, and were in the collection -|402| of M. Aymard at Le Puy, where was also a leaf-shaped arrow-head -with side notches, from Clermont. Another of the same kind, 4 inches -long, with a more dovetail-like tang and better-developed barbs, has -been found near Laon.[1893] Others of smaller size were found in the -Grotte des Morts, Durfort (Gard).[1894] - -A somewhat similar form has occurred among the lake-dwellings of the -Ueberlinger See.[1895] - -A type much like Fig. 314 also occurs in the lake-habitations of -Switzerland,[1896] where, as might have been expected, a large number -of stone arrow-heads have been found. Some few of them are stemmed and -barbed, much like Fig. 311, but with the tang and barbs rather longer -and sharper. More of them are tanged only, or but slightly barbed, and -in many, the tang has so slight a shoulder that the outline is almost, -and in some quite, lozenge-shaped. The most common form, however, -appears to be the triangular, with the sides slightly curved outwards -and the base flat, or even slightly rounded outwards. Many are a little -hollowed at the base, so much so, in some cases, as to be distinctly -barbed. At Nussdorf one arrow-head was formed of serpentine, and -another of translucent quartz. One or two specimens are of bone. - -Leaf-shaped and stemmed arrows without barbs, from Hasledon and Yvoir, -are in the Museum at Namur, in Belgium. Belgian arrow-heads have been -described by Van Overloop.[1897] - -In the lake-dwellings of Northern Italy,[1898] as, for instance, at -Mercurago, near Arona, and Cumarola, near Modena, the tanged arrows -prevail, though leaf-and lozenge-shaped also occur. The same is the -case in the south, where numerous discoveries of arrow-heads have been -recorded by Nicolucci.[1899] At Cumarola[1900] some skeletons were -found interred with flint arrow-heads and weapons of stone, in company -with others of copper and bronze. - -In the valley of the Vibrata,[1901] in the Abruzzo, Dr. C. Rosa has -found numerous arrow-heads, principally stemmed and barbed, but some -also triangular and leaf-shaped. One specimen appears to be barbed on -one side only, and a lance-head has a notch on each side near the base -like those from Auvergne. - -In the Lake of Varese,[1902] where the site of a manufactory of -arrow-heads was discovered by Captain Angelucci, the principal forms -were those with a pointed tang and barbs. The roughly-chipped-out -blocks were of a leaf-shaped form. A fine specimen like Fig. 302, |403| -but rather longer, was found near Civitanova[1903] (Piceno), and the -form occurs in Central Italy. A long leaf-shaped arrow from Italy is -engraved by Lindenschmit,[1904] as well as a tanged form without barbs. -The latter form occurs in the Isle of Elba.[1905] I have a series, -from near Bergamo, nearly all of which are tanged, though few of them -are distinctly barbed. The various forms of lance and arrow heads in -the province of Perugia[1906] have been described by Prof. Bellucci. -The stone arrow-heads frequently cited as having been found on the -plains of Marathon[1907] appear to be only flakes,[1908] as are many -of those from Tiryns.[1909] At Mycenæ,[1910] however, in the fourth -sepulchre, Schliemann found thirty-five beautifully-wrought arrow-heads -of obsidian. They are mainly of triangular form, hollowed at the base, -though the long leaf shape is also present. In general _facies_ they -closely resemble the Danish forms. - -In a dolmen in Andalusia[1911] a broken arrow-head of flint, with -pointed stem and barbs, was found; and inasmuch as the fragment -is engraved by Don Manuel de Gongora y Martinez as the head of a -three-pointed dart, it appears that the form is not common in Spain. - -A number of arrow-heads, mostly tanged, have, however, been found in -the south-east of Spain by MM. Siret.[1912] In Portugal[1913] the -arrow-heads are usually triangular, but often with long-projecting -wings or barbs. - -Returning northwards, I may cite a small series of flint arrow-heads -in my collection, found near Luxembourg, where they appear to be not -uncommon. They present the following forms: leaf-shaped, tanged, tanged -and barbed, triangular with a straight base, and the same with barbs. - -Numerous arrow-heads of flint have also been found in Gelderland, and -a collection of them is to be seen in the Leyden Museum. Some are -also in the Christy Collection. The most common forms are triangular, -with barbs, or with a somewhat rounded base, and stemmed and barbed. -Leaf-shaped and tanged arrow-heads appear to be rarer. Some scarce -triangular forms are equilateral, and others long and somewhat -expanding at the base. I have a series from Heistert, Roermond, Limburg. - -In Central and Southern Germany flint arrow-heads appear to be rather -scarce. In Pomerania the prevailing type is triangular hollowed at -the base. The same form occurs in Thuringia. In the Königsberg Museum -there are arrow-heads leaf-shaped pointed at both ends, lozenge-shaped, -slightly tanged, tanged and barbed, and triangular with and without the -hollowing at the base. |404| Lindenschmit[1914] engraves specimens, -like Figs. 311 and 327, from the Rhine and Oldenburg, and a tanged -arrow-head of serpentine from Inzighofen, near Sigmaringen, on -the Danube.[1915] Lisch also engraves a few specimens from North -Germany,[1916] which resemble the Scandinavian in character. Near -Egenburg,[1917] in Lower Austria, a considerable number have been -found. Some Austrian[1918] arrow-heads are barbed, but without the -central tang. - -Considering the wonderful abundance of flint implements in Denmark and -Southern Sweden, it is not a little singular that arrow-heads should be -there comparatively so rare. The leaf-shaped form is extremely scarce, -but a triangular form, resembling the leaf-shaped in all respects but -in having a rounded notch at the base in lieu of a rounded end, is more -common. Stemmed and barbed arrow-heads are also very scarce, and those -merely tanged are usually flakes simply trimmed at the edges, with -the exception of those of equilateral triangular section, which are -peculiar to Scandinavia. The lozenge-shape appears to be unknown; and -by far the greater number of arrow-heads are of the triangular form, -sometimes but slightly, if at all, hollowed at the base, though usually -furnished with long projecting wings or barbs. The same type occurs -in Norway.[1919] Occasionally the notch between the barbs is square, -and the ends of the barbs worked at an angle of about 45°, like Fig. -319, without the central stem. In some rare instances the barbs curve -outwards at the points, giving an ogee form to the sides. In others the -barbs curve inwards. In many, the sides are delicately serrated, and -in most the workmanship is admirable. What appear to be lance-heads -are sometimes notched on either side near the base, like the common -North American form, and like those already mentioned as occurring -occasionally in France.[1920] - -In Norway,[1921] and more rarely in Sweden,[1922] stemmed and acutely -barbed arrow-and lance-heads, made of hard slate ground on the surface, -are occasionally found. Knives of the same material also occur. They -much resemble some of those from Greenland, and are probably of -comparatively late date. Some spear-head-like implements of slate, -ornamented with incised lines, have been found in a circular fort on -Dunbuie Hill,[1923] near Dumbarton. - -Triangular arrow-heads of flint, more or less excavated at the base -like those from Scandinavia, are also sometimes found in Russia. -Specimens from Ekaterinoslav in the South, and Olonetz in the North, -were exhibited at Paris in 1867. Others from Archangel approach more -nearly to the North American form. They are occasionally tanged.[1924] -|405| - -In Northern Africa flint arrow-heads have been discovered, and the -leaf-shaped, triangular, and tanged and barbed forms have been found -in the dolmens of Algeria.[1925] Some have also been collected in -Tunis,[1926] and simple tanged arrow-heads have been found in the -Sahara.[1927] - -But little is at present known of the stone antiquities of a great -part of Asia; but an arrow-head from India[1928] was in the possession -of Prof. Buckman, who obligingly furnished me with a sketch of it. It -is acutely pointed, about 2 5∕8 inches long, and tanged and barbed, -though the barbs are now broken off. Some small leaf-shaped arrow-heads -have been found at Ranchi,[1929] in the Chota-Nagpore district. Mr. -Bauerman, F.G.S., found, at Ghenneh, in Wady Sireh, Sinai, a flint -arrow-head, neatly chipped on both faces, of a very peculiar form, -being leaf-shaped, with a tang attached. It is in all nearly 2 inches -long, of which the leaf-shaped part occupies about 1 1∕2 inches, and -the slender tang or stalk the other 1∕2 inch. It lay in a tomb[1930] -with a lance-head of flint, a bracelet of copper, and a necklace of -spiral shells. A very similar arrow-head, 2 1∕2 inches long, from Wady -Maghara, was presented by Major Macdonald[1931] to the British Museum. -The form seems also to occur in North America.[1932] - -The Abbé Richard found some very finely worked arrow-heads on and -around Mount Sinai.[1933] Two[1934] from that locality were presented -to the Society of Antiquaries in 1872. Flint arrow-heads have been -found on Mount Lebanon,[1935] mostly tanged, but without pronounced -barbs. A few are leaf-shaped and triangular. - -Some obsidian arrow-heads from the Caucasus[1936] are triangular, with -a semicircular notch at the base. Some of flint and of leaf-shaped form -have been found at Hissar,[1937] near Damghan, Persia. - -Arrow-heads from Japan[1938] are curiously like those from Europe, -being triangular with or without barbs, and stemmed and slightly -barbed. For the most part, they are narrower in their proportions -than the European. Some are formed of obsidian. Besides these, the -lozenge-shaped, the leaf-shaped, and a peculiar form with broad-ended -barbs and no central tang, occur. There is a fine series in the Museum -at Leyden and in the British Museum. - -In Greenland flat arrow-heads and harpoon-points of chalcedony and -slate are found, most of which approximate to ordinary North American -forms. I have one triangular arrow-head with the sides |406| curved -outwards and delicately serrated. In Newfoundland[1939] a narrow, -triangular form prevails, sometimes ground sharp at the base. - -One of the ordinary types in North America,[1940] viz., that with a -notch at the base on either side, has already been mentioned more -than once. This form shades off into that with a central dovetailed -tang, sometimes with well-developed barbs. Others again have merely a -central tang, with little or no attempt at barbs. The triangular form, -usually but little excavated at the base, is also common. A rare form -terminates in a semicircular edge. The leaf-shaped form is rare. For -the most part the chipping is but rough, as the material, which is -usually chert, horn-stone, or even quartz, does not readily lend itself -to fine work. They were made of various sizes, the smaller for boys, -and those for men varying in accordance with the purpose to which they -were to be applied.[1941] They have been so fully described by others -that I need not dilate upon them. Some broken arrow-heads have been -converted into scrapers. - -As we proceed southwards in America, the forms appear more closely to -resemble the European. Some of the obsidian and chalcedony arrow-heads -from Mexico are stemmed and barbed, and almost identical in shape -with English examples. Don Antonio de Salis[1942] relates that in the -Palace of Montezuma there was one place where they prepared the shafts -for arrows and another where they worked the flint (obsidian) for the -points. In Tierra del Fuego[1943] the natives still fashion stemmed -arrow-heads tanged and barbed, or of a triangular form, with a tang -extending from the centre of the base. In Patagonia,[1944] triangular, -stemmed, and stemmed and barbed arrow-heads occur in deposits analogous -to the Danish kjökken-möddings. One brought from Rio Grande, and -presented to me by Lieut. Musters, R.N., has a broad stem somewhat -hollowed at the base. Mr. Hudson,[1945] in giving an account of -arrow-heads from the valley of the Rio Negro, formed of agate, crystal, -and flint of various colours, remarks that beauty must have been as -much an aim to the worker as utility. - -Some of the flint and chalcedony arrow-heads from Chili are beautifully -made, and closely resemble those from Oregon, farther north. A tanged -and barbed point, embedded in a human vertebra, was found in a burial -mound near Copiapo.[1946] - -A tanged arrow-head from Araucania, with a well-marked shoulder at the -base of the triangular head, so that it might almost be called barbed, -is engraved by the Rev. Dr. Hume.[1947] It is like an Italian form. -|407| - -Stemmed arrow-or harpoon-heads of quartz are found in Chili and Peru -of much the same form as Fig. 303. The barbs, if such they may be -called, are usually at rather more than a right angle to the stem, and -occasionally project considerably from the side of the blade, giving -it a somewhat cruciform appearance. I have several which were dug out -by the late Mr. David Forbes, F.R.S., from graves close to the shore, -about two miles south of Arica.[1948] In some instances they are still -attached to their shafts, which are unlike those of ordinary arrows, -being shorter and clumsier. I have them of two sizes, the larger 10 1∕2 -inches long, about 5∕8 inch in diameter at the end, where the head has -been inserted in a socket, increasing to 7∕8 in diameter towards the -other end. At a distance of 2 inches from this, however, there is an -abrupt shoulder, so that the diameter is increased by at least 1∕4 of -an inch, and the shaft then rapidly tapers in the contrary direction. -The shafts have thus a stopper-like termination, which Mr. Forbes -suggests may have been inserted in the end of a longer shaft of bamboo, -so that the whole weapon was a sort of spear or javelin, and not, -strictly speaking, an arrow. The smaller kind of shaft is of the same -character, but only 6 inches long, and proportionately smaller. This -may possibly have served as part of an arrow. The wood of all has been -coloured with a red pigment. - -One arrow-head from the same spot is of remarkably elegant form, and of -wonderfully good workmanship. In general outline it is not unlike Fig. -324, but the blade expands more rapidly to form the barbs, which stand -out well from the stem, and are separated from it by a slight hollow. -It is 1 5∕8 inches long. Its greatest width at the barbs is but 1∕2 an -inch; and the extreme acuteness and delicacy of the point may be judged -of from the fact, that a distance of an inch from the apex the width -is less than 1∕4 of an inch. The heads appear to have been secured in -their sockets by binding with thread formed of vegetable fibre. In some -instances the wooden shaft is furnished with barbs made of bronze, tied -on a little distance behind the stone point. - -Leaf-shaped arrow-heads, as well as tanged and barbed, and barbed -without a central tang, are found in Peru.[1949] Some leaf-shaped -arrows with a stalk, from New Granada, are in the Albert Memorial -Museum at Exeter. - - * * * * * - -It will, however, be thought that enough, and more than enough, has -been said as to the forms of arrow-heads occurring in various parts of -the world. Allowing for local differences, the general correspondence -in form is so great that we cannot wonder at Dr. Woodward’s[1950] -suggestion that the first model of flint arrow-heads was probably -brought from Babel, and preserved after the dispersion of mankind. -To most, however, it will appear that this general similarity -affords another proof that in all places, and in all times, similar -circumstances and similar wants, with |408| similar materials only at -command for gratifying them, result in similar contrivances. - -I must, in conclusion, say a few words as to the method of mounting -these stone points upon the arrows; and here we are not left absolutely -to conjecture, though the discoveries of flint arrow-heads still -attached to their shafts, in any part of the United Kingdom, are -extremely rare. But in Ballykillen Bog, King’s County, a stemmed and -barbed flint arrow-head was found, still remaining in a part of its -“briar-wood” shaft, and with a portion of the gut-tying by which it had -been secured, still attached. It is in the museum of Mr. Murray, of -Edenderry, and has been figured by Sir W. Wilde.[1951] Another Irish -example was found in Kanestown Bog,[1952] co. Antrim, and has been -published by Mr. W. J. Knowles. In this case the head was barbed though -not stemmed, but the shaft was cleft to receive it, and was bound round -with gut or sinew for a length of about 4 inches. The shaft is thought -to have been of ash. - -A third example was found in a moss at Fyvie,[1953] Aberdeenshire, -and has been described by Dr. Joseph Anderson. By the kindness of the -Society of Antiquaries of Scotland it is shown in Fig. 342A. The point -is leaf-shaped, approaching to a lozenge. It is inserted in a cleft in -the tapering shaft, which extends almost to the point. The nature of -the tough wood, of which the shaft is made, has not been determined, -and the manner in which the head was secured in the shaft seems -uncertain; but there may have been a binding which has perished. Dr. -Anderson was able to reproduce the shaft in soft wood, making use of -flint tools only. - -[Illustration: Fig. 342A.—Fyvie, Aberdeenshire. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 343.—Switzerland. 1∕1] - -Specimens have also been found in Switzerland and Germany. |409| One -of the former has been figured by Dr. Keller,[1954] whose engraving I -here reproduce, as Fig. 343, in the full size of the original arrow, -instead of on the scale of one-half. It was found, not in any of the -Lake habitations, but in the moss of Geissboden. - -The arrow-heads found among the ancient Swiss lake-dwellings, often -bear on their surface some portion of the bituminous cement which -helped to attach them to the shafts. Dr. Clément[1955] possessed one, -apparently tanged but not barbed, the base of which is completely -incrusted with bitumen, with traces of the wood of the shaft upon -it, and of the cord by which the whole was bound together. Another, -leaf-shaped, similarly incrusted, is in the Museum at Lausanne. The -attachment of a conical bone arrow-head to its shaft is of the same -character. Some single-barbed[1956] arrows were made by tying a bone -pin, pointed at each end, diagonally to the extremity of the shaft. - -[Illustration: Fig. 344.—Fünen, Denmark. 1∕1] - -Another specimen has been engraved by Madsen,[1957] who, however, does -not appear to have recognised it as an arrow-head. He describes it as -“a flint instrument, fastened by means of fine bast-fibre to a wooden -shaft, of which only 1 1∕2 inch remains.” I have here reproduced his -engraving, as Fig. 344, and there can I think be little doubt that it -represents the point of an arrow of the same character as those in use -among the ancient Egyptians.[1958] It was found in a peat moss in the -parish of Vissenberg, Odense, in the Isle of Fünen. - -[Illustration: Fig. 345.—Modern Stone Arrow-head.] - -Among modern savages, we find the stone points sometimes attached to -the shafts by vegetable fibre, not unfrequently aided by some resinous -gum, and also by means of animal sinew. The annexed woodcut, Fig. 345, -kindly supplied by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,[1959] shows -an arrow-head, stated to be from one of the South Sea Islands, but more -probably from California, |410| attached by means of tendon to a reed -shaft. The Indians of California certainly affix their arrow-heads in -a similar manner; but commonly there are notches on either side of -the head at the base, to receive the sinew or split intestine, which -is in the form of tape about 1∕8 inch wide. The binding extends about -an inch along the shaft, and is of the neatest description. North -American[1960] arrow-heads, fastened in this manner, have been engraved -by Sir John Lubbock and the Rev. J. G. Wood. The end of the shaft has -a shallow notch in it to receive the flint, which is cemented into the -notch before being bound on. - -Among the Kaffirs,[1961] the iron heads of the assagais are usually -bound to the shafts with strips of wet hide, which contract and tighten -in drying. - -The shafts of arrows are frequently of reed, in which case there is -often a longer or shorter piece of solid wood joined on to the reed to -which the head is attached. This is the case with the ancient Egyptian -arrows, and with those of the Bushmen,[1962] in which, however, bone -and ivory replace the wood; and the shaft generally consists of three -pieces—reed, ostrich bone, and ivory, to which latter the head of iron -is attached. In other cases the shafts consist of straight-growing -shoots of trees. Among the Eskimos,[1963] where wood is so scarce, -a peculiar tool—formed of bone, with an oval or lozenge-shaped hole -through it—is used for the purpose of straightening arrow-shafts. The -tang of their arrow-heads is inserted in a socket, and bound fast with -sinew. - -For harpoons there is often a hole in the triangular armature. One of -these points was found in the body of a seal killed in Iceland[1964] in -1643, and Olaf Worm judiciously thought that the seal had been wounded -by a Greenlander. - -In most countries the shafts are feathered at the bow-string end, -and such was the case in the earliest historical times. Hesiod[1965] -describes the arrows of Hercules as feathered from the wings of a -black eagle, and Homer[1966] speaks of the πτερόεντες ὀϊστοί—if -indeed, as Mr. Yates suggests, this latter refers to the plumes.[1967] -Herodotus,[1968] however, mentions, as a remarkable fact, that the -arrows of the Lycians in the army of Xerxes, like those of the Bushmen -and some other savages of the present day, had no |411| feathers, so -that this addition to the shaft was not indispensable. It is said that -some North American arrow-heads are “bevelled[1969] off on the reverse -sides, apparently to give them a revolving motion,” so as to answer the -same purpose as plumes. But this result seems very doubtful. - -From what kind of wood the bows in Britain were made at the time when -flint-pointed arrows were in use is uncertain; the yew, however, which -is probably the best European wood for the purpose, is indigenous to -this country. It is not probable that the cross-bow was known in these -early times, though it was in use during the Roman period, as may be -seen on a monument in the museum at Le Puy. - -I need, however, hardly enter into further details with regard to -arrows, and I therefore proceed to the consideration of other forms of -stone implements, including those by which it seems probable that some -of the arrow-heads were fashioned. - - - - -|412| - -CHAPTER XVII. - -FABRICATORS, FLAKING TOOLS, ETC. - - -In treating of the manufacture of stone implements in prehistoric times -I have already (p. 41) described certain tools of flint with a blunted, -worn, and rounded appearance at one or both ends, as if resulting from -attrition against a hard substance, and I have suggested that their -purpose may have been for chipping out arrow-heads and other small -instruments of flint. As, however, it was not desirable to introduce -unnecessary details when dealing only with the processes adopted in the -manufacture of stone implements, the more particular description of -some of the tools was deferred, until after an account had been given -of the objects in the making of which they had probably assisted. - -[Illustration: Fig. 346.—Yorkshire Wolds.] - - * * * * * - -In Fig. 346 is shown, full size, a characteristic specimen of the tool -to which I have provisionally assigned the name of “flaking tool,” -or fabricator. It is symmetrically chipped out of grey flint, and is -curved at one extremity, probably with the view of adapting it for -being better held in the hand. The side edges, which were originally -left sharp, have been slightly rounded by grinding, apparently from the -same motive. The angles at the curved end have been smoothed off, but -the other end is completely rounded, and presents the half-polished, -worn appearance characteristic of these tools. The curvature lengthways -to some extent resembles that of the Eskimo arrow-flakers engraved -as Figs. 8 and 9, and is of common occurrence among these tools. -They vary much in the amount of workmanship they display; some being -mere flakes with the edges rounded |413| by chipping, and others as -carefully wrought into form as any flint hatchet or chisel. These -skilfully-chipped specimens are frequently much more convex on one face -than the other. They vary in length from about 2 to 4 inches. - -An unusually long example is, by permission of the Society of -Antiquaries of Scotland, shown in Fig. 346A. It was found on the -Hill of Corennie,[1970] Aberdeenshire, and closely resembles another -implement of the same kind found near Fordoun,[1971] Kincardineshire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 346A.—Corennie. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 347.—Bridlington. 1∕1] - -The rougher kinds are usually clumsy in their proportions, as if -strength were an object, and they not unfrequently show a certain -amount of abrasion at each end. An instrument of this coarser -description is shown in Fig. 347. It is worn away and rounded, not -only at the point, but for a considerable distance along the sides, -the abraded surface having a somewhat bruised appearance. It is -remarkable that many of the Danish flint knife-daggers, especially -those which have been so long in use that their blades have been much -diminished in size by having been frequently re-chipped, present at -the |414| end and sides of the handles precisely the same kind of -worn surface. At one time I thought it possible that constant contact -with hard hands, not free from sand and dirt, might have produced -this rounding of the angles; but closer examination proves that this -cannot have been the only cause of the wear, as it is sometimes the -case that at a certain distance from the end of the hilt, the abraded -character disappears entirely, and, with the exception of a slight -polish, the angles are as fresh as on the day when the daggers were -first manufactured. This feature is most observable in the poignards -with the beautifully-decorated handles. I possess one of this kind—like -Worsaae, No. 52—with the sides near the blade exquisitely ornamented -with a delicate wavy edging, and with a line of similar ornament -running along the centre of one face of the handle, the butt-end having -also been edged in a similar manner; but for an inch and a half from -the end the whole of this ornamentation is completely worn away, and -the sides are battered and rounded. To such an extent has this part of -the handle been used, that one of the projecting points of the original -fishtail-like end has entirely disappeared, and the other is completely -rounded. The blade is probably now not more than one-third of its -original size, so that we may infer that it must have been long in use -for its legitimate purposes. But during all this time the hilt must -have been made to serve some other and less appropriate purpose than -that of a handle, and as a result its original beauty of ornamentation -has been entirely destroyed. I think that this purpose must have been -the chipping, or rather the re-working, of the edges of other flint -instruments. - -Whether this was effected by pressure or by slight blows it is hard to -say; but it appears probable that the ancient possessor of two such -daggers used the hilt of the one for re-chipping the blade of the -other, and it may be for re-chipping other implements. An indirect -inference deducible from this disfigurement of the beautifully wrought -handles, is that they were not originally made by the owners who thus -misused them—though they also must have been fairly accomplished -workers in flint—but that the daggers were procured by barter of -some kind from the cutlers of the period, whose special trade it -was to work in flint. For we can hardly conceive that those who had -bestowed so much time and skill in the ornamentation of these hilts, -should afterwards wantonly disfigure their own artistic productions. -In Britain, where the larger forms of finely-wrought instruments are -scarcer, it seems most likely that these flakers were principally used -in the making of arrow-heads, though probably hard bone or stag’s horn -was also employed, as already suggested. - -Against regarding the ends of these tools as having been worn away -in the manufacture of other instruments of flint, it may be urged -that the butt-ends of some chisels present a similar appearance, and -therefore that the wear may be the result of hammering with some kind -of hard mallet. It must, however, be remembered that no hammering at -the ends would produce the wearing away apparent on the sides of the -tools, and that the chisels which present the worn ends are in form and -size much the same as the “flaking tools,” and may, like the Danish -daggers, have served a double purpose. It is also worthy of notice -that these “flaking tools” are most abundant in districts where flint -arrow-heads occur in the greatest numbers, as, for instance, on |415| -the Yorkshire Wolds. In parts of Suffolk where arrow-heads are common -they too are abundantly present. I have also found them in the camp at -Maiden Bower, near Dunstable, in company with arrow-heads. - -In the case of the straight implements, like Fig. 347, it is by no -means impossible that they were used with a mallet as punches or sets, -to strike off flakes in the manufacture of arrow-heads and similar -articles. As already mentioned, some of the American tribes use a bone -punch for this purpose. - -[Illustration: Fig. 348.—Sawdon. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 349.—Acklam Wold. 1∕1] - -In Figs. 348 and 349 I have engraved two Yorkshire instruments, -the one from Sawdon, and the other from Acklam Wold; both from the -rich Greenwell Collection. At first sight they seem chisel-like in -character, but the edge in both is semicircular, and not ground, but -merely chipped. Fig. 348 is worked on both faces, though more convex -on one than on the other. Fig. 349 is merely a flake with its edges -chipped towards its outer face, so that it resembles a long narrow -scraper. The butt-end in that from Sawdon is much worn and rounded, -its sides are also worn away for about 3∕4 inch at that end; the butt -of that from Acklam Wold is also rounded, but principally towards the -flat face. The edges of both are sharp and uninjured. It therefore -appears probable that these tools were also made with a view to being -used at the blunt, and not at the sharp end; and it is possible that -the semicircular sharp ends may have been for insertion in some form -of wooden handle, in which the instruments were tightly bound, and -their projecting ends then used, it may be, for flaking other flints. A -flaking-tool from Unstan Cairn,[1972] Orkney, is of the same character -as Fig. 349, but longer. What seems to have been a “fabricator” was -found at Torre Abbey Sands,[1973] Torbay. On referring to page 38, will -be seen some Eskimo arrow-flakers of reindeer horn |416| attached to -wooden handles; and the instrument from Acklam Wold seems well adapted -for similar attachment, with its flat side towards the wood. - -Some bone instruments which have been found in barrows may possibly -have served as arrow-flakers. One from Green Low,[1974] Derbyshire, -has been figured. An implement of deer’s horn, with a small piece of -hard bone inserted in the small end, was found in the Broch[1975] of -Lingrow, Scapa, Orkney, but seems to belong to the Iron Period. No -flint arrow-heads are recorded from the Broch. - -I must confess that the suggestions I have offered with regard to the -use of these tools are by no means conclusive. I can only hope that -future discoveries may throw more light upon the subject. - -Canon Greenwell, who has figured a specimen—like Fig. 346—in the -_Archæological Journal_,[1976] was inclined to think that the other -form of instrument, like Figs. 348 and 349, was “used in dressing -hides, the sharp end for removing the loose parts of the skin, the -smooth end for rubbing down the seams when the leather was made up -into a garment.” I do not think that this can really have been their -purpose, as for smoothing down the seams a natural pebble would -probably be preferable, and for cutting or removing the loose parts a -flint flake would answer better. Still, I have seen a somewhat pointed -concretionary nodule of stone, the end and point of which were polished -from use by a glovemaker, in recent times, in smoothing down the seams -of coarse leather gloves. The late Mr. C. Monkman,[1977] like myself, -regarded these instruments as punches or fabricators, used for chipping -arrows and delicate flint weapons into shape. This is also Canon -Greenwell’s present opinion. He has figured an example in “British -Barrows.”[1978] In Yorkshire they are known as “finger-flints.” - -The worn appearance of the pointed end of some flakes is not improbably -due, as has already been observed, to their having been employed in -“picking” into shape implements—such as hatchets or axes—formed of -greenstone and other rocks of a somewhat softer nature than flint. -The ends of the flaking tools, punches, or fabricators are, however, -usually far too blunt for them to have been applied to such a purpose. - -Another of the causes of the blunted and worn-away appearance of the -ends, and even sides, of originally sharp flint flakes and instruments, -I have already described when treating of scrapers—namely, the striking -off by their means particles from a block of pyrites, with a view of -procuring fire. - - - - -|417| - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -SLING-STONES AND BALLS. - - -Passing on from flint arrow-heads and the tools which were probably -used in the process of their manufacture, we come to another form of -missile weapon—the sling-stone—which also appears to have been in -use in Britain. It is needless here to enter into details as to the -early use of the sling among the more civilized nations of antiquity, -especially as comprehensive articles on the subject have already been -published in this country by Mr. Walter Hawkins[1979] and Mr. Syer -Cuming.[1980] - -A stone thrown by hand doubtless constituted the first missile weapon, -and some form of sling must probably have been among the earliest -inventions of mankind. What appears to be the simplest kind, and one -which, like Nilsson[1981] and Strutt,[1982] I frequently used as a boy, -consists of a stick split for a short distance down one end, so as to -form a cleft, in which a stone is placed; the elasticity of the two -halves of the stick, which are kept asunder by the stone, retaining -it there until the proper moment for its discharge. Nilsson cites -Lepsius as engraving in his great work on Egypt a representation of a -man armed with such a sling, which he appears to use very actively in -fight. At his feet there is a heap of small stones in readiness for -use. Nilsson[1983] also suggests that it was with such a sling that -David was armed when he encountered Goliath, who addresses him: “Am -I a dog that thou comest to me with staves?”[1984] that is, with the -shepherd’s staff and the sling handle. The most ancient form, however, -recorded by classical writers is that of the ribbon sling, with a -central receptacle for the stone, and with strings on either side. -The neatly plaited or knitted cup or strap of a sling, with a portion -of its cord, both formed of flax, was among the objects discovered in -the |418| Lake-settlement of Cortaillod,[1985] which was remarkably -rich in bronze objects. This probably is the most ancient sling now in -existence. - -The staff-sling reappears in Roman times in a somewhat modified form, -with a receptacle for the stone attached to the end of a staff. To this -weapon the name of _fustibalus_ was given. - - * * * * * - -The earliest sling-stones were, no doubt, like those used by -David against Goliath, the “smooth stones out of the brook;” but -in after-times, among the Greeks and the Romans, sling-bullets -of an almond or acorn-like form were cast in lead, and flattened -ovoid missiles were formed in terra cotta; both kinds, from their -uniformity in size, ensuring greater precision of aim than could be -secured with stones, however carefully selected, and the former also -offering the advantages of less resistance from the air, as well -as greater concentration of force when striking the object. Some -polished sling-bullets of loadstone or hæmatite are mentioned by -Schliemann[1986] as having been found on the presumed site of Troy. -The advantages of uniformity of size and form are recognized among -some savage tribes, who make use of the sling at the present day; the -sling-stones, for instance, of the New Caledonians being carefully -shaped out of steatite, and, what is worthy of remark, approximating -closely in form to the Roman _glandes_, being fusiform or pointed -ovoids. The same form on a larger scale, about 3 inches in diameter and -4 inches long, has been adopted by the natives of Savage Island for -missiles thrown by the hand. These are wrought from calc-spar almost as -truly as if turned in a lathe. - -Nilsson[1987] has engraved a sling-stone of this same form, found in -Sweden, where, however, they are by no means common, as he cites but -five specimens in the museums at Lund and Stockholm. - -Artificially-fashioned sling-stones are not, however, confined to this -fusiform shape; those that were in use among the Charruas of Southern -America having been of a lenticular form, though slightly flattened -at the centre of each face. One in my collection is about 3 inches in -diameter and 1 3∕8 inches thick in the middle. It has been ground over -the whole of both faces, and has the edge at its periphery slightly -rounded. - -The objects so frequently found in the Swiss Lake-dwellings, and to -which the name of sling-stones has been commonly given, were, as -Keller[1988] has pointed out, probably intended for some very different -purpose. Many of the forms described by Sir William Wilde,[1989] under -the name of sling-stones, may also, I think, be more properly placed -in some other category. The carefully polished lenticular disc of -flint (Wilde, Fig. 9) seems better adapted for a cutting tool; and the -flat oval stones, usually with “a slight indentation, such as might -be effected by rubbing with a metal tool,” were, as I have already -observed, more probably used for obtaining fire, like those of the same -class belonging to the early Iron Age of Denmark,[1990] which they much -resemble in character. |419| - -The objects to which in this country the name of sling-stone -has been generally applied are more or less roughly-chipped, and -approximately lenticular blocks of flint, varying considerably in -proportionate thickness, and usually from about 1 1∕2 to 3 inches -in diameter. An average specimen from the Yorkshire Wolds is shown -in Fig. 350. The contour is frequently more truly circular or oval, -and the faces somewhat more carefully chipped. They are found in -considerable numbers on the Yorkshire Wolds, in Suffolk, Sussex, and -other counties where chalk flints are common. Occasionally also they -occur in Scotland.[1991] Similar forms are also abundant in the Danish -kjökken-möddings and “coast-finds.” In this latter case it appears -quite as probable that they may have served for net-sinkers as for -sling-stones; although, as Sir John Lubbock[1992] has remarked, “that -some have really served as sling-stones seems to be indicated by their -presence in the peat-mosses, which it is difficult to account for in -any other way.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 350.—Yorkshire Wolds. 1∕2] - -Prof. Nilsson[1993] objects that they are so irregular and -sharp-cornered, “that they would soon wear out the sling, even if it -were made of leather.” He presumes “that these sharp-cornered stone -balls were the first hand-missile weapons of the earliest and rudest -savages, and used by them to throw at wild animals or enemies.” This -objection to regard them as sling-stones seems hardly well founded; -especially if we consider them to have been in use with a stick-sling, -in which case their angularity would have been of some service in -retaining them in the cleft, while their lenticular form adapts them -well for this kind of sling. A more valid objection raised by Prof. -Nilsson is that no one “would give himself all this trouble to fashion -sling-stones which were to be thrown away the next moment, when he -could find many natural pebbles quite as suitable.” But to this it may -be replied, that at the present day we do find the New Caledonians, the -Tahitians, and other tribes, carefully fashioning their sling-stones; -and also that this flat lenticular form is better adapted for the -stick-sling than a natural pebble of the usual oval form. As a fact, -however, I think it will be found that these flint discs, to which the -name of sling-stones is applied, are most abundant in those districts -where natural rolled pebbles happen to be scarce. If the case be really -so, we can readily understand why the cores, from which flakes had been -struck for conversion into arrow-heads and other instruments, should -have been themselves utilized as sling-stones. If these missiles were -necessary, it would be a question of which would involve the least -trouble, whether to chip into the required form a certain number of -flints which came readily to hand, at the same time making use of -the resulting chips; or to select and bring together, possibly from -a distant sea-coast, a bed of a stream, or some uncovered patch of -gravel, a number of pebbles of the right size and form for slinging. In -the camp at Hod Hill, near Blandford, |420| which, however, probably -belongs to the Early Iron Period, the latter course seems to have been -adopted, as several heaps of rounded flint-pebbles, either derived from -the sea-coast or from some bed of Lower Tertiary Age, have been found -there, and in all probability constituted the munition of the slingers -of the camp. - -The late Mr. C. Monkman[1994] remarked that in Yorkshire he always -found the small globular sling-stones most plentiful at a short -distance (50 to 200 yards away) from old entrenchments, and he was -inclined to class under the head of sling-stones, nodules chipped -over their whole surface, varying from an almost globular form to all -degrees of flatness, and in size from 1∕2 inch to 3 inches in diameter. -This is perhaps too wide a definition, as most of the larger globular -forms appear to have been destined for hammer-stones; and pebbles but -half an inch in diameter would be almost too light for missiles. It -is, however, impossible to say with certainty that any given specimen -was undoubtedly a sling-stone, as the flatter forms, which were more -probably missiles, merge in the form of a roughly-chipped oval celt -like Fig. 17 at one end of the series, and in that of a discoidal -scraper with a broken edge at the other. Many may be merely cores, -from both faces of which flakes have been struck, so that the term -“sling-stones,” if employed for these roughly-chipped discs, must -always be used in a somewhat doubtful sense, and for convenience rather -than precision. - -In Polynesia,[1995] besides rounded pebbles, sharp, angular, and rugged -stones were used for slinging. These were called _Ofai ara_, faced or -edged stones. - - * * * * * - -Another class of objects in stone which may possibly have served for -the purposes of the chase or of war, consists of balls with their -surface divided into a number of more or less projecting circles, with -channels between them. They seem, so far as is known, to be confined to -Scotland and Ireland. - -[Illustration: Fig. 351.—Dumfriesshire. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -That shown in Fig. 351 was found in Dumfriesshire,[1996] and has been -engraved by Sir Daniel Wilson. It presents six circular faces. Others, -almost identical in form, have been found at Biggar,[1997] Lanarkshire; -Dudwick,[1998] Chapel of Garioch[1999] and Migvie,[2000] Tarland, -Aberdeenshire; Kilmarnock,[2001] Ayrshire; and Montblairy,[2002] -Banffshire. Another, about 3 inches in diameter, with three faces -only, was found on the Tullo of Garvoch,[2003] Kincardineshire; and -one, with four faces, in a cairn at East Braikie, Forfarshire. This -|421| latter is in the Montrose Museum.[2004] One of greenstone, 2 1∕2 -inches in diameter, found at Ballater,[2005] Aberdeenshire, has six -plain circular discs, with the interspaces partially cut into small -knobs or studs, the ornaments being possibly in course of formation. -Stone balls,[2006] about 2 1∕2 and 3 inches in diameter, covered over -the surface with small rounded projections, like enormous petrified -mulberries, have been found in the Isle of Skye, in Orkney, and at -Garvoch Hill, Kincardineshire. I presume the latter to be a different -specimen from that with three faces, previously described. Others -are in the Perth Museum.[2007] A series of such balls, some highly -ornamented, has been described by Dr. John Alexander Smith.[2008] One -formed of hornblende schist, with six strongly projecting circular -faces, was found near Ballymena,[2009] co. Antrim, in 1850, and is now -in the British Museum. - -[Illustration: Fig. 352.—Towie.] - -Probably the most remarkable of all these balls is that shown in -Fig. 352, from a cut kindly lent me by the Society of Antiquaries of -Scotland. It was found at Towie,[2010] Aberdeenshire, and is about -2 1∕2 inches in diameter, with four rounded projections, three of -which are ornamented with different incised patterns, while the fourth -is smooth and undecorated. From the character of the patterns, this -object would seem to belong to the Bronze Period rather than to that -of Stone, if not, indeed, to still later times. In connection with the -pattern upon it, attention may, however, be called to the remarkable -carved cylinders of chalk found by Canon Greenwell in a barrow on -Folkton Wold,[2011] Yorkshire, and now in the British Museum, which are -certainly not of later date than the Bronze Age. The ornament on a clay -vessel found in Devonshire[2012] may be compared with that of the sides -of the cylinders. |422| - - * * * * * - -These balls appear to me to differ most essentially from the ordinary -“sink-stones” found in Denmark and Ireland,[2013] with which they have -been compared. It is, however, by no means easy to suggest the purpose -for which they were intended. The only suggestions that I have met with -are, that they were used in some game or amusement; for defence when -slung in a long thong or line[2014]; as mace heads[2015] attached to a -handle; or else for purposes of divination.[2016] I must confess that -I hardly see in what manner the last purpose can have been served, -especially as in most instances all the faces of the ball are alike. -Nor do I see in what manner they can have been used in games, though -of course it is possible that they were so employed. It seems more -probable that they were intended for use in the chase or war, when -attached to a thong, which the recesses between the circles seem well -adapted to receive. Among savage nations of the present day we find -the use of the _bolas_, or stones attached to the ends of thongs, over -a great part of the southern continent of America;[2017] while the -principle is known to the Eskimos, whose strings of sinew, weighted -with bunches of ivory knobs, are arranged to wind themselves round the -bird at which they are thrown, in just the same way as the much stouter -cords weighted at the ends with two or three heavy stone balls which -form the _bolas_,[2018] twist round, and hamper the movements of larger -game. - -The _bolas_ proper, as in use on the Pampas, consist of three balls of -stone, nearly the size of the fist, and covered with leather, which -are attached to the ends of three thongs, all branching from a common -centre. Leaden balls have now almost superseded those of stone. The -hunter gives to the _bolas_ a rotary motion, and can then throw them -to a great distance, in such a manner that the thongs entwine round -the legs, neck, and body of his prey and thus render it helpless, so -that it can then be easily despatched. A _bola_ of small size, but of -lead or copper, with a single thong about 3 feet long, is also used, -and forms both the sling and its stone. It likewise serves as a weapon -for striking in close encounter. Among the Patagonians[2019] the same -two |423| varieties are used, but those for hunting have usually only -two stones, and not three. They sometimes throw the single _bola_ at -the adversary, rope and all, but generally they prefer to strike at his -head with it. - -Assuming a difficulty in securing a ball of stone in a leather case, -and that therefore it would be necessary to fasten it by means of a -thong, some channelling of the surface would become a necessity; and -the natural tendency of savages to decorate their weapons might lead -to regular circular discs being left between the channels on the ball, -and even to these discs being engraved in patterns, that next the cord -being, as in Fig. 352, left undecorated. In the Christy Collection is -a _bola_ formed of a polished red spherical stone, mounted in such a -manner as to show a considerable portion of its surface, which has -evidently been regarded as too handsome to be entirely concealed by -the leather. Mr. C. H. Read suggests that these ornamented balls were -entirely covered with raw hide, which was allowed to dry, the ends or -edges being tightly tied. When dry the circles over the knots were cut -out so as to display the ornament and leave a solid binding round the -stone to which a thong might be attached. - -These _bola_ stones are sometimes wrought so as to present a number -of rounded protuberances. Of this kind there are specimens in the -Christy Collection[2020] and in that of the late Mr. J. Bernhard -Smith. Even if the use of the _bolas_ or the single _bola_ were -unknown, there is a form of military flail or “morning star,” a sort -of modification of the staff-sling, though the stone never quits the -cord by which it is attached to the staff, for which such balls as -these might serve. A mediæval weapon[2021] of this kind, in the Meyrick -Collection, consists of a staff, to which is attached by a chain a -ball of wood with numerous projecting iron spikes. The citizens of -London will be familiar with the same weapon in the hands of the giant -Gog or Magog at Guildhall. The Calmucks, Mongols, and Chinese,[2022] -still use a flail of this sort, with an iron perforated ball about -two pounds in weight attached to the end of the thong. Substituting -one of these stone balls for the spiked morning-star, and a leather -thong carefully adjusted in the channels of the stone for the chain, -a most effective form of weapon for close encounters would result. -Among the North American tribes a somewhat |424| similar weapon was -lately in use, and is thus described by Lewis and Clarke, as quoted -by Squier and Davies:[2023]—“The Shoshonee Indians use an instrument -which was formerly employed among the Chippeways, and called by them -_pogamoggon_.[2024] It consists of a handle 22 inches long, made of -wood covered with leather, about the size of a whip-handle. At one end -is a thong 2 inches in length, which is tied to a stone weighing two -pounds, enclosed in a cover of leather; at the other end is a loop -of the same material, which is passed around the wrist to secure the -implement, with which they strike a powerful blow.” Another form of -club in use among the Algonquins consisted of a round boulder sewn in -a piece of fresh skin and attached to the end of a long handle, to -which, by the drying of the skin, it becomes firmly attached. Examples -of both of these kinds are in the British Museum. An engraving of a -drumstick-like club of this character is given by Schoolcraft.[2025] -Unfortunately, however, the existence of such a weapon in early times -is not susceptible of proof. Whatever the purpose of these British -balls of stone, they seem to belong to a recent period as compared with -that to which many other stone antiquities may be assigned. - - - - -|425| - -CHAPTER XIX. - -BRACERS, AND ARTICLES OF BONE. - - -Another object in stone, not unfrequently found in graves, and of which -the use is now comparatively certain, is a rectangular plate usually -round on one face, and hollow on the other, with perforations at either -end. These plates are commonly formed of a close-grained green chlorite -slate, are very neatly finished, and vary considerably in length and -proportions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 353.—Isle of Skye. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -The specimen shown in Fig. 353 is in the National Museum at Edinburgh, -and has already been engraved by Sir D. Wilson,[2026] and roughly -figured in the _Wiltshire Archæological Magazine_. It was found -alongside of a human skeleton, in a rudely-vaulted chamber in a large -tumulus on the shore of Broadford Bay, Isle of Skye. It is formed of -pale-green stone polished, and has at one end an ornamented border -of slightly indented ovals. In the same Museum[2027] is another of -longer proportions, being 4 1∕2 inches by 1 1∕4 inches, formed of -fine-grained greenish-coloured stone, and having at each corner a small -perforation. It was found, together with an urn and the remains of a -skeleton, in a short cist on the farm of Fyrish, Evantown, Ross-shire. -It is shown in Fig. 354. There is also, in the same Museum, a fragment -of a flatter specimen formed of indurated clay-slate of a lightish -green colour, perforated at one end with three small holes. It was -found in a stone circle called “The Standing Stones of Rayne.”[2028] -Another example was found in a grave at Dalmore,[2029] Ross-shire. It -is, however, imperfect. In the Arbuthnot Museum, Peterhead, is another -object of this class, 4 1∕4 inches long, with a hole at each corner, -and slightly rounded on one face and hollow on the other. It was found -at Cruden,[2030] Aberdeenshire, |426| in a cist surmounted by a small -tumulus. In the cist, were the skeletons of an adult and a youth, as -well as portions of that of a dog. They were accompanied by two rude -urns, several flint arrow-heads, and two flint knives. - -The earliest recorded discovery of these objects in England is that -which has already been mentioned as having taken place at Tring Grove, -Herts, about 1763.[2031] In this case, a skeleton was found in sinking -a ditch in level ground; between the legs were some flint arrow-heads, -and at the feet “some small slender stones, polished, and of a greenish -cast; convex on one side, and concave on the other; the larger were -four inches long and one broad; the smaller not quite four inches long -nor one inch broad, somewhat narrower in the middle, with two holes at -both ends.” The interment was accompanied by two urns, and a ring of -jet, perforated for suspension at the edge. To judge from the plate and -description, the longer of the “slender stones” had not been bored with -holes at either end. - -[Illustration: Fig. 354.—Evantown. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 355.—Devizes. 1∕2] - -An oblong piece of chlorite slate, 5 3∕8 inches long, 1 3∕4 inches -broad, and 1∕4 inch thick, rounded on one face and hollowed on the -other, was found in a gravel-pit at Aldington, Worcestershire.[2032] It -has four holes through it, one at each corner, just large enough on the -rounded face to allow a fine ligament to pass through, and countersunk -on the other face. The plate of chlorite slate shown in Fig. 355 is -flat, instead of hollowed, and the holes at the corners are countersunk -on both faces. It was found in a barrow on Roundway Hill,[2033] near -Devizes, in front of the breast of a skeleton, between the bones of the -left forearm, and had, when found, a small fragment of bronze, possibly -the tang of a knife, much corroded, adhering to it. In the same barrow -was a |427| stemmed and barbed flint arrow-head like Fig. 327, and a -tanged bronze dagger. This bracer has been kindly lent to me by Mr. -Cunnington, of Devizes, who discovered it. Another flat wrist-guard -from a barrow at Aldbourne,[2034] Wilts, has only two out of the four -holes finished. A third is incomplete. Dr. Thurnam[2035] regards those -flat examples as breast-plates or gorgets. One, found with an interment -at Calne, Wilts, is in the British Museum. It resembles Fig. 354. - -A bracer, formed of a green-coloured stone, was found in a gravel-pit -at Lindridge, Worcestershire.[2036] It is about 4 3∕4 inches by 1 inch, -and 1∕4 inch thick; but it has been perforated at one end only, with -a countersunk hole in each of the two corners, a third hole between -them being only partly drilled. The other end is somewhat sharper and -undrilled. - -In the Christy Collection, is a plate of pale-green stone 4 1∕2 inches -long, with both faces somewhat rounded, one of them polished, and the -other, which is rather flatter, in places striated transversely by -coarse grinding. At each end are three small countersunk perforations -in a line with each other. It was found with two small ornamented -urns near Brandon, Suffolk. This bracer has been figured[2037] in -illustration of some remarks by Sir A. Wollaston Franks. - -In a barrow near Sutton,[2038] Sir R. Colt Hoare found, under the right -hand and close to the breast of a contracted skeleton, a plate of -blue slate, 4 1∕2 inches long and 2 3∕4 inches wide, with three small -countersunk holes arranged in a triangle at either end. Near it were -two boar’s tusks and a drinking-cup. It has been thought to be too wide -for a wrist-guard. A narrower specimen with six holes at each end is -also in the Stourhead Collection.[2039] - -Another variety has but one hole at each end, and is flat and broadest -in the middle. In a cist in a barrow on Mere Down, Wiltshire,[2040] -were two skeletons, near the left side of the larger of which was a -small bronze dagger, with a tang for insertion in the hilt, and a piece -of grey slaty stone about 4 inches long, and 1 1∕8 inches broad in the -middle, perforated at the ends. There were also present a drinking-cup, -and an instrument of bone, as well as two circular ornaments of gold. -A similar thin stone, with a hole at either end, was found with part -of a bronze spear and other objects, associated with burnt human -remains in a barrow at Bulford, Wilts.[2041] One of grey slaty stone -with a countersunk hole at each end accompanied an interment at -Sittingbourne,[2042] Kent, and is now in the British Museum. Another -was found at Lancaster.[2043] I have another from Sandy, Beds, but -cannot say whether it accompanied any interment. Another, 3 1∕2 inches -long, nearly an inch broad in the middle, and only the fifth part of an -inch in thickness, was found near the tumulus at Broadford Bay, Isle -of Skye,[2044] already mentioned, and is shown in |428| Fig. 356. One -(3 1∕4 inches) was found in Mull,[2045] two (3 3∕8 and 3 inches) came -from Fyvie and Ballogie,[2046] Aberdeenshire, and one (2 1∕4 inches) -from Glenluce.[2047] Another (3 1∕2 inches) in the Museum at Edinburgh -came from the North of Ireland.[2048] - -[Illustration: Fig. 356.—Isle of Skye. 1∕2] - -A few specimens of the same character as Figs. 353 and 356 have been -found in Ireland. In that country, also, the same slaty material was -used, sometimes green, and sometimes red in colour. - -The curious plate of fine soft sandstone, 4 inches long and perforated -at each end, found in the Genista Cave, at Gibraltar,[2049] may -possibly belong to this class, but it is by no means certain. Some -objects of the same kind, with a hole at each end, have been found in -the Côtes du Nord.[2050] France. Some early Spanish[2051] whetstones -have one and even two perforations at each end. - - * * * * * - -The material of which this class of objects is formed is not -exclusively stone. A plate of bone, now in the Devizes Museum, about -3 1∕4 inches by 3∕4 inch, bored through at each end from the sides -and back, so as not to interfere with the face, was found with a -small bronze celt mounted as a chisel in stag’s horn, and with bone -pins and two whetstones, in a barrow near Everley.[2052] A fragment -of another bracer made of bone was found at Scratchbury Camp, Wilts. -It is doubtful whether the richly-ornamented flat plate of gold, with -a hole at each corner, found with a bronze dagger in a barrow[2053] -at Upton Lovel, was destined for the same purpose. It led Sir R. C. -Hoare, however, to regard the slate plate from the barrow near Sutton -as a mere ornament, “an humble imitation of the golden plate found at -Upton Lovel.” Others have regarded these stone plates as amulets or -charms;[2054] as destined to be affixed to the middle of a bow;[2055] -or as personal decorations.[2056] Wilson has called attention to -their similarity to the perforated plates of stone, of which such -numerous varieties are found in North America.[2057] The holes in -these, however, are very rarely more than two in number, and sometimes -only one, and these almost always near the middle of the stone; their -purpose possibly being to serve as draw-holes for equalizing the size -of cords, in the same manner as twine is |429| polished and rendered -uniform in size, by being drawn through a circular hole by European -manufacturers at the present day. They may, however, have served as -ornaments, or even in some cases as wrist-guards. One engraved by -Squier[2058] is much like Fig. 356, but thinner, and with the holes -rather farther from the ends. Schoolcraft,[2059] suggests their -employment to hold the strands or plies apart, in the process of twine -or rope making. - -The Rev. Canon Ingram, F.G.S.,[2060] was the first to suggest that -these British plates were bracers or guards, to protect the arm of -the wearer against the blow of the string in shooting with the bow, -like those in use by archers at the present day. In corroboration of -this view, he cites the position of the plate in the Roundway barrow, -between the bones of the left forearm, and the fact of so many of them -being hollowed in such a manner as to fit the arm; while he argues -that the similarity in the character and position of the perforations, -in the hollowed and flat varieties, affords presumptive evidence -that the use of both kinds of tablets was the same. I am inclined to -adopt Canon Ingram’s view, though, unless there was some error in -observation, plates of this kind have been occasionally found on the -right arm. In a barrow at Kelleythorpe, near Driffield,[2061] examined -by the late Lord Londesborough in 1851, was a chamber containing a -contracted skeleton, the bones of the right arm of which “were laid in -a very singular and beautiful armlet, made of some large animal’s bone” -(actually of stone),[2062] “about 6 inches long, and the extremities, -which were a little broader than the middle, neatly squared; in this -were two perforations about half an inch from each end, through which -were bronze pins or rivets, with gold heads, most probably to attach it -to a piece of leather which had passed round the arm and been fastened -by a small bronze buckle, which was found underneath the bones.” These -objects are now in the British Museum. In the cist was also a bronze -dagger, with a wooden sheath and handle, some large amber beads, a -drinking-cup, and the upper part of the skull of a hawk. Possibly this -ancient warrior was left-handed, like the seven hundred chosen men of -Benjamin,[2063] every one of whom could yet “sling stones at an hair -breadth, and not miss.” |430| - -It may be observed that left-handedness is thought to have been -very prevalent in early times, both in the Old World[2064] and the -New.[2065] Certainly this plate strapped upon the arm is curiously -similar in character to the bracer in use in England in later times, -which, though sometimes of other materials, consisted, according to -Paulus Jovius,[2066] of a bone tablet. A bracer of carved ivory, of -the sixteenth century, is in the Meyrick Collection,[2067] and Mr. -C. J. Longman has a collection of them, many artistically engraved, -dating from the 16th and 17th centuries. Among the archers of ancient -Egypt,[2068] we find that similar guards were in use for the left -arm. These were not only fastened round the wrist, but secured by a -thong tied above the elbow. The material of which they were formed -appears to be unknown. On a Roman monument[2069] found in the North of -England, a soldier is represented with a bow in his hand, and a bracer -on his left arm. The Eskimos[2070] of the present day also make use -of a guard to save the wrist from the recoil of the bow-string. It is -usually composed of three pieces of bone, about 4 inches in length, but -sometimes of one only, and is fastened to the wrist by a bone button -and loop. An ivory guard, attached by a strap and buckle to the arm, is -still worn in India. Whatever was the purpose of those in stone they -seem to belong to the latter part of the Stone Period, and to have -continued in use in that of Bronze. - -These bracers have occasionally been found in Denmark. One of red -stone, 4 inches long, and with four holes, was found in a dolmen near -Assens. It is ornamented with parallel lines along the ends, and part -of the way along the sides. Another, 3 inches long, from a dolmen in -Langeland, is of bone, with but two holes, and is ornamented with cross -bands of zigzag lines. Both are engraved in the “Guide illustré du -Musée des Antiquités du Nord.”[2071] What appears to be one of bone, -found in a barrow in Denmark,[2072] with two skeletons, but with no -other objects, has also been engraved. A second was found under similar -circumstances. |431| - -One of fine-grained sandstone (4 1∕2 inches) with four holes was found -near Prenzlow[2073] in North Germany, and another of chocolate-coloured -material, probably slaty stone, accompanied an interment at -Ochsenfurt,[2074] Lower Franconia. - -Although, possibly, not strictly within the scope of the present work, -it may be well here to make a few observations relating to the various -articles formed of bone which are occasionally found in association -with those of stone. - - * * * * * - -More than three dozen bone instruments were found in the Upton -Lovel Barrow,[2075] already frequently mentioned. Most of them were -pointed, varying in length from about 3 to 9 inches, and formed -apparently from the leg-bones of different mammals. They, for the -most part, show a portion of the articular surface at the end which -has not been sharpened, at which also they are perforated. Mr. -Cunnington, their discoverer, was of opinion that they had been used -as arrow-or lance-heads; and possibly some of the larger specimens -served as javelin-points, even if the smaller were merely pins to -aid in fastening the dress, to which they were secured by a string -passed through the hole, so as to prevent their being lost. Numerous -other bone instruments from barrows are described and figured by Dr. -Thurnam[2076] and Canon Greenwell. I have two that are decidedly -lance-heads, about 6 inches long, made from leg-bones, probably of -roe-deer, which have been pointed by cutting the bone obliquely -through, so as to show a long elliptical section, while the articular -end has been excavated into the cavity of the bone, so as to form -a socket for the shaft, which was secured in its place by a pin, -passing through two small holes drilled through the bone. One was -found in Swaffham Fen, and the other at Girton, near Cambridge. Other -spear-heads of much the same character, from the same district, from -Lincolnshire,[2077] and from the River Thames, are in the British -Museum, and some of them have been described and figured by Sir -Wollaston Franks. - -I have also a bone dagger with the blade about 4 inches long, with a -rivet hole through the broad tang. It was found in the Thames near -Windsor, and was given to me by Mr. F. Tress Barry, M.P., in 1895. I -have also bones worked to a dagger-like form, but without any tang, -from the Cambridge Fens. - -A pin or awl of bone,[2078] 4 1∕2 inches long, made from the _fibula_ -of some small animal, probably a roe-deer, split, and then rubbed to a -point, was among the objects found by the Canon Greenwell, at Grimes’s -Graves, Norfolk, as well as the rounded piece of bone already mentioned -at p. 34. - -Bone pins or skewers, closely resembling those from British barrows, -are of frequent occurrence on the sites of Roman occupation. In the -name of _fibula_, as applied to the small bone of the leg, we have an -|432| acknowledgment of its adaptability for making such pins; in -the same way as its concomitant _tibia_ was the bone best adapted for -making into flutes. - -Bone pins, perforated at one end, were found in several of the barrows -explored by the late Mr. Bateman,[2079] both with burnt and unburnt -bodies. Canon Greenwell has also found them in the Yorkshire tumuli: -in three instances with burnt bodies. I found one also in a disturbed -barrow at Sutton Cheney, Leicestershire, which I opened in 1851. -Others without the hole, some of which are termed spear-heads by Mr. -Bateman, were found in Derbyshire and Staffordshire barrows,[2080] -with burnt and unburnt bodies, associated with instruments and -arrow-heads of flint. Another was found with burnt bones in a barrow at -Hacpen Hill,[2081] Wilts; and part of one in the Long Barrow at West -Kennet.[2082] - -It seems probable that many of these pointed instruments may have been -used as awls, for making holes in leather and soft materials. Others, -as Mr. Bateman and Canon Greenwell suggest, may, with the unburnt -bodies, have fastened some kind of shroud; and with the burnt, have -served to pin a cloth in which the ashes were placed, after being -collected from the funeral pile. - -In the Heathery Burn Cave, where so many interesting bronze relics -were found, there also occurred a large number of bone pins or awls, -a cylindrical bone bead 7∕10 inch long, a bone tube 1 1∕2 inches long -with a small perforation at the side, a pierced disc of bone 1 5∕8 -inches in diameter and 1∕4 inch thick, and a flat bone blade, somewhat -resembling in form a modern paper-cutter, 7 3∕4 inches long and 1 1∕4 -inches broad. This same flat form of instrument, about 6 1∕2 inches -long and 3∕4 inch broad, occurred in the Green Low Barrow,[2083] -Derbyshire, but then, in company with a fine flint dagger and stemmed -and barbed arrow-heads, and with a bone pin. Mr. Bateman[2084] thought -that these instruments might have served as modelling tools for making -pottery, or as mesh rules for netting. One, 12 inches long, with a -drinking-cup and various instruments of flint, accompanied a contracted -interment in a rock-grave on Smerrill Moor,[2085] Derbyshire. With -a similar interment in a barrow on Haddon Field[2086] was one 6 1∕4 -inches long, cut from the horn of a red-deer, a flint arrow-head, and a -small bronze awl. Two others, cut from the ribs of a large animal, and -two barbed flint arrow-heads, were found inside a “drinking-cup” at the -head of a contracted skeleton in Mouse Low;[2087] and others, again, -with barbed flint arrow-heads, occurred with calcined bones at Ribden -Low.[2088] They have also been found in Dorsetshire, perforated.[2089] -Whether these instruments really served the purposes suggested by Mr. -Bateman it is impossible to determine; but they seem well adapted -either for finishing off the surface of clay vessels, or for netting, -an art with which the Swiss Lake-dwellers of Robenhausen[2090] |433| -were acquainted, though in that settlement but slight traces of a -knowledge of metal are exhibited. - -Although needles of bone, carefully smoothed all over, and having -a neatly-drilled eye, have been found in the cave-deposits both -of Britain and France, but few such implements have, as yet, been -discovered in these countries associated with objects of the Neolithic -and Bronze Periods. - -A bodkin or needle of wood, 6 inches long, and of the ordinary form, -was, however, found in company with a small bronze dagger-blade, in an -urn containing burnt bones near Tomen-y-mur,[2091] Carnarvonshire. - -Needles of bone, both with the central hole (like some of those of the -Bronze Age) and with the eye at the end (like those of the present -day), have also been found in the Swiss Lakes.[2092] One of the latter -class was discovered in the Genista Cave at Gibraltar.[2093] It is -hard to say to what period it belongs. Needles of both forms have -been found with arrow-heads and other articles of flint, in Danish -grave-chambers.[2094] - -The pins or awls, already described, are so rude and clumsy, and so -large at the perforated end, that they could never have been intended -for use as needles; and when we consider that the principal material -to be sewn must have been the skins of animals, and that, even at the -present day, needles are hardly ever employed for sewing leather, but -bristles are attached to the end of the thread, and passed through -holes prepared by an awl, it seems possible that needles, if ever -they were used for this particular purpose, may have been superseded -at a very remote period. The small bronze awl, so frequently found in -barrows, is singularly like the “cobbler’s awl” of the present day, -though straight and not curved. - -Among the Danish[2095] antiquities of bronze, we find a remarkable form -of needle or bodkin, about 2 1∕2 or 3 inches long, bluntly pointed at -each end, and provided with an oval eye in the centre, so that it could -be passed through a hole in either direction. This, with a bronze awl -for boring the holes, and a pair of tweezers to assist in drawing the -needle through, appears to have constituted the sewing apparatus of -that day. I mention this form of needle because in Ribden Low,[2096] -Staffordshire, together with a burnt interment, and some barbed -arrow-heads of flint, were bone implements “pointed at each end” and -“perforated through the middle,” which may possibly have served such a -purpose. No dimensions are given by Mr. Bateman, but a bodkin of the -same kind from a barrow at Stourpaine, Dorset, is 4 inches long. It is -in the Durden collection in the British Museum. In a barrow, at Bailey -Hill,[2097] some calcined bones were accompanied by a pair of bone -tweezers, neatly made and perforated for suspension. - -Some of the needles of horn or bone in use among the Indians of North -America[2098] were in shape much like miniature elephants’ tusks. - -Another bone implement appears to have been a chisel, of which a -good specimen was found by the Rev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A., in a |434| -chambered barrow at Temple Bottom,[2099] Wilts. It is formed of a -portion split from a leg-bone of some mammal, about 3 1∕4 inches long, -and 5∕8 inch wide, sharpened from both faces to a segmental edge at one -end. A broader instrument of the same character was found with some -long bone pins or awls near Cawdor Castle;[2100] and “a celt-shaped -instrument, 5 inches long, with a cutting edge, made from part of the -lower jaw of a large quadruped, rubbed down,” was found with calcined -bones in a barrow near Monsal Dale.[2101] - -As has already been mentioned, bone instruments in the shape of a -chisel occur in considerable numbers in the Swiss Lake-dwellings -and elsewhere, and have been regarded as tools used in making and -ornamenting earthen vessels.[2102] That bone chisels are, however, -susceptible of more extensive use, is proved by the practice of the -Klah-o-quat Indians of Nootka Sound,[2103] who, without the aid of -fire, cut down the large cedars for their “dug-out” canoes with chisels -formed from the horn of the Wapiti, struck by mallets of stone hafted -in withes, or like dumb-bells in shape. - - * * * * * - -The only other forms of implement I need mention are those of a -hammer and a hoe, formed of the lower end of a stag’s horn, cut off -and perforated. A hammer, or possibly a celt-socket, was found with -a skeleton in Cop Head Hill barrow,[2104] near Warminster, together -with fragments of flint “polished by use;” another in a barrow at -Collingbourn,[2105] Wilts, and a third in a barrow near Biggin,[2106] -with a contracted interment, and in company with flint celts, -arrow-heads, and knives. Canon Greenwell has likewise found one in a -barrow at Cowlam, Yorkshire, with an unburnt body, and together with -a stone axe-hammer among burnt bones in a barrow at Lambourn,[2107] -Berks. They have also been found in some numbers in the Thames, near -Kew. - -I have already spoken of the use of stag’s horn for pick-axes, and for -sockets for stone-hatchets; occasionally, also, the horn itself was -sharpened and used as an axe or hoe.[2108] One from the Thames[2109] -near Wandsworth, with its wooden handle still preserved, has been -recorded by Mr. G. F. Lawrence. Stag’s-horn axes occur in various -countries on the Continent. They are by no means rare in Scandinavia, -except in the case of those having ring and other ornaments engraved -upon them.[2110] On an adze of |435| this kind, in the Stockholm -Museum, is engraved the spirited representation of a deer. In one -instance,[2111] an axe has been made from the _ulna_ of a whale. -Lindenschmit[2112] has engraved several of stag’s horn, principally -from Hanover. They occur also in France.[2113] Beads and buttons of -bone[2114] have been found with early interments; but the curious bone -objects discovered in a pit at Leicester,[2115] and in the caves at -Settle, Yorkshire,[2116] belong apparently to too recent a period to -be here discussed. A kind of bone chisel has remained in use until -recent times for the purpose of removing the bark from oak-trees for -the supply of tanners. Some beads and ornaments formed of bone will be -mentioned in a subsequent chapter. - - - - -|436| - -CHAPTER XX. - -SPINDLE-WHORLS, DISCS, SLICKSTONES, WEIGHTS, AND CUPS. - - -Besides the weapons and implements used in warfare and the chase, -as well as for various constructive purposes, there were in ancient -times, as at present, numerous implements and utensils of stone devoted -to more purely domestic uses. Some of these, such as corn-crushers, -mealing-stones, querns, pestles, and mortars, have been treated of -elsewhere in this work, when, from the connection of these instruments -with other forms adapted for somewhat different purposes, it appeared -appropriate to describe them. There are, however, other classes, -connected principally with domestic occupations, such, for instance, -as spinning and weaving, about which it will be necessary to say a few -words. - -At how early a period the introduction of the spinning-wheel superseded -to some extent the use of the distaff and spindle, it is difficult to -say. It is by no means improbable that it was known in classical times, -as Stosch thinks that he has recognized it on antique gems. The distaff -and spindle remained, however, in use in many parts of this country -until quite recently, and are still commonly employed in some remote -parts of Britain, as well as over a great part of Europe. To how early -a date this simple method of spinning goes back, we have also no means -of judging. We know that it was in use in the earliest times among the -Egyptians and Greeks; and we find, moreover, in the lake-habitations -of Switzerland[2117]—even in those which apparently belong to a purely -stone age—evidence of an acquaintance with the arts both of spinning -and weaving, not only in the presence of some of the mechanical -appliances for those purposes, but also in the thread and manufactured -cloth. The principal fibrous materials in use in the lake-dwellings -were bast from the bark of trees (chiefly the lime) and flax. No hemp -has as yet been found in |437| any lake-dwelling. It seems probable -that the raw materials employed in neolithic times in Britain must -have been of the same character; but we have here no such means of -judging of the relative antiquity of the textile art, as those at the -command of the Swiss antiquaries. Woven tissues have, however, been -found with ancient interments, apparently of the Bronze Age, by Canon -Greenwell,[2118] and Messrs. Mortimer, but made of wool, and not of -vegetable fibre. An article on prehistoric spinning and weaving written -by Dr. G. Buschan[2119] is worth consulting, as well as one by Dr. -Joseph Anderson,[2120] on these processes in connexion with brochs. Sir -Arthur Mitchell[2121] has also written on the subject of the spindle -and whorl. - - * * * * * - -In spinning with the distaff and spindle, the rotatory motion of the -latter is maintained by a small fly-wheel or “spindle-whorl,” very -generally formed of stone, but sometimes of other materials, with a -perforation in the centre, in which the wooden or bone spindle was -fastened, the part below the whorl tapering to a point so as to be -readily twirled between the finger and thumb, and the part above, being -also pointed, but longer, so as to admit of the thread when spun being -wound round it, the yarn in the act of being spun being attached to -the upper point. These spindle-whorls are, as might be anticipated, -frequently found in various parts of the country; and though, from the -lengthened period during which this mode of spinning was practised, it -is impossible under ordinary circumstances to determine the antiquity -of any specimen, yet they appear to have been sufficiently long out of -use for local superstitions to have attached to them, as in Cornwall -they are commonly known by the name of “Pisky grinding-stones,”[2122] -or “Pixy’s grindstones.” In North Britain,[2123] they are also -familiarly called Pixy-wheels, and in Ireland[2124] “Fairy -mill-stones.” In Harris, and Lewis,[2125] the distaff and spindle are -still in common use, and were so until quite recently on the mainland -of Scotland.[2126] For twisting hair-lines or “imps” for fishing, -stone, lead, or earthenware whorls with a hook in them are used. They -are known by the name of “imp-stones.”[2127] Notwithstanding this -recent use, the original intention of the stone spindle-whorls, which -occur in Scotland, as elsewhere, appears often to be unknown. They are -called _clach-nathrach_, adder-stones or snake-stones, and have an -origin assigned them much like that of the _ovum anguinum_ of Pliny. -“When cattle are bitten by snakes, the snake-stone is put into water, -with which the affected part is washed, and it is cured forthwith.” -Glass beads[2128] with spirals on them seem to have been regarded as -even more efficacious. |438| - -Spindle-whorls vary considerably in size and weight, being usually -from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, but occasionally as -much as from two to three inches. They are sometimes flat at the edge -or cylindrical, but more frequently rounded. They differ much in the -degree of finish, some appearing to have been turned in a lathe, while -others are very rough and not truly circular. - -[Illustration: Fig. 357.—Scampston. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 358.—Holyhead. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 359.—Holyhead. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 360.—Holyhead. 1∕1] - -The specimen I have selected for engraving as Fig. 357 is one of the -more highly finished class, and rather flatter than usual. It was -found in draining, at Scampston, Yorkshire, and is formed of a hard -slaty stone. It has been turned in a lathe on one face, and at the -edge; the other face is irregular, and seems to have been polished -by hand. What was evidently the upper face, is ornamented with two -parallel incised circles, and there are two more round the edge. The -hole seems to have been drilled, and is quite parallel. One of the -cheese-like spindle-whorls, of red sandstone, and another, rounded -at the rim, found in hut-circles in Holyhead and Anglesea,[2129] -are shown in Figs. 358 and 359. Another, of sandstone, was found in -Thor’s Cave,[2130] Derbyshire, with various objects, some of them -of iron. One of lead, 1 1∕8 inches in diameter, convex on one face, -was found in the same place. One found at Ty Mawr, Holyhead,[2131] -by the late Hon. W. O. Stanley, F.S.A., who kindly lent me this and -the preceding blocks, is shown in Fig. 360. Numerous other specimens -were discovered in the same place. They are sometimes decorated -with incised radial lines and shallow cavities more or less rudely -executed. One such, found near Carno, Montgomeryshire,[2132] has been -figured. Several others are |439| recorded as having been found in -the Principality.[2133] In Cornwall,[2134] they seem to be especially -numerous, occasionally occurring in subterranean chambers. They have -also been found in considerable numbers in Scotland.[2135] The half of -a clay spindle-whorl was found by Canon Greenwell in the material of a -barrow at Weaverthorpe.[2136] - -Sir Wollaston Franks[2137] has suggested that some of these perforated -discs may have been used as dress-fasteners or buttons, and mentions -that very similar objects have been found in Mexico, which there is -every reason to believe have been used as buttons. He also instances -a specimen from South Wales, which has evidently had a cord passed -through it, as the edges of the hole in the centre are much worn by -friction. Such a view carries much probability with it, so far as -it relates to the thin discs of stone with small central holes not -parallel, but tapering from both faces; especially if they are in any -way ornamented. Some of the rougher kind, however, may have served some -such purpose as that of plummets or net-sinkers, as has been suggested -by Professor Nilsson.[2138] Perforated[2139] pebbles of much the same -form have served as net weights in Scotland, and are still occasionally -in use. In Samoa, flat circular discs of stones, about two inches in -diameter, with central holes, are used to prevent rats from reaching -provisions, which are suspended in baskets by a cord. One of these -discs strung on the cord suffices for the purpose. A specimen is in the -Christy Collection. Their use is analogous to that of the flat stones -on the staddles on which corn-stacks are built in this country, though -in that case, the stones are to prevent the ascent and not the descent -of the rats. - -Judging, however, from all analogy, there can be little doubt that in -most cases where the holes are parallel, the perforated discs found -in Britain were spindle-whorls. As has been already observed, they -are frequently formed of other materials than stone; and both the -spindles of wood and the whorls of bone have been found with Roman -remains.[2140] They are also frequently formed of lead and earthenware. -Spindles of ivory sometimes occur both with Roman and Saxon relics. I -have several such, found with whorls of slaty stone in Cambridgeshire. -The Saxon whorls are of the same materials and character as those of -Roman age. Spindles of wood have been found in the lake-settlements -of Savoy.[2141] An interesting and profusely illustrated chapter -on spindle-whorls will be found in Hume’s “Ancient Meols.”[2142] -Earthenware whorls, variously decorated, have been found in large -numbers on the site of Troy, and with Mycenæan remains. - -Allied to the whorls, but evidently destined for some other purpose, -is a flat disc of shelly limestone, now in my collection, found at -Barrow, near Bury St. Edmund’s. It is 5 1∕2 inches in diameter, 3∕4 -inch thick, ground from both faces to an edge all round, and perforated -in the centre with a hole 5∕8 inch in diameter, counter-sunk on each -face, so as to leave only a narrow edge in the middle of the hole, -which is much polished by friction. The edge of the periphery is also -worn |440| smooth. I am at a loss to assign a use to this object. -In the Greenwell Collection a similar disc from the North Riding of -Yorkshire shows polish on one face. A somewhat similar disc with the -hole a little larger, so that it rather resembles a quoit, is in -the Norwich Museum. It may be a plaything of no great antiquity. An -instrument of similar form, engraved by Lindenschmit,[2143] has a -parallel shaft-hole. Among the North American Indians,[2144] perforated -discs, but with broad and not sharp peripheries, appear to have been -used as a kind of quoits. - -Some flat imperforate discs of stone, from two to nine inches in -diameter, roughly chipped round the edges, and in one instance oval, -were associated with bronze tweezers and articles of iron, in a Pict’s -house at Kettleburn, Caithness.[2145] Two polished stone discs were -found in a crannog near Maybole,[2146] Ayrshire, and a nearly square -piece of stone that had been polished on both sides in a crannog at -Dowalton,[2147] Sorbie, Wigtownshire. Others of large size occurred -in another Pict’s house in Orkney,[2148] and were regarded as plates. -Six black stone dishes, all about 2 1∕2 inches thick, and varying from -1 foot 8 inches to 10 inches long, were found with numerous other -objects, among them a copper needle, in a circular building in South -Uist.[2149] Other similar dishes have been found near Sand Lodge, in -Shetland,[2150] and elsewhere. Possibly such stones may have been -used in cooking oatmeal cakes or bannocks—like the stones on which -formerly “pikelets” or crumpets were cooked in Leicestershire and other -Midland counties, where their modern iron substitutes are still called -“pikelet-stones.” Ornamented stones for toasting oatmeal cakes in front -of a peat fire are or were until lately in use in Scotland.[2151] -Cooking slabs of thin stone are used by the natives of Guiana,[2152] -for baking cassava bread. - -Dr. Joseph Anderson[2153] has suggested that some of the small discs, -with the surface highly polished, such as have been found in Scottish -brochs of the Iron Age, may have served as mirrors. - - * * * * * - -Another purpose to which stone implements seem to have been applied, -in connection with weaving and the preparation of leather, is that -of burnishing or smoothing, somewhat in the same manner as is now -effected by the flat-iron. An oval pebble (4 inches) rubbed all along -one side was found by General Pitt Rivers in one of the pits at Mount -Caburn,[2154] Lewes. Sir W. Wilde, speaking of a quite recent period, -observes that “it is well known that weavers in the north of Ireland -used a smooth celt, whenever they could find one, for rubbing on the -cloth, bit by bit, as they worked it, to close the threads and give a -gloss to the surface.”[2155] Canon |441| Greenwell had a celt from -Yorkshire, which was used by a shoemaker for smoothing down the seams -he made in leather. The old English name for the smooth stones used for -such purposes is “slickstone.” In the “Promptorium Parvulorum,”[2156] -written in the fifteenth century, a SLEKYSTŌN or SLEKENSTONE is -translated, _linitorium_, _lucibriunculum_, _licinitorium_—terms -unknown to classical Latinity. Mr. Albert Way, in a note on the -word, after giving its various forms as slyke-stone, sleght-stone, -sleeke-stone, &c., remarks, “In former times, polished stones, -implements in form of a muller, were used to smooth linen,[2157] paper, -and the like, and likewise for the operation termed calendering. -Gautier de Bibelesworth says,— - - “Et priez la dame qe ta koyfe luche (slike) - De sa luchiere (slikingston) sur la huche.” - -In directions for making buckram, &c., and for starching cloth, (Sloane -MS., 3548, f. 102), the finishing process is as follows: ‘_Cum lapide -slycstone levifica_.’” “She that hath no glasse to dresse her head will -use a bowle of water, she that wanteth a sleeke stone to smooth her -linnen will take a pebble.”[2158] - -“Slickstones occur in the Tables of Custom-House Rates on Imports, -2 James I., and about that period large stones inscribed with texts -of Scripture were occasionally thus used. (See Whitaker, ‘Hist. of -Craven,’[2159] p. 401, _n._) There was a specimen in the Leverian -Museum. Bishop Kennett, in his ‘Glossarial Collections,’ _s.v._ -‘Slade,’ alludes to the use of such an appliance ‘to sleek clothes -with a sleekstone.’” Cotgrave, in his French Dictionary, translates -_calendrine_ or _pierre calendrine_, as a sleekstone; and under the -word “lisse” makes mention of “a rowler of massive glasse wherewith -curriers do sleeke and gloss their leather.” This, probably, was a -substitute for a more ancient instrument of stone. Sir Thomas Browne -mentions slickstones among electric bodies, and implies that in his -time they were of glass. “Glass attracts but weakly though clear; some -slickstones and thick glasses indifferently.”[2160] - -I have two or three specimens of glass slickstones, which in form -resemble mushrooms. The lenticular part is usually about 5 inches in -diameter, and its rounded surface was used for |442| polishing the -linen. The handle or stalk is ribbed and about 4 1∕2 inches long. They -are of both clear and of bottle-green glass. A small slickstone of -black glass without a handle was found in a Viking grave of a woman in -Islay.[2161] The same form was recently in use in Scotland. A large one -is in the Kirkcudbright[2162] Museum. Another[2163] provided with a -long smooth handle has likewise been figured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 361.—Holyhead.] - - * * * * * - -A four-sided implement of stone, fashioned with considerable care, the -sides flat and smooth, and with an edge at one end, was found by the -late Hon. W. O. Stanley, F.S.A., at Pen-y-Bonc,[2164] and is shown in -Fig. 361, kindly lent to me by him. It has been regarded as a burnisher -or polishing stone. A similar specimen is in the Blackmore Museum. - -Mr. Syer Cuming[2165] mentions the discovery, at Alchester, -Oxfordshire, of a flat pyriform piece of red sandstone, 3 1∕2 inches -long, 3 1∕4 inches wide, and 1 inch thick in the middle, with the -edges rounded, and the whole surface, with the exception of the obtuse -end, polished; and he inclines to the belief that it was employed -in smoothing hides and rendering them pliant for clothing. Another -“slickstone for tawing or softening hides by friction,” formed of -quartz, 6 1∕8 inches broad by 2 1∕2 inches in height, with a depression -on either side to admit the finger and thumb, and having the surface -rounded and polished by use, was found at a depth of three feet in the -ground at Culter, Lanarkshire.[2166] In the Shrewsbury Museum[2167] -is a perforated stone in shape like a broad hoe, but with rounded -edges; it is thought to be a currier’s tool. Three flint pebbles -found with late Celtic enamelled bronze horse-trappings at Westhall, -Suffolk,[2168] and having one or both |443| of their sides much -rubbed down, may possibly belong to this class of objects. Sir R. -Colt Hoare[2169] speaks of “the hard flat stones of the pebble kind, -such as we frequently find both in the towns as well as in the tumuli -of the Britons,” but does not suggest a purpose for them. Polished -pebbles have not unfrequently been found in tumuli with stone weapons -and implements. One tapering toward the ends, which are rubbed flat, -was found by Mr. Bateman.[2170] Another was found in a barrow near -Ashford-in-the-Water.[2171] It is possible they may, as subsequently -suggested, have been ornaments or amulets; but some pebbles, polished -on part of their surface, as if by use, have been found in tumuli by -Canon Greenwell. - -A “smoothing-stone” of hard grey stone, with a short tang apparently -for fixing it in a handle, has been engraved by the Rev. Dr. -Hume.[2172] He does not, however, state where it was found. A somewhat -similar implement is engraved by Schoolcraft,[2173] which he thinks may -have been designed for smoothing down seams of buckskin. As stated at -page 416, I have seen a stone which had been used for this purpose in -England. - -Granite and other pebbles are used as ironing-stones in Orkney[2174] -and in Scotland. Several have been described by Professor Duns.[2175] - -Dr. Keller[2176] has shown that, in connection with what was probably -the earliest form of loom, weights were employed to stretch the warp. -These, however, in Switzerland, seem to have been for the most part -formed of burnt clay, though possibly some of the stones which have -been regarded as sink-stones or plummets, were used for this purpose. -Some of these have already been described. - -Loom weights of burnt clay have been found in Scotland[2177] and of -chalk[2178] in Sussex. I have one of burnt clay from Cambridge. - - * * * * * - -Another domestic use to which stones were applied was as weights for -the balance or scales; though we have no evidence at present that -in this country, at all events, any weighing apparatus was known so -early as the Stone or even the Bronze Period. Among the Jews the same -word אֶבֶן (_Eben_) denoted both a stone and a weight; and we have a -somewhat similar instance of customs being recorded in language in the -case of our own “stone” of eight or fourteen pounds. Discoidal weights -formed of stone are not unfrequently found on the sites of Roman -occupation. - -The moulds in which bronze weapons and tools were cast, were often made -of stone, but for any account of them I refer the reader to my book on -“Bronze Implements.” - -Another class of domestic utensils, frequently found in Scotland |444| -and the adjacent islands, consists of cup-like vessels formed of stone, -of various degrees of hardness, and usually provided with a small -projecting handle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 362.—Scotland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 363.—Sutherlandshire.] - - * * * * * - -Fig. 362, borrowed from the _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries -of Scotland_,[2179] will serve to show their general character. Of -the two cups here engraved, one was found near a megalithic circle at -Crookmore, Tullynessle, Aberdeenshire, and the other in another part -of Scotland. The material is described as a soft calcareous stone. One -of steatite or “pot-stone,” with a large unpierced handle, was found -in a cairn at Drumkesk,[2180] near Aboyne, Aberdeenshire; and two -others, one with the handle projecting from the side, and the other -with a long straight handle, at Strathdon[2181] in the same county. -Two others, one of them of micaceous sandstone, ornamented with a -band of rudely-cut projecting knobs, and the other with incised lines -in zigzag herring-bone patterns, were dug out of a large cairn on -Knockargity,[2182] and others at Cromar,[2183] also in Aberdeenshire. -One ornamented in a similar manner was found at Needless,[2184] Perth. -Others have been found in cairns in Banffshire,[2185] Morayshire,[2186] -and Sutherlandshire,[2187] the engraving of the last of which is here -reproduced as Fig. 363. It is 6 1∕2 inches in diameter. They have also -been found in brochs, in Caithness,[2188] Shetland,[2189] and in a -“fort” in Forfarshire.[2190] They have likewise been discovered under -various circumstances in Aberdeenshire,[2191] at Balmoral,[2192] and -in Forfarshire,[2193] Perthshire,[2194] and the Isle of Skye,[2195] as -well as in the Isle of Man.[2196] |445| They occur, though rarely, in -Ireland.[2197] I have one from Trillick, Tyrone. - -In former times these cups were regarded as “Druidical _pateræ_;” but -Sir Daniel Wilson[2198] has pointed out that in the Faroe Islands, a -similar kind of vessel is still in use as a lamp or as a chafing-dish -for carrying live embers. He has engraved one of them in the cut -here reproduced. The same kind of rude lamp or cresset is in use in -Ceylon.[2199] These Scottish vessels probably belong to no very remote -antiquity. - -[Illustration: Fig. 364.—Faroe Islands.] - -A shallow one-handled saucer or stand of Kimmeridge shale was found -at Povington, Dorset,[2200] but was probably intended for some other -purpose than the Scottish cup. It has been suggested that it was for -holding the flakes of flint supposed to have been used for turning -the armlets and other objects of Kimmeridge coal, many fragments of -which, as well as numerous pieces of flint, were found with it; but it -seems more probable that the turning tools were of metal. It may be an -unfinished lamp-stand, or possibly a lamp. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Fig. 365.—Broad Down or Honiton.] - -Cups, however, formed of shale, and most skilfully made, have -occasionally been found in barrows. The most remarkable is that which -was discovered in a tumulus at Broad Down,[2201] near Honiton, by -the Rev. Richard Kirwan, to whom I am indebted for the loan of the -full-sized figure (Fig. 365) on the next page. The woodcut gives so -perfect a representation of its form that any detailed description is -needless. Its height is 3 5∕8 inches, and its greatest diameter, which -is at the mouth, 3 inches. Its capacity is about a gill. The material -of which it is formed appears in all probability to be Kimmeridge[2202] -shale, though it is difficult to pronounce on this point with -certainty. In another barrow, also on Broad Down,[2203] Mr. Kirwan came -upon a bronze spear-head, or rather dagger, which had been attached -to its haft by rivets, lying on a deposit of burnt bones; and at a -distance from it of about 3 feet he discovered a drinking-cup of shale, -of almost similar form and size to that previously found. It is about -3 1∕4 inches high, and 3 inches in diameter at the mouth, and is now -preserved in the Albert Museum at Exeter. One very remarkable feature -about these |446| cups is that they have been turned in the lathe, -and not made by hand; and it has been suggested that by the use of the -pole-lathe, the great apparent difficulty of leaving the projection -for |447| the handle would be entirely removed. I had already arrived -at this conclusion before seeing, in Mr. Kirwan’s paper, the views -of a “skilful practical turner” on this point; but it may be well to -describe the simple instrument known as a pole-lathe, with which most -of the constituent parts of a Windsor chair are turned at the present -day.[2204] - - * * * * * - -On the bed of the lathe, which usually consists of two pieces of -squared wood nailed to two standards fixed in the ground, are two -wooden “heads,” both furnished with pointed screws passing through -them, to form the centres on which the piece of wood to be turned -revolves. This, after having been chopped into an approximately -cylindrical form, is placed between the two centres, and above the -lathe is fixed a long elastic pole of wood, to the end of which a cord -is attached, connecting it to the end of a treadle below the lathe. -The cord is hitched round the wood, and adjusted to such a length as -to keep the treadle well off the ground when the pole is at rest. When -the treadle is pressed down with the foot, it draws down the pole, and -the cord in its passage causes the piece of wood to revolve. When the -pressure is relieved, the elasticity of the pole draws it back in the -opposite direction, so that the workman by treading causes an alternate -rotary motion of the wood. He turns this in the ordinary manner, except -that his tool can cut only intermittently, that is, at the time when -the revolution is towards, and not from him. If now, a projecting -stop were attached to the object in the lathe, so as to prevent its -making a complete revolution, it is evident that a portion like that -forming the handle of the cup might be left unturned. Still, in the -case of these cups, something more than the ordinary pole-lathe with -two “dead” centres must have been used, as with such a lathe, it would -be almost impossible to bore out the hollow of the cup. It appears -probable, therefore, that a mandrel-head with a “live” centre, like -that of our ordinary lathes, must have been used; though probably the -motion was communicated by a pole and treadle, and not, as with modern -foot-lathes, by a large pulley on a cranked axle. - -We shall subsequently see that the waste pieces of Kimmeridge shale, to -which the unwarrantable name of “coal-money” has been applied, testify -to the use of such a lathe. Whatever may be the date to which the -manufacture of this shale into bracelets and other objects was carried -down, it seems probable that, assuming this cup to have been of home -manufacture and not imported, the use of the lathe was known in this -country in pre-Roman times. In the Broad Down barrow no other object -accompanied the burnt bones, and in the trunk-interment in the King -Barrow, Stowborough,[2205] near Wareham, cited by Mr. Kirwan, where -a somewhat similar cup appears to have |448| been found, there was -no weapon nor trace of metal, unless it were what was imagined to be -some gold lace. The ornamentation of this cup is different from that -of the Devonshire specimen, and the workmanship appears to be ruder. -It was described at the time as of wood, but was probably of shale, as -has been suggested by Dr. Wake Smart.[2206] Some fragments of cups of -shale with flat handles were found in the Romano-British village at -Woodcuts.[2207] - -[Illustration: Fig. 366.—Rillaton, height 3 1∕4 inches.] - -It is, however, but right to mention that a _wooden_ cup with a handle -at the side, and which had been turned in a lathe, was found in a -barrow in Schleswig,[2208] in a coffin made from the trunk of an oak, -together with a skeleton wrapped in woollen cloth, a bronze dagger, and -other objects. Professor Worsaae attributes these objects to the Early -Bronze Age. Mr. Kirwan has cited another instance of a somewhat similar -cup, found with “coal-money.” - -It is true that these instances afford no actual guide as to date, but -|449| the interments were clearly not Roman. Some clue, however, is -afforded by the discovery of the gold cup shown in Fig. 366, not unlike -this in form, in a barrow at Rillaton,[2209] Cornwall, accompanied by -what appears to have been a bronze dagger;[2210] but the best evidence -as to the date to be assigned to this class of cups is probably that of -the very remarkable and beautiful specimen formed of amber, and found -in a barrow at Hove,[2211] near Brighton. - -[Illustration: Fig. 367.—Hove.] - -In this instance an interment in a rude oaken coffin was accompanied -by the amber cup, here, by the kindness of the Sussex Archæological -Society, reproduced, a double-edged battle-axe of stone (see Fig. 119, -p. 186), a bronze dagger, and a whetstone. This cup is 3 1∕2 inches -in diameter and 2 1∕2 high, about 1∕10 inch in thickness, and its -capacity rather more than half a pint. It is perfectly smooth inside -and out, and, so far as I could judge from seeing it through glass in -the Brighton Museum, it was turned in a lathe. It has been suggested by -Mr. Barclay Phillips that some process like that of boiling amber in -spirits of turpentine may have been known by which it would be rendered -plastic; but this seems hardly probable. - -It is, of course, possible that such an object as this may have come -by commerce into Britain; and, indeed, amber is one of the articles -mentioned by Strabo as exported from Celtic Gaul to this country. In -|450| the case of the shale cups, however, the evidence seems in favour -of their having been articles of home manufacture, and we shall shortly -see to what an extent jet was used here in early times for ornamental -purposes. - -So far as amber is concerned, it is to be remembered that after storms -it occurs in considerable quantities along the eastern coast of -England, and on the southern coast at all events to Deal. An important -work on the amber ornaments of the Stone Period has been published by -Dr. Richard Klebs.[2212] - -[Illustration: Fig. 368.—Ty Mawr. 2∕3] - -Vessels without handles were also occasionally formed of stone. Six -or seven of these, of various sizes and forms, were discovered in a -“kist-vaen” in the Island of Unst,[2213] and are now for the most part -in the British Museum. Four of them are of a rude quadrangular form, -with flat bottoms, and from 3 1∕2 to 7 inches in height. The other -three are oval. They are formed of schistose rock, and some of them -still bear traces of the action of fire. Sir Wollaston Franks, with -reference to these vessels, has stated that stone-vessels of a rude -type are still in use in some remote parts of Norway. One is engraved, -as ancient, by Nilsson.[2214] - -Several were found in the ancient dwelling at Skara, Orkney,[2215] one -of which is hexagonal. - -A small stone cup, found by the late Hon. W. O. Stanley in an ancient -circular habitation at Ty Mawr, Holyhead, is, through his kindness, -shown in Fig. 368.[2216] A more oval cup, somewhat broken, was also -found. - -An oval stone cup (4 1∕2 inches long), apparently made out of half -of a rounded boulder from the beach, was found in a barrow at -Penmaenmawr.[2217] - -A circular cup or mortar, barely 4 inches in diameter, from Anglesea, -is engraved in the _Archæological Journal_.[2218] - -Some small cup-shaped vessels of chalk, probably used as lamps, -|451| were found by Canon Greenwell, in the excavations at Grimes’ -Graves.[2219] - -A cylindrical stone vessel, 5 inches high and 6 1∕2 inches in diameter, -with a cup-shaped cavity above, and a small hole below, as if for -fixing it on a stand, was found at Parton, Kircudbrightshire.[2220] -Another, found with a polished stone hatchet in a cairn in -Caithness,[2221] is of circular form, ribbed externally like a melon. - -Cups without handles have been found in Orkney[2222] and Caithness, -some with a place for a wick, so as to serve as lamps. - -In a cist in a barrow in Orkney[2223] the cinerary urn was formed of -“mica stone,” about 19 1∕2 inches high and 22 1∕2 inches in diameter, -and covered with a lid of undressed stone. Another of nearly the -same size was found in a barrow at Stennis.[2224] Another stone urn -and two stone dishes, with handles or ears, were found in a grave in -Forfarshire;[2225] and two stone urns, one within the other, were -turned up by the plough at Aucorn,[2226] near Wick, Caithness.[2227] -One of these was 13 inches high and 21 inches in diameter, with two -handles rudely cut in the sides. The other was 8 inches in height and -11 1∕2 inches in diameter, and was provided with a stone lid. Long oval -vessels from Shetland[2228] probably belong to more recent times. The -“mell”[2229] for preparing pot-barley may be still in use. - -Stone vessels, one with a movable bottom and partly filled with burnt -bones, have been found in the Shetland Isles.[2230] - -Stone vessels have also been discovered, though rarely, in barrows in -England. One such was found by Mr. Bateman, in company with a small -bronze bucket with an iron handle, in a barrow at Wetton.[2231] It is -only 4 inches high, and carved in sandstone, with four grooves running -round it by way of ornament. It is probably of late date. - -A few urns formed of stone have also been found in Ireland. - -One of the varieties of steatite has long been in use for the formation -of hollow vessels for cooking and other purposes, and is still known by -the name of Pot-stone in English. Many of the cooking vessels of the -Eskimos are made of this material. - - * * * * * - -I now pass on to the consideration of personal decorations formed of -stone. - - - - -|452| - -CHAPTER XXI. - -PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. - - -Among all savage tribes the love of ornament and finery is very great; -though it cannot well be greater than that exhibited by more highly -civilized races. It has, however, to content itself with decorations -of a simpler kind, and requiring fewer mechanical appliances in their -production; so that shells, feathers, and trophies of the chase, and -ornaments wrought from bone and the softer, yet showy, kinds of stone, -usually replace the more costly products of the loom and the jeweller’s -art. - -The ornaments commonly found in this country associated with interments -belonging to the period when stone implements were in use, are for the -most part formed of jet, shale, and amber, and occasionally, as has -already been mentioned, of bone, and possibly ivory, and even gold. -Nearly all, however, appear to be characteristic of the time when stone -was already being superseded by bronze for cutting purposes, and on -this account, as well as from their not being implements, but personal -decorations, some of them but slightly differing from those in use at -the present day, I had at first some scruples in including them in this -work. It would, however, appear incomplete, were I not to take a short -review of some of the principal discoveries of such objects; and this -will also incidentally be illustrative of some of the funeral customs -of prehistoric times and of the use of amulets of stone. - -The simplest form of ornament, if indeed it can be properly so called, -is the button, which not unfrequently accompanies interments of an -early date. The usual shape is that of an obtusely conical disc, in the -base of which two converging holes are drilled so as to form a V-shaped -passage, through which the cord for attachment could be passed. These -buttons are formed of different materials, but most commonly of jet or -shale. |453| - -[Illustration: Fig. 369.—Butterwick. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 370.—Butterwick. 1∕1] - - * * * * * - -In Fig. 369 a ruder example than usual is shown, full size. It -is formed of a fine grained limestone, and was found by Canon -Greenwell,[2232] F.R.S., with a contracted body, in a barrow at -Butterwick, Yorkshire, in company with five buttons of jet, from -1 1∕4 to 1 3∕4 inches in diameter, of which one that is pierced in an -unusual manner is engraved as Fig. 370. With the body, were a small -dagger-knife, awl, and flat celt of bronze, and a flint flake trimmed -along one edge. Another large plain button was found by the same -explorer in a cist at Great Tosson,[2233] Northumberland. A jet button -nearly square and ornamented with marginal lines was found in a cist -on Dundee Law.[2234] The cruciform ornament on the stone stud would at -first sight suggest the possibility of its being the Christian symbol. -It is, however, so simple a form of ornament, that it may be said to -belong to all time. |454| Numerous instances of its occurrence at an -early period have been collected by M. de Mortillet.[2235] Another -instance of the kind is afforded by two jet studs found in two barrows -near Thwing and Rudstone,[2236] Yorkshire, by Canon Greenwell, one of -which is engraved as Fig. 371. In one case, the button lay about the -middle of the right arm, and with it a highly ornamented ring of jet -pierced at the sides. In the other instance, there was a second jet -button, as well as a ring of the same character, a bronze dagger-knife, -and other objects, some of which have been already described.[2237] One -of the rings is shown in Fig. 372.[2238] In both there are two V-shaped -perforations close together, and formed in the body of the ring by -drilling two converging holes. There can be little doubt that the ring -and stud together formed some sort of clasp or fastening, but in what -manner the string which passed through the perforation, was managed, it -is difficult to say. Another jet ring and a kind of button were also -found in a barrow at Rudstone.[2239] - -[Illustration: Fig. 371.—Rudstone. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 372.—Rudstone. 1∕1] - -A very highly ornamented jet ring of this class, square in section, -and with a sort of beading at each angle, the two faces and periphery -decorated with fine raised lines, and with three perforations as if for -suspension, has been engraved in the “Crania Britannica.”[2240] It was -found with the skeleton of a man, in a cist in a barrow near Avebury, -Wilts, with one small and two large jet studs, the largest almost 3 -inches in diameter, a flint flake, and an ovoid implement of serpentine -subsequently to be noticed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 373.—Crawfurd Moor. 1∕2] - -The specimen engraved as Fig. 373, on the scale of one-half, is of -jet, and was found on Crawfurd Moor, Lanarkshire.[2241] It is now in -the |455| National Museum at Edinburgh. It shows the most common form -of button, and the cut has been made use of frequently. One of the -same character, 1 3∕4 inches in diameter, and found in a barrow on -Lambourn Down, Berkshire, is preserved in the British Museum. It has a -rounded projection at the apex of the flat cone. In two of Kimmeridge -shale, from Net Low, Alsop Moor, Derbyshire,[2242] there is a similar -projection and also a slightly raised beading round the edge. They -accompanied a large bronze dagger, which lay close to the right arm -of an extended skeleton. A button of jet, 1 3∕4 inches in diameter, -was found near the shoulder of a contracted skeleton, in a barrow near -Castern, Derbyshire.[2243] A small piece of calcined flint lay near. - -Several studs or buttons of polished Kimmeridge coal, of the same -character, but slightly more conical than Fig. 373, were found -by Mr. F. C. Lukis in a barrow near Buxton.[2244] A flint celt -accompanied another interment in the same barrow. What appears to -be a small stud of jet, but which is described as a cone, was found -with a ring, like a pulley, of the same material, and a fine flint -dagger and other objects, buried with a skeleton at Durrington -Walls, Wilts.[2245] A larger ring and disc, perforated with two -holes for suspension, together with some beautifully formed stemmed -and barbed flint arrow-heads (see Fig. 320), and a bronze dagger, -accompanied a contracted interment in a barrow near Fovant, in the same -county.[2246] A button formed of a substance like concrete was found -with part of a leaf-shaped arrow-head, some beads, &c., in a barrow at -Boscregan,[2247] Cornwall. It is nearly hemispherical in shape. In four -cists at Tosson, near Rothbury, Northumberland,[2248] were contracted -skeletons, two of them accompanied by an urn. In one of the cists were -three of these buttons, 2 inches in diameter, described as of cannel -coal; and in another was an iron javelin-head. They are sometimes of -much smaller dimensions. One of this character, found in the Calais -Wold barrow by Messrs. Mortimer, has been figured full size in the late -Mr. Ll. Jewitt’s _Reliquary_.[2249] His cut is reproduced as Fig. 374. -Twenty small buttons of inferior jet were found by Canon Greenwell in -a barrow at Hunmanby,[2250] Yorkshire. Two small buttons of jet were -picked up at Glenluce,[2251] Wigtownshire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 374.—Calais Wold Barrow. 1∕1] - -Occasionally we find conical studs of this form perforated by two -converging holes in the base, forming what were, in some cases, -apparently the termination of necklaces or gorgets. It seems possible -that these were not made to clasp the whole neck, but were merely -attached in some manner between the shoulders in front, as is supposed -to have been the case with many of the Anglo-Saxon necklaces. Two of -these studs were found with other beads of a necklace in Holyhead -Island,[2252] and are mentioned at p. 459. With other |456| necklaces, -however, the studs are more numerous, and seem to have been a form of -beads. - -These studs or buttons are occasionally of amber. In a stone cist in -a barrow near Driffield, Yorkshire,[2253] a contracted skeleton was -found, and with it, the bracer before described (p. 429), a bronze -dagger, and three conical amber studs, about 1 inch in diameter, flat -on the under-side, and pierced with two converging holes. Such buttons -of amber are found on the Baltic[2254] coast, and even in Northern -Russia. - -Conical studs or buttons perforated at the base, formed of wood or -lignite covered with gold, and of bone or ivory, have been found in -the Wiltshire barrows.[2255] The jet studs are sometimes concave at -the base, with a knob left in the centre for attachment, instead -of being perforated. Five such were found with urns at Stevenston, -Ayrshire.[2256] They are about an inch in diameter. - -The rings of jet with perforations at the edges, such as have been -before mentioned as found in connection with buttons or studs, are -sometimes found without them. One such, nearly 2 inches in diameter, -perforated in the centre with a hole 3∕4 inch in diameter, and -with “two deep grooves in the edges, and four holes near together, -two communicating with each other and capable of admitting a large -packthread,” was found with the skeleton at Tring Grove,[2257] Herts, -with which had been buried the flint arrow-heads and “wrist-guards” -before described.[2258] Two rings of jet, one punctured with two holes -as if for suspension, the other with one hole only, accompanied an -urn and two “spear-heads” of flint in a barrow near Whitby.[2259] A -pulley-like ring, described as of cannel coal, with four perforations -through the sides at irregular intervals, was found in a cist near -Yarrow, Selkirkshire,[2260] and has been engraved. A part of a stone -hammer lay in another cist at the same spot. A portion of what appears -to be a similar ring was found near Lesmahago,[2261] Lanarkshire. - -A jet ring notched on the outside, or ornamented with imperfect -circles, was found in the Upton Lovel Barrow,[2262] together with -doubly conical and cylindrical beads. There were both stone and bronze -objects in the same barrow, many of which have already been mentioned. - -A ring of Kimmeridge shale, 1 3∕8 inches in diameter, was found with a -penannular ring of bronze, flint flakes and arrow-heads, a perforated -whetstone, a bead of glass and one of bone, in examining a series of -barrows at Afflington, Dorset.[2263] - - * * * * * - -Another form of ornament, of which numerous examples have been found -with ancient interments, is the necklace, consisting of |457| beads, -usually of jet, amber, or bone, generally of jet alone, but sometimes -of two of these materials together. It is, of course, almost impossible -to re-arrange a group of beads, often more than a hundred in number, in -the exact order in which they were originally worn; there are, however, -frequently several peculiarly formed plates found with the beads, which -seem susceptible of being arranged in but one particular order, so that -it appears probable that the manner in which some of these necklaces -have been reconstructed, as in Fig. 375, is not far from being correct. - - * * * * * - -The original was found in an urn within a barrow at Assynt, -Ross-shire,[2264] and is here represented about one-fourth size, in -a cut from Wilson’s “Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,” kindly lent me -by Messrs. Macmillan. The flat beads, which are perforated obliquely -from the edges towards the back, have patterns engraved upon them -now studded with minute specks of sand,[2265] which resemble gold. -Besides those figured, there were present a number of irregularly oval -jet beads. Other such necklaces have been found at Torrish,[2266] -Sutherlandshire (with flint arrow-heads), at Tayfield,[2267] Fife (in a -cist), and at Lunan-head,[2268] near Forfar, in a cairn. - -[Illustration: Fig. 375.—Assynt, Ross-shire.] - -In most cases the flat beads of these necklaces are ornamented by -having dotted or striated patterns worked upon them by means of some -sharp-pointed instrument. These markings also occur on the bone or -ivory portions, when the necklace, as is sometimes the case, is formed -of a mixture of bone and jet or Kimmeridge shale. - -A necklace ornamented in this manner was found, with a female -skeleton, by the late Mr. Bateman, in a barrow near Hargate Wall, -Derbyshire.[2269] He describes the flat plates as being of ivory. Two -other somewhat similar necklaces were found by the same explorer with -a contracted female skeleton in a cist in a barrow at Cow Low, |458| -near Buxton;[2270] but the plates in this case are described as of -Kimmeridge coal. A most elaborate necklace, consisting of no less than -425 pieces, was found by Mr. Bateman in a barrow near Arbor Low.[2271] -They consisted of 348 thin laminæ of jet, fifty-four cylindrical beads, -and eighteen conical studs and perforated plates of jet and bone, some -ornamented with punctured patterns. Some flat ornamented beads of bone -were found in Feltwell Fen[2272] in 1876. - -[Illustration: Fig. 376.—Pen-y-Bonc. 1∕1] - -In a barrow, called Grind Low, at Over Haddon,[2273] the ornaments -were seventy-three in number, of which twenty-six were cylindrical -|459| beads, thirty-nine, conical studs of jet, pierced at the back by -two holes meeting at an angle in the centre, and the remaining eight, -dividing plates ornamented in front with a punctured chevron pattern -superficially drilled. Of these, seven are of jet, laterally perforated -with three holes; and the eighth of bone, ornamented in the same style, -but with nine holes on one side, diminishing to three on the other by -being bored obliquely. - -[Illustration: Fig. 377.—Probable arrangement of the jet necklace found -at Pen-y-Bonc, Holyhead.] - -Worked flints accompanied several of these Derbyshire interments. -The skeletons are all reported by Mr. Bateman to have been those -of females, but possibly he may have erred in some instances. Jet -ornaments of a similar character have been found in Yorkshire barrows, -near Pickering[2274] and at Egton,[2275] with flint-flakes; and some -from Soham Fen are in the British Museum. A very fine set of beads -of jet, or possibly cannel coal, found at Pen-y-Bonc near Ty Mawr, -Holyhead,[2276] is, through the kindness of the late Hon. W. O. -Stanley, shown in Figs. 376 and 377. The flat beads are not engraved -with any patterns. Armlets of bronze are said to have been found -with them. Some jet beads of the same character have been found near -Whitby.[2277] In Scotland several necklaces of this class have been -discovered, as, for instance, near Aberlemno,[2278] Forfarshire; at -Rothie,[2279] Aberdeenshire, with two beads of amber, fragments of -bronze, and burnt bones; at Rafford,[2280] Elginshire; Houstoun,[2281] -Renfrewshire; Fordoun House,[2282] Kincardineshire; and Leuchland Toll, -near Brechin. Some found at Letham,[2283] Forfarshire, are described as -having been strung together with the fibres of animals. A remarkably -fine necklace of this kind, consisting of 147 beads in all, was found -in a cist at |460| Balcalk,[2284] Tealing, in the same county. Another -of over 100 beads was found at Mountstuart,[2285] Bute. - -The plates are occasionally of amber; a set of six such, together 7 -inches by 2 1∕8 inches in extreme length and breadth, perforated and -accompanied by upwards of forty amber beads, some of jet, two of horn, -and others of “the vitrified sort called pully-beads,” representing -seven spherical beads joined together, were found with burnt bones -in a barrow at Kingston Deverill,[2286] Wilts. Another ornament of -the same character, formed of eight tablets, together upwards of 10 -inches by 3 inches, with numerous amber beads and some gold studs(?), -was found with a skeleton in a barrow near Lake.[2287] In what was -probably another necklace, also from Lake, many of the beads were -round pendants, tapering upwards, and slightly conical at the bottom. -A necklace composed of small rounded beads, and somewhat similar -pendants of amber, was found near the neck of a contracted skeleton at -Little Cressingham, Norfolk.[2288] By the side lay a bronze dagger and -javelin-head, and on the breast an ornamented oblong gold plate. Near -it was part of a gold armilla, one very small gold box, and remains of -two others. - -In one of the Upton Lovel barrows, examined by Mr. Cunnington, a -burnt body was accompanied by somewhat similar little boxes of gold, -thirteen drum-like gold beads perforated at two places in the sides, a -large plate of thin gold highly ornamented, the conical stud covered -with gold already described (p. 456), some large plates of amber -like those from Kingston Deverill, and upwards of 1,000 amber beads. -A small bronze dagger seems to have belonged to the same deposit. -I am inclined to think that the so-called gold boxes may have been -merely the coverings of some discs of wood perforated horizontally, -and thus forming large flat gold-plated beads. The gold itself is not -perforated, but the edges appear in the engraving to be much broken. -Possibly the supposed lids and boxes were in both cases the coverings -of one face only of a wooden bead.[2289] From the occurrence of weapons -in these interments, it seems probable that this class of decoration -was not confined to the female sex, but that, like most savages, the -men of Ancient Britain were as proud of finery as the women, even -if they did not excel them in this particular. A necklace of large -spheroidal beads of amber was found at Llangwyllog,[2290] Anglesea. - -I am not aware of any of the jet necklaces having occurred on the -Continent, but beads and flat plates of amber perforated in several -places horizontally have been found in the ancient cemetery at -Hallstatt, in the Salzkammergut of the Austrian Tyrol. - -[Illustration: Fig. 378.—Fimber.] - -In several instances, jet necklaces do not comprise any of these flat -plates, but consist merely of a number of flat discoidal beads |461| -with one larger piece for a pendant. In a barrow at Weaverthorpe -Ling, Yorkshire, E.B., Canon Greenwell, F.R.S., discovered a |462| -contracted skeleton of a young person buried with a plain urn and a -necklace of 122 flat beads of jet, with a flat, spherically triangular -pendant, perforated at the middle of one of its sides, a short distance -from the edge. The beads vary in size from a little under, to a little -over a quarter of an inch in diameter, and the sides of the pendant are -about three-quarters of an inch long. - -In a barrow near Fimber,[2291] Yorkshire, Messrs. J. R. & R. Mortimer -found, with other interments, a female skeleton in a contracted -posture, with a small food-vase near the hand, a small bronze awl in -a short wooden haft behind the shoulders, and on the neck, a necklace -almost identical with that found at Weaverthorpe, of which, by the -kindness of the late Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A., I am able to give -a representation in Fig. 378. One of the beads, the pendant, and the -bronze awl, and part of its wooden handle, are numbered 2, 3, 4, and 5. - -[Illustration: Fig. 379.—Yorkshire. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 380.—Yorkshire. 1∕1] - -Another form of jet bead is long, sometimes cylindrical, and sometimes -swelling in the middle, and in a few instances almost square in -section. Fourteen of those with a round section, and from 1 inch to -1 3∕4 inches long, and one of those with the square, had been strewn -among the burnt bones, after they were cold, in an interment found -by Canon Greenwell, in a barrow near Egton Bridge, Whitby. Two are -here reproduced (Fig. 379) from the _Archæological Journal_.[2292] -In another Yorkshire barrow the same investigator found, also with -burnt bones, a small flake of flint, a portion of a bronze pin, and -four jet beads, two of which are barrel-shaped and one oblong, while -the fourth is a small stud, like those already described. They are -shown full-sized in the annexed cut (Fig. 380), also borrowed from the -_Archæological Journal_.[2293] |463| - -Small barrel-shaped beads, accompanied by smaller disc-shaped beads, -and two little studs of jet, were found by the late Mr. Bateman in -Hay-Top Barrow, Monsal Dale,[2294] accompanying the skeleton of a -woman. With them was a curious bone pendant of semicircular outline, -widening out to a rectangular base somewhat like a modern seal. - -A necklace of ten barrel-shaped jet beads, and about a hundred thin -flat beads of shale, was found with a flint knife in a barrow at -Eglingham,[2295] Northumberland, by Canon Greenwell. Some long and -short barrel-shaped jet beads accompanied burnt bones in an urn at -Fylingdales,[2296] Yorkshire, and a necklace of short barrel-shaped -beads, principally of bone, was found in a barrow at Aldbourne,[2297] -Wilts. - -Jet beads, long and thin, but larger at the middle than at the -extremities, and others barrel-shaped, were found with burnt bones -in a barrow examined by the late Rev. Greville J. Chester, near -Cromer;[2298] and a magnificent necklace of jet beads, ranging from 1 -to 5 inches in length, some of them expanding very much in the middle, -with a sort of rounded moulding at each end, and having a few rough -beads of amber intermingled with them, was found with a polished -celt of black flint at Cruden,[2299] Aberdeenshire, in 1812, and is -preserved in the Arbuthnot Museum, Peterhead. - -Some curious jet beads, one of them in the form of a ring perforated -transversely, found with bronze buttons, rings, armlets, &c., in -Anglesea,[2300] are now in the British Museum. - -A flat circular bead of jet, a flint scraper, and a bronze dagger -and celt, were found by the late Mr. Bateman in a barrow near -Bakewell.[2301] A large pendant, apparently of jet, pear-shaped, and -perforated near the smaller end, was found in a barrow on Stanton -Moor,[2302] Derbyshire; and a rudely-made bead of Kimmeridge shale in -the long chambered barrow at West Kennet,[2303] Wilts. Another pendant, -consisting of a flat pear-shaped piece of shale 2 1∕2 inches long and -2 inches broad, and perforated at the narrow end, was found along with -querns, stones with concentric circles and cup-shaped indentations -worked in them, stone balls, spindle-whorls, and an iron axe-head, -in excavating an underground chamber at the Tappock,[2304] Torwood, -Stirlingshire. One face of this pendant is covered with scratches in -a vandyked pattern. Though of smaller size, this seems to bear some -analogy with the flat amulets of schist, of which several have been -discovered in Portugal,[2305] with one face ornamented in much the same -manner. A barrel-shaped bead of cannel coal (?), 4 1∕2 inches long, -found near Loch Skene, and a flat eye-shaped one of shale, found near -Pencaitland, East Lothian, have been figured.[2306] - -Pendants of jet of other forms are also occasionally found with -interments. That shown in Fig. 381 was discovered in a barrow at Hungry -Bentley, Derbyshire, by the late Mr. J. F. Lucas, who kindly let me -|464| engrave it. It lay in company with a globular and a barrel-shaped -bead in an urn containing burnt bones. In character this ornament -recalls to mind the bronze pendants of which so many occurred in the -cemetery at Halstatt, though this is of far simpler design. - -Armlets manufactured from a single piece of jet are not uncommon among -Roman antiquities. They seem, however, also to have been made in -this country in pre-Roman times. Portions of jet or lignite armlets -of almost semicircular section, and “evidently turned on the lathe,” -were found with numerous bronze and bone relics in the Heathery Burn -Cave,[2307] Stanhope, Durham. One of these, by permission of the -Society of Antiquaries, is shown as Fig. 381A. Another bracelet of -jet was found at Glenluce,[2308] Wigtownshire, together with several -fragments. In the cromlech of _La Roche qui sonne_,[2309] Guernsey, Mr. -F. C. Lukis discovered a remarkable oval armlet of jet ornamented on -its outer surface, and with countersunk perforations in several places. -With it was found a bronze armlet of whitish colour. By the kindness -of the Council of the British Archæological Association, figures of -both, on the scale of 1∕3, are here reproduced. With them were found -pottery and stone instruments, mullers and mills of granite. Armlets -of bone[2310] or ivory also accompany ancient burials, but hardly come -within my province. - -[Illustration: Fig. 381.—Hungry Bentley. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 381A.—Heathery Burn Cave. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 382.—Jet.—Guernsey. 1∕3] - -[Illustration: Fig. 383.—Bronze.—Guernsey. 1∕3] - -The use of jet for personal ornaments in pre-Roman times in Britain -is quite in accordance with what might be gathered from the testimony -of early historians. Solinus (_circ._ A.D. 80) mentions the abundance -in this country of jet, which, he relates, burns in water and is -extinguished by oil, and which, if excited by friction, becomes -electric like amber. His statements are repeated by other authors. The -occurrence of amber on our coasts does not appear to have been observed -in |465| ancient times, unless possibly by Sotacus.[2311] As already -observed, it is occasionally found at the present day on our Eastern -coast. - -Beads formed of selected pebbles of quartz or other material are -rarely found accompanying interments of the Stone Age in Britain. In -France[2312] they seem to be more common. Some neatly-pierced pebbles -of rose-quartz, bored in the same manner as the perforated stone -hammers, were found in the _Allée couverte_ of Argenteuil; and pendants -of jasper and _callais_ in some of the tumuli near Carnac, Brittany. - -It is rather doubtful whether the discs of Kimmeridge shale, so -abundantly found in Dorsetshire, and to which the absurd name -of Kimmeridge coal-money has been given, date back to pre-Roman -times. Many of them were found by General Pitt Rivers,[2313] in the -Romano-British village at Woodcuts. These discs, as is well known, -have on the one face a centre-mark showing where they revolved on the -centre of the “back-poppet” in the course of being turned; and on -the other face a square recess,[2314] or occasionally two or three -smaller round holes, showing the manner by which they were attached -to the chuck or mandrel of the lathe. Very rarely they occur with a -portion of an armlet, which has broken in the process of turning, -still attached to their edges. One such has been engraved in the -_Archæological Journal_,[2315] and another is in my own collection. -There can, therefore, be no doubt, that instead of their having been -expressly made for any purpose, such as for use as money, they are -merely the refuse or waste pieces from the lathe. They all appear to me -to have been worked with metal tools, and, from a mass of them having -been found “conglomerated by the presence of irony matter,”[2316] -these would appear to have been of iron or steel; at the same time, -however, numerous chippings of flint were found, which, if used at all -in the turning process, may have served for roughing out the discs. I -have, however, not had an opportunity of personally examining these -flint chippings. An interesting article on objects made of Kimmeridge -shale[2317] has been written by Mr. J. C. Mansel-Pleydell. - -Rings of different sizes formed of stone are occasionally found, but -their purpose is unknown. In a barrow at Heathwaite,[2318] in Furness, -half a stone ring, about a couple of inches in diameter, and apparently -of circular section, was found. A ring of diorite, 4 1∕4 inches in -diameter, with a central hole of 1 1∕4 inches, sharp at the edge, but -1 3∕8 inches thick at the border of the perforation, and of nearly -triangular section, was found at Wolsonbury, Sussex, and was in the -collection of the late Mrs. Dickinson of Hurstpierpoint. A somewhat -similar ring of serpentine, 5 1∕2 inches in diameter, is in the Museum -at Clermont Ferrand. Another was found near Dijon. A ring of black -stone, found above the stalagmite in Kent’s Cavern, is shown in Fig. -384. It is slightly rounded at its edges. - -[Illustration: Fig. 384.—Kent’s Cavern. 1∕1] - -Five small rings about an inch in diameter, of a brown colour and -|466| apparently made of lignite, were found in an urn with burnt bones -and a bronze pin in a barrow near Winterbourn Stoke.[2319] One of them -was perforated near the edge as if for suspension. - -A flat ring, from one of the ancient circular habitations at Ty -Mawr,[2320] in Holyhead Island, is shown, full size, in Fig. 385. It -was found by the late Hon. W. O. Stanley, F.S.A., who obligingly lent -me the cut. It is supposed to have been used as a brooch. There is a -slight notch on each side, which might have served to catch the pin. - -He subsequently found a ring of the same kind made from a piece of red -“Samian” ware. The presumption, therefore, is that the other rings are -also Roman or post-Roman. A ring and a pendant of lignite were found -with burnt bones in a barrow at Aldbourne,[2321] Wilts. The latter -resembles a mediæval finger-ring. A flat, oval, pendant,[2322] of -close-grained stone, was found in another barrow at the same place. - -[Illustration: Fig. 385.—Ty Mawr. 1∕1] - -In Scotland, a curved pendant of jet was found at Glenluce.[2323] Rings -of shale, from Wigtownshire,[2324] have been figured, as also a ring -of stone from a crannog at Glenluce.[2325] A peculiar ring of shale, -hollowed externally, was found near West Calder.[2326] In Ireland, some -rings of shale were found in a cinerary urn at Dundrum,[2327] co. Down. - -Another form of personal ornament, or, more probably, amulet or charm, -consisted of pebbles, usually selected for their beauty or some -singularity of appearance. They are very frequently accompaniments of -ancient interments, and are sometimes, though rarely, perforated. In a -barrow near Winterbourn Stoke,[2328] there had been deposited near the -body, “a perforated pebble-stone, about 2 inches long, and very neatly -polished,” which Sir R. Colt Hoare thought might have been suspended as -an amulet from the neck. - -In another barrow, in the same group,[2329] the interment comprised “a -pair of petrified fossil cockle-shells, a piece of stalactite, and a -hard flat stone of the pebble kind,” besides a brass or bronze pin and -other objects. - -In a third, near Stonehenge,[2330] there was at the left hand of -the skeleton a dagger of bronze, and close to the head, a curious -pebble described as “of the sardonyx kind, striated transversely with -alternate spaces that give it the appearance of belts; besides these -_striæ_, it is spotted all over with very small white specks, and, -after dipping it in water, it assumes a sea-green colour.” - -In another barrow near Everley[2331] a heap of burnt bones was |467| -surrounded by a circular wreath of horns of the red deer, within which, -and amidst the ashes, were five stemmed and barbed flint arrow-heads -and a small red pebble. - -In a barrow at Upton Lovel,[2332] near the legs of a skeleton, there -lay, with a number of other objects, “a handful of small pebbles of -different colours, several not to be found in the neighbourhood,” and -five hollow flints broken in two and forming a rude kind of cup. - -In a barrow at Rudstone,[2333] Canon Greenwell found with a skeleton a -part of an ammonite which appeared to have been worn as a charm. - -A beautiful pink pebble, supposed to have been placed with the body as -a token of affection, was found in a sepulchral cist at Breedon,[2334] -Leicestershire. Some querns and an iron knife appear to have -accompanied the interment, so that it may belong to a comparatively -late period. Quartz pebbles are, however, very frequently found with -ancient burials, and Mr. Bateman has recorded numerous instances of -their occurrence. Three such, one red, the others of a light colour, -together with a ball of pyrites, a flat piece of polished iron-ore, a -flint celt, and various other instruments of flint, were found with a -skeleton in a barrow on Elton Moor.[2335] In opening Carder Low,[2336] -near Hartington, about eighty quartz pebbles and several instruments -of flint, including a barbed arrow-head, were found; and with the -body, a bronze dagger and an axe-hammer of basalt. Mr. Bateman has -suggested that the pebbles were possibly cast into the mound during -its construction, by mourners and friends of the deceased, as tokens -of respect. Numerous quartz pebbles, supposed to be sling-stones, -were found in a barrow near Middleton.[2337] In the same barrow was -a porphyry-slate pebble, highly polished, “the sides triangular and -tapering towards the ends, which are rubbed flat.” A stone from a -barrow near Ashford-in-the-Water[2338] is said to have been of the same -character. - -In a barrow near Avebury,[2339] already mentioned, there were in a cist -with a male skeleton, three studs and a ring of jet, a flint knife, and -a beautifully veined ovoid implement of serpentine, 4 inches long and 2 -broad, the apex at each end ground flat. Dr. Thurnam does not attempt -to assign any purpose to this implement, if such it were. - -Sometimes the pebble appears to have been actually placed in the hand -of the deceased, as was the case in a barrow near Alsop,[2340] where -a round quartz pebble was found in the left hand of the skeleton; and -in another barrow on Readon Hill,[2341] near Ramshorn, where a small -pebble was found at the right hand. A quartz pebble lay among a deposit -of burnt bones, accompanied by a bronze pin, in another barrow near -Throwley.[2342] In another Derbyshire[2343] barrow a quartz pebble, -found near an urn, was regarded as a sling-stone. - -In two barrows near Castleton,[2344] opened by Mr. Rooke Pennington, a -quartz pebble accompanied the remains of children or young persons. - -Pebbles have been found with interments in other parts of the |468| -country, as in the long barrow at Rodmarton,[2345] Gloucestershire, -where were a small round white pebble and flint arrow-head. An ovoidal -stone 4 × 2 1∕2 inches occurred in a grave at Athelney;[2346] and one -of chert, 8 1∕2 × 5 1∕2 inches, in a barrow on Petersfield Heath.[2347] -Canon Greenwell has also found large pebbles or boulders in some of the -Yorkshire barrows. They seem to come under another category than that -of the smaller ornamental pebbles. - -A small piece of rock crystal, probably an amulet or charm, lay in -a small cist at Orem’s Fancy, Stronsay,[2348] Orkney, and fragments -of quartz and selected pebbles frequently accompany early Irish -interments.[2349] At Caer Leb, Anglesea,[2350] two silicious pebbles, -one black and the other red, with a band of little pits round it, were -found in 1865, and supposed to be amulets. - -Mr. Kemble[2351] has observed that in Teutonic tombs stones occur, -deposited apparently from some supposed virtue or superstition, and -has instanced two egg-shaped objects, apparently of Carrara marble, -from Lüneburg tumuli. It has also been stated that in Penmynydd -churchyard,[2352] Anglesea, numerous skeletons were found with a white -oval pebble, of the size of a hen’s egg, near each. It is doubtful -whether the bones were of Christians or not; but the Rev. T. J. -Williams, in describing the discovery, has suggested that the stones -might bear reference to the passage in Revelations (ii. 17):—“To him -that overcometh will I give to eat of the hidden manna, and will give -him a white stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no man -knoweth saving he that receiveth it.” - -In interments of an earlier date, such instances seem to point to some -superstitious custom, possibly like that in India, where “the mystic -Salagramma pebble, held in the hand of the dying Hindoo, is a sure -preservation against the pains of eternal punishment.”[2353] This -pebble, however, was black. - -Among the Tasmanians[2354] sacred pebbles play a not unimportant part; -and crystals, or sometimes white stones, are frequently worn in bags -suspended from the neck, and women never allowed to see them. - -The symbolism of a white pebble, as representing happiness or a happy -day, was widely known. The “calculi candore laudatus dies”[2355] was -not confined to the Romans, but known among the Thracians; and the -“black balls” at ballots of the present day carry us back to the times -when - - “Mos erat antiquus niveis atrisque lapillis - His damnare reos, illis absolvere culpâ.”[2356] - -Occasionally, fossil _echini_ in flint are found buried with bodies. -Mr. Worthington Smith found more than a hundred of them in a barrow of -the Stone Age on Dunstable Downs.[2357] A pebble of white quartz lay -with two skeletons, which were those of a woman and child. |469| - -In a tumulus on Ashey Down,[2358] in the Isle of Wight, an “echinite” -accompanied an interment of burnt bones, with which was a bronze -dagger. Douglas also found one with an amber bead by the side of a -Saxon skeleton near Chatham. He regarded it as an amulet, and states -that in Scotland the peasants still have a belief in the virtue of -these fossils. I have seen _cidares_ forming part of Saxon necklaces -after having been perforated; and others converted into spindle-whorls. - -In fact, the use of stones as amulets still lingers on in the -northern parts of this country. There is in the National Museum at -Edinburgh[2359] a flat oval pebble, 2 1∕2 inches long, which was -worn as a charm in a small bag hung by a red string round the neck -of a Forfarshire farmer, who died in 1854, æt. 84. The heart-shaped -nodule of clay iron-stone in the same Museum, with a copper loop for -suspension, and heart-shaped and oblong pendants of copper and silver, -mentioned in my former edition, proves to be a forgery. - -The custody of charms sometimes became hereditary. Martin[2360] -describes a stone in Arran possessed of various miraculous virtues. -“The custody of this globe is the peculiar privilege of a little family -called Clan Chattons.” Other charm-stones and curing-stones have been -described in interesting papers by Sir J. Y. Simpson, Bart.,[2361] -Mr. James M. Gow,[2362] Dr. Alexander Stewart,[2363] and Mr. G. F. -Black.[2364] - -Among the Scandinavian nations[2365] the possession of certain stones -was believed to secure victory in encounters, and the belief is -constantly mentioned in ancient poetry. - -A confidence in the virtues of “lucky stones,” that is to say, pebbles -with a hole through them, or with a band around them, is still widely -spread, and I well remember the incantation— - - “Lucky-stone, lucky-stone, bring me some luck, - To-day, or to-morrow by twelve o’clock.” - -These perforated stones were also sovereign against the nightmare. -“Take a Flynt Stone that hath a hole of hys owne kynde, and hang it -ouer hym and wryte in a bill— - - ‘In nomine Patris, &c. - Saint George, our Ladye’s Knight, - He walked day, so did he night, - Untill he hir found. - He hir beate and he hir bounde, - Till truely her trouth she him plyght - That she woulde not come within the night, - There as Saint George, our Ladye’s Knight, - Named was three tymes Saint George.’ - -And hang this Scripture ouer him, and let him alone.”[2366] - -In Bavaria[2367] a _Druten-stein_ is a natural pebble with a hole -through it, and is a charm against witches. |470| - -In Scotland such a stone is often called a witch-stone,[2368] and hung -up in the byres as a protection for the cattle. The same is the case in -some parts of England. In the Museum at Leicester is a “witch-stone” -from Wymeswold, a pebble with a natural hole towards one end, which has -been preserved for many generations in one family, and has had great -virtues attributed to it. It prevented the entrance of fairies into the -dairy; it preserved milk from taint; it kept off diseases, and charmed -off warts, and seems to have been valuable alike to man and beast. -In the Western Islands[2369] ammonites are held to possess peculiar -virtues as “cramp-stones” for curing cramp in cattle. - -Stones remarkable either for their colour or shape appear at all times -to have attracted the attention of mankind, and frequently to have -served as personal ornaments or charms among those to whom the more -expensive and civilized representatives of such primitive jewellery, -which now rank as precious stones, were either unknown or inaccessible. - -Among the cave-dwellers of a remote age, both of France and Belgium, -fossil shells appear to have been much in use as ornaments, numbers -having been found perforated for suspension. Pendants of stone occur -in some abundance with interments in the dolmens of France;[2370] -occasionally the living forms of shells also were perforated and worn -as ornaments, both in the days when the reindeer formed the principal -food of the cave-dwellers, and in more recent yet still remote times. A -black polished oval pebble, found in the lake-dwelling of Inkwyl,[2371] -has been regarded by De Bonstetten as an amulet. - -In Merovingian and Teutonic interments, we find occasionally, pendants -of serpentine[2372] and other materials, balls of crystal, and -sometimes of iron pyrites.[2373] - -A peculiar stone with a groove round it, not unlike in form to the -Danish fire-producing stones of the early Iron Age, was in use for -divining purposes among the Laplanders, and has been engraved and -described by Scheffer.[2374] - -What are regarded as ancient amulets of stone, found in Portugal,[2375] -are highly decorated. - -Numerous amulets, commonly formed of various kinds of stone and teeth -of animals, usually perforated for suspension, were worn by the -North-American Indians.[2376] Indeed, among almost all savage nations -such charms and ornaments abound. - - * * * * * - -As I am not treating of the hidden virtues of stones and gems, nor of -their use as amulets, it is needless to say more in |471| illustration -of the causes why selected pebbles may have been placed in ancient -graves. Before proceeding, however, to the next part of my subject, -which carries me back from recent times to those long anterior, not -only to the use of metals, but to that of the various stone implements -of which I have been treating, it will be well to say a few words as -to the results of the general survey which, so far as regards the -antiquities of the Neolithic, or Surface Stone Period, is now complete. - -These results, I must acknowledge, are, to my mind, by no means -entirely satisfactory. It is true that regarding the various forms -of objects described from a technological, or even a collector’s, -point of view, the series of stone antiquities found in Britain does -not contrast unfavourably with that from any other country. We have -hatchets, adzes, chisels, borers, scrapers, and tools of various -kinds, and know both how they were made and how they were used; we -have battle-axes, lances, and arrows for war, or for the chase; we -have various implements and utensils adapted for domestic use; we have -the personal ornaments of our remote predecessors, and know something -of their methods of sepulture, and of their funeral customs. Indeed, -so far as external appliances are concerned, they are almost as fully -represented as would be those of any existing savage nation by the -researches of a most painstaking traveller. And yet when we attempt -any chronological arrangement of the various forms we find ourselves -almost immediately at fault. From the number of objects found, we may -indeed safely infer that they represent the lapse of no inconsiderable -interval of time, but how great we know not; nor, in most cases, can -we say with any approach to certainty, whether a given object belongs -to the commencement, middle, or close, of the Polished Stone Period of -Britain. - -True it is that there are some forms, which from their association -together in graves, we know to have been contemporaneous; and some, -which from their occasionally occurring with interments belonging to -a time when bronze was beginning to come into use we must assign to -the later portion of the Neolithic Period of this country; yet it is -impossible to say of these latter forms that they may not have been -long in use before bronze was known; nor of the former, that certain -kinds were not introduced at a much earlier period than the others, -which at a later date became associated with them. The utmost that can -with safety be affirmed is, that some forms, such as the perforated -battle-axes, the |472| skilfully chipped lance-heads or daggers, -the cups fashioned in the lathe, and the ornaments of jet, appear to -have been of later introduction than most of the others. Moreover, -though we may regard these particular objects as comparatively late, -the bulk of the others, such, for instance, as celts, and possibly -arrow-heads, were subject to so little modification during the whole of -the Neolithic Period, that it is almost impossible, from form only, to -assign to individual specimens any chronological position. The light -reflected by foreign discoveries, such as those in the Swiss lakes, -and by the habits and customs of modern savages, enables us, to some -extent, to appreciate the relations and bearings of our native stone -antiquities; but the greater part of them have unfortunately been -discovered as isolated examples, and without attendant circumstances -calculated to furnish data for determining their exact age, or the -manners of those who used them. - -Enough facts, however, are at our command to show that preceding the -use of metal in this country, there was a time when cutting instruments -and weapons were made of stone, either chipped or ground to an edge; -and to encourage a hope that future discoveries may throw more light on -the length of the period through which those who used them lived, and -on the stage of culture that they had reached. It will, I trust, be of -some service to those who are labouring, and will yet labour, in this -field of research, to find in these pages a classification of the forms -at present known, a summary account of the discoveries hitherto made, -and references to the books from which further details may be gathered. - -I now turn to the relics of a still earlier period, when the art of -grinding stone to an edge appears to have been unknown, and when man -was associated in this country with a group of animals which has now -for the most part disappeared, either by migration to other latitudes, -or by absolute extinction of the race. - - - - -|473| - -IMPLEMENTS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -CAVE IMPLEMENTS. - - -In this second division of my subject, I must pass in review a class -of implements of stone, which, though belonging to an earlier period -than those already described, it appeared to me to be better to take -second rather than first in order. My reasons for thus reversing what -might seem to be the natural arrangement of my subject, and ascending -instead of descending the stream of time, I have already to some -extent assigned. I need only now repeat that our sole chronology for -measuring the antiquity of such objects is by a retrogressive scale -from the present time, and not by a progression of years from any -remote given epoch; and that though we have evidence of the vast -antiquity of the class of implements which I am about to describe, -and may at the present moment regard them as the earliest known works -of man, yet we should gravely err, were we for a moment to presume -on the impossibility of still earlier relics being discovered. Had -they been taken first in order, it might have been thought that some -countenance was given to a belief that we had in these implements the -first efforts of human skill, and were able to trace the progressive -development of the industrial arts from the very cradle of our race. -Such is by no means the case. The investigators into the early history -of mankind are like explorers in search of the source of one of those -mighty rivers which traverse whole continents: we have departed from -the homes of modern civilization in ascending the stream, and arrived -at a spot where traces of human existence are but few, and animal -life has assumed strange and unknown forms; but further progress is -for the moment denied, and though we may plainly perceive that we are -nearer the source |474| of which we are in search, yet we know not at -what distance it may still be from us; nor, indeed, can we be certain -in what direction it lies, nor even whether it will ultimately be -discovered. Whether or no, traces of human existence will eventually -be found in deposits belonging to Miocene, or even earlier, times, I -may take this occasion of remarking that the evidence hitherto adduced -on this point by continental geologists is, to my mind, after full and -careful examination still very far from satisfactory. At the same time, -judging from all analogy, there can be but little doubt that the human -race will eventually be proved to date back to an earlier period than -the Pleistocene or Quaternary, though it will probably not be in Europe -that the evidence on this point will be forthcoming. - -The instruments of stone, found in ossiferous caves and in ancient -alluvial deposits, associated with remains of a fauna now in great -part extinct, belong to a period which has been termed by Sir John -Lubbock, the Palæolithic, in contradistinction to the Neolithic Period, -the relics of which are usually found upon, or near, the surface -of the soil. By others, the more familiar, even if less accurately -discriminative, terms of Cave Period and River-drift, or even Drift -Period, have been adopted. - -Though I propose in these pages to treat of the implements from the -caves and from the river-gravels separately, it must not be supposed -that there exists of necessity any demonstrable difference in the age -of the two classes of relics. On the contrary, though there can be but -little doubt that the deposition of the implement-bearing beds, both -in the one case and the other, extended over a very considerable space -of time, and that therefore neither all of the cave-deposits nor all -of the river-drifts can be regarded as absolutely contemporaneous; yet -there appears every probability that some, at least, of the deposits -in each of the two classes synchronize; and that some caves were being -partially filled with earth containing relics of human workmanship -and animal remains, at the same time that, in certain ancient -river-valleys, alluvial drifts were being formed with similar works of -man and bones of animals belonging to the same fauna, incorporated in -them. - -And yet, as a rule, the character of a group of implements collected -from the cave-deposits differs in its general _facies_ from one -obtained from the old River-drifts. This is no doubt mainly due to the -different conditions under which the two deposits were |475| formed; -for, especially when they were undoubtedly human habitations, the -caves seem to have been under more favourable conditions both for the -reception and the preservation of a greater proportion of the smaller -forms of instruments than the River-drifts; but their comparative -scarcity in the collections formed from the latter is also no doubt -partly due to the difficulty in finding such minute objects when -imbedded in a mass of gravel, even had they remained uninjured in the -course of its deposition. On the other hand, the rarity of the larger -forms of implements in the cave deposits, appears to be due to these -instruments having been mainly used for what may be termed “out of -doors” purposes. - -Again, though in some instances the River-drift and Cave-deposits -belong apparently to the same period, yet in others it seems possible -that we have, in the caves, relics derived from a period alike -unrepresented in the old alluvia and in the superficial soil; and which -may belong to an intermediate age, and thus possibly assist, especially -in the case of some caves in the neighbourhood of Mentone, to bridge -over the gap that would otherwise intervene between the River-drift -and the Surface Period. It is not, indeed, in our English caves, that -such good evidence of a sequence in the order of the deposition of -their contents can be observed, as in those of the south of France, -and of Belgium, in which a sort of chronological succession has been -pointed out by M. Gabriel de Mortillet and others, as will subsequently -be seen. It will of course be understood that this sequence in no way -refers to the occupation of caverns by man in modern, or even Neolithic -times. Many caves in this, as in other countries, have been the -retreats or dwelling-places of man at various, and often very remote, -periods: though subsequent to the time when their earlier contents -had been sealed up beneath a layer of stalagmite, itself a work of -centuries of slow deposition of carbonate of lime held in solution by -water infiltrating from above. It is owing to the occasional admixture -of the more recent remains with those of older date, either in the -progress of the excavation of the caverns, or by the burrowing of -animals, or in some cases possibly by pits having been sunk in the -floor of the cave by some of its successive human occupants, that doubt -has been thrown in former times on the value of the evidence afforded -by cavern-deposits, as to the co-existence of man with animals now -extinct, such as the Siberian mammoth and its common associate, the -woolly-haired rhinoceros. The more |476| careful researches of modern -times have, however, in most cases, removed all sources of error under -this head; and the fact of this co-existence being now established, we -are to a great extent able to eliminate the doubtful portions of the -older-recorded observations, and to give to the residue a value which -it did not formerly possess. - -Before proceeding, however, to discuss any of the evidence afforded by -cavern-deposits on the existence of man and the nature of his tools and -implements in those early days, it will be well to say a few words both -as to the nature of ossiferous caves in general, and as to the probable -manner in which their contents were deposited in the positions in which -we now find them. In doing this, I shall be as brief as possible, and -will content myself with referring the reader, who is desirous of -further details, to works more strictly geological.[2377] - -What must strike all observers at the outset is, that caverns vary -greatly both in their character and in their dimensions; some being -long and sinuous, in places contracting into narrow passages, and then -again expanding into halls more or less vast; while others are merely -vaulted recesses in the face of a rock, or even long grooves running -along the face of some almost perpendicular though inland cliff. Most -of the English ossiferous caverns belong to the former class, while -the majority of those of the Dordogne and some other parts of the -south of France belong to the latter. These recesses and rock-shelters -apparently owe their existence to a somewhat different cause from -that which produced the long sinuous cavities. They usually occur in -cliffs of which the stratification is approximately horizontal, but -where the different beds vary much in their degree of hardness and -permeability to water. The softer strata, underlying the harder masses, -are in consequence more liable to be acted upon by rain, wind, and -frost, so that they weather away faster, and leave deep recesses in the -face of the cliffs, admirably adapted for conversion, with but little -trouble, into dry and commodious shelters from the weather, which have -in consequence been seized on for habitation by man from the earliest -times to the present day. Caves of this character may possibly in -some rare instances have been due to the eroding action of the sea, -before the land was elevated to its present |477| level; but in most -cases they have originated from the atmospheric agencies that I have -mentioned, attacking most destructively the softer portions of the -rocks, which are usually of a calcareous nature. - -The caverns of the other class also generally occur in limestone -districts, and seem in like manner to be mainly due to atmospheric -causes, though operating in a different manner. They usually appear -to have originated with some small crack or fissure in the rock, -along which, water falling on the surface was able to find its way to -some vent at a lower level; and this, by its continual passage, was -able to enlarge the channel along which it flowed. The mechanically -erosive force of pure water in passing over or even falling upon a -rock of moderate hardness is indeed but small, though its powers of -friction were long since recognized by that most enlightened of ancient -geologists, the poet Ovid,[2378] who classes its effects with the -wearing away of a ring upon the finger. Nor was Solomon’s likening -of the contentions of a wife to a continual dropping, without its -geological significance. But in the case of water derived from rain -falling on the surface, and passing through a fissure in a limestone -rock, its first effects are chemical rather than mechanical.[2379] - -By contact with decaying vegetable matter the water becomes charged -with a certain amount of carbonic acid, and is rendered capable of -dissolving a portion of the calcareous rock through which it passes, -and thus carries it off in solution, while in so doing it acquires -the character known as “hard.” Taking the case of water delivered by -springs in the chalk, which has but a moderate degree of hardness, it -is proved by analysis to contain about seventeen grains of carbonate -of lime to the gallon. Now, out of a rainfall of say twenty-six inches -annually, it has been found by experiment, that in a chalk district -about nine inches would, in average seasons, make their way down to the -springs; and it may be readily calculated that at the rate of seventeen -grains to the gallon, the amount of dry chalk or carbonate of lime -dissolved by this quantity of water, and delivered by the springs, and -thus carried away, is, in each square mile of such a district, upwards -of one hundred and forty tons in each year, or about a |478| ton to -every four and a half acres. This serves to show how great are the -solvent powers of water charged with carbonic acid, and the extent -to which, in the course of centuries, it might remove the calcareous -rocks with which it came in contact. But when once by this action a -channel had been excavated sufficiently large to admit of the rapid -passage of a stream of water through it, and the circumstances of the -case allowed of such a stream, its enlargement would probably become -more rapid, as the water would be liable to be charged with sand and -small pebbles, the friction of which would materially conduce to the -removal of the rock, the varying hardness of which, combined with the -intersection of other channels and fissures, would probably lead to the -formation of chambers of various sizes along the course of the channel. -In some caverns, we find the streams of water, to which probably they -owe their existence, still flowing through them; but in others, the -external features of the surrounding country have so much changed since -their formation, that the gathering grounds for such streams have been -removed by denudation, and water now only finds its way into them by -slow percolation through the rock which forms their roof and walls. - -It is this same process of denudation which, by removing some portion -of the rock in which the caverns were originally formed, has brought -them in communication with the outer world, and has thus rendered them -accessible to man. - -Leaving out of the question the blocks and fragments of stone falling -in from the ceiling of the caverns, the methods by which the ossiferous -deposits in them may have been formed, are various. The bones may be -those of animals which have died in the caverns, or they may have been -brought there by beasts of prey, or by man, or by running water, or -possibly by several of these agencies combined. - -In the case of the caves and rock-shelters of the Dordogne, and many -of those in Belgium, the deposits are almost exclusively neither -more nor less than refuse heaps, containing the bones, fractured and -unfractured, of animals which have served for human food, mixed with -which are the lost and waste tools, utensils, and weapons, and even the -cooking-hearths of the early cave-dwellers; so that in character they -closely resemble the kjökken-möddings of the Danish coasts; though, -from their position being usually inland, the marine shells in which -these latter abound are, for the most part, absent. The object in -resorting to the caves was, no |479| doubt, shelter; while the reason -for the Danish kjökken-möddings occurring along the coasts is to be -found in the fact, that the principal food of those who left these -heaps of refuse, was derived from the sea. - -In other instances, the tenancy of a cave by man seems to have -alternated with that by bears, hyænas, or other predaceous animals; -so that the relics left by the two classes of occupants have become -more or less mixed, sometimes without the intervention of water, and -sometimes by its aid. In such caves, it is commonly the case that -the bones are imbedded in a red loamy matrix, to which the name of -“cave-earth” has been given, and which appears to consist, in a great -measure, of those portions of the limestone-rock that are insoluble -in water charged with carbonic acid.[2380] Such red loams are common -not only in caves, but on the surface of many calcareous rocks, and -would be liable to be brought into any place of resort of man or beast, -adhering to the feet and skin, especially in wet weather; though some -portion of what is found in the caves may be a kind of _caput mortuum_ -left in position after dissolution and removal of the calcareous rock; -or it may be sediment deposited from turbid water. - -Another important feature in caverns is the stalagmitic covering with -which the bone deposit is so frequently sealed up or converted into a -breccia. Like the stalactites on the ceiling, the stalagmite on the -floor is a gradually-formed laminated deposit, composed of thin films -of crystalline carbonate of lime, deposited from the water in which -it was held in solution as a bicarbonate, by the escape of the excess -of carbonic acid which rendered it soluble. I have already cited the -action of rain-water falling on a surface of limestone covered with -decaying vegetable matter as an agent in forming subterranean channels; -but we have here, curiously enough, the reverse action produced of -filling them up. For this to take place, contact with the air appears -to be necessary; so that at the time when a cavern was completely -filled with water, no calcareous spar would be deposited. If partially -filled, though stalactites might be formed, stalagmite would not; and -it is probably to some alternation of wet and dry conditions that -several beds of alluvium[2381] occasionally occur interstratified -between successive layers of stalagmite. When, as occasionally happens, -the |480| water percolating through the rock finds its way into the -cave by the walls rather than the roof, we find stalagmite only, -exhibiting its greatest thickness round the edges of the cave and -cementing its contents into a breccia. This is the case with some of -the caves of the Dordogne and the South of France, and does not seem -of necessity to imply any great alteration in the physical conditions -of the surrounding country since the caves were formed. It is also -possible that the floors of the caves have, by being trodden, become -more impervious to water than they originally were, and that a loose -mass of porous bones upon them may, by conducing to evaporation, have -caused a deposit of carbonate of lime from water which, had the caves -remained unoccupied, might have run through or over the floors without -forming such a deposit. - -With the other class of long and tortuous caves we must, in nearly -all cases, recognize, with Sir Charles Lyell,[2382] three successive -phases:—1st, the period of the dissolution of the rock to form the -channel; 2nd, the time when the channel was traversed and enlarged -by subterranean currents of water; and, 3rd, the period when these -currents were diverted, and the cave became filled with air instead of -water. - -The rate of deposit of stalagmitic matter varies so much with different -conditions, that its thickness affords no true criterion of the length -of time during which it has accumulated. Under ordinary circumstances, -however, a thickness of even a few inches requires a long period of -years for its formation. - -Having made these few preliminary remarks as to the formation of -caverns and the deposits occurring in them, I proceed to notice some -of their characteristics in connection with the relics of human -workmanship found in the deposits, and in doing so cannot restrict -myself to British caves, but must refer also to some of those on the -Continent, which are more numerous, and have likewise furnished a more -extensive and varied series of remains. - -It had not escaped the attention of early authors, that in remote -times _specus erant pro domibus_;[2383] and, to use the words of -Prometheus,[2384] “men lived like little ants beneath the ground in -the gloomy recesses of caves.” It is, however, strange to find a -Roman author recording the occurrence of worked flints in the caves -of the Pyrenees; for if we accept the description of the _ceraunia_ -given |481| by Sotacus, and preserved by Pliny, of which mention has -already been made, there can be but little doubt of the term referring -either to stone hatchets, worked flints, or arrow-heads, of some such -kind as those still known as thunderbolts; and therefore that when -Claudian,[2385] early in the fifth century, wrote - - “Pyrenæisque sub antris - Ignea flumineæ legere ceraunia nymphæ,” - -he must have had in his mind some account of the occurrence of such -objects in that district, where so many discoveries of this character -have since been made. - -The researches of MM. Tournal, de Christol, and Marcel de Serres, now -some sixty or seventy years ago, by which the co-existence of man with -many of the extinct mammals was rendered probable, if, indeed, not -actually proved, were directed to caverns which, though not in the -immediate neighbourhood of the Pyrenees, were still in the South of -France. These researches are well known to geologists, but the most -important discoveries are those made in more modern times, in caverns -principally in the Dordogne and other departments of the ancient -Province of Aquitaine, by the late Prof. E. Lartet[2386] and Mr. -Henry Christy, as well as by M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, the Marquis -de Vibraye, MM. Garrigou, Rames, Brun, Cazalis de Fondouce, Ferry, -Gervais, Cartailhac, Piette, Boule, Massénat, Chantre, and numerous -other active investigators. - -The discoveries made by Dr. Schmerling[2387] in the caves of Belgium, -an account of which he published in 1833, showed that human bones, -as well as worked flints, and bone instruments were associated with -the remains of extinct animals in several instances; and, though not -gaining general acceptance at the time, have since been fully borne out -by the investigations so ably conducted by Dr. E. Dupont. - -The late Prof. E. Lartet[2388] some years ago suggested a -classification of the different divisions of Time represented in -the French caves containing traces of man associated with various -animal bones, under successive heads, as the Ages of the Cave-bear, -the Mammoth, the Reindeer, and the Bison, in accordance with the -comparative abundance of the remains of each of these animals in |482| -the different caves. Had the conditions in all cases been the same, -there can be no doubt that any marked variations in the fauna of the -same region would afford valuable criteria for determining such a -chronological sequence. But such decided differences cannot at present -be traced; and inasmuch as the animal remains in the caverns under -consideration have, almost without exception, been introduced into the -caves by human agency, and been merely the refuse of the spoils of -the chase consumed by the old cave-dwellers, we may readily conceive -reasons why, without any great natural change in the fauna, the -proportionate numbers of the different animals eaten during a certain -number of years might vary in different caves. Still the effect of -human agency in causing an alteration in the larger mammalian fauna of -a district is great, and of this, researches in caverns may probably -afford evidence. - -Dr. E. Dupont[2389] has adopted a somewhat similar, but more limited, -and therefore safer view with regard to the caverns of Belgium, and -has moreover correlated the cave-deposits with those of wider range. -The rolled pebbles and stratified clay of the river-valleys he regards -as synchronous with the deposits in certain caves belonging to what he -terms the Mammoth Period; and the angular gravels and brick-earth, of -somewhat later date, he connects with the caves of the Reindeer Period. - -As will shortly be seen, there appears good reason for regarding the -two sets of caverns thus characterized, as belonging to different -ages; and if the use of the terms Mammoth and Reindeer Periods be not -supposed to limit the duration of the existence of those animals in -France and Belgium to so short a space of time, geologically speaking, -as that represented by the infilling of each set of caves, no harm can -arise from the adoption of the terms. - -Under any circumstances, with our present knowledge, there seems a -sufficient variation in the proportion of the different animals one to -the other, and also in the character of the implements in different -caves, to justify the conclusion that the cave-remains of Western -Europe are memorials, not of some comparatively short Troglodyte -phase of the human race, but of a lengthened chapter in its history. -And yet this chapter seems to have been completely closed before the -implements belonging to the Neolithic or Surface Stone Period had come -into use; for though these also |483| occur in the more superficial -cavern-deposits, they are not only stratigraphically more recent than -the instruments often found imbedded deep below them, but are also -associated with a different and more modern fauna, and even with -domesticated animals, of which none are as yet known to have belonged -to the Palæolithic Period. - -M. Gabriel de Mortillet,[2390] judging rather from the character of -the works of man found in the caves, and from what appears to be the -order of superposition in certain cases, than from the mammalian fauna, -has arranged them in a manner which to some extent coincides with the -views of M. Lartet and Dr. Dupont. To each division he has assigned the -name of some well-known deposit, such as he regards as being the most -characteristic in its contents. - -As M. de Mortillet’s classification has now been almost universally -accepted, it will be well here to adopt it, though in some respects -it differs from the arrangement proposed in my first edition. I there -attempted to give references to the works in which the different caves -in France and other continental countries have been described, but, -at the present day, the number of caves explored is so great, and the -literature relating to them so extensive, that I must confine myself to -British caves, and make but passing reference to some of those in other -countries. - -I take M. de Mortillet’s arrangement in ascending, and not in -descending geological order; that is to say, I here describe the older -deposits first. Leaving the Age of Chelles, or, as I prefer to call it, -of St. Acheul (ACHEULÉEN), which is characterized by the high-level -River-gravels, subsequently described, we come to:— - -1. AGE OF LE MOUSTIER,[2391] DORDOGNE -(MOUSTÉRIEN).—Characteristics—Ovate-lanceolate implements much -resembling some of those from the River-gravels; large broad implements -and flakes worked on one face only into “choppers” or “side-scrapers,” -like those from High Lodge, Mildenhall; large subtriangular flakes -wrought at the edge into spear-head-like and round-ended forms; rough -“sling-stones” and flakes; scrapers not abundant. - -An almost entire absence of instruments of bone; and a large proportion -of those of flint, of considerable size. |484| - -Remains of mammoth and hyæna apparently more abundant than in the -following ages. Reindeer less dominant numerically than at Solutré or -la Madelaine. Bones comparatively scarce. No remains of birds or fish. - -2. AGE OF SOLUTRÉ[2392] (SAÔNE ET LOIRE) -(SOLUTRÉEN).—Characteristics—Lance-heads or daggers delicately chipped -on both faces; lozenge and leaf-shaped arrow-heads (?) closely -resembling some of those of the Neolithic Period. They are all scarce. -Sharp knife-like flakes trimmed to a narrow point at one end from a -shoulder about midway of the blade; scrapers; borers. - -Pointed lance-heads of bone or reindeer horn. Engraved bones, extremely -scarce, but a small figure of a reindeer carved in calcareous stone -found at Solutré. Some carvings in bone towards the end of the Period. -A few marine or fossil shells. - -Fauna much as at la Madelaine. Several teeth of mammoth, _felis spelæa_ -and _cervus megaceros_, found at Laugerie. Horse common; but at -Solutré, reindeer the principal food. - -3. AGE OF LA MADELAINE, DORDOGNE (MAGDALÉNIEN).—Characteristics—Long -and well-shaped flint flakes and neatly-formed cores abundant, as are -also scrapers; but side-scrapers extremely rare, and the leaf-shaped -lance- and arrow-heads unknown. Pebbles with mortar-like depressions, -rounded hammer-stones, grooved sharpening-stones. Scraped hæmatite. -Saws of flint in some caves. - -Pointed dart-heads, both plain and ornamented on the faces, -arrow-heads, of bone split at the base, as well as harpoon-heads formed -of reindeer horn or bone, barbed on one or both sides, and adapted to -fit in a socket at the end of the shaft. Perforated bone needles, often -of minute size. - -Works of art, such as engravings on stone, bone, reindeer horn, and -ivory; carvings in most of these materials, perforated and carved -“bâtons de commandement” of reindeer horn. Ornaments formed of pierced -bones and teeth, and of fossil shells. - -Fauna much as in other caves, but a larger proportion of reindeer than -horse. Mammoth remains scarce. Bones of birds and fish abundant. - -In the cave of the Mas d’Azil[2393] was a layer of pebbles with |485| -various patterns painted upon them in red. Such pebbles have not -as yet been found in any British cave deposits. Some of the designs -curiously resemble early alphabetic characters. There is some doubt as -to the exact age of the contents of this cave, which not improbably may -be Neolithic. - -Such is a general summary of what appear to be the characteristics of -these three divisions. It must, however, be remembered that, in some -caves at all events, there is a probability of the contents belonging -to more than one of these periods, where the occupation by man has been -of sufficiently extended duration. - -M. Philippe Salmon[2394] has united the Palæolithic and Neolithic Ages -into one which he regards as continuous, and sub-divides into six -stages with transitions between them. - -With regard to the fauna of the caves of Britain, I cannot do better -than refer to the comprehensive list published by Professor Boyd -Dawkins, F.R.S.;[2395] and will merely cite some of the principal -animals now either extinct or no longer found living in this country, -the remains of which have occurred in association with objects of -human manufacture in caverns:—_Spermophilus citillus_, pouched -marmot; _Mus lemmus_, lemming; _Lepus diluvianus_, extinct hare; -_Lagomys pusillus_, tail-less hare; _Ursus arctos_, brown bear; _Ursus -spelæus_, cave-bear; _Ursus ferox_, grizzly bear; _Hyæna crocuta_, var. -_spelæa_, cave-hyæna; _Felis leo_, var. _spelæa_, cave-lion; _Felis -pardus_, leopard; _Machairodus latidens_, sabre-toothed tiger; _Cervus -megaceros_, Irish elk; _Cervus tarandus_, reindeer; _Bos primigenius_, -urus; _Bison priscus_, bison or aurochs; _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, -woolly-haired rhinoceros; _Elephas primigenius_, mammoth; _Hippopotamus -amphibius_, var. _major_, Hippopotamus. Further details as to the fauna -of Kent’s Cavern will be found on a subsequent page. - -The fauna of the caves is in fact practically identical with that of -the River Gravels. - -The same author[2396] has pointed out how vast is the difference -between the mammalian fauna of the Pleistocene, Quaternary, or -Palæolithic Period, and that of the Pre-historic or Neolithic Period. -“Out of forty-eight well-ascertained species living in the former, -only thirty-one were able to live on into the latter; and out of those -thirty-one, all, with the exception of six, |486| are still living in -our island. The cave-bear, cave-lion, and cave-hyæna had vanished away, -along with a whole group of pachyderms, and of all the extinct animals, -but one, the Irish elk, still survived. The reindeer, so enormously -abundant during the post-glacial epoch, lived on, greatly reduced in -numbers; while the red deer, which was rare, became very numerous, and -usurped those feeding grounds which formerly supported vast herds of -the reindeer. With this exception, all the Arctic group of mammalia, -such as the musk-sheep and the marmots, had retreated northwards; a -fact which shows that the climate of Britain during prehistoric times -was warmer, or rather less severe than during the former epoch.” -Only in the Neolithic Period do the goat, sheep, long-faced ox (_Bos -longifrons_), and dog, make their appearance in Britain. - -This difference in the fauna is of great importance, as affording -some guide in judging of the antiquity of human remains when found -in caverns without any characteristic weapons or implements; such, -for instance, as the human skull cited by Prof. Boyd Dawkins[2397] -as having been found in a cave at the head of Cheddar Pass, in -Somersetshire. For it must never be forgotten that the occupation of -caves by man is not confined to any definite period; and that even in -the case of the discovery of objects of human workmanship in direct -association with the remains of the Pleistocene extinct mammals, their -contemporaneity cannot be proved without careful observation of the -circumstances under which they occur, even if then. Another point may -also be here mentioned, namely, that where there is evidence of the -occupation of a cavern by man, and also by large carnivores, they can -hardly have been tenants in common, but the one must have preceded the -other, or possibly the occupation by each may have alternated more -than once. Bones[2398] that have been gnawed by animals have sometimes -the appearance of having been shaped by man. This is especially the -case when beavers or porcupines have gnawed the bones. In determining -the age of a cave-deposit the greatest circumspection is required, -and special evidence is necessary in each individual case. Without, -therefore, at present entering on any such questions, I proceed to -notice the principal explorations of British caves, which have as -yet been made, and the narratives of those who conducted them. In -doing this I |487| shall, of course, confine myself to those caverns -in which some traces of man or his works have been discovered in -connection with the earlier fauna, of which mention has already been -made. - -First on the list of systematic explorers stands the name of the late -Dr. Buckland, subsequently Dean of Westminster, who, upwards of seventy -years ago, conducted excavations in most of the ossiferous caves of -Britain at that time known; and also made more than one expedition into -Germany, with a view of studying analogous caverns in that country. -His “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” published in 1823, and containing, in part, -matter already printed in the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the -previous year, presents an interesting account of his researches. -Unfortunately, however, he sought in the phenomena of the caves and the -old alluvia evidence of a universal deluge, and not any record of an -extended chapter in the world’s history; and, though at a later period -of his life he renounced these views, yet the effect of his regarding -all human relics as post-diluvial, was to give a bias to geological -opinion so strongly against the belief in their true association with -the remains of the extinct mammals, as to cause some careful inquirers -almost to doubt the correctness of their own observations. - -Still, so far as the instances cited in the “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ” go, -his judgment appears to have been in the main correct. The only case -in which there can be much doubt is that of the so-called “red woman -of Paviland;” for, as Prof. Boyd Dawkins[2399] has pointed out, there -appears to have been in this, as in some other caves, a mixture of -remains belonging to two distinct periods. This is proved by the -presence of remains of sheep, underneath the bones of elephants and -other Pleistocene mammals, as well as by the disturbed state of the -cave-earth, so that the skeleton, though of very early date, may not -impossibly belong to the Neolithic Period. The discoveries in the -caves near Mentone may, however, eventually throw more light upon the -question. - -In size the skeleton equalled that of the largest male in the Oxford -Museum,[2400] so that the name of “red woman” appears misplaced. The -most remarkable feature in the case is that with the skeleton were -found a number of nearly cylindrical rods and fragments of rings of -ivory, which appear to have been made from some of the elephant tusks -in the cave. If this were so, |488| the state of preservation of the -tusks at the time of their being manufactured must have been better -than is usual in caverns, though fossil ivory from Siberia is still -employed for making knife-handles and for other purposes; and an -elephant’s tusk, found in a clay deposit in the Carse of Falkirk,[2401] -was sold to an ivory-turner and cut up into pieces for the lathe before -it could be rescued. The late Dr. Falconer,[2402] suggested that the -ivory articles may have been imported, and have had no connection with -the older tusks. Be this as it may, the case is not one on which to -insist; and I therefore pass on at once to a consideration of those -caves in Britain in which the occurrence of stone instruments of human -manufacture, in close association with the relics of extinct animals, -and under such circumstances as prove a vast antiquity, are thoroughly -well authenticated. - - -KENT’S CAVERN, TORQUAY. - -The notices of this well-known cave by various authors, prior to 1859, -have been carefully collected and published by the late Mr. Pengelly, -F.R.S.,[2403] but of these, it is needless to cite here more than -the accounts given by the Rev. J. MacEnery, F.G.S., Mr. R. A. C. -Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., and Mr. E. Vivian. - -MacEnery, who for many years was chaplain at Tor Abbey, having had -his attention first directed to the cave by the discovery in it of -fossil bones, during the year 1824–5, by Mr. Northmore and the late -Sir W. C. Trevelyan, devoted himself in the most enthusiastic manner -to an examination of the contents of the cavern, and with the most -successful results. He prepared for the press an account of his “Cavern -Researches,” for which numerous plates were engraved, apparently by -the aid of Dr. Buckland, but he did not live to publish it, and it was -first printed in a somewhat abridged form by Mr. Vivian in the year -1859. The whole of what remained of his MS. has, however, since been -published _verbatim_, by Mr. Pengelly.[2404] He relates the discovery -in the upper deposits of numerous relics, such as flakes and nuclei of -flint, polished celts of syenite and greenstone, bone pins, and long -|489| comb-like instruments, all belonging to the Neolithic or Surface -Stone Period, and in some cases to a later date. But he also describes -three[2405] special kinds of flint or chert instruments, to which -he calls particular attention. 1st. Flakes pointed at one end. 2nd. -Oblong double-edged splinters truncated at each end, which he thinks -may “have been employed as knives or chisels for dividing and shaping -wood, and which exhibit the marks of wear on their edges;” and 3rd. -“Oval-shaped discs chipped round to an edge, from 2 to 3 1∕2 inches -across, and some of them diminished to a point, like wedges. This part -in these specimens was observed to be blunted, apparently from knocking -like a hammer against hard bodies, while the sides, which in such an -operation would not be used, still remained sharp.” The modification in -the substance of the flint of which these instruments are composed is -noticed, and it is stated that at their transverse fracture many are -porous and absorbent, adhering to the tongue, like fossil bones, and so -closely that they support their weight. - -Though evidently in dread of recording facts not quite in accordance -with Dr. Buckland’s views, he states distinctly that the true -position[2406] of these implements was below the bottom of the -stalagmite; and it is not a little remarkable that among the nine -specimens selected for engraving by Mr. MacEnery, and given in his -Plate T, as knives, arrow-heads, and hatchets of flint and chert found -in Kent’s Hole, Torquay, three are of a distinctly palæolithic type, -and two presumably so, the others being mere flakes, but of a character -quite in accordance with their belonging to the same period as the -better-defined types. - -He further observes that “none of the cavern blades appeared to have -been rubbed or polished, but exhibit the rough serrated edge of the -original fracture. This difference alone may not be sufficient to -authorize us in assigning to the cavern reliques a higher antiquity, -but the absence of other Druidical remains at the depth where the -flints abound, is a negative confirmation.” That one who observed -so well should, out of deference to the prejudices of others, have -sometimes been doubtful of the evidence of his own eyes, and have been -driven to postpone until too late the publication of the records of his -observations, must ever be a cause of regret to all lovers of science -and of truth. - -The next explorer of the cavern was Mr. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, -F.R.S., who in 1840 communicated a paper on the |490| “Bone Caves of -Devonshire”[2407] to the Geological Society, and subsequently another -memoir on the “Geology of the South-east of Devonshire,” in which -the former was incorporated. He stated that “works of art, such as -arrow-heads and knives of flint, occur in all parts of the cave, and -throughout the entire thickness of the clay; and no distinction founded -on condition, distribution, or relative position can be observed -whereby the human can be separated from the other reliquiæ,” among -which he mentions teeth and bones of elephant, rhinoceros, ox, deer, -horse, bear, hyæna, and of a feline animal of large size. - -In 1846 a committee was appointed by the Torquay Natural History -Society, to explore a small portion of the cavern, and a paper -detailing the results of the investigation was communicated by Mr. E. -Vivian to the British Association and to the Geological Society, in -which he stated that the important point established was that relics -of human art are found beneath the floor of stalagmite, even where its -thickness is about three feet. The abstract of this paper, as published -in the _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_,[2408] seems to -show how little such a statement was in accordance with the geological -opinion of the day. It runs as follows:—“_On_ KENT’S CAVERN, _near_ -TORQUAY, _by_ EDWARD VIVIAN, ESQ. In this paper an account was given -of some recent researches in that cavern by a committee of the Torquay -Natural History Society, during which the bones of various extinct -species of animals were found in several situations.” - -In 1856, Mr. Vivian again called the attention of the British -Association to this cavern, and, in 1859, he published the greater part -of Mr. MacEnery’s MS., of which mention has already been made. The -ossiferous cave at Brixham had been discovered in the previous year, in -which also the collection of implements discovered in the river-drift -of the Valley of the Somme, formed by M. Boucher de Perthes, had been -visited by the late Dr. Falconer—a visit which resulted in that of the -late Sir Joseph Prestwich and myself in 1859, and in public interest -being excited in these remarkable discoveries, the area of which was -soon extended to numerous other valleys, both in France and Britain. -Encouraged by the success which had attended the exploration of the -old alluvia, the British Association, in 1864, appointed a committee -consisting of Sir Charles Lyell, Sir John Lubbock, Professor |491| -Phillips, Mr. Vivian, Mr. Pengelly, and myself, to make a systematic -exploration of Kent’s Cavern, which was placed at our disposal by -Sir Lawrence Palk, the proprietor. From that time, until 1880, the -exploration was steadily carried on under the immediate and constant -superintendence of Mr. Pengelly and Mr. Vivian; and the names of -Professor Busk, Professor Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. W. A. Sanford, F.G.S., -were added to the list of the committee. Mr. Pengelly, who acted as -reporter to the committee, has in successive years rendered sixteen -accounts to the Association[2409] of the progress of the researches, -which have been printed in their yearly Reports from 1865 to 1880. -Mr. Pengelly has also communicated a long series of papers upon the -exploration of the Cave[2410] to the Devonshire Association. I have -been allowed, for the purposes of this volume, to figure a certain -number of the instruments discovered in Kent’s Cavern, and for the -details I give concerning them, I am indebted partly to the annual -reports already mentioned, and partly to the kindness of the late Mr. -Pengelly. - -The cave is about a mile east of Torquay harbour, and is of a sinuous -character, running deeply into a hill of Devonian Limestone, about half -a mile distant from the sea. In places, it expands into large chambers, -to which various distinctive names have been given. - -It is needless for me to enter into any particulars as to the method -employed in conducting the explorations, by which the position of each -object discovered was accurately determined. I may, however, shortly -describe the series of deposits met with in the spacious chamber near -the entrance to the cave, which has been the principal scene of the -discoveries, and which corresponds in its main features with the other -parts of the cave. The deposits are as follows, in descending order:— - -1. Large blocks of limestone which have fallen from the roof, sometimes -cemented together by stalagmite. - -2. A layer of black, muddy mould, 3 inches to 12 inches in thickness. - -3. Stalagmite 1 foot to 3 feet thick, almost continuous, and in places -containing large fragments of limestone. - -4. Red cave-earth, varying in thickness, and containing about |492| -50 per cent. of angular fragments of limestone, with numerous bones of -extinct animals, and implements fashioned by the hand of man. Above -this and below the stalagmite, in one part of the cave there is a -black band from 2 inches to 6 inches thick, formed of soil like No. 2, -containing charcoal, numerous flint instruments, and bones and teeth of -animals. - -5. At the base of the cave-earth is another floor of stalagmite in -places 10 or 12 feet in thickness. - -6. Below this again a breccia of sub-angular and rounded pieces -of dark-red grit, a few quartz pebbles, and angular fragments of -limestone, embedded in a sandy paste. This also contained implements, -and in places had been broken up and become lodged in the cave-earth. - -Above the upper stalagmite, principally in the black mould, have been -found a number of relics belonging to different periods, such as -socketed celts, and a socketed knife of bronze, some small fragments -of roughly-smelted copper, about four hundred flint flakes, cores, and -chips, a polishing stone, a ring of stone already described, numerous -spindle-whorls, bone instruments terminating in comb-like ends, -probably used for weaving, pottery, marine shells, numerous mammalian -bones of existing species, and some human bones, on which it has been -thought there are traces indicative of cannibalism. Some of the pottery -is distinctly Roman in character, but many of the objects belong, no -doubt, to pre-Roman times. - -It is, however, with the implements found in the beds below, which had -already, at least two thousand years ago, been sealed up beneath the -thick coating of stalagmite, formed by a deposition of film upon film -of calcareous matter once held in solution, that I have here to do. - -In some places, it is true that owing to previous excavations, and to -the presence of burrowing animals, the remains from above and below the -stalagmite have become intermingled; but I shall not cite any objects, -about the original position of which there is any doubt. - -The principal forms are these: flat ovoid implements with an edge all -round; pointed kite-shaped or triangular implements; flakes of flint -of various sizes and wrought into different shapes, including the -so-called scrapers; the cores from which flakes have been struck, and -stones which have been used as hammers or pounders. Besides these, a -few pins, harpoons, and needles of bone have been discovered. |493| - -[Illustration: Fig. 386.—Kent’s Cavern. (1,163) 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 387.—Kent’s Cavern. (286) 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -Prominent among the instruments of stone, both as exhibiting a great -amount of skill and design in fashioning them, and as being distinct in -character from the forms usually found on the surface, are the ovoid -discs such as had already attracted the attention of Mr. MacEnery. Of -these, specimens are engraved on the scale of one-half linear measure -in Figs. 386 and 387. The first (No. 1,163 in |494| Mr. Pengelly’s -list) is of grey cherty flint, carefully chipped on both faces, one of -which is rather more convex than the other. It is wrought to a slightly -undulating edge all round, except at one spot on the side, where blows -seem to have been given in vain in attempting to remove a flake. The -traces upon the edge, of wear or use, are but slight. It was found in -January, 1866, in the red cave-earth, four feet below the stalagmite, -which was about a foot thick, and continuous for a considerable -distance in every direction. The smaller implement (No. 286) Fig. 387, -is of much the same general form, but more sub-triangular in outline. -It is brought to an edge all round, but this is not in one plane, and -on one of the sides shows a sort of ogival curve. The flint has become -nearly white, and has a lustrous surface. A portion of the edge along -one of the sides has been sharpened by removing minute chips from one -face. It was found in June, 1865, between 3 and 4 feet deep in the -cave-earth in the great chamber. - -[Illustration: Fig. 388.—Kent’s Cavern. (4,155) 1∕2] - -But in addition to these ovoid instruments which have been chipped to -a more or less acute edge all round, a thick pointed instrument (No. -4,155) of sub-triangular outline, represented as Fig. 388, has been met -with, lying on the surface of the cave-earth in the “Sally-port.” It is -much altered in structure, but seems to have been formed from a cherty -nodule “apparently selected from the supracretaceous gravel so abundant -between Torquay and Newton.” The butt-end still exhibits the original -surface of the nodule, the rounded form of which renders it well -adapted for being held in the hand. |495| The point has unfortunately -been damaged, so that it is impossible to say whether it exhibited any -signs of use. One face of the implement is more convex than the other, -and has been chipped in such a manner as to leave a sort of central -ridge. This implement may have been derived from the breccia. - -During the progress of the explorations[2411] subsequent to the -appearance of the former edition of this book, numerous other -implements of flint and chert were discovered, closely resembling in -form the implements from the river-gravels, and apparently of the age -of St. Acheul or Chelles. Mr. Pengelly[2412] has pointed out that these -belong to the breccia at the base of the cave-deposits, rather than to -the cave-earth above, in which thinner and more delicately-worked forms -have been found. He considers that there was a considerable interval of -time between the two deposits, and that there was a difference between -the fauna of the one and of the other. I have an implement almost the -exact counterpart of Fig. 388 from the Thetford gravels. - -[Illustration: Fig. 388A.—Kent’s Cavern. (6,022) 3∕4] - -Another implement (No. 6022) found on Nov. 27th, 1872, at a depth -of 16 inches in the undisturbed breccia, is by the kindness of the -Plymouth Institution, shown in Fig. 388A. Its resemblance to Fig. 414 -from Biddenham, near Bedford, is striking. The illustration is on the -scale of three-fourths linear measure, instead of on the usual scale of -one-half. From fifteen to twenty implements were found in the breccia -and about seventy worked flints of various forms in the cave-earth. - -Several implements, varying in size and slightly in form, but of the -same general character as the first two described, have also been -discovered in the cave. Some of these present an appearance of having -been used for scraping a hard substance, a part of the edge towards -the narrower end being worn away, leaving a sort of shoulder near the -extremity. The wear on the two sides is from the opposite faces, as if -the instrument had been turned over in the hand and used in the same -direction, whichever edge was employed. MacEnery, in his Plate T, has -engraved three instruments of this class, as Nos. 11, 12, and 13, and -has remarked on the pointed ends being blunted, |496| “apparently from -knocking like a hammer against hard bodies.” The blunting in those -which I have seen, does not, however, appear to me to be the result -of hammering, but rather of minute splinters breaking off during some -scraping process. - -Implements much resembling in form these from Kent’s Cavern have been -found in the Cave of Le Moustier, Dordogne; but these latter are for -the most part thicker in proportion to their size, especially towards -the base, which is usually rather truncated, instead of being brought -to an edge. It is possible that they may have been mounted in some sort -of handle for use, but on the whole it appears more probable that they -were used unmounted in the hand, as a sort of knives or scraping tools. - -A smaller form (No. 1,515) of pointed instrument from the cave-earth, -is shown in Fig. 389. Both its faces are equally convex, and are -chipped over their whole surface in the same manner as those of larger -sizes. In shape, it seems adapted to have formed the point of a lance, -but the edges and base are in many parts worn away, as if it had been a -sort of scraping tool. It much resembles some of the instruments found -in the Wookey Hyæna Den, by Prof. Boyd Dawkins. - -[Illustration: Fig. 389.—Kent’s Cavern. (1,515) 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 390.—Kent’s Cavern. (3,922) 1∕2] - -Among the wrought flakes which next demand our attention, the most -striking are some finely-pointed lanceolate blades of which one (No. -3,922) is represented in Fig. 390. It has a somewhat rounded point at -each end, and has been made from a long flake, the outer face of which -has been fashioned by secondary chipping. A part of the inner face at -one end has also been re-worked. The edges seem to be slightly worn -away, and show, along the greater part of their extent, the minute -chipping probably produced by scraping some |497| hard material. The -flint is white and porcellanous on the surface, and has become so light -and soft in structure, that it can readily be cut with a knife. It was -found in the south-west chamber of the cavern, beneath stalagmite not -quite a foot thick, but touching the ceiling of the chamber, or nearly -so, in company with teeth of hyæna, bear, and fox, and a small quartz -crystal. - - * * * * * - -With regard to this alteration in the colour and structure of the -flint, it may be well here to make a few remarks. At first sight, -it seems difficult to believe that in a material so hard, and under -ordinary circumstances so extremely durable, as flint, so complete -a change in colour and texture should have taken place, during any -lapse of time, however great. We find, however, that under certain -circumstances, even Neolithic implements, which still retain their -original black or dark colour in the interior, have on their exterior -become completely whitened, and in some cases softened so much that -they can be scratched with a knife. The cause, as was first pointed out -to me by the late M. Meillet,[2413] of Poitiers, appears to be inherent -in the nature of most flints, the silica in which is of two kinds; the -one crystallized silica or quartz, with a specific gravity of 2·6, and -insoluble in water, the other colloid or glassy silica, known as opal, -with a specific gravity of 2·2, which is much more transparent, horny, -and soluble; though in their other properties both are chemically the -same. It appears, then, that in these whitened flints, the soluble -portion has been removed by the passage of infiltrating water through -the body of the flint, while the insoluble portion has been left -in a finely-divided state, consisting of particles susceptible of -disaggregation by moderate force, and is consequently white. This -alteration in structure is not confined to artificially-wrought flints, -but may take place even in flint pebbles, under certain circumstances, -in pervious soils; for I have found Lower Tertiary pebbles in the -Woolwich and Reading beds, and also in the resulting conglomerates, -which have become sufficiently disintegrated to be cut with a steel -knife. When it is considered that these pebbles were originally the -hardest part of chalk flints, or at all events those parts which were -best able to withstand the rolling and wearing action of the Tertiary -sea, the amount of alteration they have since undergone, by the slow -dissolution of a portion of their |498| substance, is very striking. -The decomposed flint pebbles in the cliff at Southbourne-on-Sea[2414] -are well known, and belong to a still more recent geological period. -There is some difficulty in ascertaining the exact loss of weight -incurred during the process of alteration: but I find that a flake -of this porous white flint, which, when dry, weighed one hundred and -twenty-nine grains, gained, by immersion for half an hour in water, -thirteen grains, so that, taking the specific gravity of flint at -about 2·6, and assuming that the flake was originally perfectly -non-absorbent, the loss would appear to have been about one-fifth of -the original weight. - -But to return from this digression to the subject of the instruments, -of which several belonging to the same class as Fig. 390 have been -found in Kent’s Cavern. Some of them are pointed at only one extremity, -and that usually the point of the original flake, the bulb-end being -left more or less obtuse. - - * * * * * - -A remarkably elegant instrument of this class (No. 3,869) is shown in -Fig. 391. It has been made from a ridged or carinated flake, though -having three facets at the butt-end, and a little secondary working -on one side; and at the butt this external face has been left in its -original condition. The inner face of the flake, however, which is -shown in the figure, has been almost entirely removed by secondary -working, extending from the edges to the middle of the blade, while the -edges have again been re-touched, so as to make them even and sharp. -At the butt-end it is chisel-like in form. It was found, on July 4th, -1868, at a depth of 2 feet in the cave-earth, beneath stalagmite 2 feet -8 inches thick. Several other instruments of the same kind have been -found in the cavern. Some of them are even longer than those figured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 391.—Kent’s Cavern. (3,869) 1∕2] - -These instruments so closely resemble in character the long flakes of -obsidian and other silicious stones in use, as javelin heads, among -the Admiralty Islanders and other savage tribes until the present day, -that one is tempted to assign to them a similar purpose.[2415] It is -possible that they may have been merely knives, or they may have served -for both purposes, like the arrow-heads of the inhabitants of Tierra -del Fuego. These English specimens may be compared with some of the -lance-heads from the cave of Laugerie Haute, belonging to the Age of -Solutré, but they are not quite so dexterously chipped. |499| - -Another form of implement which is shown in Fig. 392 (No. 117) was -found in 1865, in the second foot in depth, in the cave-earth of the -great chamber. It appears best adapted for being held in the hand and -used as a scraping tool, possibly in the preparation of skins for -clothing; and has been formed from a triangular flake, the ridge of -which is slightly curved, and runs obliquely along the instrument. It -has been trimmed by blows administered on the flat face, into a pointed -oval form with a bevelled edge all round, and this edge towards the -middle of one side of the blade is rounded and worn away by use. It is -well adapted for being held in the hand as a side-scraper, and it is -precisely that part of the edge which would be most exposed to wear, if -thus held, that is actually worn. This instrument is not unlike some of -the boat-shaped implements of the Surface Period, but is broader and -thinner in its proportions. Almost identical forms have occurred in the -Brixham Cave, and in that of Aurignac, explored by M. Lartet. Some of -the trimmed flakes from the cave of Le Moustier are of much the same -character, but the edges are perhaps sharper, and the butt-end of the -flake is left of a more rounded form. I have an instrument of much the -same general character, from the gravel of the valley of the Lark, at -Icklingham, Suffolk, but it is not so neatly or symmetrically finished, -and the inner face of the flake is somewhat convex, instead of being -concave. - -[Illustration: Fig. 392.—Kent’s Cavern. (117) 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 393.—Kent’s Cavern. (3,918) 1∕2] - -Another instrument, of nearly the same nature, is shown in Fig. 393 -(No. 3,918); one of its sides is, however, much straighter than the -other. The edge of this also is somewhat abraded by use. It is formed -of flint, which has become white, porcellanous, and light. It was found -in the south-west chamber, as was also that shown in Fig. 394 (No. -1∕3912). This is a broad flat flake, the side edges of which appear -to have been trimmed by secondary chipping, and subsequently to have -been somewhat worn away by use, whether as a saw or a |500| scraping -tool it is difficult to say. The material is black flint, now weathered -grey, and is much heavier than the white flint, and apparently more -cherty. Other examples of semilunar implements were also found. - -Some of the large flakes found in the cavern appear to have been -utilized with very little secondary trimming. That shown in Fig. 395 -(No. 56) is of cherty flint, with a sharp edge along one side, while -the other side is blunt for half its length from the butt-end, where -it is half an inch thick and nearly square with the face, something -like the back of the blade of a knife. The edge on the left side of -the figure has been trimmed by secondary chipping, mainly on the outer -face of the flake, except for about an inch near the butt, where the -trimming has been on the inner face, the evident object having been -to bring the edge into one plane. The tool is well adapted for being -held in the hand, with the thick side resting against the forefinger, -leaving the straight edge free for cutting or sawing along its entire -length. Part of the right edge near the point seems to have been -used for scraping some hard substance, such as bone. It was found in -1865, between one and two feet deep in the cave-earth in the entrance -chamber. There is considerable analogy between these large boldly -chipped flakes trimmed at the edge, and some of those found in the -River-drifts and in the cave of Le Moustier. - -[Illustration: Fig. 394.—Kent’s Cavern. (1∕3912) 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 395.—Kent’s Cavern. (56) 1∕2] - -A few of the round-ended instruments, to which the name of scraper has -been given, were also found in the cave-earth. One of these (No. 2,183) -is shown, full size, in Fig. 396. It has been formed from an external -flake, struck off a flint from the chalk, the end and one of the sides -of which have been re-chipped to a bevelled edge. This, however, at the -side becomes nearly at right angles to the face. The butt-end has been -also chipped almost to a point. The edge shows |501| symptoms of wear -in several places. It was found in the fourth foot in depth, in the -cave-earth; but the ground at the spot had been previously broken, so -that its position cannot be regarded as certain. - -Another instrument of the same class (No. 1,822) is shown, full size, -in Fig. 397. It has been formed from a ridged flake, and exhibits marks -of having been in use as a scraping tool, not only at one end but at -the sides. The inner face is beautifully smooth and flat. Some of these -scraper-like tools are more square at the end, and chipped and worn -along both sides, having evidently seen much service. So far as form -is concerned, there is little or nothing to distinguish them from the -analogous instruments of the Neolithic Period. Such scrapers also occur -in most of the caves which have furnished implements in France and -Belgium, and usually in much greater proportional abundance than has -been the case in Kent’s Cavern. In some caves, however, as for instance -in that of Le Moustier, instruments of this character are extremely -scarce. They appear to me to have served for other purposes besides -that of dressing skins—one of the uses to which such instruments are -applied by the Eskimos of the present day. There is great probability -of some of them having been used for striking fire by means of pyrites, -as the French and Belgian caves have yielded specimens of that mineral. -In the Trou de Chaleux[2416] a block of pyrites was found deeply scored -at one end, as if by constant scraping blows with flint; and another -block from Les Eyzies, with the end worn, is in the Christy Collection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 396.—Kent’s Cavern. (2,183) 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 397.—Kent’s Cavern. (1,822) 1∕1] - -Several examples of another form of tool, manufactured from simple -triangular or polygonal flakes, have occurred in Kent’s Cavern. In -|502| these, one end of the flake has been worked to an oblique -straight scraping edge, forming an obtuse angle with one side of the -flake, and an acute angle with the other; the point being sometimes on -the right, and sometimes on the left side of the flake. Specimens of -each variety, Nos. 1∕1963 and 2∕1963, which were found together, are -engraved as Figs. 398 and 399. The long side of the flake is usually -but little worn, but the short side and the oblique end are always -minutely chipped, and sometimes have the edge quite rounded by wear. -This is particularly the case in Fig. 398, of which the long side -also has been used for scraping. This flake is considerably curved -longitudinally, and its point has much the appearance of having been -used as a sort of drill. It seems probable that the obliquity of the -edge at the end of the tool is connected with the manner in which it -was held in the hand. - -[Illustration: Fig. 398.—Kent’s Cavern. (1∕1963) 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 399.—Kent’s Cavern. (2∕1963) 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 400.—Kent’s Cavern. (2,253) 1∕1] - -The perfectly sharp condition of one edge of the flake, while the other -is chipped away and worn, is probably due to its having been protected -by some sort of wooden handle. We have already seen how in the Swiss -Lake-dwellings flakes of flint were mounted; and though probably for -these small flakes, such highly-finished handles were not prepared, yet -the insertion of one edge of a flake of flint into a piece of split -stick involves no great trouble, while it would shield the fingers from -being cut, and would tend to strengthen the flint. In several of the -French caves, extremely slender flakes have been found, with one edge -quite worn away and the other untouched, a condition for which it is -difficult to account on any other hypothesis than that of their having -been inserted longitudinally into some sort of back or handle, probably -of wood. - -At least two specimens of another form have occurred in which both -ends, instead of only one, have been slanted off. One of these (No. -2,253) is shown in Fig. 400. The other is of precisely the same size -and shape. In both, the two sloping ends and the short side are |503| -worn by use, while the long side is unscathed except by accidental -breakage. In the instrument not figured, the scraping edge, both at the -side and ends, has been on the flat face of the flake. In the other, -this has been the case at the ends only, while at the side the scraping -edge has been on one of the facets. I am not aware of this form of -instrument having as yet been elsewhere noticed, nor indeed, to my -knowledge, has observation been called to those like Fig. 399, found -in the French caves. One or two specimens, of much the same character -as Fig. 399, were, however, found at La Madelaine, and are in the -Christy Collection. These bevel-ended flakes also occur in Neolithic -times.[2417] - -As might be expected, the bulk of the worked flints found in Kent’s -Cavern are flakes and spalls, more or less perfect, and a very large -proportion of them show, on some part of their edges, traces of use. It -seems needless to engrave any of these simple forms, as they present no -characteristics different from those of the flakes and splinters of any -other age. Many of them have been made from rolled pebbles, no doubt -derived from the adjacent beach. Some of the cores from which they have -been struck have occurred in the cave, of which one (No. 1,970) is -represented, on the scale of one-half, in Fig. 401. - -[Illustration: Fig. 401.—Kent’s Cavern. (1,970) 1∕2] - -Curiously enough, among the animal remains is a portion of a large -canine tooth of a bear, with the edges chipped away, so as much to -resemble a worked flake. - -[Illustration: Fig. 402.—Kent’s Cavern. (597) 1∕2] - -Of the stone implements not consisting of flint or chert, perhaps the -most remarkable is the hammer-stone (No. 597), shown on the scale of -one-half, in Fig. 402. It is formed from a pebble of coarse, hard, red -sandstone, the outer surface of which is still retained on the two -flatter faces of the stone; but all round, with the exception of a -small patch, the edge of the original pebble has been battered away by -hammering, until the whole has been brought into an almost cheese-like -form. It was found in 1865, between one and two feet deep in the red -cave-earth, over which lay an enormous block of limestone, but no -stalagmite. MacEnery mentions, among the objects which he discovered, -a ball of granite, which was probably of the same class as this. Many -such hammer-stones have been found in the French caves. I have one, -formed from a micaceous quartzose pebble, which I found in the cave -of La Madelaine, explored by Messrs. Lartet and Christy, which almost -matches this from Kent’s Cavern in size and shape. It seems possible -that their use was for pounding some substances, either animal or -vegetable, for food. It is, however, hardly probable that any cereals -were cultivated by those who handled them. They may have |504| been -used in breaking open the bones for the marrow, which seems, from the -fractured condition of all bones that contained it, to have been a -favourite food among the French cave-dwellers. Wexovius, quoted by -Scheffer,[2418] says: “The marrow of raindeer is of a delicious taste, -which they value in Lapland, just as we do oisters or some other -outlandish dainties.” - -Another object which has to be mentioned is a sort of whetstone of -purplish-grey grit. It is a nearly square prism, 4 3∕4 inches long, -and with the sides rather less than 1 inch wide. It was found in a -recess beneath a projecting bed of limestone, _in situ_, but sealed in -beneath a thick mass of stalagmitic breccia. A fragment of another, of -finer grained greenish grit, has also been found beneath stalagmite, 26 -inches thick. This latter, according to Sir Wollaston Franks, closely -resembles some stones found in the Bruniquel caves, both in form and -material. - -It will naturally be inquired, for what purpose were these whetstones -required, and what is the meaning of all these marks of wear on the -edges of the flint tools, as if they had been used for scraping -some hard substance? Fortunately the answer is not far to seek. The -latter were used not only as weapons of the chase, and in cutting and -preparing food, but also in the manufacture of various implements of -bone, and possibly of ivory, such as harpoon-heads, pins, and even -needles, as well as other instruments of unknown use. The wearing away -of the edges of many of the flint-flakes is precisely of that character -which I find by experiment to result from scraping bone; while it seems -probable that the use of the whetstones was for putting the final -polish on the bone instruments, and sharpening their points, for either -of which purposes, mere scraping-tools like those of flint would be but -inefficient. - -It is not, of course, to be expected, that these instruments and -weapons of bone should occur in anything approaching to the same -numbers as the simple instruments of flint. The latter were readily -made, and therefore of little value. They were also soon worn out and -thrown aside; but the former required considerable time and skill in -their preparation, and would not be discarded unless broken; and if -accidentally lost, would be worth the trouble of being sought for. -In some of the French caves, however, in which the deposits, unlike -those in Kent’s Cavern, are strictly of a refuse character, like the -shell-mounds of Denmark, a larger proportion of them has occurred than -here. - -The principal objects of the kind, discovered below the stalagmite in -Kent’s Cavern, are portions of harpoon-heads, a pin, awl, and a needle, -which it will be well to describe, as they afford links of connection -between the relics of this and other caves. - -The harpoon-heads are of two kinds, some being barbed on both sides, -others on one only. Of the former kind, but one example (No. 2,282) -has been found, which is shown in Fig. 403. It lay in the second foot -in depth, in the red cave-earth in the vestibule. Above this was the -black band 3 inches thick, containing flint-flakes and remains of -extinct mammals; and above this again, the stalagmite |505| floor 18 -inches in thickness. It is as usual imperfect, but the 2 1∕4 inches -which remain, show the tapering-point and four barbs on either side, -which are opposite to each other and not alternate. It is precisely of -the same character as some of the harpoon-heads from the cave of La -Madelaine, which are usually formed of reindeer horn. The material in -this instance is I believe the same. The striated marks of the tool by -which it was scraped into form are still distinctly visible in places. -Such harpoon-heads have been regarded as characteristic of the latest -division in the sequence of this class of caverns, and have been found -in numerous localities on the Continent. A doubly-barbed harpoon-head -of bone, belonging to a much more recent period, was found in the -Victoria Cave,[2419] at Settle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 403.—Kent’s Cavern. (2,282) 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 404.—Kent’s Cavern. (2,206) 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 405.—Kent’s Cavern. (1,970) 1∕1] - -Of the other kind, which have the barbs along one side only of the -blade, two examples have been found. One of these (No. 2,206), though -in two pieces, is otherwise nearly perfect, and is shown in Fig. 404. -It also has its analogues among the harpoon-heads found in the cave of -La Madelaine and elsewhere, especially at Bruniquel. Its stem shows the -projection for retaining the loop of cord by which it was connected -with the shaft, though it was probably still susceptible of being -detached from immediate contact with it. In this respect, as indeed -in general character, these early weapons seem closely to resemble -those of the Eskimos of the present day. A good series of modern -and ancient instruments of this class is engraved in the “Reliquiæ -Aquitanicæ.”[2420] An article on the distribution of harpoons in the -caverns of the Pyrenees, from the pen of M. Ed. Piette,[2421] may -be consulted with advantage. The other instrument of this kind (No. -1,970), shown in Fig. 405, is the terminal portion of a similar point, -but with the barbs all broken off at the base. It is about 3 3∕4 inches -long, and was found in the black band. |506| - -The pin (No. 1,929), already mentioned, is shown in Fig. 406, and -was found in the fourth foot in depth, in the cave-earth below the -stalagmite in the vestibule, which there attained a thickness of 20 -inches. It lay with an unworn molar of _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_. In the -black band above the cave-earth, but below the stalagmite, were remains -of the hyæna and other cave-mammals. The pin is 3 1∕4 inches long, -nearly circular in section, expanding into a head much like that of a -common screw, and tapering off to a sharp point. It bears a high polish -as if from constant use, and was probably employed as a fastener of the -dress, itself most likely made of skin. - -[Illustration: Fig. 406.—Kent’s Cavern. (1,929) 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 407.—Kent’s Cavern. (1,835) 1∕1] - -A kind of awl made of bone (No. 1,835), about 3 3∕4 inches long, and -sharply pointed at one end, was also found beneath stalagmite 16 inches -thick. It is shown full size in Fig. 407. The marks of the tool by -which it was scraped into form may be distinctly seen upon it. - -A lance-shaped bone tool (No. 3,428) 2·7 inches long, flat on one face -and convex on the other, was also found in the cave-earth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 408.—Kent’s Cavern.] - -But perhaps the most interesting of all the objects discovered in the -cavern, is the small bone needle found in 1866 in the black band below -the stalagmite, but not recognized until 1868, in consequence of its -having been enveloped in a stalagmitic covering, which then fell off, -and displayed the true character of the object it contained. The needle -has unfortunately lost its point, but what remains is nearly 7∕8 of an -inch long, as will be seen from Fig. 408. It tapers slightly, and is -somewhat elliptical in section, the greatest diameter at the larger end -being barely 8∕100 of an inch, and at the smaller end 3∕100. It has a -neatly-drilled circular eye capable of receiving a thread about 3∕80 of -an inch in diameter, or about the thickness of fine twine. The surface -of the shaft shows numerous fine longitudinal _striæ_, as if it had -been scraped into shape. - -Such needles have been found in considerable numbers in the caves of -the age of La Madelaine, such as Les Eyzies, Laugerie Basse, Bruniquel, -and the lower cave of Massat, always associated with |507| harpoons of -the barbed type. They vary in length from 3 1∕4 inches to 1 inch, and -some have been found which show that, after they had been accidentally -broken through the eye, a fresh eye was drilled. That this could -readily be effected by means of a pointed flint was proved, as before -observed, by the late Mons. E. Lartet, who both made bone needles and -bored eyes in them by means of flint tools alone. An excellent and -exhaustive essay on the employment of sewing-needles in ancient times, -more especially in connection with those from the French caves, has -been communicated by M. E. Lartet to the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,”[2422] -to which the reader is referred for further particulars. As with the -Lapps, it seems probable that the thread in use with these needles -was made from reindeer sinews; that animal, at all events in the -Dordogne, having formed a principal article of food at the period of -the occupation of the caves. - - * * * * * - -Such are the principal works of human art which have been discovered -in this most interesting cavern, in the researches conducted under the -superintendence of the late Mr. Pengelly, and mainly through grants -made by the British Association for the Advancement of Science. A -series of them is exhibited in the British Museum. - -Before attempting to account for their presence in the cave-deposits, -or to ascertain what that betokens, it will be well to take a cursory -glance at the animal remains with which they were found associated. For -this purpose I take the list prepared by Prof. Boyd Dawkins and Mr. W. -A. Sanford, and published in the Report of the British Association for -1869. It embodies, however, the result of an examination of less than -one-tenth part of the whole number of specimens obtained, though that -tenth exceeded 4,000 in number. The following list comprises nearly all -the mammals, bones of which undoubtedly belong to the cave-earth, and -omits all species the determination of which is at all uncertain, as -well as birds and fishes:— - -/X - _Lepus timidus_ (var. _diluvianus_?), Hare . . . Rare. - _Lagomys pusillus_, Tail-less hare . . . Very rare. - _Felis leo_, var. _spelæa_, Cave-Lion . . . Abundant. - _Hyæna crocuta_, var. _spelæa_, - Cave-Hyæna . . . Very abundant. - _Gulo luscus_, Glutton . . . Very rare. - _Ursus spelæus_, Cave-Bear . . . Abundant. - _Ursus priscus_ = _ferox_, Grizzly Bear . . . Abundant. - _Ursus arctos_, Brown Bear . . . Scarce. - _Canis lupus_, Wolf . . . Rare. - _Canis vulpes_, var. _spelæus_, - large Fox . . . Rare. - _Elephas primigenius_, Mammoth . . . Not very common. - _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, Woolly Rhinoceros . . . Abundant. - _Equus caballus_, Horse . . . Very abundant. |508| - _Bos primigenius_, Urus . . . Scarce. - _Bison priscus_, Bison . . . Abundant. - _Cervus megaceros_, Irish Elk . . . Not uncommon. - _Cervus elaphus_ (_Strongyloceros - spelæus_, Owen), Stag . . . Abundant. - _Cervus tarandus_, Reindeer . . . Abundant. - _Arvicola amphibius_, Water-vole . . . Rare. - _A. agrestis_, Field-vole . . . Rare. - _A. pratensis_, Bank-vole . . . Very rare. - _Castor fiber_, Beaver . . . Scarce. -X/ - -In the breccia the hyæna appears to be absent, while remains of bear -occur in great abundance. - -The list published by Prof. Boyd Dawkins in his “Cave-hunting”[2423] -adds a few mammals of minor importance, but also the _Machairodus -latidens_, of which an incisor was found in the cave-earth in -1872.[2424] Of this “sabre-toothed tiger” five canine teeth and one -if not two incisors were found in the cavern by MacEnery, but doubts -had been thrown upon his accuracy. The discovery of 1872 justified the -Committee in reporting that _Machairodus latidens_ and Man had been -contemporaries in Britain. - -In the black mould above the stalagmite, where polished stone and -bronze instruments have occurred, a different fauna is present. We -there meet with the dog, short-horn ox (_Bos longifrons_), roe-deer, -sheep, goat, pig, and rabbit, of which no remains are found in the -cave-earth. In that deposit, on the contrary, by far the greater number -of the remains are of mammals now either entirely extinct, or no longer -to be found in Britain. - -The mineral condition of the bones in the cave-earth, it is but right -to say, varies considerably; so much so, as to lead to the conclusion -that some of the bones, especially of bear, are derived from an -earlier deposit of the same character. These more ancient remains are, -according to Prof. Boyd Dawkins, much more crystalline, much heavier, -and of a darker colour than the ordinary teeth and bones. Still, -nearly the whole of the bones in the cave-earth beneath the stalagmite -appear beyond doubt to belong to one and the same period, though that -period may have been of long duration, and the breccia which contained -implements of River-drift types is of still earlier date. These bones -have for the most part been broken into fragments, sometimes split -longitudinally, and vast numbers of them have been gnawed, apparently -by hyænas. In what manner are we to account for the presence of the -works of man among them, and are they of the same age as the animal -remains with which they are associated? |509| - -In considering this question, I do not take into account those portions -of the cave in which there are variations from what may be regarded as -the typical section, these being mainly due to accidental and local -causes, such as the breaking up of beds of stalagmite of earlier date -than those above the cave-earth, but restrict myself to the main -features of the case. - -There can be little doubt that, as has been pointed out by Mr. -Pengelly, the accumulation of the cave-earth containing these remains -took place slowly and gradually; large blocks of limestone and films -of stalagmite encrusting stones and bones, or cementing them into a -firm concrete, running at all levels and in all parts of the principal -chamber. So that, without entering into any discussion as to the manner -in which the red earth and pebbles of the deposit were introduced into -the cavern, which would be here somewhat out of place, we may safely -assume that the bones and teeth, whatever may have been their antiquity -at the time of their introduction into the cave-earth, were deposited -in the positions in which they are now found, at the same time as the -implements with which they are associated. We can, however, readily -conceive circumstances under which old deposits, containing relics of -extinct animals, might be disturbed from their position in a cave, -and re-deposited with objects of human workmanship belonging to a far -more recent period. In fact, among the bones themselves there are some -which, as has already been pointed out, have belonged to an earlier -deposit than that in which they are now found. Let us, therefore, -examine into the possibility of these instruments of flint and bone -belonging to a different period from that of the animals with the -remains of which they now occur. One thing, of course, is evident, -that whether there has been a mixture in the cave-earth of objects -belonging to various ages or no, such a mixture could only have taken -place before the thick coating of stalagmite which now overlies them -had even begun to accumulate. The amount of time represented by such a -coating, it is, of course, impossible to calculate; but, even under the -most favourable circumstances, it must have been the work of hundreds, -or more probably thousands of years; and yet its deposit had been -completed before the introduction of the overlying black mould, which -has proved to contain objects to which an antiquity of at least two -thousand years may safely be assigned. - -But what do the presence and condition of these instruments |510| -denote? The flint flakes occur in great numbers, and have mostly -been used; the blocks from which they were struck are present; there -are traces of fire on some of the bones; there are hammer-stones, -whetstones, weapons of the chase, and the needle of the housewife; -all prove that during the accumulation of the cave-earth, the cavern -was, at all events from time to time, the habitation of man. How far -this human occupancy may have alternated with that of predaceous -animals may be a matter of question; but of man’s sojourn in Kent’s -Cavern for a lengthened period in all, before the deposition of the -upper stalagmite, there can be no doubt. But in all cases of human -occupancy of caves we find, and it could not well be otherwise, the -refuse of man’s food, in the shape of the bones of the animals whose -flesh he consumed, or the shells of the edible molluscs with which -his meals were varied. We have seen that in the black mould above the -stalagmite, the implements of bronze and stone are associated with a -fauna essentially the same as that of the present day. But the bulk of -the mammals which are found above the stalagmite do not occur below it; -and assuming, as we must do, that the earlier occupants of the cave -subsisted on animal food, and were unable to eat the whole of the bones -as well as the flesh, some portion of the bones below the stalagmite -must be the refuse from their meals. Without insisting on the perfect -contemporaneity of all the animal remains found together in the -cave-earth, we may therefore safely affirm that we have here relics of -man associated with a fauna from which the ordinary forms of ox, sheep, -goat, pig, and dog are entirely absent, and of which the majority of -forms are now either totally or locally extinct. - -That the fauna represented in the cave-earth is, however, to be -regarded as all belonging to one and the same period—unless possibly -the _Machairodus_ is to be excepted—is shown, as will subsequently -be seen, by the occurrence of the remains of, at all events, all the -larger mammals, associated together in the old River-drifts. - -Comparing this result with that obtained from an examination of the -French caves, the rock-shelters in which almost the whole accumulation -is a kind of refuse heap, we find it fully confirmed, so far as the -animals best adapted for human food are concerned. The rarity of the -remains of the other animals in these rock-shelters is probably to -be accounted for by the fact that the sole occupants were human; and -that either their tenancy was |511| continuous, or that during their -absence these rock-shelters were not the haunts of predaceous animals, -for which indeed they are far less well adapted than the sinuous caves. - -In attempting to correlate the works of man from Kent’s Cavern with -those from the French caves, we find in the first place that implements -of the types usually characteristic of the River-gravels have been -found in about a dozen French caves, of which a list has been given -by M. E. D’Acy,[2425] and, secondly, that the harpoons and needle -belong to the age of La Madelaine, though bones engraved with pictorial -designs—which are also characteristic of that period—are wanting. Some -of the flint implements, however, approximate more closely in character -with those of the age of Le Moustier; while the age of Solutré is not -so decidedly represented by any of its peculiar forms. If any value -attaches to these analogies, there would seem to be reason, on these -grounds also, for supposing that the infilling of the cave with the -red earth, to say nothing of the breccia at a lower level, was the -work of an immensely long lapse of time. The black band, which in part -of the cave lay beneath the stalagmite, and contained numerous pieces -of charcoal, seems to indicate some more continuous occupancy of the -cave by man, than at the time when the red earth was accumulating. -Then comes the stalagmite, in which but few remains whether human or -otherwise have been found, and these for the most part may have fallen -in from higher levels. It seems to indicate a vast period of time, -during which the cavern was entirely unfrequented by man or beast, and -during which the fauna of the country was undergoing those changes—by -the extinction or migration of some forms of mammalian life, and the -incoming of others—which is so strongly marked by the difference in -the contents of the beds above and below the stalagmite. As concerns -this long chapter in the history of human existence the records of the -cavern are a blank. - -It is, moreover, to be observed that though in Kent’s Cavern we have -evidence of its occupation by Man more or less continuously from the -Acheuléen down to the Magdalénien Age, a space of time embracing nearly -all the phases of the Palæolithic Period, there is no sign of any -transition to the Neolithic Period, the remains of which first make -their appearance after the deposit of the stalagmite. |512| - - -BRIXHAM CAVE, TORQUAY. - -The ossiferous cave of Brixham, near Torquay, was discovered in the -year 1858, and was almost immediately brought under the notice of the -Geological and Royal Societies by the late Dr. Hugh Falconer.[2426] -The latter society, acting on the recommendation of the council of the -former, made a grant towards the exploration of the cave in the manner -suggested by the late Mr. Pengelly, who was also assisted with money by -the Baroness Burdett Coutts, Sir J. K. Shuttleworth, and the late Mr. -R. Arthington of Leeds. With Dr. Falconer was associated a committee of -distinguished geologists, including Mr. Pengelly, under whose immediate -superintendence the works were carried on. Owing to various delays, -the final report of this committee, drawn up by the late Sir Joseph -Prestwich, was not presented to the Royal Society until 1872, though -some accounts of the progress of the explorations[2427] had from time -to time been made public. - -The Report will be found in the _Philosophical Transactions_ for -1873[2428] and comprises a memorandum of my own on the objects of human -industry discovered in the cave. - -Accounts of the cave have also been given by Mr. Pengelly[2429] and -Prof. Boyd Dawkins.[2430] - -The cave itself is in Devonian Limestone, and consists of three -principal galleries, in plan not unlike the letter Z, with various -diverging tunnel-shaped passages, and a chamber at the right-hand lower -corner of the Z, the two entrances being at the extreme points on -the opposite side. The gallery represented by the middle limb of the -letter, known as the Flint Knife Gallery, bears the most distinct marks -of having been hollowed out by the long-protracted action of running -water, and the deposit in it was nearly free from stalagmite. In the -others, which are known as the Reindeer and Pen Galleries, and which -have more the character of fissures, stalagmite abounded. - -Where all the deposits of the cave were present,[2431] the following -was the section in descending order. - -1. Irregular layer of stalagmite, 1 to 15 inches thick. |513| - -2. Ochreous red cave-earth, with angular stones and some pebbles, 2 to -13 feet. - -3. Gravel, with many rounded pebbles in it. - -In and on the stalagmite, were found antlers of reindeer, and a humerus -of bear, and in the cave-earth, numerous mammalian remains. Among them, -in one place, were nearly all the bones of the left hind-leg of a bear, -still preserving their true anatomical position,[2432] though with one -of the bones of the fore-leg lying with them. In close proximity lay -one of the worked flints, of which several were found in this bed. A -few occurred in the gravel. The fauna appears to be nearly identical -with that of Kent’s Cavern, though the _Machairodus_ is absent. We -have, therefore, here another instance of the association of these -works of man with the remains of the extinct mammals, in a cave-deposit -beneath a thick layer of stalagmite, which, in this case, had been for -the most part deposited before the reindeer had quitted the south of -England, and while a large bear, probably _Ursus spelæus_, was still -living in Britain. An interesting feature in the case has been pointed -out by Mr. Pengelly,[2433] who, from the nature and origin of some of -the pebbles in the cave-earth, argues that to allow of their having -been brought into the cave by means of water—which in this instance, -for various reasons, seems to have been the transporting agent—the -configuration of the surface of the land in the neighbourhood must have -been very different from what it is at present; and that a valley, 75 -feet in depth, which now runs in front of the cave, could not then have -existed, but must have been subsequently excavated. - -The fragments of flint of various sizes discovered in the cave, and -showing in a greater or less degree traces of human workmanship upon -them, were upwards of thirty in number. Like those from Kent’s Cavern, -they have, for the most part, undergone much alteration in structure, -having become white, absorbent, and brittle to a greater or less depth -from their surface, which in some instances still retains a bright -porcellanous glaze. The flint appears to have been derived originally -from the chalk, though in some cases it had, before being utilized, -been rolled into pebbles on the beach. - - * * * * * - -The following are some of the most remarkable specimens:— - -[Illustration: Fig. 409.—Brixham Cave. 1∕2] - -A round-pointed lanceolate implement, shown on the scale of 1∕2 in. -Fig. 409. The point is symmetrically chipped, but the original |514| -surface of the flint has been left untouched over the greater part -of the butt-end, which is roughly cylindrical, and more truncated -than is usual with chalk flints, but is well adapted for being held -in the hand. This implement has had the pointed end broken off by an -irregularly diagonal fracture rather more than half way along it, and -the butt-end has subsequently split up lengthways with what may be -termed a “faulted” line of fracture; and about a quarter of it has -been lost. The fractures are evidently of very ancient date; but what -is most remarkable is that the butt-end was found in August, 1858, 3 -feet deep in the cave-earth in the Flint Knife Gallery, and the point -was not found until nearly a month afterwards, a long distance away -in the Pen Gallery, at a depth of 3 feet 6 inches in the same bed. It -was not until some time afterwards that it was discovered that the -two fragments fitted each other, or that the true character of the -implement was seen. In general form it closely resembles one type of -the pointed instruments from the Valley-gravels. In fact, it is in all -essential points identical with them, and agrees in character with -many of the implements from the breccia of Kent’s Cavern—especially -with one (No. 7,328) which might have been made by the same hand—while -it differs materially in form from the flat ovoid implements from the -|515| cave-earth, such as Fig. 386, which, however, also find their -analogues in the River-Drift. - -Another instrument, of an elongated-oval form, has been made from a -large flake, or splinter, of flint with an approximately flat inner -face, showing strongly the curved and waved lines of conchoidal -fracture. It has been shaped by a succession of blows given in such -a manner as not to injure the flat face, but to produce a more or -less bevelled scraping or cutting edge all round, some parts of which -present appearances of wear by use. It is shown in Fig. 410, and, as -will be seen, is of much the same character as the implement from -Kent’s Cavern, Fig. 392, in the description of which the analogy of -this type with that of some of the French cave-implements is pointed -out. - -[Illustration: Fig. 410.—Brixham Cave. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 411.—Brixham Cave. 1∕2] - -In Fig. 411 is represented an instrument found in the gravel in a -fissure in the West Chamber of the cave. It is a fragment of a large -broad flake, showing on its convex face a portion of the original crust -of the flint. It seems to have been at first of an approximately oval -form, but has lost one of its ends by a straight fracture. This end -appears to have been broken off in ancient times, after the rest of the -instrument had been chipped into shape. A portion of the other end is -also wanting, but the fracture in this case must have existed before -the completion of the implement, as several flakes have been removed -from its convex face, by blows administered on the fractured surface. -One side of the flake has been trimmed by chipping, at first boldly and -then more minutely, to a segmental bevelled edge, much resembling in -character that of some of the large “side-scrapers” from the cave of Le -Moustier[2434] in the Dordogne. Instruments of the same character occur -occasionally, though rarely, in the ancient River-deposits. There are -some traces of use on the edge of this specimen. - -A remarkably symmetrical scraper was also thought to have come from -the Brixham Cave, and is shown full size in Fig. 412. I remarked in -publishing it that it closely resembled the scrapers found |516| on -the surface of the soil, and that it was exceptionally short for a -cave-specimen. A little time after the first edition of this book had -appeared, I discovered that this scraper had been found on the surface -near the top of Windmill Hill, and had been included with the other -specimens by mistake.[2435] It is undoubtedly neolithic. - -[Illustration: Fig. 412.—Brixham Cave. 1∕1] - -The other implements from the Brixham Cave consist for the most part -of flakes and splinters of flint of different sizes, and more or less -chipped. One of these, 2 3∕4 inches long, has been chipped or jagged -along one edge, apparently by use, while the broad round end is so -much worn away as to almost assume the appearance of a “scraper.” Most -of them bear decided marks, either on their sides or ends, of having -been in use as scraping tools. About half way along one of them is a -rounded notch, apparently produced by scraping some cylindrical object; -and in connection with this it may be mentioned that a portion of a -cylindrical pin, or rod, of ivory was found in the cave, being the only -object wrought from an animal substance. A cylindrical piece of ivory -about 3∕8 inch in diameter was found in the Gorge d’Enfer cavern, and -is in the Christy Collection. Some of the splinters of flint are very -small, and yet one of them only 3∕4 inch by 5∕8 inch shows the worn -edge resulting from use. An irregular subangular flint pebble somewhat -pear-shaped in form has some of its angles much battered, as if by -hammering, and has probably served as a hammer-stone, simply held in -the hand. Pebbles similarly bruised at the more salient parts have -frequently been found in the French caves. - - * * * * * - -The Brixham Cave specimens are now in the British Museum, and the -general result of the examination of them, is that they are found to -present analogous, and in some cases almost identical, forms with those -discovered in other caves, and in the ancient river-gravels, associated -with the remains of animals now for the most part extinct; and that -most of the implements prove not only to have been made by man, but to -have been actually in use before becoming imbedded in the cave-loam; -while from the whole of the flints discovered presenting these signs of -human workmanship or use upon them, it is evident that their presence -in the cave must in some measure be due to human agency, though it was -probably by means of water that they were deposited in the positions in -which they were found. - - -THE TOR BRYAN CAVES. - -These caves, rock-shelters, or fissures are situated near |517| -Denbury, Devon, and were explored by Mr. J. L. Widger, with results -recorded by the late Mr. J. E. Lee.[2436] In them were found numerous -mammalian remains, including teeth of rhinoceros, hyæna, and bear, and -several worked flints. One of these, described as a “Flint Implement of -the older type,”[2437] was found beneath two thick stalagmite floors. -Many of the implements from these caves are now in the British Museum. - -In the Happaway Cavern,[2438] Torquay, teeth of the same mammals were -found, together with human bones and apparently a flint flake as well -as many splinters of flint. Human remains were also found with those of -hyæna in a cave at Cattedown,[2439] Plymouth. - - -THE WOOKEY HYÆNA DEN. - -The so-called Hyæna Den at Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset, has -been explored at different times between 1859 and 1863 by Prof. Boyd -Hawkins, F.R.S., assisted by the Rev. J. Williamson, F.G.S., Mr. -James Parker, F.G.S., and Mr. Henry Willett, F.G.S., and accounts of -the exploration have been published in the _Quarterly Journal of the -Geological Society_.[2440] - -The cave is situated no great distance from the mouth of the large -and well-known cavern of Wookey Hole, and pierces the Dolomitic -Conglomerate. It was first discovered about the year 1849, in cutting -a mill-race along the edge of the rock, and consists of a principal -chamber, or _antrum_, connected with a bifurcated tunnel narrowing -as it recedes from the chamber, and with one branch terminating in a -vertical passage. At the time of the discovery, both the chamber and -the passage were for the greater part filled with red earth, stones, -and animal remains quite up to the roof, and in other parts to within -a few inches of it. In a few places only was there any deposit of -stalagmite. In the _antrum_, both the upper and lower part of the red -earth which filled the cave contained but few organic remains, though -they were abundant towards the middle of the deposit. In part of the -passage, however, there was an enormous accumulation of animal remains, -forming a bone-bed at the top of the cave-earth. The evidences of human -occupation were all found in the principal chamber. |518| - -[Illustration: Fig. 413.—Wookey Hyæna Den. (Four views of implement.) -1∕1] - - * * * * * - -They consisted of bone-ashes, and some instruments of stone and bone. -The bone objects are described as two rudely fashioned arrow-heads -of the shape of an equilateral triangle, with the angles at the base -bevelled off. They have, however, both been lost, so that I am unable -to speak more positively as to their character. The stone objects -are still forthcoming, and some of them are preserved in the Museums -at Brighton and Oxford. One of the finest is shown in full size in -four views as Fig. 413, having been engraved for the |519| _Quarterly -Journal of the Geological Society_.[2441] It lay at a depth of 4 feet -from the roof, and at a distance of 12 feet from the present entrance. -It is described as having lain with some other implements in contact -with teeth of hyæna, between dark bands of manganese full of bony -splinters, which may have been old floors[2442] of the cave; so that -the occupation by the hyæna seems to have succeeded, or alternated -with, that by man. It is of white flint, and closely resembles in form -some of the smaller implements from the River-drift. It is of less size -than the ovoid instruments from Kent’s Cavern, and is not so neatly -made as some of them. A smaller instrument from the Wookey Hyæna Den -is of much the same form, but still less artistically worked. It is -2 3∕8 inches long and 1 3∕4 inches broad, and may be compared with that -from Kent’s Cavern shown in Fig. 389. Other specimens were more of the -“sling-stone” form; in addition to which there were numerous flakes -and splinters of flint and chert. One flake, which, though it has lost -its point, is still 2 3∕4 inches long, has been trimmed by secondary -chipping on the flat face, slightly so along one side, but on the -other, over half the surface of the flake, which is 1 1∕4 inches wide -near the base. When perfect this instrument was probably much like that -from Kent’s Cavern, Fig. 391. Both its edges show considerable signs of -wear by use. Another form described by Prof. Boyd Dawkins is roughly -pyramidal, with a smooth and flat base, and a cutting edge all round, -much like an instrument found in the cave of Aurignac by M. Lartet. Of -this form there were two examples, both made of chert from the Upper -Greensand. - - * * * * * - -The fauna of the cave, so far as the larger animals are concerned, is -the same as that of Kent’s Cavern, with the addition of _Rhinoceros -hemitœchus_, and of a lemming, and with the exception of _Machairodus_. -The exact method of accumulation of the deposits in this cave it is -very difficult to explain. Prof. Boyd Dawkins has suggested that during -its occupation by hyænas, and perhaps for some time afterwards, it was -subject to floods similar to those which now from time to time take -place in the caverns in the neighbourhood. One thing appears certain, -that previously to the filling up of the principal chamber it must, for -a longer or shorter period, have been occupied by man; who here also -again appears to have been associated with that same fauna, now either -totally or locally extinct, with which traces of his handiwork have -been discovered intermingled in so many other deposits of a similar -character, both on the Continent and in Britain. With regard to the -physical features of the country, Sir Charles Lyell[2443] observes, -“When I examined the spot in 1860, after I had been |520| shown some -remains of the hyæna collected there, I felt convinced that a complete -revolution must have taken place in the topography of the district -since the time of the extinct quadrupeds. I was not aware at the time, -that flint tools had been met with in the same bone-deposit.” - - -LONG HOLE, GOWER, AND OTHER CAVES. - -The next British cavern which I have to mention is one of the series in -the Peninsula of Gower, in Glamorganshire, explored by Colonel Wood and -the late Dr. Hugh Falconer, F.R.S. The cave in question was discovered -in 1861, and is known as Long Hole.[2444] It is about one mile east of -the well-known Paviland Caves, and is about 130 feet above ordinary -high-water mark. It penetrates the limestone rock to a distance of -about 44 feet, and when discovered did not exceed in its greatest -dimensions 12 feet in width, and 7 feet in height. - -There was a deposit of about 7 feet of ferruginous, unctuous -cave-earth, mixed with angular fragments of limestone rock, forming -the floor, which was in part, if not wholly, of stalagmite. The fossil -remains found in the cave included _Ursus spelæus_, _Hyæna spelæa_, -_Felis spelæa_, _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_ and _tichorhinus_, _Elephas -antiquus_ and _primigenius_, _Bison priscus_ and _Cervus tarandus_. -Flint implements, unquestionably of human manufacture, were found -along with these remains; and one very fine flint “arrow-head,” as -termed by Dr. Falconer,[2445] was found at a depth of 4 1∕2 feet in -the cave-earth, contiguous to a detached shell of a milk molar of -_Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, and at the same depth. Other flint implements -were found at a depth of 3 feet below the stalagmite, associated with -remains of _Cervus Guettardi_, a variety of reindeer. Sir Charles -Lyell[2446] has remarked that this is the first well-authenticated -example of the occurrence of _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_ in connection with -human implements. Dr. Falconer has also recognized the same species, -in the fragment of an upper milk molar, discovered in the Wookey Hole -Hyæna Den by Prof. Boyd Dawkins. - -I have had an opportunity of examining casts of the worked flints from -Long Hole, in the Christy Collection, and find them to |521| consist -exclusively of flakes, some of them well and symmetrically formed, and -exhibiting on their edges the marks arising from use. - -In some of the other caverns in the same district, Prof. Boyd Dawkins -has also discovered flint flakes associated with the remains of a -similar group of animals. The Oyle Cave,[2447] Tenby, and Hoyle’s -Mouth,[2448] have also afforded flint flakes associated with the -remains of a nearly similar fauna. - -In the Coygan Cave,[2449] Carmarthenshire, Mr. Laws, of Tenby, found -two flint flakes with remains of mammoth and rhinoceros below a -foot of stalagmite. In the Ffynnon Beunos Cave,[2450] Dr. H. Hicks, -F.R.S., found several worked flints (one like Fig. 390) with bones of -Pleistocene animals below a stalagmite breccia, and in the Cae Gwyn -Cave[2451] a long scraper with bones of rhinoceros. A flint flake[2452] -was found under Drift outside the covered entrance to the cave. Dr. -Hicks regards these caves as Pre-Glacial, a view in which I cannot -agree. - -In the Pont Newydd Cave[2453] near Cefn, Prof. T. McK. Hughes, F.R.S., -found, with plentiful remains of the Pleistocene fauna, including -_Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, a number of implements of distinctly -palæolithic forms made of felstone and chert, as well as one of flint. -This cave can be proved to be Post-Glacial. - -Another cave which may be mentioned is that known as King Arthur’s -Cave, near Whitchurch, Ross, which was explored by the late Rev. W. -S. Symonds, F.G.S., of Pendock.[2454] In this instance flint flakes, -and cores formed of chert were found in the cave-earth, with bones -and teeth of the usual mammals, in one part of the cavern; while in -another, beneath a thick layer of stalagmite, itself covered by what -appeared to be a portion of an old river-bed, flint flakes were found -associated with the same fauna. Mr. Symonds assigns these fluviatile -deposits to an ancient river now represented by the Wye, which flows -300 feet below the level of the cave. If this view be correct, there -can, as he observes, hardly be better authenticated evidence of the -antiquity of man in the records of cave-history, than that afforded by -|522| this old river-bed overlying the thick stalagmite, beneath which -the human relics were sealed up. - -Since this book first appeared several important and interesting -discoveries have been made in British Caves between Chesterfield and -Worksop. Perhaps the most remarkable are those made in Creswell Crags -on the north-eastern border of Derbyshire, by the Rev. J. Magens -Mello,[2455] and Prof. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.,[2456] who commenced -their labours in the year 1875. The ossiferous deposits, in which -also traces of man were found, lay both in fissures and in caves in -the Lower Magnesian Limestone. Those which yielded the most important -stone implements were the Robin Hood and the Church Hole Caves, though -Mother Grundy’s Parlour also contributed a few. In the Robin Hood Cave -a stalagmitic breccia lay above the cave-earth. In this were found -implements of quartzite and iron-stone, eighty-six in number, ruder -than those of flint in the breccia. By the kindness of the Council of -the Geological Society I am able to give a few representations of those -of both classes. Fig. 413A shows an implement formed from a quartzite -pebble worked at the point and side and of a distinctly Palæolithic -type. It is much like the specimen from Saltley, Fig. 450B, and some -made of similar material found in the neighbourhood of Toulouse. - -[Illustration: Fig. 413A.—Robin Hood Cave. 1∕2] - -Fig. 413B is of iron-stone, and so far as form is concerned might well -have been found in a bed of old River-drift. Some hammer-stones and -a side chopper of quartzite, in form like Fig. 443, were also found -in the cave-earth. Some flint tools from the breccia are shown in the -next three figures. Fig. 413C recalls one of the blades from Kent’s -Cavern, Fig. 390, though of |523| smaller dimensions. Fig. 413D is -almost identical with Fig. 399, while the borer, Fig. 413E, resembles -those of the Neolithic Period. In all, there were found in the Robin -Hood Cave no less than 1040 pieces of stone and bone showing traces -of human workmanship. Among the bone objects were an awl and numerous -pointed antler-tips, but the most remarkable is a smooth and rounded -fragment of a rib having the head and forepart of a horse incised upon -it. It is shown in Fig. 413F. In the Church Hole Cave 213 relics of -human workmanship were found, principally flakes of flint, splinters, -and quartzite stones. Two of the flakes, one of which is shown in Fig. -413G, are worn away on one edge only, as if the other edge had been -protected by a wooden handle as suggested in the sketch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 413B.—Robin Hood Cave. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 413C.—Robin Hood Cave. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 413D.—Robin Hood Cave. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 413E.—Robin Hood Cave.] - -Among the bone objects was an oval plate notched at the sides and a -bone needle, Fig. 413H. It is of larger size than is usual in caves of -this period. |524| - -The fauna comprised cave-lion, hyæna, bear, Irish elk, woolly -rhinoceros, and mammoth. A fine upper canine of _Machairodus_ was also -found. Most of the objects described are now in the British Museum. We -have here another instance of quartzite implements of Palæolithic type, -being found well to the north of the area in which drift-implements are -usually discovered. - -[Illustration: Fig. 413F.—Robin Hood Cave. 1∕1] - -The relics found in the Victoria Cave[2457] at Settle belong to a later -period than that of which I am treating. - -A cave at Ballynamintra,[2458] Co. Waterford, is Neolithic. - -[Illustration: Fig. 413G.—Church Hole Cave. 1∕1] - -The Mentone caves would open so large a field for discussion that I -content myself with a passing reference to them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 413H.—Church Hole Cave. 1∕1] - -Were no other evidence forthcoming, the results of an examination of -the British caves already described would justify us in concluding that -in this country man co-existed with a number of the larger mammals now -for the most part absolutely extinct, while others have long since -disappeared from this portion of the globe. The association, under -slightly differing circumstances, |525| and in several distinct cases, -of objects of human industry with the remains of this extinct fauna, in -which so many of the animals characteristic of the existing fauna are -“conspicuous by their absence,” in undisturbed beds, and for the most -part beneath a thick coating of stalagmite, leads of necessity to this -conclusion. This becomes, if possible, more secure when the results of -the exploration of other caves on the Continent of Western Europe are -taken into account. How long a period may have intervened between the -extinction, or migration, of these animals and the present time is, of -course, another question; but such changes in the animal world as had -already taken place at least three thousand years ago, do not appear -to occur either suddenly or even with great rapidity; and, leaving the -stalagmite out of consideration, we have already seen that in some -instances the physical configuration of the country in the immediate -neighbourhood of the caves seems to have been greatly changed since the -period of their infilling. - -These changes are perhaps more conclusively illustrated in the case of -the old river deposits, in which the remains of the same extinct fauna -as that of the caves occur associated with implements manufactured by -the hand of man, to which we must now direct our attention. - - - - -|526| - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -IMPLEMENTS OF THE RIVER-DRIFT PERIOD. - - -In treating of the implements belonging to the Palæolithic Period, -and found in the ancient freshwater or river drifts in Britain, I -propose first to give a slight sketch of the nature of the discoveries -which have been made in this particular field of archæology; then to -furnish some details concerning the localities where implements have -been found, and the character of the containing beds; next, to offer -a few remarks on the shape and possible uses of the various forms of -implements; and, finally, to consider the evidence of their antiquity. - -So much has already been written in England,[2459] as well as on the -Continent, as to the history of these most curious discoveries, that -a very succinct account of them will here suffice. It was in the year -1847, that M. Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville, called attention to -the finding of flint instruments fashioned by the hand of man, in the -pits worked for sand and gravel, in the neighbourhood of that town. -They occurred in such positions, and at such a depth below the surface, -as to force upon him the conclusion that they were of the same date -as the containing beds, which he regarded as of diluvial origin, or -as monuments of a universal Deluge. In 1855, Dr. Rigollot,[2460] of -Amiens, also published an account of the discovery of flint implements -at St. Acheul, near Amiens, in a drift enclosing the remains of -extinct animals, and at a depth of 10 feet or more from the surface. -From causes into |527| which it is not necessary to enter, these -discoveries were regarded with distrust in France, and were very far -from being generally accepted by the geologists and antiquaries of that -country. - -In the autumn of 1858, however, that distinguished palæontologist, -the late Dr. Hugh Falconer, F.R.S., visited Abbeville,[2461] in order -to see M. Boucher de Perthes’s collection, and became “satisfied that -there was a great deal of fair presumptive evidence in favour of many -of his speculations regarding the remote antiquity of these industrial -objects, and their association with animals now extinct.” Acting on Dr. -Falconer’s suggestion, the late Sir Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., whose -extensive and accurate researches had placed him in the first rank of -English geologists, visited Abbeville and Amiens, in April, 1859; where -I, on his invitation, had the good fortune to join him. We examined the -local collections of flint implements and the beds in which they were -said to have been found; and, in addition to being perfectly satisfied -with the evidence adduced as to the nature of the discoveries, we had -the crowning satisfaction of seeing one of the worked flints still _in -situ_, in its undisturbed matrix of gravel, at a depth of 17 feet from -the original surface of the ground. - -I may add that on March 26th, 1875, I dug out from the gravel, in a pit -close to the seminary at Saint Acheul, a pointed implement at a depth -of 10 feet 10 inches from the surface. - -From the day on which Sir Joseph Prestwich gave an account to the -Royal Society, of the results of his visit to the Valley of the Somme, -the authenticity of the discoveries of M. Boucher de Perthes and Dr. -Rigollot was established; and they were almost immediately followed by -numerous others of the same character, both in France and England. - -Before proceeding to describe the discoveries made in this country, -it will be well to say a few words as to some others of those which -have been made on the continent of Europe. In France such discoveries -have been so abundant that it would be an almost hopeless task to -enumerate the whole of them, I must, therefore, content myself by -calling attention to a few only; and, moreover, shall not overburden -my pages with references. One of the earliest discoveries was made -by M. Vincent at Troyes[2462] (Aube), where, in 1850, at a depth -of 3 metres, he found an |528| ovoid implement, but most of the -recent finds date subsequently to 1859. Those made at Chelles[2463] -(Seine et Marne) deserve especial mention, inasmuch as M. Gabriel -de Mortillet, regarding the deposits at that place as being more of -one and the same age than those at St. Acheul, has termed his oldest -stage of the Palæolithic Period _Chelléen_ rather than _Acheuléen_. -He places the _Moustérien_ next, but in some respects the subdivision -is unsatisfactory. The _Elephas antiquus_ occurs at Chelles, but at -Tilloux[2464] (Charente) _E. meridionalis_, _E. antiquus_, and _E. -primigenius_ all occur together with well-marked palæolithic implements -of usual types. At Paris itself, in the gravels of the valley of the -Seine, numerous implements have been found, as well as lower down the -valley at Sotteville, near Rouen. At Argues,[2465] near Dieppe, Saint -Saen, and Bully,[2466] near Neufchâtel, they have also occurred. At -Grand Morin[2467] (Seine et Marne) and Quiévy,[2468] (Nord), fine -specimens have been found. At the Bois du Rocher,[2469] near Dinan, -in the Côtes du Nord, numerous implements, mostly small and of -fine-grained quartzite occur—I found eight there myself in 1876—and -near Toulouse[2470] many larger and coarser examples chipped out of -quartzite pebbles. I have also implements from Chelles made of a kind -of quartzite. Of other localities in the north of France I may mention -Guînes and Sangatte, near Calais; Montguillain and other spots near -Beauvais; Thenay and Thézy, near Amiens, and Vaudricourt, near Béthune. -In the district of the Loire I have found implements in the gravels of -Marboué, near Châteaudun, and at Vendôme. Further south in Poitou they -are abundant on the surface at Coussay-les-Bois and other places near -Leugny. They have also been found in some abundance near Sens (Yonne), -and occur in Dordogne, the Mâconnais and Champagne, the departments of -Corrèze, Indre et Loire, Nièvre, and indeed over the greater part of -France. - -In Belgium several discoveries have been made, notably at Curange[2471] -and Mesvin.[2472] |529| - -To the east, in Germany,[2473] Austria,[2474] Hungary,[2475] and -Russia,[2476] such discoveries, though rare, seem to be not entirely -unknown. Further evidence, however, is desirable. - -In Italy[2477] various implements, presumed to be of Palæolithic age, -have been found in the gravels of the Tiber, but they are nearly -all rude flakes. One, however, of ovate form, has been found near -Gabbiano,[2478] in the Abruzzo. - -Other well-defined implements have been found near Perugia,[2479] in -the Imolese,[2480] Ceppagna[2481] (Molise), and elsewhere. - -In the gravels of the valley of the Manzanares, at San Isidro, near -Madrid, palæolithic implements of the usual types have been found, as -well as some of a wedge shape, unlike the ordinary European types, -but similar to one of the Madras forms. They are associated with the -remains of an elephant, probably _E. antiquus_. The Quaternary beds -at San Isidro are nearly 200 feet above the level of the existing -river, and the implements that they contain are varied in character, -some chipped out of porphyry and other old rocks, being very rude in -fabric, while others of flint are as dexterously made as any of the -ordinary specimens from St. Acheul. The first discovery made there -was by M. Louis Lartet.[2482] I have on several occasions visited the -spot. Diagrammatic sections of the valley have been given by Prof. A. -Gaudry[2483] and M. E. Cartailhac.[2484] Messrs. Siret[2485] mention -several other localities in Spain that have yielded palæolithic -implements. - -In Portugal[2486] also, both in gravels and in caves, such implements -have been found, and a good ovate specimen, made of quartz, from -Leiria, near Lisbon, has been figured by[2487]Cartailhac. - -In Greece some almond-shaped implements, of the true |530| palæolithic -type, are said to have been discovered in beds of sand near -Megalopolis,[2488] with bones of the great pachyderms. - -Returning to this country and to the year 1859, I may observe that -it turned out on examination that more than one such discovery as -those of Abbeville and Amiens had already been recorded, and that -flint implements of similar types to the French had been found in the -gravels of London at the close of the seventeenth century, and in the -brick-earth of Hoxne, in Suffolk, at the close of the eighteenth, and -were still preserved in the British Museum, and in that of the Society -of Antiquaries. - -During the thirty-eight years that have elapsed since renewed and -careful attention was called to these implements, numerous other -discoveries have taken place in various parts of England of instruments -of analogous forms in beds of gravel, sand, and clay, for the most part -on the slopes of our existing river valleys, though in some instances -at considerable distances from any stream of water, and occasionally -not thus embedded, but lying on the surface of the ground. Several of -these discoveries have been made in localities where, from the nature -of the deposits, it had already been suggested by the late Sir Joseph -Prestwich and myself that implements would probably be found; and -others have resulted from workmen, who had been trained to search for -the implements in gravel, having migrated to new pits, where also their -search has proved successful. In not a few instances the researches for -such evidence of the antiquity of man have been carried on by fully -qualified observers. It is, however, needless here to trace the causes -and order of the discoveries, and I therefore propose to treat them in -geographical, and not chronological, sequence. In so doing it will be -most convenient to arrange them in accordance with the river systems in -connection with which the gravels were deposited, wherein for the most -part the implements have been found. - - * * * * * - -The district of which, following the order formerly adopted, it seems -convenient first to treat, is the basin of the river Ouse and its -tributaries, comprising, according to the Ordnance Survey,[2489] an -area of 2,607 square miles. Beginning in the west of this district, -I may mention the finding by Mr. Worthington G. Smith, F.L.S., of -several implements near one of the sources of the Ouse, a little to the -north of Leighton Buzzard. Through his kindness I possess a pointed, -thick and deeply-stained implement, found at Bossington, about a mile -north of Leighton. A more important scene of discoveries of this -kind is the neighbourhood of Bedford, where the late Mr. James |531| -Wyatt, F.G.S., obtained specimens so early as April, 1861, since -which time considerable numbers have been found. The pit in which -they first occurred is one near Biddenham, in which I had, some few -years before, discovered freshwater and land shells,[2490] and which I -had, previously to Mr. Wyatt’s discovery, already visited with him in -the expectation of finding flint implements in the gravel. The other -localities in the immediate neighbourhood of Bedford where palæolithic -implements have been found, are Harrowden,[2491] Cardington, Kempston, -Summerhouse Hill, and Honey Hill, all within a radius of four miles. - -The Ouse near Bedford winds considerably in its course, which has in -all probability much changed at different periods, the valley through -which the river now passes being of great width. As instances of its -changes even within historical times, it may be mentioned that the -chapel in which Offa,[2492] King of Mercia, was interred, is said to -have been washed away by the Ouse; and in the time of Richard II.[2493] -its course was so much altered, near Harrold, that the river is -recorded to have ceased flowing, and its channel to have remained dry, -for three miles. - -At Biddenham, the beds of Drift-gravel form a capping to a low hill -about two miles in length, and about three quarters of a mile in width, -which is nearly encircled by one of the windings of the river. Judging -from the section given by Sir Joseph Prestwich,[2494] the highest point -which the gravel attains is about 59 feet above the river, and its -surface in the pit, where the implements are found, is 40 feet above -it. The gravel rests upon the Cornbrash, or upper member of the Lower -Oolite; but the valley itself, though partly in the limestone rock, has -been cut through a considerable thickness of Oxford Clay and of Boulder -Clay, which here overlies it. The gravel consists of subangular stones -in an ochreous matrix, interspersed with irregular seams of sand and -clay.[2495] It is principally composed of fragments of flint, local -Oolitic _débris_, pebbles of quartz and of sandstones from the New Red -Sandstone conglomerates, with fragments of various old rocks. All these -latter have no doubt been derived from the washing away of the Boulder -Clay or of other Glacial beds. The thickness of the gravel, in the pit -where the implements have been principally found, is about 13 feet, and -detailed sections of it have been given by Sir Joseph Prestwich and by -Mr. Wyatt. Dispersed throughout, from a depth of about 5 feet from the -surface down to the base, are to be found land and freshwater shells, -mostly in fragments, but occasionally perfect. Their character has -been determined by the late Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.;[2496] and they -consist—including some specimens from Harrowden and Summerhouse Hill—of -various species of _Sphærium_, or _Cyclas_, _Pisidium_, _Bythinia_, -_Valvata_, _Hydrobia_, _Succinea_, _Helix_, |533| _Pupa_, _Planorbis_, -_Limnæa_, _Ancylus_, _Zua_, and _Unio_. Of these the _Hydrobia_ -(_marginata_) has never been found alive in this country. - -[Illustration: Fig 414.—Biddenham, Bedford. 1∕1] - -Mammalian remains also occur in the gravel, principally towards -its base. Including other localities in the neighbourhood of -Bedford, besides those already mentioned, but where the gravel is -of the same character, remains of the following animals have been -found:[2497] _Ursus spelæus_, _Cervus tarandus_, _Cervus elaphus_, -_Bos primigenius_, _Bison priscus_, _Hippopotamus major_, _Rhinoceros -tichorhinus_, _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, _Elephas antiquus_, _Elephas -primigenius_, _Equus_, and _Hyæna spelæa_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 415.—Biddenham, Bedford. 1∕1] - -I have already given in the _Archæologia_[2498] full-size figures of -two of the implements from the Biddenham pit, which are here reproduced. - -[Illustration: Fig. 416.—Biddenham, Bedford. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 417.—Biddenham, Bedford. 1∕2] - -Fig. 414, though worked to a wedge-like point, is very massive, -weighing something over 1 1∕2 lb. The butt-end has been roughly |534| -chipped into form, and has some sharp projections left upon it, so that -it can hardly have been intended to be simply held in the hand when -|535| used, but was either mounted in some manner, or else some means -were adopted for protecting the hand against its asperities. I have -already called attention to its resemblance to an implement from Kent’s -Cavern, Fig. 388A. - -The second specimen, Fig. 415, still shows the natural crust of the -flint at its truncated end, and is well adapted for being held in the -hand when used. - -Other specimens from the Biddenham Pit are engraved on the scale of -one-half linear measure in Figs. 416 to 418. - -The whole, with the exception of Fig. 417, were in the collection of -the late Mr. Wyatt. - -Fig. 416 is of ochreous cherty flint, symmetrically chipped, and -showing a portion of the original crust of the flint at the base. Its -angles are sharp, and not water-worn. In character it much resembles -many of the implements from the valley of the Little Ouse, and from St. -Acheul, near Amiens. - -The original of Fig. 417 is in my own collection, having been kindly -presented to me by Mr. Wyatt. As will be seen, it is remarkably thick -at the butt, which is somewhat battered, almost as if the instrument -had been used as a wedge. On a part of the butt is a portion of the -white crust of the flint, which is somewhat striated, and suggestive of -the block of flint from which the implement was fashioned having been -derived from some Glacial deposit. - -Fig. 418 represents a very curious form of implement made from a part -of a sub-cylindrical nodule of flint, and chipped to a rounded point -at one end, and truncated at the other, where the original fractured -surface of the flint is left intact. The angles at the pointed end are -but little worn. - -Implements of various other forms and sizes have been found in the -gravels near Bedford, but in character they so closely correspond -with those found in other parts of England, and in France, that it -seems needless to particularize them. One of them, however, in my own -collection, 10 1∕4 inches long by 4 1∕4 inches wide, tongue-like in -character, but of a long ovate shape, deserves special mention. It was -found at Biddenham. The flat ovate, or oval type, is there of extremely -rare occurrence. - -[Illustration: Fig. 418.—Biddenham, Bedford. 1∕2] - -I have numerous other specimens from the Bedford gravels, principally -from Kempston, and others exist in various public and private -collections. Like the mammalian remains, they occur for the most part -towards the base of the gravel, but occasionally at higher levels in -the beds. Besides the more highly wrought instruments, knife-like -flakes of flint have been found, some of them presenting |536| -evidence of use upon their edges. A few flakes trimmed at the end into -scraper-like form have also been discovered. - -At Tempsford, some seven or eight miles below Bedford, the river -Ouse is joined by the small river Ivel, a branch of which, the Hiz, -rises from the Chalk escarpment near Hitchin, and joins the Ivel at -Langford. About two miles south of the junction of these two streams, -near Henlow, Bedfordshire, Mr. F. J. Bennett, of the Geological Survey, -found in 1868 a flint implement of palæolithic type, not indeed in -gravel, but lying on the surface. It is 4 inches long and 2 1∕2 broad, -and of the same general character as that from Icklingham, Fig. -420, but rather more acutely pointed at each end. It is ochreous on -one face, and grey black on the other, and not improbably may have -been derived from some gravelly bed. I remarked in 1872 that this -discovery seemed to place the Ivel and Hiz among the rivers, in the -valley-gravels of which, farther search would probably be rewarded. - -Since then at Ickleford,[2499] near Hitchin, numerous implements, -some of them much water-worn, have been found by Mr. Frank Latchmore -and others in gravels lying in the valley of the Hiz. I have also an -acutely-pointed specimen from Bearton Green,[2500] a little to the -north of Hitchin, in an angle between the rivers Oughton and Hiz. - -But the most important discoveries are those which have been made -a short distance to the south of the town of Hitchin. There, near -the summit of a hill cut off by valleys on three sides from higher -land, a brickfield has been worked for some years by Mr. A. Ransom. -Although attention was called to the discovery in 1877,[2501] the -whole circumstances of the case are only now being thoroughly worked -out. At that time the section exposed was about 20 feet in depth, of -reddish brick-earth with numerous small angular fragments of flint -throughout. In places there were seams in which flints were more -abundant. With them were a few quartz and quartzite pebbles. Above -one seam, about 9 feet from the surface, was a layer of carbonaceous -matter. The implements,[2502] which are of various forms, both ovate, -like Pl. II., No. 17–19, and pointed, like Pl. I., No. 5–7, are said -to occur in the brick-earth, but not in the alluvial beds below. They -are mostly ochreous, but some are white. I have a hammer-stone found -with them which is made of an almost cylindrical portion of a nodule of -flint about 4 1∕4 inches long, truncated at each end; the edges round -both ends are much battered. It was probably used in the manufacture -of the other implements; a hammer of the same kind was found at Little -Thurrock.[2503] In October, 1877, a well was sunk at the bottom of the -pit showing— - - ft. in. - - (_a_) Red loam with a few quartz pebbles and flints, about 4 0 - - (_b_) White very sandy loam with freshwater shells about 5 6 - - (_c_) Dark greenish-brown loam with numerous shells and - vegetable remains, among them _Bythinia_, _Planorbis_ - and _Limnæa_; also elytra of beetles, about 10 6 - —————— - 20 0 - -|537| - -Mammalian remains are reported to have been found in the argillaceous -beds at Hitchin,[2504] including bear, elephant, and rhinoceros. - -In Fig. 418A is shown a small shoe-shaped implement from the -brick-earth at Hitchin, on which a considerable amount of the crust of -the original nodule of flint from which it was made still remains. - -At the Folly Pit, about half a mile south and at a lower level, a -section was shown in 1877 of about 18 feet of Glacial Drift, with -large rounded pebbles of different rocks, false-bedded sands, &c. -On an eroded surface of sands and gravels of the Glacial Series was -brick-earth extending in the direction of Mr. Ransom’s pit. At one spot -white marly sand-like beds, full of freshwater shells, were visible. -The brick-earth at Hitchin, like that at Hoxne, seems to have been -deposited in what were locally Post-Glacial times. - -[Illustration: Fig. 418A.—Hitchin. 1∕2] - -A detailed examination of the spot has recently been carried out -by Mr. Clement Reid, F.G.S., who finds that the alluvial deposits -beneath the palæolithic brick-earth fill a deep channel and contain -a temperate flora, including such trees as the oak, ash, cornel, -elder, and alder. Towards the margin of the channel, in at least one -place, the Chalky Boulder Clay occurs beneath the ancient alluvial and -palæolithic strata. The succession corresponds closely with that found -at Hoxne.[2505] |538| - -At Biggleswade, farther down the valley of the Ivel, a few palæolithic -implements have been procured from the railway ballast-pit. - -Northwards of Hitchin a flint flake has been found in the gravel of -the Ouse at Hartford,[2506] near Huntingdon, together with remains -of _Elephas primigenius_ and _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_. I have also a -well-shaped ochreous pointed implement (5 inches) found at Abbot’s -Ripton, 3 1∕2 miles north of Huntingdon, in 1896, as well as one like -Fig. 457 (5 3∕4 inches) from gravel at Chatteris, Cambs. - -Proceeding eastward, the next important affluent of the Ouse which is -met with, is the Cam, the gravels along the valley of which present -in various places characters analogous with those near Bedford. -Numerous mammalian remains of the same Quaternary fauna have been found -along its course, especially at Barnwell and Chesterton,[2507] near -Cambridge, where also land and freshwater shells occur in abundance. I -have also found them in a pit near Littlebury, a few miles from Saffron -Walden. - -From Quendon, Essex, about 5 miles south of Saffron Walden, and in the -valley of the Cam, Mr. C. K. Probert, of Newport, Bishop Stortford, -obtained a magnificent sharp-pointed implement with the sides curved -outwards, 8 inches in length. It lay in sandy drift in a pit about 12 -feet deep. - -In the publications of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society[2508] is -a paper by the late Prof. Chas. C. Babington, F.R.S., “On a flint -hammer found near Burwell.” It is described as a pointed implement, -very similar to those found at Hoxne and Amiens, as represented in -Phil. Trans., 1860, Pl. XIV., 6 and 8. It was not found _in situ_, -nor in gravel, but is said to have come from a mill used for cleaning -coprolites, where it had been well washed with them. If it be the -specimen that I have seen in the museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian -Society, I fear it is a forgery. Another worked flint, also of -rather uncertain origin, but perfectly genuine, and having all the -characteristics of belonging to the River-drift, was found in 1862 -on a heap of gravel, near Cambridge, by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., who -kindly placed it in my collection. It is a thick polygonal flake, about -3 inches long and 1 inch broad at the base, tapering to the point, -which is broken off. Its surface is stained all over of a deep ochreous -colour, its angles are slightly water-worn, and the edges worn away, -either by friction among other stones in the gravel, or by use. In the -Woodwardian Museum is another flake, apparently of palæolithic date, -which was found in gravel near the Cambridge Observatory. The Rev. -Osmond Fisher, F.G.S., possesses an implement in form and character -much like Fig. 470, from Highfield, Salisbury, which was found on -a heap of gravel brought from Chesterton. Other discoveries have -confirmed this evidence of the presence of palæolithic implements in -the gravels of the valley of the Cam. - -Mr. A. F. Griffith[2509] in 1878 described a fine implement from the -Barnwell gravels (6 3∕4 inches) in form and size almost identical with -|539| Fig. 414. Others have been found in gravel from the Observatory -Hill, Cambridge, and from Chesterton. Another tongue-shaped implement -from the plateau near Upper Hare Park,[2510] Cambridge, has been found -by Mr. M. C. Hughes. - -I may add that in the gravel at Barnwell, at a depth of 12 feet, and -associated with remains of elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, -was found in 1862, a portion of a rib-bone like that of an elephant, -showing at one end “numerous cut surfaces, evidently made with some -sharp instrument used by a powerful hand.” I have not seen the -specimen, but Mr. H. Seeley, F.R.S.,[2511] who records the fact, has -“no doubt that the whittling is as old as the bone.” The _Corbicula -fluminalis_, _Hydrobia marginata_, and _Unio rhomboideus_ are among -the shells which are found in the River-drift of Barnwell, but are no -longer living in England. - -I have a number of implements, principally of ovate form, which are -said to have been found in the neighbourhood of Bottisham, but I am -not sure as to the exact locality. I believe them to have come from -gravel-pits about a mile to the north of Six Mile Bottom Station. - -In gravel at Kennett Station,[2512] about 5 miles north-east by east -of Newmarket, but still in Cambridgeshire, several specimens have been -found by Mr. Arthur G. Wright and others. - -I have a much-worn flat ovate specimen from Herringswell, three miles -to the north of Kentford Station. - -Implements occur, though rarely, at the base of the peat in the Fen -country, below Cambridge. I have a small ovate specimen (3 1∕4 inches) -from Swaffham Fen. It is of black flint with the surface eroded as -if a portion of its substance had been dissolved away. A much larger -implement (6 inches) from Soham Fen is also black, but its surface is -uninjured. - -The valley of the Lark, the next river which empties itself into the -Ouse, has been much more prolific of implements in its gravels, than -that of the Cam. The fact of their occurrence in this valley was first -observed by myself, in 1860, in consequence of my finding among the -stone antiquities in the collection of a local antiquary—the late Mr. -Joseph Warren, of Ixworth—two specimens, which I at once recognized as -being of palæolithic types. On inquiry, it appeared that one had been -found by a workman in digging gravel at Rampart Hill, Icklingham; and -the other by Mr. Warren himself on a heap of gravel by the roadside, -which had been dug in the same neighbourhood. The late Sir Joseph -Prestwich[2513] and I at once visited Icklingham, and though our search -was at the time unsuccessful, yet the instructions given to the workmen -soon resulted in their finding numerous implements. The examination of -the gravel was at the same time taken up by the late Mr. Henry Prigg -(subsequently Trigg), of Bury St. Edmunds, to whose discrimination -and energy the discovery of implements in various other localities in -Suffolk is due. He brought together a large collection of antiquities, -of which the greater part, after his decease, came into my hands. |540| - -[Illustration: Fig. 419.—Maynewater Lane, Bury St. Edmunds. 1∕2] - -The principal places in the valley of the Lark, where palæolithic -implements have been found, are in the neighbourhood of Bury St. -Edmunds, Icklingham, and Mildenhall. The first specimen from the -River-drift at Bury St. Edmunds was obtained by Mr. Trigg in gravel -at a low level, near the ruined Gatehouse of St Saviour’s Hospital, -in October, 1862;[2514] since which time numerous other specimens -have been discovered, principally through his agency. Several were -found in the excavations made for the drainage of the southern part of -the town in 1864—one elongated oval implement having been discovered -in Botolph’s Lane; and three others, varying in form, in Maynewater -Lane, where also a flake was found. That here engraved as Fig. 419 is -from this latter locality, and was found at a depth of 14 feet in a -bed of loamy, sub-angular gravel, underlying a deposit of fine grey -loam 6 feet thick, containing scales of fish, and abundant remains -of _Anodonta_ and _Bythinia_. It is now deposited in the Blackmore -Museum at Salisbury. Its edges are sharp and unworn, and its colour -black, with ochreous spots. Others, since discovered, are of even finer -workmanship. One in my collection is a much ruder specimen, though -of nearly similar general form, which was found in the South Gate in -1869. Several have been found in Westgate and St. Andrew’s Streets, -and in Newton Road. The greatest number of implements found at Bury -have, however, come from what is known as the Grindle Pit, a short -distance to the south-east of the town, and on the summit and western -slope of a tongue of land between the Linnet and the Lark. Some of -them occurred in a dark, stiff, rather argillaceous gravel, composed -mainly of sub-angular flints, but also containing a small proportion of -the pebbles of the older rocks, derived from Glacial |541| deposits. -This gravel is from 2 to 3 feet in thickness, and underlies a stratum -of red brick-earth from 2 to 6 feet thick, which is again, in places, -surmounted by sands and clay with angular flints about 4 feet in -thickness, on which the surface soil reposes. This was the section -exhibited in 1865, but the beds are very irregular, and the character -of the section exposed in the pit varies considerably from time to -time, as material is removed. In places the Drift-beds are faulted, as -if by the giving way of the subjacent beds. - -[Illustration: Fig. 419A.—Grindle Pit, Bury St. Edmunds. 1∕2] - -A beautiful and absolutely perfect specimen from this pit is shown -in Fig. 419A. It was found in a black vein in the lower loamy bed, -on February 4th, 1870. Though the implement has been most skilfully -chipped, the edge is not in one plane, but when looked at sideways, -shows an ogival curve. The regular contour is partly due to secondary -working, but the edge is as sharp as on the day when the instrument -was made. Several others of almost the same form, though not quite so -delicately fashioned, came from the same pit, and may have been made by -the same hands. - -I have a fine pointed implement, (5 1∕2 inches), also from the Grindle -Pit. Another, ovate, is 7 inches in length. - -A remarkably fine palæolithic flake from Thingoe Hill,[2515] Bury St. -Edmunds, is shown in Fig. 419B. It is water-worn, and much resembles -some from the low-level gravels at Montiers, near Amiens, and -Montguillain, near Beauvais. It belongs, of course, to a much earlier -period than the mound in, on, or near which it was found. - -As already observed, remains of shells, and some scales of fish, were -found in the Drift-beds during the drainage works, as also some |542| -mammalian remains. They were, however, scarce. Higher up the valley -by about three miles, there have been found in a pit at Sicklesmere, -remains of _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_ and _Elephas primigenius_; and, -in another pit, elephant remains; specimens of all of which are now -preserved in the Bury Museum. Mr. Trigg obtained several well-wrought -implements from the brick-earth of Sicklesmere, near Nowton, which -there overlies the Boulder Clay; and has also found examples in the -gravels of the valley of the Kent, another small affluent of the Ouse. - -[Illustration: Fig. 419B.—Bury St. Edmunds. 1∕2] - -One of these Nowton specimens is shown in Fig. 419C. It is broad and -kite-shaped in form and has weathered to a creamy white. In type -it approaches Fig. 435, from Santon Downham. Some remarkably fine -implements, principally ovate, have been found at Westley, about two -miles west of Bury, and at Fornham All Saints, two miles to the north; -and I have a pointed one from the Beeches Pit, West Stow, five miles -to the north-west, and nearer Icklingham. It was in one of the pits at -Westley, eroded in the old chalk surface and filled with loam, that Mr. -Trigg discovered portions of a human skull which he described to the -Anthropological Institute.[2516] In other pits at |543| the same spot -were molars of _Elephas primigenius_, and the chopper-like instrument -shown in Fig. 419D. - -[Illustration: Fig. 419C.—Nowton, near Bury St. Edmunds. 1∕2] - -In the valley of the Lark, about seven miles down from Bury, lies the -village of Icklingham, in the neighbourhood of which numerous remains -belonging to the Roman and Saxon Periods have been found, but where -also relics belonging to both the Neolithic and Palæolithic Periods -abound. Many of the latter have been discovered in the gravel of -Rampart Hill, about a mile to the south-east of Icklingham, and nearer -to Bury; but still more numerous specimens have now for many years also -been found in the gravel at Warren Hill—sometimes termed the Three -Hills—about two miles on the other side of Icklingham, and midway -between that place and Mildenhall. A section across the valley of the -Lark, near Icklingham, has been given by Sir Joseph Prestwich.[2517] -The valley, which is excavated in the chalk, is in its lower part -covered by recent alluvial deposits, but on the slopes of its northern -side, the chalk is covered with sands and gravels belonging to the -Glacial Series, which are again overlain by the Boulder Clay. The -gravel both at Rampart Hill and Warren Hill is of a different character -from that belonging to the Glacial Series, though of course containing -a number of the silicious pebbles from the conglomerate beds of the -New Red Sandstone, and other pebbles of the older rocks derived from -the Glacial Drift. It is for the most part composed of sub-angular -flints in an ochreous sandy matrix, and is spread out in irregular -beds interstratified with seams of sand. At Warren Hill there are -great numbers of quartzite pebbles, as well as |544| very many -formed from rolled chalk, mixed with the other constituents. These -are less abundant in the upper part of the deposit, which is there -of considerable thickness. I am not aware of the exact levels having -been taken at either place, but the surface of the ground is probably -from 40 to 50 feet above the level of the river. The gravel beds are -in places as much as 14 or 15 feet in thickness. Mammalian remains are -scarce, but teeth and portions of tusk of _Elephas primigenius_ have -been found at Rampart Hill, and the core of the horn of an ox, and -teeth of horse, and bones and teeth of elephant, at Warren Hill. - -[Illustration: Fig. 419D.—Westley, near Bury St. Edmunds. 1∕2] - -Up to the present time the search for remains of testacea in these beds -has proved unsuccessful. - -Not only have the worked flints been discovered in considerable -numbers, but Canon Greenwell, F.R.S., has found in the gravel at -Warren Hill, several quartzite pebbles bearing evident marks of |545| -abrasion and bruising at the ends, such as may have resulted from -their having been in use as hammer-stones, either for chipping out -the flint implements or for other purposes. He also obtained an ovate -lanceolate implement from this spot, 4 3∕4 inches in length, and -formed from a quartzite pebble, the original surface of which is still -preserved over nearly the whole extent of one of the faces. - -Examples of the Icklingham implements are given in Figs. 420 to 424. - -[Illustration: Fig. 420.—Rampart Hill, Icklingham. 1∕2] - -The finer of the two, of which mention has already been made as having -formed part of the collection of the late Mr. Warren, of Ixworth, is -now in my own, and is shown in Fig. 420. It is more convex on one -face than the other, and a portion of the butt presents an almost -scraper-like appearance. The angles formed by the facets are slightly -worn, and the surface of the flint has been much altered in character, -having become nearly white, and quite lustrous. This alteration in -structure is almost universal with the Icklingham implements, though -in many cases they are ochreous instead of white, and not unfrequently -the discoloration is only partial, giving them a dappled appearance. In -many specimens the angles are much water-worn. - -The original of Fig. 421 is in the Blackmore Museum, and is of |546| -dark brown lustrous flint, almost equally convex on both faces, -and of very regular elliptical form. In most cases the outline -approximates more to that of Fig. 467. These thin, flattened, oval, -and almond-shaped, or ovate, implements seem, as Mr. Trigg has pointed -out, to predominate at Icklingham. Those of oval form are especially -abundant at Warren Hill. - -[Illustration: Fig. 421.—Icklingham. 1∕2] - -Many of ruder character, however, also occur, one of which, in my own -collection, is shown in Fig. 422. It approaches more nearly in form to -some of the roughly chipped instruments of the Surface period, such as -Fig. 16, than do most of the implements from the River-drift. - -[Illustration: Fig. 422.—Icklingham. 1∕2] - -One of the finest specimens hitherto found in this country is that -shown in Fig. 423, from the original in the Blackmore Museum. It is of -dark ochreous flint, with the surface considerably decomposed, and the -angles but little worn. In the same collection is another Icklingham -specimen, in form like that from Thetford, Fig. 427, but 9 inches long -and 4 1∕2 wide. - -Besides the more finished implements, a few flakes occur in the -Icklingham gravels. Some of these have been chipped all round the -periphery by blows administered on the flat face, thus producing a -bevelled edge. One such, from Warren Hill, in my own collection, -somewhat resembles the implement from Reculver, Fig. 461. It is, -however, narrower |547| in its proportions, being 4 1∕2 inches long and -2 3∕8 broad. It has been formed from an external flake, and has been -carefully trimmed all round into an almost perfect oval form, the butt -alone having been left untrimmed for about half-an-inch in width. A -small part of the other rounded and scraper-like end has been broken -off in ancient times. Others are wider in their proportions though -not so symmetrically worked. The trimmed flake, shown in Fig. 424, is -in my own collection, and at its rounded end is very scraper-like in -character. A very large flake, rounded into a broad scraper, and about -5 inches in diameter, was found by myself at Warren Hill, and is now in -the Christy Collection. |548| - -[Illustration: Fig. 423.—Icklingham.] - -Three-quarters of a mile to the north of the Warren Hill pits, and on -the same ridge, but at a rather higher level, is High or Warren Lodge, -distant about two miles from Mildenhall. To the south of this house, -and by the side of the Thetford road, is a small pit on the slope of -the hill, where, in the process of digging clay for brick-making, -a considerable number of worked flints have been obtained, many of -which passed into the collection formed by Canon Greenwell, who has -furnished me with particulars of the discovery. I have also visited -the spot. The clay or brick-earth is of a reddish hue, and rests upon -a chalky Boulder Clay, which is exposed farther up the hill. It ranges -in thickness from about 4 to 6 feet; and above it are sands and gravel, -the latter varying in thickness from about 2 to 6 feet, and of much -the same character as that of the Warren Hill pits, but containing far -less chalk. The sand occasionally comes down in pipes or pockets into -the clay, and some of the worked flints occur in it, as well as in the -clay. Many of these are merely roughly-chipped splinters, but several -well-wrought forms have also been found. - -[Illustration: Fig. 424.—Icklingham. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 425.—High Lodge. 1∕2] - -Among them is an oval implement of a common River-drift type, 4 1∕2 -inches long, which, with three or four others of the same kind, was -found in the upper sands and gravel. From the clay itself are several -large side-scrapers, or choppers, made from broad flakes, 4 or 5 inches -long, and in form similar to the specimen from Santon Downham, Fig. -437, and of the same character as the implements from the cave of Le -Moustier.[2518] Besides these, there are several other large flakes -worked along the edge into side-scrapers, and presenting a Le Moustier -form.[2519] Another is like that from Thetford, Fig. 431, and worked -along both edges. Even external flakes have been utilized; one of -these, 4 inches long, having been neatly worked at one end |549| into -a segmental edge. Another large implement, 5 1∕2 inches long and 3 -inches broad, is ovate-lanceolate in form, flat on one face, and worked -to a sharp edge all round. Several others have been found of the same -type. I have a considerable number from the Trigg collection. - -One of the most beautifully formed of these implements from High -Lodge Hill is shown in Fig. 425. It has been made from a broad, flat -truncated flake, with a well-marked cone of percussion. The two sides -have been carefully trimmed to a curved edge, by secondary chipping, -and the edge itself has been finished by a subsequent process of finer -chipping. The angles where the truncated chisel-like end joins the -sides have also been retouched, but a portion of the sharp edge is left -in its original condition. The edge formed by the outer face of the -flake with its flat butt-end has also been re-chipped, and in one place -appears to have been bruised by an unskilful blow. The workmanship -generally is of a finer and neater character than is usual on the -implements found in the river gravels. In form and character this -instrument is remarkably similar to some of those found in the cave of -Le Moustier in the Dordogne. - -[Illustration: Fig. 426.—High Lodge. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 426A.—High Lodge. 1∕2] - -Others, again, resemble the scrapers from the surface and the caves. -One of these is engraved full size in Fig. 426. The edge is more acute -than usual with scrapers, perhaps in consequence of the curvature of -the inner face of the flake from which it was made. - -Another example with a straight terminal edge at an angle of 80° to the -side is shown on the scale of one half in Fig. 426A. - -The flint of the High Lodge implements is but little altered in -character, but has either remained black or has been stained of a deep -brown; the angles and edges being still as sharp as the day when they -were formed. In this respect they resemble the worked flints from the -brick-earth of Hoxne. Those from the brick-earth of the valley of the -Somme are usually quite white and porcellanous. |550| - -I have seen fragments of a molar of _Elephas_, probably _primigenius_, -from the clay at this spot, and also a bone of a ruminant, probably -_Cervus megaceros_. - - * * * * * - -As will subsequently be seen, there appears some reason for believing -that at a remote period, the River Lark took a northerly, instead of a -north-westerly, course from the neighbourhood of Mildenhall, and thus -joined the Little Ouse instead of the Ouse itself; so that this pit -may possibly be connected with the old channel of the stream. On the -slope of the hill to the east of Eriswell is gravel of much the same -character as that at Warren Hill, but in which as yet few implements -have been found. I have, however, one of ovate form from Holywell Row, -near Eriswell, and another, not unlike Fig. 471, from the surface at -Cardwell, about three miles farther north. To the east of Lakenheath, -still farther to the north, is an isolated hill, near Maid’s Cross, -capped with gravel, in which flint implements have been found. It will -be best to describe this spot when treating of the discoveries that -have been made in the valley of the Little Ouse. - -The source of this stream and that of the Waveney may be regarded as -one, inasmuch as both take their rise in a fen crossed by the road at -Lopham Ford; the one river running east, and the other west, of the -road. By the time it reaches Thetford, however, a distance of about -12 miles, the Little Ouse has been joined by the Ixworth stream and -the Thet, so that the area of ground drained by it is considerably -more than would at first sight appear probable, being upwards of 200 -square miles. With the exception of a broad flint flake, found by Mr. -Trigg at Santon Downham,[2520] the first discovery of flint implements -in the gravels of the Little Ouse was made in 1865 at Redhill, near -Thetford, by a labourer from Icklingham, who had been trained to search -for implements in the gravel pits in his own parish. These specimens he -brought to Mr. Trigg, who subsequently obtained others at Whitehill, -farther down the valley on the same—or Norfolk—side of the river; and -on my visiting the spot with him in December, 1865, Mr. Trigg found in -my presence a well-formed pointed implement in some gravel at Santon -Downham, on the opposite—or Suffolk—side. Since then the discoveries -have extended farther down the valley, and numerous implements have -been found at several localities in the neighbourhood of Brandon, and -at Shrub Hill, in the parish of Feltwell, Norfolk. |551| - -In June, 1866,[2521] the late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S., who had long -carried on investigations in the district, communicated a paper to -the Geological Society on the subject of the discoveries at Thetford, -and again in April, 1869,[2522] a second paper on the discoveries of -flint implements in Norfolk and Suffolk, with some observations on the -theories accounting for their distribution, on which I shall have to -make some comments hereafter. - -The highest point up the valley of the Little Ouse at which, up to -the present time, flint implements have been discovered in the gravel -on its slopes, is Redhill, on the Norfolk side of the river, about a -mile north-west of Thetford. The gravel at this place is coarse in -character, and consists principally of sub-angular flints, some of -large size, mixed with a few pebbles derived from beds of the Glacial -series, and deposited in a red sandy matrix. It forms a terrace running -nearly parallel with the present stream, and ranging from about 12 feet -to nearly 40 feet above its level. In places, the gravel is from 12 to -16 feet in thickness,[2523] the largest stones, as usual, occurring -towards its base, in which part of the gravel the greater number, but -by no means all, of the flint implements occur, as some are dispersed -throughout the whole thickness of the mass. Occasionally they have been -found in pipes of gravel, let down into the chalk by means of water -charged with carbonic acid eroding its upper surface. Sandy seams[2524] -are, as usual, interbedded with the gravel; and in one of these, about -10 feet below the surface, I found shells of _Helix_, _Bythinia_, -_Cyclas_, _Pisidium_, _Ancylus_, and _Succinea_. Of mammalian remains, -those of _Elephas primigenius_, ox, horse, and stag have occurred. - - * * * * * - -A very large number of implements have been found in the gravel at -Redhill, of which specimens exist in the Christy Collection, the -Blackmore Museum, and in numerous private collections.[2525] Those -selected for engraving here, are all in my own possession. |552| - -[Illustration: Fig. 427.—Redhill, Thetford. 1∕2] - -Fig. 427 shows a remarkably fine specimen, stained all over of a deep -ochreous red, though slightly mottled, owing to the original structure -of the flint from which it was chipped. The angles are to a small -extent waterworn. On what is in the figure the left side of the base, -a portion of the original crust of the flint has been left, so as to -form a protuberance at that part, instead of the edge being continued -all round the instrument. This protuberance is well adapted to fit -into the hand, like that of the Picts’ knife, described at page 345, -so that this may have been a cutting tool intended to be grasped. -I have another specimen of nearly the same size, and with the same -protuberance, from Santon Downham, and one of the implements from -Southampton presents the same feature, which, indeed, is not unusual. -A flat surface is frequently left on the sides of the ovate |553| -implements in or about the same position. This flat space has been -referred to by the late Mr. Flower,[2526] who considered it intended to -receive the thumb of the right hand, and not to go against the palm or -the fore-finger, as suggested by myself long ago.[2527] - -[Illustration: Fig. 428.—Redhill, Thetford. 1∕2] - -Fig. 428 represents another singularly fine specimen of a very uncommon -form, it being much more acutely pointed than usual. It is stained all -over of a deep ochreous colour, and its angles are still sharp. It has -been boldly but symmetrically chipped, and has a thick, heavy butt, -well adapted for being held in the hand. As is the case with almost -all these implements, an analogous form has been found in the |554| -gravels of the valley of the Somme. The magnificent implement from the -gravel of Vaudricourt, near Béthune, which was exhibited at Paris in -1867, was also much of this type. Its length is 10 1∕4 inches; that of -the Thetford specimen being 8 1∕2 inches. It would be an endless task -to attempt to engrave all the varieties of form found at this place, -but Mr. Trigg is correct in his remark as to the comparative absence of -the flat oval form with a cutting edge all round. The most common type -here is the ovate-lanceolate, like Pl. I., Fig. 5, rather thick towards -the butt-end. Mr. Flower has figured a fine lanceolate specimen, and -one of more ovate form from this place.[2528] - -[Illustration: Fig. 429.—Redhill, Thetford. 1∕2] - -The finely-wrought symmetrical specimens are rarer at Redhill than at -Santon Downham; but here, as elsewhere in this district, implements -are occasionally found of what has been aptly termed the shoe-shaped -type, of which an example is shown in Fig. 429. The form is flat on one -face, the other being brought to a central ridge rising towards the -butt, which is usually rounded and obtusely truncated. In this specimen -the greater part of the butt-end or heel of the shoe exhibits the -original crust of the nodule of flint from which the |555| implement -was formed. The point, which is usually brought to a semicircular sharp -edge, has been broken in old times either by use or by attrition in the -gravel. Most of these shoe-shaped instruments have been formed from -large spalls of flint, so that the flat face has been the result of a -single blow, though occasionally retouched by subsequent chipping. - -[Illustration: Fig. 430.—Redhill, Thetford. 1∕2] - -The implement shown in Fig. 430 is of this character, but is too thin, -in proportion to its size, to represent the typical shoe-shape. It has -been formed from a large external flake, the bulb of percussion being -at the lower left-hand corner of the figure, but on the opposite face -to that shown. The flake has been trimmed into shape by chipping along -the edges on both faces, so that not above half of the original inner -face remains free from secondary working. The surface is, as usual, -stained of a rich ochreous brown. - -[Illustration: Fig. 431.—Redhill, Thetford. 1∕2] - -A considerable number of flint flakes of various sizes and shapes have -been found at Redhill, many of them showing signs of use and wear on -their edges, and some being worked to a quadrant of a circle or more, -at the point, so as to make them almost assume the form of scrapers. I -have one external flake in which is worked a curved recess, as if by -scraping some hard cylindrical object, such as a round bone. The flake -engraved as Fig. 431 was found by myself in December, 1865, and has had -both its edges retouched by secondary chipping. The edge thus produced -seems to have been worn away by use. I have a rather larger flake, -presenting precisely the same characteristics, from the valley gravel -of the Somme, at Porte Marcadé, Abbeville. - -A little lower down the river, and on the same side as Redhill, is -|556| the spot to which the name of Whitehall has been given by Mr. -Trigg. The gravel is composed of similar materials to that at Redhill, -of which it may be said to form a continuation, except that the matrix -is whiter. Mr. Trigg has informed me that beneath the gravel are beds -of red sand, and that at one time, a section was exposed of 26 feet in -depth. Of late, the gravel at this spot has been but little worked, and -but few implements have been found in it. - -Mr. Trigg[2529] records having obtained three flint implements from -this place, one of which, at present in the Blackmore Museum at -Salisbury, is engraved as Fig. 432. Its surface has become white and -decomposed, and is partially covered by an incrustation of carbonate of -lime. A part of the edge, towards the point, on the right side of the -figure, appears to be worn away by use. - -Remains of _Elephas primigenius_ and horse have been found here, but no -land or freshwater shells. - -Between Whitehill and Santon Downham, but on the Suffolk slope of the -valley, a considerable quantity of gravel has been dug on Thetford -Warren. Though the gravel is of much the same character as at Redhill, -no implements appear to have been found in it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 432.—Whitehill, Thetford. 1∕2] - -About three miles north-west of Thetford, and also on the Suffolk -side of the Little Ouse, is Santon Downham Warren, on the slope of -which towards the river, is a considerable expanse of gravelly beds, -which have been largely excavated for road-making purposes. On the -sketch map given by Mr. Flower,[2530] this place is erroneously called -Whitehill. As has been already stated, the first implement from -this spot was discovered by Mr. Trigg, when in my company, in 1865. -Since that time, it has produced, at a moderate estimate, several -hundred specimens, some of them affording the finest instances of the -skill of the Palæolithic Period which have been found in Britain, -or indeed elsewhere. The gravel is at a somewhat higher level above -the river than that at Redhill, but resembles it in character. It -contains, besides flints, a few of the quartzite pebbles of the New -Red conglomerate, which have been derived from the Glacial beds and -Boulder Clay which cap the chalk hills on either side of the river. The -gravel is of considerable thickness, so much so that in places, caves -of sufficient magnitude to allow of a man standing inside, have been -formed within it, in consequence of the lower beds being let down into -the |557| chalk, through its erosion by water charged with carbonic -acid. The same phenomenon has been observed at Bromehill, the spot next -to be mentioned; and some connection was at one time supposed to exist -between these cavities and the implements often found in and near them. -I think, however, that the explanation[2531] that I have elsewhere -given of their origin will be deemed satisfactory. No testaceous -remains have been found here, and mammalian remains are very scarce. - -Among the implements from Santon Downham, the almond-shaped[2532] type -seems to predominate, though other forms are also found. - -[Illustration: Fig. 433.—Santon Downham. 1∕2] - -A very elegant pointed specimen, in my own collection, is shown in -Fig. 433. It is chipped with great skill, and brought to a fine point, -the butt-end being comparatively blunt, so that it may have been used -in the hand without being in any way hafted. At the shoulder, shown -in the side-view, a part of the original crust of the flint is left, -and small portions are also left on the other face. In form, this -implement curiously resembles some of those from Hoxne, and that from -Gray’s |558| Inn Lane (Fig. 451). Like many of the implements from the -gravel, it is cracked in various directions, apparently from inward -expansion, and would break up into fragments with a slight blow. A very -sharp point, such as that presented by this specimen, is not uncommonly -met with in implements found at Santon Downham. - -[Illustration: Fig. 434.—Santon Downham. 1∕2] - -The original of Fig. 434 is also in my own collection, and is cracked -in a similar manner. It is uniformly stained of a light buff colour, as -are many of the implements from this spot, and has dendritic markings -upon it, and in places, particles of ferruginous sand adhering to the -surface. It is fairly symmetrical in contour, with an edge all round, -which is somewhat blunted at what is the base in the figure. This -edge, however, is not in one plane, but considerably curved, so that -when seen sideways it forms an ogee sweep, even more distinctly than -appears from the figure. I have other implements of the same and of -more pointed forms, with similarly curved edges, both from France, and -other parts of England, but whether this curvature was intentional, it -is impossible to say. In some cases it is so marked that it can hardly -be the result of accident, and the curve is so far as I have observed, -almost without exception Ƨ, and not S. If not intentional, the form -may be the result of all the blows by which the implement was finally -chipped out, having been given on the one face, on one side, and on the -opposite face on the other. - -Fig. 435 represents an implement of porcellanous, slightly ochreous -|559| flint, found at that place, and now in the Fitch collection -at Norwich. The late Mr. Robert Fitch, F.S.A., kindly allowed me to -engrave it, as well as the specimen next to be described. Implements -of this broad, ovate-lanceolate form are extremely uncommon, and this -is a remarkably symmetrical specimen, of good workmanship, and almost -equally convex on the two faces. A few implements, almost circular in -outline, have been found at this spot. - -Another specimen from Nowton, Fig. 419C, shows almost the same form. In -the Toulouse Museum is an implement (5 inches) in flint from Clermont, -about 18 miles south of that town, found with remains of mammoth and -reindeer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 435.—Santon Downham. 1∕2] - -The original of Fig. 436 presents an example of another rare form, -almost crescent-like in character. There is frequently a slight want of -symmetry between the two sides of the ordinary ovate implements, which -gives them a tendency to assume this form, but I have never seen it so -fully developed as in some of the implements from Santon Downham. - -Another somewhat uncommon form is shown in Fig. 437, the original of -which, with several others, was presented to the Christy Collection by -the late Rev. W. W. Poley. It has been formed from a large broad flake, -the flat face of which is not shown in the figure, and has been chipped -to a bevelled segmental edge, so that it assumes the form of a ‘broad’ -or ‘side’ scraper, resembling in character some of the implements from -the cave of Le Moustier in the Dordogne. - -In the Greenwell Collection is a thick flake from Santon Downham, -4 1∕4 inches long and 2 1∕4 inches wide, trimmed at the butt-end to a -semicircular scraper-like edge. - -Viewed as a whole, the implements from Santon Downham present a higher -degree of finish, and a greater skill in chipping the required forms -out of flint, than those found in the gravels of any other part |560| -of the valley of the Little Ouse, or, it may perhaps be added, of -England or France. - -Following the course of the river, the next spot at which flint -implements have been found in the gravel, is a pit known as the -Bromehill or Broomhill Pit, in the parish of Weeting, and on the -Norfolk side of the Little Ouse, about a mile and a quarter east of -Brandon. The gravel here is at a lower level than that at Santon -Downham, or even Redhill, its base not being more than six or eight -feet above the river, to which it is close. - -[Illustration: Fig. 436.—Santon Downham. 1∕2] - -The late Mr. Flower[2533] has described the spot, but his description -of the section, and of the position in which the implements are found, -does not completely coincide with mine. On the occasion of one of my -visits to this pit, in July,[2534] 1868, in company with him, the -section exposed was 24 feet in height, from the chalk at its base to -the superficial soil at the summit. The upper part of the section -showed |561| sand, with a few gravelly seams, and from 8 to 10 feet -in thickness; at the base of this, a dark ferruginous band, a few -inches in thickness; then some 8 or 9 feet of ochreous gravel, with -a red sandy matrix, which was separated by a band of grey sand from -the lower beds of gravel, which contained a very large percentage -of rolled chalk and seams of chalky sand. Below the chalky gravel, -ferruginous beds also sometimes occur, containing large blocks of -flint. In the chalky gravel (the base of which is but a few feet above -the level of the river) implements are rarely found, but what there -are, are usually black. In the upper gravel they are more abundant, and -ochreous in tint. It was in this gravel that I had the opportunity of -examining one of the cavities already mentioned; and in the pipe formed -through the more chalky gravel into which a part of the upper bed had -been let down. I witnessed the finding of a pointed flint implement. -In character, the implements found at this spot much resemble those -from Redhill. They are, however, usually more rolled and waterworn. -There are but few pebbles from the Glacial Beds in the gravel, but -among these Canon Greenwell has found one of quartzite, with the ends -battered as if from its having been used as a hammer-stone. - -[Illustration: Fig. 437.—Santon Downham.] - -Remains of _Elephas primigenius_, and of horse, have been found here, -but as yet no land or freshwater shells. - -The only specimen from this spot which I have thought it worth while -to engrave, is shown in Fig. 438. It presents a much narrower form -than is usual among the River-drift implements, and in outline closely -approximates to some of the neolithic rough-hewn celts. It is, |562| -however, much more convex on one face than on the other, and presents -what are apparently signs of wear along both the sides and the ends, -the broader of which is somewhat gouge-like in character. - -In addition to the pit in the bluff facing the river, there is another -in the same gravel, but on the other side of the railway, which has -been here cut through the Drift deposits. In this also implements have -been found. - -The next locality to be mentioned is on the Suffolk side of the -river, about two miles S.W. of Brandon Station. This spot has already -been described by Mr. Flower,[2535] under the name of Gravel Hill, -Brandon; it is also known as Brandon Down, or Brandon Field; and from -the contiguity of one of the pits to Brick-kiln Farm, Wangford, some -specimens from this place have been labelled as found at Wangford. - -[Illustration: Fig. 438.—Bromehill, Brandon. 1∕2] - -The gravel is worked on both sides of the point of a high ridge of -land, nearly at right angles to the course of the river, and about a -mile distant from it. The summit of the ridge between two of the pits -was found by Mr. Flower to be 91 feet above the level of the river at -its nearest point. The surface of the ground where gravel has been -dug is lower only by a few feet, and the beds possibly extend through -the ridge. Between the ridge and the higher land to the S.W. a valley -intervenes, along which the road to Mildenhall passes, so that the hill -on which the gravel reposes is isolated. The gravel is usually not -more than 10 feet in thickness, but often less, and it rests in some -places immediately on the chalk. It contains a very large proportion -of quartzite pebbles from the New Red Conglomerate, in some spots -more than 50 per cent. of the whole, as well as fragments of jasper, -clay-slate, quartz, greenstone and limestone; all derived from Glacial -Beds, from which also many of the flints appear to have come. The -matrix is of coarse red sand, and there is usually some thickness of -sand above the gravel. In some few places there are beds formed almost -exclusively of the quartzite pebbles; but Mr. Flower’s estimate of -their forming three fourths of the whole mass of gravel is, I believe, -very far in excess. - -Flint implements have been found here in considerable numbers—at all -events, many hundreds. I have myself found several, and many flakes, -but all in gravel already dug and not _in situ_. They appear to occur -at all depths; but, as usual, for the most part, near |563| the base, -and occasionally resting on the chalk. A large proportion of them are -very rude, though they were evidently chipped into shape for some -particular purpose, and approximate to the more symmetrical specimens -in general form. It seems hardly worth while to figure any of these -roughly chipped implements, the character of which was no doubt in some -measure determined by the shape of the original blocks of flint from -which they were fashioned. - -[Illustration: Fig. 439.—Gravel Hill, Brandon. 1∕2] - -Mixed with these ruder tools or weapons, are some of much higher design -and finish. Mr. Flower had some remarkably beautiful specimens, in form -much like Fig. 472, from Milford Hill, two of which he bequeathed to -me. One of these is rather more than 9 inches long and 4 1∕2 inches -broad. Some of the flattened oval implements, such as are common at -Icklingham, occur also at Gravel Hill. I have one approaching the -circular form, the length being 3 1∕4 inches and the breadth 3 1∕8. -Those which I have selected for engraving are for the most part in my -own collection. Fig. 439 shows an unusually thick pointed specimen of -dark flint, with ochreous stains in places. This implement has been -dexterously made from a nodule of flint, |564| the original outer -skin of which is visible along the greater part of the ridge of one of -the faces. It has also been left on part of the butt, which, though -presenting some rather sharp angles, may have been intended to be held -in the hand. - -[Illustration: Fig. 440.—Gravel Hill, Brandon. 1∕2] - -I am not quite sure as to the locality along the course of the Little -Ouse from which the implement shown in Fig. 440 was obtained by Mr. -Flower, to whom it belonged, but it probably came from Gravel Hill. It -presents the peculiarity of being almost as much pointed at one end as -at the other. The depression in the centre is the result of a large -flake having been removed, and is probably accidental. Though pointed -at both ends, it seems probable that only one was intended for use, as -a small flat surface has been left at the other end, which unfits it -for cutting or piercing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 441.—Gravel Hill, Brandon. 1∕2] - -Flakes and spalls of flint are abundant in the gravel, though not often -noticed by the workmen. That shown in Fig. 441 was found by myself near -|565| Brick-kiln Farm. Except that the surface has undergone more -decomposition than is usual with flakes of the Neolithic Period, and -that it bears upon it some of those bright shining specks, so common on -flints from the gravel, there is nothing to distinguish it from one of -much more modern date. These bright or polished spots, which are very -minute, seem to indicate points of contact with other stones, and the -lustre upon them is probably due in part to pressure and in part to -friction. They are most apparent on dark-coloured flint, and afford one -of the tests of the authenticity of a worked flint professing to belong -to the River-drift Period. - -[Illustration: Fig. 442.—Gravel Hill, Brandon. 1∕2] - -One of the most interesting features at Gravel Hill is that there, for -the first time, were found cutting stone implements of the Palæolithic -Period formed of other materials than flint, chert, or quartzite. That -shown in Fig. 442, though so identical in form with many of the |566| -implements of flint, is formed of felstone, no doubt derived either -from the Boulder Clay or from some other of the Glacial Beds. One face -appears to show a considerable portion of the original surface of the -block of stone from which the instrument was fashioned, but the whole -surface is now somewhat decomposed, so much so, that it is difficult -to determine with certainty the nature of the material, which by some -has been regarded as diorite rather than felstone. One face has been -carefully chipped, the flakes having been removed in much the same -manner as if the substance wrought had been flint. At one part of the -other face there is a considerable shoulder between the central ridge -and the edge near the butt, where, owing to the ‘grain’ of the stone, -the flakes have run in and not come off kindly. The angles and edges -are slightly rounded. - -Even the quartzite pebbles so abundant in this neighbourhood, were -occasionally utilized instead of flint. Mr. Flower obtained two pointed -instruments manufactured from such pebbles, one of which he bequeathed -to me. Lord Northesk had another well-formed ovate specimen. Another -has already been mentioned as having been found near Icklingham. -Another instrument, of a different form, was found by myself in the -gravel near Brick-kiln Farm, and is represented in Fig. 443. It is -a broad flake, having a well-marked cone of percussion on the flat -face. The other face shows, over nearly its whole extent, the original -surface of the quartzite pebble from which it has been formed. It has, -however, had a portion removed on one side of the cone, apparently to -produce a symmetrical form; and the whole of the edge at the broad end -of the flake has been trimmed by chipping from the flat face, so as to -produce a bevelled edge, which is now somewhat rounded, either by wear -in the gravel or by use. In character this implement is like those from -Santon Downham and Highbury (Figs. 437 and 453), or the side-scrapers -from the cave of Le Moustier. - -[Illustration: Fig. 443.—Gravel Hill, Brandon. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -On the opposite side of Wangford Fen, rather more than 2 1∕2 miles -S.W. of Gravel Hill, and 3∕4 mile E. of Lakenheath, close to Maid’s -Cross, is an isolated hill, about three miles distant from the Little -Ouse, locally known as the Broom, but distinguished on the old Ordnance -Map by the words, “The Old Churchyard.” The spot has been described -by Mr. Flower,[2536] with whom I have examined it. The greater part -of the hill is capped with gravel, in places |567| from 8 to 10 feet -thick, and of much the same character as that at Gravel Hill, but less -ferruginous, and not containing so many quartzite pebbles. The beds -here have not been excavated to the same extent as those near Brandon, -the gravel being only dug for the repairs of the parish roads; but -several well-fashioned implements have been found in them, mostly of -pointed form. - -[Illustration: Fig. 444.—Valley of the Lark, or of the Little Ouse. 1∕2] - -Some implements have also been found at a lower level in the gravel on -the slope of the hill towards the Fens, and close to the main street of -Lakenheath; amongst them one of ovate form most skilfully chipped into -shape. - - * * * * * - -The curious implement shown in Fig. 444, which was presented |568| to -me by Canon Greenwell, F.R.S., was procured from a Lakenheath workman, -but it is not certain whether it was found in the gravel near that -place, or in one of the pits near Brandon. It differs from all other -implements that I have seen from the River-drift, in having an oblique -hatchet-like edge at the end, so that the side-view somewhat resembles -that of the iron _Francisca_, of Saxon times. A considerable portion -of the original crust of the flint remains at the butt-end. Until -other specimens of the same form are discovered, it is hardly safe to -regard this as furnishing an example of a new type of implement; yet -its symmetry and character seem to prove that it was designedly chipped -into this form, to fulfil some special purpose. - - * * * * * - -It will be best to postpone any remarks as to the probable connection -of the beds near Lakenheath with the ancient course of the Lark and -Little Ouse, until I come to consider the geological aspects of the -whole case. - -It was from a place called Botany Bay, near Brandon, that Mr. S. B. J. -Skertchly, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey, first obtained evidence on -which he founded the existence of the beds that he termed Brandon Beds, -which though containing palæolithic implements he regarded as occurring -below the Chalky Boulder-clay, and as, therefore, of Interglacial date. -The evidence that the implement-bearing beds are, at all events in the -Eastern Counties, later than the Boulder Clay is now beyond all cavil, -and, so far as I could judge, the supposed Boulder Clay lying above -the implement bed at Botany Bay was not in its original position, but -was either _remanié_ or had slipped down from a higher level. It is, -however, but fair to state that the Rev. O. Fisher,[2537] F.G.S., has -accepted Mr. Skertchly’s views, at all events with regard to some of -the localities, as to there having been three successive Palæolithic -Periods in Britain, each preceded and succeeded by a Glacial -Period.[2538] I can only say that I am not prepared to accept such a -view. - -I must now proceed to describe another of the River-drift deposits in -the more immediate neighbourhood of the Little Ouse, and lower down its -course, at Shrub Hill, in the parish of Feltwell, Norfolk. - -This too has been described by Mr. Flower in the paper to which I have -already so frequently referred. It has also been described by Mr. H. -Trigg,[2539] to whom flakes from this deposit were |569| brought, so -early as 1865. It caps a low-lying hill in the middle of the Fens, -about 8 miles nearly due W. of Brandon, and 1 mile N. of the present -course of the Little Ouse, and just to the N. of Fodder Fen Drove on -the old Ordnance Map. Mr. Flower states that the gravel here is about -12 feet in thickness, but that at the surface it is only 6 feet above -the river. Of course, however, the thickness varies, being often less -than 8 feet; and I am inclined to think that the elevation above -the river is somewhat underestimated. The gravel consists mainly of -subangular flints, mixed with some rolled chalk, a considerable number -of quartzite pebbles, and rolled fragments of other old rocks, derived -from the Glacial Beds higher up the river. It is in a very sandy -matrix, more or less ochreous at different spots. In places, the sand -predominates. - -The Drift-beds rest upon the Gault clay, and not, as in most of the -cases already described, upon the Chalk. The implements found here -occur usually towards the base of the gravel, and as a rule are rolled -and waterworn. They have been found in considerable numbers, and of -various types, including many flakes. It will be remembered that a -barbed arrow-head and a partially polished stone celt were also found -here; from which it seems probable that in Neolithic times, Shrub -Hill formed a habitable spot in the midst of the Fens, or possibly -of the watery waste since choked up by vegetation. Teeth of _Elephas -primigenius_,[2540] and fragments of the horns of deer, and teeth of -some ruminant—probably deer also—and of a small horse, have been found -at Shrub Hill in the gravel, but I have searched in vain for testaceous -remains. - - * * * * * - -Among the implements found at Shrub Hill is one which is probably the -largest of its class as yet discovered in England or France, and which -was presented by the late Mr. Flower to the Christy Collection. It is -fully 11 1∕2 inches long and 5 1∕4 inches broad near the base. Its -greatest thickness is 3 inches. One face is much more highly ridged -than the other, and it has been boldly chipped with large facets. In -general form it resembles Fig. 445 from the same locality, but is -somewhat thicker and more elongated in its proportions, and is, as -nearly as may be, six times the length of the figure. It weighs 5 lbs. -7 oz. - -An interesting account of large and heavy examples of palæolithic -implements has been compiled by Mr. Worthington Smith.[2541] The -heaviest is one formed of quartzite in the Central Museum at Madras. It -is 9 3∕4 inches long and 5 3∕4 wide with a weight of 6 1∕4 lbs. - -The small specimen here shown as Fig. 445 was found in 1866, and is -less waterworn than is usual with Shrub-Hill implements, though its -|570| surface is beautifully sand-polished. It is of dark brown flint, -in places mottled with a fine amber colour. It shows a part of the -original crust of the flint at its base. - -[Illustration: Fig. 445.—Shrub Hill, Feltwell. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 446.—Shrub Hill, Feltwell. 1∕2] - -The same is the case with the implement shown in Fig. 446, which also -is in my own collection. It is a specimen of a thin broad type |571| -occasionally met with. Towards the point the edge bears all the -appearance of having been worn away by use as a scraping tool. - -[Illustration: Fig. 447.—Shrub Hill, Feltwell. 1∕2] - -Another implement of somewhat the same character, but thicker at the -butt, and having the sides rather straighter, so as to be more acutely -pointed, is shown in Fig. 447. The angles are much waterworn, and the -greater part of the base shows the natural crust of the flint. - -The only other specimen which I have thought it worth while to engrave -from this locality (Fig. 448), shows a considerably smaller example of -the crescent-like implements, such as that already figured from Santon -Downham. It is, however, of coarser workmanship, and not so broad in -proportion to its length. - -[Illustration: Fig. 448.—Shrub Hill, Feltwell. 1∕2] - -Most of the forms which are found higher up the valley of the Little -Ouse occur also at Shrub Hill, and include some of the flattened oval -type. But as a rule, the general _facies_ of the implements is more -like that of |572| Redhill and Bromehill than that of either Santon -Downham or of Gravel Hill, Brandon. - -The Little Ouse joins the main river about 4 miles N.W. of Shrub Hill; -and 5 miles N. of the junction the Ouse receives another affluent—the -Wissey or Stoke River, draining 243 square miles—along the course of -which, however, no palæolithic implements have as yet been found. The -same is the case with the valley of the Nar or Setchy, a river which -joins the Ouse just above King’s Lynn, a few miles before it discharges -into the Wash, and which drains an area of 131 square miles. - -Along a great portion of its lower course the Ouse runs through a Fen -country, where, of course, no gravel is to be seen; but at Ash Wicken -and Leziate, a few miles E. of King’s Lynn, and at South Wootton, about -2 miles to its N., the late Rev. John Gunn, F.G.S., found Drift-beds -of apparently fluviatile character. In the gravels in a side valley -leading into the marshes, near the School at South Wootton, Mr. W. -H. Houghton, having been set upon the search for flint instruments -by Mr. Gunn, found, in 1884, a tongue-shaped specimen, 5 1∕4 inches -long, in form much like that from Shrub Hill (Fig. 447), but having -the whole surface worked, and having the flatter face slightly concave -longitudinally. It is stained all over of an ochreous colour, and shows -signs of use near the point, a part of which has been broken off. The -angles, though not sharp, are not waterworn. The late Mr. James Wyatt, -F.G.S., of Bedford, also found, in the year 1870, in gravel in a pit -near Lynn—the base of which is seldom reached on account of its lying -below the level of the water—an oval flint implement, well formed and -deeply stained, and another of rude workmanship. - -Many miles to the east, but still in Norfolk, there is seen in the -cliff at West Runton,[2542] near Cromer, what appears to be the channel -of an old river, filled up with gravelly deposits. In these, at a depth -of 12 feet from the surface, and above a black freshwater bed, Mr. A. -C. Savin, of Cromer, in 1878, found _in situ_ a fine well-wrought ovate -implement of flint 4 3∕4 inches long. A few years later I found on the -sea-shore below, a large ochreous flake, apparently palæolithic, which -I gave to Mr. Savin. - -About 3 miles S.W. of Runton, near Gallows or Gibbet Corner, in -Aylmerton parish, Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell found, in 1882, an ochreous -implement from the gravels capping the hill, not far from Sherringham -Heath. At East Runton,[2543] in the pre-glacial “Forest Bed,” Mr. W. J. -Lewis Abbott thinks that he has found worked flints. I fail, however, -to see any distinct marks of human workmanship upon his specimens. - -With these discoveries in Norfolk and those near the mouth of the -river, my account of the basin of the Ouse ceases, but before -proceeding southwards I must record some others of the same kind. - -Yorkshire lies far away from the usual scenes of palæolithic -discoveries, but I have seen a pointed implement (3 3∕4 inches), in -form like Fig. 419, that was found on the surface at Huntow, near -Bridlington. There is no record of its having been associated with any -remains of the Quaternary fauna. - -In the first edition of this book I recorded my finding an implement -in form like Fig. 434, on a heap of stones near King’s Langley, within -|573| a short distance of the railway. As the staining and incrustation -upon it were unlike those on the stones of the local gravel, and -corresponded with those on the flints in the ballast of the railway, I -was inclined to refer the implement to that source, and to believe that -it had been brought from Oundle with the gravel, at that time used for -ballast. A visit to the pit proved unfruitful, but I suggested that in -all probability a prolonged search might result in adding the valley of -the Nene to those in which palæolithic implements have been found. My -suggestion has now been justified. In 1882 Mr. T. George, F.G.S., found -in a ballast pit at Elton, about 5 miles N. of Oundle, an ochreous -pointed implement, in colour and appearance identical with mine from -Langley, and kindly added it to my collection. - -At Overton Longville, or Little Orton, two miles S.W. of Peterborough, -a spot visited by Sir Joseph Prestwich and myself in search of -palæolithic implements about 1861, some were found a few years ago by -the late Dowager Marchioness of Huntly.[2544] - - * * * * * - -The next valley to be considered is that of the Waveney, a river which, -after a circuitous course of 53 miles, joins the Yare a few miles S.W. -of Yarmouth, and passes through Breydon Water to the sea. It takes its -rise, as has already been stated, at Lopham Ford, close by the source -of the Little Ouse. - -Up to the present time there is but one locality known in its valley, -where palæolithic flint implements have been found; but this is of -peculiar interest, on account of the discoveries having been observed -and recorded before the close of the last century, and, therefore, -at a time when speculations as to the great antiquity of the human -race can hardly be said to have commenced. And yet Mr. John Frere, -F.R.S.,[2545] in the concise and able account which he gives of the -discovery, shows himself to have been so much struck by the situation -in which the implements were found as to be tempted to refer them “to -a very remote period, indeed, even beyond that of the present world.” -Mr. Frere states that the implements or weapons, as he terms them, -lay in great numbers at the depth of about 12 feet, in a stratified -soil, which was dug into for the purpose of raising clay for bricks; -and he gives a section of the strata. He states that shells, which he -erroneously regarded as marine, occurred in sand at a depth of 9 feet, -together with bones of great size, and that below this, in a gravelly -soil, the flints were found. His account is illustrated by excellent -engravings of two of the implements, which I was enabled to reproduce -in illustration of my first Essay on Flint Implements from the Drift, -in 1859, and which have since been copied, on a smaller |574| scale in -Lubbock’s “Prehistoric Times.”[2546] Mr. Frere presented some specimens -of the Hoxne implements to the Society of Antiquaries, which are still -preserved in their museum; and it was my seeing these, on my return -from Amiens and Abbeville, in 1859, that again directed attention to -this most interesting discovery. - -Sir Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., in his admirable Papers on Flint -Implements and their containing Beds, published in the _Philosophical -Transactions_[2547] for 1860 and 1864, has given full details of the -contour of the surrounding country, and of the section at that time -exposed in the brick-field visited by Mr. Frere more than sixty years -before, which is still in operation. It is situated to the S.W. of the -village of Hoxne, in Suffolk, and close to Fairstead Farm; Hoxne itself -being about 4 miles to the east and slightly to the south of the market -town of Diss, which is on the other, or Norfolk, side of the Waveney. - -The Drift deposits rest in a kind of trough, in the Boulder Clay[2548] -which caps all the neighbouring hills, and forms a sort of table-land -through which the small valleys are cut. The top of the freshwater beds -reaches within 6 or 8 feet of the summit of the hill of which they -form an unbroken and uniform part. Their upper surface is about 40 -feet above the neighbouring Goldstream, from which they are not more -than 200 yards distant, and 50 feet above the Waveney, of which the -Goldstream is a tributary, and which flows within about a mile of the -spot. The present configuration of the surface is totally unconnected -with these beds of Drift, and must have been produced after they were -deposited. - - * * * * * - -The part of the pit which was being worked in 1859 exhibited the -following section:— - - 1. Surface soil, with a few flints 2 feet. - - 2. Brick-earth, consisting of a light-brown sandy - clay, divided by an irregular layer of carbonaceous - clay 12 feet. - - 3. Yellow sub-angular gravel 6 in. to 1 foot. - - 4. Grey clay, in places peaty, and containing - bones, wood, and freshwater and land shells 2 to 4 feet. - - 5. Sub-angular flint gravel 2 feet. - - 6. Blue clay, containing freshwater shells 10 feet. - - 7. Peaty clay, with much woody matter 6 feet. - - 8. Hard clay 1 foot. - -The thickness of these lower beds was ascertained by Sir Joseph |575| -Prestwich and myself by boring, as the pit was not worked below the bed -of clay, No. 4. In another part of the pit we had a trench dug, which -exhibited the following section:- - - 1. Ochreous sand and gravel, passing down into - white sand 4 ft. 9 in. - - 2. Seams of white and ochreous gravel 1 ft. 8 in. - - 3. Light grey sandy clay 0 ft. 8 in. - - 4. Coarse yellow gravel 1 ft. 0 in. - - 5. Grey and brown clay, with abundance of - _Bythinia_ 2 ft. 4 in. - - 6. Boulder Clay 1 ft. 0 in. - -In the gravel thrown out from Bed No. 4, I found an implement in form -like Fig. 433, but which had lost its point through having been struck -by the pick of the workman. - -[Illustration: Fig. 449.—Hoxne. 1∕2] - -The mammalian remains, which had then recently been found in this -pit, consisted of those of deer, horse, and elephant. The shells -comprised _Cyclas_, _Pisidium_, _Unio_, _Bythinia_, _Helix_, _Limnæa_, -_Planorbis_, _Succinea_, and _Valvata_. Among the remains of trees, -those of oak, yew, and fir had been recognized. - -Implements[2549] still continue to be found from time to time in this -pit. Several of those found long since are also extant, in addition to -those already mentioned. One of pointed form was in the Meyrick[2550] -Collection of Armour, and is stated to have been found 12 feet below -the surface of the ground, and to have once been in the Leverian -Museum. |576| I have another of much the same character, which was -sold by auction in London as an ancient British spear-head, but which -I at once recognized as Palæolithic, and after purchasing it, found my -opinion confirmed by the word _Hoxne_ being written on its base. - -In the account given by Mr. Frere, it is stated that the implements -had been found in such quantities that they had been thrown into -the ruts of the adjoining road, and it therefore appeared probable -that in the disturbed upper soil of the worked-out parts of the pit, -some implements still existed. I accordingly made search for them, -and succeeded in discovering, besides several flakes—one of which is -5 inches long and 2 inches broad—three implements, of which one is -engraved in Fig. 449. It will be observed that a flat place has been -left on one of the side edges of this instrument, probably to allow of -its being held comfortably in the hand, so as to serve for a rude kind -of knife. - -Two remarkably fine specimens—one of them much like that from Reculver, -Fig. 459, and the other somewhat more irregular in form but also -round-pointed—were likewise found in the disturbed soil by Mr. Charles -M. Doughty, of Caius College, Cambridge, and are now in the Woodwardian -Museum. There are other specimens in the Christy Collection. A pointed -implement from this place has been figured by Prestwich.[2551] - -[Illustration: Fig. 450.—Hoxne.] - -Another of these very acutely pointed implements is shown in Fig. -450, the original of which is in my own collection. It presents the -peculiarity, which is by no means uncommon in ovate implements, of -having the side edges not in one plane but forming a sort of ogee curve -like that of Fig. 434. In this instance, the blade is twisted to such -an extent that a line, drawn through the two edges near the point, is -at an angle of at least 45° to a line through the edges at the broadest -part of the implement. I think, however, that this twisting of the -edges was not in this case intended to serve any particular purpose, -but was rather the accidental result of the method pursued in chipping -the flint into its present form. Curiously enough, one of the specimens -presented by Mr. Frere[2552] to the Society of Antiquaries exhibits -the same peculiarity, and, indeed, so closely resembles mine, that -they might have been both made by the same hand. An essay on the Hoxne -deposits by the late Mr. Thomas Belt, F.G.S., will be found in the -_Quarterly Journal of Science_.[2553] |577| - - * * * * * - -I have left my original account of this locality almost unaltered, but -the whole circumstances of the deposit have now been most thoroughly -and satisfactorily investigated. In 1888 Mr. Clement Reid, F.G.S., -and Mr. H. N. Ridley, F.L.S., communicated a paper to the British -Association,[2554] calling attention to the presence of fossil Arctic -plants in the lacustrine deposits at Hoxne. This was followed, in -1895, by some further[2555] notes on the deposits by the same authors, -with the result that a small committee, of which I was chairman, was -appointed by the Association,[2556] “to ascertain by excavations at -Hoxne, the relation of the Palæolithic deposits to the Boulder Clay, -and to the deposits with Arctic and Temperate plants.” A sum of money, -subsequently supplemented by a grant from the Royal Society, enabled -Mr. Clement Reid, Messrs. E. P. and H. N. Ridley, to carry out the -necessary borings and excavations, while Miss Morse aided in washing -out specimens, and Mr. Mitten in determining the species of the mosses. -I cannot here enter into the details of the case, but must refer the -reader to the “Report of the Committee”[2557] for them. The general -results of the examination are as follows. - -The deposits lie in a valley excavated in the Chalky Boulder Clay of -the district, through which a stream ran, probably connected with the -valley of the Waveney. By subsidence the channel of the stream was -converted into the bed of a freshwater lake which gradually silted up, -and its site became covered with a dense thicket of alders. From some -cause or other, lacustrine conditions reappeared and 20 feet more of -freshwater strata were deposited, but the climate had become Arctic or -sub-Arctic. Then followed floods which deposited the implement-bearing -beds, and finally the strata became sandy. During the formation and the -silting up of the channel, the climatic conditions seem to have changed -at least twice, having been at one time mild and then again Arctic. To -use the words of the report: “The Palæolithic deposits at Hoxne are -therefore not only later than the latest Boulder Clay of East Anglia, -but are separated from it by two climatic waves, with corresponding -changes of the flora. Such sweeping changes cannot have been local. -They must have affected wide areas.” - -Subsequently, however, to the Palæolithic beds being deposited, -all traces of the shores of the old lake have disappeared, and but -for artificial excavations the surface of the ground would give no -indication either of a stream or lake having existed at the spot. |578| - -Though terraces of gravel are found at various places along the course -of the Waveney, and apparently of the same age as those of the Little -Ouse valley, yet up to the present time no discoveries of implements -in them have been recorded, although it seems improbable that it is at -Hoxne alone that implements exist. - -In the gravels of the valleys of the Gipping, and other small streams -between the Waveney and the Stour, no works of man have as yet been -discovered; but in a pit worked for ballast, near Melford Junction, on -the Great Eastern Railway, and at no great distance from the Stour, -the late Mr. Henry Trigg discovered one or two implements of flint, -and a portion of a tooth of _Elephas primigenius_. Some worked flints -have also been found in the gravel at Sudbury, Suffolk, and some -palæolithic implements in the valley of the Stour, north of Colchester. -In the cliff at Stutton, opposite Manningtree, is a freshwater deposit -containing many shells of _Corbicula fluminalis_. Numbers of these -washed out from the cliff are lying on the shore, and among them I -found, in 1883, a broad flake about 3 inches long, which has all the -appearance of being palæolithic. At Lexden Park,[2558] near Colchester, -Mr. Edward Laver has found a small ovate implement with a cutting -edge all round, ogival in character. Some other specimens have been -discovered to the north of Colchester. On the banks of the Ter, a -tributary of the Chelmer, Mr. J. French[2559] has found two palæolithic -implements near Felstead; and in 1883, at North End Place, 1 1∕2 miles -south of Felstead, the Rev. A. L. Rowe, F.G.S., picked up a rudely -chipped heavy oval implement of quartzite (6 inches) which he has -kindly added to my collection. - -The valleys of the small rivers between the Stour and the Thames, the -Colne, the Blackwater, and the Crouch, have up to the present time -produced no relics of human workmanship, though I have seen a rudely -worked flint, apparently from gravel, which was found on the sea-shore -by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., a little to the north of the mouth of the -Colne. - -Before proceeding to discuss the discoveries that have been made within -the basin of the Thames and in the Southern counties, I must call -attention to one that was made in 1890 in the Midland Counties, not far -from Birmingham. - -The old gravels of the river Rea at Saltley, Warwickshire, have for a -long time been subjected to a careful examination by Mr. Joseph Landon, -F.G.S., of Saltley College, in the hope of |579| finding in them some -relics of human workmanship; and his search has been rewarded by the -discovery of the undoubted palæolithic implement, which through his -kindness I am able to exhibit in Fig. 450A. It is 4 inches in length -and has been formed from a brown quartzite pebble which, by dexterous -chipping, has been brought into a nearly symmetrical form with a -sharp point and edge. It much resembles one from the Robin Hood Cave, -Creswell Crags, Fig. 413A. - -[Illustration: Fig. 450A.—Saltley. 1∕2] - -The valley of the river Rea runs at Saltley in a more or less N.N.E. -direction, and is about a mile in width. Several stretches of gravel -are found at different heights on both sides of the valley, but -especially on the southern side. The highest and oldest gravels on -this side are exposed in a clay-pit just in front of Saltley College, -and are about 3 feet in thickness. They consist in the main of small -quartzite pebbles in a light-brown sandy matrix, though some large -pebbles and a few broken foreign flints also occur, and below the sandy -beds is a layer, 3 or 4 feet thick, of Glacial clay and sand, with -pebbles and boulders (Arenig felsite, &c.), and below this again come -the Keuper marls, which are used for brick-making. The level of the top -of the gravels is 395 feet above Ordnance Datum and that of the river -is about |580| 315 feet, so that the valley must have been excavated -to the depth of at least 80 feet since the gravels were deposited. - -The implement was found at the base of the sandy gravel at a distance -of about 60 yards from the front of Saltley College. In the same beds -and in a small area, some 10 yards square, were found a number of -fractured quartzite pebbles, which though not presenting such distinct -signs of design may possibly owe their forms to human workmanship. -Some of the chipped pieces of quartzite in the caves of Creswell Crags -are rude in the extreme. The discovery of this well-fashioned specimen -suggests some interesting considerations. - -It has been held that the absence of palæolithic implements in Britain -north of an imaginary line drawn from about the mouth of the Severn -to the Wash, is due to glacial conditions having prevailed in the -north-west part of England and in Scotland at the time when the makers -of these early tools or weapons occupied the southern and eastern parts -of this country, which, however, in those days was not an island but -was still connected with the Continent. - -The question now arises whether the assumed absence of palæolithic -implements over this area may not be due to their not having as yet -been found, and not to their non-existence. - -It must be remembered:— - -1st. That flint is extremely scarce over a great part of the area, and -therefore that any implements would almost of necessity have to be -formed from some other material, such as quartzite or one of the older -rocks. - -2nd. That in the case of implements made of such materials, the -evidences of human workmanship are not so conspicuous or so easily -recognized as on those formed of flint. - -3rd. That owing to the nature of the rocks over which the ancient -rivers flowed, the alluvial deposits within the area in question are of -quite a different character from those formed in districts where flint -abounds. - -4th. That such alluvial deposits are not so constantly being excavated -for economic purposes, and consequently not so open to examination as -ordinary flint gravels, and that implements made from such materials as -quartzite being probably more difficult to make, they would be fewer in -number over a given area and also more highly treasured. - -Even in the case of cave-deposits we have seen how, in those of -|581| Creswell Crags, a locality which lies within the presumed -non-implementiferous district, all the larger implements were made from -quartzite, some of the tools being so rude that human workmanship can -hardly be recognized upon them. I therefore venture to think that if -competent observers like Mr. Landon will devote their attention to the -ancient gravel-like alluvial deposits of our northern rivers, and seek -for implements not formed of flint but of quartzite or some other of -the older rocks, their search will be rewarded. In some of the Welsh -caves the implements were for the most part made of felstone and chert. - -The finding in the neighbourhood of Bridlington of a flint implement -of a distinctly palæolithic type, seems to afford corroborative -evidence in favour of extending the area of such discoveries, though it -must be admitted that so far as at present known it was not lying in -association with any remains of the pleistocene fauna. - -It may be incidentally mentioned that palæolithic implements of -quartzite, and even of Tertiary sandstones, occur though rarely in -districts in which flint abounds. Possibly it was found that this -material was tougher and less brittle than flint, and therefore better -adapted for certain uses when the sharpness of the edge was not of -primary importance. Most of the implements from India are formed of -a quartzite which is more easily chipped into form than that of our -English pebbles. - -I now come to the important district drained by the Thames and its -affluents, which comprises an area of upwards of 5,000 square miles. -The number of localities within this area, where discoveries have been -made in the ancient River-drift, has greatly increased since 1872, and -at some of them palæolithic implements have been found in abundance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 451.—Gray’s Inn Lane. 1∕1] - -The Thames valley may moreover lay claim to the first recorded -discovery of any flint implement in the Quaternary gravels, whether in -this or any other country. An implement is preserved in the British -Museum to which my attention was first directed by Sir A. Wollaston -Franks, and which is thus described in the Sloane Catalogue:—“No. -246. A British weapon found, with elephant’s tooth, opposite to black -Mary’s, near Grayes Inn Lane. _Conyers._ It is a large black flint -shaped into the figure of a spear’s point. K.” This K. signifies that -it formed a portion of Kemp’s collection. It appears to have been found -at the close of the seventeenth century, and a rude engraving of it -illustrates a letter on the antiquities of London, by Mr. Bagford, -dated in 1715, and printed |583| in Hearne’s edition of Leland’s -“Collectanea.”[2560] From his account it would seem that a skeleton of -an elephant was found not far from Battlebridge by Mr. Conyers, and -that near the place where it was found, “a British weapon made of a -flint lance, like unto the head of a spear, was dug up.” - -A full-sized engraving of this implement illustrated my first notice of -these discoveries, in the _Archæologia_,[2561] and is here reproduced -as Fig. 451. As will be seen, it is remarkably similar in form to that -from Santon Downham, Fig. 433, though rather larger in size. During -some excavations in Gray’s Inn Lane[2562] in 1883 and 1884, several -palæolithic implements of different forms were found; but none I think -so fine as that described by Leland. One found in Clerkenwell Road -in 1883 by Mr. G. F. Lawrence,[2563] was, however, slightly larger. -Another implement was found in Drury Lane,[2564] and others from -Jermyn Street and Prince’s Street, Oxford Street, are in the Museum of -Economic Geology. - -Before describing the recent discoveries which have been made higher up -the valleys of the Thames and its affluents, it will be well to discuss -the various localities in the immediate neighbourhood of London, so as -not to disturb the sequence of the Figures which is necessarily that of -my first edition. It will be needless to do this at any great length, -as the principal investigator of the gravels around London, to whom -indeed the greater part of the discoveries are due—Mr. Worthington -G. Smith—has given full particulars in his excellent book, “Man, the -Primeval Savage.”[2565] - -[Illustration: Fig. 452.—Hackney Down. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -In the British Museum is an oval implement, formerly in the collection -of the late Rev. Dr. Sparrow Simpson, F.S.A., shown in |584| Fig. -452, and found by Mr. G. H. Gaviller in gravel dug at Hackney Down, -to the north-east of London, and not far from Shacklewell. It is of -ochreous flint, slightly rolled, and in form remarkably like that -from Bournemouth, Fig. 476. Though the exact place whence it came is -unknown, there can be no doubt of its belonging to the Hackney Down -gravels, which may be regarded as identical in age and character -with those of Shacklewell, which have been described by Sir Joseph -Prestwich.[2566] The surface of the ground at Hackney Down[2567] is 70 -feet above Ordnance Datum, and in 1866 a shaft was there sunk through -gravel and sand, to a depth of 22 feet. In the sandy beds at the base -Mr. G. J. Smith[2568] discovered numerous land and freshwater shells, -and among them the _Hydrobia marginata_—already mentioned as having -been found in the Bedford Drift, and as being no longer an inhabitant -of Britain—and the _Corbicula fluminalis_, which has already been -cited as occurring near Cambridge, and of which more will be said -immediately. The Shacklewell gravel mainly consists of subangular -broken flints, some large flints but little worn, Lower Tertiary -pebbles, a few quartz and sandstone pebbles, and some rolled blocks of -hard Tertiary sandstone. In the pit described by Sir Joseph Prestwich -there is, at a depth of about 8 feet, a bed of sandy clay intercalated -in the gravel, and containing mammalian remains, numerous land and -freshwater shells, and remains of oak, elm, alder, and hazel. The group -of shells procured here resembles that of the Salisbury Drift, of which -mention will be made hereafter. - -Since 1854, when his paper was read, numerous specimens of the -_Corbicula fluminalis_, or, as it was formerly called, the _Cyrena -consobrina_, have been found here by Sir Joseph Prestwich, Sir Charles -Lyell,[2569] and others, including myself. This shell, of a mollusc -no longer living in Europe, though still found in the Nile and in -several Asiatic rivers, has also been found in the Drift deposits -of the Somme at Menchecourt, near Abbeville, associated with flint -implements; and is likewise to be met with in the drift deposits -of the Thames at Gray’s Thurrock, Ilford, Erith, and Crayford, in -several of which implements have now been found. The beds at these -places have by some geologists been regarded as belonging to an older -and Pre-glacial period; but the discovery of an implement at Hackney -Down raises a presumption that the gravel there is, like other flint -implement-bearing gravels, Post-glacial; and the discovery of an -implement in beds of fluviatile origin at a still higher level than -those of Hackney Down corroborates this view, as the lower bed is -probably the more modern. - -The fluviatile beds in question were exposed in two brick-pits at -Highbury New Park, near Stoke Newington, and attention was first called -to them in August, 1868,[2570] by the late Mr. Alfred Tylor, F.G.S. -The surface of the ground at the more eastern of these two pits is, -according to Mr. Tylor, 102 feet above Ordnance Datum; and 22 feet -below the surface there is a bed of clay 2 feet thick, full of land -and freshwater shells, accompanied by much wood. There are |585| also -shells in the lower part of the reddish loam or brick-earth immediately -above the clay. The shells are said to consist of _Helix_, _Zua_, -_Clausilia_, _Succinea_, _Carychium_, _Limnæa_, _Planorbis_, _Valvata_, -_Pisidium_, and _Cyclas_; to which Mr. J. Wood Mason, F.G.S.,[2571] -added _Achatina_, _Bythinia_, _Pupa_, and _Velletia_. - -On reading the account of this discovery, I was at once impressed with -the possibility of the occurrence of palæolithic implements in the -deposit; and accordingly in September, 1868, I visited the pit with the -view of searching for them, taking with me my youngest son, Norman, -who had a quick eye, and an almost instinctive power of recognizing -a worked flint. Our search was soon rewarded, for immediately on -descending into the lower part of the pit, where the shell-bearing beds -were exposed, my son picked up the remarkably well-formed implement -shown in Fig. 453. It was not _in situ_, but was lying in the bottom of -the pit; and judging from the staining upon a portion of its surface, -it appears to have been derived from the brick-earth, rather than from -the more shelly beds below. - -[Illustration: Fig. 453.—Highbury New Park. 1∕2] - -It is well adapted for being held in the hand as a sort of knife or -chopper, having a thick rounded back formed of the natural crust of -the nodule of flint from which it was formed. One face of it has been -the result of a single blow, and its surface is that of a portion of -a what irregular cone, at the apex of which the blow was struck, by -|586| which it was produced. The other face, as will be seen by the -figure, has been fashioned by first roughly chipping the implement to -a curved edge, by blows administered on the flatter face, and then -neatly trimming this edge to a regular sweep by secondary chipping. The -ends have also been trimmed into shape. At the upper end, as shown in -the figure, a small piece has been broken off, but otherwise the edge -is uninjured. In character it is identical with the implement from -the Santon Downham gravel, Fig. 437, and it closely resembles some of -the large trimmed flakes from High Lodge, near Mildenhall, and the -“choppers” from the cave of Le Moustier. The surface of the flint is -stained ochreous in places, and presents much the same appearance as do -some of the implements from the brick-earth at Hoxne. - -It was in consequence of my publication of these discoveries that the -attention of Mr. Worthington Smith was directed to the gravels of -North-Eastern London, among which his labours have been crowned with -such marked success. Not only has he found palæolithic implements -in the City,[2572] Gray’s Inn Lane, Clerkenwell, London Fields, -Dalston, Kingsland, Homerton, Hackney, Lower Clapton, Upper Clapton, -Stamford Hill, Mildmay Park, South Hornsey, Abney Park Cemetery, -Stoke Newington, and Shacklewell, but he has been able to identify -the old surface of the ground, which was occupied by the early men -who chipped out the implements. To this old land-surface he has given -the name of the “Palæolithic floor,” and he has been able to trace -its existence over a considerable area of ground on the western as -well as the eastern side of the river Lea.[2573] It consists of a -stratum of five or six inches of subangular ochreous gravel, in some -places, however, only one or two inches in thickness, or only visible -as a tone of colour. On, and imbedded in this floor among rolled and -waterworn stones and bones, black, sharp and unabraded implements of -flint occur, together with flakes which, in some instances, have been -susceptible of being replaced in their original juxtaposition. Below -the floor are usually thin beds of sand containing shells of land and -freshwater mollusca, and beds of gravel, sometimes as much as 12 feet -thick, containing palæolithic implements more or less abraded. The sand -is not always present. Above the floor are usually contorted loamy -beds of “warp and trail,” generally 4 to 6 feet thick, including the -superficial humus. These seem to be of subaërial origin and may be due -to a lengthened prevalence of a cold and rainy climate. The fauna of -the gravels is described as including _Felis spelæa_, _Hyæna_, _Elephas -primigenius_, _E. antiquus_, _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, _R. leptorhinus_, -and _R. tichorhinus_, _Cervus tarandus_, and _Megaceros hibernicus_. -Remains of _Antilope Saïga_ have, I believe, been also found. Among the -testaceous remains _Corbicula fluminalis_ and _Hydrobia marginata_ have -already been noted. - -Another diligent investigator of the gravels of North-East London, -who has also treated of the Palæolithic floor, is Mr. J. E. -Greenhill.[2574] He has given some interesting sections, showing how -the waterworn, abraded implements underlie those of the Palæolithic -floor which are quite unworn.[2575] Professor Rupert Jones, F.R.S., has -also written on |587| the subject. The best geological account is that -given by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S.[2576] - -By the kindness of Mr. Worthington Smith most of the important -specimens that he has found are now in my collection. I am further -indebted to him for the use of the blocks illustrating some of the -implements.[2577] Fig. 453A exhibits a finely pointed implement from -Lower Clapton. Its surface is lustrous and it shows at its butt part of -the original crust of the nodule of flint out of which it was chipped. - -[Illustration: Fig. 453A.—Lower Clapton. 1∕2] - -The fine ovate implement,[2578] Fig. 453B, came from the 12 feet -stratum at Stamford Hill. It is of dark colour, lustrous, and has the -angles slightly abraded. - -A small example from the Palæolithic floor at Stoke Newington is shown -in Fig. 453C.[2579] The edges are still quite sharp, and at one place -there appear to be traces of use. A quartzite[2580] implement from the -same locality is shown in Fig. 453D. - -Implements presumably of Palæolithic Age have been found in the bed -of the Thames. One from Battersea is of peculiar form, with a |588| -truncated butt, and has been presented to the Christy Collection by Sir -A. Wollaston Franks, F.R.S. Another from Hammersmith is in the same -collection, having been formerly in that of the late Rev. Dr. Sparrow -Simpson, F.S.A. It is 8 1∕4 inches long, and much resembles that from -Reculver, Fig. 458, though somewhat longer in its proportions and -thicker in the butt. It is much rolled and water-worn, so that it has -probably belonged to a bed of gravel at a much higher level than that -from which it was dredged up. Another (5 5∕16 inches) from the bed of -the Thames at the Chelsea Suspension Bridge was found by Mr. Lambton -Young, C.E., in 1854, before general attention had been directed to -such relics. Mr. G. F. Lawrence, of Wandsworth, has ovate specimens -from the Thames, at Wandsworth, Battersea, Putney, and Richmond, all -but the latter much rolled. - -[Illustration: Fig. 453B.—Stamford Hill. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 453C.—Stoke Newington Common. 1∕2] - -It will be most convenient to reserve the discoveries in the South of -London and in the valley of the |589| Lea for future pages, and to -proceed up the Thames valley towards its sources. - - * * * * * - -Nearly ten miles to the west of London, and on the northern side of the -Thames, the careful researches of General Pitt Rivers, F.R.S., have -been amply rewarded, he having found several implements of well-marked -palæolithic types, and numerous flakes, in the gravels of Ealing Dean -and Acton.[2581] He has fully described the localities and given -sections of the beds in a communication to the Geological Society.[2582] - -[Illustration: Fig. 453D.—Stoke Newington Common. 1∕2] - - * * * * * - -At the former spot, the surface of the ground is 92 feet above -Ordnance Datum, and here several implements have been found. At Acton -the surface is from 60 to 80 feet above high-water mark, and here an -implement of oval form was found beneath 7 feet of stratified sand and -gravel, and resting on the clay beneath; another, of pointed form, was -found in the middle of the gravel, about 10 feet from the surface, and -beneath beds of sand 8 feet in thickness. Others were found in gravel -from the same spot, and from Mill Hill, half-a-mile to the westward, -which had been spread on the roads. One of the pointed implements -from Ealing Dean is shown in Fig. 454. In form it much resembles that -from Reculver, Fig. 458, though smaller in size. Like all the other -implements from these two spots, it is stained of the ochreous colour -of the gravel, and has had its angles worn away by being rolled in -water along with the other constituents of the gravel. The flakes, -which are comparatively abundant, are for the most part |590| large -and rude, but many appear to have had their edges chipped by use. Some -have been wrought into the scraper form. Cores or blocks of flint from -which flakes have been struck have also been found. - -In May, 1871, an implement, 8 inches long, and of rather less tapering -form than that from Ealing, Fig. 454, was found at Acton, beneath 13 -feet of sand and gravel, at a spot where the surface is 70 feet above -high-water mark. General Pitt Rivers has also seven or eight flakes of -flint, one of them 5 1∕2 inches long and 1 inch wide, which were found -together, beneath 9 feet of brick-earth and gravel, in excavating for -the foundations of a house at Acton. Their edges are sharp and unworn, -so that they must have been deposited where they were found, prior to -the accumulation of the 9 feet of drifted beds above them. They lay in -a bed of ochreous sandy clay, about 1 foot in thickness, which reposed -immediately on the blue London Clay. - -[Illustration: Fig. 454.—Ealing Dean. 1∕2] - -In Acton village, the beds of Drift which constitute the first patch -of gravel occurring at so high a level as we go westward from London, -and which form a sort of terrace overlooking the broad valley of -the Thames, attain a thickness of 18 feet, and consist of layers of -sub-angular gravel, mixed with yellow and white sand, very irregularly -stratified. The gravel consists principally of flints and Tertiary -pebbles, with some of quartz and quartzite. A few mammalian remains, -including a tooth of _Elephas primigenius_, have been found in these -beds, and south of Ealing Park[2583] land and freshwater shells. At -|591| a lower level, and cut off from the upper gravels by an outcrop -of London Clay, is a wide terrace of alluvial deposits at an average -height of about 20 feet above high-water mark, and a lower terrace -still is to be found in the immediate neighbourhood of the river. -General Pitt Rivers’s researches in the mid-terrace beds of gravel and -brick-earth have not produced any implements of the River-drift types, -but he has obtained animal remains which were identified by the late -Mr. G. Busk, F.R.S., as those of _Elephas primigenius_, _Rhinoceros -hemitæchus_, _Hippopotamus major_, _Bos primigenius_, _Bison priscus_, -_Cervus tarandus_, and other species of deer. They occur invariably at -the base of the gravel 12 or 13 feet from the surface. The late Mr. -Thomas Belt, F.G.S.,[2584] has speculated on the age and character of -the Acton deposits. - -Mr. J. Allen Brown, F.G.S.,[2585] has diligently continued these -researches, and in laminated clay, 200 feet above O.D. at the Mount, -Ealing, has found an ochreous flake trimmed at the edge. At Creffield -Road, Acton,[2586] Middlesex, he has discovered another “Palæolithic -floor,” having found more than 600 flakes and implements in an area of -not more than 40 feet square. Besides implements from Acton and Ealing -up to 130 feet above O.D. he has described specimens from East Sheen, -on the other side of the Thames, and Hanwell,[2587] Iver, Gunnersbury, -Kew, Turnham Green, and Dawley, near West Drayton. An ovate implement -from Dawley is of felsite. He has also described implements found at -Southall[2588] associated with remains of _Elephas primigenius_. A -pointed specimen from Southall is made of quartzite. At Hounslow[2589] -also implements have been found. It is possible that the gravels at -West Drayton belong to the valley of the Colne rather than to that of -the Thames, as also those at Hillingdon, where in the Town-pit, 180 -feet above O.D., Mr. Brown has found palæolithic implements. - -Farther west, at Langley and at Burnham, implements have been found -in the gravels. One from Burnham was given to me by Mr. E. Sawyer. He -has also found a broad-pointed implement at Cookham, near Maidenhead. -They have likewise been discovered at Ruscombe,[2590] Taplow,[2591] -Maidenhead, and Marlow. A very broad-pointed implement (5 1∕2 inches) -found in high-level gravel at Cookham, Maidenhead, has been shown to me -by Mr. E. Sawyer. In my own collection are specimens from the majority -of the other localities here enumerated. In form and character they -approximate so closely to those from similar deposits elsewhere that it -seems needless to figure any of them. - -Higher up the river Thames, the next important discoveries to recite -are those which have been made in and near Reading by Dr. Joseph -Stevens. At Grovelands,[2592] about 80 feet above the level of the -|592| river, near the junction of the Kennet and the Thames, the Drift -deposits are ferruginous and about 15 feet thick. In them were found a -tooth of a mammoth and numerous implements, principally of ovate forms -and made of flint, but among them one made of quartzite. At Redlands, -at a lower level, about 40 feet above the river, mammoth remains occur, -as also at the Kennet Mouth Pit, Newtown, where a kite-shaped implement -was found. The geological position and structure of the Redlands beds -have been described by Prof. Poulton, F.R.S.[2593] In 1882 I found in -the gravel at Pig’s Green, near Reading, the butt-end of a pointed -implement, which had been originally about 4 1∕2 inches long and had -lost its point before being deposited in the Drift. The gravel was -subangular and ochreous, and contained from 15 to 20 per cent. of -quartzite pebbles. Flint flakes were fairly abundant, but finished -implements, scarce. On the other side of the river, at Caversham, Dr. -Stevens has found implements in gravel 120 feet above the level of the -Thames. I have myself found an acutely-pointed implement (4 inches) in -the same beds. - - * * * * * - -These Caversham Beds have been well described by Mr. O. A. -Shrubsole.[2594] At Toots Farm the implements are usually pointed, -as also at Shiplake, at a distance of about three miles and at a -slightly lower level. At Henley Road, Caversham, about 59 feet above -the Thames, he obtained a flat ovoid implement of flint. A molar of -_Elephas primigenius_ was found at this spot. South of the Thames, -besides the pits mentioned by Dr. Stevens, Mr. Shrubsole enumerates -the following localities: a cutting of the South Western Railway at -Earley, one of the Great Western Railway at Sonning, a gravel-pit at -Charvil Hill, Sonning, and a brick-yard at Ruscombe, near Twyford. In -the last-mentioned place several implements of various types have been -found. Some extremely doubtful specimens, probably of purely natural -origin, have been found on Finchampstead Ridges,[2595] but in gravel -at Wokingham[2596] a large highly finished pointed implement has been -obtained by Mr. P. Sale. - -Some more or less worked flints from the Reading[2597] gravels have -been described and figured by Mr. O. A. Shrubsole, who has assigned -uses to what he terms “the less familiar forms of Palæolithic Flint -Implements.” - -Still higher up the Thames, near Wallingford, there is a considerable -spread of gravel, some of it at a distance of two miles or more from -the existing streams. In this gravel implements have been found, though -up to the present time in no great abundance. I |593| have a fine -kite-shaped specimen of the type of Plate I., No. 6 (5 1∕2 inches), -that was found at Gould’s Heath, East of Wallingford, and two from -Turner’s Court,[2598] rather nearer the town. In all three cases the -flint has become more or less whitened. I have another large flat ovate -implement more like Plate I., No. 16, that was found at Cholsey, on the -other side of the river. It is more lustrous and not so much whitened. -Another was found on the surface at Ipsden,[2599] 3 miles S.E. of -Wallingford. - -In the neighbourhood of Oxford a fair number of palæolithic implements -have been found, some of which are in the University Museum. The first -of these was a fine specimen with a heavy butt and pointed tip (broken -off), procured, in 1874, by Sir Joseph Prestwich from gravel on the -left bank of the Cherwell, at Marston Ferry, not more than from 4 to -5 feet from the surface. Another, ovate (3 3∕4 inches), was obtained -by the late Professor Rolleston from the foundations of the New -Schools in the High Street, in 1878, and two more of ruder workmanship -came from the site of the Girls’ High School in the Banbury Road, in -1880. Yet another was found below Oxford by the side of Bagley Wood, -opposite Iffley. The principal discoveries have, however, been made -at Wolvercote, about 1 1∕2 miles north of Oxford, whence many have -been collected by Mr. A. M. Bell,[2600] from whose account of the -discoveries I have been quoting. Among the specimens in his and other -collections are pointed and ovate implements, a fine example of the -shoe-shaped type, like Fig. 429 (8 1∕2 inches), trimmed flakes and a -hammer-stone. One of Mr. Bell’s pointed implements has been chipped out -of quartzite. The brick-earth and gravel deposits lie in what appears -to be an old river-channel, which has been cut into the Oxford clay -and the superimposed Northern Drift to a depth of about 17 feet from -the surface. It is at the base of this channel that the implements -are found. In the sand near the base nine or ten species of land and -freshwater shells occur, and in a peaty bed immediately above the sand -and gravel the remains of various plants; but both the testaceous and -vegetable remains belong to species still found in the neighbourhood. -Mammoth, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus as well as _Corbicula fluminalis_ -have, however, been found in the Oxford gravels. The beds at Wolvercote -above the peat consist of clay and sand deposited evenly in successive -layers, but towards the surface they are |594| traversed by an -irregular line of “trail,” such as is often seen above palæolithic -deposits and for which it is so difficult to account. - -Mr. Percy Manning, F.S.A., possesses several palæolithic implements -found near Oxford. Among eleven specimens from Wolvercote, mostly -tongue-shaped, is one of brown flint 9 1∕2 inches long and 4 1∕2 inches -broad, sharply pointed with a truncated butt and the sides curving -outwards somewhat like Fig. 475. Another fine implement from the same -place has straighter sides and is 6 3∕4 inches long. The others are -smaller, but among them is one of pointed form rather rudely chipped -from a quartzite pebble. - -Mr. Manning has also three implements dredged from a backwater of the -Thames between Oxford and North Hinksey, one of them (4 3∕4 inches) -like Fig. 422, but more roughly chipped and much waterworn. Another (4 -inches) is like Fig. 436, but more pointed. The third (5 1∕8 inches), -is a remarkably symmetrical ovate-lanceolate implement, in outline like -Plate II., No. 11, made out of a pebble of quartzite, or possibly of -chert. This also is waterworn. - -At Broadwell, Oxon, on the borders of Gloucestershire, Mr. Manning -found an implement (4 1∕4 inches) resembling Fig. 459, apparently from -gravel dug upon the spot. The village of Broadwell lies about 3 miles -to the north of the Thames. - -In my former edition I called attention to the discovery in the valley -of the Wey, at Peasemarsh, between Guildford and Godalming, by the late -Mr. Whitbourn, F.S.A.,[2601] some sixty years ago, of the implement -shown in Fig. 455, which is now in my own collection. It was found -embedded in the gravel in a layer of sand about 4 or 5 feet from the -surface, in apparently undisturbed ground. Mr. Whitbourn had heard of -remains of large animals having been discovered in the same beds, but -not in very close proximity to the spot where the implement was found. -It is, as will be seen by the figure, of a different shape from the -majority of the implements found in the River-drift, being very broad -at the base and short in proportion to its width. The flint of which it -consists is grey and slightly ochreous. At the base is a considerable -portion of the original crust of the flint, which is stained of a dull -red. The gravel beds, in which it was found, have been described by Mr. -R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.[2602] They rest on Wealden Clay, and -in places, on beds of the Lower Greensand. The material principally -consists of sub-angular chalk flints, and |595| in it have been found -numerous remains of _Elephas primigenius_. In places, the gravel -overlies what appears to have been an old land-surface, in the mould -of which fragments of branches of trees, and bones of ox and elephant, -have been found uninjured and lying together. Mr. Godwin-Austen does -not record the discovery of any land or freshwater shells in the -gravels, nor on visiting the spot was I able to find any, or any more -worked flints. In the Woodwardian Museum, at Cambridge, is an implement -of palæolithic type, and of the ovate form, found higher up the valley -of the Wey, near Alton, but on the surface, and not in gravel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 455.—Peasemarsh, Godalming. 1∕2] - -At Farnham, between Alton and Godalming, many palæolithic implements -have been secured from the gravels of the valley of the Wey, -principally through the intelligent care of Mr. Frank Lasham, of -Guildford, and Mr. H. A. Mangles, F.G.S., of Littleworth Cross, -Tongham. The former has contributed a paper on “Palæolithic Man” to -the Surrey Archæological Society,[2603] and has kindly given me much -information on the subject. The beds of gravel are from 10 to 40 feet -deep, and lie upon the Lower Greensand. They attain an elevation of -364 feet[2604] above the mean sea-level, or about 150 feet above the -present bed of the river, and are principally dug in pits on the -southern or right side |596| of the Wey towards Wracklesham, pits -which have furnished several hundreds of palæolithic implements of -various forms and sizes. The oval and ovate seem to predominate, but -there have been found not a few fine pointed implements. Associated -with the more sharply preserved specimens, are many of dark ochreous -colour, with their angles much abraded, which in all probability have -been brought down by the old river from beds higher up its valley. -Remains of mammoth occur occasionally in the gravels. Some specimens -of the implements are preserved in the Charterhouse School Museum. -Mr. Lasham informs me of an implement having been found in gravel at -Peperharow, of a part of one near Farley Heath, and of one found at -Frimley,[2605] in the valley of the Blackwater. - -The discoveries of palæolithic implements in the valley of the Colne -near its junction with the Thames, have already been recorded. In -the valley of the Misbourne, an affluent of the Colne, an implement -was found in 1891 in digging the foundations of the bridge over the -Metropolitan Extension Railway, just north of Great Missenden. It is -of a thick ovate form, made of grey flint, rather narrower than Pl. -II., No. 18, and with small flat surfaces of the original crust of the -flint left about the middle of each side. The specimen is in my own -collection. - -In the valley of the Gade, in Hertfordshire, a few have been found -by myself. The first of these was lying on the surface of a ploughed -field near Bedmond,[2606] in the parish of Abbot’s Langley, at a spot -which, though probably 160 feet above the level of the nearest part -of the stream, is towards the bottom of one of the lateral valleys -leading into the main valley of the Gade, between Boxmoor and Watford. -The implement, which has unfortunately lost its point, is remarkably -similar in form and size to that from Gray’s Inn Lane, Fig. 451. The -flint of which it is made has become nearly white and porcellanous on -both faces, though more so on one than on the other. In places it has -been so much altered in structure that it can be cut with a knife. I -have noticed this feature in flints which have lain long in pervious -red brick-earth, and this leads me to suppose that the implement may -have been derived from some beds of that character at the spot where -it was found, though on this point I have no direct |597| evidence. -In 1892[2607] I found another small implement (4 inches) of rude ovate -form, among some stones recently placed in a rut at Bedmond Hill. Here, -again, there is no evidence as to the exact geological position. Nor -is there with regard to two other implements, both of which I found in -1868, in gravel laid on the towing-path of the Grand Junction Canal, -which is there united with the Gade, between Apsley and Nash Mills, -about two miles south of Hemel Hempstead. There is, however, no doubt -of the gravel in which they lay having been dredged or dug from the -bottom of the valley in the immediate neighbourhood. One of them, of -grey flint, is a neatly-chipped, flat implement, of ovate outline, -about 4 inches long, in form much like Fig. 468, from Lake. The other -is imperfect, but appears to have been originally of much the same -character, though flatter on one face. It is deeply stained of an -ochreous colour, and its angles are considerably waterworn. I have -searched in the gravels of the neighbourhood for other specimens, but -as yet in vain. I may add that during the formation of this part of -the canal, some eighty years ago, an elephant’s tooth was found in the -gravel, within about 200 yards of the spot where I discovered one of -the implements. - -Other specimens are reported to have been found near the head of the -tributary valley of the Bulbourne, at Wigginton, near Tring. - -At Watford, Herts, on the left bank of the Colne, in gravel near Bushey -Park, at a height of about 40 feet above the level of the existing -river, Mr. Clouston has found several implements of ochreous flint of -various types. He has kindly given me a square-ended flake, much like -Fig. 426A, from High Lodge, Mildenhall. - -Some of the discoveries made by Mr. Worthington G. Smith were in -localities within the valley of the Ver, an affluent of the Colne, -rather than in that of the Lea, but inasmuch as many of the beds which -contained the implements found by him seem to bear but little relation -to existing watersheds, and are at no great distance from the Lea, -I shall at once proceed to the discussion of the remarkable series -of facts which he has brought to light. All details must, however, -be sought for in Mr. W. G. Smith’s own book, “Man, the Primeval -Savage.”[2608] |598| - -The main source of the Lea is at Leagrave Marsh, about 3 miles N.W. -of Luton, and 376 feet above Ordnance datum. On the surface near this -place, Mr. Smith[2609] found a flat ovate implement, in form much like -those from Warren Hill or that from near Dunstable, Fig. 17. He says -that it may be neolithic, but that he has found palæolithic flakes, -both ochreous and grey, _in situ_ in gravel at Leagrave. At Houghton -Regis,[2610] 1 1∕2 miles north of Dunstable, Mr. Smith found a fragment -of an ovate implement on the surface. Another implement, found so long -ago as 1830 by Mr. William Gutteridge, at Dallow,[2611] or Dollar farm, -3∕4 of a mile west of Luton, is distinctly palæolithic in form. - -The most interesting of Mr. Worthington Smith’s discoveries have, -however, been made on or near the summit of a hill, a good 2 miles -from the Lea, and somewhat nearer the Ver. At and around the village -of Caddington there are several brickfields, some of them no longer -worked. The original surface of the ground in some of these is as much -as 550[2612] to 595 feet above the Ordnance Datum. The brick-earth -is of great thickness, in places fully 50 feet, and overlies the -Chalk. The upper portion of the beds is much contorted, and has in -it occasional seams of flint gravel or tenacious clay, in which -cream-coloured or brownish palæolithic implements occur. In the gravel, -brown, ochreous, slightly abraded implements and flakes are found, -and at the base in many cases is the old land-surface or “Palæolithic -floor” resting on and surmounted by brick-earth. In one pit were three -heaps of flints brought by hand in Palæolithic times from flint-bearing -beds either above or in the Chalk. On the Palæolithic floor were -numerous sharp-edged flakes, which had hardly been moved from the -original place at which they were struck off. Mr. Smith has replaced -more than 500 flakes either on to other flakes or on to implements and -cores from the same floor. - -One old land-surface was full of narrow vertical fissures, due perhaps -to the heat of a burning summer sun. While they were still open 18 -inches of watery brick-earth, perhaps brought down by a heavy storm of -rain, filled up the fissures, covered up the old surface and formed -a new surface at a higher level. The upper deposits often resemble -contorted masses of half-frozen mud and stone pushed over an old -water-laid and perhaps frozen surface of brick-earth. Mr. Smith’s view -is that Palæolithic |599| man lived here by the side of one or more -small freshwater lakes, and manufactured his implements upon the spot -which eventually, by successive storms and flooding, became buried -beneath accumulations of mud. The neighbouring valley on the west was -not at that time excavated to its present depth. He considers that -the ochreous implements found at Caddington are of earlier date than -those of lighter colour found on the Palæolithic floor, and points -out that there is, moreover, a difference in the nature of the tools, -inasmuch as some well-formed scrapers occur in the brick-earth of the -Palæolithic floor, while they are never found amongst the ochreous -tools. The difference seems consistent with the probability that the -tools for domestic use would be more abundant on the spot where the men -of the period were at home than elsewhere. One of the most interesting -features of the case is the number of instances in which Mr. Smith -has been able to bring together the fragments of implements broken in -Palæolithic times,[2613] and to replace upon them the flakes removed -during the process of their manufacture. Of these he has given a long -series of illustrations in his book;[2614] those relating to one -instance are here by his kindness reproduced as Figs. 455A, B, and C. - -[Illustration: Fig. 455A.—Caddington. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 455B.—Caddington. 1∕2] - -In Fig. 455A is shown a finished implement broken in Palæolithic times, -both pieces found separately and now conjoined. Fig. 455B shows the -other side of the implement, with three of the flakes struck off during -its manufacture replaced, and Fig. 455C reproduces the first view, but -shows a fourth flake replaced. |600| - -A good series of these reconstructed implements is in the British -Museum. - -Fig. 455D shows an ovate implement from the brown stony clay at -Caddington. Fig. 455E represents a scraper, and Fig. 455F a pointed -tool from the Palæolithic floor, and an ivory-white sharp-edged -implement from the same source is illustrated in Fig. 455G. For all -these figures,[2615] I am indebted to Mr. Worthington Smith, as well as -for very many acts of kindness. - -A paper by Mr. Smith on Neolithic and Palæolithic scrapers, re-placed -and re-worked, will be found in the _Essex Naturalist_.[2616] - -[Illustration: Fig. 455C.—Caddington. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 455D.—Caddington. 1∕2] - -At Mount Pleasant,[2617] Kensworth, to the west, on the other side of -the extension northwards of the valley, and at a height of 760 feet -above Ordnance datum, or nearly 200 feet higher than the Caddington -deposits, Mr. Worthington Smith has found |601| some ochreous flint -flakes, apparently of Palæolithic age, one of them trimmed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 455E.—Caddington. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 455F.—Caddington. 1∕2] - -At Harpenden, 8 1∕2 miles from the source of the Lea, and not far from -the stream, he has obtained a few ochreous palæolithic flakes. At -Wheathampstead, a few miles further down the Lea, he also met with a -few ochreous flakes in gravel near the railway station. - -[Illustration: Fig. 455G.—Caddington. 1∕2] - -[Illustration: Fig. 455H.—Wheathampstead. 1∕2] - -In gravel brought from No Man’s Land, a common about a mile south -of Wheathampstead, the late Rev. Dr. Griffiths, of Sandridge, found -two small ovate implements of whitened flint,[2618] one of which he -presented to my collection. Mr. Worthington Smith, on visiting the spot -in 1886, discovered a rude implement of nearly the same character _in -situ_ in the gravel, and has lent me the block,[2619] Fig. 455H, on -which it is represented. He subsequently found an implement with only -one edge and the point |602| chipped into shape, also _in situ_. He -likewise discovered a third implement and a well-formed scraper in the -beds. The gravel at No Man’s Land is in a valley along which in former -times the Lea or a branch of its stream may have taken its course. -Near Ayot St. Peter[2620] and Welwyn, in the valley of the Maran, Mr. -Worthington Smith has found flakes only. I have recorded the finding of -an implement at North Mimms,[2621] south of Hatfield. - -At and near Hertford and Ware, the Lea receives several other affluents -coming from the north. Among these is the Beane, the present source -of which is near Stevenage. At Fisher’s Green,[2622] a little to -the north of that town, pointed ochreous implements have been found -in the brick-earth by Mr. Frank Latchmore and myself. I have also a -rough ovate specimen made from a large broad flake, and found in a -brick-field south of Stevenage. Further south, in gravels exposed in -a cutting of the Great Northern Railway near Knebworth,[2623] some -well-formed implements, both pointed and ovate, were found in 1887. -I have several specimens, as well as an ovate implement found on the -surface in 1890. Still farther south, in a clay-pipe near Welwyn -Tunnel, a pointed ochreous implement (4 inches) was obtained in 1896, -which Mr. Frank Latchmore has kindly added to my collection. - -Palæolithic implements have been found by Mr. Worthington Smith in -the gravels of the Lea[2624] and Beane at Hertford and Ware, one of -them at Bengeo. They are of pointed forms, fairly well made, and much -water-worn. He has recorded other implement-bearing gravels a mile -north-west of Ware and at Amwell. General Pitt Rivers has a remarkably -fine palæolithic implement, which is said to have been found at -Bayford, a mile or so south-west of Hertford. - -In the valley of the Stort, which joins the Lea near Hoddesdon, two -palæolithic implements have been found by Mr. W. H. Penning, F.G.S., -in the neighbourhood of Bishop’s Stortford. Though in both instances -lying on the surface, yet the condition of the implements is such that -there can be no doubt as to their having been but recently dug out of -the soil; the colour of both is a dark brown, ochreous in places, and -the general appearance |603| much like that of the implements found in -the brick-earth at Hoxne. One of them was found at a short distance -from the river, by the side of a ditch cut in a thin deposit of valley -brick-earth, about a mile north of Bishop’s Stortford, and probably had -been thrown out with the soil from the ditch. It is 5 1∕2 inches long -and 3 3∕4 inches broad, and in form it much resembles Fig. 421. The -other is of the same character, but is somewhat broader, and is squarer -at the base. It was found farther north, on the sandy surface of a -ploughed field, close to Pesterford Bridge. - -In 1872 Mr. Penning also found, near Stocking Pelham, five miles north -of Bishop’s Stortford, an ochreous, somewhat water-worn, oval implement -5 inches in length. - -At Flamstead End,[2625] one mile west of Cheshunt, and on the right -side of the Lea, Mr. Worthington Smith has obtained several implements -in the gravels, some of which he has kindly added to my collection. -He has also found specimens at Bush Hill Park and Forty Hill, near -Enfield; Rowan Tree Farm, Lower Edmonton, and between Edmonton and -Winchmore Hill. For his discoveries on the east or left side of the -Lea I must refer the reader to Mr. Smith’s book, “Man, the Primeval -Savage.” Suffice it to say that he has found implements in Drift -deposits at Plaistow,[2626] Stratford, Leyton, Leytonstone, Wanstead, -Walthamstow, Higham Hill, West Ham, Forest Gate, and Upton. In the -valley of the Roding he has added Barking, East Ham, and Ilford, and -farther east again Rainham, Gray’s Thurrock, Little Thurrock, Tilbury, -Mucking, Orsett, and Southend. - -Mr. Hazzeldine Warren, of the Cedars, Waltham Cross, has obtained -several palæolithic implements from gravels at Bull’s Cross and Bush -Hill Park, Enfield, and a few at Hoddesdon. A fine pointed specimen (7 -inches) from Bull’s Cross is rather like Fig. 459, but is battered at -the butt. - -From gravel at Grove Green Lane, Leyton,[2627] some good pointed -implements have been obtained by Mr. A. P. Wire. One of them is 6 -inches long. - -A thin ovate implement made from a piece of tabular flint was found in -gravel at Lake’s Farm,[2628] Cannhall Lane, Wanstead. - -A sub-triangular implement with a heavy butt was found in gravel of the -Roding Valley at St. Swithin’s Farm,[2629] Barking |604| Side, and two -others at Wallend, one mile west of Barking town. Mr. G. F. Lawrence -found an oval implement _in situ_ at Stratford.[2630] I have a rude -specimen found at Shoeburyness by Mr. B. Harrison. - -Returning to London we must notice some discoveries on the southern -side of the Thames. - -In 1872[2631] General Pitt Rivers recorded the finding of a palæolithic -implement and a flake in gravel on Battersea Rise, at the junction -of Grayshot Road and the Wandsworth Road; and in an excavation for a -new house on Battersea Rise,[2632] near Clapham Common, on one of the -higher gravel-terraces of the Thames, Mr. Worthington Smith picked up a -palæolithic implement in 1882. - -Mr. G. F. Lawrence has also found two or three implements in gravel at -East and West Hill, Wandsworth, on each side of the Wandle, as well as -at Earlsfield. One from the latter place, now broken, must originally -have been of very large size. This and another are pointed. He has also -found one at Lavender Hill, and a small ovate specimen at Roehampton. - -At Lewisham also an implement has been discovered. One of ovate form (4 -inches) was found in 1874 in gravel on Wickham Road by Mr. A. L. Lewis, -and by him liberally added to my collection. - -Further south, in a branch of the valley of the Ravensbourne, on a -patch of gravel upwards of 300 feet above Ordnance Datum, Mr. George -Clinch,[2633] in 1880, found several ovate palæolithic implements, and -in subsequent years many more; in all some fifty[2634] in number. - -About four miles farther east, at Green Street Green,[2635] about 250 -feet above Ordnance Datum, Mr. H. G. Norman found two palæolithic -implements, on the surface of what is now a dry part of the valley of -the river Cray, about two miles above its present source. They are both -of ovate form, one much like Fig. 420, the other like Fig. 468. Each -is about 5 1∕2 inches in length. “The gravel at this spot has afforded -remains not only of the mammoth, but also of the musk-ox.” |605| - -Mr. de B. Crawshay[2636] has also found about 40 ovoid and pointed -palæolithic implements near Green Street Green. - -The valley may be traced upwards for nearly five miles, in a -south-easterly direction, to Currie Wood, between Knockholt and -Shoreham; and on the border of this wood, not far from Currie Farm, -I found on the surface of the ground, in 1869, a well-marked flint -implement, in character and size closely resembling that from -Swalecliffe, Fig. 462, and stained of a rich ochreous colour. In -places there are some ferruginous concretions adhering to the surface, -and it has all the appearance of having been derived from the gravel -which here not unusually forms the superficial deposit. A part of one -of the faces has been lost owing to a recent fracture, and it can be -seen that the implement has been formed of what is now a light buff, -somewhat chalcedonic, flint, similar in character to that of most of -the pebbles in the gravel at Well Hill, near Chelsfield, about midway -between Currie Wood and Green Street Green. A subsequent search on the -spot, in company with Sir John Lubbock, Sir Joseph Prestwich, General -Pitt Rivers, and Sir Wollaston Franks, was unproductive of any more -specimens. The remarkable feature in the case is the elevation at which -this implement was found, the level of the ground being probably 300 -feet above the neighbouring valley of the Darent, and upwards of 500 -feet above the sea. Regarding the gravel, however, as connected with -the valley of the Cray, and not with that of the Darent, its elevation -above the head of the valley is but slight. In 1872 I remarked that -it was “necessary that further discoveries should be made in this -district, before it will be safe to speculate on the origin of these -gravels, and their relation to the superficial configuration of the -neighbourhood.” Since then, as will be seen in subsequent pages, these -discoveries have been made. - -Farther down the valley of the Cray than Green Street Green, near -Dartford Heath, about half a mile to the south of Crayford Station, Mr. -Flaxman C. J. Spurrell, F.G.S., has been so fortunate as to discover, -_in situ_, the beautifully symmetrical implement which, through his -kindness, I am enabled to engrave as Fig. 456. - - * * * * * - -It is of dark, brownish grey flint, in places mottled with white. It is -worked to an edge all round, but is less sharp towards the base than -towards the point. On one side, near the point, the edge |606| has -been worn away by use into a curved notch. On the opposite side is a -more modern break. It is almost equally convex on the two faces. - -Mr. Spurrell informs me that he found this implement lying on its face, -at a depth of 8 feet below the surface of the gravel, which is that of -the upper level of Dartford Heath, and appears to belong to the valley -of the Thames, and not to that of either the Cray or the Dart. - - * * * * * - -Another implement has been found near the same spot by Mr. C. C. S. -Fooks.[2637] A little to the north of Crayford, in the brick-earth -below an old cliff of chalk and Thanet sands, Mr. Spurrell has found a -number of flakes of flint associated with remains of the Pleistocene -fauna. He has, indeed, discovered a “Palæolithic floor” on which the -ancient workmen lived while they fashioned their tools. Not many of the -larger implements were found, but many of the flakes after having been -struck off the nucleus had been trimmed at the butt-end. By patience -and skill Mr. Spurrell was able to bring many of the flakes together -into their original positions, and thus to reconstitute the blocks of -flint from which they had been manufactured.[2638] In one instance -he was able to build up around an implement—broken in old times—the -various flakes struck off during its manufacture, and thus to reproduce -the block of flint originally taken in hand by the workman. Two -hammer-stones were present, made from cylindrical nodules of flint. - -[Illustration: Fig. 456.—Dartford Heath. 1∕2] - -It is to be remembered that in April,[2639] 1872, the Rev. O. Fisher, -F.G.S., found a worked flint, or flake, in Slade’s Green Pit, Crayford, -beneath a sandy stratum containing among other shells those of -_Corbicula fluminalis_. In 1875 a large broad flake (5 1∕2 inches) was -picked up by Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.,[2640] in a |607| brick-earth -pit at Erith. It is figured and described in the _Argonaut_.[2641] -Another flake found in 1876 in the same stratum as that in which ten -years earlier a skull of a musk ox occurred, has been figured by -Professor Boyd Dawkins.[2642] - -The fauna of the Crayford beds is remarkable, and comprises two Arctic -forms, _Oribos moschatus_ and a _Spermophilus_, as well as _Megaceros -hibernicus_, _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, _tichorhinus_ and _leptorhinus_, -_Elephas primigenius_ and _antiquus_, lion, hyæna, bear, and bison. -Professor Boyd Dawkins regards it as Mid-Pleistocene.[2643] - -Before proceeding to discuss the discoveries that have been made in and -near the valley of the Darent, it will be well to follow the course of -the Thames a little farther eastward, and record those that have been -made in the neighbourhood of Northfleet, opposite Gray’s Thurrock. At -several places within about a mile of Northfleet Station, and to the -west of it, especially at Swanscombe, Milton Street, and Galley Hill, -gravel has been dug in considerable quantities, and has proved to -contain a very large number of palæolithic implements of various forms, -among which the pointed type is most abundant. At Milton Street[2644] -the surface level is about 100 feet above the Thames, and at Galley -Hill[2645] about 90 feet. It was in this pit, apparently at a depth -of about 8 feet from the top of the gravel, that a human skull, or -to judge from the presence of both _tibiæ_, a whole skeleton, was -discovered in September, 1888. No formal account of the discovery was -given until nearly seven years afterwards, when Mr. E. T. Newton, -F.R.S., communicated a detailed notice of the skull and limb-bones -to the Geological Society.[2646] I was present at the meeting, but -it appeared to me that the evidence as to the contemporaneity of the -bones with the containing beds was hardly convincing, and I ventured to -assume an attitude of doubt with regard to the discovery which I still -maintain. There can, however, be no question as to the true palæolithic -character of the implements found in the gravels, of which a few are -figured in illustration of Mr. Newton’s paper.[2647] - -Leaving the Thames we come to the valley of the Darent, in which, about -a mile E.S.E.[2648] of Horton Kirby, Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., in 1861, -found upon the surface, on the top of a hill, a |608| small ovate -implement about 3 1∕2 inches long, and in form much like Fig. 468. - -At Lullingstone,[2649] at an elevation of 400 feet, another implement -has been found, and a pointed specimen of the Amiens type was picked -up by Miss H. Waring on Cockerhurst Farm,[2650] near Shoreham, at the -level of about 430 feet. - -I now come to the numerous and important discoveries made during the -last thirty years by Mr. Benjamin Harrison,[2651] of Ightham, which, -aided by Sir Joseph Prestwich’s interpretation of them, have done -much to revolutionize our ideas as to the age and character of the -Drift deposits capping the Chalk Downs in Western Kent, north of the -escarpment facing the Weald. - -All around Ightham, at different elevations above the bottom of the -neighbouring valley of the Shode, Mr. Harrison has succeeded in -discovering palæolithic implements of flint, for the most part of oval -or ovate forms, but not unfrequently pointed. Fane Hill, Bewley, Chart -Farm, Stone Pit Farm, Stone Street, Seal and Ash to the North may be -mentioned among the localities where his search was successful. He has -also found nearly fifty implements in the talus of Oldbury Hill.[2652] - -Some of those from Seal occurred at a height of 420 feet above Ordnance -Datum, and on what appeared to be the watershed between the Medway and -the Darent. An almost circular specimen formed of ochreous flint and -found at Bewley, Ightham, is shown in Fig. 456A. - -For full particulars of the localities and their relative levels, -the reader must be referred to Sir Joseph Prestwich’s comprehensive -paper[2653] on the occurrence of palæolithic flint implements in -the neighbourhood of Ightham, Kent, in which about forty places are -mentioned. Since that paper was published, Mr. Harrison, aided by -Mr. de B. Crawshay, has extended his researches with the result that -many more implements have been found at high elevations to the north -of the escarpment of the chalk. These discoveries enabled Sir Joseph -Prestwich in another paper[2654] on the Age, Formation and successive -Drift-stages of the valley of the Darent, and on the origin of its -chalk escarpment, still farther to extend his interesting speculations. -It is true that he accepts as being |609| of human manufacture, flints -with bruised and battered edges, which I and some others venture to -regard as owing their shape to purely natural causes. But fortunately -this does not invalidate his arguments, as in most cases where the -so-called “Plateau types” have been found, more or less well-finished -palæolithic implements of recognized form, though much abraded and -deeply stained, have also been discovered. The evidence of such -witnesses is not impaired by calling in that of others of more doubtful -character. - -[Illustration: Fig. 456A.—Bewley, Ightham. 1∕2] - -The continuous slope now extending from the neighbourhood of the Thames -to the summit of the Chalk escarpment, and in many places capped with -implementiferous drift, appears to have been continued southward within -the human period over a part of what is now the Lower Greensand area, -if not, indeed, into that of the Weald; and subsequently the great -valley that now intervenes between the Lower Greensand escarpment and -the North Downs must have been excavated. - -Whatever causes we may assign for the changes in the -surface-configuration of the district, it must be borne in on all -that the time required to effect them is beyond all ordinary means of -calculation. - -West of Ightham, at the head of the present valley of the Darent, is -Limpsfield,[2655] the scene of some interesting discoveries |610| made -by Mr. A. Montgomerie Bell. These, also, have been discussed by Sir -Joseph Prestwich in his paper on the Drift-stages of the Darent valley, -already mentioned; but for the following account of the locality I am -in the main indebted to Mr. Bell. Palæolithic implements have been -found by him and others in the parish of Limpsfield, Surrey, from the -year 1883 up to the present time. They are of the usual forms, both -pointed and oval, symmetrical and well made, though rarely exceeding -4 1∕2 inches in length. Many of them have been found on the surface of -the ground; but in a gravel-pit on the water-shed between the Darent -and the Medway, at an elevation of 500 feet above the sea, Mr. Bell -has succeeded in obtaining several implements out of the solid bed of -gravel, at depths of from 3 to 7 feet from the surface. The gravel is -about 8 feet in thickness and covers a considerable area. The late Mr. -Topley[2656] has pointed out that it presents some features that are -unusual in river gravels, and Mr. Bell is inclined to invoke some kind -of ice-action in its formation. I content myself with recording these -opinions. - -Besides the gravel there is a second implementiferous deposit at -Limpsfield, on the slope of the Lower Greensand escarpment. Here more -than three hundred implements have been found, at elevations of from -450 to 570 feet above the sea, principally on the surface, but also in -the brick-earth at a depth of from 3 1∕2 to 5 feet. They have been most -frequent on Ridland’s Farm, and comprise all the forms that are usually -obtained. - -Eastward of Ightham, within the watershed of the Medway, implements -from the gravels have been obtained at West Malling.[2657] - -Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, F.R.S., in 1865, picked up a broken ovate -implement about a quarter of a mile S.W. of Marden Church, on the edge -of the valley of the Teise, an affluent of the Medway. Though found -on the surface, it is of an ochreous colour, and apparently has been -derived from some bed of gravel. In the same year, in the valley of -the Medway itself, at Sandling, he found a rude, almost circular, -implement, which, though on the surface, was also ochreous. - -The most important discoveries, however, have been made in the -well-known pits near Aylesford, in which some very fine implements -have been found. I have several, one of which, of pointed form, with -a heavy butt, must originally have been 9 inches long. |611| It has, -however, had the end broken off. Mr. B. Harrison has given me another -thinner and more perfect pointed specimen made from a flat block of -flint. Numerous remains of the pleistocene fauna have been found in the -gravels. - -In 1862, Prof. T. McK. Hughes, F.R.S., found a rude palæolithic -implement near Otterham Quay, Chatham, and another at Gillingham, in -the same neighbourhood. He also picked up a small oval implement at -Tweedale, half-way between Chatham and Upchurch; and one of larger -size, 5 inches long, with a rounded point and truncated base, on the -railway, west of Newington Station. Prof. Hughes likewise found a -rudely-chipped implement in gravel said to have been brought from a -pit near the railway-cutting at Hartlip. There may be some question -whether the gravels at these latter places would be more properly -classed as belonging to the valley of the Thames, or to that of the -Medway. On the north of the Medway, at St. Mary, in the hundred of -Hoo, Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., found a small, neatly-chipped, pointed -implement; and another at Stoke, in the same district, with rounded -point, and sub-triangular in form. They are both ochreous in colour, -and have their angles much abraded. To the south of Gravesend, at some -distance from either the Medway or the Thames, near Meopham, Nursted, -and Cobham, he has also found broken implements of palæolithic types. - -In the Christy Collection is an ovate implement, 4 1∕4 inches long, in -form like Fig. 462, which was discovered by Mr. E. A. Bernays on a heap -of gravel at Chatham. - -I have also an ovate implement found in gravel at the Engineering -School, Chatham, in 1882, by Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., who presented -it to me; as well as a good pointed implement found at Chatham by Mr. -Worthington Smith. - -Farther east, Prof. Hughes found a large implement, which, though -wanting its point, is 8 inches long, in gravel said to have been -brought from a pit on the hill north of the railway, and half a mile -east of Teynham Station; and at Ospringe, near Faversham, Prof. W. Boyd -Dawkins found, in 1865, not in gravel, but on the surface, a small, -neatly-chipped, ovate implement. In form it resembles Fig. 467, from -the Isle of Wight, but is white and porcellanous. I have another fine -specimen, from the brick-earth at Faversham, which was given to me by -Mr. J. W. Morris of that town. It is 5 inches long, in form much like -Fig. 456, but thinner, and it has weathered to a porcellanous white on -|612| one face, and to a light grey on the other. South of Faversham, -at Moldash, Mr. C. E. Hawkins, of the Geological Survey, in 1872 came -across a smaller and thicker porcellanous ovate implement lying on -the surface of the ground. In the same district, 1 1∕2 miles south -of Selling Church, Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., has found another small -pointed implement of palæolithic character. |613| - -[Illustration: Fig. 457.—Reculver. 1∕1] - -It is, however, in the neighbourhood of Herne Bay and Reculver, that -palæolithic implements have been found in the greatest number. The -first discoveries in that locality were made in the autumn of 1860 -by Mr. Thomas Leech,[2658] who had studied in the School of Mines, -in Jermyn Street, and who, while searching for fossil remains at the -base of the cliff between Herne Bay and Reculver, picked up a flint -implement which he at once recognized as analogous in form with some -of those from the River-drift of the valley of the Somme. Continuing -his search, he found six implements in all, which he placed in the -Museum of Economic Geology, in Jermyn Street. One of those is shown -full size in Fig. 457, from a block which has already been used in the -_Archæologia_. It is of considerable interest, as having been formed -from a Lower Tertiary flint pebble, and not from a flint derived -directly from the chalk. The rounded end of the pebble, which forms -the butt of the instrument, is admirably adapted for being held in the -hand. It is singularly like the implement from St. Acheul, shown in Pl. -I., Fig. 9. - - * * * * * - -On being informed of this discovery, the late Sir Joseph Prestwich -and I at once visited the locality. I have also been there on many -subsequent occasions. The implements in this case have not been found -in their original matrix, but exposed upon the sea-shore at the base of -the cliff, between Herne Bay and Reculver, and for the most part at a -short distance from the Bishopstone Coast-guard Station. In all, there -must have been upwards of a hundred discovered. I have myself found at -various times eight specimens. Sir Joseph Prestwich,[2659] Mr. James -Wyatt, Mr. Whitaker, and others, have also found some. The greatest -number, however, have either been found by or passed into the hands of -the late Mr. John Brent,[2660] F.S.A., of Canterbury, who has supplied -a series of twelve or fourteen to the Christy Collection. - -A magnificent implement was found near Bishopstone about 1891, and -has been brought under my notice by Col. A. J. Copeland, F.S.A. It is -rather more pointed than Fig. 472, and is 11 inches long and nearly 6 -inches wide towards the base. It rivals in size that from Shrub Hill, -mentioned on p. 569. - -The majority of the specimens seem to be of the pointed form, of which -the implement engraved full size in Fig. 458 offers a fine example. -It was found by myself in 1861, and has already been figured in the -_Archæologia_,[2661] as has also Fig. 459, the original of which was -found by Sir Joseph Prestwich. - -[Illustration: Fig. 458.—Near Reculver. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 459.—Near Reculver. 1∕1] - -A small, but rather curious implement from Mr. Brent’s collection |616| -is shown in Fig. 460. It is slightly curved in the direction of its -length, and has a remarkably thick butt. The original of Fig. 461 is -in the Christy Collection, and has been made from a broad flake, which -has subsequently been chipped into an oval form. Its surface is much -altered in structure, and has become mottled and ochreous. In general -character this instrument much resembles the large broad flakes from -the gravel at Montiers, near Amiens, but it has been chipped to a more -symmetrical outline than that which they usually present. Another, -of much the same form, has been found by Mr. Brent, in the gravel at -Canterbury. An engraving of another pointed implement from Reculver is -given in _Once a Week_.[2662] A few specimens have been found of oval -or ovate, and of sub-triangular form, and equally convex on both faces. - -[Illustration: Fig. 460.—Reculver. 1∕2] - -Thanks to Mr. F. Rutley, F.G.S., I have a small ochreous oval -implement, which he found on the shore 1 1∕2 miles west of Reculver. - -[Illustration: Fig. 461.—Reculver. 1∕2] - -Though the implements are usually found on the sea-shore at the foot -of the cliff, there can be no doubt of their being derived from the -gravels at its summit. They are generally somewhat worn by the action -of the waves, but occasionally they have preserved their edges quite -sharp, and their angles unabraded, so that they could not have been -many days upon the shore, and must have been quite recently derived -from the cliff. I have, indeed, been informed by a coastguard-man that -in |617| 1884 he found an implement _in situ_ in the gravel on the -cliff somewhat west of Old Haven Gap. Many of them are stained of the -same ochreous colour as the other flints in the gravel, and I have, -moreover, in one instance, found the point of an implement on the -surface a short distance inland. Dr. G. D. Gibb, F.G.S.,[2663] also -records finding a broken implement on the top of the cliff, half-way -between Herne Bay and Reculver. The late Mr. Brent, F.S.A., had a long -flake stained of an ochreous colour, and apparently derived from the -gravel, which also came from the top of the cliff. - -The lower part of the cliff, of which a section has been published by -Sir Joseph Prestwich,[2664] consists of Thanet Sands and the sandy beds -of the Woolwich Series, above which is a local pebbly clay deposit of -small extent, and about 8 feet thick, to which he is inclined to refer -the flint implements. Its height is about 50 feet above the sea. At a -higher level farther west, near Old Haven Gap, are other gravel beds, -which he presumes to be of older date. Into this question I need not -enter, but for further geological details will refer the reader to my -account of this discovery in the _Archæologia_.[2665] - -There are pits, in which gravel is dug, near Chislet, where not -improbably similar implements will eventually be discovered. I may add -that it is difficult to form an idea of the position of the coast-line -at the time when these gravels, which appear to be of freshwater -origin, were deposited; as, owing to the soft nature of the base of the -cliffs, the gain of the sea upon the land has been very rapid in this -district, for even since Leland’s time—say three and a half centuries -ago—it has encroached nearly a mile,[2666] but to this subject I shall -have to recur. - -To the west of Herne Bay, and about midway between that place and -Whitstable, is another cliff, near Studhill, where, in the gravel which -caps it, 50 feet above the sea, I have found a portion of a molar of -_Elephas primigenius_, and at the foot of the cliff, rather farther -to the west, the implement shown full size in Fig. 462.[2667] It is -stained of an ochreous colour to some depth, and its surface is much -altered in structure. Sir Joseph Prestwich[2668] seems inclined to -refer this implement to a stratum of clay and gravelly sand at a lower -level, but its colour is more in accordance with the higher beds. I -subsequently picked up another implement of sub-triangular form, deeply -stained, and much waterworn at the edges, at the foot of the same -cliff. Tusks and bones of _Elephas primigenius_,[2669] are stated to be -found near this spot when the cliff falls, as is frequently the case, -from its being undermined by the sea. Elephants’ teeth are occasionally -dredged up off the shore, and I have seen one which was found on the -shore at Reculver. - -At Swalecliffe, nearer Whitstable, where, in the shingle, an -ochreously-stained flint flake was found by my son, and again, nearer -Herne Bay, at Hampton, there are more argillaceous freshwater beds at a -lower level, and containing land and marsh shells; but these seem to be -comparatively modern, and connected with small lateral valleys rather -than with the main valley of the Thames, or of any other ancient river. -|618| - -Immediately east of Reculver lies the marshy valley which separates -the Isle of Thanet from the rest of Kent, a valley which is traversed -by the river Stour, the principal stream of which passes by Sandwich, -eastward, while a smaller channel connects it with a small stream -rising to the west of Chislet, and conducts part of its waters -northward to Northmouth sluice. The Stour and its tributaries drain an -area of upwards of 300 square miles, and not far from its source at -Rowton Chapel, near Lenham, Mr. G. Bunyard, of Maidstone, found in 1885 -a good ovate palæolithic implement of flint, while near Canterbury, -flint implements have been found in considerable numbers in the gravels -in the neighbourhood of the river. - -[Illustration: Fig. 462.—Studhill. 1∕1] - -[Illustration: Fig. 463.—Thanington. 1∕2] - -Their discovery is due to the late Mr. John Brent, F.S.A., of -Canterbury, with whom I have visited the neighbourhood, and who has -most kindly furnished me with all the information at his command, -including some particulars of the levels, and has allowed me to |619| -engrave some of his specimens. One of the finest of these is shown in -Fig. 463. The flint of which it is composed has become porcellanous, -and nearly white. Small portions of the original crust are left at -the base, and on one of the faces; the point has been broken off in -ancient times. It was found in Thanington parish, on the surface, and -not in the gravel, from which, however, it was undoubtedly derived. -Several other specimens have been found in the same manner, among -stones gathered from the surface of the slope of the southern side of -the valley of the Stour, between Thanington and Canterbury. I have a -pointed implement, but unfortunately broken, which was found by the -late Mr. Frederick Pratt Barlow, on a heap of stones, when he visited -the spot with me in 1868. The gravel beds near Thanington, out of which -the implements appear to have come, must be from 80 to 100 feet above -the river. Nearer Canterbury, at the back of Wincheap, between the -waterworks and the gasometer, pits have been sunk in the gravel, at a -lower level, where the surface |620| of the ground is about 29 feet -above the river, from which the pits are distant about 600 yards; and -from this spot Mr. Brent has procured several well-wrought implements -of various forms. One of these is shown in Fig. 464.[2670] Its surface -is lustrous, and of an ochreous colour, and the central ridge is -waterworn. - -[Illustration: Fig. 464.—Canterbury. 1∕2] - -The gravel, which is about 12 feet in thickness, and rests on the -chalk, is coarse, and consists principally of sub-angular flints, -with an admixture of rounded chalk, sandstone and iron-stone pebbles, -with some fragments of fossil wood apparently from the Thanet Sands. -The matrix is sandy, and there are some sandy veins. In parts of the -pit there is a great thickness of brick-earth or loam. No land or -freshwater shells have as yet been found, but some mammalian remains -have occurred, among which is a molar of _Elephas primigenius_. At a -lower level, in the gravel exposed by drainage works along Wincheap, I -found several flakes; and more recently, in 1870, Mr. Brent has kindly -sent me two pointed implements found in gravel in a pit near the new -gasometer, where the surface is lower than that near the waterworks by -5 or 6 feet. One is of much the same type as the Reculver specimen, -Fig. 458, but of coarser workmanship, and about 6 inches long. The -other is less symmetrical, and only 4 1∕2 inches in length. The surface -of each is very much bruised and waterworn, and deeply stained of a -dark ochreous colour. - -There are in my collection numerous other specimens from Canterbury, -both pointed and ovate. Many of them are deeply stained and much -waterworn. One of these, by the kindness of Mr. Worthington Smith, -is shown in Fig. 464A.[2671] The white patches marked A show where -chips that have been detached before the implement was left in its -final position in the gravel have left an unabraded surface. Mr. Smith -regards this implement as one of the oldest class, and certainly it -appears to have met with many vicissitudes and to have travelled -a long way down the valley of the Stour before attaining its last -resting-place. Another specimen, from the New Cemetery, is sharp and -unabraded, and almost black and unstained. A fine pointed implement 7 -inches long, has become white and porcellanous. - -Higher up the valley, an implement has been found on the surface near -Chilham, by Mr. John Marten, formerly of Easinge. It was at a distance -of a quarter of a mile from the river, and at a height of about 100 -feet above it. - -Lower down, near Wear Farm, between Chislet and Reculver, on the -western bank of the North Channel of the Stour, is a pit with -sand and loam above the chalk, which has been described by |621| -Prestwich.[2672] In the lower beds of sand, at a height of but a -few feet above the sea, he found freshwater shells (including the -_Corbicula fluminalis_), mammalian remains, and valves of the marine -shell _Balanus_, as well as _Entomostraca_ and _Foraminifera_, -characteristic of brackish water conditions. It would appear that -we have here another instance of the occurrence of beds with the -_Corbicula_, at no great distance from those productive of flint -implements, but at a lower level. From a pit of the same character, -on the opposite side of the road, I have seen elephant remains in the -possession of Mr. Slater, of Grays, near Chislet. - -[Illustration: Fig. 464A.—Canterbury. 1∕2] - -Another palæolithic implement of ovate form was discovered in 1865, -on a heap of stones, about 3 miles north of Folkestone, by Mr. W. -Topley, F.R.S., of the Geological Survey. It is of course impossible -to say from what source it was derived; but it may be mentioned that -at Folkestone itself, at the top of the West Cliff, near the Battery, -at the height of 110 feet above low-water mark, are some beds of -Drift of much the same character as those in which flint implements -have occurred in other localities, containing remains of _Elephas -primigenius_, _Hippopotamus major_, and other mammals, and shells of -_Helix_. - -Since this passage was written, a remarkably well-shaped ovate -implement has been found in St. John’s Road (Radnor Park end), -Folkestone, by Mr. Richard Kerr, F.G.S., in August, 1893. It lay in -brick-earth at a comparatively low level, and is of flint partially -whitened. With it was found a molar tooth of _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_. -It is now, through Mr. Kerr’s kindness, in my collection, and is -represented in Fig. 464B. |622| - -Proceeding along the southern coast, the next discoveries that have to -be recorded are those made to the west of Eastbourne by Mr. R. Hilton. -At Bell’s Field, Friston, he has found ovate implements, both ochreous -and white and porcellanous, and he has given me a pointed implement -from Crow Link Gap, East Dean. Although found on the surface and not -in gravel or brick-earth, the implements present types which seem to -justify their being regarded as of Palæolithic age. - -Farther west, in the so-called Elephant bed at Brighton, a bed -apparently of subaërial origin, and containing numerous mammalian -remains of the Pleistocene period, Mr. Ernest Willett, in 1876, found -a well-marked ovate implement, 5 1∕2 inches long, of the type shown in -Plate II., No. 11. - -[Illustration: Fig. 464B.—Folkestone. 1∕2] - -With these exceptions, if such they be, the valleys of the smaller -rivers along the southern coast of England have as yet been barren of -discoveries of implements in their gravels, until we come to the Itchen -and the Test, which unite below Southampton, and now discharge into -Southampton Water. As will be subsequently seen, there is good reason -for believing that at the time when these implements were in use, a -portion of the ground now covered by this estuary formed the bed of a -river, itself a branch of a larger stream, only a small part of the -course of which now remains, and that in a greatly altered condition, -having been widened out into the Solent and Spithead. - -The localities at which palæolithic implements have been found in the -neighbourhood of the Itchen and Test are as yet mainly confined to the -lower part of their course, namely, near the town of Southampton and -along the shore of Southampton Water. The first discoveries in the -district were made in 1863,[2673] by Mr. James Brown, of Salisbury, -who found several implements in the neighbourhood of |623| Hill Head, -about nine miles S.E. of Southampton; while the earliest discoveries -near the latter place are of somewhat more recent date, and due to Mr. -W. Read, C.E., until lately a resident of Southampton. - -[Illustration: Fig. 465.—Southampton. 1∕2] - -I take the Southampton discoveries first, as being nearer the sources -of the rivers. The implements obtained by Mr. Read have come from -four different excavations in the gravel, at some distance from each -other, three of them on Southampton Common, all of which I have, -through his courtesy, had the opportunity of examining in his company, -and the other at Freemantle, to the west of the town, about 60 feet -above mean-tide level. The first of those on the Common was on the -southern side, close by the road leading to the cemetery, where a -section of gravel about 6 feet in thickness was exposed. This consisted -principally of sub-angular flints and Lower Tertiary flint-pebbles -mixed with a few of quartz, in a loose sandy matrix, and with some -sandy and marly seams in places. At the base of the gravel was found -the pointed implement shown in Fig. 465. It is stained of an ochreous -colour, and has a projection on one side, towards the base, like that -on the implement from Thetford, Fig. 427. One face is more carefully -chipped than the other, and the edges and angles are slightly |624| -water-worn. The elevation of the ground, at the spot where it was -found, is estimated to be 86 feet above the mean sea-level.[2674] - -In another small pit, at a rather higher level, and close to the N.E. -corner of the cemetery, at a depth of 5 feet from the surface, an oval -implement was found by Mr. Read, _in situ_, in the gravel, which here -attains a thickness of about 8 feet. In this, as also in the preceding -case, a bed of brick-earth or loess has been removed from above the -gravel. The surface of this implement is ochreous and polished, and its -angles are waterworn. The periphery is much twisted, like that of Fig. -434 from Santon Downham. - -At the N.W. corner of the Common, fully half a mile from the first pit, -and at a higher level still, where the surface of the ground is stated -to be more than 160 feet above the mean sea-level, was the extensive -excavation known as the Town Pit. The gravel here retains the same -character, but is perhaps rather less coarse; and above it is a thin -bed of marl, which separates it from the loess or brick-earth, which -in most places has been removed for use. The gravel itself attains a -thickness of from 8 to 15 feet, and from “a fall,” at about 6 feet from -the surface, was picked out an ovate implement 4 1∕2 inches in length, -and in form like Fig. 419 from Bury St. Edmunds. Its edges are sharp, -and its surface lustrous and stained of an ochreous tint, though on one -face the flint has become partially whitened. - -Another and still more interesting specimen (5 1∕2 inches), which, like -that last described, is now, by the kindness of Mr. Read, in my own -collection, has also been found in this pit. It is irregularly oval in -form, being somewhat truncated at one end, but bearing a strong general -resemblance to that from Hill Head, Fig. 466. Its surface is lustrous -and deeply stained all over of a bright ochreous colour, and its angles -and edges are much waterworn. The significance of this fact, in the -case of an implement found in gravel capping a gently sloping tongue of -land, between two rivers, the levels of which are now 160 feet below -it, will be considered hereafter. Numerous other implements have been -found near Southampton, and extensive collections of them are in the -possession of Mr. W. E. Darwin and Mr. W. Dale. There is also a series -in the Hartley Institution at Southampton. Higher up the valleys of -the Itchen or the Test, none of the more highly-wrought implements -have as yet been found in the gravels, although it seems probable that -they may eventually be discovered, especially if the drift-beds at -some considerable height above the present river levels be excavated. -I have, however, seen a flake with one face artificial, and with signs -of use or wear at the edge, which was found in a gravel-pit near the -Fleming Arms, Swathling, a few miles north of Southampton, by Mr. -Spencer G. Perceval. In the gravel near this place a molar of _Elephas -primigenius_ is recorded to have been found.[2675] - -I have also a deeply-stained ovate implement from Redbridge, close to -Southampton, found by Mr. Worthington G. Smith. - - * * * * * - -I have already, in 1864, described elsewhere[2676] the discoveries -which have been made in the gravels on the eastern shore of |625| -Southampton Water, in the neighbourhood of Hill Head. Since that time -a considerable number of flint instruments have been found in this -locality, principally by Mr. James Brown, the original discoverer, and -his friends. - -[Illustration: Fig. 466.—Hill Head.] - - * * * * * - -A large number of specimens from this district are preserved in the -Blackmore Museum at Salisbury. Among them is at least one of chert. -Of those found near Hill Head, a large proportion are flat, oval, and -ovate specimens, one of which is engraved as Fig. 466. It was found -by Mr. James Brown, in 1863, on the shore between Brunage and Hill -Head. It is ochreous, and has its angles slightly waterworn, possibly -in modern times, by the action of the pebbles on the shore. Some of -the specimens have suffered considerably from this cause; but that the -implements are derived from the gravel is proved by the fact of one -having been discovered by Mr. James Brown,[2677] in a mass which had -fallen from the cliff. Some of the |626| implements are of the pointed -form with straight sides, and a few have the rounded butt of the flint -left untouched, apparently by way of handle. One or two well-chipped -broad flakes have also been found. The discoveries have extended over -about 9 miles of the coast between Warsash and Gosport. Along a great -part of this distance there is a low cliff, ranging in height from -about 20 to 38 feet[2678] above the mean sea-level, and consisting of -sands belonging to the Bracklesham series, capped by gravelly beds, in -many places 10 to 12 feet thick, and in some, as much as 15 or 16 feet. -These beds are almost continuous, and rest on a nearly horizontal base, -except where the cliff is intersected by transverse valleys. The gravel -consists almost entirely of chalk flints, mostly subangular, among -which are some of considerable size, and some quite fresh and unrolled. -There are also a few quartz and chert pebbles in the mass, and some -large blocks of sandstone of Tertiary origin. Some loamy and sandy beds -occur at intervals, but no mammalian remains or land or freshwater -shells have, I believe, as yet been found in these beds of Drift. The -gravels extend eastward a considerable distance, as may be seen on the -excellent map[2679] given by Mr. Codrington in illustration of his -paper on the Superficial Deposits of this District, as well as on the -new Geological Survey Map. Since his paper was written Mr. Codrington -has found _in situ_, in a gravel-pit at Warsash, a mile to the north of -Hook a well-wrought, long, pointed implement, at a height of about 46 -feet above the mean sea-level. Two implements, one of them much like -Fig. 468, found on Southsea Common to the east of Portsmouth, by Lieut. -Oliver, R.E., and Mr. G. Smith, are now in the Blackmore Museum. - -During building operations at Lee on the Solent,[2680] numerous -palæolithic implements have been found and preserved by Sir J. C. -Robinson, F.S.A., to whom I am indebted for several specimens. - -On the other side of Spithead, at the Foreland or most eastern point -of the Isle of Wight, the cliff-section shows a bed of shingly gravel, -apparently a beach-deposit, according to Mr. Codrington, and between -30 and 40 feet thick, resting in a deep valley in the Bembridge marl. -Towards the edge, where the gravel would abut against the marl, it is -cut off by a trough filled with brick-earth 36 feet thick, with a few -seams of small angular flints. This brick-earth appears to extend some -distance upwards over the slope of the marl as well as over the shingly -gravel; and among some flints derived from it, at a height of about 80 -feet above the mean sea-level, Mr. Codrington found the neatly-chipped -ovate implement shown in Fig. 467. Its surface is lustrous and in part -whitened, and its angles and edges are sharp and unworn. The possible -connection of the bed containing this instrument with others in this -district is a matter for future consideration. - -The discovery is not, however, the only one that has been made in the -Isle of Wight. I have two ovate water-worn specimens, found on the -shore at Bembridge, and a thick, pointed implement, found on the beach -between the flag-staff at Bembridge Point and the ferry. Prof. E. B. -Poulton, F.R.S., has also found two implements on the shore at Seaview -between Ryde and Bembridge. |627| - -I now turn to the discoveries made in the valleys of the Avon and its -affluents, which drain an area of about 670 square miles. The first -of these took place in the River-drift beds, in the neighbourhood -of Salisbury; beds which were pointed out by Sir Joseph Prestwich -in 1859[2681] as likely to contain implements of the same class as -those from the valley of the Somme. This prognostication was made in -ignorance of the fact that, already in 1846, a palæolithic implement -had been found near Salisbury, and had come into the possession of the -late Dr. S. P. Woodward, of the British Museum, who at that time put it -aside, as having little reference to his own special studies. - -[Illustration: Fig. 467.—The Foreland, Isle of Wight. 1∕2] - -In 1863, however, Dr. Humphrey P. Blackmore, of Salisbury, discovered -a flint implement in the gravel at Bemerton, near that town; and since -that time numerous other discoveries have been made by him in the -district, and also by the late Mr. E. T. Stevens, Mr. James Brown, and -other explorers resident at Salisbury, the results of whose zealous -researches may be seen in the admirable Blackmore Museum. These -discoveries have been made in the valleys of the Avon and the Wiley, -and also on the spur of land separating those streams, and on that -between the Avon and the Bourne. In the valley of the Avon, implements -have been found at Lake, about 6 miles above Salisbury; and also at -Ashford, near Fordingbridge, about 12 miles below its junction with -the Wiley and Nadder at that city. As Lake is the highest point in -the Valley of the Avon proper at which, up to the present time, such -discoveries have been made in the River-drift, it will be well to -notice it first, though it must be mentioned that Mr. F. J. Bennett, of -the Geological Survey, has found a good palæolithic implement farther -north, near Pewsey Station. - -Implements were found at this spot, in 1865, by Mr. Tiffin, jun., of -|628| Salisbury,[2682] but only a few have since been discovered, -as the gravel is little, if at all, worked; and it is therefore only -on the slope of the hill where the beds have been cut through by the -deepening of the valley that they occur. That shown in Fig. 468 is -preserved in the Blackmore Museum. It is stained of an ochreous tint, -and is worn at its edges. Others of similar form, but white, have also -been found, as well as some large broad flakes. It is needless to -discuss the character of the gravel, as so many discoveries, of which -the circumstances can be better ascertained, have been made in the same -neighbourhood. In the valley of the Wiley, at South Newton, about 5 -miles above Salisbury, an isolated specimen of a flat ovate implement -has also been found. - -[Illustration: Fig. 468.—Lake. 1∕2] - -Nearer Salisbury, at Bemerton and Fisherton, the discoveries have been -of more interest and importance. They have already, to some extent, -been described by myself,[2683] principally from information given me -by Dr. Humphrey P. Blackmore. The beds of Drift at these two places are -at different levels on the slope of the north side of the valley of -the Wiley, and of different characters; that at Bemerton being at the -higher level, and principally gravel, and that at Fisherton lower, and -principally consisting of brick-earth, with a few gravelly seams. - -The pit at Bemerton, in which most of the implements have been found, -is about a mile west of Salisbury, nearly opposite the new church, -and close to the lane connecting the roads to Wilton and Devizes, and -nearly midway between them. The gravel consists mainly of subangular -flints, with a few Upper Greensand pebbles and Tertiary sandstone -blocks in a red clayey matrix. It is 10 to 12 feet |629| in thickness, -and attains a height of at least 100 feet above the river, though in -this particular pit it is only about 80 feet above it. The gravel caps -the hill, instead of lying merely in a trough along its side, so that -in this particular, the section I have elsewhere given is incorrect. -The chalk comes nearly to the surface, lower down the slope, and -divides the gravel from a brick-earth deposit continuous with that of -Fisherton, farther down the valley. - -[Illustration: Fig. 469.—Bemerton. 1∕2] - -The implements found at Bemerton are principally oval, ovate, and -ovate-lanceolate. They are for the most part considerably altered in -texture at the surface, and many of them are much rolled and waterworn. -A few flakes and spalls of flint have also been found. The original -of Fig. 469 is in the Blackmore Museum, and is of grey flint, not -waterworn. It shows some marks of use on the edge, towards the point, -and a portion of the natural crust of the flint remains at the base. In -all, upwards of twenty specimens have been found in this gravel, one -of them as high as the cemetery. Several others have also been found -between that place and Highfield, which is about a quarter of a mile -nearer Salisbury than the Bemerton Pit; and in gravel which there caps -the hill between the Wiley and the Avon, implements have also been -found. - -[Illustration: Fig. 470.—Highfield. 1∕2] - -A remarkably small specimen from this place is shown in Fig. 470. It is -of grey flint, slightly ochreous, and with its angles somewhat worn. -The original is in the Blackmore Museum. |630| - -I am not aware of any organic remains having as yet been found in -these upper gravels, though they are abundant in the brick-earth at -a lower level, at Fisherton Anger, where, however, flint implements -are so scarce that only few have been found; two of these are in the -Blackmore Museum. One of them, obtained beneath remains of the mammoth, -in 1874,[2684] is shown in Fig. 471. The flint of which it is made has -become white and porcellanous, its angles are sharp, but along the -edges of both sides towards the base there are marks of wearing away by -use. The other specimen is only fragmentary, but the flint has assumed -the same characters. The edge is like that of Fig. 437; one face of the -implement having been flat and the section wedge-shaped. - -[Illustration: Fig. 471.—Fisherton. 1∕2] - -The Drift deposits at Fisherton have long been known to geologists, -and have been described by Sir Charles Lyell,[2685] Sir Joseph -Prestwich,[2686] and others. They present a great similarity to the -implement-bearing beds at Menchecourt, near Abbeville, as has been -pointed out by Sir Joseph Prestwich;[2687] and this circumstance led us -to visit the spot in 1859, with a view of discovering works of man in -the beds, though at that time our search was unrewarded. - -It is needless for me here to describe the beds in detail: suffice it -to say, that resting on a more highly inclined surface of chalk is a -deposit, the upper portion of which forms the surface of the present -slope on the northern side of the valley of the united Wiley and -Nadder. It is in some places nearly 30 feet in thickness, but thins out -|631| towards the bottom of the valley. This deposit,[2688] leaving the -superficial soil out of the question, has usually in its upper part a -rubbly gravel, with angular and subangular flints, fragments of chert, -iron-stone, and chalk, mixed with clay and brick-earth, to a thickness -of 4 or 5 feet; below that is from 10 to 18 feet of brick-earth mixed -with variable masses of flint and chalk rubble, and containing bones -and shells, principally in its lower part; below this again, from 1 to -2 feet of fine marl, full of well-preserved shells and a few bones; and -at the base, flint and chalk rubble, with sand and clay. - -The following species are recorded by Dr. Blackmore as having occurred -in these beds:—_Canis lupus_, _Canis vulpes_, _Hyæna spelæa_, _Felis -spelæa_, _Bison minor_,[2689] _Bos primigenius_, _Ovibos moschatus_, -_Cervus tarandus_, _Cervus_ (_Guettardi?_), _Cervus elaphus_, _Equus_ -(four varieties), _Rhinoceros tichorinus_, _Elephas primigenius_, -_Spermophilus_ (_superciliosus?_), _Lemmus torquatus_, _Lemmus_ -(_norvegicus?_), _Arvicola_ (_sp. nov.?_) and _Lepus timidus_. - -Of birds, some bones of the wild goose, _Anser segetum_, have been -found, and portions of the shells of eggs corresponding to those of the -same bird, and of the wild duck, _Anas boscas_. - -The land and freshwater shells consist of _Ancylus_, _Limnæa_, -_Planorbis_, _Bythinia_, _Valvata_, _Pisidium_, _Acme_, _Carychium_, -_Succinea_, _Helix_, _Limax_, _Pupa_, _Zonites_, and _Zua_. - -It is worthy of notice in passing, that the presence of the musk ox, -the marmot, and the lemming, to say nothing of the reindeer, seems to -point to a colder climate having prevailed at the time of the deposit -of these beds, than now. The egg of the wild goose, if such it be, is -also suggestive of a more arctic climate; as the breeding-place of this -bird is presumably in the far north. This question of climate will come -under consideration farther on. - -The discoveries at Milford Hill have already been placed on record -by Dr. H. P. Blackmore.[2690] This hill, the name of which has on -the old Ordnance Map been by error assigned to Cricket Down, forms a -spur between the valleys of the Avon and the Bourne, and is in fact a -continuation of Mizmaze Hill, from which, however, it is cut off by a -transverse valley about 30 feet in depth. The summit of the hill rises -to an elevation of about 100 feet above the waters of the Avon and the -Bourne, which flow on either side of it, and unite below the point of -the spur. At the summit of the hill the gravel attains its greatest -thickness, which is about 12 feet. It rests on an irregular surface of -chalk, occasionally running down into pipes, and thins out towards the -sides, ceasing altogether rather more than half way down the hill. In -places, there is chalk rubble or gravel in a chalky matrix at the base. -The gravel consists principally of subangular flints, a few Tertiary -pebbles, and blocks of sandstone, and contains a larger proportion of -Upper Greensand chert than the Bemerton gravel—the whole mixed with -a variable proportion of sand and stiff clay, and for the most part -deeply stained by iron. Many of the large flints are said to present -|632| no signs of wearing by water transport. On the slope of the -hill, near the base of the gravel, a narrow seam of sand was found to -contain some land shells of the genera _Helix_, _Pupa,_ and _Zua_. No -mammalian remains, with the exception of a tooth of horse, have been -found in the gravel. - -Flint implements have been discovered here in considerable numbers, -mostly of the pointed lanceolate form; some of ovate, and other -forms, including a scraper, have also occurred. Most of them are -now in the Blackmore Museum. More than one specimen is of chert. In -about 150 yards of gravel, excavated to form a cellar at Elm Grove, -Milford Hill, no less than twenty implements of different forms were -found, principally by Mr. James Brown. Dr. Blackmore observes that -the implements on the side of the hill are relatively only half as -numerous as on the top, and that the condition of their surface varies -considerably, the majority being waterworn, but others having their -edges and angles as sharp as if they had been made yesterday. The -degree of staining also varies, and is not always due to their present -position in the gravel, some deeply stained having been dug out of the -chalk rubble at the base, where they lay side by side with fragments of -flint, which retained their original colour; and, on the other hand, -perfectly unstained specimens having been obtained from the ochreous -gravel. Several implements were observed, _in situ_, by Mr. Wheaton, -Mr. James Brown, and others; and they were found scattered unevenly -through the deposit, but the majority low down and towards the base. -Many of them are extremely rude; in fact, as a whole, “ruder and less -skilfully made than most of the specimens from the valley of the -Somme.” Flakes and spalls were found in considerable numbers, and also -a few remarkably well-made implements, of which a magnificent specimen -is shown in Fig. 472. It is of light-grey flint, with the natural -crust on part of the base. The face not shown is roughly chipped, but -it has been neatly wrought at the edge to a symmetrical form. Its -angles are but slightly rounded. A detailed account of the discoveries -at Bemerton[2691] and Milford Hill, with maps and figures of several -implements, has been given by Mr. C. J. Read, of Salisbury. - -A scraper-like implement from Britford, a short distance below -Salisbury, is in the Blackmore Museum. - -About 6 miles below Salisbury, in gravel, near Downton,[2692] and at an -elevation of about 150 feet above the river Avon, Sir Joseph Prestwich -picked up a small ovate implement, in form like Fig. 456, but more -sharply pointed and only 3 inches in length. Between the pit, in which -it was found, and the river, two gravel-terraces occur, one 80 to -110 feet, and the other 40 to 60 feet, above its level. At Breamore, -farther south, a well-shaped pointed implement of chert was found by -Mr. E. Westlake in 1888, in gravels 100 feet above the Avon. - -[Illustration: Fig. 472.—Milford Hill, Salisbury. 1∕2] - -A few miles farther down the valley, and about half a mile S.W. of -Fordingbridge, at Ashford[2693] railway station, is a gravel-pit, -which was largely worked for the purpose of ballasting the railway, -and in this |633| gravel also, implements have been found; first -by Mr. Toomer, of Salisbury, in 1866, and subsequently by Mr. James -Brown, myself, and others. Several specimens are preserved in the -Blackmore Museum, one of which is shown in Fig. 473. It is of ochreous -flint, with the angles slightly waterworn. Some of the implements -found in this gravel have been much rolled. Mr. J. W. Brooke, of |634| -Marlborough, has in his collection a series of about forty implements -and flakes from Fordingbridge, many of them water-worn. - -[Illustration: Fig. 473.—Fordingbridge. 1∕2] - -The gravel here rests upon Tertiary beds, and consists principally of -subangular flints, with many Lower Tertiary pebbles, a few pieces of -greensand iron-stone, and more rarely quartz pebbles among them. The -beds are about 10 feet thick, and their height above the river about 40 -feet. Remains of mammoth[2694] have been found in them. - -Farther down the course of the Avon, palæolithic implements have not -as yet been found; and in the basin of the Stour, which joins the -Avon at Christchurch, but one discovery has been made. This was of -a small brown ochreous implement, made from a large external flake, -trimmed into a somewhat kidney-shaped outline, and having its edges -worn round, and its angles waterworn. It was found at Wimborne Minster, -by Mr. W. F. Tiffin, of Salisbury, in gravel brought from a pit in -the neighbourhood, and not _in situ_. I have searched for implements, -but in vain, in some of the pits near Wimborne, though the gravel, -especially at Oakley, has all the characters of a deposit likely to -contain them. - -Though the united Avon and Stour now find their way into the sea -near Christchurch, it seems probable, as will subsequently be shown, -that they were in remote times affluents of a river running from -west to east, and that a portion of this river, now widened out by -the sea, |635| has become the Solent between the Isle of Wight and -the mainland. The course of this ancient river appears to have been -a little to the south and seaward of the present line of the coast -at Bournemouth; and some of the gravels which formerly lined its -valley now cap the cliffs for some distance between Poole Harbour and -Hengistbury Head, and thence on in the direction of Portsmouth. - -In these gravels, a very large number of palæolithic implements has -been found. The first discovery at Bournemouth was made in 1866,[2695] -by Mr. Alfred H. Stevens, of Salisbury, and in immediately subsequent -years they were principally due to Dr. H. P. Blackmore, my son, P. -Norman Evans, Mr. Albert Way, and others. The first implements were -found in the gravel, after it had been dug and spread upon the roads; -but Dr. Blackmore found an implement _in situ_, and two or three rough -flakes, close to Boscombe Mouth, at almost the highest point of the -cliff, more than 100 feet above the sea-level. - -[Illustration: Fig. 474.—Boscombe, Bournemouth. 1∕2] - -This implement, which is nearly white and unworn, is preserved in the -Blackmore Museum, and is represented in Fig. 474. Numerous implements -of other forms have since been found in the gravel dug in the -neighbourhood of Boscombe. Among them is a side-scraper 3 1∕2 inches -long and of the same type as that from Santon Downham, Fig. 437. It -was found by Mrs. E. Sandars, of Bournemouth, who has kindly added it -to my collection. A rude chopper-like implement was also found there. -One of the finest, however, of all the early Boscombe implements is -that shown in Fig. 475, which was found by my son Norman in 1868. It -has unfortunately lost a portion near the |636| base, through a crack -in the stone, but is otherwise perfect. The material is not, as usual, -flint from the Chalk, but chert from the Upper Greensand. The surface -is slightly ochreous, and to some extent lustrous. I have another -implement of chert, but of ovate form, found at Boscombe, as well as -some good pointed implements of flint. In the railway-cutting east of -Boscombe, I, some years ago, found a flake of flint. Other implements -have been found in gravel which is believed to have been dug to the -west of Bournemouth, near the Bourne Valley Pottery and the turnpike -on the Poole road. That shown in Fig. 476 was found by Miss Way, and -kindly communicated to me by her father, the late Mr. Albert Way, -F.S.A. It is of flint, now of a milky-white colour. Mr. Way has found -three or four other specimens of much the same character. I have two -large, rather coarsely chipped, irregularly oval specimens from the -same gravels, both found by my son Norman. - -[Illustration: Fig. 475.—Boscombe, Bournemouth. 1∕2] - -The beds near the turnpike are from about 6 to 8 feet thick, and rest -on a slightly irregular surface of Bagshot Sands. The gravel |637| -consists principally of subangular and rolled flints, a few Tertiary -flint-pebbles, a considerable proportion of small quartz pebbles, and -a few fragments of old rocks and Upper Greensand chert; the whole in a -sandy matrix, and having in places some sandy seams. I am not aware of -any mammalian or molluscan remains having been found in them. They are -nearly, if not quite, on the summit of table-land, slightly inclining -seawards, and with the valley of the Bourne to the north, with higher -ground beyond it and also to the west. The surface near the turnpike is -about 130 feet above the mean sea-level. - -Following the presumed course of the ancient river Solent for about ten -miles eastward, along what is now the coast, we come to Barton. For the -whole distance the land to the north is thickly capped with gravel; and -at Barton, on the slope of the cliff, a flat, oval implement, 6 inches -long, and in form much like that from Hill Head, Fig. 466, was found -by an officer of the Coast Guard, about 1868, and was subsequently -presented to the Christy Collection by Mr. Albert Way, F.S.A. - -[Illustration: Fig. 476.—Bournemouth. 1∕2] - -Since that time an astonishing number of palæolithic implements has -been found in the district extending from Chuton Bunny by Barton and -Hordwell to Milford. I have about sixty specimens from this district -in my own collection, many of them very perfect of their kind. For -the most part they have been picked up on the shore and on the talus -of the gravel-capped cliff, but they have occasionally been found in -the gravel itself. A few have been made of Upper Greensand chert, but -the majority are of flint. Nearly all the usual types are represented, -several by large examples. I have pointed, oval, and ovate specimens, -as much as 8 and 8 1∕2 inches in length. Those from the gravel are -as a rule sharp and but little abraded, while the condition of those -found on the shore depends upon the length of time that they have been -exposed to the rolling action of the sea since their fall from the -cliff. |638| - -A palæolithic flake has been found still farther east, at Stone,[2696] -between Exbury and Calshot Castle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 477.—Broom Pit, Axminster. 1∕2] - -Assuming the existence of an ancient river Solent flowing at an -elevation of upwards of 100 feet above the present level of the sea at -Bournemouth, its western sources must have drained much the same basin -as that of the rivers now discharging into Poole Harbour; but without -at present entering into that question, I may mention the discovery of -a palæolithic implement at Dewlish, about 3 miles N. of Piddletown, -Dorsetshire, by Mr. James Brown, of Salisbury. It is very neatly -chipped, but slightly unsymmetrical in form, one side being straight -and the other curved; but in general character it resembles Fig. 430 -from Thetford, having been made from a large flake, and showing the -original crust of the flint at its base. It was found on the surface, -at the top of a high hill, at no great distance from the branch of the -Trent or Piddle, which flows past Dewlish. Elephant[2697] remains have -been found near the same place, which have, however, been assigned to -_Elephas meridionalis_. |639| - -In the Blackmore Museum there were in 1872 four implements of chert, -of oval and tongue-shaped types, found during the erection of the -telegraph posts between Chard and Axminster. There was also another -thin oval implement of ochreous flint, 7 1∕2 inches long and 3 1∕2 -broad, which was found near Colyton, Devon. The exact locality where -those first mentioned were found, is unknown; but it appears probable -that the gravel, like that at Colyton, belongs to the valley of the -Axe, in which I suggested in 1872 that further search should be made. - -Such a search has long since been rewarded. In 1877[2698] I recorded -some discoveries at Broom, near Axminster, and in 1878 the late Mr. W. -S. M. D’Urban[2699] gave an account of the ballast pit at Broom, in -the parish of Hawkchurch, near Axminster, and close to the river Axe. -It was worked in a low hill consisting of chert gravel intermingled -with seams of ferruginous and sandy clay, and a section was exposed -about 40 feet deep, the base being about 150 feet above the level of -the sea, which comes within a distance of about six miles. At that time -numerous palæolithic implements of various types had been found in the -pit. They were formed of dark Upper Greensand chert, and some were -much water-worn, while others were quite sharp and uninjured. Since -then very many more have been collected, and a fine series of them is -preserved in the Albert Memorial Museum at Exeter. There are also some -good specimens in the Horniman Museum[2700] at Forest Hill, S.E. I have -engraved a typical example of the ovate form in my own collection as -Fig. 477. - -Some implements from Broom are of large size. I have a very rude -specimen that I found among the ballast on the South Western Railway -in August, 1877. It is 8 1∕2 inches long and 6 inches wide. Other -specimens are small. The ovate type seems to predominate, but the -pointed forms are not scarce. A few broad flakes trimmed at the edges, -of the so-called Le Moustier type, occur with the other forms. - -In the valley of the Culm, at Kentisbeare, near Cullompton, Mr. W. -Downes,[2701] in 1879, found a chert implement in form like Plate II., -Fig. 17. - -With the exception of those from the bone-caves of Devonshire, no -palæolithic implements have as yet been found farther west in Britain. - - - - -|640| - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -FORMS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPLEMENTS FROM THE RIVER-DRIFT. - - -Having now briefly described the circumstances of the discovery of -these palæolithic implements in various localities in England, and -given illustrations showing their usual forms, it will be well to -say a few words as to their character and probable uses. The general -resemblance in form between the series of implements found in the -River-drift of England and in that of France, is obvious to all who -have had the opportunity of examining collections formed in the two -countries; while the character of the deposits and of the associated -mammalian and molluscan remains being also the same, the implements in -each may be regarded as being practically of the same age, and formed -by the same race of men. In my former attempt at classifying them, I -therefore took my characteristic specimens indifferently from either -side of the Channel; more especially, as in 1861, when I drew the -plate[2702] illustrative of the different types, but few discoveries -had been made in England. As this plate has been considered useful as -affording a convenient conspectus of the prevailing forms found in the -River-drift, I make no apology for here reproducing it in a somewhat -modified form, though many of the specimens engraved are of French and -not of British origin. In conjunction with the woodcuts given in the -text, the two plates into which it is now divided will give a fairly -complete idea of most of the forms of palæolithic implements. - -In first writing on this subject in 1859,[2703] I divided these -implements generally into three classes, as follows:— - -1. Flint-flakes apparently intended for arrow-heads or knives. - -2. Pointed weapons analogous to lance or spear-heads. - -3. Oval or almond-shaped implements presenting a cutting edge all -round. |641| - -I stated at the same time that of the second class there were two -varieties, the one with a rounded cutting point, and the other acutely -pointed; and that there was also so much diversity in their forms, that -the classes, especially the second and third, might be said to blend, -or run one into the other. In reconsidering the question in 1861,[2704] -I saw but little to alter in the proposed classification, and even now -find no cause for suggesting any material modification, though there -are certainly some additional types to be added to those with which I -was then acquainted. - -The late Mr. E. T. Stevens,[2705] who had as much experience as any -one in classifying these implements, suggested a somewhat different -arrangement of the forms, dividing them under seven heads; and in -the following remarks I shall adopt some of his terminology, though -slightly departing from his order of sequence. - - -FLAKES. - -These may be divided in the same manner as those belonging to the -Surface or Neolithic period, into external, ridged, flat, and -polygonal. They are either simple or unworked; or wrought into form -along the whole or part of the edge. - -1. External flakes, or those first struck off a block of flint, the -crust of which forms their convex face, are of common occurrence in -the River-drift, but they are not often noticed or preserved by the -workmen. Many of them are probably mere spalls resulting from the -manufacture of the more highly-wrought implements. Some few, however, -appear to have been utilized as tools, apparently for scraping. - -2. Ridged flakes, or those of triangular section with a single ridge -formed by two facets on the convex face, are extremely rare in the -gravel-deposits, though occasionally found. Indeed, the art of making -long narrow flakes, such as abounded in Denmark in Neolithic times, and -are not uncommon in Britain, seems to have been almost unknown to the -men whose relics we find in the River-drift; unless, perhaps, their -absence in the gravel may be accounted for in some other way than by -their non-existence. It is indeed possible that the implements found -in the River-gravels were those for out-door, and not for domestic, -use; and certainly, in some of the cave-deposits, where the large -implements are extremely scarce, these skilfully-formed long flakes -occur in considerable numbers. Generally speaking, the proportion of -|642| flakes to the more highly-wrought implements appears also to -be far greater in the caves than that in the gravels. This apparent -greater abundance may, however, to some extent be due to the flakes in -the gravel escaping the notice of the workmen, or to their having been -broken to pieces during the formation of the gravel. - -3. Flat flakes are more common, but these are usually shorter, thicker, -and broader than those of the Surface Period. They frequently exhibit -that minute chipping at the edge, which is probably the result of -wear from scraping some hard substance, such as bone or even wood. -Occasionally a notch has been worn in the edge of the flake, as if the -object scraped had been cylindrical. - -4. Polygonal flakes are those most abundant in the River-drift; but the -large, broad flakes of this character, such as are common in the valley -of the Somme, and especially in its lower deposits, as at Montiers, -near Amiens, are much rarer in England. Fig. 461, from Reculver, is -a flake of this character, but I am not sure whether it does not, -more properly speaking, come under the head of a wrought flake, as it -appears to have been somewhat trimmed at the edges. It is worth while -remarking, that many of the French specimens have the edge worn away by -use, just on one side of the bulb of percussion, at a place where there -is generally a clean sharp edge in a newly-made flake of this form. -Occasionally similar marks of use are apparent on English specimens of -the same character. - -Taken as a whole, the simple flakes of the River-drift Period may be -described as larger, coarser, thicker, and broader than those of the -Surface Period, or of caves of later date than Le Moustier. Their use -appears to have been for cutting and scraping whatever required to be -cut or scraped. - -I formerly regarded some of them as having possibly been arrow-heads, -but the extreme rarity of any light, sharp-pointed flakes, and the -absence of any evidence that those who fashioned them were acquainted -with the use of the bow, render this assumption almost untenable. It -is, however, barely possible that some may have served to tip spears or -lances. - - -TRIMMED FLAKES. - -One of the commonest forms into which flint flakes were fashioned in -Neolithic times, is that produced by trimming the end of the flake to a -semicircular bevelled edge. To this form the |643| name of “scraper” -has been applied, from its still being used in that capacity by the -Eskimos and some North American tribes. The same, or nearly the same, -form occurs among the instruments belonging to the Palæolithic Period. -Such scrapers are very abundant in many of the French caves, and, as -has already been seen, are not entirely wanting in Kent’s Cavern and in -other British caves. They are, however, of very rare occurrence in the -River-drift, and when found, are hardly ever trimmed to so regular and -neatly-chipped a segmental edge, as those either from the surface or -from the caves. - -Occasionally the end of a flake has been worked to a quadrantal edge, -so that one of the straight sides is much longer than the other. In -some cases the end of the flake appears to have become rounded by wear -rather than by trimming. - -The implement from Icklingham, Fig. 424, formed from a polygonal flake, -is very scraper-like in character. Its convex face shows a great many -more facets than is usual with the scrapers of the Neolithic Period. -A more characteristic scraper is that from High-Lodge Hill, Fig. 426. -It is mainly among the implements found in a matrix of clay, or on a -“Palæolithic floor,” that these more delicate forms occur. They are not -only more likely to have been injured by rolling, but when they form -constituent parts of beds of gravel are also less liable to attract -observation than are the larger implements. - -There is another form which, when of large size, seems almost peculiar -to the caves and the River-drift, and to which the term “side-scraper” -may be applied. The instruments of this kind are made from broad -flakes, usually about twice as broad as they are long. The butt-end -of the flake—that at which the blow was administered to strike it off -from the parent block—is either left blunt, or trimmed into such a form -as may conveniently be held in the hand; the other end, which, owing -to the great breadth of the flake, forms the side of the implement, -is trimmed to a segmental edge by blows given on the flat inner face -of the flake which is left as originally produced. Figs. 437 and 453 -show implements of the side-scraper form in flint, and Fig. 443 one -less carefully finished in quartzite. The edge is in some instances -much more acute than in others. They appear to have been held in the -hand, and used in some cases for cutting or chopping, and in others for -scraping. The flints of what have been termed the “Plateau types” have -their edges much more obtuse and rounded, and |644| their chipping and -wear seem to me due to natural causes and not to human workmanship. -There are some implements which have been made from broad flakes, but -which have both faces more or less trimmed, so as to come perhaps more -properly under another category. Another form of trimmed flake is -that in which the side-edges have received their outline by secondary -chipping, as in Fig. 431. Occasionally they are worked to a sharp -point, like the Le Moustier type of Mortillet; and when large, and -boldly re-chipped on the convex face, merge in what has been termed the -shoe-shaped type. - - -POINTED IMPLEMENTS. - -These are very various in form, and present great difficulties in any -attempt to classify them. There are, however, some characteristic -types, to attain which would seem to have been the aim of those who -made the implements, though they were not always successful; and an -innumerable variety of intermediate forms has been the result. To -one of these types Mr. Stevens has applied the term “pear-shaped,” -but though the outline may be that of a pear, the section is so -different, that the term seems open to objection. I would rather -follow the nomenclature of the French quarry-men, who have given -the name _langues-de-chat_ to these implements; and term them -“tongue-shaped.” They are indeed as varied in their forms as the -tongues of the different members of the higher orders of the animal -creation, including both birds and beasts, and range as widely in their -proportions, but they still retain a general resemblance to a tongue. -They are either acute, or round, at the point, and the side-edges -are usually sharp; but the characteristics of the form are that the -greatest thickness of the implement is far nearer to the butt than to -the point, and that the butt is more or less truncated. Fig. 428 gives -a typical example of a long, narrow, acutely-pointed, tongue-shaped -implement, equally convex on both faces, with straight side-edges, and -thick truncated butt trimmed into form. Fig. 417, though so different -in proportions, is a short implement of the same character. Fig. 427 -affords an example of a broader variety, with a rounded point, and Fig. -447 of one broader still. - -Figs. 458 and 463 may be described as tongue-shaped implements, with -incurved sides; Fig. 433 as kite-like; Figs. 420 and 472 as ovate; and -Fig. 423 as sub-triangular; but the general form of the implements is -still, in each instance, tongue-shaped. |645| It is frequently the -case that one face of these implements is more convex than the other. - -Another variety shows upon the rounded butt some considerable portion -of the outer surface of the original pebble or flint from which the -implement was made, as in Fig. 457. All such seem to belong to the -tongue-shaped class, the character of the butt proving beyond all doubt -that it was the pointed end that was used for cutting or piercing, -while the butt-end, as is almost universally the case with the -tongue-shaped implements, is adapted for being held in the hand. - -I was at one time inclined to think that a considerable proportion of -these instruments might have been attached to shafts, so as to serve -for spear or javelin-heads; but so few of them are so roughly chipped -at the butt-end as to render them really inconvenient to be held in -the hand, that their use as spear-heads is very doubtful. A specimen -from Bedford[2706] is said to have had the appearance of having had -the butt-end wrapped round with grass so that it might be the more -conveniently held in the hand. It is true that the acutely-pointed -instruments appear to be rather weapons of offence than mere tools or -implements, and not improbably to have been used in the chase; while -those with rounded points seem to have been more adapted for the -ordinary purposes of life. Some of them show marks of wear at the end, -as if they had been used for chopping; and others, at each side, as if -produced by boring some hard substance. They may have been used for -digging in the ground for esculent roots; for cutting holes through -ice, for fishing purposes, as suggested by Sir Joseph Prestwich; or -even for tilling the soil, were those who fashioned them acquainted -with agriculture, which I must confess appears to me improbable. - -Another form of pointed implement is flat on one face, and convex on -the other. The flat face has frequently been produced by a single blow, -so that the form might be regarded as a variety of trimmed flake. The -convex face has, however, in general been fashioned by bold strokes, -in the same manner as the more common forms of large implements. In -typical specimens the butt is thick, and the whole form is so like that -of a shoe, that the term “shoe-shaped” has been applied to it. For the -thinner specimens, I would suggest the term “flat-faced.” Specimens of -the shoe-shaped and flat-faced types are given in Figs. 418A, 429, and -430. It is hard to say what particular purpose such instruments were -intended to serve. |646| - -Another form of pointed implement has a sharp edge along one side and -at the point only, the other side being left thick, and occasionally -with the natural crust of the flint upon it. Such thick-backed -single-edged implements appear to have served as knives of the rudest -kind. Fig. 10 in Plate I. shows a specimen of this character. Others, -like Fig. 419D, present a more chopper-like form, and were probably -used as hatchets held in the hand without hafts. The form is not -uncommon in the Le Moustier cave. - -In other cases, the end of a long nodule of flint has been chipped to -a pointed form, as in Fig. 418; or a flint has been converted by half -a dozen blows into a rude pointed implement, probably to serve some -temporary purpose. If, after being used, such tools were thrown away, -as not being worth preserving, their abundance in some gravels is the -less remarkable. - -There is yet another large subdivision of the pointed implements, in -which the butt is chipped to a sharper edge than in those to which the -name of tongue-shaped more properly applies. They pass imperceptibly -from the tongue-shaped at one end of the series into the oval or -almond-shaped implements, presenting a cutting edge all round, at the -other. For these latter I would propose the name of - - -SHARP-RIMMED IMPLEMENTS. - -These are usually almost equally convex on the two faces, but vary -in form, being most frequently ovate—that is to say, rounded at both -ends, but having one end broader than the other—oval, with the two ends -similar or nearly so, and almond-shaped, or ovate-lanceolate, with -one end pointed. Rarer forms of the same character are heart-shaped, -sub-triangular, lozenge-shaped, and lunate. To these must be added -the form to which the term “perch-backed” has been given, from its -resemblance to that fish; and that to which Mr. Stevens has applied the -term discoidal. - -The ovate sharp-rimmed implements vary considerably in size and also in -general proportions. Specimens of the type may be seen in Figs. 456 and -467. - -In some of these ovate specimens a flat place has been intentionally -left on one of the sides towards the broad end, apparently to -facilitate its being held in the hand and used as a knife. In some of -the implements, which, like several of those from Hoxne, |647| and -that from Bury St. Edmunds, Fig. 419A, have lain in brick-earth instead -of gravel, so that the edges are uninjured, minute marks of wear, as -if from scraping or cutting, may be seen on the edges, principally -opposite to this flat spot. - -Both these and the oval sharp-rimmed implements are, as a rule, thin -in proportion to their size. Specimens of the latter form are shown in -Figs. 421 and 466. - -The typical almond-shaped implements are scarcer than either of the -foregoing. They also occasionally exhibit the flat spot already -described, on one of their sides. A remarkably symmetrical and short -example of this form is shown in Fig. 435. - -The heart-shaped sharp-rimmed implements are rare, and resemble -the sub-triangular, with the exception of their having a slight -curvature inwards at the base. One of these is shown in Fig. 432. Mr. -Stevens considers, that if any of the drift implements were used as -spear-heads, they were of this form. - -The sub-triangular sharp-rimmed implements are much rarer than those -of the tongue-shaped character, in which the base of the triangle is -blunt. Fig. 471, however, belongs to this class, though it is much -rounded at the point. Some of the cave-implements, like Fig. 386, -are intermediate between this and the ovate form. Among the curious -implements, apparently of Palæolithic age, which have been found in -some abundance in parts of Poitou, the sharp-rimmed sub-triangular -type is common. The form has also been found in the Department of the -Aisne,[2707] and in the cave of Hydrequent, in the Pas-de-Calais. - -The lozenge-shaped implements of this class are pointed at each end, -but the sides are never straight. Fig. 440 shows a thick specimen -of this form. Some of the large flat implements from the valley of -the Somme are more of the pointed oval or _vesica piscis_ form, than -lozenge-shaped. - -The lunate and perch-backed implements having one side considerably -more curved than the other are very scarce, but more have been found -at Santon Downham than elsewhere. One of these is shown in Fig. 436, -and another from Shrub Hill in Fig. 448. I have also met with the form -among the implements from Barton Cliff, Hants. They are possibly mere -accidental varieties of the oval or ovate form; and indeed it seems -doubtful whether it is worth while to insist much on these subdivisions -of form, many of which must, necessarily, have resulted from the -manner |648| in which the flint happened to break during the process -of manufacture. Though, therefore, I have here attempted a somewhat -detailed classification, it must not be supposed that I consider each -form of implement to have been specially made to serve some special -requirement, as is the case with many of the tools and weapons of the -present day. I am far more ready to think that only two main divisions -can be established, though even these may be said to shade off into -each other; I mean pointed implements for piercing, digging, or boring, -and sharp-edged implements for cutting or scraping. - -The discoidal implements are described by Mr. Stevens[2708] as very -coarsely worked; in typical specimens, nearly circular, very thick in -the centre, and brought to an edge all round. He thinks they may have -been used as missiles. The same may be said of polygonal blocks of -flint, from the whole surface of which broad flakes have been dislodged -by blows given in various directions. They may, however, possibly be -only cores. In form they much resemble the blocks or “knuder” from the -Danish kjökken-möddings. - -I have never seen any of the long prismatic cores from the River-drift, -though some are of rather regular form. A few hammer-stones, such as -must have been used in fashioning the flint implements, have been -found, and some have been already mentioned. It is, however, difficult, -among a mass of rolled and waterworn pebbles, to recognize with -certainty such as have served as hammers. - -If, to the more regular types embraced in the foregoing classification, -we add a considerable number of roughly-chipped, unsymmetrical, but, -generally speaking, pointed forms of implements, and a few abnormal -shapes, as, for instance, that shown in Fig. 444, we shall have a good -idea of the character of the stone implements hitherto discovered in -the River-drift, whether of England or the Continent. - -A glance at the figures will at once show how different in character -they are, as a whole, from those of the Surface or Neolithic Period, -excepting, of course, mere flakes, and implements made from them, and -simple blocks and hammer-stones. So far as we at present know, not a -single implement from the River-drift has been sharpened by grinding or -polishing, though, of course, it would be unsafe to affirm that such -a process was |649| unknown at the time when they were in use. With -the unpolished implements of the Neolithic Period, which most nearly -approach those of the Palæolithic in form, it will as a rule be found -that the former are intended for cutting at the broader end, and the -latter at the narrower or more pointed end. Even in the character of -the chipping, a practised observer will, in most instances, discern a -difference. - -Thirty-eight years ago, when first treating of the character of -these instruments,[2709] I pointed out these differences between the -implements of the two periods, as being marked and distinct; and -though since that time, from our knowledge of the form and character -of the stone implements of both periods having been much enlarged, -some few exceptions may be made to a too sweeping assertion of these -differences, yet on the whole, I think, they have been fully sustained. - -Unground flint implements, with a sharp point, and a thick truncated -butt, and, in fact, what I have termed tongue-shaped in form, are, -for instance, no longer confined to the Drift, but have been found by -myself, with polished implements, on the shores of Lough Neagh,[2710] -in Ireland; and yet, though analogous in form, they differ in the -character of the workmanship, and in their proportions, from those -from the gravel. The difference is such, that though possibly a single -specimen might pass muster as of Palæolithic form, yet a group of three -or four would at once strike an experienced eye as presenting other -characteristics. - -In the same manner, some of the roughly-chipped specimens from Cissbury -and elsewhere, such, for instance, as that shown in Fig. 28, appear to -be of the tongue-shaped type, or of some other River-drift forms. These -are, however, exceptional in character; and as their finding appears to -be confined to the sites of manufactories of flint implements, where -a very large proportion of the specimens found are merely “wasters” -produced in the manufacture, it is doubtful how far they are to be -regarded as finished tools. - -On this subject of the difference in character between the Palæolithic -and Neolithic forms, I have been severely taken to task by M. -Zinck,[2711] who has figured several Danish Neolithic specimens in -juxtaposition with some of my own figures of implements from the Drift. -In many cases, however, the comparison is made between implements of -very different dimensions, though, |650| by being drawn to different -scales, they are made to appear of the same size in the figures; and, -in other cases, the specimens engraved are apparently unfinished, or -merely wasters thrown away. - -But even granting that these exceptional instances of resemblance can -be found, there is no one who can deny that the general _facies_ of a -collection of implements from the River-drift, and that of one from -the Surface is absolutely distinct. With regard to the Scandinavian -stone antiquities, I possess perhaps as extensive a collection of them -as any one out of that country; and further, I have more than once -examined the collections, both public and private, at Copenhagen, as -well as at Christiania, Stockholm, and Lund, and yet I do not remember -to have seen any specimen—unless, possibly, a mere flake or rough -block—which, if placed before me without comment, I should have taken -to be Palæolithic. - -In most cases, even if a similarity of form should be found to exist, -there will be a difference in the character of the surface of the -material; the deep staining, more especially, and the glossy surface so -common on the implements from the gravel, being but rarely met with on -those from the surface soil. - -But though, on the whole, so widely differing from the implements -of the Neolithic Period, those belonging to Palæolithic times show -a marvellous correspondence with each other, in whatever part of -England they are found; and this correspondence extends, in an equal -degree, to the implements found in the River-gravels of France and -of other Continental countries. In illustration of this, Mr. Flower -has engraved,[2712] side by side, two implements from Thetford, and -two from St. Acheul, each pair being almost identical both in shape -and size. But what is more remarkable still, this resemblance in -form prevails not only with the implements from the River-gravels of -Western Europe, but with those from the lateritic beds of Southern -India. It is true that the material is somewhat different, the Indian -implements being formed of compact quartzite instead of flint, and that -this circumstance somewhat affects the character of the fracture and -facets; but so far as general form is concerned, they may be said to be -identical with those from the European River-drifts. - -The original discoverer of these implements (in 1863), Mr. R. Bruce -Foote,[2713] has described them on more than one occasion, and |651| -it would be out of place here to enter into details concerning them. -Suffice it to say, that they have been found in the Madras Presidency -by Mr. Bruce Foote, Mr. King, and others, _in situ_, in beds to which, -whether correctly or not I will not attempt to determine, the name -of “lateritic” has been given, and at an elevation of 300 feet and -upwards, above the sea in the neighbourhood of which they often lie. -These lateritic beds consist principally of a red ferruginous clay, -more or less sandy, and occasionally contain, or pass into, gravelly -beds. Those fringing the coast have been regarded as of marine origin, -but as they contain no marine organisms, and as in some of their -characters they closely resemble undoubtedly fluviatile deposits, it -is possible that this view may be incorrect, and that they originally -covered one of the slopes of a valley connected with a large river, -the other slope of which has now disappeared in consequence of the -encroachment of the sea. However this may be, in several valleys, -at a higher level above the sea than the beds in which most of the -specimens were found, “chipped quartzite implements were obtained from -unquestionable river-gravels.”[2714] - - -They have also been found in the South Mahratta country, especially in -the Malprabba[2715] valley. In 1873 Mr. Hacket[2716] found an ovate -implement of quartzite (5 inches), _in situ_, in clay, in the Narbadá -valley, eight miles north of Gadarwara, below a bed of ossiferous -gravel, apparently of Pleistocene age. Mr. W. T. Blanford has found -them in Hyderabad, Mr. V. Ball in Orissa, and Mr. J. Cockburn[2717] -in South Mirzapore. Mr. Bruce Foote[2718] has recorded a large number -of other Palæolithic finds in Southern India, between 10° and 16° of -N. latitude and 76° to 80° E. longitude, mostly in connection with -existing river-valleys. - -The curious flint or chert implements found at Abu Shahrein,[2719] in -Southern Babylonia, which much resemble those of the Palæolithic age in -form, seem more probably to be Neolithic. The broad end appears to have -been that intended for cutting, the point being left blunt. - -An implement of more truly palæolithic character, found on |652| -the surface of a bed of gravel between Mount Tabor and the Lake of -Tiberias, was exhibited by the Abbé Richard[2720] at the meeting of the -British Association at Edinburgh in 1871. - -Another implement of palæolithic type was obtained by M. de Vogué at -Bethsaour,[2721] near Bethlehem. Others, both of quartzite and flint, -have been found by Mr. Frank Calvert on a ridge of hills near the -Dardanelles.[2722] Mr. H. Stopes, F.G.S., also found such an implement -near Jerusalem[2723] in 1880. - -In Algeria implements of undoubted palæolithic forms have occurred -at Ousidan[2724] and at Palikao,[2725] in the province of Oran. Sir -John Lubbock has also found a specimen made of flint at Kolea,[2726] -Algeria. What may be instruments of the same age have been found -in gravel at Gafsa,[2727] in Tunis. In Egypt several well-marked -palæolithic implements have been found. That picked up near Thebes in -1872 by the late Mr. Ouvry[2728] I then regarded as Neolithic, but -it may be of earlier date. Those described by Sir John Lubbock[2729] -in 1873, and Professor Henry W. Haynes, of Boston, Mass., in 1881, -have many of them greater claims to be regarded as palæolithic. But -the discovery of flint flakes by General Pitt Rivers[2730] in the -stratified gravel in which the Tombs of the Kings, near Thebes, are -hewn, placed their great antiquity beyond doubt. Mr. H. Stopes also -found an implement of palæolithic type half a mile from the spring -of Moses, near Cairo,[2731] in 1880. More recent discoveries of -well-marked palæolithic implements at high levels above the valley of -the Nile, such as have been made by Professor Flinders Petrie[2732] -and Mr. H. W. Seton-Karr, show that what is now Egypt was occupied -by man in Palæolithic times. Numerous other discoveries in Egypt of -implements of well-marked palæolithic forms have been recorded by M. -J. de Morgan.[2733] More remarkable still is the discovery by Mr. -Seton-Karr of implements of most of the well-known palæolithic forms at -high levels in Somaliland,[2734] in positions apparently connected with -existing river-courses, such as that of the Issutugan. |653| - -In the southernmost part of Africa, in the Cape Colony,[2735] and in -Natal, stone implements have been discovered which, from their shape, -if that alone were sufficient, may be classed as Palæolithic. They -are chipped out of various silicious rocks, and are for the most part -found upon the surface, though occasionally at considerable depths -below it. They have been described by Mr. W. D. Gooch,[2736] Mr. W. -H. Penning,[2737] Mr. J. C. Rickard,[2738] and others. Mr. Rickard -describes four series from the Junction, Port Elizabeth, East London, -and the Diamond Fields. He has presented me with several specimens, -mostly in quartz. Mr. E. J. Dunn has given me a remarkably symmetrical -ovate implement (6 inches), made of some metamorphic schist, and found -under nine feet of stratified beds at Process-fontein, Victoria West, -in 1873, and Mr. J. B. Taylor has presented to me ovate implements of -quartzite from the valley of the Embabaan, Swaziland. - -I have elsewhere,[2739] when calling attention to the discoveries -of Mr. Seton-Karr in Somaliland, remarked that their great interest -consists in the identity in form of the implements with those found in -the Pleistocene deposits of North-Western Europe and elsewhere. Any one -comparing the implements from such widely separated localities, the one -with the other, must feel that if they have not been actually made by -the same race of men, there must have been some contact of the closest -kind between the races who manufactured implements of such identical -forms. Those from Somaliland occur in both flint (much whitened and -decomposed by exposure) and in quartzite, but the implements made -from the two materials are almost indistinguishable in form. Those of -lanceolate shape are most abundant, but the usual ovate and other forms -are present in considerable numbers. - -Turning westward from Somaliland we meet with flint implements of -the same character found by Professor Flinders Petrie at a height -of many hundred feet above the valley of the Nile. A few have been -discovered in Northern Africa; they recur in the valley of the -Manzanares in Spain, in some districts in Central Italy, and abound in -the river-valleys of France and England. Turning eastward we encounter -implements of analogous forms, one found by M. Chantre in the valley -of the Euphrates, and |654| many made of quartzite in the lateritic -deposits of India; while in Southern Africa almost similar types occur, -though their age is somewhat uncertain. - -That the cradle of the human family must have been situated in some -part of the world where the climate was genial, and the means of -subsistence readily obtained, seems almost self-evident; and that -these discoveries in Somaliland may serve to elucidate the course by -which human civilization, such as it was, if not indeed the human -race, proceeded westward from its early home in the East is a fair -subject for speculation. But, under any circumstances, this discovery -aids in bridging over the interval between Palæolithic man in Britain -and in India, and adds another link to the chain of evidence by which -the original cradle of the human family may eventually be identified, -and tends to prove the unity of race between the inhabitants of Asia, -Africa, and Europe, in Palæolithic times. - -With regard to the reputed discoveries of palæolithic implements at -Trenton,[2740] New Jersey, and elsewhere in the United States of -America, I venture to reserve my judgment. Opinion in America[2741] is -divided, one antiquary recording that in a quarry, the antiquity of -which does not exceed two hundred years, and from which the Indians -obtained chert from which they chipped out their implements, forms -which exactly resemble the “turtle-backs” of Trenton occur; while other -writers carry back the beds and the implements they contain so far as -to Glacial times. Recent excavations seem to give evidence of, at all -events, a high antiquity. - -To return to the purposes of the implements themselves. With regard -to their general uses, many opinions have been expressed. Sir Joseph -Prestwich[2742] has suggested that some of them may have been used -as ice-chisels, for cutting holes in ice, to obtain water and to be -enabled to fish during continued frosts, as is practised by many -occupants of northern regions at the present day. Such a use is of -course possible; but the occurrence of implements of similar forms in -Madras, Somaliland, Northern and Southern Africa, seems to militate -against this view, unless we are to suppose that at some remote time a -glacial climate may have prevailed in those parts of the world also, as -we believe it to have done here. |655| - -M. Boucher de Perthes thought that some of the pointed forms might -have been used as wedges for splitting wood or grubbing for esculent -roots, or possibly for tilling the ground. Some of the sharp-rimmed -implements he regarded as hatchets. He has pointed out various methods -in which they might have been hafted and used.[2743] Some of the -smaller size, I have suggested, may have been missiles. On the whole, -however, although I have pointed out the manner in which some of the -implements appear to have been held, and have called attention to the -marks of wear on their edges, I revert to my old opinion,[2744] “that -it is nearly useless to speculate on the purposes to which they were -applied.” - -To use the words of Sir John Lubbock,[2745] “Almost as well might we -ask to what would they not be applied. Infinite as are our instruments, -who would attempt even at present to say what was the use of a knife? -But the primitive savage had no such choice of tools; we see before us, -perhaps, the whole contents of his workshop; and with these weapons, -rude as they seem to us, he may have cut down trees, scooped them out -into canoes, grubbed up roots, killed animals and enemies, cut up -his food, made holes in winter through the ice, prepared firewood, -built huts, and in some cases at least, they may have served as -sling-stones.” To these possible uses I may add that of fashioning -other instruments of wood and bone, such as may yet be eventually -discovered with them in the same beds of drift, as has already been the -case in caves, with regard to those of bone or stag’s horn. - -Considering the number of the stone implements which have been -collected, it seems at first sight singular that no other relics of -those who made them have as yet been discovered. For, nothing of -moment in the shape of implements, utensils, or appliances, made of -other materials than stone, have as yet been found, nor with but few -exceptions, any portions of the human skeleton. It must, however, be -remembered how imperishable in their nature are flint and the other -silicious stones used for these ancient implements, as compared with -the other materials which, among a savage people, come readily to -hand, such as wood, bone, horn, or hide; and, moreover, that even the -flint implements, in many cases testify to the rough usage they have -undergone by water transport, before being finally laid in their |656| -resting-place in the gravel. Lighter objects, such as those of wood -and other organic materials, would, if exposed to the action of a -stream, in many cases have been washed right away to the sea; or, if -accidentally lodged, would have perished by the ordinary processes of -decay. It is only in the case of bone implements that we can hope that -future discoveries may bring them to light; but even this contingency -depends mainly on their attracting the eye of some intelligent -gravel-digger; since, for one yard of gravel examined by a scientific -observer, it is probable that thousands pass through the hands of -ordinary labourers, who require some instruction before they can be -brought to recognize even the best-wrought forms of flint implements. -Some few objects both of wood and bone, showing traces of having been -cut by Palæolithic man, have been found near London by Mr. Worthington -Smith,[2746] but these traces are but slight. - -The comparative absence of human bones in these beds seems to be partly -dependent on the same cause of deficient observation; but portions -of a human skeleton, apparently contemporary with the beds in which -they lay, and in which also palæolithic implements occurred, have been -found in the neighbourhood of Paris, and a human skull near Bury St. -Edmunds.[2747] The Galley Hill[2748] skeleton affords but a doubtful -instance. - -Living, as in all probability man must have done, by the chase, his -numbers must necessarily have been small, as compared with those of the -animals on which he subsisted. Sir John Lubbock has calculated that -among the North American Indians the proportion is about 1 to 750: and -as man is in all probability at least four times as long-lived as most -of these animals, the proportion might be increased to 1 to 3,000. If -this were so, and all the bones were preserved, it would follow that -about 3,000 bones of the different animals of the chase would be found -to one of human origin. But here again the fact comes in, which is also -pointed out by Sir John Lubbock, that in most of the beds of gravel -no trace has as yet been found of any animal so small as man. Other -possible causes for this scarcity of human remains in the River-drift -will be mentioned at a subsequent page. Even in sepulchres of the -Neolithic[2749] period the bones of those buried have not unfrequently -entirely disappeared. - -Of what was the condition and stage of civilization of the men |657| -of that time, it is probable that the implements by themselves afford -but insufficient means for judging. Many of them, though rude, may be -matched in that respect by stone implements in use among the Australian -savages of the present century; while others again show great dexterity -in working so intractable a material as flint, though in no way -approaching that attained by some of the flint-workers in Neolithic -times. Comparing the implements of the two periods together, the main -differences are that the forms are fewer, and, as a rule, larger and -more rudely chipped in the earlier period; and, beyond this, that the -art of grinding to an edge appears to have been unknown. If we regard, -as probably we safely may do, the remains of human art found in caves -like Kent’s Cavern, associated with bones of animals belonging to the -same fauna as that of the River-Drift, as being attributable to the -same age and probably to the same race of people, we get some further -insight into their habits and conditions of life. The evidence seems -to justify us in regarding these River-drift or Cave folk as hunters, -and probably nomads, subsisting to a great extent on the produce of -the chase; living where possible under natural shelters, to which they -brought either the whole or portions of the slaughtered animals, the -bones of which, fractured for the purpose of extracting the marrow, -we find accumulated in the caves: during the latter part of their -occupation of this country acquainted with the art of spearing fish by -means of barbed harpoons; and able to sew, though probably not to spin -or to weave. This last supposition, like some others, rests on negative -evidence only, but is still justified by the absence of spindle-whorls. -Their thread, like that of the Eskimos, would seem to have been formed -of animal sinew or intestine, and to have been used for joining -together skins, in which the holes, for the needle to pass through, -were made by awls of pointed bone. - -Some knowledge of drawing and engraving is evinced by our own -Cave-dwellers, as well as by those of France. These latter had -personal ornaments in the shape of perforated shells and teeth, and if -the view could be supported that the perforated fossil _Coscinopora -globularis_[2750] was in use for beads of necklaces, we should have -evidence of a similar use of personal ornaments among the River-drift -folk. - -A want of acquaintance with cereals is suggested by the absence of -mealing-stones or corn-crushers. The pounding-stones, |658| such as -have been found, would seem to have been used for crushing some other -sort of food, possibly roots. - -The art of pottery also appears to have been unknown, so far as this -country is concerned, but it is said to have been practised in Belgium. - -Slight as was the knowledge of the useful arts exhibited by the -River-drift men, it will I think be clear to the dispassionate -observer, that we cannot regard their implements, however ancient they -may be, as the earliest productions of the human race; on the contrary, -we must conclude that man had already existed for an extended period -upon the earth, before these relics were imbedded in the gravels. The -mere identity in shape of various classes of implements occurring in -distant localities, seems to afford sufficient evidence of a long lapse -of time, during which it was discovered that certain forms were best -adapted for certain purposes, and the custom of thus fashioning them -became established, and, as it were, hereditary over a large area. -Still, though eventually works of man will, in all probability, be -discovered in older beds than these Quaternary gravels, I must repeat -that I cannot at present accept the views of the Abbé Bourgeois[2751] -and others as to their occurring in the Pliocene beds of St. Prest, -near Chartres, and in the Miocene beds at Thenay, near Pontlevoy; nor -can I regard the so-called Plateau[2752] types as being of necessity -of human workmanship, and still less as being the precursors of the -Palæolithic forms. To judge from the figures, the so-called Pliocene -flake from Burma is not artificial, as it has no flat face. An article -on the fractured flints found on the sea-shore, and their resemblance -to so-called Tertiary implements, has been published by M. Michel -Hardy.[2753] - -Leaving these older deposits out of the question, I must now pass on -to a consideration of the degree of antiquity which must be assigned -to the Quaternary beds of River-drift; but before doing so, it will -perhaps be well to say a few words as to the characteristics of -authenticity presented by these implements; for, as is so universally -the case, where the demand for an article has exceeded the supply, -spurious imitations of them have been fabricated, and in some cases -successfully passed off upon avid but unwary collectors. In England, -indeed, this has perhaps not been the case to the same extent as in -France; but I have seen a |659| few fabrications of Palæolithic -forms, produced both by the notorious “Flint Jack” and by more humble -practitioners in Suffolk. More skilful, however, have been some -forgers in the North-East of London,[2754] whose productions can with -difficulty be distinguished from the genuine articles. - -As a rule, however, unless the forged implement has been put through -some process, for the purpose of altering the character of its surface -(which it is hardly ever worth the while of the ordinary forger to -do, even supposing him to be acquainted with means for so doing), its -surface can always be restored to its original condition, assuming it -to have been smeared over with some substance in order to give it an -appearance of antiquity, by thoroughly washing it in hot water. The -surface of a newly-chipped flint can then in almost all cases be at -once recognized by its peculiar dull lustreless appearance, especially -if it be black flint, such as is best adapted for being chipped into -form. Not unfrequently the metallic marks of the iron hammer with which -it has been chipped out are visible, the angles are sharp and harsh, -or, if smooth, show traces of having been ground, and the character of -the chipping is usually different from that of genuine implements, as -is also often the form. - -The genuine specimens from the beds of River-drift, with but -very few exceptions, present some one or more of the following -characteristics;[2755]—glossiness of surface, dendritic markings, -calcareous incrustations, and discoloration, varying, of course, with -the nature of the beds in which they have lain. The angles are often -somewhat smoothed, even if not distinctly waterworn; and when, as -happens in some rare cases, the flint has remained unaltered in colour, -and without presenting in a marked manner any of the characteristics -above specified, its surface will, on close examination, be found -dotted over at intervals with bright glossy spots, probably those at -which for ages it has been in contact with other stones.[2756] The -glossiness of surface so frequent on these implements appears to be -partly due to mechanical, and partly to chemical causes. The polishing -effect of the friction of sand on flints in the bed of a river, or -even when lying on the surface of the ground, is well known; and the -brilliantly-polished flakes not unfrequently found in the bed of -the Seine at Paris, and those from the sandy heaths of Norfolk and -Suffolk, afford examples of |660| the results of this friction since -Neolithic times. In the Palæolithic implements, however, the gloss -which so frequently accompanies a structural alteration in the surface -of the flint, seems due to the same chemical cause which has produced -the alteration in the structure; and this cause, as I have already -remarked, appears to be the infiltration of water partially dissolving -the body of the flint. - -An interesting paper by M. E. d’Acy,[2757] on the patination of the -worked flints of St. Acheul, was communicated to the Anthropological -Congress at Paris in 1878. - -The dendritic markings are more common on the implements from some -localities, as, for instance, Santon Downham, than from others, and are -due to the crystallization of peroxide of manganese upon their surface. -Although these moss-like forms do not of necessity take any great -length of time for their production, as is proved by their occasional -occurrence in paper of recent manufacture, in which particles of -manganese have been accidentally present, yet to superinduce them on -a forged flint would pass the ordinary fabricator’s skill, and their -presence may safely be regarded as an indication of an old surface. The -same may be said of the calcareous incrustations, which also are by no -means of universal occurrence. The safest and indeed the most common -indication of an implement being really genuine is the alteration in -the structure of the flint which has taken place over the greater -part, if not the whole, of its surface, and the discoloration it has -undergone. In ochreous beds of gravel the specimens are frequently much -stained of a yellow, buff, or brown colour; where less iron is present -they become grey, especially at the angles, and often more so on one -face than the other. In red or brown marl, and in places where they lie -at no great depth from the surface, or where there is a free passage -for water charged with carbonic acid, they frequently become white; -whereas, in more impervious clay, they are often stained brown, or even -remain black, though the surface is rendered glossy. In beds where much -chalk is present they seem to have a tendency to retain their original -colour. The discoloration of the surface is not always attended by -the glossy appearance already mentioned, but this depends in a great -measure on the character of the flint originally employed. - -It sometimes happens that the upper side of an implement has been -whitened during its sojourn in the earth, while its lower side has -remained almost unaltered. |661| - -The recognition of these marks of authenticity has in some cases -induced forgers to re-work, and according to their view, improve, -genuine but imperfect ancient implements; but the newly-chipped -surfaces can always be recognized on washing the specimens. In France -some attempts have been made to discolour the surface of flints by -chemical means, but in the instances which have come under my notice, -the process has not been very successful; for though the surface of a -dark flint has been whitened, it has become rough and somewhat pitted. -A more deceptive discoloration has sometimes been produced by leaving -the forged implements for many months in a kitchen boiler, the hot -water in which gradually dissolves away a small portion of the surface -of the flint and thus changes its colour. In such cases the form will -often reveal the hand of the forger. It may, however, be thought that, -by dwelling too much on this subject, suggestions will be offered, of -which the fraudulent skill of some future forger will avail himself; -and I therefore return from this digression to the consideration of the -antiquity of the flint implements from the River-drift. - - - - -|662| - -CHAPTER XXV. - -ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. - - -In order to discuss this subject, it will be necessary to enter into -some geological details; as it is evident that the least antiquity -that can be assigned to the implements is that of the beds of gravel, -sand, and clay in which they occur, and of which, in fact, they may -be regarded as constituent portions. Whether they may not in some -instances have been derived from beds of even greater antiquity -than those in which they are found, is another question, which will -subsequently be dealt with; but any one examining the condition of -the beds in which the implements occur, will have no difficulty in -seeing that they have not been disturbed since their deposit; while -in most cases, the colouring of the worked and of the unworked flints -they contain is similar, and affords proof of their having long lain -together under the same conditions. - -That the containing beds have, at all events in most cases, been -deposited by fresh water, and not by the sea, is proved by the -occasional abundance in them of land and freshwater shells, and the -absence of those of marine origin; while their general analogy with -the flood deposits of existing rivers, and their almost universal -contiguity to them, raises the strongest possible presumption of their -existence being due to river action. At the risk of being thought to -have prejudged the question, I have, therefore, made no scruple in -treating them hitherto as being River-drift. To show that for the -most part they are so in reality, and to enable the reader to form -some opinion of the manner in which deposits originally formed in and -about the beds of streams or lakes, now in some cases occupy the tops -of hills, and cover the slopes of valleys, far above the level of any -existing neighbouring river, or even at a considerable distance from -any stream, it will, I think, be well to state a hypothetical case; -and then to compare the actual phenomena with it, and see how far they -correspond. |663| - -Should it appear that with a certain given configuration of the land -surface, a certain character of rock, a certain climate, and a certain -number of years, certain effects must, judging from all analogy, have -been produced; and should we in the case of these ancient Drifts find -some of the conditions to have existed, and all the phenomena to be in -accordance with the hypothesis, we may with some confidence assume that -the other original conditions existed also; and build up a connected -theory which will account for the whole of the observed results, and -will also throw light on their causes, as well as on the duration of -time necessary for their operation to have produced such effects. In -stating the case, I lay no claim to originality, and do little more -than follow in the steps of Sir Charles Lyell, Sir Joseph Prestwich, -and others who have made a study of the character and effects of -fluviatile action. - -As it is in the gravels of Chalk districts that Palæolithic implements -have been chiefly, though by no means exclusively, found, let us -base the hypothesis on the assumption that an extensive and almost -horizontal area of Upper Chalk, covered for the most part with beds of -marine clay and shingle, gradually rose from beneath the sea, to an -elevation of 200 feet above its level. Let us also assume that the land -was elevated at a rate far in excess of that at which any subaërial -action, such as rain, frost, or snow, would enable a river flowing over -it to excavate its valley to the depth of 200 feet in the space of -time required for its elevation to that height. Let us further assume, -that the winter climate was somewhat more rigorous than that which at -present prevails in this country, and that there was a considerably -greater annual rainfall. We may also, for the purposes of the argument, -take the position of the coast-line as permanent, instead of its -constantly receding in consequence of the eroding power of the sea upon -the cliffs. - -Let us now see what would theoretically be the effect produced by -subaërial causes on the river-valleys in this area during an indefinite -number of centuries. - -Under ordinary circumstances, and with our present amount of rainfall, -there is no geological formation less liable to floods than the Chalk, -or at all events, its upper portion. It is of so absorbent a nature -that it is only in the extraordinary event of the ground being hard -frozen at the time of a heavy fall of rain, or of a rapid thaw of snow; -or of some inches of rain falling in the course of a few hours, that -the soil is unable to absorb the water as fast as it is delivered upon -it. The moisture when once in the soil is |664| either carried off -again by evaporation and vegetation, or descends to a point at which -the chalk is saturated with water, which is, however, constantly being -drained off by springs along the valleys. This body of water has been -termed “the subterranean reservoir” in the Chalk. The consequence of -this absorbent power of the soil is that the streams and rivers in a -Chalk country are not liable to floods, and moreover that their flow -is but little affected at the time by rain; they being almost entirely -dependent on perennial springs, which, during the driest of summers, -still continue to deliver the water that in the course of the preceding -winter, or even previously, has accumulated in the body of the Chalk. - -The surface of the “subterranean reservoir” in the Chalk is by no -means level, but always presents a gradient towards the point at which -the springs are delivering its contents, so that within a chalk-hill -forming a watershed between two streams there is what may be termed a -hill of subterranean water, the summit of which need not, and often -does not, correspond with the apparent watershed on the surface. The -angle of the water-surface gradient depends principally on two factors, -the degree of friction in passing through the chalk, and the amount of -rain that finds its way down from the surface. - -The height of saturation varies much in different seasons, as is -evinced by the intermitting streams, often known as bournes,[2758] -which perhaps only flow for a few months once in every six or seven -years. Near the Chalk escarpment in Hertfordshire, at a spot several -miles distant from any stream, I have known this height of saturation, -as shown by the level of water in a deep well, to vary as much as 70 -feet in the course of a single year. But with a greater rainfall than -at present, the Chalk might at all times be in a state of saturation -up to within a few feet of the surface; and this would be materially -assisted, were there no deep valleys in existence into which the -subterranean water could be delivered; as, of course, if the outfall -were raised, the level of permanent saturation would be raised -also. Were the Chalk in a less porous condition than at present, of -course also its absorbent powers would not be so great. Under the -circumstances, therefore, which have been supposed, the river-and -spring-water from a Chalk district would be delivered in a manner very -materially differing from that which at present prevails. The delivery -of water by springs would be but small in shallow valleys; and, indeed, -the only |665| important springs would be those along the sea-shore; -while irrespective of this, the greater rainfall would keep the soil so -saturated, that floods would be as readily produced by heavy storms of -rain as if the soil were the most unabsorbent of rocks. If after some -lapse of time the rainfall diminished, and the valleys were deepened, -so that the outlets for the springs were at a considerably lower level -than that of the principal area of the country, the case would be -altered, and the tendency to floods would be immediately reduced. - -At the commencement of the state of things supposed in our hypothesis, -these outlets, with the exception of those on the sea-shore, would -be but little lower than the general surface of the country, which, -however, would not be perfectly plane. For it seems probable that the -waters of the retreating sea would, during the elevation of the tract -of land, form shallow channels, cutting down some little distance into -the clay or chalk; and thus, as it were, mark out a course along which -streams or rivers would flow, after the land was completely free from -the sea. In some places, perhaps, shallow lakes might be left, but -these also would have channels draining off their waters when they rose -above a certain elevation. - -With a bare surface, such as a newly-elevated tract would expose, there -can be no doubt that the eroding power of heavy rains would be highly -effective; as may be seen at the present day in the far greater effects -of heavy showers on bare soil than on that which is protected by turf -and vegetation. At the same time, with a rigorous climate, such as that -supposed, the winter accumulation of snow and ice would be great, and -its thawing during the summer months would add enormously and rapidly -to the streams draining the area, which would in consequence have -great power to deepen and widen their channels. The outflows from the -lakes, if any such existed, would also be enlarged, while their upper -portions would be filled with material brought down by the streams, and -eventually they would be drained, with the exception of some channels -in their beds through which the streams would pass. - -We may therefore readily suppose that in the course of no very great -interval of time, geologically speaking, a river-system for carrying -off the waters falling from the heavens, analogous in character to -those of the present day, but with shallower valleys, would be formed -on the surface of the elevated tract. Let us |666| suppose that while -this, as it may be termed, preliminary configuration of the surface -has been taking place, the land has become tenanted by various trees, -shrubs, and plants affording means of subsistence to different forms of -animal life; while the streams also have been occupied by colonies of -freshwater _testacea_; and let us now trace what would be the action of -the rivers. To use the words of Sir Charles Lyell,[2759] “when we are -speculating on the excavating force which a river may have exerted in -any particular valley, the most important question is, not the volume -of the existing stream nor the present levels of its channel, nor even -the nature of the rocks; but the probability of a succession of floods -at some period since the time when the valley may have been first -elevated above the sea.” - -Now in the first place, all rivers whose banks are not artificially -protected, and whose channels are not kept clear, are of necessity more -liable to floods than those in civilized countries, which bear much -the same relation to rivers flowing through uncultivated lands, as -domesticated animals do to wild. We have, moreover, _ex hypothesi_, a -fruitful source of floods in a greater rainfall and in a more rigorous -winter climate. The marvellous effects of such floods in excavating -channels, and in transporting materials, can only be estimated by those -who have seen their results, or have studied the accounts given of -them. When we read of a small rivulet on the Cheviots,[2760] swollen -by heavy rain, having transported several thousand tons of gravel and -sand into the neighbouring plain, and having carried blocks of stone, -weighing upwards of half a ton, two miles down its course, while -another block weighing nearly two tons was transported the distance -of a quarter of a mile, we may form some conception of the effects of -even a flooded brook. The blocking of a stream by ice or fallen trees, -so as to keep back its waters, and thus form a lake, which is suddenly -drained by the breaking of the barrier; a heavy fall of rain; or a -rapid fall of snow on ground hard frozen, and therefore impervious, are -common causes of floods; and such as we may presume to have prevailed -in our hypothetical case. What, therefore, would be the effect of such -floods? - -The first effect would no doubt be to cause the streams to overflow -their banks, and spread over the bottom of the valleys in which they -usually flowed. The shallower the valley the greater |667| probably -would be the sinuosities of the stream, and the wider would its waters -spread. The greater also would be the probability of the stream, on the -cessation of the flood, not returning to its original channel, which -might have become obliterated or filled up, but of its flowing along -some new course, it may be miles away from its former channel. Even -when not flooded so as to overflow their banks, rivers along which -a larger body of water flowed than there does at present, would, so -long as they were not confined within deep valleys, have a tendency -to wander over a much wider tract of country than that now occupied -by their valleys. The tendency of all rivers to produce sinuosities -in their course is well known; but Mr. Fergusson, in his excellent -paper on recent changes in the Delta of the Ganges,[2761] has called -attention to the fact that all rivers oscillate in curves, the extent -of which is directly proportionate to the quantity of water flowing -through them. - -But rivers in a state of flood, or passing even at a moderate speed -over soft or incoherent soil, are always turbid, owing to the presence -in their waters of earthy matter which they are transporting towards -the sea. The character of the solid matter thus transported by water -in motion is entirely dependent on its velocity. A velocity of 300 -yards per hour is sufficient to tear up fine clay; of 600 yards, fine -sand; of 1,200 yards, fine gravel; and of a little over two miles per -hour, to transport shivery angular stones of the size of an egg.[2762] -Considering the small velocity requisite to remove the finer particles -of the soil, and to retain them in suspension, a river such as has been -supposed, must have been excessively turbid, so long as any fine earthy -particles were accessible to its waters, or to those of the streamlets -delivering into it. - -The amount of solid matter suspended in turbid water is greater than -might be imagined. Mr. A. Tylor has calculated that the detritus -carried down by the Ganges is equivalent to what would result from the -removal of soil a foot in depth over the whole of the area which it -drains in 1,791 years,[2763] and that brought down by the Mississippi -to one foot in 9,000 years. Other estimates fix this at one foot in -6,000 years, while the sediment contained in its stream has been -estimated at from 1∕1245 to 1∕1500 of the weight of the water.[2764] -Taking this latter proportion, an inch of rain |668| falling on a -square mile of ground, and flowing off it in a turbid state, would -carry with it at least forty-three tons of sediment; and were we -to assume an annual rainfall of fifty-four inches—which, though -exceptional, is by no means unknown even in the British Isles—about -2,300 tons of fine earthy matter would be removed from a square mile -of country in a single year. Taking a cubic yard of solid ground as -equal to a ton in weight, this would involve the removal of one foot -in depth from the surface in about 450 years. If, however, a portion -of the rainfall were delivered by springs, or fell on hard or rocky -ground, so as not to be rendered turbid, of course the effect would be -proportionally diminished. Sir Archibald Geikie[2765] has estimated -that practically, at the present day, the Thames (apart from about -450,000 tons of chalk and other matter carried away annually in -solution), lowers its basin at the rate of one foot in 11,740 years; -the Boyne, one foot in 6,700 years; the Forth, one foot in 3,111 -years; and the Tay, one foot in 1,482 years. It is, however, with -water moving with far greater velocity than that merely sufficient -to keep fine sediment in suspension, that we have to deal in this -hypothetical case; and we may readily suppose the streams, at more or -less regular intervals, liable to violent floods, eroding the chalk and -the superimposed clays and gravels, and carrying with them not only -the finer particles and sand, but the pebbles, large and small, of the -gravel, and the flints washed out of the chalk. - -Let us now consider what would be the condition of the surface of a -broad shallow valley, on the cessation of a flood such as that which -has been supposed. In certain parts removed from the main current, and -where the water had been nearly stationary, we should find deposits -of fine mud or clay; in others, where the water had still moved with -sufficient velocity to retain the clay and fine silt in suspension, the -heavier particles of sand would have accumulated; in others, again, the -smaller stones and pebbles; while near the main current, especially on -the inner side of any curves which it had made, and where of course -its velocity had been diminished, we should find the larger flints and -pebbles, probably to some extent intermixed with part of the finer -materials. In the beds of mud and sand, we should probably find the -shells of some of the molluscs inhabiting the waters, and also those -of terrestrial species, washed in from the inundated land surface, or -brought down from the banks of the tributary rivulets; while |669| -mixed among the larger pebbles we might expect to find any animal -bones that had been lying on the land contiguous to the stream, or any -of the larger and heavier objects of human workmanship, that would have -been carried off by such an inundation, had mankind been living on the -banks of the river. - -Were men, or any of the larger animals overwhelmed and drowned by the -flood, it seems probable that, owing to the slight difference between -their specific gravity and that of water, they would eventually have -been carried down to the sea, unless by some means accidentally -arrested in their course, or carried into the more stagnant waters. In -either case, they would, on the waters subsiding, probably be exposed -on or near the surface, and not be imbedded in any of the deposits of -the stream. Assuming the existence at that time of a respect for the -dead, such as may be regarded as almost instinctive in man, any human -remains would be buried or otherwise disposed of, while the bones of -the other carcases would be left within reach of the waters, should -another flood occur. - -At the mouth of the river, where it joined the sea, its excavating -power would be considerably greater than farther inland; for at first, -on account of the land having—as was presumed, in this hypothetical -case—risen faster than the river could excavate its valley, the stream -must have fallen as a cascade into the sea. This, by the cutting back -of the lip in such a soft rock as the Chalk, would soon be converted -into a rapid, where the greater velocity of the water would much add to -its erosive power; and, ere long, a mouth to the river would be formed, -which would soon become tidal. Before tracing the results that would -be due to this greater declivity of the river-bed in the immediate -neighbourhood of the sea, it will be well to consider what would be the -results of successively recurring floods, in the less inclined broad -shallow valley, on which we have been speculating. - -There can be no doubt that with each succeeding flood the valley would -be deepened; and the fact of its being thus deepened would tend to make -it narrower, by restricting the windings of the river. We can, however, -hardly imagine that in this deepening process the whole of the deposits -spread by the former floods over the bottom and slopes of the valley -would be removed, but must acknowledge the extreme probability of some -portions of them having remained intact, especially those which were -left at the greatest distance from the course eventually taken by the -river |670| during its period of flood. When once they had been thus -left, the chances of their being again assailed by the stream would -become more and more remote with each successive flood; and though the -waters might reach some deposit of the larger pebbles formerly carried -down by the main stream, but now at a distance from it, yet they would -only belong to the more sluggish portions of the flood, and at first -might envelope them in beds of sand; and subsequently, when they were -only accessible to the more stagnant turbid waters, leave layer upon -layer of muddy silt or clay upon them. In forming the more loess-like -beds the action of the wind in transporting sand and dust might also -assist. In some cases, and especially at the extremity of curves, and -at the end of the tongue between two streams, the accumulation of one -period, though at a lower level than that of earlier date, might abut -upon it, or even become mingled with it, so that an almost continuous -coating of Drift-deposits might extend from the highest level to the -lowest. - -The bulk, however, of the deposits of one inundation would be moved -by the next, or by one of those which subsequently recurred; and -stones, and pebbles, and other objects might thus be transported down -stream, from place to place, an indefinite number of times, and form -constituent parts of an indefinite number of gravelly beds along the -bottom of the flooded stream. They might, under some circumstances, -lie for a long period of years in some particular bed, in which they -would become stained by salts of iron or otherwise, and subsequently be -transported and re-deposited among unstained, or differently stained -pebbles. The angles of any flints thus transported from place to place -would also become rolled, as would, in like manner, those of bones or -teeth. In the same way, assuming, as we have done, that the surface -of the Chalk in the district was in part, or wholly, covered with -beds of marine clay and shingle, it is evident that in the earlier -deposits, when the river flowed at the higher level, and was, as it -were, commencing to excavate its valley, the proportion of the pebbles -derived from these beds to the flints washed out from the Chalk, would -be much greater than at a later period. For in the course of time the -river would have worked its way below the level of these upper beds, -and many of the pebbles at first deposited in its gravels would have -been disturbed, again and again, in their beds; on each disturbance -carried farther down the stream, and eventually so far as the sea or -the tidal portion of the river. At the same time the |671| river -itself would be principally excavating the Chalk which had been freed -from the marine shingle, and would therefore be forming the gravel in -its bed, for the most part, from flints derived from the Chalk. - -In the same manner, pebbles brought from a distant part of the country, -and higher up the river, would eventually become more abundant in the -deposits near its mouth, than they were at the first. Still no amount -of transport of this kind could bring any pebbles into the bed of the -river, which did not, in some form or other, exist within its drainage -area. - -Besides the transporting power of water, which by itself is, under -favourable circumstances, capable of producing considerable excavations -in a comparatively short period, there is another force at work, where, -as has been supposed in this case, the climate is severe, which not -only aids in the transport of pebbles and blocks of stone from one part -of the bed of a river to another, but is a fertile source of floods. -This is the formation of ground-ice. Sir Joseph Prestwich,[2766] in his -second “Memoir on the Flint Implement-bearing Beds,” has given numerous -instances of the transporting power of this agent, and shown the method -of its occurrence in running streams, when the cold suffices to reduce -the temperature of the water, and of the bed of the river itself, to -the freezing point. Under such circumstances a gravelly river bed—and -on mud alone, ice rarely forms—may become coated with ice, which being -lighter than water will, on acquiring certain dimensions, overcome the -forces which keep it at the bottom, and rise to the surface, carrying -with it all the loose materials to which it adhered. - -M. Engelhardt,[2767] director of the forges at Niederbronn, in the -Vosges, has, perhaps, more minutely than any one else investigated -the causes of the formation of ground-ice; and to prevent its effects -in causing floods, actually removed each year from the bed of the -stream supplying the motive power to his works, the stones and other -extraneous bodies round which it was likely to form. His account of -the effects of ground-ice in causing floods in the upper part of the -Rhine and the Danube is worth transcribing. These two rivers having “a -rapid current, do not freeze, like the Seine, by being covered with a -plane and uniform stratum; they bear along large blocks of ice, which -cross and impinge upon one another, and becoming thus heaped together, -finally barricade the river. It is a grand spectacle, when the Rhine is -thus charged, |672| to see these countless drifts adjust themselves in -their relative position, where they unite by congelation, and convey -the idea of the fall of some mountain which has covered the plain with -rocks of every dimension. But it is not this accumulation of ice-drifts -in the Rhine which is of itself the cause of danger; it is, on the -contrary, the _débâcle_, or breaking-up, which is often productive of -calamitous consequences. When this _débâcle_ commences in the upper -part of the river, above the point where the latter is completely -frozen, the masses of ice, drifting with the current and unable to -pass, are hurled upon those already soldered together; thus an enormous -barrier is formed, which the water, arrested in its course, cannot pass -over, and hence overflows to the right and left, breaking the dykes, -inundating the plains, and spreading devastation and suffering, far and -near. The disasters caused by the _débâcles_ of the Rhine have taught -the riparian inhabitants to observe attentively the facts which may -serve them as a prognostic, and put them on their guard against the -irruption of the ice. It is thus that they have been led to observe -the _grund-eis_—that is to say, the ice formed at the bottom of the -rivers—for it is this ice which, in becoming detached from the bottom -and rising towards the surface, unites itself to the under surface of -the masses already in place, and by further embarrassing the discharge, -exposes the country to inundation.” - -Another most effective agent in transporting the pebbles and larger -blocks of stone along the course of rivers is shore-ice. During a -severe winter masses of thick ice are formed which enclose the larger -stones on the bottom of the river towards its edge; these masses are -dislodged and carried away by subsequent floods, whether arising from -rapid thaws or from rain higher up the river, or from accumulations of -ice, such as those described, having formed a temporary barrier across -the stream through which the pent-up water eventually burst and carried -all before it. The lateral pressure of such dams of ice, with a large -body of water behind, must be enormous; and we can readily conceive -their crumbling-up any beds of gravel on the banks of the rivers -against which they might happen to abut. - -But there is still another way in which a severe climate, such as has -been supposed, would act upon the rocks, namely, by their being rent -and disintegrated by frost. This has been well pointed out by Sir -Joseph Prestwich,[2768] who has cited numerous instances |673| of its -effects, and mentions having seen a low cliff of chalk, 15 feet high, -form a talus or heap of fragments at its foot, 6 feet broad and 4 feet -high, in the course of an ordinary winter. - -As I am by no means attempting an exhaustive geological essay on this -subject, which is indeed hardly needed, I think that enough has been -said to show that under conditions such as have been supposed in this -hypothetical case, the great subaërial agents—rain and snow, ice and -frost—would, in the course of time, enable rivers to excavate their -valleys to an almost indefinite extent. Indeed, one can conceive the -process being carried on, until what had been rivers became estuaries -or arms of the sea; or, until a large island once traversed by rivers -became converted into several smaller islands, by the cutting back, and -subsequent junction, of its various river-valleys. - -Without, however, carrying the excavatory process to such an extreme, -let us now consider what would be the condition of our hypothetical -river-valley when excavated to a depth of say 100 feet, at a point -about midway between its source and the sea. We have already seen -that at an earlier period—when the river ran at a higher level by 100 -feet than that it is now supposed to occupy—its valley must have been -broader, and its bottom strewn with detritus of various kinds, in the -shape of gravel, sand, and clay, and, it may be, some larger blocks -of stone. In the further process of excavating by agents such as have -been described, it has also been seen, that it is in the highest degree -improbable that the succeeding floods and other transporting agents -should have entirely removed and obliterated the deposits left by those -of earlier date. We should, therefore, expect to find, at various -heights on the slope of the valley, remains of such beds of detritus, -and especially at points such as the junctions of affluents with the -river, and the inner side of the bends it makes in its course, which -would naturally be the least exposed to the violent invasion of the -stream. In these beds we might reasonably search for the remains of -the surface and freshwater life of the period; and had there been any -amelioration of climate during the process of excavation, a larger -proportion of silt and clay, and less of coarse gravel, in the lower -and more recent deposits, would testify to the fact. Looking also -at the power possessed by rivers of levelling the bottoms of their -valleys, during their successive changes of course, we might expect to -find in places, tracts of these old valley-bottoms left as terraces -on the slopes of the more deeply excavated valleys. The |674| upper -surface of any such relics of a former condition of things would, of -course, be covered with _débris_ and rain-washed clay, brought down -from a higher level on the slopes, but on digging into them their true -nature might be recognized. - -Nearer the sea, and farther up the valleys, the state of things would -be somewhat different. At the mouth of the river, as has already been -pointed out, the declivity of the stream would have been greater, and -its excavating power therefore increased. If, as originally assumed, -the bed of the river, when the land was first elevated, was, at a mile -distant from the sea, 200 feet above its level, the declivity would be -200 feet to the mile; when the 200 feet level was 4 miles from the sea, -the slope would still be 50 feet to the mile; at 10 miles distance it -would still be 20 feet, and it would not be until the 200 feet level -was 15 miles from the sea that the ordinary slope of the bottom of the -Chalk valleys of Hertfordshire, which is about 13 feet 6 inches to the -mile, would be attained. In the meantime, however, if the sea were -encroaching on the shore, or were, owing to the nature of the rocks, -widening and extending that portion of the river subject to tidal -influences, the actual point of contact with the sea would be carried -far inland, and—assuming the rock traversed to be of one uniform nature -and hardness—it would be long before the river towards its mouth -ceased to have a greater declivity than nearer its source. We see, -then, that the amount of excavation effected by the river, during the -time necessary for the deepening of the valley by 100 feet, at a point -midway in its course, would, near the sea, have been twice as great, -or 200 feet. We should, therefore, expect to find beds of the same -age as those which, at the middle of its course, were 100 feet above -the river, at relatively twice that elevation near the mouth; and any -intermediate beds would also be proportionally higher above the then -existing stream, than contemporary beds farther up the valley. - -At the heads of the valleys, the excavation would, on the contrary, -have been less than towards the middle of the course of the river; -partly owing to there always being less water present, partly to the -reduced liability to floods, and partly to other causes. The heads of -the valleys would, however, be constantly receding in all cases, and -their retrogression would in most instances be aided by springs issuing -from them. In cases where, from some geological cause, the heads of two -valleys running in opposite directions receded in the same line, we can -readily imagine their |675| meeting eventually at the watershed, and -cutting through it so as to form apparently but a single valley, though -on either side of the highest portion of its bottom, the waters flowed -in opposite directions. - -The mention of springs recalls another denuding agent, which has -been already discussed in connection with caverns, and seems to have -assisted in moulding the surface of the country and in excavating the -valleys. It is well known that the water flowing in the streams of a -chalk-country contains, in solution, a considerable amount of chalk, -or rather, of bi-carbonate of lime; the water on entering the ground -deriving a certain amount of carbonic acid from the decaying vegetable -matter contained in the soil, and when thus charged, becoming capable -of dissolving a corresponding quantity of the chalk. The amount is -usually 17 or 18 grains in the gallon; and even in the Thames at -London, not a purely chalk-stream, there are about 14 grains. Taking -the proportion of 17 grains to the gallon, it will be found by -calculation that every inch of rain which falls over a square mile of -chalk-country, and passes off by springs, carries with it, in solution, -and without in the slightest degree interfering with its brightness, -no less than from 15 to 16 tons of solid chalk. The quantity of rain -which thus finds its way to the springs has, as already stated, been -ascertained by experiment to be as much as 9 inches per annum in -average seasons, giving an amount of about 140 tons of chalk thus -annually carried away from each square mile of country at the present -day; so that the loss is still going on at the rate of 140,000 tons of -dry chalk to each square mile in every ten centuries. - -The lowering of level from this cause is probably not uniform over the -whole surface. For the acidulated water sinking into the chalk on the -top of a hill, and descending one or two hundred feet before reaching -the surface of “the subterranean reservoir,”[2769] might, in its almost -vertical passage, become saturated with carbonate of lime, and only -render the chalk through which it passed somewhat more porous, without -materially affecting the level of its surface. On the other hand, that -absorbed in a valley would probably, to some extent, acquire the chalk -which it eventually held in solution during its almost horizontal -passage to the point of its delivery by springs; and as this would be -at no great depth, the abstraction of solid matter would become more -perceptible on the surface, so that the level of the valley would be -lowered more |676| rapidly than that of the hill. With an increased -rainfall, such as we have supposed, this removal of solid matter by -solution must have been considerable; but still nothing in comparison -with that effected by the other denuding agencies which have been -mentioned. It is, moreover, to be borne in mind that, as will shortly -be seen, until the valleys had been excavated to a considerable depth, -the amount of water delivered by the springs would, with the same -rainfall, have been far less than at present. The springs would also, -to some extent, have been affected by the chalk being in a less porous -condition than it now is, owing to its not having lost so much of its -substance by the chemical action which has just been described. - -Before comparing the actual phenomena with the results of the -conditions which have been assumed, it will be well to say a few -words as to the probable effects of an amelioration of climate, and -a diminution in the rainfall, upon a valley already excavated to -an average depth of 100 feet, such as has already been described. -It is evident that any transport of materials due to the action of -ice, by floating loose stones and pebbles from one part of the bed -of the stream to another, would be materially diminished; as would -also the number of floods resulting from the thawing of the winter -accumulation of ice and snow, and from rain falling on frozen ground. -The only remaining principal cause for floods would be the heavy fall -of rain during storms or wet seasons; but here, a comparatively slight -alteration in the conditions will have made a vast difference in the -results. When the valleys were once excavated to a certain depth, the -level of the springs or outfalls carrying off the accumulation of -water in the absorbent soil, would be proportionally reduced, as would -also be the line of permanent saturation in the chalk. The effect of -this would be that during any dry interval, the water contained in the -upper part of the chalk would gravitate downwards, until it reached the -subterranean reservoir of water saturating the chalk; and thus leave -the surface soil in the same absorbent condition as it is at present, -and capable of receiving a much greater amount of rain than formerly, -before any would flow from off its surface. - -Even with a constant and excessive rainfall, the result of the -continued deepening of the valleys would be to cause more and more -to flow off by the springs, and less from the surface; but with the -valleys once deepened, a small diminution in the rainfall, or its more -even distribution over the whole year, might cause the |677| flow from -the surface almost entirely to cease, and allow the whole to be carried -off by the springs. Whenever this was the case, any great and rapid -excavation of the valleys from rain alone would be rendered almost -impossible; and with no extreme reduction in the total amount of annual -flow of the rivers, yet by their originating in perennial springs -subject to but slight variations, and from their being no longer to -any extent immediately connected with the surface drainage, there -would cease to be that immense difference between their maximum and -minimum volume, which must have formerly existed. The result of this -comparatively uniform flow would be a great diminution in the tendency -of any river to change its bed, and even if it occasionally received -a great accession of water, it would find relief by overflowing into -the wide valley due to its former more violent action. In the less -inclined portions of its valley, the parts now almost deserted by the -stream would be favourable for vegetation, such as would result in -the formation of peat, and any occasional overflowing of the banks -might, owing to the less torrential character of the inundations, have -a tendency to fill up and level these marginal spaces rather than to -excavate them deeper. The deposits of gravel, sand, and clay at the low -levels would also be more continuous than those at the higher. - -In tracing the effects of subaërial action in forming valleys, I have -assumed the subsoil or rock in which they were formed to have been -chalk, as it is principally in valleys in the Chalk that the gravels -containing Palæolithic implements are known to occur. This is probably -on account of the greater natural abundance of flints in such valleys, -which of course led to implements being there chipped out in greater -numbers, as well as to their being less cared for, from their being -more easily replaced than they would be where flint was scarce. The -effects on other soft and absorbent soils would not materially differ -from those on chalk. On clay, the general amount of denudation would -perhaps be greater, but the valleys broader, and with less inclined -slopes on their sides. In a clay country we might, I think, expect to -find the old river-gravels not unfrequently at greater distances from -the existing streams than in a chalk-district. - -It must, however, be borne in mind that in such a country the materials -from which river-gravels can be formed are usually absent, and can only -have been derived from older superficial beds, or brought from Chalk -higher up the valley. In some |678| valleys, partly or almost entirely -excavated in Pre-Glacial times, gravels belonging to the Glacial -Period exist, and tend to complicate the question of the more recent -River-drifts. - -Any theory of the valleys having been excavated at some remote period -in some unknown manner, and then having been filled with gravels -derived from an unknown source, and again re-excavated, presents such -difficulties that, to my mind, it cannot well be entertained. If, -however, such a view be accepted, it seems to add to the time necessary -for the excavation of the valleys; as much of the rainfall might find a -subterranean vent at a low level through the gravel lining the bottom -of the filled-up valleys, and thus keep the upper soil in a more -absorbent condition and therefore less liable to erosion. - -I must not, however, dwell too long upon this hypothetical case, which -perhaps is such as may not have found an absolutely exact analogue -in nature, but which may yet, I think, be accepted as a fair typical -example of the results which, under the supposed conditions, must, -judging from what we know of the action of subaërial causes, in all -probability have ensued. - -Let us now compare the phenomena as we find them in the gravel-beds of -our present river-valleys, with those of the hypothetical case, and we -shall, I think, find them coincide in a remarkable manner. - -In the first place, the constituent parts of the gravels of the beds -of Drift containing Palæolithic implements are always, petrologically, -such as are to be found in the existing river-basins, as they must -also of necessity have been in the hypothetical case. This fact, which -holds good both in France and England, has been insisted on by Sir -Joseph Prestwich, and such insistency cannot be too often reiterated. -Where old superficial marine deposits of the Glacial or any other -period, consisting of pebbles of various ages and origins, exist within -a river-basin, there also will such pebbles be found in its gravels, -but the originally derivative character of the pebbles prevents any -strong argument being founded upon their presence. Where, however, -no such beds exist, the case can clearly be made out. Unless a river -traverses a granite or slate country, no granite or slate is found in -the Quaternary gravels of its valley: unless it passes over Oolite, -Purbeck, or Greensand, no blocks or pebbles of these rocks occur. This -fact suffices to prove that the gravels are due to some local cause, -such as river-action, and not to any general submergence or supposed -|679| “wave of translation,” which would of necessity bring in -materials not to be found in the existing basins. - -That the various deposits resulting from a flooded river, should -contain some of the land and freshwater shells, and animal bones of the -period, is, as has been shown, most natural. Such shells and remains -are of constant occurrence in the Quaternary gravels. If they prove -nothing else, their evidence as to the freshwater origin of the beds -must be accepted as conclusive. It is true that in all cases such land -and freshwater remains have not as yet been found; but if in a dozen -instances we find beds of a certain character containing these remains, -and also flint instruments wrought by the hand of man; and in a dozen -other instances, similar beds in analogous positions, also containing -implements of the same kind, but, so far as is known, no such organic -remains; we are justified in regarding both sets of beds as due to -the same original cause, and in believing that the organic remains, -if actually absent, are so from some accidental circumstance. We may -indeed accept the implements as being truly characteristic fossils of -a certain class of deposits. The character of the beds, consisting as -they do, of gravel, sand, and fine silt, brick-earth or loess, and -their manner of deposition, are also absolutely in accordance with the -river-hypothesis. - -On the higher levels above but near the valleys, we frequently find -these beds at a considerable distance from the existing stream; we -find them at all levels on the flanks of the valleys, and occasionally -almost at their bottom, or even below it. In these lower beds, the -implements, if of the same form and character as those in the upper -beds nearer the source, are, in accordance with what would be the case -under the hypothesis, very frequently much rolled and water-worn. -The beds at the low level are also usually, so far as the gravel is -concerned, of a finer character than those at the high level, and -present a greater abundance of sand and brick-earth. They seem, in -fact, indicative of some such amelioration of climate as that supposed. - -Looking again at the position of the deposits with regard to the -neighbouring rivers, we find them, as a rule, exactly in such positions -as might have been expected, had their presence been due to the -action of a stream in the process of excavating its valley, in such -a manner as that described. So constantly is this the case, that a -practised geologist, from a mere inspection of the Ordnance map, could -with almost certainty predict where deposits |680| of River-drift -would occur, of such an age and character as to be likely to contain -Palæolithic implements. In more than one instance, indeed, as has -already been mentioned, the probability of certain gravels containing -these relics of human art, was pointed out before their actual -discovery. - -These are some, but by no means all, of the points in which the actual -phenomena agree with those which must have resulted from river-action -such as suggested in the hypothesis, and they are alone sufficient to -raise the strongest presumption that the phenomena are due to such -action, and that the theory that would account for them in this manner, -cannot be far from the truth. - -I will, however, now pass in review some of the principal localities -where Palæolithic implements have been found in Drift-deposits, and see -what other points of accordance, and what difficulties, if any, they -present. - -Taking first the basin of the Ouse and its tributaries, we find -at Biddenham, near Bedford, one of the principal localities for -Drift-implements, the gravel on the inner side of a bold sweep made -by the river, and from forty to fifty feet above it. Its constituent -stones are all derived either from the rocks in the neighbourhood, or -from the Glacial beds which cap them, and which have evidently been cut -through by the river. Throughout the beds are seams containing numerous -freshwater shells, mixed with some derived from the land and from -marshy places; numerous bones of terrestrial mammals also occur. In the -valley of the Lark remains of such shells occur at Bury St. Edmunds, in -the same beds as the implements. Farther down, at Icklingham, the beds -at Rampart Field cap a rounded knoll on the inner side of a curve of -the river, which appears, however, to have somewhat straightened its -course since they were deposited. Below Icklingham, the whole surface -of the country, and its drainage, have been so much modified by the -invasion of the sea, which produced the wide level of the Fens, that we -should expect to find any deposits of an ancient river, which existed -before that great planing down of the adjacent country, in somewhat -anomalous positions. - -I need not here enter into the history of the origin of the Fens; it is -enough to say that the subsoil of almost the whole district consists -of clays, belonging either to the Oolitic or Cretaceous series, and -unprotected by any rocks of a more durable nature towards the sea, -which has thus been enabled to invade it. The presence of the sea is -attested in various localities by marine |681| remains. _Buccinum_, -_Trophon_, _Littorina_, _Cardium_, and _Ostrea_ are abundant in the -gravel at March.[2770] In the valley of the Nene, near Peterborough, -oysters and other marine shells occur, mixed with those of land and -freshwater origin. In Whittlesea Mere, remains of walrus and seal, and -sea shells are found; while so far south as Waterbeach, less than ten -miles from Cambridge, remains of whale have been discovered. - -The old land-surface having been thus destroyed, we cannot with -certainty trace the course of the ancient representative of the river -Lark, below Mildenhall; it seems, however, to have proceeded northwards -by Eriswell and Lakenheath, to join the Little Ouse. At Eriswell, a -gravel of the same character as that near Mildenhall, occurs on the -slope of the hill towards the Fen; but in it, as yet, few implements -are recorded to have been found. At Lakenheath, however, they occur in -the gravel now capping the hill overlooking the Fen, as well as on the -slope. - -Owing to the distance of these beds from any existing rivers, the -late Mr. Flower[2771] found great difficulty in reconciling them with -any theory which would account for their presence by the action of -rivers. If, however, we regard the great denudation of the Fen country -as subsequent in date to the deposit of the gravels, it appears to me -that any difficulty on this point vanishes. That this denudation was in -fact, at all events in part, subsequent to the deposit of the gravels, -is proved by the position of the beds at Shrub Hill, which there cap a -small area of Gault, and which, being above the general level of the -Fens, can hardly have been deposited in the position they now occupy, -when the configuration of the country was at all like what it now is. -Such beds must, on the contrary, have been deposited in the bottom of a -valley; and it appears as if in this case, by their superior hardness -to the clay around them, or from some other accidental cause, they had -protected this small spot from tidal action, which in the adjacent -river, previously to the construction of Denver Sluice, extended nearly -as far as Brandon. - -The rolled condition of so many of the implements found at Shrub Hill, -proves that they must have been transported some distance by water, -from beds of a higher level. - -Turning now to the existing valley of the Little Ouse, we find, at -Brandon Down, the gravel occupying the summit of a high ridge of land -almost at right angles to the present course of the |682| river. It is -difficult to account for its occurring in this position, unless we are -to suppose that at an early period before the complete denudation of -the Fen country, and while the Boulder Clay still covered the surface -of the Chalk, and the level of saturation was higher in the latter -than at present, a tributary stream, possibly the old representative -of the Lark, flowed into the Little Ouse near this spot, and the -gravel was deposited on the tongue of land near the confluence. The -country drained by the Little Ouse seems at one time to have been -almost covered by Glacial deposits, including beds of shingle, composed -for the greater part of quartzite pebbles. The beds at Brandon Down -are nearer the sea than any analogous beds towards the source of the -stream, and occupy a higher position relatively to the existing river, -being 90 feet above it. If they resulted from river-action, they -would, in accordance with the hypothesis, be among the oldest of the -river-deposits; and would, as indeed they do, consequently contain a -far larger proportion of the quartzite pebbles than those of somewhat -later age and farther up the valley. - -At Bromehill, where the drift is but a few feet higher than the present -level of the stream, and would, in accordance with the hypothesis, -belong to a later period, there are but few of these quartzite pebbles, -but the gravel contains a very large proportion of rolled fragments of -chalk, which, so far as I have observed, are absent in the probably -older beds, at Brandon Down; the implements also are frequently -much rolled and water-worn. This fact is also in accordance with -the hypothesis, for the river at the time of the formation of these -lower beds would, in the lower part of its course, have completely -cut through the Glacial deposits above the Chalk, and would have been -attacking the Chalk itself. There is also an abundance of rolled chalk -in the Shrub Hill beds, which seem to be of much the same age. In -the valley of the Lark, the rolled chalk pebbles occur in gravels at -a somewhat greater elevation. Higher up the Little Ouse, the gravel -at Santon Downham occupies the slope of a hill on the inner side of -a great sweep of the river, while at Thetford, the beds form a long -terrace by the side of the stream, with a rather abrupt slope towards -it. Here also, land and freshwater shells have been found in the -gravel, but neither these nor implements have as yet been observed in -the gravels of the valley of the Little Ouse, or of its tributaries, -above Thetford. - -Tracing the main stream back to its source, we find that both |683| -the Little Ouse and the Waveney, the one flowing westward, and -the other eastward, take their rise in the same valley, and within -a few hundred yards of each other, at Lopham Ford. With regard to -the elevation of this spot above the sea-level, there has been some -diversity of opinion. On the Greenough map, published by the Geological -Society, it is erroneously stated at 15 feet; and Mr. Flower,[2772] -in arguing in favour of his views, that the beds at Brandon are not -connected with any river-action, assigns it a height of only 23 feet -above high-water mark. That this also is erroneous can be readily -shown, for Sir Joseph Prestwich[2773] has recorded the level of the -Waveney at Moor Bridge, near Hoxne, ten miles below its source, as -being 59 feet 9 inches above high-water mark at Yarmouth. Mr. Alger, -of Diss, who has surveyed the district, informs me that the level at -Lopham Ford is 75 feet 3 inches above high-water mark; and as by actual -survey he found the fall, from the head of the Waveney to Hoxne Mill, -to be upwards of 15 feet, there can be little doubt of this level being -approximately correct. Still, the gravel beds at Brandon being upwards -of 90 feet above high-water mark, there can be no doubt of their being -at an elevation actually above the source of the present stream; and -at first sight, this fact appears difficult of reconciliation with -the view that they are due to fluviatile action. Without, however, -calling to aid any possible oscillations in the level of the land, -varying in amount at different parts of the course of the stream, an -examination of the local geological conditions suffices to throw light -on the causes, why the erosion of the land at the sources of the Little -Ouse and Waveney has been abnormally great; so that not only have the -streams excavated back the heads of their respective valleys until they -have met, but their inclination at the upper part of their course, -instead of being as usual in chalk countries at the rate of 12 to 18 -feet in a mile, is only about 18 inches. - -The general level of the country for some distance around Lopham Ford -is at least 100 feet above it, and the Chalk and the superimposed beds -are for the most part covered with a deposit of impervious Boulder -Clay, through which the valleys of the Little Ouse and of the Waveney -have been cut. But, at the time of the last emergence of this district -of country from beneath the sea, this clay must have been continuous -across the tract since |684| excavated, so that at that time the -sources of the streams flowing in either direction must have been at -least 100 feet above their present level, and 80 feet above the gravels -at Brandon Down, and probably at some distance apart. That the heads of -the two streams should have cut back their valleys, and at last have -met, appears to be due to the fact that, previously to the covering -of Boulder Clay being deposited, there existed an old depression in -the Chalk, which had been filled with laminated sandy clays, either -Glacial or belonging to what is known by geologists as the Chillesford -series. These being more easily acted on than the chalk by running -water, led the streams to follow the course of the old depression which -they filled, and it is to their presence that the small inclination of -the upper part of the valley of the Waveney appears to be mainly due. -Another cause is to be found in the country near Lopham Ford being -coated with clay, so that the streams, even at the present day, exhibit -the remarkable phenomenon of being liable to floods at their source. An -isolated hill, about 30 feet high, formed of the laminated beds, and -with a slight capping of gravel, still remains in the valley of the -Waveney, near Redgrave, to show the nature of the beds which have been -removed. - -The only spot in the valley of the Waveney, where as yet Palæolithic -implements have been found, is at Hoxne, where the summit of the -beds is about 111 feet above high-water mark at Yarmouth, and though -at a higher level than the existing source of the Waveney, probably -much below the level of its earlier source. Since the beds were -deposited, the surface of the ground in the neighbourhood has been -completely remodelled by subaërial denudation, and they now lie in a -trough on the summit of a hill,[2774] both sides of which slope down -to small streams which are tributary to the Waveney, and are still -at work cutting out their valleys in the Boulder Clay. The beds in -which the implements occur are beyond all doubt of freshwater origin, -being full of freshwater shells. The trough in which they lie, has -much the appearance of the deserted bed of a river, silted up under -more lacustrine conditions. Such a change in the position of a -river-bed, and its subsequent infilling, is quite in accordance with -the hypothetical case of river-action, especially when, as here, its -eventual valley had not been distinctly carved out. - -The phenomena at Hoxne have lately been more fully examined |685| by -Mr. Clement Reid,[2775] by means of grants from the British Association -and the Royal Society; and the views that I expressed in 1872 have been -in the main corroborated. The deposits are proved to be distinctly -more recent than the Chalky Boulder Clay of the district, and there -is evidence of oscillations in climate since the valley was formed in -which the lacustrine beds were laid down, and before any Palæolithic -implements or the brick-earth containing them had been deposited. - -The beds at High Lodge, near Mildenhall, are of somewhat similar -character to those at Hoxne, though occupying a depression on the -slope of a hill, instead of a trough on the summit; and were probably -deposited under nearly the same circumstances, though as yet no -testaceous remains have been found in them. - -Turning south, to the valley of the Thames, we find the gravel-beds -at Acton and Ealing, though occasionally at a higher level, forming -a terrace 80 or 90 feet above Ordnance Datum, along the side of the -broad valley, at a height of some 50 feet above the general surface -of the valley. In the bottom of this are spread out other beds of -gravel, sand, and brick-earth, exactly as might be expected on the -river-hypothesis; while at Highbury New Park, and Hackney Down, we -have beds of the same character, which contain land and freshwater -shells and flint implements, at a height, in some cases, of 100 feet -above Ordnance Datum. The presence of these beds in such a position, -consisting, as they do at Highbury, of sand and brick-earth, such as -can only have been deposited in comparatively tranquil water, involves -the necessity either of a large lake having existed at the spot, or of -its having been within access of the flood-waters of the river. But -either of these conditions is impossible, unless we are to suppose that -the lower part of valley of the Thames, in which London now stands, was -at that time non-existent. It must, therefore, have been subsequently -excavated. But again, at lower levels at Hackney Down, and in Gray’s -Inn Lane, we have gravels of a more distinctly fluviatile character, -and also containing palæolithic implements. The existence, character, -and position of all these beds is, therefore, perfectly in accordance -with the theory of the excavation of the valley by the river, and -it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to account for them -satisfactorily in any other manner. - -At Hitchin beds of much the same character occur, which there also are -newer than the Boulder Clay of the district. |686| - -At Caddington the discoveries are quite consistent with the -hypothesis, but point to a period when the excavations of the existent -valleys had made but little progress. - -Higher up the Thames valley at Reading and at Oxford the phenomena are -all in accordance with the hypothesis; at the former place the river -has deepened its valley to the extent of at least 100 feet. - -The discoveries in the gravels capping the North Downs and those -made near Ightham and Limpsfield in the transverse valley at the -foot of the Downs, seem at first sight difficult to reconcile with -any river-theory. But assuming that the beds capping the hills were -at one time continuous with others in the Wealden area, and that the -transverse valley was produced by denudation at a later date, the -difficulties disappear, though the time requisite to effect such -superficial changes may seem to be immense. - -Passing by other localities where implements have been found in the -valley of the Thames, such as Swanscombe and Northfleet, though it -may be observed that the gravels in which they have occurred are, on -the river-theory, exactly where they might have been expected to be -present, we come to the beds near Reculver, where they have been found -in large numbers. Looking, however, at the enormous encroachment of -the sea, even within the last few centuries, upon the soft cliffs of -sand and clay at that spot, it is difficult to form any satisfactory -idea of the conditions under which a river may have flowed near the -spot at a remote period, or of the position of the coast at the time. -Where, however, as is here the case, a large tract of land has been -washed away, which must of necessity have had its system of superficial -drainage by streams, and may possibly have had rivers passing through -it, which now, owing to the altered conditions, find their way into -the sea at a point much nearer their source than formerly, we should -expect to find on the top of the cliffs traces of the former state of -things; and where any portion of the slope of an old valley remained, -to see its gravels, though now so close to the sea, at a height far -above its level. Still, it is hard to say whether the implement-bearing -beds at Reculver are connected with the old valley of the Thames, or -with that of some other stream which has now disappeared, but of which -the upper portion is to be traced in the Swale, which now separates the -Isle of Sheppey from Kent, and which appears to afford, in its junction -with the West Swale and Long Reach, an instance of two valleys being -gradually eroded inland until they met. The beds may even be connected -with the |687| valley of the Stour; for it is by no means impossible -that the present second and northward mouth of that stream may run -along the valley of an old river, which originally flowed southward -past Reculver, and joined the old representative of the Stour, -somewhere to the south of where is now the village of Sarre. - -The great tract of gravel which at some little distance inland fringes -the East Essex coast, between Shoeburyness[2776] and the Blackwater -estuary, may also be connected with some old river; but as yet no -well-defined implements or freshwater shells have been found in -it, though Mr. Whitaker has discovered shells near Southend. The -fluvio-marine deposits at a lower level at Clacton, just north of -the Blackwater, like those at Chislet, in Kent, seem to belong to a -somewhat later period, when the rivers had so far deepened their beds -as to have become tidal. - -Though no land or freshwater shells have as yet been found in the -gravel beds near Canterbury, yet their position is quite in accordance -with the theory of the excavation of the valley by river-action; and -here as elsewhere the implements from the lower beds are often much -water-worn. - -The superficial deposits of the south of Hampshire and the Isle of -Wight, and in a lesser degree those of the neighbouring counties, -have been fully discussed in an able paper by Mr. T. Codrington, -F.G.S.,[2777] though since it was published a large number of -implements has been found near Bournemouth, Barton, and Hordwell. He -has pointed out that the whole of the New Forest, between Poole and -Southampton Water, appears at one time to have been an extensive plain, -with a gradual slope to the south, very generally covered with gravel -and brick-earth. This has since been in great part cut up, and over -large areas entirely removed by the action of the streams and rivers, -which latter flow in well-defined valleys. - -The formation of this table-land and the overlying deposit of gravel -which, in places far inland, is found at a height of more than 420 feet -above the present sea-level, appears to be due to marine action, though -as yet no marine remains have been discovered in it. Sea-shells have, -however, been found by Sir Joseph Prestwich[2778] in an old sea-beach -at Waterbeach, near Goodwood, and similar beds, at Avisford Bridge, -near Arundel, occur at a height of 80 or 100 feet above the sea. We -seem, then, here to have evidence |688| of a considerable elevation -of the land from beneath the sea; and as the gravel in places overlies -late Tertiary beds, this must have taken place at a comparatively late -geological epoch. When rivers run through a tract of country covered -with a marine gravel of this kind, itself apparently deposited in a -somewhat contracted area, it is, in the absence of organic remains, -difficult to distinguish the reconstructed gravels resulting from -fluviatile action, from the older beds. Any one, however, who is -acquainted with the country, or who will examine Mr. Codrington’s map, -will see what an enormous denudation has been effected in this great -sheet of gravel, by rivers and streams, and by subäerial action. When -once the protecting gravel has been cut through, and the soft Tertiary -beds of sand and clay below have been reached, the process seems to -go on with great rapidity. A large tract of land west of Southampton -appears to have been in this way almost cleared of its gravel, of which -but patches are left. Even the principal portion of the old table-land -which has survived, that to the east and south-east of Fordingbridge, -is deeply cut into by numerous valleys, many of a depth of 200 feet. -The existence of these valleys is clearly in accordance with the river -theory. - -Let us now examine the discoveries in the valleys of the Test and of -the Itchen from this point of view. Looking at the numerous instances -of the finding of flint implements in gravels containing terrestrial -and freshwater remains, and looking at the improbability of their -occurring in a purely marine deposit, I venture to regard them as being -equally characteristic of freshwater deposits as any organic fossils, -and to claim the beds in which they occur as being of freshwater origin. - -At Southampton several implements have been found in the pits upon the -Common at heights ranging from 80 to 150 feet above the sea-level. The -gravel there slopes at a considerably greater inclination than that -of the table-land nearer Chilworth, with which it is continuous, and -from which it would appear to have been in part derived. It occupies -a tongue of land between the valley of the Itchen and that of the -Test, now widened out by tidal action. It is in places covered by -brick-earth, and its position and character are quite in accordance -with a fluviatile origin. If, from their proximity to the apparently -marine gravels, we assume these beds to belong to an early period in -the history of the excavation of the valley, their high position above -the present tidal stream is such as, according to the hypothesis, was -to be expected. |689| - -The gravels found lower down the course of the river, at Hill Head, -Brown Down, and Lee on the Solent, appear to belong to a somewhat later -period; and to bear much the same relation to those of Southampton -Common, as do the beds at Shrub Hill to those of Brandon Down. As I -pointed out long ago, “There can be but little doubt that these gravel -beds are merely an extension of the valley-gravels of the rivers -Test, Itchen, Hamble, and other streams, which at the time they were -deposited, flowed at this spot in one united broad stream, at an -elevation of some forty feet above the existing level of their outfall, -over a country which has since, by erosive action, been in part -converted into the Southampton Water.”[2779] We shall shortly have to -revert to this circumstance; but before returning to the coast, we must -take a short glance at the features of the discoveries near Salisbury. - -In the neighbourhood of this city there can be no doubt of the deposits -being thoroughly in accordance with the river theory. The Fisherton -and Milford Hill beds occupy points or spurs of land, in the forks -above the junction of streams, or precisely those spots in which their -presence was to be expected. There are the usual beds of gravel, sand, -and clay, the usual bones of the Quaternary fauna, some representing -what are now Arctic species, and therefore presumably indicative of -a severer climate than at present; and the usual land and freshwater -shells. Though the valleys, being confluent, are excavated to the -same depth, yet, on examination, their sectional areas will be found -to be approximately proportional to the extent of country drained by -the rivers still flowing through them. At Milford Hill, the deposit -is cut off from the main spur of land by a kind of transverse valley, -about thirty feet in depth, besides having on either side a valley some -100 feet deep. On any hypothesis of the beds having been deposited -by aqueous action—and no other can for a moment be entertained—these -valleys must have been mainly excavated since the deposition of the -gravels. For had the valleys at that time existed, we can conceive -of no conditions under which a body of water sufficient to fill the -valleys to their summit, and able to carry along detrital matter with -it, would leave its heavy contents at the top of the hills instead of -at the bottom. The old fluviatile beds occur also at various levels -on the slopes, in complete accordance with the theory of gradual -excavation; and farther down the valley, at |690| Fordingbridge, we -find them again occurring with remains of _Elephas primigenius_ at -about forty feet above the river. - -The circumstances of the discoveries at Bournemouth seem at first sight -almost irreconcilable with any river-hypothesis; as it is difficult to -conceive how gravels capping the cliffs along the sea-shore for miles, -and at an elevation of from 130 to 90 feet above its level, can have -been deposited in such a position by the agency of a stream. And yet -on a closer examination of the case, all such difficulties vanish, and -the ancient existence of a river at such an elevation, and running -in such a direction that it would leave these gravels to testify -to its former course, seems absolutely demonstrable. Without being -aware of the results at which others had arrived, I came, after due -consideration of the facts of the case, to the conclusion that, as has -already been mentioned in an earlier page, there must in ancient times -have existed a river draining an extensive tract of country along the -southern coast, and flowing in an easterly direction; and that of this -river a portion still survives in an altered and enlarged condition as -the Solent Sea, which separates the Isle of Wight from the mainland. -Mr. Codrington, whose paper I have already so often quoted, arrived -on independent grounds at substantially the same conclusion. But at -an earlier epoch still—in 1862—before any flint implements had been -found at Bournemouth, or indeed in any of the gravels of the South of -England, the late Rev. W. Fox,[2780] of Brixton, in the Isle of Wight, -published nearly similar views as to the origin of the Solent. As his -opinions cannot by any possibility be supposed to have been influenced -by preconceived views as to the antiquity of man, I prefer stating the -case, in the first instance, in his words rather than in my own:—“The -severance of this island (the Isle of Wight) from the mainland, it -appears to me, was effected under very unusual circumstances, and at a -very distant period. The present channel of the Solent, being pretty -nearly equally deep and equally broad throughout its entire length -of twelve or fourteen miles, proves at once that it was not formed -in the usual way of island-severing channels, that is, by gradual -encroachments of the sea on the two opposite sides of a narrow neck -of land” . . . “it is to be accounted for, therefore, not by the -excavations of a gradually approaching sea, but, as I shall hereafter -have to attempt to show, by its being originally the trunk or outlet -of a very considerable river.” . . . “Whoever, as a geologist, |691| -examines the vertical strata of the Chalk at the Needles, nay, and -throughout the whole length of the Isle of Wight, and the strata of the -same rock in exactly the same unusual position on the bold white cliff -on the Dorsetshire coast some twenty miles westward of the Needles, -will not doubt but that the two promontories were once united, forming -a rocky neck of land from Dorset to the Needles. This chain of chalk -might, or might not, be so cleft in twain as to allow the rivers of -Dorset and Wilts to find a passage through them to the main ocean. My -opinion, however, is that they had no such outlet, but that at that -far distant period, the entire drainage of more than two counties, -embracing the rivers that join the sea at Poole and Christchurch, -flowed through what is now called Christchurch Bay, down the Solent, -and joined the sea at Spithead.” - -“According to this theory, the Solent was at that time an estuary -somewhat like the Southampton Water, having but one opening to the -British Channel, but of so much more importance than the latter as it -was fed by a vastly greater flow of fresh water.” “Of course, according -to this view, the sea would lose its original condition as an estuary -at the time when the British Channel had so far made a breach through -the chain of rocks connecting the Isle of Wight with Dorsetshire as -to give an opening into itself for the Dorsetshire rivers, somewhere -opposite to the town of Christchurch. From that time forth the Solent -would become what it is at present, losing its character as an estuary, -and assuming that of a long narrow sea.” . . . “The distant period at -which such changes took place it would be hopeless to guess at, amid -the dimness of the data on which calculations could be founded. It -could not be less, however, than many thousands of years, seeing that -since that time, the British Channel has not only made a broad breach -of twenty miles through a chain of slowly yielding rocks, but has also -pushed its way gradually across the broad extent of the Poole and -Christchurch Bays.” - -Such is the theory of Mr. Fox, which places the probable course of -events fully and fairly before our view. I see in it but little on -which to comment, except that it does not appear to have sufficiently -taken into account the widening of the Solent subsequently to the -time of its becoming a channel of the sea; and that in a passage, -which I have not quoted, Mr. Fox estimates the drainage area of the -ancient river as but little inferior to that of the Thames or Humber. -Taking the basins of all the streams discharging |692| into the sea -between Ballard Down, near Poole, on the west, and Calshot Castle and -the Medina on the east, but not including the latter river, I find -that, according to the Ordnance Map,[2781] the present land area which -would have drained into an ancient river such as that supposed, is -1,617 square miles. To this may be added another 100 square miles, -representing the area included between the present coast and an -extension of the chalk downs from Ballard Down to the Needles, the -whole of which has been washed away; though within this large area, -the present depth of the sea attains in but very few places to ten -fathoms. The drainage area of the ancient river Solent can therefore -have been but about one-third of that of the Thames and its affluents, -unless we are to suppose that, as is the case in the neighbourhood of -Carisbrooke Castle and with the Medina, a portion of land to the south -of the old chalk downs drained northward through some gap in the range -of hills. That such land existed seems probable, from the occurrence of -gravels with elephant remains along the south-west coast of the Isle of -Wight at an elevation of 80 feet and upwards above the sea, which, Mr. -Codrington has suggested, may have been deposited by tributary streams -of a river flowing northwards through the chalk range to the Solent. -But even with any such addition the area drained by the old River -Solent can hardly have been half that of the basin of the Thames. - -With regard, however, to the former existence of this range of chalk -hills and the land to the north of them, Mr. Codrington has shown, in -the paper already so often quoted, that the spreading out of the marine -gravel, and the levelling of the table-lands was probably effected -in an inlet of the sea, shut in on the southern side by land which -connected the Isle of Wight with the mainland, and opening to the -eastward. Assuming, then, the existence of this ridge of high land, it -is evident, as Mr. Fox has pointed out, that the only outlet for the -rivers now represented by the Frome, the Trent or Piddle, the Stour, -Blackwater, Avon, and other streams now discharging into the sea, must -have been by an eastward channel, in fact, a continuation of the rivers -now discharging through Poole Harbour. The course of such a river would -naturally be guided, in the first instance, by the configuration of -the surface of the old marine gravels of the sloping table-land. This, -as has been shown, slopes upward from the present coast northward, and -attains its highest level inland; but traces of the same gravel occur -also in the Isle of Wight, though it there |693| slopes upward in a -southerly direction, attaining a height of 368 feet at St. George’s -Down, but being only from 100 to 160 feet above the sea in various -places along the northern shore of the island, at a distance of about -a mile inland. It appears, therefore, that there must originally have -been a valley running east and west in the old marine gravel, forming -a natural course for the drainage of the country, and probably finding -its way towards the sea, somewhere within the space now occupied by the -Solent and Spithead, though not actually discharging into the sea until -it had attained some distance eastward. - -Evidence as to the highest level at which freshwater action removed -and re-deposited the marine gravel on the southern slope of the valley -is at present wanting; but, judging from a section across the Isle of -Wight from St. George’s Down to Norris Castle, given by Mr. Codrington, -the declivity is so much more rapid below the 160 feet level than above -it, that the ancient river may have commenced its action at about that -level. How far eastward the Isle of Wight may have extended at that -time it is difficult to say; but from the enormous denudation of land -to the west, and the range of the ten-fathom line, there may probably -have been land at all events as far east as opposite to Selsey, the -extensive estuarine beds at which place, containing remains of _Elephas -primigenius_,[2782] are possibly connected with this old river. - -The precise manner in which the Foreland gravels and brick-earth, in -which Mr. Codrington found a palæolithic implement at 85 feet above the -sea-level, were connected with the old river-deposits, is difficult to -determine. Mr. Codrington is inclined to think that a rise of land to -the extent of 70 or 80 feet must have taken place since the deposition -of the brick-earth in which the flint implement was embedded, but -this to me seems unnecessary. It is, however, unsafe to speculate on -a single specimen found in such a position. The implements found at -Seaview and Bembridge may have been washed out of gravel-beds at a -lower level than those of the Foreland, or even have been transported -for some distance by marine currents. - -Turning to Bournemouth, where so many more have been found, the highest -and most westerly point at which implements have occurred appears to be -about 130 feet above the sea.[2783] Farther |694| east, near Boscombe, -the level is about 120 feet; midway between that spot and Hengistbury -Head, the height of the gravel is 90 feet; at High Cliff, 84 feet; at -Hordwell, where implements abound, a short distance inland, 60 feet; -and about midway along the northern shore of the Solent, 50 feet. -The surface of the ground is, of course, much cut up by the numerous -streams coming in from the north; but the general fall of the gravel -from west to east is perfectly in accordance with its having been -deposited in the valley of an ancient river running in this direction, -the whole of the southern side of which has since been carried away by -the sea. Whether the old river had become tidal so far west as Hurst -Castle, when first it was intercepted by the sea to the south, does -not appear to me to be a matter of importance, inasmuch as no doubt a -valley was already formed, along the course of which the encroachments -of the sea would be more rapid than where the cliffs were higher, and -more solid matter had to be removed. That the valley, in which is now -Southampton Water, was also originally, for the most part, scooped out -by the rivers coming from the north, which in remote times flowed into -the old River Solent, is, I think, beyond all reasonable doubt. The -increased volume of the ancient river, after receiving so important -an affluent, is evinced by the widening of the channel, from Calshot -Castle eastward by Spithead, to a full third more than it is to the -west, along what is now the Solent Sea. - -As to the character of the gravels at Bournemouth, it is, as already -observed, hard to distinguish those presumably of fluviatile origin -from the older and probably marine beds. In the railway-cutting between -Bournemouth and Christchurch, I thought, however, that in places I -could trace the superposition of the one upon the other. The more -recent deposits contain water-worn fragments of quartz, granite, and -porphyry, as was noticed long ago by Mr. Godwin-Austen,[2784] who, from -this circumstance, saw reason for connecting them with the gravels -capping the tabular hills of Devon and Dorset to the west. - -It is, of course, evident that at the period when the river ran at this -high level, past the spot where now is Bournemouth, all the land to the -immediate west must have been far higher than it is at present, and -that Poole Harbour could not have existed. In attempting to reconstruct -the map of a country, the shores of which have been much wasted by -the sea, in order to show what |695| must have been at some remote -period the old coast-line, the task is rendered difficult and within -certain limits impossible by the absence of any evidence as to the -elevation above the sea of the land removed, and as to the channels -along which the sea could work. In this case, however, there is a -strong presumption as to the unbroken continuity of the chalk-range, -and of its elevation having been much the same throughout, as it now is -at both ends of the breach. The general character of the beds above the -Chalk, so far as their power of resistance to water-action goes, seems -also much the same at either extremity; though perhaps the beds at -the Isle of Wight end of the breach are somewhat the harder. Assuming -nearly equal conditions, and looking at the form of the present -coast-line, which is indented by two distinct broad bays, it seems -probable that the old course of the river may have been intercepted -by the sea at two several points, the one nearer Poole and the other -nearer Lymington. Directly this closer communication with the sea was -formed for the Dorsetshire rivers, they would, of course, owing to the -more rapid fall, excavate their valleys with greater speed at their -mouth, and directly they became tidal, the sea would make rapid inroads -on the soft sand and clay exposed to its action. So effective is this -action, that at Hordwell Cliff the waste of the shore is said to be -now going on at the rate of about a yard per annum,[2785] or upwards -of half a mile every thousand years, though perhaps this is somewhat -exaggerated. - -In discussing this question, I have purposely avoided complicating the -subject with the effects of any general lowering of the surface of -the ground by erosion either chemical or mechanical; or of upheavals -and depressions of the land during the period of the formation of the -valleys, though no doubt this also has taken place, especially along -the southern coast of Britain. I must, however, mention the existence -of a submerged forest, occasionally visible at low water, at the -foot of the cliffs at Bournemouth, which seems to show that there as -elsewhere a depression of a former land surface has taken place. The -late Mr. Albert Way, F. S. A., who had the opportunity of examining -some of the stumps of trees exposed at rare intervals at low water, -informed me that they appeared to be those of the true Scotch fir; -and also that local tradition speaks of an impassable morass having, -so late as the commencement of the present century, |696| intervened -between the line of cliffs and the sea. On the occasion of one of my -visits to Bournemouth, some of these stumps were fortunately visible, -and were pointed out to me by Mr. Way at a spot but a few yards to the -west of the pier, and between high and low water-mark. They appear -to be of no very remote antiquity, geologically speaking, and to be -connected rather with the present valley of the Bourne than with the -valley of the old river Solent, as the trees, some of which were fully -a hundred years old, grew on the surface of a thick bed of hard peat. -Under any circumstances, however, the presence of such remains at -the foot of the cliff does not tend to diminish our estimate of the -antiquity of the freshwater beds containing the works of man, which we -find occupying their summit. - -In passing the deposits containing flint implements in different parts -of this country under review, enough has, I think, now been said to -show that in position, in character, and in the nature of their organic -contents, they are perfectly in accordance with what might have been -expected from river-action under certain circumstances. The case might -indeed have been made much stronger had deposits in other places, in -all respects similar, except that the presence of flint implements has -not as yet been observed in them, been brought into account; and it -must not be forgotten that this might, with perfect propriety, have -been done, as there can be no possible doubt that a certain series -of gravels, sands, and clays, containing organic remains and flint -implements in extremely variable quantity, all belong to one geological -period, and owe their existence to similar causes. - -But though on no other hypothesis than that of river-action can -the phenomena be accounted for, yet, as has already been seen, it -is necessary, in order that river-action should have produced such -effects, that the streams, during some portion of the year at all -events, should have been more torrential in character than they are -at the present day. If, however, we see satisfactory grounds for -attributing these beds containing land and freshwater shells and -remains of terrestrial animals, to rivers formerly flowing at much -higher levels than at present, which have since excavated their -valleys—and it seems impossible to do otherwise—then we must also -accept as a fact that the climatal conditions were such as would enable -the rivers to perform the work. It is, as Sir Joseph Prestwich[2786] -has shown, quite out of the question |697| to suppose that with the -valleys excavated to the present depth, any meteorological causes -could fill them to their summits; or even if they could and did, that -they would leave such deposits as we find at high elevations on their -slopes, or even on detached eminences. It will, however, be well to -examine briefly any corroborative evidence that may be forthcoming, -as to the probability either of a severer climate involving a greater -accumulation of winter snows, or of a greater rainfall, or of both. The -one, indeed, seems hardly probable without the other, as a cold land -surface “presented to vapour-laden sea-winds, as in the mountainous -districts of the north-west of Spain, in our own lake districts, and in -Scandinavia,”[2787] involves of necessity a heavy rainfall. - -With regard to climate, we may take into account that which prevailed -at a somewhat earlier date; for there appears no doubt that the flint -implement-bearing gravels are all of later date than the Chalky Boulder -Clay of the Eastern Counties, a deposit which belongs to the so-called -Glacial Period, during a portion of which a great part of England and -Scotland was submerged beneath the sea, and became coated with masses -of Boulder Clay and other deposits, derived for the most part from the -moraines of glaciers, sometimes at no great distance, and possibly in -the main transported and dropped in their present positions by means of -icebergs and coast ice. That they are of later date is proved by more -than one of the implement-bearing beds reposing in valleys either in, -or cut through, this Chalky Boulder Clay; and at Hoxne the interval -between the Glacial deposits and the Palæolithic beds is marked by -two sets of lacustrine strata, the lower and earlier with a flora -characteristic of a mild climate, and the upper by one which points -to the recurrence of Arctic conditions. Prof. Boyd Dawkins[2788] has -suggested the probability of the higher ground of North Wales and the -northern part of England having been still enveloped in an ice-mantle -at the time that the mammoth, reindeer, and other post-glacial mammals -were living in the lower and less inclement districts. But this view -is to some extent founded on negative evidence, and on the assumption -that palæolithic implements do not exist in this northern area. I -have already commented[2789] on the possibility of implements being -eventually found in it. - -The crumpling and contortion of some of the beds of |698| -River-drift, especially at high levels, has been regarded by Sir -Joseph Prestwich[2790] as possibly resulting from the lateral pressure -produced by packing and jamming together of blocks of ice, such as may -now be witnessed in rivers like the Danube and the Rhine. The “trail -and warp” of Mr. Trimmer, those superficial deposits so common over a -large portion of this country, which, indeed, constitute so large a -portion of the arable soil, seem also, as the Rev. Osmond Fisher[2791] -has pointed out, to be significant of a severer climate than at present -prevails. The “Palæolithic floors,” both near London and at Caddington, -are buried under a considerable thickness of this “trail.” There is -moreover a high probability that, at the time of the deposit of the -gravels, Britain was still united to the continent; so that, apart from -other causes, there was a tendency for the climate to partake more of -a continental character than at present, and to induce greater cold in -winter and greater heat in summer. - -That the existence of enormous glaciers is as indicative of the action -of heat, in order to convert the water of the ocean into vapour, as of -cold to condense it, has been insisted on by Professor Tyndall,[2792] -and even more strongly by Professor Frankland. If at the time of the -rivers flowing at the high level, Britain was still connected with the -continent, it is by no means impossible that the temperature of the -seas on either side of the connecting isthmus may have been different. -That connected more immediately with the Southern Ocean would have been -the warmer of the two, from which a copious supply of vapour would be -carried by the southerly winds, and be condensed as rain in its passage -northward. - -Mr. Alfred Tylor, F.G.S.,[2793] in his profusely illustrated papers -on the Amiens gravel, and on Quaternary gravels, contends for the -existence of a “Pluvial period” subsequent to the Glacial, in which -the rainfall was far greater than at present, and such a view has much -to commend it for acceptance. But when he proceeds to assert that the -surface of the Chalk in the valley of the Somme, and in all other -valleys of the same character, had assumed its present form prior to -the deposition of any of the gravel or loess now to be seen there, and -to argue that the whole of the gravels at all levels on the slopes are -of one age, and due |699| to floods extending to a height of at least -80 feet above the level of the rivers, we may well hesitate before -we give in our adhesion to such views. In the first place, it is, to -say the least of it, unphilosophical to rely too much on a single -example, such as that of the valley of the Somme; and to account for -its phenomena by causes which are evidently incapable of producing -the effects observable in other localities, as, for instance, at -Southampton, close to the sea, and 160 feet above its level. But what -shall we say to floods raising the levels of rivers upwards of 80 feet, -yet having no erosive power, and the waters of which, regardless of the -laws of gravity, tranquilly deposited their solid contents evenly over -the slopes, or often in the greatest thickness on their higher part, -and in some cases on almost isolated hills, instead of principally -on the bottom of the river-valley? Whence all the materials for the -gravels are to be derived, how they are to be reduced to a subangular -condition by water-wear, especially in the case of the flint implements -occurring in the gravels, are points on which further information will -have to be supplied, before any such views can be seriously entertained. - -I have up to this point almost left out of view any distinctive -differences between the deposits at a high level and those at a low -level in the river-valleys. That such, however, exist has been pointed -out by Sir Joseph Prestwich;[2794] and judging from the northern range -of the group of shells found in the high-level beds, the absence of -southern species, the character of the mammalian and vegetable remains, -the transport of large blocks such as could only be effected by ice and -the other physical features of the case, he is inclined to assign a -winter temperature to the period of their deposit from 19° to 29° Fahr. -below that which now obtains in these regions. From a consideration of -the features of the low-level deposits he considers that at the time -of their deposit, the climate was rather less severe, by about 5°. The -presence of the mammoth and woolly-haired rhinoceros, animals specially -adapted for cold climates; of the musk-ox, the reindeer, the lemming, -and marmot, corroborates the same view; while the hippopotamus, which -seems characteristic of the low-level deposits, is suggestive of a -somewhat warmer climate. Like the mammoth and rhinoceros, its structure -may, however, have been somewhat modified, so as to enable it to occupy -colder regions than at present, or it may have been merely a summer -visitor ranging northwards before the |700| separation of Britain from -the continent. Under any circumstances its presence seems to indicate -that the volume of the rivers was probably in excess of what it is at -the present time. But whatever may have been the degree of winter cold, -or the amount of the snow and rainfall, the one was not so extreme -as to prevent there being an abundance of animal life, nor the other -so great as to interfere with the growth of a sufficient supply of -vegetable food on which it might subsist. - -It has, indeed, been supposed by some that the remains of the early -mammals occurring in the gravels are derived from older beds, and that -their presence in association with flint implements no more proves -the contemporaneity of the men who made those implements with the old -Quaternary fauna, than their association with Chalk fossils proves -that mankind were originally inhabitants of the bed of the Cretaceous -ocean. Did the gravels only occur at such levels as are within reach of -existing streams, there might be some reason in such a view, which is, -moreover, in certain cases and within certain limits, probably correct. -For we have seen how in the course of the excavation of a valley, the -beds deposited at one time are liable to be disturbed at another, and -re-deposited in a fresh place; which could hardly happen without an -admixture of fresh materials, some probably of a more recent date. In -the process of transport, however, not only the implements but the -still softer bones are liable to wear and abrasion of the angles, and -it is impossible to conceive that, assuming the Quaternary fauna to -have disappeared from this region before the valleys were excavated, -and the implement-bearing beds deposited, their bones could still exist -in such numbers, and so often in an unrolled condition in the low-level -beds. - -Had this older fauna disappeared, it is evident that man could not have -subsisted here alone, unaccompanied by other animals to furnish him -with food; and if these animals belonged to the later or “prehistoric” -fauna, where, as Sir John Lubbock pertinently asks, are their bones? -If, however, we acknowledge that the pleistocene mammals still occupied -this country at the time of the low-level beds being formed, and -if we find their remains also in those at a high level, and at all -intermediate heights, it is evident that they must have persisted -here during the whole period of the excavation of the valleys; while, -if we find also flint implements in an unrolled and unworn condition -at all heights, it is evident that those who made them must also -have been |701| co-occupants of the region during the same period. -If, indeed, as appears to be in some valleys the case, the unworn -implements occur only in the high-level deposits, while in the lower -they are either absent or in a much worn condition, the inference is, -that in those particular valleys the occupation by man, though for -some time contemporaneous with that of the mammoth and his congeners, -ceased before the extinction or emigration of the old fauna. In some -cases, however, as at Fisherton,[2795] the worked flints have been -found below the remains of mammoth; while in the beds at Menchecourt, -near Abbeville,[2796] in which the implements occur, were found the -bones of a hind leg of rhinoceros still in their natural position, -so that they must have retained their ligaments when deposited, and -could not since have been disturbed. With regard to the amelioration -of climatal conditions which led to the cessation of the excavation -of the valleys, it may not impossibly have been connected with the -insulation of the country, when the isthmus connecting it with the -continent was cut through by the sea. But this is hardly the place for -such speculations. If, however, we may regard the estuarine deposits at -Selsey, in which almost entire skeletons of mammoth occur, as belonging -to the period when the deposit of the low-level gravels was ceasing, -it would appear from the associated molluscan forms, as interpreted by -Mr. Godwin-Austen, that the temperature of the waters of the English -Channel was at that time such as may now be met with twelve degrees -farther south. - -If there was a difference in the climatal conditions of the high and -low-level deposits, it might have produced some effect on the method -of living, and on the implements of the men of the two periods. -At one time I thought it probable that a marked distinction might -eventually be drawn between the high-and low-level implements, but -so far as Britain is concerned, this can hardly be done. Still the -_facies_ of a collection from two different spots is rarely quite the -same, and I think there is generally a preponderance of the ruder -pointed implements in the high-level gravels, and of the flat ovate -sharp-rimmed implements in the low-level. In the valley of the Somme, -the broad polygonal flakes are certainly most abundant in the lower -beds, as at Montiers, near Amiens. - -I would, however, deprecate the introduction of such terms as |702| -“Eolithic” and “Mesolithic” in order to distinguish two phases in the -Stone Period as being both unfounded and misleading. We know not where -or when the dawn of human civilization arose, but it was probably -long before the date of our earliest River-Gravels and in some part -of the world more favoured by climate than Britain. Why then should -we speak of British implements as Eolithic? And how can we apply the -term Mesolithic to a period intervening between the Palæolithic and -Neolithic Ages, when we know neither when the one ended nor when the -other began? - -Enough has now been said with regard to the manner in which these beds -of River-drift were probably deposited; and the irresistible conclusion -is, that, owing to the wasting agency of rain, frost, and rivers, -there must have been a vast change in the superficial features of the -country, since the time when those who fashioned the flint implements -found in the high-level gravels were joint occupants of the land with -the mammoth and rhinoceros and the other departed members of the -Quaternary fauna. A similar change in the surface of the country has -also taken place in the neighbourhood of the caves in which the remains -of this same fauna occur, associated also with similar relics of human -workmanship. - -What length of time it must have taken for such changes to be effected, -is a question we must now approach; but before doing so it will be well -to say a few more words, in addition to what has already been said, on -the almost entire absence of human bones in the beds containing those -of the associated mammalia. - -In the first place, it is well to repeat that whatever may be the case -in the brick-earth, or loess, there have not, as has been pointed out -by Sir John Lubbock,[2797] been found in the gravel up to the present -time any remains of animals so small as man, who, as the same author -observes, must of necessity have been few in number in comparison with -the animals by the chase of which he must have subsisted. Another -cause appears also to have been at work; for however barbarous we may -suppose the human race to have been at that remote period, we can -hardly believe them to have been so destitute of all natural affection -as to deny some rites of sepulture to friends or relatives removed by -death. There would, therefore, in all probability, be but few or no -human bones exposed on the surface in such a manner as to be carried -off by the flooded streams, and imbedded in their gravels; while, in -case of any human beings perishing by drowning, their bodies, as I have -|703| already shown, would probably either be carried to sea, or left -in such a position as to allow of their recovery, at all events before -they became disarticulated. - -This is, however, a matter of but small importance, as there will be -but little difficulty in conceding that an implement fashioned by -human agency—and on this point there can be no question, unless we are -to assume in ancient times the existence of some other now extinct -race of intelligent beings—is as good an evidence of the existence of -man, as would be any or all of his bones. Moreover, human bones are -reported to have been discovered in these Quaternary beds, both in this -country and in France. In England, I have already mentioned a human -skull found near Bury St. Edmunds by Mr. Trigg, and the more doubtful -skeleton found near Northfleet. I will not, however, insist upon either -discovery being beyond all cavil. - -Nor will I do more than allude to the too celebrated Moulin Quignon -jaw, over which I have already pronounced a _Requiescat in pace_,[2798] -but the discovery of portions of the human skeleton by M. Bertrand, and -M. Reboux, in the valley of the Seine, at Clichy[2799] and elsewhere -near Paris, in the same beds in which implements of true Palæolithic -types have been found, seems better substantiated. - -Whether the _Pithecanthropus erectus_ of Dr. Dubois was human or -simian, and what is the date of the beds in which his remains were -found, and whether there is evidence of the existence of Miocene or -Pliocene Man[2800] in Burma, Portugal, France, Italy, or California, -are questions which want of space compels me to leave on one side. I -have, however, more than once elsewhere expressed my opinion on the -subject of Tertiary Man.[2801] - -I need hardly again repeat that according to my view it is not in -Britain, but in some part of the world more favoured by climate that -the cradle of the human race is to be sought. And yet the antiquity of -Man in Britain seems to extend far beyond any of our ordinary methods -of computation. In attempting to estimate it, however vaguely, I must -at the outset observe that with our present amount of knowledge, it -is hopeless to expect that it can |704| be determined with anything -approaching to precision. Not only have we no trustworthy measure -of the rate of excavation of the valleys, which might give us an -approximate date for the higher deposits in them, but we are at a loss -to know at what epoch their excavation in the lower part of their -course ceased, and what may be termed the modern alluvial deposits, -which to some extent have partially refilled the old channels, began to -accumulate. - -That the general configuration of the surface of the country, in -Neolithic times, when the ordinary forms of polished stone implements -were in use, was much the same as it is at present, is proved by the -fact of such implements being frequently found in recent superficial -deposits. Were we, in defiance of probability, to assume that the -use of these polished implements did not date farther back than two -thousand years from the period when we are first made acquainted with -this country by history, this would give an additional four thousand -years beyond the period necessary for the excavation of the valleys -for the date of the older River-drift implements. Such a period as -two thousand years is in all probability almost ridiculously small -to assign for the duration of the Neolithic and Bronze Periods; but -however this may be, there appears, in this country at all events, -to be a complete gap[2802] between the River-drift and Surface -Stone Periods, so far as any intermediate forms of implements are -concerned; and here at least the race of men who fabricated the latest -of the palæolithic implements may have, and in all probability had, -disappeared at an epoch remote from that when the country was again -occupied by those who not only chipped out but polished their flint -tools, and who were, moreover, associated with a mammalian fauna far -nearer resembling that of the present day than that of Quaternary times. - -So different, indeed, are the two groups of animals that, as has -already been observed, Prof. Boyd Dawkins[2803] has shown that out -of forty-eight well-ascertained species living in the Post-glacial -or River-drift Period, only thirty-one were able to live on into the -Prehistoric or Surface Stone Period. Such a change as this in the fauna -of a country can hardly have been the work of a few years, or even of a -few centuries; and yet we must intercalate a period of time sufficient -for its accomplishment between the remotest date |705| to which we -can carry back the Neolithic Period, and the close of the Palæolithic -Period as indicated by the low-level gravels. The antiquity, then, that -must be assigned to the implements in the highest beds of River-drift -may be represented (1) by the period requisite for the excavation of -the valleys to their present depth; plus (2), the period necessary -for the dying out and immigration of a large part of the Quaternary -or Post-Glacial fauna and the coming in of the Prehistoric; plus (3), -the Polished Stone Period; plus (4), the Bronze, Iron, and Historic -Periods, which three latter in this country occupy a space of probably -not less than three thousand years. - -A single equation, involving so many unknown quantities, is, as already -observed, not susceptible of solution; but various attempts have -been made to arrive at some approximate idea of the amount of time -it represents. One method has been that of assigning a date for the -Glacial Period, deduced from astronomical causes, mainly in connection -with the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, as pointed out by M. -Adhémar and Mr. Croll. From data thus obtained, Sir Charles Lyell[2804] -inclines to place it at a period of extreme cold about 800,000 years -ago, though Sir John Lubbock[2805] would rather accept an epoch of -somewhat less severity about 200,000 years removed from our time. - -Another and more direct method suggested by Sir Archibald Geikie,[2806] -following in Mr. A. Tylor’s track, is that of estimating the time -required for the excavation of the valleys by the amount of solid -matter carried down in suspension by various rivers at the present -day. He estimates that this amount, if spread over the whole area -drained by the rivers, represents, on an average, an annual loss of -about 1∕6000 of a foot; but inasmuch as the erosion of the slopes and -watercourses is very much greater than that of the more level grounds, -the excavation of the valleys must proceed at a more rapid rate, which -he assumes to be about 1∕1200 part of a foot per annum, or one foot -in 1,200 years. Such a calculation is, of course, open to various -objections, as we may readily conceive the bottom and slopes of a -valley to have been so far washed that, under ordinary circumstances, -they afford little or no fine earthy matter to be taken up by the rain -falling on their surface; and in such a case, the rivers, if turbid, -would derive their turbidity from the water delivered from the higher -and comparatively |706| unwashed table lands. Or again, the soil may, -like the Chalk under ordinary circumstances, be so absorbent that but -little of the rainfall flows off from its surface. The calculation has -already been made, that a rainfall of 54 inches annually, supposing -the whole of it flowed off the land into the sea in a turbid state, -containing, like the Mississippi, 1∕1500 part of its weight of solid -matter, would lower the surface a foot in 450 years; but as has already -been observed, we cannot conceive it possible that with such soils -as we have here to do with, the constant turbidity should have been -anything like so great. And, in fact, the whole system of calculation -is one which may be regarded rather as proving the necessity of valleys -being in course of time formed by subaërial action, than as giving any -definite guide by which to calculate the period requisite for their -formation. There can, indeed, be no doubt that the denuding power of -the falling rain is greater on the slopes than on the level surfaces; -but it seems impossible to assign any proportions to the effects on -land lying at different inclinations, of different characters, and -under different circumstances as to any vegetable covering. Were the -action uniform over the whole surface exposed, of course no alteration -beyond a general lowering of the land-surface would result from this -cause, and the valleys would remain of precisely the same depth with -regard to the adjacent land as they did at remote epochs. Looking at -the quantity of brick-earth still left on the slopes of many of our -valleys, I am inclined to think that the lowering of the surface has -been more general than has been supposed by Sir Archibald Geikie. The -presence of these soft and easily denuded beds is also an argument -against the excavation of the valleys having progressed in a uniform -manner, by heavy rains falling during the period of the year when -such beds were soft and unfrozen; and seems rather significant of the -excavation of the valley by floods principally occurring at a time when -the upper part of the soil was in a frozen condition. - -Certainly the whole character of the deposits is more in accordance -with their resulting from the occasional flooding of the streams -than from any other cause. If this be so, who shall tell at what -intervals such floods occurred, and what was the average effect of -each in deepening the valleys? That they were of comparatively rare -occurrence, and not so frequent that they were foreseen by the men of -those days, seems deducible from the number of their implements found -in the gravels. For there is much probability that these must have been -washed in from |707| settlements on the banks of the rivers, which, -notwithstanding previous catastrophes of the same kind, were constantly -placed within reach of the stream when flooded. - -Sir Joseph Prestwich[2807] has suggested as a possible gauge of the -antiquity of the deposits, the natural funnels eaten into the chalk -by the action of water charged with carbonic acid, and has cited one -at Drucat, near Abbeville, which has been formed since the deposit of -the gravel containing flint implements, and is upwards of 20 feet in -diameter at top, and probably 100 feet in depth; but here also it seems -impossible to introduce a factor by which the time represented can be -ascertained. There are, however, features in connection with this case -which can only be reconciled with the former high level of the bottom -of the adjacent valley, and with its gradual excavation. It will be -remembered that similar pipes of erosion, leading in some cases to -caverns above them, occur in the Drift-beds of the valley of the Little -Ouse. - -There is yet another means at our command for forming, at all events, -an approximate idea of the time that has elapsed since the deposit of -the beds containing the remains of the old Quaternary fauna, inasmuch -as at the time of their introduction into this country, if not for -a lengthened period afterwards, Britain had apparently not become -an island, but was still connected by an isthmus of greater or less -width with the Continent. To estimate the time, however, that would be -required for cutting through this isthmus and widening the Channel to -its present dimensions, is a work from which the mind almost recoils. -Even the wearing away of that tract of land to the south of the -present Hampshire coast, which must almost of necessity have existed -at the time when the Bournemouth flint implement-bearing gravels were -deposited, taking the present rapid inroad of the sea on the unusually -soft cliffs at Hordwell as a guide, would seem to involve a period -of not less than 10,000 years; but inasmuch as the cliffs during a -considerable portion of the time must have been of chalk instead of -sand and clay, and as a chalk cliff 500 feet high, instead of being -worn away at the rate of a yard each year, is said only to recede at -the rate of an inch in a century,[2808] the actual period necessary -for the removal of this tract must probably have been many |708| -times 10,000 years, and can with certainty be regarded as having been -immensely in excess of such a lapse of time. - -On the whole, it would seem that for the present, at least, we must -judge of the antiquity of these deposits rather from the general effect -produced upon our minds by the vastness of the changes which have -taken place, both in the external configuration of the country and its -extent seaward, since the time of their formation, than by any actual -admeasurement of years or of centuries. To realize the full meaning of -these changes, almost transcends the powers of the imagination. Who, -for instance, standing on the edge of the lofty cliff at Bournemouth, -and gazing over the wide expanse of waters between the present shore -and a line connecting the Needles on the one hand, and the Ballard Down -Foreland on the other, can fully comprehend how immensely remote was -the epoch, when what is now that vast bay was high and dry land, and a -long range of chalk downs, 600 feet above the sea, bounded the horizon -on the south? And yet this must have been the sight that met the eyes -of those primeval men who frequented the banks of that ancient river -which buried their handiworks in gravels that now cap the cliffs, and -of the course of which so strange but indubitable a memorial subsists -in what has now become the Solent Sea. - -Or again, taking our stand at Ealing, or Acton, or Highbury, and -looking over a broad valley fully four miles in width, with the river -flowing through it at a depth of 100 feet below its former bed, in -which, beneath our feet, are relics of human art deposited at the same -time as the gravels; which of us can picture to himself the lapse -of time represented by the excavation of a valley on such a scale, -by a river larger, it may be, in volume than the Thames, but still -draining only the same tract of country? But when, to this long period -we mentally add that during which the old fauna, with the mammoth -and rhinoceros, and other to us strange and unaccustomed forms, was -becoming extinct, so far as Britain was concerned; and also that other, -we know not how lengthened period, when our barbarous predecessors -sometimes polished their stone implements, but were still unacquainted -with metallic tools; and then beyond this, add the many centuries when -bronze was in use for cutting purposes; and after all this, further -remember that the ancient and mighty |709| city now extending across -the valley does not, with all its historical associations, carry us -back to the times even of the bronze-using people, the mind is almost -lost in amazement at the vista displayed. - -So fully must this be felt, that we are half inclined to sympathize -with those who, from sheer inability to carry their vision so far back -into the dim past, and from unconsciousness of the cogency of other and -distinct evidence as to the remoteness of the origin of the human race, -are unwilling to believe in so vast an antiquity for man as must of -necessity be conceded by those, who however feebly they may make their -thoughts known to others, have fully and fairly weighed the facts which -modern discoveries have unrolled before their eyes. - - -FINIS. - - - - -|710| - -DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. - - -PLATE I. - -1. Simple ridged flake. _Porte Marcadé, Abbeville._ - -2. Sharp-pointed flake, with several facets on its convex side. -_Montiers, near Amiens._ - -3. Chisel-pointed flake. _Ibid._ - -4. Large polygonal flake. _Ibid._ - -5. Round-pointed, tongue-shaped, sub-triangular implement. _Biddenham, -near Bedford._ - -6. Acutely pointed, kite-shaped ditto. _St. Acheul, near Amiens._ - -7. Sub-triangular ditto, with truncated butt. _Ibid._ - -8. Ditto, with incurved sides, and butt formed of the natural surface -of the flint. _Ibid._ - -9. Ditto, made from a round-ended nodule of flint. _Ibid._ - -10. Thick-backed, single-edged implement of wedge-shaped section. -_Ibid._ - - -PLATE II. - -11. Ovate tongue-shaped implement. _St. Acheul, near Amiens._ - -12. Ovate-lanceolate ditto, with rough butt. _Ibid._ - -13. Ditto, with truncated butt. (_Brick-earth_), _St. Acheul, Amiens_. - -14. Rough, wedge-shaped implement. _St. Acheul, Amiens._ - -15. Round-pointed implement with untrimmed butt. _Ibid._ - -16. Ditto, with naturally rounded butt and side. _Ibid._ - -17. Thin, ovate, tongue-shaped implement. _Champ de Mars, Abbeville._ - -18. Ovate implement of intermediate form between the tongue-shaped and -sharp-rimmed. _St. Acheul, Amiens._ - -19. Ovate, thin, sharp-rimmed implement. _Menchecourt, Abbeville._ - -20. Irregularly ovate ditto. _Moulin Quignon, Abbeville._ - -[Illustration: _Plate I._ IMPLEMENTS FROM THE RIVER-DRIFT. - -_Scale six inches to the foot or half linear measure._] - -[Illustration: _Plate II._ IMPLEMENTS FROM THE RIVER-DRIFT. - -_Scale six inches to the foot or half linear measure._] - - - - -|711| - -GENERAL INDEX. - - - A - - Abbeville, hand-mill at, 258 - - Abbott, Mr. J. W. Lewis, on minute flint tools, 325 - - Aberdeenshire, flint workshops in, 22 - - Abnormal peculiarities in celts, 130 - - Abrasion of flints by fire-producing, 315, 318, 416, &c.; - by hammering, 217, 413, &c. - - Abydos, Egyptian arrow-heads from, 393, 395 - - Achilles, spear of, 4 - - Adams, Dr. Leith, Guernsey arrow-head factory traced by, 401 - - Adder-stones, 437 - - Adhémar, M., as to date of Glacial Period, 705 - - Admixture of objects of different periods, 210, 475, 479, 487, 492 - - Adzes, - in Burma and Assam, 59; - of Clalam Indians, 165; - of New Guinea, 162; - Polynesian, of basalt, 69; - bronze, 4; - with carved handle, 166, 167; - celts adapted for use as, 94, 122, 124, 135; - of chalcedonic flint, 138; - hafting of, 164, 165; - for hollowing canoes, 165, 166; - of horn, carved, 435; - of mussel-shell, 182; - perforated, 188–192; - uses of,215 - - Ælfric’s Glossary on _Stan-æx_, 145 - - Æneid, mention of bronze arms in, 4 - - Africa, sacrificial use of stone in, 10; - flint flakes in diamond diggings of, 277 - - Agate, - arrow-heads of, 406; - chisel of, 40; - gun-flints of, 21 - - Agatharchides on Egyptian chisels, 6 - - Ages, Stone, Bronze, and Iron, succession of, 2 - - Agricola, Georgius, on _Brontia_ and _Ceraunia_, 64 - - Agriculture, possible use of stone implements in, 71, 205, 645 - - Ahts of North America, - fern-roots eaten by, 250; - mussel-shell adzes used by, 182 - - _Aithadh_, or elf-shot, 365 - - Akerman, Mr., on Lapp burials of needed objects, 283 - - Alaska, stone hammer from, 25 - - Albania, gun-flint making in, 21 - - Albite, chloritic, celts of, 109 - - Aldrovandus, - his _culter lapideus_, 289; - on the _Glossopetra_, 363; - on Roman stone weapons, 362; - his _securis lapidea_, 157; - on stone implements, 63, 64 - - Aleppo, threshing instrument from, 284 - - Aleutian Islanders, thong-drill used by, 48 - - Alexius Comnenus, celt presented by, to German Emperor, 59 - - Alger, Mr., on level of Waveney Valley, 683 - - Algeria, flakes from, 287 - - Algonquins, form of club used by, 424 - - _Allée couverte_ of Argenteuil, - perforated pebbles from, 465; - stag’s horn socket from, 160; - worked blade from, 327 - - Alluvium, beds of, between stalagmitic layers in caverns, 479 - - Almond-shaped implements, 647 - - Alteration in structure of flint, 487, 497, 513, 556, 596, 659, 660 - - Alum, its wood-preserving power, 152 - - “Amazon axe,” 184 - - Amber, - beads of, in interment, 429; - cup of, at Hove, 449; - with perforated axe, 185; - with whetstone, 268; - importation of, to Britain, 449; - piece of, in interment, 149; - plates of, for necklaces, 460; - studs or buttons of, 456 - - America, doubtful evidence of palæolithic remains in, 654 - - Ammonites - in barrow, 467; - their use as “cramp-stones,” 470 - - Amulets, - arrow-heads mounted as, 365, 367; - celt probably used as, 145; - of iron-ore in interment, 313; - Portuguese decorated, 470; - of schist, 463; - stones in interment as, 466, 468, 469 - - _Anchorites_, Dr. Grew’s description of, 364 - - “Ancient Meols,” Hume’s, referred to, 439 - - Anderson, Dr. J., - experiments with flint implements, 320, 408; - on polished stone discs, 440 - - Andrée, Richard, on beliefs concerning stone weapons, 60 - - Angelucci, Capt., stone arrow-head factory discovered by, 402 - - Anglesea, querns in, 259 - - Anglo-Saxon burial ground, flint and steel in, 283 - - Animals, - carvings of, on weapons, 215, 435; - engravings of, on Egyptian gold haft, 359; - extinct, their co-existence with man, 513, 524, &c. - - Antiquity - of celts, 143, 150; - of man in Britain, 704; - of river-drift implements, 700 - - Antlers of deer, - celt-sockets made from, 160; - circle of, in barrow, 466; - used as picks at Cissbury, 79; - flat instrument of, 432; - at Grime’s Graves, 33 - - Anvils, stone, - early use of, 245; - recent use of, 11, 232 - - Apaches of Mexico, - arrow-head making among, 24; - hammer-hafting, 239 - - Arabs, arrow-head charms among, 367 - - Archer, Mr. F., neolithic flakes fitted on to core by, 20 - - Arctic fauna, - of Crayford beds, 607; - northward retreat of, 486; - of Salisbury beds, 689; - plants, fossil, at Hoxne, 577 - - Ariantes, his method of numbering the people, 368 - - Armlet on arm of skeleton, 429; - bronze, in cromlech, 464; - “coal-money” the central disc of, 465; - of jet, lathe-turned, 464 - - Arrow-flakers, 37, 416 - - Arrow-flaking, - art of, in America, 42; - experiments on, by author, 41; - use of fossil ivory for, 37 - - Arrows and arrow-heads, - African and Asiatic, 405; - American, 406, 407; - Arab, 367; - of the Bushmen, 370; - Californian, 39, 40; - Danish, 35, 306; - Egyptian, 368, 369, 395; - Eskimo, 25, 37; - French, 395, 400–402; - Gelderland, 403; - German, 403; - Greek, 368; - Indian, 405; - Irish, 365, 370, 399, 400; - Italian, 359, 402; - Japanese, 405; - from Lake-dwellings, 402; - Lycian, 410; - Mexican, 39; - Patagonian, 400; - Persian, 394, 396; - Peruvian, 407; - Russian, 404; - Scottish, 386; - Scandinavian, 353, 404; - Spanish, 403; - Swiss, 409; - Virginian, 37; - barbed, 380–390; - bone, 210, 361; - bronze, scarce in England, 368; - chisel-ended, 409; - crescent-shaped, 396; - detachable from shaft, 370; - double-pointed, 386; - featherless, 410; - iron-tipped, 394, 396; - leaf-shaped, 373–378, 484; - lozenge-shaped, 378, 484; - manufactories of, 268, 280, 359, 401, 402; - methods of shafting, 408, 410; - modern use of, for fire-producing, 397; - in necklaces, 10, 300; - notched, 372, 396, 406; - poisoned, 361, 370; - single-barbed, 385, 393, 306; - stemmed, 370; - successive developments of, 369; - superstitions concerning, 362–367; - triangular, 390; - in human vertebræ, 375, 396, 400 - - Arrow-shafts, - concave scrapers for fashioning, 320; - grooved pebbles for straightening, 268; - Irish, 408; - South American, 407 - - Art, works of, in caves, 484, 523, 657 - - Arundelian marbles as to date of discovery of iron, 4 - - “Asbestos,” ligniformed, whetstone of, 352 - - Ash, - Irish arrow-shaft of, 408; - in brick earth at Hoxne, 537 - - Ashes of bone in hyæna den, 518 - - Asia, beliefs in, concerning celts, 59 - - Asphalte, use of, in mounting Swiss celts, 163 - - Assagais, Kaffir mode of shafting, 410 - - Assiut, figures from tomb at, 369 - - _Astropelekia_, 59 - - Atkins, Mr. E. Martin, abraded pyrites found by, 318 - - Atkinson, Rev. J. C, barrows examined by, 211 - - Attrition of teeth by gritty food, 253 - - Atys, stone knife used by, 9 - - Augustus, bronze arms as antiquities in time of, 4 - - Australians, - celts handled by, with gum, 137, 170, 171; - flint an article of barter among, 80; - flints mounted by, as saws, 277, 293; - grinding nardoo-seeds, 243; - hatchet-hafting among, 233; - pounding-stones of, 243, 245; - tomahawks, mode of mounting by, 166; - tools of, 97 - - Authenticity of palæolithic implements, 658, 659 - - Awls, - bone, from Kent’s Cavern, 506; - bone instruments used as, 432; - bronze, in interments, 84, 186; - bronze, with wooden shaft, 462; - flint, 321–325; - perforated, 323; - use of, in sewing leather, 433 - - Axes, 32, 63, 149; - hafting of, 155–163, 168, 160; - used in the hand, 151; - of Montezuma II., 157; - hieroglyph of Nouter, 62 - - Axes, - perforated, Brazilian, 157; - in Brittany, 212; - Danish, 32, 186, 205; - French, 186; - German, 145, 186, 191; - Greek, 205; - Kjökken-mödding, 69; - Lake-dwellings, 158; - Mexican, 191; - Scandinavian, 187, 215; - of basalt, 186; - boring of, 46–52; - with carved handles, 167; - classification of, 184; - contemporaneous with bronze, 193, &c.; - cutting at one end, 192, &c.; - double-edged, 184–192; - fluted, 203, 211; - grooved, 168, 169; - hafting of, 151–171; - hollowed on sides, 209; - in interments, 83, 163, &c.; - large and heavy, 198, 199; - little used by modern savages, 215; - lozenge-shaped, 213; - ornamented, 196, 209, 211; - pointed at one end, 188; - single-edged, 184, 192–196; - superstitions concerning, 62, 63, 65, 145, 146; - of ulna of whale, 435 - - Axe-hammers, 168, 200–205 - - Aymara Indians, hatchet-hafting among, 169, 239 - - Ayre, Col., R.A., 78 - - Aztecs, - their method of stone working, 23; - their stone mortars, 257 - - B - - Babington, Prof. C. C., on flint hammer from Burwell, 538 - - _Bætuli_, virtues of, 65 - - Bahia, stone club from, 251 - - Baines, Mr., on Australian stone-working, 26 - - Balanus, presence of, in Stour Valley, 621 - - Ball of Towie, 421 - - Balls, stone, - carved, 422; - in lead mines, 234; - perforated Peruvian, 232; - possibly used in games, 244; - their use among Eskimos, 219; - in grinding corn, 253; - as hammers, 249; - with channelled surface, 420–423 - - Ballast for railways, implements found in, 573, 578, 632, 633, 639 - - Barbers, Mexican, their obsidian razors, 290 - - Barbs of arrows, various forms of, 380, &c. - - Bark, Australian hammers hafted with, 167, 168 - - Barlow, Mr. F. Pratt, pointed drift implement found by, 619 - - Barnwell, Rev. E. L., on Welsh hammer-head, 226 - - Barrows, - bronze and flint found together in, 397, &c.; - chambered, bone chisel in, 433; - cups of shale in, 445; - fossils in, 466, 467, 469; - gold cup in, with bronze dagger, 449; - jet ornaments in, 265, 454, &c.; - long, leaf-shaped arrow-heads in, 377; - necklaces in, 456–463; - pebbles in, 443; - pyrites and flint in, 265, 467; - spindle whorl of clay in, 439; - stag’s horn hammer in, 434 - - Barry, Mr. F. Tress, 227 - - Barter, - flint an Australian article of, 80; - flints at Cissbury probably formed for, 80; - finely worked daggers procured by, 414 - - Bartlett’s “History of Manceter” referred to, 187 - - Basalt, - axe hammer of, in interment, 467; - heads of, 186, 194, 197, 202, 208, 211, 214; - celts of, 106, 114, 140; - hammers of, 25, 223; - hatchets, 34, 85, 170; - late use of, for anvils, 232; - maul of, 234 - - Basaltic rock, African flakes of, 288 - - Bastard gouges, 180–182 - - Bast-fibre, its use in arrow shafting, 409; - used in weaving, 436 - - Bate, Mr. Spence, 266, 279 - - Bateman, Mr., on pebbles in interments, 467 - - “Bâtons de commandement,” in La Madeleine caves, 484 - - Bats, stone, possibly used for preparing hemp, 257 - - “Batting-staff,” 256 - - Battle axes, 195, 197, 207; - with amber cup in coffin, 449 - - “Battling-stones,” 257 - - Baudot, M., on flakes in interments, 283 - - Bauerman, Mr., on stone hammers in Egyptian mine, 581 - - Baye, Baron Joseph de, 160 - - Beads, - amber, 457, 459, 460; - animal fibre used for stringing, 459; - like arrow-heads, 367; - bone, 432, 456, 457; - with spiral pattern, 211; - glass, 437, 456; - jet, 83, 394, 457–462; - Kimmeridge clay, 309, 457; - of peculiar shapes, 463; - quartz, 465; - shale, 463; - various, 457–463 - - Bear, - chipped tooth of, 503; - bones of, in position at Brixham, 513 - - Beauty, materials chosen on account of, 224, 227, 406, 466 - - Beckmann quoted as to date of flint-locks, 17 - - Bed-stone and rolling pin, 250 - - Bees-wax and mastic, axes mounted with, 170 - - |713| - - Beetles, elytra of, in brick-earth, 536 - - Beger, “_celtes_” first named by, 55 - - Belcher, Sir Edward, - on Eskimo arrow-flaking, 37, 39; - “flensing-knife,” 292; - stone working, 25; - stone planes, 299 - - Bell, Mr. A. M., discoveries of implements by, 593, 610 - - _Bellilah_, Australian mode of pounding, 245 - - Belt, the late Mr. Thomas, on Hoxne deposits, 576 - - ⲂⲈⲚⲒⲠⲈ, interpretation of, 5 - - Bennett, Mr. F. G., implements found by, 536, 627 - - Bernays, Mr. E. A., palæolithic implement found by, 611 - - Bicarbonate of lime, proportion of, in chalk-streams, 675 - - “Bill,” meaning of, 146 - - _Bipennis_, 146 - - Birds, remains of, in Fisherton beds, 631 - - Bison, caves of the age of the, 481 - - Bitumen, - use of, in Swiss Lake-dwellings, 170, 292, 409; - Egyptian arrows secured to shaft by, 369 - - “Black balls,” present use of, in ballots, 468 - - “Black-boy gum,” flints mounted in, 277 - - Blackmore, Dr. Humphrey P., drift implements found by, 627, 628, 635 - - Blacksmiths, modern, their mode of hafting chisels, 168, 233 - - Blades of flint, - crescent-shaped, 355; - Egyptian, 354; - from Kent’s Cavern, 496 - - Blanford, Mr. W. T., Indian drift implements found by, 651 - - Blunting of battle-axes, 196, 207 - - Boars’ teeth in interments, 83, 148, 328, 427 - - Bodkin of wood in urn, 433 - - Bodmann, flint manufactory at, 22 - - Bohemian stone axes, 51 - - _Bolas_, present mode of using, 422 - - “Bolthead, the flat,” 364 - - Bonardo on flint arrow-heads, 364 - - Bone, - arrow-heads of, 21, 361, 402; - awl, 523; - beads, 211, 432, 456; - blade of, flint flakes inserted in, 277, 294; - chisels, 177; - harpoons of, 277, 394; - instruments in interments, 313, 314, 431, &c.; - needles, 321, 433, 523; - objects of, in caves, 484, 488, 492, 523, &c.; - late Roman, 144; - pins, 34, 40, 83, 186, 431, 432; - plate of, perforated, 428; - rounded piece of, 34; - single-barbed arrow-head of, 409; - tools of, Eskimo, 410; - tube, 268; - used in arrow-chipping, 39, &c.; - wedge for working obsidian, 24 - - Bones, - crushing of, probably for marrow, 25, 239, 504, 657; - gnawed, 486, 508; - human, with those of extinct animals, 481, &c.; - mineral condition of, in caves, 508 - - Borers or awls, 321–325 - - Boring of stone, - methods of, 47, 48, 52; - incomplete, of stone implements, 205, 206, 226 - - _Bos primigenius_, - celt imbedded in skull of, 91, 92; - _longifrons_ not found in Britain before neolithic times, 486 - - Botocudo Indians, - their method of hafting, 156; - their use of stone blades, 171 - - Boulder, cup formed from, 450 - - Boulder Clay, - anterior to implementiferous deposits, 577, 685, 697; - East Anglian, 683 - - Boulders, American use of, 235; - used as hammers, 233, 234 - - Bourgeois, Abbé, on human works in Pliocene times, 658 - - “Bournes,” causes of intermittence of, 664 - - Bow, use of, not general among savages, 360 - - Bows and arrows, - Egyptian carved figures armed with, 369; - myth concerning, 361 - - Bowen, Mr., as to African “thunderbolts,” 60 - - Box, stone, containing red pigment, 264 - - Bracelets (see Armlets) - - Bracers, 425–435, 456 - - Bracken, use of, as food, 250 - - Brandon, manufacture of gun-flints at, 14, 17 - - Brazilian stone axe, 157 - - Breach through the chalk range near Bournemouth, 695 - - Breccia, - formation of, in caves, 479; - implements from, in Kent’s Cavern, 495; - mace-head made of, 232 - - Brent, Mr. John, implements found by, at Reculver, 613–620 - - Briar-wood shaft, arrow-head found with, 408 - - Brick-earth, - implements from, 530, 536, 542, 548; - old land surface underlying, 598 - - Bright spots on drift implements, 565, 659 - - _Briquets_ - with flints in graves, 283, 397; - bruising of flints by the use of, 315 - - Brittany, - superstitions regarding celts in, 57; - early incised drawings of celts in, 62 - - Brixham Cave, - discovery of, 490; - fauna of, 513; - implements of, 513–516; - section of, 512 - - Broch of Lingrow, 416, 440 - - Brochs, - cups in, 414, 440; - querns in, 259; - stone and bronze in, 440; - whetstones in, 269 - - Bronze Period - in Egypt, 6; - in Greece and Italy, 4, 5; - probable duration of, 704 - - Bronze, - armlets of, 459; - arms, mention of by Homer, 4; - arrow-heads, 368; - awls, 84; - bucket, 451; - celts, 213, 268, 453; - celts mounted in stag’s horn, 428; - chisels, 6; - dagger with ox-horn hilt, 265; - daggers, 185, 193, 194, 208, 227, 398, 427, &c.; - ear-rings, 207; - Egyptian hatchets, 169; - finger-ring, 398; - “hammer-stone,” 246; - implement found at Ploucour, 340; - knife in interment, 195; - knife, socketed, in Kent’s Cavern, 492; - mining instruments, 6, 233; - moulds for celts, 269; - needle, central-eyed, 433; - palstaves, 163; - pins, 267, 269; - tube, 49; - tweezers, 433; - use of, in Britain, 147; - use of, contemporaneous with that of stone, 84, 143, 211, 331, &c. - - Brooch - of metal in interment, 214; - possible use of ring as, 466 - - Brooke, Mr. J. W., his implements from Fordingbridge, 633 - - Brown, Mr. J. Allen, - on minute flint tools, 325; - researches at Ealing, &c., 591; - Mr. James, drift implements found by, 622, 625, &c. - - Browne, Sir Thomas, on slickstones, 441 - - Brun, M. V., his explorations at Bruniquel, 296 - - Brunswick, first use of flint-locks by soldiers of, 17 - - Buckland, the late Mr. Frank, 291 - - Buckman, Prof. J., manufactory of celts recorded by, 35 - - Buschan, Dr. G., on prehistoric spinning, 437 - - Buick, Dr., on Irish arrow-heads, 365, 370 - - “Bulb of percussion,” 274 - - Bunyard, Mr. G., drift implements found by, 618 - - Burma and Assam, stone adzes in, 59 - - Burnishers of stone, 103, 139, 442 - - Burton, Dr. J. Hill, on elf-bolts, 366 - - Bushmen, - arrows shafted by, with ostrich-bones, 410; - ostrich-egg-shell fragments perforated by, 277; - poisoned arrows of, 370 - - Bustards, flint arrow-heads abraded by gizzards of, 396 - - Butt end of celt, - definition of, 66; - roughened for insertion into socket, 128 - - Buttons, - early use of, 452; - of jet in interments, 453, 455, &c.; - possible use of perforated discs as, 439 - - C - - Cæsar, Julius, Gaulish use of iron in time of, 10 - - “Caillouteur,” daily production of gun-flints by, 21 - - Cairns, stones thrown on, 282 - - Calc-spar, sling-stones of, 418 - - Calcareous nodule, - celt formed from, 115; - incrustations on palæolithic implements, 659, 660 - - Caledonians, their early use of iron, 11 - - Calendering effected by slick-stones, 441 - - _Calendrine_, in Cotgrave’s Dictionary, 441 - - Californians, - arrow-head making among the, 423; - grooved stones of the, 268; - knife, 273 - - Calmucks, use of military flail among the, 423 - - Calvert, Mr. F., implements found by, near the Dardanelles, 652 - - Cambodia, superstitions as to celts in, 60 - - Camenz, bronze tube found at, 49 - - Cane, possible use of, in stone-drilling, 50 - - Canoes, - adze for hollowing, 165, 166; - celts found with, 129, 150; - gouges for hollowing, 178; - hollowed by horn chisels, 434 - - Cantabria, imperial omen in, 65 - - Carbonic acid, its solvent power on chalk, 477, 675, &c. - - Caribbean character of certain implements, 129, 130, 168, 169 - - Caribs, - axe-hafting among, 155, 218; - their shell gouges, 182 - - Carreg-y-Saelhau, or stone of the arrows, 262 - - Cartailhac, M., his sections of San Isidro valley, 529 - - Carved representation of celt in dolmen, 153 - - Carvings in caves, 484, 523 - - Cassava bread, stone slabs for cooking, 440 - - Catlin, Mr., on American flaking-tools, 24 - - Cattle, - elf-arrows the cause of disease among, 365, 366; - protection of, by witch-stone, 470; - snake-bitten, how to treat, 437 - - Cave-bear, age of the, 481 - - Cave-deposits, rarity of large implements in, 641 - - Cave-dwellers, their mode of living, 657 - - “Cave-earth,” 479, 492 - - Cave-implements, 473, &c. - - Cave-remains prior to Neolithic times, 482 - - Caves, - alternate tenancy of, by man and beasts, 479; - chronological sequence of contents of, 475, 481–485; - deposits of, compared with river gravels, 474; - early use of for habitations, 126; - formation of, 477, 480; - ossiferous, 474, 476; - sepulchral, 126; - stalagmite of, 479 - - Belgian, 286, 475, 478 - - Brixham, 512–516 - - Creswell Crags, 522–524 - - French, arrow-heads in, 396; - bone and horn objects in, 177, 321; - character of implements of, 53; - flint flakes in, 292; - hammer-stones, 248; - quartzite flakes, 281, 292; - serrated flakes, 296 - - Gibraltar, bone objects in, 177, 433; - long flake in, 287; - saddle-quern in, 252; - sandstone plate in, 428; - stone chisel-gouge in, 182 - - Happaway, 517 - - Kent’s Cavern, 488–511 - - Long Hole, Gower, and other Welsh Caves, 521 - - of Palestine, early sepulture in, 9 - - Tor Bryan, 516 - - Wookey hyæna-den, 517–520 - - Cavities in gravel, how formed, 556, 557, 561 - - _Celte_, occurrence of, in Vulgate, 55 - - Celts, - suggested etymology of, 55; - superstitions concerning, 56–65; - classification of, 66 - - chipped or rough hewn, 67–86; - chisel-edged, with curvature of face, 67, 68, 73; - with equal faces, 75; - long and narrow, 81; - tanged, 83; - wedge-shaped, 82; - small, made from fragments of larger, 87, 97; - of stones other than flint, 84 - - ground at the edge, 90–97 - - polished, with abnormal peculiarities, 130; - accompanying interments, _passim_; - approximate date of, 147; - broken, conversion of, into other implements, 242, 248, 339; - bronze, from barrows, 213, 268, 309; - chisel-like, 103, 120, 121; - classification of, 98; - with cutting-edge blunted, 138; - with flattened sides, 110–119; - found in canoe, 150; - grooved or notched, 136; - mode of hafting, 151; - oblique-edged, 113, 124; - oval in section, 122, 129; - perforated, 142; - range of, in time, 147, 150; - recent use of, by Irish weavers, 440; - rectangular in section, 119–122; - sharpened at both ends, 118; - stag’s-horn sockets for, 163; - for use in hand, 133, 136, 171; - various uses of, 171, 172 - - Cembro pine, Siberian stones for crushing nuts of, 245 - - Cements - used in hafting implements, 170, 171; - bituminous, in Swiss hafting, 292, 409 - - Cemetery, Frankish, of Samson, 397 - - _Cerauniæ_, - old German authors concerning, 63; - Sotacus on the, 64, 480; - Pliny concerning, 65 - - Cereals, absence of, among cave-dwellers, 657 - - Ceremonial stone-adze, 167 - - Chafing-dish of stone, 445 - - Chalcedonic flint, - celts of, 92, 138; - Egyptian blades of, 359; - serrated arrow-head of, 385 - - Chalcedony, - American lance-head of, 337; - Chilian arrow-heads of, 406; - gun-flints of, 21; - harpoon-points of, in Greenland, 405; - implements of, their French provenance, 80; - Mexican dagger-blade of, 354; - ornamental hammer of, 226; - small Indian cores of, 23 - - Chaldæans, their reverence for the hatchet, 62 - - Chalk, - absorbent nature of, 663; - carved cylinders of, 421; - cups of, 34; - cup-shaped vessels of, 450; - districts, implementiferous gravels in, 663; - mining in, for flints, 33, 79, 172; - solution of, by carbonic-acid-charged water, 477, 557, 675; - “subterranean reservoir” in, 664 - - Chamacocos, socketed axes among the, 157 - - Champignolles, pit for extraction of flint at, 35 - - Changes, geological, - in cave regions, 521, 525; - affecting the River Drift, 662, &c.; - coast-line affected by, 695 - - Chantre, M., 133; - on hafting of celts by savages, 164, 244; - drift implement found by, in Euphrates valley, 653 - - Charms, arrow-heads used as, 364–366; - hereditary custody of, 469; - perforated pebbles as, 231 - - Charruas, the, lenticular sling-stones used by, 418 - - Charters-White, Mr., on the attrition of teeth by grit, 253 - - Chert, - balls of, 249; - British celt of, 65; - cores of, in Welsh caves, 521; - Eskimo use of, for arrow-heads, 25; - implements of, in Welsh caves, 581; - Irish tool of, 175 - - Chester, the late Rev. Greville J., barrow examined by, 463 - - Chieftainship, decorative weapons a mark of, 226 - - Children, quartz pebbles in interments of, 467 - - Chinese, use of military flail among the, 423 - - Chipping flints, relation of, to grinding, 85, 86, 290 - - Chisels, - blacksmiths’ present mode of hafting, 168, 233; - bone, 177, 433; - bronze, in Egyptian gold-mines, 6; - of deer’s horn, 434; - distribution of, 177; - Maori hafting of, 178; - and picks, 173–177 - - Chlorite, - whetstone of, 269; - slate, plates of, in interment, 398 - - Chloritic albite, - celts of, 109; - stone, hatchet and haft made of one piece of, 171 - - Chronology - of Neolithic Period, difficulty of ascertaining, 471; - of the River Drift attempted, 705, &c.; - of stone implements, purely retrogressive, 473 - - _Cidares_, fossil, in interments, 469 - - Cilix, myth of, 313 - - Circles, concentric, on stones, 463 - - Circular habitation, stone cup in, 450 - - Circumcision, use of stone knives in, 9 - - Cissbury, - flint manufactory at, 33; - objects found at, 32, 81; - Neolithic fauna at, 80; - General Pitt Rivers’ explorations at, 78–82 - - Cists in barrows, objects found in, 248, 330, 453–456, &c. - - Civilization - of maritime tribes in time of Cæsar, 10; - degree of, among the cave-dwellers, 657 - - _Clach-nathrach_, 437 - - Clalam Indians, 105, 166 - - Clan Chattons, stone charm in the possession of the, 469 - - Claudian, - _religiosa silex_ of, 10; - flint and steel mentioned by, 16; - on the _ceraunia_ of Pyrenean caves, 481 - - Clavigero - on the rate of obsidian working, 24; - on metal Mexican axes, 155 - - Clay, - burnt, loom weights of, 443 - ironstone, celt of, 120 - pipe, implement found in, 602 - slate, celts of, 65, 106, 114, 136 - valley-forming in, 677 - vessels, instruments possibly used in shaping, 266, 432, 434 - - Climate, zoological evidences as to change of, 584, 699 - - Clinch, Mr. G., 248; - ovate implement found by, 604 - - Clod-crusher of stone, 239 - - Cloth, Irish, celt used for giving gloss to, 440 - - Cloud River Indians, use of bone punch by, 25 - - Clouston, Mr., drift implements found by, 597 - - Club, so-called, of hone slate, 118 - - “Coal money,” 447, 448; - traces of lathe on, 465 - - “Coast finds,” so-called sling-stones in, 419 - - Coast line, variations in, 617, 695 - - Cochet, Abbé, on flints in Merovingian interments, 314 - - Cocks, metallic, pole lathe still used for making, 447, _note_ - - Codrington, Mr. T., - on Southampton drift, 626; - on Hampshire deposits, 687, 688; - on origin of Solent, 690, 692; - his section across Isle of Wight, 693 - - Coffin - of oak in barrow, 185; - at Hove, contents of, 449 - - _Coin de foudre_, 57 - - Collections - of Aymard, M., of Le Puy, 114, 202, 402; - Banks, late Rev. S., 103, &c.; - Beloe, Mr. E. M., 142; - Borgia, 62; - Bourgeois, Abbé, 322; - Braybrooke, the late Lord, 144, 173; - Brent, the late Mr. J., 102, 613, 618, &c.; - Brooke, Mr., of Marlborough, 18, 107, 227, &c.; - Chaplain Duparc, 43; - Christy, _passim_; - Cursiter, Mr., of Kirkwall, 124, 171, 190, 221, 224, 252; - Clément, Dr., 161; - Courvale, M. de, 161; - Duke, the late Rev. E., 267; - Durden (in Brit. Mus.), 69, 93, 125, 126, 174, 176, 230; - Evans, _passim_; - Finlay, late Dr., of Athens, 114, 205; - Flower, the late J. W., 74, 93, 107, 125, 175, 247–255, 291, 295, 309; - Foresi, 367; - Greenwell, _passim_; - Jewitt, the late Mr. Llewellynn, 198, 202, 352; - Klemm, 49, 157, 163, 165, 252, 294; - Litchfield, Mr., 326; - Lucas, the late Mr. J. F., 96, 107, 136, 343, 352, 463; - Meyrick, 195, 351, 423, 575, &c.; - Monkman, the late Mr. C., 92, 121, 122, 188, 191, 319, 333, 334, 342; - Mortimer, Messrs., of Driffield, _passim_; - Neuberg, Baron de, 51; - Perthes, Boucher de, 226, 327; - Poley, the late Rev. W. Weller, 341; - Ransom, Mr. W., 196; - Reboux, M., 187; - Rivers, General Pitt, 88, 140, 144, 155, 231, 247, 277, 278, 279, 309, - 332, 334; - Sturge, Dr. Allen, see Greenwell; - Warren, the late Mr. Joseph, of Ixworth, 88, 110, 113, 192, 229, 539 - - Comb-like instruments in Kent’s Cavern, 489, 492 - - Commerce in amber, 449 - - Commodus, the Emperor, his skill in archery, 396 - - Cone of percussion, 273, 274 - - Congarees, stone implements of the, 241 - - Continent, British connection with, in Drift Period, 698 - - Contracted position in interments, 149 - - Conyers, Mr., “British weapon” found by, 581, 582 - - Cooking vessels of steatite, 451 - - Copeland, Colonel A. J., 173; - pointed drift implement obtained by, 613 - - Copiapo, human vertebra, with arrow-head embedded, found near, 406 - - Copper, bracelet of, 405; - needle, 440; - smelted, in Kent’s Cavern, 492 - - Copper mines, - American, stone hammers in, 235; - of Maghara, 6; - objects found in old workings of, 233; - Spanish, &c., mauls found in, 234 - - _Corbicula fluminalis_, - former presence of, 578, 584, 586; - found above worked flints, 606; - found below drift implements, 621 - - Cores or nuclei, 20, 23, 276; - boat-shaped, 27; - and flakes, their mutual relation, 31, 272; - possibly resulting from tube-boring, 47; - flint, used as hammers, 248; - occasionally used as sling-stones, 419; - palæolithic, from Kent’s Cavern, 503; - flakes refitted to, 20, 598, 606; - long, their absence from River Drift, 648 - - _Corisco_, Portuguese name for stone axe, 59 - - Corn-crushers - from Swiss Lake-dwellings and others, 246, 250; - -grinding, Irish, 251, 258; - -mills, stone spindles for, 242 - - _Coscinopora globularis_, possible use of, as beads, 657 - - Cotton, Mr., his gift of flint arrow-heads to Dr. Plot, 362 - - “Cramp-stones,” ammonites used as, 470 - - Crannog, - possible hatchet-haft found in, 155; - ridged hammer stones in, 247; - scraper from, 310; - polished stone discs in, 440 - - Craveri, Signor, on Mexican arrow-making, 39 - - Crawshay, Mr. de B., palæolithic implements found by, 605, 608 - - Crayford beds, Arctic fauna of, 607 - - Crescent-like implements, 559, 571 - - Crinkling of flint dagger-handles, 359 - - Croll, Mr., as to date of Arctic Period, 705 - - Cross-bow, use of by Romans, 411 - - Cross-chipping, - practice of, in Scandinavia, 28; - shewn by Greek obsidian cores, 28 - - Crystal, - balls of, in Merovingian graves, 470; - arrow-heads of, 406; - quartz, modern use of as pick, 235; - used as drill, 322 - - _Culter lapideus_, 289 - - Cuming, Mr. Syer, - as to so-called club, 118; - on slickstone, 442 - - _Cuneus fulminis_, 63 - - Cunnington, Mr. W., - barrows examined by, 83, 460; - celt belonging to, 91 - - Cup-shaped - marks on stones, 245; - vessels of chalk, 450, 451 - - Cups - in interments, of hollow flints, 83; - ornamented, 148; - earthenware, 149; - rude, 266; - with pyrites, 313; - with jet objects, 352; - containing arrow-heads, 399, 432; - with gold ornaments, 427; - with amber beads, 429; - handled, 444, 449; - turned in lathe, 446–449; - wooden, 448; - of amber, 449; - of gold, 449 - - “Curing-stones,” 469 - - Currier’s tool, perforated stone used as, 442 - - Carved edge - to implements, 576, 624; - knives, 355–358; - recess in palæolithic flake, 555 - - Cushing, Mr., arrow-head made by, 39 - - Custom House rates, “slick-stones” in table of, 441 - - Cutting powers of flint, 289 - - Cutting tools of slaty stone, 344; - for holding in hand, 247; - modern use of, 348 - - D - - Dacotahs, pump-drill used by, 48 - - D’Acy, M. E., on implements of the French caves, 511 - - Daggers, - bronze, in interments, 185, 193, 194, 208, 211, 212, 214, 268, - 269, 331, 398, 448; - with gold on handle, 227; - fluted, 331 - - flint, in interments, 208, 313, 353, &c.; - for holding in hand, 348; - leaf-shaped, 352; - leaf-shaped, unknown in Ireland, 353; - notched, 353; - square-handled, 353; - Egyptian and Danish, with crinkled handles, 359; - handles of, used for re-chipping, 414 - - bone, 431 - - Dagger-knives, - bronze, in interments, 265, 309, 313; - flint, 208, 313; - highly worked Danish, 413, 414 - - Damour, M. A., on materials of celts, 66 - - Dana on the malleability of meteoric iron, 5 - - Danish flint daggers, - ornamentation of, 42; - perforated celts, 114; - celts of great size, 118; - tumuli, iron found in, 144; - handled scrapers, 308; - graves, needles in, 433 - - Darbishire, Mr. R. D., finds of celts, 84, 152, 236 - - Darwin, Mr. W. E., 624 - - Daubrée and Roulin, M.M., on Mexican razors, 290 - - David, possible nature of his sling, 417 - - Dawkins, Prof. Boyd, - on flints upon Roman sites, 283; - on the fauna of British caves, 485; - on human skull in Cheddar cave, 486; - on condition of bones from cave-earth, 508; - on Brixham cave, 512; - on Welsh caves, 521; - on Crayford beds, 607; - ovate implement found by, 611; - on possible glaciation of N. Britain in Mammoth period, 697; - on the extinction of some Post-Glacial animals, 704 - - Dawson, Mr. W. C., on a supposed hafted celt, 153 - - _Débâcle_, results of, on the Rhine, 672 - - De Bonstetten, 287, 470 - - Decorations, personal, 452–472 - - Deer, representations of on stag’s horn adze, 434, 435 - - Deer’s horn, see Stag’s horn. - - Deluge, stone implements taken as evidence of, 526 - - Dendritic-markings - on implements, 558; - as testimony to authenticity of implements, 659; - to what cause due, 660 - - Denmark, - approximate dates of Periods in, 2, 23; - bracers in, 430; - cores of boat-shaped form from, 27; - square-sided hatchets from, 32; - grinding stones, 43; - mode of testing thunderbolts in, 57; - general use of flint for celts in, 85; - comparative rarity of arrow-heads in, 404 - - Denudation, - opening of caves by, 478; - of the Fen country, 680, 681; - of Hampshire gravels, 688 - - Deposits, - implementiferous, due to river action, 696; - marine, in Fen gravels, 681, 686; - ossiferous, in caves, 478; - in valleys, varying with the elevation, 699, 701 - - Depressions for holding, worked in cutting tool, 344 - - Desor, Professor, - on method of boring stone, 51; - referred to, 159, 161, 310 - - Detritus, amount of, brought down by rivers, 667, 705 - - Deventer, modern use of stone axe at, 157 - - Devonian limestone, caverns in, 491, 512 - - Dickinson, the late Mrs., - on collective burial of celts, 75; - her collection referred to, 93, 465 - - Diodorus Siculus - on the use of stone in embalming, 8; - on the implements of the Ichthyophagi, 288 - - Diorite, - axe-hammer of, 205; - axe-head of, 213; - bastard-gouge of, 182; - polished celt of, 107; - ring of, 465 - - Discs, - imperforate, 440 - perforate, of dolerite, 230; - as fly-wheels of drilling-sticks, 231; - of jet, 455; - ovoid, in Kent’s Cavern, 493; - possible uses of, 244, 439; - quoit-like, 440; - sharp-rimmed, 216 - - Discoidal implements possibly used as missiles, 648 - - Discoloration of flints, evidence afforded by, 659, 660, 661 - - Dish with lid, 451 - - Dishes, - stone, 440; - with handles, 451 - - Distaff and spindle, recent use of, 436, 437 - - Divining, grooved stone used in, 470 - - Dog, - bones of in cist, 426; - first appearance of, in Neolithic times, 486 - - Dolmens of Brittany, - arrow-heads in, 385, 400; - axe-hammer in, 212; - carved illustration of celt in, 153; - jadeite celts in, 109; - chisel-ended implement from, 395; - long whetstone from, 268; - pyrites and flint in, 318 - - of other parts of France, lance-heads from, 352, 354; - polished chisel from, 176; - stag’s horn sockets from, 160; - worked flakes, 327; - Danish, stone bracer in, 430; - Spanish, arrow-heads in, 430 - - Dolomieu, - on French gun-flint making, 18; - his estimate of work of _Caillouteur_, 21 - - Dolomitic conglomerate, cave in, 517 - - Domestic use, instruments for, 436, 599 - - _Donderbeitels_ and _Donnerstein_, 58, 63 - - Dordogne caves, - objects from, 262, 292, 296, 312, 329; - nature of, 476; - deposits in, 478, 480 - - Doughty, Mr. Charles M., his finds at Hoxne, 376 - - Douglas, Mr., suggestion as to celt in interment, 145 - - Downes, Mr. W., chert implement found by, 639 - - Drainage area of ancient Solent River, 691, 692 - - Drift-stages of the Darent Valley, 690 - - Drill, - antiquity of use of, 48; - hollow, probable use of in America, 50 - - Drilling - by flint-flakes, 321; - by quartz crystals, 322 - - “Drinking cups.” See Cups. - - “Druidical circle,” 149; - objects found in, 197 - - _Druten-stein_, as charm against witches, 469 - - Dubois, Dr., his _Pithecanthropus_, 703 - - Dugdale, Sir William, on stone celts, 3 - - “Dug-out” canoes hollowed by stag’s horn chisels, 434 - - Dunn, Mr. E. J., African drift-implement found by, 653 - - Dupont, Dr. E., - on a worn nodule of pyrites, 318; - his investigation of Belgian caves, 481; - his classification of cave deposits, 482 - - D’Urban, the late Mr. W. S. M., on the ballast pit at Broom, 639 - - E - - Ear-rings, bronze, in interment, 207 - - Earthenware, - cup of, in interment, 149; - spindle whorls of, 439 - - East Anglia, relations of palæolithic deposits in, 577 - - _Eben_, double meaning of, 443 - - _Echini_, fossil, in interments, 468, 469 - - Edkins, Mr. Joseph, on stone hatchets in China, 114 - - Eggs of wild goose, portions of in Fisherton beds, 631 - - Egypt, - boring by tubes in, 51; - drill and bow used in, 48; - early use of sling in, 417; - evidence as to date of iron in, 6; - flakes from, replaced on each other, 20; - meteoric origin of iron used in, 5 - - Egyptian arrows, - chisel-shaped, 368, 395, 409; - blades, leaf-shaped, 8, 354; - flint flakes, 287; - knives, leaf-shaped, 8; - knives of polished stone, 6, 348; - knives, ripple-marked, 359; - mode of mounting adzes and hatchets, 167, 169; - notched hammer, 169; - sickle, mounting of flakes in, 297, 358; - soldiers, carved wooden, 360; - wrist-guards, 430 - - Elagabalus, the Syrian god, 10 - - Elephant-bed at Brighton, 622 - - Elf-arrows, 302–366; - -bolts, 387; - probable interment of as charms, 397; - -darts, mounted as amulets, 365; - -shot, arrow-heads as protection against, 365 - - Elissa, bronze sickle of, 5 - - Embalming, use of stone implement in, 8 - - Emery-powder, alleged use of in drilling _meres_, 52 - - Encampments, ancient, presence of flakes in, 280, 281 - - Engelhardt, M. C., his method of preserving wood, 152 - - Engelhardt, M., on the formation of ground-ice, 671 - - Engravings on bone by cave-dwellers, 484, 523, 657 - - Enniskillen, late Earl of, on Irish gun-flints, 397 - - “Eolithic,” use of term deprecated, 702 - - Erosion of valleys, 665–671; - chronological data from, 707 - - Eskimos, - their arrow-flakers, 25, 37, 412, 414; - ball-weapon, 219; - bone harpoons, 394, 505; - bone tool for straightening arrow-shafts, 410; - flail stone, 219; - “flensing knife,” 292; - hammer of jade or nephrite, 25; - iron knife of, 293; - meteoric iron used by, 5; - mode of hafting knives, 347; - pyrites, their use of for producing fire, 15, 317; - steatite cooking vessel, 451; - stone scrapers, 39, 208, 299, 344; - stone scrapers used as planes, 299; - weighted throw-strings, 422; - whetstones for bone implements, 268; - wrist-guard, 430 - - Etruscan necklaces, - arrow-heads as charms in, 65, 366; - tombs, gold wreaths for, 84 - - Euphotide or Gabbro, hatchet chipped of, 36 - - Europe, early use of the bow in, 360 - - Evans, Mr. Arthur John, - implement found by, 72; - Dr. Philip Norman, drift implements found by, 518, 617, 635, 636 - - Evolution of arrow-heads, 369 - - Experiments - on arrow-flaking by pressure, 39; - on arrow-shaft forming, 320, 408; - on fashioning a hatchet, 36; - on drilling bone, 321, 322; - on drilling stone, 48, 50; - on sawing stone, 45; - on tree-cutting, 69, 162; - on the wearing of flint flakes, 504; - on woodcutting, 297 - - External flakes defined, 641 - - F - - Fabricators and flaking-tools, 412–416; - dagger-hilts used as, 413, 414 - - Faces of celts, definition of, 66 - - Fairy darts, effect of on cattle, 365, 366; - mill-stones, 437 - - Falconer, the late Dr. Hugh, - on the “bulb of percussion,” 274; - his work at Brixham cave, 512; - on tooth found at Wookey, 520; - on worked flints at Abbeville, 527 - - Fauna, - climatal changes shown by, 486, 584, 631, 689; - mammalian, altered by man, 482; - Brixham, 513; - of the caves, 479, 483–486; - Creswell, 524; - French, 510; - Happaway, 517; - Kent’s Cavern, 507, 508; - Long Hole, Gower, 520; - Palæolithic and Neolithic compared, 485; - Tor Bryan, 517; - Welsh, 521; - Wookey hyæna den, 519; - of the River drift near Aylesford, 611; - Bury St. Edmunds, 542, 543; - changes of, between Drift and Surface Periods, 704; - Fisherton beds, 631; - French, 528; - Hitchin brick-earth, 537; - Lark valley, 543, 550; - Little Ouse valley, 551, 556, 561, 569; - northern character of in high level gravels, 699; - Ouse gravels, 533–538; - Spanish, 529; - Thames valley, 586, 591; - molluscan, at Bury St. Edmunds, 540; - of Cam, 539; - characteristic of brackish water, in Stour valley, 621; - of Fisherton beds, 631; - of Hitchin brick-earth, 536; - at Hoxne, 575; - of Little Ouse valley, 551; - marine, in Fen gravels, 681; - of Milford Hill, 632; - of Ouse gravel, 531–3; - at Stutton, 578; - in Thames valley, 584, 585 - - Feathering of arrow-shafts, 410 - - Felsite, - hammer-head of, 230; - ovate implement of, 591 - - Felstone, - implements of, 66, 96, 116, 119, 124, 135, 521, 566; - spherulitic, celt of, 124 - - Fenni, use of bone arrow-heads among the, 361 - - Fens, denudation of the, 680, 681 - - Fergusson, Mr. James, - on the three Periods of antiquities, 3; - on changes in the Ganges delta, 667 - - Fern roots used as food by the Ahts, 250 - - Fibrolite, - traces of sawing on French hatchets of, 43; - Spanish celt of, 44; - hatchet, 144; - stone resembling, celt of, 188 - - _Fibula_, pins and skewers made from the, 431 - - Fibula, Roman, found with celt in Saxon grave, 144 - - “Finger flints,” 416; - -ring, spiral, of bronze, 398 - - Fire-arms, flints used for, 17 - - “Fire-drill,” widespread use of, 48 - - Fire, - early use of flints for procuring, 15; - early modes of producing, 312, 313; - use of pyrites in producing, 15, 315; - traces of, on bones in caves, 510 - - Fish, scales of, in river drift, 540, 541 - - Fisher, Rev. Osmond, 538; - on successive Palæolithic Periods, 568 - - Fishing, mode of twisting lines for, 437 - - Fishing-hooks of combined flint and bone, 294 - - Fishing Indians, use of sink-stones by, 236 - - Flail, military, its nature, 423 - - “Flail-stones,” 218, 230; - possibly whetstones, 269 - - Flakes, - bevel-edged, 546, 559; - as borers, 321; - broad, 701; - circular, 341; - in caves, 492, &c.; - classification of Neolithic, 275; - of Palæolithic, 641; - effects of different uses on, 289; - external, 275, 641; - as fish-hooks, 294; - flat, 276, 642; - hafted, 228, 229, 292, 293, 327; - in interments, 279, &c.; - leaf-shaped, 326, &c.; - long, 28, 35, 641, 642; - manufacture, &c., of, 22, 35, 83, 606; - manufacture of for gun-flints, 19, 20; - minute, 325; - modes of fracture of, 272; - notched by use, 642; - on Palæolithic floor, 586, 598, 606; - polygonal, 276, 642, 643; - rarely ground at edge, 290; - relation of cores to, 20, 31, 272; - replacement of, on cores, by Mr. Archer, 20; - by Mr. W. Smith, 20, 586, 598, 599; - by Mr. Spurrell, 20, 606; - ridged, 275, 641; - in River Gravels, 536, 546, 555, 586, &c.; - on Roman sites, 283; - row of, mounted as knives, &c., 293; - row of, as armature of sickles, 297; - sawing by means of, 45; - as scrapers, 298, 312; - serrated, 294–297; - side scrapers, 548, 643; - square-ended, 597; - of Surface Period compared with Palæolithic, 642; - Swiss, mounted, 292; - tools employed for making, 24, 25; - triangular, 340, 343; - trimmed, 326, &c., 642; - wide range of, 283, 288 - - Flaking tools, 24, 412; - probable uses of, 413; - dagger-hilts used as, 414 - - Flax, - possible use of stone bats in preparing, 257; - early use of, for weaving, 436 - - “Flensing-knife,” - Eskimo, 292; - Shetland blades resembling, 347 - - “Flint Chips” referred to, 234 - - Flint Jack, arrow-heads made by, 42, 659 - - Flint-knapping, 17–22 - - Flint, - alteration in structure of, 494, 489, 497, 498; - ancient workshops of, 22, 606; - as article of barter, 35, 80; - brittle condition of, 558; - cutting powers of, 281, 282; - difficulty of perforating, 223, 224; - durability of, 655; - experiments in shaping, 30, 41; - flakes and cores of, 20, 31, 272, 279; - grinding of, 43; - hardened by exposure, 18, 32, 33; - importation of, 281; - minute tools of, 325; - modern ceremonial use of, 9; - necessity of, in savage life, 282; - ochreous, 536, 553, 597, 602; - pits for extraction of, 33, 35, 78, 79; - prismatic splitting of, 88; - processes for grinding, 43; - result of abundance of, in chalk districts, 677; - scarcity of in Northern Britain, 580; - softening of in red brick-earth, 596; - and steel, early use of, 16, 271, 282; - and steel, meaning of, in interments, 283; - tools for working, 41; - use of, with pyrites, 16, 313, 319; - whitening of, 494, 498, 499, 545, 549, 596, 611, 619; - whitening, cause of, 497; - worn by use, 311, 312, 414, 416 - - Flints, - accidentally fractured, M. Hardy on, 658; - heaps of, on Palæolithic floor, 598 - - Flood deposits, - varying nature of, 668, 669; - their removal by subsequent floods, 670 - - Floods, - their action in valley-erosion, 666, 706; - as caused by ground-ice, 671 - - “Floor-stone,” gun flints made from, 33 - - Flora, - temperate, below brick-earth, 537; - recent, in Oxford peat, 593; - of various climates at Hoxne, 577, 697 - - Flower, the late Mr. J. W., - on East Anglian flint implements, 551, 556; - on section at Bromehill, 681; - on French and English palæolithic implements, 650; - on Drift-beds of the Fens, 681; - on the Drift-beds of Brandon, 683 - - Fluting - on arrow-heads, 392; - on axe-hammer, 203; - on Danish dagger-hilts, 42, 393; - on Egyptian blades, 359; - probably effected by pressure, 42, 393 - - Fluviatile origin of implementiferous beds, 688 - - Folklore Society referred to as to fairy darts, 365 - - “Food-vessels” in interments, 224, 462 - - Fooks, Mr. C. C. S., implement found by, 606 - - Forbes, the late Mr. David, - Bolivian implements described by, 169, 232, 239 - - Forel, Dr. F. A., his experiment in stone-working, 36 - - “Forest Bed,” Norfolk, supposed worked flints from, 572 - - Forest, submerged, at Bournemouth, 695 - - Forgeries - of arrow-heads, 42; - of Palæolithic implements, 658, 659 - - “Fort,” cup found in, 444 - - Fossils, - ascription of, to diabolical agency, 363; - use of, as ornaments, 470, 657; - in interments, 466, 469 - - Foster, Dr. C. Le Neve, drift implement found by, 610 - - Fox, Rev. W., as to origin of Solent Sea, 690 - - Fracture of flint, natural and artificial compared, 273 - - Fragments of implements, use of, 223, 242, 339 - - Frankish Cemeteries, objects found in, 283, 307 - - Frankland, Prof., on climatal conditions of glacier formation, 698 - - Franks, Sir A. Wollaston, - on an abraded pyrites nodule, 318; - on hafting of American flint blades, 349; - on perforated discs, 439; - on present use of stone vessels, 450 - - French, Mr. J., drift implements found by, 578 - - Frere, Mr. John, his discoveries at Hoxne, 573, 576 - - Friction, polish of stone saw by, 295 - - Frost, disintegrating effect of, 672 - - Fuegians, - their arrow chipping, 39, 406; - their use of arrow-heads as knives, 334; - their mode of fire-producing, 15, 317; - their mode of using scrapers, 299 - - Fungus, its use as tinder, 16, 317 - - _Fustibalus_, Roman use of the, 418 - - Future existence, belief in, implied by objects in interments, 84, 283 - - G - - Gabbro, tools for flint-working made of, 22 - - Gaillard, M. F., Breton finds of pyrites and flint by, 318 - - Gallas, form of scraper among the, 299 - - Games, possible use of stone balls in, 244, 245 - - Ganges, estimate of detritus carried by, 667 - - Gastaldi, Prof., - on arrow-head superstitions, 367; - engravings by, 120, 200, 333, 337 - - Gatty, Rev. Reginald A., on minute flint tools, 325 - - Gaudry, M., sections of San Isidro valley by, 529 - - Gaul, Celtic, importation of amber from, 449 - - Gaulish coins, stone hatchet found with, 144 - - Gautier de Bibelesworth quoted as to slickstones, 441 - - Gaviller, Mr. G. H., oval implement found by, 584 - - Gay, the late Mr., 178 - - Geikie, Sir Archibald, - on lowering of river-basins, 668; - on chronology of valley erosion, 705, 706 - - Gems on hilt of Mexican chalcedony blade, 355 - - Geological data as to antiquity of man in Britain, 704, &c. - - George, Mr. T., his find at Elton, 573 - - Georgius Agricola on thunderbolts, 64 - - Germany, superstitions in, regarding celts, 57, 58 - - Gesenius, his mention of stone knives in Palestine, 9 - - Gibb, Dr. G. D., drift implement found by, 617 - - Gibraltar, objects found in caves of, 177, 182, 252, 287, 428, 433 - - Gimawong, sacrificial use of stone in honour of, 10 - - Glacial deposit, - celt found in gravel of, 136; - deposit in Little Ouse valley, 682; - Period, flint-bearing deposits subsequent to, 697; - Period, attempt to date astronomically, 705; - Periods, their relation to Palæolithic periods, 568 - - Glaciers, heat action indicated by, 698 - - Gladstone, Dr. J. H., broad flake found by, 606 - - _Glandes_, the Roman sling-stones, 418 - - Glass - beads in barrows, 437, 456; - modern ceremonial use of flakes of, 9; - “slickstones” of, 441, 442 - - Glossiness - of surface of palæolithic implements, 659; - to what cause due, 660 - - _Glossopetra_, Pliny’s account of the, 363 - - Glovemakers, recent use of stone nodules by, 416 - - Godwin-Austen, Mr. R. A. C., - his exploration of Kent’s Cavern, 489; - on gravels of Wey valley, 594; - on origin of Bournemouth gravels, 694; - on former temperature of English Channel, 701 - - Gneiss, hammers of, 221, 223, 224 - - Gnostic inscriptions, Egyptian celt bearing, 60, 61 - - Goat’s horn, use of, by Mexicans in arrow making, 39 - - Gog and Magog, their military flail, 423 - - Gold, - armilla of, 460; - box-like objects of, 460; - circular ornaments of, 427; - cup of, in barrow, 449; - engraved haft of, with Egyptian blade, 359; - on handle of bronze dagger, 227; - perforated studs covered with, 456; - plates of, in barrow, 227, 428 - - Gold mines of Egypt, bronze chisels in, 6 - - Gooch, Mr. W. D., on African palæolithic implements, 653 - - Goose, wild, remains of in Fisherton drift beds, 631 - - Gordon, Robert, of Straloch, on elf-darts, 364 - - Gouges, - abundance of, in Scandinavia, 178; - bronze mould for, 269; - Irish, 181; - rare in Britain, 178 - - Granite, - ball of, in Kent’s Cavern, 503; - blocks of, used as anvils, 245; - celt of, 108; - hammer stone of, in Kent’s Cavern, 503; - hand-mills of, in recent use, 253; - ironing stones of, 443; - perforated axes of, 195, 198; - polished hammer of, 222; - saddle-quern of, 252; - wedge-shaped blades of, 97; - water-worn fragments of, in Bournemouth gravels, 694 - - Grass, asserted hafting of implement with, 645 - - Grass-tree, Australian use of gum from the, 170 - - _Grattoirs_, 298 - - _Grattoir-bec_, 305 - - Gravel, pipes of in chalk, 551; - bones of animals smaller than man not found in, 656 - - Gravel Hill, Brandon, 562–567 - - Gravels, - French, 526–8, 698; - Spanish, &c., 529; - English, 530 _et seq._; - deposited, transported, and re-laid, 670, 693, 700; - nature of, governed by local causes, 678; - see “Sections”; - relations of to Boulder Clay, 577, 685, 697 - - Graves, Rev. J., on recent use of a quern, 258 - - Greece and Italy, - precedence of bronze to iron in, 6; - obsidian cores from, 28; - stone implements as thunderbolts in, 59 - - Greek language, - priority of bronze and iron shown by, 5; - inscription on celt, 61, 62 - - Greeks, - their reverence for the hatchet, 62; - use of sling bullets among the, 418 - - Greenhill, Mr. J. E., on the London gravels, 586 - - Greenland, - fish-hook in grave in, 294; - harpoon points of chalcedony in, 405 - - Greenough map, the, referred to, 683 - - Greenstone celt, sawing of, with flint flake, 45 - - Greenwell, Canon, - his explorations at Grime’s Graves, 33, 40; - of barrows, _passim_ - - Gregory, Mr. A. G., on stone-working in Australia, 26 - - Grew, Dr. Nehemiah, on “the flat Bolthead,” 364 - - Grewingk, Herr, on stone-boring tools, 47 - - Griffiths, Rev. Dr., ovate implements found by, 601 - - Grime’s Graves, explorations by Canon Greenwell at, 33, 40 - - Grinding implements, - absence of, in palæolithic times, 649; - corn, mediæval litigation as to, 25; - corn in Ireland, 251; - maize, Kaffir mill for, 250 - - Grinding stones and whetstones, 261–271; - in interments, 83, 84; - fixed, not revolving, 43, 261; - Scandinavian, 43, 261 - - Grit, from mill-stones, teeth worn by, 253 - - Grooved hammers, 233–236; - sharpening stone from La Madelaine, 484 - - Grooves - worked on axes, 168, 169, 211, 212; - for hafting, on hammer stones, 233; - on rocks, due to sharpening tools, 262; - pebbles with, 271 - - Grottoes, funereal, 160 - - Ground-ice, formation of, 671 - - Guanches, obsidian knives used by the, 8 - - Guernsey, manufactory of arrow-heads in, 401 - - Gum, Australian implements hafted with, 97,137 - - Gun-flints, present manufacture of, 14, 18 - - Gutsmuths on ancient stone-boring, 49 - - Gutteridge, Mr. William, drift implement found by, 598 - - H - - Habits of Palæolithic Period, 656–658 - - _Hâches à bouton_ and _à tête_, 135 - - Hacket, Mr., Indian quartzite implement found by, 651 - - Hacquet, M., on the manufacture of gun-flints, 18, 21 - - Hæmatite, - celts made of, 127; - hammer of, 219; - scraped, for personal decoration, 248, 263, 264, 312, 484; - sling bullets of, 418 - - Haft - of celt, carved, 152; - of Mexican blade, jewelled, 355 - - Hafts, - club-like, 155; - forked, for hatchets, 163, 164 - - Hafted celts, discoveries of, 151–155 - - Hafting, - Carib method of, 155; - contrivances for assisting, 141, 151–172; - of daggers by split wood, 349; - of flakes, 288, 289, 292, 293, 502; - by flexible wooden binding, 167; - of flint blade by moss, 349; - of hammers with small perforations, 217; - of Maori chisels, 178; - by means of growing wood, 155, 218; - of spear-heads, 350, 351 - - _Hakke_, or hoes, 191 - - Halberd, meaning of, 146 - - Halliwell, Mr., on the Stone axe, 146 - - Hallstatt, - objects from, 460, 464, 465; - ornaments from, 84; - perforated whetstones, 269; - transitional period of cemetery of, 7 - - Hamard, Abbé, his researches at Hermes, 314 - - Hammers, - barrel-shaped, 224; - boulders used as, 234; - broken celt converted into, 242; - for chipping flints, 248–258; - conical, 223; - cylindrical, 224; - with depressions of faces, 239, 240; - egg-shaped, 224, 225; - Eskimo, 25; - grooved, 233–236; - from Kent’s Cavern, 503; - ornamented, 226; - horn, in contracted interment, 434; - ovoid pebbles perforated for, 228; - of peculiar forms, 219; - perforated, 217–232; - possible use of, as weapons, 220, 221; - Purgatory, 183; - of stag’s horn, 35, 41, 434; - stone, still used in Iceland, 11 - - Hammer-stones, - in barrows, 235, &c.; - of bronze, 246; - cavities worked in, 238; - definition of, 238; - with depressions of faces, 240–246; - discoidal, 249; - flint, at Cissbury, 32; - grooved for hafting, 233; - made from cores, 248; - North American, 241; - palæolithic, 536; - on Palæolithic floor, 606; - perforated, abundance of in Ireland, 232; - polished by use, 248; - ridges on, 246 - - Hand, implements adapted for holding in the, 136, 140, 151, 358, 552, - 557, 645 - - Hand-hatchets, 137 - - Hand-mills of stone, - recent use of, 253; - with rotatory upper stone, 258 - - Handle, - jewelled, of Mexican blade, 355; - skin, of flint flake, 293; - of turned stone cups, how left, 446, 447; - wooden, of celts, 119, 152; - wooden, of celts, rare in Britain, 151; - wooden, of stag’s horn axe, 434 - - Handled celt, representation of in dolmen, 153 - - “Handled wedges,” 205 - - Hardening of flints by exposure, 32 - - Hardy, M. Michel, on accidentally fractured flints, 658 - - Harland, Mr. H. S., grinding tools found by, 266 - - Harpoon-heads, - of horn or bone, in French caves, 484; - of horn in Kent’s Cavern, 504; - Eskimo, single barbed, 394; - perforated, 410; - of quartz in S. America, 407 - - Harrison, Mr. Benjamin, - as to drift caps on chalk downs, 608; - implements found and given by, 92, 174, 198, 604, 611 - - Hastings, stone missiles probably used at Battle of, 147 - - Hatchets, - Australian, fitted with handles, 70; - bronze, Egyptian, 169; - butt-end roughened for socketing, 46; - of Danish type, 68, 69; - hafting of, 151, 161; - oblique-bladed, 152; - of one piece with handle, 171; - sacred importance of, with Greeks, 62; - stone, form of, affected by bronze influences, 75; - stone, method of forming, 31; - with loop for suspension, 171; - with semicircular cutting edge, 136; - worn, re-chipping of, 102; - nuclei made into, at Spiennes, 35 - - Hawk, skull of, in interment, 429 - - Hawkins, Mr. C. E., drift implement found by, 612 - - Haynes, Prof., Egyptian implements found by, 652 - - Heaps of flints prepared for slingers, 419 - - Heathery Burn Cave, bronze and bone objects in, 432 - - _Hellebarde_, etymology of, 146 - - Helwing on the true nature of celts, 63 - - Hemp, absent from Lake Dwellings, 436; - possible use of stone bats in preparing, 257 - - Hernandez, his account of obsidian-working, 24 - - Herodotus - on the ritual use of stone, 8; - on the arrows used by the army of Xerxes, 368; - on the featherless arrows of the Lycians, 410 - - Hesiod, - his mention of the early use of bronze, 4; - as to the feathering of the arrows of Hercules, 410 - - Hickes, Dr., on the shooting of elf-arrows, 366 - - Hicks, Dr. H., on date of Welsh caves, 521 - - Hides, - importance of, in savage life, 311; - present use of stone scrapers in preparing 36, 299; - stone implements possibly hafted by, 217, 235; - stones used for smoothing, 442; - wear of implements by scraping, 332; - wet, assagai-beads bound on by, 410 - - Hildebrand and Hadubrand, song of, 146 - - Hill-forts, querns found in, 259 - - Hilton, Mr. R., 94, 341; - drift implements found by, 622 - - Hilts of flint daggers, their probable use as flaking tools, 413 - - Hindoos, pebble superstition among, 568 - - Hippopotamus, its evidence as to former volume of English rivers, 699, - 700 - - Hoare, Sir Richard Colt, - examination of barrows by, 143, 148, 210, 211, - 227, 244, 260, 280, 291, 308, 314, 352; - on pebbles in tumuli, 443; - on whetstones, 268 - - Hoe, - use of stone implements as, 71, 191; - of stag’s horn with handle attached, 434 - - Hoe-like implements in Mexico, 216 - - Holes through stones, natural, utilization of, 225, 226 - - Hollow scrapers, 319, 320 - - Hollowing canoes, - stone gouges for, 178; - wapiti horn used for, 434 - - Holmes, Mr. W. H., on a chert quarry in Missouri, 80 - - Homer, mention of bronze arms in, 4, 368 - - Hones, 268, 269; - burial of, 208 - - Hone-stone, - celts of, 96, 105, 106, 117, 120, 121; - green, hollow adze of, 180 - - Hornblendes, various, implements of, 125, 128, 206, 224, 230 - - Horse, representation of, on bone, 523 - - Horse trappings, late Celtic, pebbles found with, 442 - - Houghton, Mr. W. H., drift implement found by, 572 - - Hove, amber cup found at, 449 - - Hoxne, - brick-field at, 574; - climatal changes shown by, 697; - implements found at, 374 - - Hughes, Prof. T. McK., - cave researches by, 521; - drift implements found by, 539, 611; - on production of flint flakes, 272 - - Human race, - evidence for antiquity of, 658, &c.; - palæolithic evidence for unity of, 654; - probable origin in favourable climate, 703 - - Human remains - in palæolithic caves, 487, 517; - in gravel pit, 542; - in Thames gravel, doubtful evidence of, 607; - causes of their rarity, 656, 669, 702; - in Seine valley, 703 - - Huntley, the late Dowager Marchioness, implements found by, 573 - - Hurons, asserted methods of hafting among, 155, 218 - - Hut-circles, - hammer-stones found in, 234; - discoidal stones in, 244; - saddle-quern in, 251; - scraper in, 309; - spindle whorls in, 438; - whetstones in, 270; - worn pebbles in, 248 - - Hyænas, - alternate occupation of caves by man and, 519; - absent from Kent’s Cavern, 508 - - _Hydrobia marginata_, former presence of, in England, 531, 533, 539, - 584, 586 - - I - - Ice, - possible action of, in Darent gravel-bed, 610; - transporting power of, 671, 672 - - Ice-chisels, possible use of early implements as, 645, 654 - - Iceland, stone hammers in use in, 11 - - Ichthyophagi, the, Diodorus on their use of stone, 288 - - Icklingham, gun-flint factory formerly at, 14 - - “Imp-stones,” 437 - - Implements, - palæolithic, chronology of, retrogressive, 473; - from caves and drift compared, 474; - large, rarity of in caves, 475; - with extinct fauna, 481–486, 490, &c., 513, 620, 701; - of caves, classification of, 483, 484; - joined up, 20, 514, 586; - British area of, 524, 580; - of the River Drifts, 526 _et seq._; - of materials other than flint, 565, &c.; - below the Palæolithic floor, 586, 591; - first discovery of in quaternary beds, 581; - beneath mammoth remains, 630; - classification of, 640, 648; - compared with neolithic, 648–650, 657; - from Asia and Africa, 650; - forms of, almond-shaped, 529, 540, 557, 647; - bevel-edged, 546, 559; - broad and short, 594; - circular, 559, 608; - crescent-like, 559, 571, 647; - discoidal, 648; - flat-faced, 645; - kite-shaped, 492, 542, 593, 644; - lanceolate, 554; - large and heavy, 532, 569, 613; - lozenge-shaped, 647; - oblique-edged, 567, 568; - oval, 589, 625, 604, 629; - ovate, 515, &c., 593, &c., 602, 618; - ovoid, 492, 493; - perch-backed, 646, 647; - pointed, 557, 563, 603, 613, 644, &c.; - scraper-shaped, 500, 632; - sharp-rimmed, 642, 647, 701; - shoe-shaped, 537, 554, 593, 645; - tongue-shaped, 539, 572, 644, 649; - triangular, 492; - wedge-shaped, 529 - - Incantations regarding stones, 469 - - “Incense-cup” in barrow, 211 - - Incisions on bone objects, 523, 656 - - India, - small chalcedony cores in, 23; - superstitious reverence for jade in, 60; - celts in, 88, 89; - ivory wrist-guard used in, 430 - - Indians, - North American, arrows, 370; - Californian, arrow-chipping by, 39; - Californian, obsidian worked by, 27; - Cloud River, arrow-chipping by, 39; - of Ecuador, axe-mounting among, 170; - flaking tools of, 24; - fleshing instruments, 126; - hatchets, 97; - hatchets, mounting of, 168; - holes drilled by, 50, 52; - lozenge-shaped lance-heads, 372; - pyrites used among, for fire-producing, 317; - quoits, 440; - Snake River, obsidian-working by, 40; - tomahawks made by, 52 - - Indra, hammer as attribute of, 62 - - Indus, large nuclei from banks of, 23 - - Ingram, the Rev. Canon, as to bracers, 429 - - Interments, - stone and bronze found together in, 123, 143, &c.; - primary and secondary, mixing of, 210, 211; - Saxon, with quern, 259; - late presence of flint in, 282; - objects accompanying, _passim_; - burnt, objects found with, 96, 105, 186, 194, 197, 210, 253, 291, 330, - 377, 398, &c.; - contracted, cause of position, 149; - objects found in, 230, 280, 371, 385, 429, &c. - - Intrenchments, old, relation of sling-stones to, 419 - - Ireland, - abundance of flint arrow-heads in, 399, 408; - arrow-heads relatively larger in, 400; - blades of slaty stone in, 353; - flint celts rare in, 84, 133; - late use of stone implements in, 11; - recent use of stone anvils in, 232; - superstitions in, concerning celts, 57 - - Iron Age, - Bronze Age succeeded by, 5; - grooved stones with objects of the, 271; - axe-head in barrow, 463; - axes, French, resembling stone types, 205; - blades, Eskimo, skin-hafted, 293; - late use of, in Egypt, 6; - date of discovery as given by Arundelian marbles, 4; - early use of, in Britain, 10; - infrequent mention of by Homer, 4; - knife, 487; - meteoric, probably first used, 5; - -mould, staining of scrapers by, 315; - objects of, in interments, 210, 394, 397, 438, 455; - ore in barrow, 263, 313, 338; - Period, Early, “strike-a-light” stones of the, 241; - pick-axe in old workings of lead mine, 234; - used for pins of querns, 259 - - Ironing stones of granite, 443 - - Iron-stone, - Sussex, celt of, 84; - axe-head of, 186; - cave implement of, 522 - - Iroquois, - the use of pump drill by, 48; - sword of, 294 - - Isle of Wight, - severance of, from mainland, 690; - former extent of, 693 - - Italy, - arrow-head superstitions in, 367; - iron preceded by bronze in, 5; - ridged flake in, 327; - stone “thunderbolts” in, 59 - - Ivory, - articles of, at Paviland, 487; - carved bracers of, 430; - fossil, used by Eskimos for arrow-flaking, 37; - fossil, Eskimo scraper hafted in, 298; - fossil, present use of, in Siberia, 488; - plates of, in necklaces, 457; - rod of, in Brixham cave, 516; - spindle-whorls of, 439; - used for shafting arrows of Bushmen, 410 - - J - - Jacquard, M. Ed., on “Céraunies,” 57 - - Jade, - adzes, New Zealand, 166, 167; - boring of, in New Zealand, 46; - celts of, 109, 114; - discs of, 216; - Eskimo hammer of, 25; - found in Europe, 110; - Maori chisels of, 178; - sawing of, 45; - wooden-hafted blade of, 299 - - Jade-like stone, French chisel of, 176 - - Jadeite, - celt of, worn as charm, 57; - celts of, 58, 107, 129; - celts of, in Brittany dolmens, 109 - - Japan, - European appearance of arrow-heads from, 405; - stone axes considered as thunderbolts in, 59; - stone blades from, 355 - - Jasper, - flakes, cutting power of, 6; - hammer-head of, 229; - pendants of, 465; - scraper of, 310; - Spanish flake of, 287 - - Java, stone axes in, 59 - - Javelins and arrow-heads, 360–411; - distinction between, 370 - - Javelin-heads - in interments, 371, 455; - Australian mode of shafting, 288; - Irish, with polished faces, 372; - Italian, 333; - present use of flakes as, 288; - stemmed, 379 - - Jaw-bone of animal, implement formed from, 434 - - Jaw, human, from Moulin-Quignon, 703 - - Jeffreys, the late Mr. J. Gwyn, 345 - - Jet, - armlets of, 464; - beads, 309; - beads, oblong, 149; - buttons, 265, 398, 453; - cone of, 308, 352; - necklaces of, 456–463; - ornaments of, 332, 385, 394; - rings, 265, 426; - rings associated with studs, 266, 454; - Solinus on the properties of, 464 - - Jewitt, the late Mr. Llewellynn, on elf-arrows, 366 - - Jews, - modern, ceremonial use of flint by, 9; - their use of stone-struck fire, 16 - - Jones, Prof. Rupert, on the London gravels, 586 - - Joshua, - his ceremonial use of stone knives, 9; - discovery of flint flakes in tomb of, 9 - - Judd, Prof. J. W., drift implement found by, 611 - - K - - Kaffirs, - their present use of stone implements, 11; - their present use of bed-stone and rolling pin, 250; - their mode of shafting assagais, 410 - - Kahun, manufacture of stone implements at, 45 - - Keller, Dr., - on the tools of Moosseedorf, 22; - on sawing stone implements, 44; - on tube-boring, 49, 50; - referred to, 159, 162, 242, 310, 323; - on weights for weaving, 443 - - Kemble, Mr., on stones in Teutonic tombs, 468 - - Kennett, Bishop, quoted as to slickstones, 441 - - Kentmann, thunderbolts described by, 63, 64 - - Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, - awl of bone from, 506; - bone, objects of, 504–506; - bones, mineral condition of, 508; - bronze objects in upper layer, 492; - charcoal in, 492, 511; - co-existence of man with extinct animals in, 510; - cores and hammers from, 503; - correlation of, with foreign caves, 511; - deposits of, 491; - examinations of, 488–491; - fauna of, neolithic, 508; - fauna of, palæolithic, 507; - flakes from, 498, &c.; - flint implements from, 492–503; - harpoons, 504; - human remains, 492; - implements below the stalagmite, 489; - implements, neolithic, from upper layers, 492; - needle of bone, 321, 506; - pin, 506; - sabre-toothed tiger, 508; - scrapers, 500, 502; - whetstone, 504 - - Kerr, Mr. Richard, ovate implement found by, 621 - - Kilkenny, modern use of quern in, 258 - - Kimmeridge coal, - beads of, 309; - buttons of, 455; - “coal money,” how made, 465; - shale, bead of, 463; - shale, ring of, 456; - shale, saucer of, 445; - shale, waste pieces of from lathe, 447, 465 - - King, Mr. C. W., on an engraved Egyptian celt, 60 - - Kintore, Earl of, battle-axe presented to Edinburgh Museum by, 197 - - Kioway Indians, stone hammer used by, 235 - - Kirchner on stone-boring, 51 - - Kirwan, Rev. R., - on a worn perforated pebble, 225; - on turned stone cups, 445, 447, 448 - - Kist-vaen, vessels found in, 450 - - Kite-shaped palæolithic implements, 542, 592, 644 - - Kjökken-möddings, - Danish, axes of the, 68; - flakes in, 280, 286; - hatchets from, 32; - motive for their position, 479; - post-Roman, hammer-stones in, 247; - scrapers, 310; - serrated flints in, 296; - sling-stones in, 419 - - Klah-o-quat Indians, their wapiti-horn chisels, 434 - - Klebs, Dr. R., on amber ornaments of Stone Age, 450 - - Knife Gallery, Brixham, 514 - - Knife-shaped implements, 535, 646 - - Knives, - blunted at one edge, 335, 336; - bronze, 5; - chipped, not ground, 356; - circular, 341, 342; - curved, 355–358; - Egyptian, 8, 354, 359; - Eskimo, of meteoric iron, 5; - fluted, 359; - flint, 290, 356, &c.; - ground, from Scotland, 338; - hafting of, 346; - horseshoe-shaped, 342; - Japanese, 355; - of mica-schist, 381; - peculiar, in Lake dwellings, 348; - Picts’, perforated, 346; - Picts’, probably handled, 347; - of polished slate, 358; - Scandinavian, of slate, 404; - serrated, 331; - of small flakes continuously mounted, 277, 293; - of stone, ceremonial use of, 8–10; - triangular, 340, 343 - - “Knockin’-stones” in Scotland, 11 - - Knowles, the late Rev. Dr., 138 - - Kotzebue Gulf, arrow-flaker from, 38 - - Kruse on perforated axes, 184 - - L - - Labour necessary for stone-working, 107, 226, 231 - - Lafitau on the time required for tomahawk-making, 52 - - Laing, the late Mr. S., rude implements found by, in Caithness, 281 - - Lake-dwellings, - arrow-heads of, 402; - axes, socketed, in, 158; - corn-crushers in, 246; - flakes in, 281–287; - grinding-stones in, 262; - handled flakes from, 292; - mealing-stones in, 250; - narrow rubbers in, 267; - perforated hammer, 232; - perforated whetstones, 269; - scrapers, 310, 318; - slings of flax, 417; - spinning and weaving in, 436; - stag’s horn sockets, 43, 136, 161, 177; - wooden spindle-whorls, 439 - - La Madelaine, characteristics of Age of, 484 - - _Lamiarum sagittas_, 362 - - Lamps of stone, 445, 450, 451 - - Landon, Mr. Joseph, examination of Rea gravels by, 578 - - Lance-heads, - from barrows, 333; - of bone, 431; - flakes used as, 288; - of flint, 348–351; - fluted, at Sourdes, 43; - lozenge-shaped, 372; - notched, in Norway, 404 - - Lane-Fox, Col., see Rivers, Gen. Pitt. - - _Langues-de-chat_, 644 - - _Lapis lydius_, celt of, 114 - - Lapps, - the, divination by stones among the, 470; - flint and steel buried with the, 283; - their use of sinews for thread, 507 - - Lark River, older representative of the, 682 - - Lartet, Prof. E., - on boring with flint flakes, 321; - his chronological classification of caves, 481; - experiments with flint tools, 507; - on _grattoirs_, 298 - - Lartet, Prof. Louis, his Spanish finds, 529 - - Lasham, Mr. Frank, on the gravels of the Wey valley, 595 - - Lastic, Vicomte de, his cave at Bruniquel, 296 - - Latchmore, Mr. Frank, drift implements found by, 536, 602, 604 - - “Late-Celtic” Period, stone ornamentation of, 260 - - “Lateritic” beds in Madras, implements found in, 651, 654 - - Lathe, - amber cup turned in, 449; - use of, probably pre-Roman, 446; - for turning cups, 446; - for turning spindle-whorls, 438; - “coal money” the waste product of, 465 - - Lauth, Prof., on the origin of iron in Egypt, 5 - - Lavers, Mr. Edward, ovate implement found by, 578 - - Lawrence, Mr. G. F., implements found by, 111, 604 - - Layton, Mr. T., Thames finds in possession of, 74, 161 - - Lead, present use of for Bolas, 422; - sling bullets of, 418; - spindle-whorls of, 439 - - Lead-mines, implements found in, 234 - - Leather, - celts buried in case of, 109; - method of sewing, 433; - scrapers for preparing, 311; - stones used in preparation of, 440; - stones used for smoothing seams in, 443 - - Leech, Mr. Thomas, implements found by, at Reculver, 613 - - Left-handedness, early evidence as to, 429 - - Leg-bones of animal, - chisels of, 434; - implements made from, 431; - used as net-sinkers, 237 - - Lehaie, M. A. Houzeau de, on the flint factory at Spiennes, 34 - - Lemming, - remains of, at Wookey, 519; - remains of in Fisherton beds, 631; - remains of, as indicative of climate, 699 - - Le Moustier, Age of, implements of, 483, 496 - - Leonora Christina, Princess, flint used by for cutting, 348 - - Lepic, Vicomte, his suggestions as to mounting stone implements, 162 - - Lepsius on Egyptian flakes, 287 - - Lewis and Clarke quoted as to _pogamoggon_, 424 - - Lightning, - connection of stone implements with, 63; - stone implements as safeguards against, 145, 361 - - Lightning-teeth, stone axes known as, in Java, 59 - - Lignite, - rings of, in urn, 465; - pendant of, 466 - - Limestone, - buttons of, 453; - celt of, 122; - oolitic, knife of, 345; - rocks, caves in, 520, 522 - - Lindenschmit, - on stone-boring, 49; - referred to, 163, 177, 191, 194, 232 - - Lindsay, Dr. W. Lauder, on Maori hatchets, 172 - - Linen, polishing of, by slickstones, 441 - - _Lingue di San Paolo_, 367 - - Lisch on stone-boring, 49 - - Lithuania, central core from tube-boring found in, 47 - - Little, Mr. W. C., on the development of flint arrows, 369 - - _Livres de beurre_, 27 - - Loadstone, sling bullets of, 418 - - Loams, red, in caves, 479 - - Loir et Cher, manufacture of gun-flints in, 15 - - Londesborough, objects found by the late Lord, in barrows, 148, 160, - 290, 328 - - Long barrows, - flakes in, 280; - leaf-shaped arrow-heads peculiar to, 399 - - Long Hole, Gower, fauna of and flints from, 520 - - Longman, Mr. C. J., his series of early bracers, 430 - - Longpérier, M., on hatchet worship, 62 - - Looms, early, use of weights in, 443 - - Lorraine, Prince François de, Turkish stone hatchet presented to, 59 - - Lottin, Dr., on the manufacture of gun-flints, 18 - - Lower Tertiary conglomerate, - flakes of, 281; - querns of, 259; - pebble, palæolithic implement made from, 613 - - Lubbock, Sir John, - Algerian implement found by, 652; - on the comparative numbers of men and objects of chase, 656; - as to date of Glacial Period, 705; - names of Neo- and Palæolithic due to, 12, 474; - referred to, 272, 299, 310; - on sling-stones, 419; - on the uses of stone implements, 655 - - Luco, Abbé, pyrites and flint found by, in dolmen, 318 - - “Lucky Stones,” virtues of, 469 - - Lucretius as to successive Periods of culture, 4 - - Lukis, Capt., polished celt found by, with skeleton, 149 - - Lukis, the late F. C., M.D., - on the connection between celts and - lightning, 57; - on elf-arrows and elf-darts, 365; - on the handling of celts, 171; - oval armlet found by, 464; - referred to, 127, 141 - - Lukis, the late Rev. W. C., of Wath, referred to, 188, 204, 240, 268 - - Lycians, the, their arrows featherless, 410 - - Lydian stone, - celt of, 115, 167; - Irish flakes of, 281, 291 - - Lye, his dictionary referred to as to stone bill, 145 - - Lyell, Sir Charles, - on the Fisherton beds, 630; - on the formation of caverns, 480; - on geological changes near Wookey, 519; - as to Glacial Period, 705; - on rhinoceros in Gower, 520; - on river action, 663; - on the Shasta method of arrow-chipping, 40 - - Lyme Regis, manufactory of flint implements at, 35 - - Lyon, Mr. Caleb, on Shasta arrow-head making, 40 - - Lysons, Mr. Samuel, excavations at Witcombe, 144 - - Lyttelton, Bishop, on stone hatchets, 3, 202, 204 - - M - - Mace-head, lenticular, of breccia, 232 - - Maces, flints naturally perforated used for, 184 - - Maces, see Hammers - - MacEnery, the Rev. J., his researches in Kent’s Cavern, 488, 495 - - _Machairodus_, the, 508, 524 - - Maghara, - copper mines of, 6; - stone hammers at, 230; - flint arrow-head from, 405 - - Mahanuddy, small nuclei from banks of, 23 - - Mahudel, on the early use of stone, 3 - - Maize, Kaffir mill for grinding, 250; - stone pestles for crushing, 257 - - Mallet, Indian mode of hafting, 239 - - _Malleus fulmineus_, 63 - - Mammoth, caves of the Age of the, 481 - - Man, - antiquity of in Britain, 703; - his co-existence with extinct animals, 474, 508, 513, 524, 700, &c.; - early occupation of caves, 475, 480, &c.; - mammalian fauna altered by, 482 - - Mandingoes, single-barbed arrows of the, 394 - - Manethonian dynasty, the third, use of grooved hammers in, 235 - - Manganese, dendritic markings due to presence of, 660 - - Mangles, Mr. H. A., drift implements found in Wey valley by, 595 - - Manning, Mr. Percy, implements found by, near Oxford, 594 - - Mantell, the late Dr., 84, 148, 308 - - Manufactories of flint implements, 34, 268, 280, 359, 401, 402; - at Cissbury, 79; - at Crayford, 606; - in Guernsey, 401; - at the Lake of Varese, 402; - at Lyme Regis, 35; - at Massingham Heath, 83; - at Moosseedorf, 22; - “wasters” found at, 80, 649 - - Maoris, - bows unknown among the, 360; - their jade chisels, 178; - uses of the “Toki” among the, 172 - - Marathon, source of stone arrow-heads at, 368, 403 - - Marbodæus quoted as to the _ceraunius_, 64 - - Marcou, M., on N. American mauls, 235 - - Marine deposits in Fen gravels, 681 - - Marmot - in Crayford beds, 607; - in Fisherton beds, 631; - presence of, indicative of climate, 699 - - Marrow of bones, a primitive delicacy, 504, 657 - - Marten, Mr. John, drift implement found by, 620 - - Martha’s Hof, celt kept in a granary at, 58 - - Martin, Mr. C. Wykeham, scraper found by, 309 - - Mas d’Azil, painted pebbles in cave of, 484, 485 - - Mason, Mr. Otis T., “on aboriginal skin-dressing,” 299 - - Massagetæ, their bronze arrow-heads, 368 - - Materials of which British celts are made, 65, 66, &c.; - relative durability of, 655 - - Matter, solid, amount of in turbid water, 667 - - Mauls, stone, method of hafting, 169; - in old copper workings, 233 - - Mealing-stones, - absent in palæolithic times, 657; - and muller, 251; - from Swiss Lake-dwelling, 246, 250; - on the site of Troy, 253 - - Medicinal powers, supposed, of stone implements, 271, 365, 437 - - Meillet, M., - referred to, 327; - on the causes of alteration in flint, 497 - - “Mell” for preparing barley, 451 - - Memnon, bronze sword of, 4 - - Mentone, intermediate age of deposits in caves near, 475, 487 - - Mercati, his suggestion as to the origin of celts, 62 - - _Meres_, New Zealand, - difficulty of boring, 52; - mode of using, 118; - as denoting chieftainship, 226 - - Merewether, the late Dean, implements found by, 309 - - Meriones, bronze arrow of, 4 - - Merovingian interments, - flint chips in, 283; - flint implements in, 144, 145; - iron arrow-heads in, 394; - iron-mounted scrapers in, 314; - stone objects in, 470 - - Mesolithic, use of term deprecated, 702 - - Metal-working, - possible use of, small hammers for, 223; - stone discs perhaps connected with, 257 - - Meteoric iron, probably the first used, 5 - - Mexican arrow-heads, 24, 39; - English appearance of, 406; - blade with original handle, 355; - flakes of obsidian, 288; - hafting of metal axes, 155, 156; - obsidian cores, 23; - obsidian razors, 290; - obsidian swords, 294 - - Meyer, Dr. A. B., his catalogue of jade objects, 110 - - “Meyrick’s Armour” referred to, 200 - - Mica schist, - with garnets, celt of, 97; - battle-axe of, 197; - hammer of, 225 - - Micaceous grit, - axe-head of, 195; - celt of, 97; - perforated adze of, 189 - - Mid-Pleistocene character of Crayford beds, 607 - - Mildenhall, recent arrow-heads made by workman of, 42 - - Mill, - bed-stone and rolling pin as, 250; - rotatory, 254 - - “Mill-bill” of present day, 146 - - Mill-dues of St. Albans, 258 - - Mills and balls in barrows, 253 - - Milner, Col., his celt with Gnostic inscriptions, 60 - - Mine de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, mauls found in, 235 - - “Miners’ hammers,” Irish, 234 - - Mining, - in chalk, 33, 79, 172; - stone mauls used for, 233, 234 - - Mining instruments of bronze, 233 - - Miocene Age, evidence doubtful as to existence of man in the, 374 - - Mirrors, possible use of polished stone discs as, 440 - - Missiles, possible use of discoidal implements as, 655 - - Mississippi, estimated amount of detritus carried by, 667 - - Missouri, chert quarry in, 80 - - Mitchell, Sir A., on the spindle and whorl, 437 - - Mitten, Mr., on the fossil mosses from Hoxne, 577 - - Mongols, use of military flail among the, 423 - - Monkman, Mr. C, on sling-stones and intrenchments, 419 - - Montelius, Prof., referred to, 154, 261 - - Montezuma, arrow-making in palace of, 406; - stone axe of, 157 - - Moraines of glaciers, boulder-clay mainly derived from, 697 - - Morison, Fynes, on Irish corn-grinding, 251 - - Morlot, M., his suggestions as to grinding flints, 43 - - “Morning star,” a modification of the staff-sling, 423 - - Morse, Miss, her assistance with fossil plants from Hoxne, 577 - - Mortars, 245, 257, 450 - - Mortillet, M. A. de, - on celt with haft-mark, 154; - M. Gabriel de, on boring of Swiss axes, 51; - on the chronological sequence of cave deposits, 475; - classification of caves by, 483; - on a cubical grindstone, 245; - on early cruciform ornaments, 454; - on Greek inscribed celt, 62; - his subdivisions of Palæolithic Period, 528; - on tube-boring, 47; - referred to, 194, 232, 278, 296 - - Moscardo on the _Pietre ceraunie_, 364 - - Moseley, Mr. H. N., worked jade brought by, from New Zealand, 46 - - Moss, flint blade handled with, 349 - - Mosses, fossil, at Hoxne, 577 - - Moulds, - bronze, for celts, &c., 269; - stone, for bronze implements, 443 - - Mound in Tennessee, hatchet from, 171 - - Moustérien Age, characteristics of, 483 - - Much, Dr., on the Hellebarde, 146 - - Müller, Dr. Sophus, - on the burial of axes, 76; - referred to, 261 - - Mullers, - present use of, 248; - various forms of, 244, 252 - - Mumford, Rev. George, celt fixed in a tree found by, 150 - - Munro, his “Lake Dwellings” referred to, 45, 297 - - Mur de Barrez, flint pit at, 35 - - Museums of—Antiquaries, - Soc. of, England, 78, 126, 141, 150, 196, 229, - 346, 377, 405; - Berlin, 188, 191, 294; - Blois, 187; - Bonn, 136; - Brighton, 449, 518; - British, _passim_; - Brunswick, 191; - Cambridge Antiquarian Society, 73, 74, 88, 92, 100, 104, 178, 191, - 251, 336, 390, 538; - Fitch, 100; - Woodwardian, 92, 100, 538, 595; - Canterbury, 353; - Castleton, 342; - Charterhouse School, 596; - Clermont Ferrand, 286, 465; - Copenhagen, Ethnological, 167, 183, 191, 226, 245, 246, 286, 292, 347; - Derby, 225; - Devizes, 428; - Douai, 169; - Dresden, Ethnological, 111; - Historical, 157; - Economic Geology, Jermyn Street, 84, 174, 357, 583, 613; - Edinburgh, National, _passim_; - Exeter, Albert, 192, 407, 445, 639; - Geneva, 113, 185; - Ghizeh, 359, 369; - Grierson, at Thornhill, 200; - Kelso, 119; - Keswick, Crosthwaite collection, 106, 117; - Kirkcudbright, 442; - Königsberg, 403; - Lausanne, 185, 292, 327; - Leeds, Bateman collection, _passim_; - Philosophical Society, 187, 191, 221; - Leicester, 103, 230, 254, 470; - Leipzig, 191, 220; - Le Puy, 101, 296, 411; - Leverian, 212, 441, 575, &c.; - Lewes, 101, 174; - Leyden, 114, 128, 205, 403, 405; - Egyptian, 174, 354; - Liverpool, Mayer collection, 96, 151, 235, 354; - Lund, 418; - Lyons, 109; - Madras, Central, 569; - Mainz, 109, 160, 268; - Montrose, 224, 421; - Morbihan, Société Polymathique de, 109; - Namur, 402; - Nancy, Musée Lorrain, 59; - Naples, 354; - Neuchâtel, 232; - Newcastle, Soc. Ant., 104, 123, 124, 126, 128, 193, 200, 383; - Northampton, 110, 124; - Norwich, 91, 100, 150, 202, 223, 229, 240, 440; - Fitch collection, _passim_; - Over Yssel, 157; - Oxford, 337, 341, 518, 593; - Ashmolean, 104, 354, 357; - Paris, Musée d’Artillerie, 327; - Perth, 421; - Peterhead, Arbuthnot, 425, 463; - Plymouth Institute, 200, 495; - Powysland, 208, 342; - Royal Irish Academy, 43, 85, 215, 308; - St. Germain, 109, 160, 187, 262; - Salisbury, Blackmore, _passim_; - Scarborough, 207; - Southampton, Hartley Institute, 293, 294; - Stockholm, 418, 435; - Stourhead Collection, 427; - Sussex Archæological Society, 185, 242, 249; - Swansea, Royal Institution, 187; - Toulouse, 559; - Troyes, 262; - Truro, 187; - Turin, Arsenal of, 379; - Turin, Egyptian, 354; - Upsala, 58; - Vannes, 109; - Vienna, Ambras, 157; - Warrington, 234; - Weimar, 109; - Wilts Archæological Society, 268; - Zurich, 269 - - Musk ox, - remains of, in Cray Valley, 604, 607; - remains of, in Fisherton beds, 631; - as indicative of climate, 699 - - Mussel-shell adzes, present use of, 182 - - Mycenæ, - earthenware spindle-whorls at, 439; - obsidian arrow-heads at, 403 - - N - - Nardoo, Australian stones for grinding, 243 - - Necklaces, - of arrow-heads, as charms, 367; - Greek or Etruscan, 10; - of jet, and other materials, 455–463 - - Needles, - bone, in cave deposits, 433; - in Creswell caves, 523, 524; - drilled with flint, 321; - in French caves, 484, 506; - in Kent’s Cavern, 506; - bronze, central-eyed, 433; - copper, 440 - - Needs, identical, like results produced by, 325 - - Neolithic Period, - characteristics of, 54; - difficulties of chronology of, 471; - its range in time, 147; - sepulchres, frequent disappearance of bones in, 656 - - Nephrite, - traces of sawing on celt of, 43; - engraved celt of, 60 - - Net-sinkers, 236, 237 - - Netting, possible use of bone instruments for, 432 - - New Caledonians, sling-stones of, 418, 419 - - Neuwied, Prinz, on Australian stone blades, 171 - - Newton, Mr. E.T., on human remains in Thames valley gravel, 607 - - New Zealand, - jade adzes of, 166, 167; - sawing of jade in, 45; - thong-drill used in, 48 - - Nickel, presence of, in meteoric iron, 5 - - Nightmare, perforated stones good against, 469 - - Nilsson, Prof., - on the date of certain axes, 52; - on the obliquity of celt edges, 113; - on perforated discs, 439; - on rude sling-stones, 419; - suggestion as to David’s sling, 417; - referred to, 184, 204, 241, 261, 271, 293, 294, 296, 297, 339, 350, - 450 - - Nodule of flint, bludgeon-shaped, in grave, 277 - - Nodules of pyrites, their use in producing fire, 313–319 - - Norman, Mr. H. G., palæolithic implements found by, 604 - - Norway, method of testing celts in, 57 - - Notches on axes, - for hafting, 169; - on hammer-stones, 246, 247; - worn on flakes, 642 - - Nouter, axe personified by, 62 - - Nuclei, - their relation to flakes, 272; - French, 277; - small, 23 - - O - - Oak, - coffin, gold cup in, 449; - trees, bark removed by bone chisels, 435; - trees, experimental felling of, 162; - trunks, hollowed, interments in, 398, 448 - - Oaks, present in brick-earth at Hoxne, 537 - - Obsidian, - arrow-heads of, in California, 37; - arrow-heads at Mycenæ, 403; - arrow-heads from the Caucasus, 405; - arrow-heads made in the Palace of Montezuma, 406; - cores of, from Greek sites, 28, 278; - Easter Island tool of, 289; - flakes of, in Greece, 278, 284, 286; - jade bored by, in New Zealand, 46; - knives of, skin-hafted, 293; - knives of, in Teneriffe, 8; - methods of working, 23–25, 39; - Mexican dagger-blades of, 354; - scrapers of, 310 - - Ochre, red, - in interment, 149; - use of as cosmetic, 263 - - Ochreous tinting of gravel implements, 617, &c. - - _Ofai ara_, Polynesian sling-stones, 420 - - Ohio Valley, steatite tubes from, 50 - - Ojibway Indians, 168 - - Oliver, Lieut., R.E., drift implement found by, 626 - - Ophthalmia, Burmese treatment of, 60 - - Ore, iron, in interment, 313, 317 - - Ornament, cruciform, early occurrence of, 453 - - Ornaments, - funereal, 84; - perforated for suspension, 321; - personal, 452–472, 484, 657; - pulley-like, of jet, 398 - - Ornamentation - on axes, 196–198, 211; - on baking stones, 440; - on balls, 420; - on beads, 457, 458; - on cups, 444, 448; - on cylinders of chalk, 421; - on hammer, 226; - on jet ring, 454; - on lamp, 445; - on querns, 259, 260; - on spindle-whorls, 438; - on stone vessel, 451 - - Ostrich, - egg-shell, discs of, worn by Bushmen, 277; - bone used by Bushmen for arrow-shafting, 410 - - Otter-skin, Californian knives hafted with, 293 - - Out-door and in-door use, varying implements for, 641 - - Ouvry, late Mr. F., Egyptian implement found by, 652 - - Overlapping of the three Ages, 11, 227 - - Ovid, - his mention of the sickle of Medea, 5; - his mention of the stone used by Atys, 9; - on the wearing action of water, 477 - - Oviedo on sawing with sand and string, 44 - - Ox, African, sacrifice of, with stone implement, 10 - - Ox horn, - possible use of, in tube-boring, 50; - dagger-hilt of, 265 - - P - - Paint, - red, early use of, 149, 263, 264; - from hæmatite, 312; - stone mullers used for grinding, 248 - - Palæolithic deposits, - their relation to Boulder clay, 577, 685, 697 - - floors, buried under “trail,” 698; - discovery of, 586, 591; - flint workshop on, 606; - heaps of flint lying on, 598; - implements from, 587; - preservation of delicate flakes in, 643; - replacement on original cores of, flakes from, 598; - under brick-earth, 598; - under Wey valley gravels, 595 - - implements, compared with neolithic, 12, 648, 657 - - man, evidence for unity of races of, 654 - - Palæolithic Period, - characteristics of implements of, 53; - grindstones apparently unknown in, 85; - conditions of human life in, 657 - - Palestine, ceremonial use of stone knives in, 9 - - Palstaves, bronze, hafting of, 163 - - Patagonians, - arrow-heads of, 406; - varieties of Bolas among, 422 - - Patination of flints, 187, 660 - - Patroclus, prize at funeral games of, 5 - - Paulus Jovius on bone bracers in England, 430 - - Pausanias on the use of metals in the heroic times, 4, 7 - - Peale, Mr. T. R., on the use of bone in arrow-chipping, 39 - - Peat, - injurious effect of, on wood, 152; - moss, hafted hatchet found in, 151; - moss, sling-stones in, 419; - moss, stone knives arranged in, 593; - Oxford, recent flora in, 593; - palæolithic implements at base of, 539 - - Pebbles, - as amulets, 466, 469; - cheese-shaped, 244; - with depressions worked, 241, 244, 270; - flint, disintegration of, 497; - grooved, 271; - in interments, 467, &c.; - naturally perforated, 469, 470; - painted, in the cave of Mas d’Azil, 484; - perforated, for hammers, 217; - perforated, for net-sinkers, 439; - polished, in tumuli, 214, 443, 467; - as pounders, 244; - of quartz, battered by use, 25; - of quartzite, hammers of, 228; - sacred, 468; - for slinging, 419 - - Pemberton, American inscribed axe from, 58 - - Pendants - of amber, 460; - of bone, 463; - of bronze at Hallstatt, 464; - of jasper and callais, 465; - of jet, 461, &c., 466; - of serpentine, 470 - - Pengelly, Mr., - exploration of Brixham cave by, 512; - of Kent’s Cavern, 488, 491 - - Pennacooks, - mode of using pestle among the, 257; - their scrapers, 299 - - Pennant, Mr., on querns in the Hebrides, 258 - - Penning, Mr. W. H., - on African palæolithic implements, 653; - palæolithic implements found by, 602, 603 - - Pennington, Mr. Rooke, barrow opened by, 467 - - Perceval, Mr. Spencer G., drift implement found by, 624 - - Perforations - in celts, 142; - incomplete, of axe-heads, 205, 226; - natural, in flints, 184, 225; - in pebbles, 217, 470; - in stone, how effected, 46, 47; - in stone, possible use of in cord-making, 428; - in whetstones, 268; - in wooden handle of flake, 292 - - Perrault, M., researches in the Camp de Chassey, 159 - - Persian arrows, iron, 394, 396 - - Persians, myth as to their skill in archery, 361 - - Personal ornaments, amulets, &c., 452–472 - - Perthes, M., Boucher de, - discoveries in Somme valley, 12, 490; - on celt handle, 160; - on uses of pointed implements, 655; - on worked flints at Abbeville, 526 - - Peru, obsidian working in, 24 - - Pestle and mortar, 252, 254 - - Pestle-like implements, 135, 149 - - Petrie, Prof. Flinders, - on Egyptian blades, ripple-marked, 359; - on fibre-hafted knife, 293; - flint hatchets, hafting of, 169, 170; - lance-head, 354; - palæolithic implements found by, 652, 653; - on sickles, 297; - on tube-boring, 51 - - Pfahl-bauten, - Swiss, flint workshop in the, 22; - sawing on celts of, 43 - - Philip II. of Macedon, imitations of coin of, found with arrow-head, 397 - - Phillips, Mr. B., on softening amber, 449 - - Pickel, Conrad, his name Latinized into _Celtes_, 56 - - Picks of red deer horn used for flint extraction, 33 - - Picks and chisels, 173–182 - - “Picts’ Castle,” 138 - - “Picts’ houses,” see Brochs. - - “Picts’ knives,” - flakes resembling, 281, 292; - not of flint, 345; - recent use of, 348; - possible use of in whaling, 348 - - _Pierre de tonnerre_, 57 - - Pig, Roman sacrifice of, with flint weapon, 10 - - “Pikelet stones” now made of iron, 440 - - Pins or awls, 433; - bone, in interments, 83; - from Kent’s Cavern, 488, 506; - bronze, 214; - possible use of, in interments, 432 - - Pipes of erosion, 548, 602, 707 - - Pisander, bronze axe of, 4 - - “Pisky grinding-stones,” 437 - - Pitcairn on the diabolical origin of elf-arrows, 366 - - Pitch, Scandinavian use of, for mounting bronze implements, 170 - - _Pithecanthropus erectus_, Dr. Dubois’, alluded to, 703 - - Pits for the extraction of flints, 33, 35, 78 - - Pivot stones, 242 - - Planes, Eskimo, use of scrapers as, 299 - - “Plateau type,” doubtful character of flints of, 609, 643, 658 - - Plate of gold in barrow, 227 - - Plates - of amber for necklaces, 460; - of jet, 457, &c. - - Pleistocene fauna, - association of worked flints with, 606, 700, 701, &c.; - implements, European, similarity of those of Somaliland with, 653 - - Pliny - as to _Cerauniæ_, 64, 481; - on the _Glossopetra_, 363; - on the _ovum anguinum_, 437; - on pyrites, 16 - - Plot, Dr., - on the true character of stone axes, 63; - on flint arrow-heads, 362 - - Ploughshare, bronze, ceremonial use of, by the Tuscans, 5 - - Plowright, Dr. C. B., on a Norfolk flint factory, 83 - - Plutarch on the bronze weapons of Theseus, 4 - - “Pluvial Period,” Mr. Tylor on the, 698 - - Poem, early German, referred to, 146 - - _Pogamoggon_, its use by Shoshone Indians, 424 - - Poison, etymological testimony to its use on arrows, 362 - - Pole-lathe, mechanism of, 447 - - Polished patches on celts due to hafting, 89, 337 - - Polishers of stone, 266, 267; - in Kent’s Cavern, 492 - - Polishing, - absence of from palæolithic implements, 649; - processes for, 43 - - “_Polissoirs_,” 262 - - Polygonal flakes, abundance of, in River-Drift, 642 - - Poppe, Mr. A., doubtful discoveries of hafted hatchets by, 163 - - Porphyritic greenstone, - axes of, 193, 198; - celts of, 104, 116, 124, 125, 129, 130, 136; - chisel-like implement of, 176; - knife of, 346; - perforated adze of, 189 - - Porphyry, - rolled fragments of, in Bournemouth gravels, 694; - Spanish implements of, 529; - slate, polished pebble of, 467 - - Pottery, - absence of, from palæolithic deposits, 658; - association of, with celts, 152; - fragment of, from Cissbury, 79; - in interments, 160, 248, 464; - materials pounded for making, 257; - possible use of bone instruments in making, 432; - Roman, flint flakes with, 283; - serrated flints for decorating, 296 - - “Pot-stone,” or steatite, 444; - why so called, 451 - - Poulton, Prof. E. B., drift implements found by, 626 - - Pounders, - pebbles used as, 244–248; - ridged by use, 246; - spherical, 250 - - Pounding-stones, palæolithic, probable uses of, 657 - - Pourtalès, M. F. de, on the use of bone in arrow-chipping, 39 - - Pressigny-le-Grand, - cores from, 27, 28; - long flakes at, 29 - - Prestwich, the late Sir Joseph; - researches with author in Somme valley, 490, 527; - at Icklingham, 539; - at Reculver, 613; - his report on Brixham Cave, 512; - section of Ouse valley, 531; - section of Lark valley, 543; - section of Reculver Sands, 617; - on drift deposits at Hoxne, 574; - on drift deposits capping chalk downs, 608; - implements found by, 593, 632; - on Fisherton beds, 630; - on uses of pointed implements, 645, 654; - on river action, 663; - on transporting power of ground-ice, 671; - on disintegrating effect of frost, 672; - on materials of drift gravels, 678; - on level of Waveney valley, 683; - old sea-beach found by at Waterbeach, 687; - on valley erosion, 697; - on difference between high and low level valley deposits, 699; - on time needed for forming pipes of erosion, 707 - - Probert, Mr. C. K., drift implement found by, 538 - - Prometheus as to cave-dwelling men, 480 - - _Promptorium Parvulorum_ quoted as to slickstones, 441 - - Ptahmes, his name on stone knife, 8 - - Pudding-stone, Hertfordshire, querns of, 259 - - Pulley-beads, 560 - - Pulley-shaped rings, - of jet, 352, 398, 455; - of cannel-coal, 456 - - “Pump-drill” for producing fire by friction, 48, 49 - - Punches, - probable uses of in flint-flaking, 23, 25, 278; - in making axes, 32 - - “Purgatory Hammer,” 183 - - “Pygmy flints,” 325 - - Pyrenees, Claudian on worked flints of the caves of, 480 - - Pyrites, - association of, with worked flints, 5, 313, 314, 316; - in Belgian bone caves, 15, 318; - in interments, 265, 313, &c., 467; - scored, in Trou de Chaleux, 318, 501; - use of with flint for fire-producing, 5, &c.; - its use evidenced by its name, 16 - - Pyrodes, myth as to his introduction of fire, 16, 313 - - Q - - Quarries of stone for implements, 80 - - Quartz, - American arrow or harpoon heads of, 407; - Australian hafting of flakes of, 293; - beads of, 465; - celt of, 136; - crystals of, used for boring, 322; - Egyptian celt of, 113; - flat disc of, 244; - pebbles, association of, with flint flakes, 25; - hammers of, 243, 248; - pebbles in interments, 467; - slickstones of, 442; - Swiss arrow-head of, 402; - implements, African, 653; - implements from Portugal, 529 - - Quartzite, - axe-hammer of, 207; - celt of, 113; - flakes of, 281; - hammer-heads of, 225, 228, 229; - implements of, 587, 593, 650, 651, 654; - implements from Somaliland, 653; - mauls of, 234; - pebbles of, battered glacial, 561; - pebbles, implements of, 566, 579, 594; - pebbles in Little Ouse valley, 682; - plano-convex disc of, 231; - qualities of, for implement making, 581; - Scotch arrow-head of, 377; - spherical implement of, 244 - - Quaternary beds, - freshwater origin of, 679; - first discovery of implements in, 581; - in Portugal, 529; - reported human remains in, 703; - fauna, continental conditions of in England, 707; - gravel, character of flint implements from, 12 - - Queen Charlotte Islands, basalt hammer from, 25 - - Querns, 258–260; - from Brochs, 463 - - Quoit, disc resembling, 440 - - R - - Rabut, M., hammer-stone found by, in the Lac du Bourget, 246 - - Rain, proportion of, that reaches chalk springs, 675 - - Rainfall, - dependence of height of saturation of chalk on, 664; - valley erosion dependent on amount of, 666, 668 - - Rats, perforated discs for guarding against, 439 - - Rau, Prof., - his experiments on boring stone, 48; - referred to, 237, 241 - - _Rayos_ or _Centellos_, 58 - - Razors, Mexican, of obsidian, 290 - - Read, Mr. C. J., on Milford Hill finds, 632 - - Read, Mr. C. H., on Bolas, 423 - - Read, Mr. W., C.E., drift implements found by, 623 - - Red deer, - antlers of, used in flint digging, 33; - found at Cissbury, 79; - flat instrument made from, 432; - circle of in barrow, 466; - sockets made from, 160 - - “Red woman of Paviland,” 487 - - Reeds, use of, for shafting arrows, 369, 409, 410 - - Refuse heaps in Dordogne caves, 478 - - “Regenbogen-schüsseln,” with flint arrow-head, 397 - - Reid, Mr. Clement, - on the Arctic flora of Hoxne, 577; - on the Hoxne deposits, 685 - - Reindeer or Cavern Period, - arrow-heads of, 361; - cave-dwellers of, in S. of France, 277; - characteristics of, 53; - characteristics of caves of the, 482; - objects found in caverns of, 321; - scrapers of, 311; - toothed flakes of, 296; - use of red paint in, 264; - worked stones in caves of, 245 - - Reindeer horn, - Eskimo flaking-tool tipped with, 37; - harpoon-heads of, 484; - rows of holes bored in, 321 - - Religious rites, survival of ancient customs in, 5, 7 - - “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” Dean Buckland’s, 487 - - Resin, its use in mounting flakes, 293, 409 - - Rhinoceros, - bones of leg of, in apposition, 701; - hemitœchus, remains of, in Wales with human works, 520 - - Rib, with incised horse on it, 523 - - Rib-like bone, marks of sawing on, 539 - - “Ribbon-sling,” 417 - - Richard, Abbé, - flint flakes found by, in tomb of Joshua, 9; - Syrian drift implements shewn by, 652 - - Rickard, Mr. J. C., on palæolithic African implements, 653 - - Ridged flakes defined, 641 - - Ridges worn on hammer stones, 246 - - Ridley, Messrs. E. P. & H. N., on fossil plants at Hoxne, 577 - - Rigollot, Dr., on implements at St. Acheul, 526, 527 - - Rings - of jet in interments, 265, 266, 308, 352, 426, 455; - with radial perforations, 454, 456; - of Kimmeridge shale, 456; - penannular, of bronze, 456; - of Samian ware, 466; - spiral, of bronze, 398; - of stone, 465; - studs combined with, for fastenings, 454 - - Ripple marking - on Egyptian and Danish blades, 359; - on British arrow-heads, 392, 393 - - River basins, present lowering of, 668 - - River Drift, - antiquity of, 662, &c.; - causes of crumpling, 697, 698; - and surface periods, gap between, 650, 704; - implements of, 526, _et seqq._; - implements compared with those of caves, 474; - French and English, resemblance of, 627, 630; - mammalian remains in, 528, &c.; - molluscan in, 531, 536, 539, &c.; - sorting of materials, of, by water action, 667, 673 - - River gravels, - scrapers rarely found in, 311; - stone implements found in, 147–150 - - Rivers, - amount of detritus carried by, 667; - former, near Cromer, 572; - former, preceding the Solent, 622, 634, 690, 694; - former, connected with the Waveney, 577; - former, represented by the Wye, 521; - origin of systems of, 665; - transporting power of, 666, &c. - - Rivers, - General Pitt, his explorations at Cissbury, 33, 78–82; - on the classification of flint arrows, 370; - on implements in the London gravels, 589; - flint flakes found by, in Egyptian gravel, 652; - palæolithic implements found by, 604 - - Robenhausen, pyrites found in lake settlement of, 15 - - Robinson, Sir J. C., palæolithic implements found by, 626 - - Rock-crystal, - perforation of, on the Rio Negro, 52; - piece of in cist, 468 - - Rocks, calcareous, erosion of, 477, &c. - - Rock-shelters, formation of, 476 - - Rolled condition of implements in lower parts of valleys, 681 - - Rolleston, the late Prof., his find at Oxford, 593 - - Rolling-pin and bed-stone, 250 - - Romano-British village, - “coal money” in, 465; - shale cups in, 448 - - Roman remains, - stone objects with, 109, 144, 237, 244, 283; - in Lark valley, 543; - sites, flakes found on, 283; - sites, bone pins on, 431; - sites, discoidal stone weights on, 443; - soldier with bracer represented on monument, 430 - - Romans, - ceremonial use of flint by the, 9; - pyrites used by, for fire-producing, 313; - staff-sling used by, 418 - - Rome, bronze shears used at, by priest of Jupiter, 5 - - Roots, possible use of pointed implements in digging for, 645, 655 - - Rose, Mr., his suggestion as to tube-boring, 50 - - Rotatory mill, 254 - - Roughening - of implements for insertion into sockets, 46, 125, 128, 136; - of hammers for grasping, 243 - - Roundels of stone, suggested use of, 49 - - “Round-nosed chisels,” stone implements resembling, 180 - - Rowe, Rev. A. L., quartzite drift implement found by, 578 - - Rubbers needed for polishing concave surfaces, 266 - - Ruddle, - rubbing stone associated with, 263; - nodules of, with charcoal, 263, 264 - - Rumph on the “Dondersteenen” of Java, 59 - - Runic characters on stone celts, 58 - - Rushes, use of, for cord in hafting, 292 - - Rutley, Mr. F., drift implement found by, 616 - - S - - Sabines, use of bronze knives by priests of the, 5 - - Sabre-toothed tiger, presence of, in British caves, 508, 524 - - Saddle-querns, 251 - - St. Acheul, Kent’s Cavern implements of the age of, 495 - - St. Alban’s mill dues, 258 - - “Salagramma pebble,” Indian custom concerning, 468 - - Salmon, M. Philippe, his division of the Stone ages, 485 - - Salt-mines, - grooved axes in, 169; - stone mauls found in, 234 - - “Samian ware,” ring of, 466 - - Sand, - use of, in boring stone, 49; - use of, in grinding concave surfaces, 266; - polishing effect of, 659 - - Sandars, Mrs. E., side scraper found by, 636 - - Sandstone, - cup of, 444; - grooved pieces of, 83; - grooved nodule of, as sink-stone, 236; - perforated plates of, 428, 431; - pyriform piece of, 442 - - Sarmatians, their early ignorance of the use of iron, 7 - - “Sarsen-stone,” - mullers of, 248; - interment under, 352 - - Saucer of shale, 445 - - Savage Island, shaped sling-stones in, 418 - - Savages, modern, - hafting of implements by, 155, 161, &c.; - their use of perforated implements, 215; - of stone implements, 172; - of unmounted tools, 171 - - Savoy, superstition regarding celts in, 57 - - Saws, - flint, in La Madelaine caves, 484; - serrated flakes as, 249, 297; - small flakes mounted as, 293 - - Sawing, - mechanical aids to, 44; - modern experiments in, 44, 297; - signs of, rare in British implements, 43; - traces of, on Spanish celt, 44 - - _Saxo Grammaticus_ on Thor’s Hammer, 62 - - Saxon graves, - fibula and flints in, 144; - flint arrow-heads in, 397; - quern in, 259; - steels and chipped flints in, 283 - - Saxon remains in Lark valley, 543; - spindle-whorl with, 439 - - Scales of fish in river drift, 540, 541 - - Scaling fish, possible use of scrapers for, 312, _note_ - - Scalping knife, possible use of stone blade as, 355 - - Scandinavian axes, 184; - how bored, 49; - blades, crescent-shaped, 297; - flint knives, 8; - harpoon-heads, 277; - hone, 271; - superstitions as to stone implements, 366, 469; - two-edged flint blades, 294 - - Schlalum Indians, adze of the, 166 - - Scheffer, - on burial customs of the Lapps, 283; - Lapp divining stone engraved by, 470 - - Schliemann, - arrow-heads found by, at Mycenæ, 403; - flakes for sickles found by, 297; - grooved stone mentioned by, 235; - mealing stones found by, 253; - on Trojan sling bullets, 418 - - Schmerling, Dr., his discoveries in Belgian caves, 481 - - Schoolcraft - on American perforated maces, 216; - on hammer-stones, 219, 241 - - _Sciat-hee_, Sir D. Wilson on the, 366 - - “Scies,” 296 - - Scotch fir, submerged forest of, at Bournemouth, 695 - - Scrapers, - classification of, 300; - discoidal, 302, 308; - double-ended, 307; - duck-bill shaped, 304, 305; - from Palæolithic Floor, 600; - hollow, 319; - horseshoe-shaped, 300, 308, 311; - in brick-earth, 599; - iron-mounted in Merovingian graves, 314; - irregular in form, 306; - kite-shaped, 303, 304; - in kjökken-möddings, 310; - method of making, 36, 298, &c.; - modern use of, 299, 320; - numerous, where flint abounds, 310; - rare in River Drift, 643; - resemblance between ancient and modern, 314, 315; - of the Reindeer Period, 311; - spoon-shaped, 308, 310; - straight, 319; - traces of wear on, 311, 495; - use of, in preparing hides, 311, 312; - use of, in producing fire, 312–319, 501; - why so named, 643; - with bronze weapons, 309 - - Scraping, - results of, on flint flakes, 289; - wear from, on Brixham flints, 516 - - Scythes, myths concerning, 361 - - Scythians, - their skill in archery, 361; - their bronze arrow-heads, 368 - - Sea, - rate of encroachment by the, 695; - on soft cliffs, 707; - at Reculver, 686 - - Sea shells in Whittlesea Mere, 681 - - Sections - of Brixham Cave, 512, 513; - at Bromehill, 560, 561; - at Hackney Down, 584; - of Hitchin brickfield, 536, 537; - at Hoxne, 574, 575; - of Isle of Wight, 626; - of Kent’s Cavern deposits, 491; - of Lark valley, 543; - of Ouse valley, 531, 551; - of Rea valley, 579; - of Reculver cliffs, 617; - at Shrubhill, 569; - of gravels at Southampton, 623 - - Seeley, Mr. H., on an incised bone, 539 - - Sehested, Mr., his experiments with stone implements, 50, 69 - - _Selci romboidale_, 325 - - Sellers, Mr. G. E., on stone-chipping, 24 - - Sérifontaine, pits for flint extraction at, 35 - - Serpentine - arrow-head, Swiss, 402; - axe-hammers, 206, 213; - celts, 66, 125, 130, 138; - chisel, Swiss, 177; - Merovingian pendants, 470; - ovoid implement, 467; - perforated discs, 216; - hammers, 221, 224; - ring, 465 - - _Serpula_ limestone, instruments of, 128, 227 - - Serration, varying, of flint saws, 294, 297 - - Seton-Karr, - Mr. H. W., discoveries in Somaliland, 652, 653; - palæolithic Egyptian implements found by, 652 - - Sets or punches, 24, 25 - - Shafting of arrow-heads, methods of, 408–411 - - Shafts of arrows, - compound, 410; - concave scrapers for, 320; - grooved pebbles for straightening, 268; - South American, 407 - - Shale, - cups of, 445; - pendants of, 463; - rings of, 466 - - Sharpening-stones, 161–171 - - Sharp-rimmed implements, classification of, 646 - - Shasta Indians, arrow-chipping among, 39, 40 - - Shelley, Mr., flakes collected by, 278 - - Shell-gouges, Carib use of, 182 - - Shells, - extinct in England, in Cam river-drift, 539; - fossil, as ornaments, 484; - fresh water, their evidence as to source of gravels, 679; - fresh water, with Hoxne implements, 684; - fresh water and land, in Ouse gravels, 531; - land and marsh at Hampton, 617; - used as pendants, 470 - - Shetland blades, 347 - - Shield, wooden, in Saxon tumulus, 163 - - Shoe-shaped implements defined, 645 - - Shore-ice, transporting power of, 672 - - Shoshonee Indians, military flail used by, 423 - - Shrubsole, Mr. O. A., on the Caversham beds, 592 - - Sibbald, Sir Robert, - on elf-arrows, 362; - on the artificial nature of flint arrow-heads, 363 - - Siberian use of stones for pounding, 245 - - Sickle, bronze, of Medea, 5 - - Sickles, - Egyptian, 297; - possible use of curved knives as, 358 - - Side-scrapers, - definition of, 300, 302; - in caves and River drifts, 548, 635, 643 - - Silex, suggested etymology of, 15 - - Silica, two forms of, in flint, 497 - - Silver, - arrow-heads mounted in, 365, 367; - present use of stone tools in working, 232 - - Similarity of wants, similarity of implements due to, 235, 407 - - Sinew, animal, - modern use of, in arrow-shafting, 409, 410; - Eskimo weapon of chase made of, 422; - its use for sewing, 507, 657 - - Sink-stones, present use of, 236, 237 - - Siret, M. M., saddle-querns found by, in Spain, 252 - - “Skelbs,” Scottish for flakes, 275 - - Skeletons, - bracers on arms of, 426, 429, 456; - cause of contracted attitude, 149; - contracted, articles with, 309, 313; - female, necklaces with, 457, 459, 462, 463; - jet ornaments with, 454; - pebbles in hands of, 467, 468; - in Quaternary beds, 656, 703; - in Spain, articles found with, 333, 352 - - Skertchley, Mr., - on manufacture of gun-flints, 15, 18; - on the date of the Brandon beds, 568 - - Skins, - flakes hafted by, 293; - preparation of, with stone implements, 127, 299, 340; - scraper for, from Kent’s Cavern, 499 - - Skull, human, - in Cheddar Cave, 486; - in gravel pit of Ouse valley, 542; - near Bury St. Edmunds, 656, 703 - - Slabs for sharpening stone implements, 261 - - Sladen, Major, jade celts brought from China by, 127 - - Slate, chlorite, - perforated plates of, 425; - knives of, 358; - used for arrows and lance-heads, 404 - - “Slekenstone,” its renderings into Latin, 441 - - Slickstone of glass in woman’s grave, 442 - - Slickstones, various, 441 - - Sling, early use of the, 417 - - Slinging by means of split stick, 417 - - Sling-stones, - early forms and materials of, 418; - in Kjökken-möddings, 419; - their relation to intrenchments, 420 - - Sloane catalogue, reference to “British weapon” in, 581 - - Smith, - Mr. G., implement found by, at Southsea, 626; - Captain G. V., experiments with Kjökken-mödding axes, 69; - Captain John, on arrow-chipping in Virginia, 40; - Mr. Worthington G., _echini_ found by, in barrow, 468; - flakes fitted on to palæolithic cores by, 20, 598; - finds old land surface under brick-earth, 598; - palæolithic implements found by, in gravels, 530, 583–586, 601–604, - 611, 624 - - Smoothing stone, tanged, 443 - - Snake River Indians, arrow-chipping by, 40 - - Snake-stones, snake bites treated by, 437 - - Socket of celts, - polishing due to friction of, 89, 142; - intermediate, of stag’s horn, 158, 160; - mode of fastening axe in, 156; - stone, for hinge, 242 - - Solent, ancient river of the, 634, 637; - its former basin, 638, 690; - subsequent widening of, 691 - - Solinus on the abundance of jet in Britain, 464 - - Solutré, characteristics of Age of, 484 - - Solvent power of carbonic acid, 675 - - Somme, implements in the drift of the valley of the, 490 - - Sophocles, his mention of the bronze sickle of Medea, 5 - - Sotacus, - concerning _Cerauniæ_, 64, 480; - his date, 65 - - South Sea Islanders, adze-like implement of, 138 - - Spanish _trillas_, 284 - - Spalls of flint, 564 - - Spalding, Mr. F., 179 - - Spear-heads - of flint, 348, &c.; - with notches at side, 351 - - Spear-shafts, concave scrapers for shaping, 320 - - Specks, shining, on flints from the gravel, 565, 659 - - Spiennes, - cores from, 27; - flint manufactory at, 34; - stag’s horn hammers at, 35 - - Spindles, upright, of corn-mills, 242 - - Spindle-whorls, 436, &c.; - absent in palæolithic times, 657; - _cidares_ used as, 469; - in Kent’s Cavern, 492; - varieties of, 438 - - Spinning and weaving, - early practice of, 436; - method of, 437 - - Spinning-wheel, possible classical use of, 436 - - Spiral ornament - on bone bead, 211; - on glass bead, magic virtue of, 437 - - Splinters and flakes of flint, distinction between, 275 - - Springs in the chalk, 664, 675 - - Spurrell, Mr. Flaxman C. J., - flint flakes replaced on cores by, 20, 606; - on final flaking of Danish daggers, 42; - implements found by, 572, 605, 606; - on ripple-marked Egyptian blades, 359; - on stone implement making at Kahun, 45; - on flakes mounted for sickles, 297 - - Staff-sling, its use in Roman times, 418 - - Stag’s horn, - axe or hoe of, 434; - bone-tipped implement of, 416; - for hafting celts, 128; - for hafting flakes, 292; - hammers of, 35, 41, 186, 434; - implements for arrow-flaking, 41, 393; - in interments, 148, 398; - in mines, 233, 234; - picks of, 33, 34; - punch of, for obsidian working, 25; - sockets of, 158, 161; - in Swiss Lake-dwelling, 321 - - Stalactite, - formation of, 479; - piece of in barrow, 466 - - Stalagmite, - deposition of, 479; - of Kent’s Cavern, 511 - - _Stan-æx_ and _stan-bill_, 145 - - Stanley, the late Hon. W. O., - researches in Holyhead, 230, 234, 244, - 252, 450, 466 - - Steatite, - cup of, 444; - New Caledonian sling-stones of, 418; - sawed with string and sand, 45; - tubes of in Ohio valley, 50; - its use for hollow vessels, 451 - - Steels with flints in Saxon graves, 283 - - Steenstrup, - on marks of attrition on celts, 89, 297; - as to use of Kjökken-mödding axes, 69 - - “Steenstrup’s markings” on oval blade, 337 - - Stevens, Mr. Alfred H., - implements found by at Bournemouth, 635; - the late Mr. E. T., classification by, of palæolithic implements, 641, - 644, 646–648; - implements found by, 627; - Dr. Joseph, drift implements found by, in Thames valley, 143, 591, 592; - referred to, 277 - - Stick, split, slinging by means of, 417 - - Stone of the Arrows, 262 - - Stone of Heaven, 5 - - Stone Age, division of into Earlier and Later stages, 12, 474 - - Stone and Bronze Periods, overlapping of, 89, 143, 150, 211, 471, &c. - - Stone weight, name suggestive of origin, 443 - - Stopes, Mr. H., Syrian and Egyptian implements found by, 652 - - Strabo, on the exportation of amber to England, 449 - - “Strahlhammer,” 63 - - Streams, carrying power of, 666 - - “Strike-a-light” flints, arrow-heads used for, 400; - present manufacture of, 17, 21; - their resemblance to early scrapers, 314 - - Studs of amber, 456; - of jet with rings in interments, 454–456 - - _Strombus gigas_, gouge-like instrument formed from, 182 - - Stukeley, his account of a stone axe, 183; - on elf’s arrows, 366 - - Submarine forest at Bournemouth, 695; - at Hunstanton, celt found in tree of, 150 - - “Subterranean reservoir” of the chalk, 664 - - Suetonius on a portentous find of stone axes, 65 - - Superstitions concerning stone: - adzes, 59; - arrow-heads, 363–367; - axes, 62, 63, 145, 183; - celts, 56–61; - hammers, 62; - “lucky-stones,” 469; - pebbles, 467, 468; - “witch-stone,” 470 - - Surface-flaking of arrow-heads, 392, 393 - - Surface Period, synonymous with Neolithic, 12 - - Surface drainage, lessening with amelioration of climate, 676 - - Survival of bronze implements in religious rites, 5 - - Swiss Lake-dwellings, - arrow-heads, bone, in, 402; - animals, domesticated, 358; - awls, perforated, 323; - bastard gouges, 182; - bitumen, use of in hafting, 170, 409; - celts, socketed, 128, 136; - degree of civilization in, 358; - disc, perforated, 191; - flakes, trimmed, 327; - flakes, mounting of, 502; - hafting of celts, 167; - hafting of hatchets, 155, 158, 162; - knife, peculiar, 348; - needles of bone, 433; - sling-stones, 418 - - Swords, - bronze, 4; - leaf-shaped Egyptian, 8; - Mexican obsidian, 294 - - Sword-like blades, Irish, of slaty stone, 363 - - Syenite, - axe-hammer of, 211; - celt of, 127; - and greenstone, celts of at Kent’s Cavern, 488 - - Symonds, Rev. W. S., on changes in Wye valley, 521 - - T - - “Taawisch,” Nootka Sound war axes, 157 - - Tacitus, on the arrows of the Fenni, 361 - - Tahitians, - their shaped sling-stones, 419; - sharpening of hatchets by, 263; - stone pestle of, 257 - - Tasmanians, - pebble superstitions among the, 468; - unmounted celts used by, 171 - - Taunus slate, perforated hoe of, 191 - - Taylor, Mr. J. B., African palæolithic implements brought by, 653 - - Teeth, attrition of, by grit from grinding-stones, 253, 254 - - Teneriffe, use of obsidian knives in, 8 - - Terraces of gravel left during erosion of valleys, 673; - near London, 590, 685; - in Waveney valley, 578 - - Tertiary implements, so called, 658 - - Teutonic interments, stone objects in, 468, 470 - - “Thesaurus Brandenburgicus,” occurrence of _Celtes_ in, 55 - - Thong-drill, use of, 48 - - “Thor’s Donnerkeil,” 51 - - Thor’s hammers, 62, 145, 184 - - Threshing instrument resembling the _tribulum_, 284 - - “Thumb-flint,” method of making, 36 - - “Thunder axes,” 56 - - “Thunder-stones” in Dutch Guiana, 271; - in Western Africa, 60 - - Thurburn, Capt. H., Greek celts brought by, 126; - African celt brought by, 241 - - Thurnam, the late Dr., - on the connection of leaf-shaped arrow-heads with long barrows, 377; - on flat plates of stone, 427; - on javelin-heads, 370; - referred to, 244, 250, 269, 280, 291, 294, 309 - - _Tibia_, its use suggested by its name, 432 - - Tierra del Fuego, pyrites used in for producing fire, 15 - - Tiffin, Mr., junr., implements found by, 627, 634 - - Tiger, sabre-toothed, - in Kent’s Cavern, 508; - in Creswell Crags, 524 - - “Tilhuggersteene,” Danish, 241 - - Time, incalculable, needed for geological changes, 609, &c. - - Tindall, Mr. E., implements found by, 249, 251, 295, 332 - - Tinder-boxes, no early record of the use of flint for, 17 - - Tiryns, flint flakes from, 403 - - Tobacco pipes, N. American, boring of, 52 - - “Toki” of the Maoris, 172 - - Toltecs, use of stone mortars by, 257 - - Tomahawks, - Australian, 26; - mounting of, 166; - time required to make, 52; - North American, 216 - - “Tonderkiler” and “Torden-steen,” 57 - - Tongue-shaped implements defined, 644; - found, 539, 572, 649 - - Topley, Mr. W., - on possible ice action in Darent valley, 610; - ovate implement found by, 621 - - Tor Bryan Caves, 516, 517 - - Torquay Nat. Hist. Soc., exploration of Kent’s Cavern by, 490 - - Torquemada, - his account of Aztec obsidian working, 23; - on Mexican razors, 290 - - Touraine, flint industry of, 30 - - “Traba,” a form of _tribulum_, 284 - - “Trail and warp,” 698 - - Trees, - branches of, with bones under gravel, 595; - species of, in Bournemouth submarine forest, 695; - below Hitchin brick-earth, 537; - in Hoxne brick-earth, 575 - - Tremlett, Admiral, on the cutting power of jasper flakes, 6 - - Trephining, practice of, in the Stone Period, 289 - - Tribrach-formed instrument, 77, 78 - - _Tribulum_, Varro’s description of the, 284 - - Trigg formerly Prigg, the late Mr. Henry, - implements found by, 539–542, 550, 554–556, 558, 578; - section of Redhill by, 551 - - Trimmer, Mr., on Trail and Warp, 698 - - Trou de Chaleux, pyrites in, 286 - - Trough, triturating, 252 - - Troy, - earthenware whorls from site of, 439; - sling-bullets from, 418 - - Troyon, M., - on stone boring, 50; - on the use of sand in sawing stone, 44 - - Truguet, M. Franck de, Swiss boring instrument found by, 46 - - Trunk interments, 398, 447, 448 - - Tube, - boring by means of, 47, 49, 52; - in Klemm collection, 49 - - _Tubularia_, hammer-head of fossil mass of, 229 - - Tumulus, mixing of objects of different date in, 210 - - Turquoise mines, stone hammers found in, 234 - - Turquoises on Mexican dagger-hilt, 325 - - “Turtle-backs” of Trenton, 80, 654 - - Tuscans, their ceremonial use of a bronze plough-share, 5 - - Tusks of wild boar in interments, 83, 148, 328, 427 - - Tweezers, - bone, 433; - bronze, 433, 440 - - “Twibill,” 146 - - Twigs, hafting of stone blade by, 347 - - Tylor, Mr. Alfred, - on detritus brought down by rivers, 667; - on fluviatile beds, near London, 584; - on the “Pluvial Period,” 698 - - Tylor, Dr. E. B., - on etymology of “superstition,” 8; - on obsidian working in Peru, 24, 290; - on stone drilling, 48 - - Tyndall, Prof., on conditions of glacier formation, 698 - - U - - Ulna of whale, axe made of, 435 - - _Ulus_, or Eskimo women’s knives, 343 - - Ulysses, his use of the drill, 48 - - “Underground house of Skaill,” objects found in, 255 - - Upsala, axe in museum of, with Runic inscription, 58 - - Urns, - bronze and stone objects in, 208, 269, &c.; - ornamented, found with bracer, 427; - jet ornaments with, 456; - wooden bodkin in, 433 - - Use, traces of, on implements, 504, 555, 647 - - Utensils, domestic, 436–451 - - V - - Valleys, - climatal changes shewn by deposits in, 699; - erosion of, later than cave deposits, 513, 521; - erosion of, later than gravel deposits, 580; - erosion of, affected by changes of climate, 666, 676, 697; - erosion of, hypothetical, 662–678; - retrogression of heads of, 674, 683, 686 - - Valley slopes, detritus gradually left on, 673 - - Varro, his description of the _tribulum_, 284 - - Vegetable fibre, - use of, in hafting arrows, 407, 409; - matter, decaying, a source of carbonic acid, 675 - - Venus, Paphian, on Cypriote coins, 10 - - _Vesica piscis_-formed implements, 647 - - Vessels, stone, in English barrows, 450, 451 - - Vertebræ, human, - with arrow-heads embedded, - at the Grotte du Castellet, 375, 401; - in la Marne, 396; - near Copiapo, 406 - - Victoria Cave, - doubly barbed harpoon from, 505; - River, stone working on the banks of the, 26 - - Viking grave of woman, slick-stone in, 442 - - Villas, Roman, stone celts found in, 144 - - Vincent of Beauvais as to derivation of “silex,” 15 - - Vincent, M., his early discovery of flint implement, 527 - - Virginia, early account of arrow-chipping by Indians of, 40 - - Virgil, - bronze arms mentioned by, 4; - bronze sickle of Elissa, 5; - on flint and steel, 16; - quoted as to _jactare_, 147 - - Vivian, Mr. E., his examination of Kent’s Cavern, 488, 490 - - Vogt, Prof. Carl, suggestions as to stone roundels, 49 - - Vogué, M. de, Syrian palæolithic implement obtained by, 652 - - Von Estorff on stone boring, 49 - - Von Sacken, Baron, on the Hallstatt graves, 7 - - Vulgate, occurrence of _Celte_ in, 55 - - W - - Wallong, the Australian, 243 - - Walrus, remains of, in Whittlesea Mere, 681 - - Walrus tooth used for tipping flaking tools, 24 - - Wapiti, chisels made from horn of, 434 - - War-axe - of Gaveoë Indians, 156; - of Nootka Sound Indians, 157 - - War, - blunting of axes for, 196; - or chase, probable use of stone balls in, 422; - decorations on weapons of, 226 - - War maces, - possible use of circular pebbles as, 231; - paint, interment of, with the dead, 264 - - Waring, Miss, drift implement found by, 608 - - “Warp and trail,” 593, 698 - - Warren, Mr. Hazzeldine, implements found by, 139, 603 - - Washing linen, “batting staff” employed in, 256 - - “Wasters,” presence of, in flint implement manufactories, 385, 649 - - Water, - its action on flint, 497; - carbonic-acid-charged, its action on chalk, 477, 557; - fresh, drift beds deposited by, 662; - transporting power of, 513; - transporting power dependent on rate of flow, 667 - - Water-mills, stone pivots and sockets for, 242 - - Watson, Mr. Knight, on the word _Celte_ in Vulgate, 56 - - Wauwyl, flint manufactory at, 22 - - Way, the late Mr. Albert, - his finds at Bournemouth, 635, 637; - on the submerged forest at Bournemouth, 695; - referred to, 74, 160, 254, 340, 347; - Miss, drift implement found by, 636 - - Weapons, - association of, with decorations in graves, 460; - bronze, in the heroic times, 4; - elaboration of, a mark of dignity, 216, 226; - hammer-heads as, 224; - probable use of perforated axes as, 215; - Scandinavian form of, found in Britain, 213; - wearing and re-chipping of, 349 - - Wear on implements, its evidence as to mode of use, 311 - - Weaving, - early practice of, 436; - possible use of perforated stones in, 237 - - Weaverthorpe, stag’s horn pick found at, 34 - - Wedding dress cut out by stone knife, 348 - - Wedge, - bone, 24; - certain celts possibly used as, 82, 87, 655; - of granite, 97; - tightening of hafting by means of, 233 - - Wells in the chalk, varying height of water in, 664 - - Westlake, Mr. E., implement found by, 632 - - Wexovius as to reindeer marrow, 504 - - Weights for scales, stones as, 443 - - Whale, axe made from ulna of, 435; - remains of near Cambridge, 681 - - Wheel-lock, use of pyrites in, 16 - - Whetstones, 261–271; - of the Bronze Period, 268; - in caves, 504; - Danish, 264, 265; - with gold cup in coffin, 449; - in interments, 185, 268, 271, 332, 353; - with iron loop for suspension, 270; - with metal handles, 270, 271; - Spanish perforated, 438 - - Whitaker, Mr. W., palæolithic implements found by, 538, 587, 607, 611, - 612, 613 - - Whitbourn, the late Mr., implement found by, in Wey valley, 319, 594 - - White pebbles, symbolism of, 468 - - Whitening of flint, 497, 549, 556 - - Wild goose, remains of, in Fisherton beds, 631 - - Wilde, Sir William, - on boring instruments for stone, 47; - on classification of arrow-heads, 370; - late use of stone implements recorded by, 11; - on Irish treatment of sick cattle, 365; - on use of celt in Irish weaving, 440; - referred to, 154, 177, 215, 223, 232, 270, 272, 308 - - Willett, Mr. Ernest, - his explorations at Cissbury, 78; - his discovery at Brighton, 622 - - William of Poitiers quoted, 146 - - Williams. Rev. T. J., on white stones in interments, 468 - - Wilson, the late Sir Daniel, - on American stone hammers, 235; - on celt found in canoe, 150; - on “elf-arrows,” 366; - on a find of “Picts’ knives,” 346; - on stone boring, 47; - on stone cups as lamps, 445 - - Wire, Mr. A. P., pointed implement found by, 603 - - “Witch-stone” as protection for cattle, 476 - - Withies, stone implements hafted by, 167, 168, 233, 239 - - “Witters” or barbs of arrow-heads, 370, _note_ - - “Women’s knives,” Eskimo, 343 - - Wood, - bodkin of, in urn, 433; - fire produced by friction of, 313; - fossil, from Thanet sands, 620; - method of preserving, 152; - spindles of, with Roman remains, 439; - split, hafting of daggers in, 349; - split, hafting of spear-heads in, 350; - stone boring by means of, 48, 49, 50, 52; - used for splintering obsidian, 24 - - Wood, Rev. J. G., his Nat. Hist. of Man referred to, 166, 167, 168, 299 - - Woods, various, used for hafting implements, 153, 155, 159, 160, 162, - 163, 164 - - Wooden - cup with handle in barrow, 448; - figures, carved Egyptian, 369; - objects associated with celts, 152 - - Woodward, Dr. Henry, - crystal pick described by, 235; - the late Dr. S. P., referred to, 627 - - Woodward, Dr., his suggestion as to arrow-heads, 407 - - Wookey Hyæna Den, 517–520 - - Wool, tissues of, in bronze interments, 437 - - Woollen cloth, skeleton wrapped in, 448 - - Worm, Olaf, - on early stone implements, 363; - his recognition of a Greenland harpoon, 410 - - Worsaae, Prof., - suggestions as to early stone boring, 47, 48; - referred to, 191, 232, 261, 271, 278, 298, 308, 353, 448 - - Wright, Mr. Arthur G., drift implement found by, 539 - - Wrist-guards of stone, 425–428 - - Wyatt, the late Mr. James, - finds of implements, 572, 613; - his section of Ouse valley, 531; - referred to, 101, 110, 245, 340 - - Wye Valley, geological changes in, 521 - - Wyeth, Mr., on arrow-chipping by Snake River Indians, 40 - - X - - Xanthorrhæa gum, its use in hafting hatchets, 137, 170 - - Xerxes, stone and iron-tipped arrows used by army of, 368 - - Y - - Yew, - flake-handle of, 292; - in Hoxne beds, 575; - probable use of for British bows, 411 - - Young, Mr. Lambton, C.E., drift implement from the Thames found by, 588 - - Yun-nan, jade-working in, 110 - - Z - - Zinck, M., his criticisms on distinctions between palæo- and neo-lithic - forms, 649 - - Zigzag - incised lines on sandstone cup, 444; - ornamentation on stone bracer, 430 - - Zunis of New Mexico, arrow-head charms among the, 367 - - - - -|732| - -INDEX, GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL. - - - BEDFORDSHIRE. - Bedford, 530, 645 - Bedfordshire, 277 - Biddenham, 495, 531, 532, 680 - Biggleswade, 538 - Bossington, 530 - Cardington,531 - Dallow Farm, near Luton, 598 - Dunstable Downs, 72, 468 - Harrowden, 531 - Henlow, 536 - Honey Hill, 531 - Houghton Regis, 598 - Kempston, 105, 125, 245, 340, 353, 531, 535 - Leagrave Marsh, 598 - Leighton Buzzard, 91, 530 - Luton, 229 - Maiden Bower, near Dunstable, 69, 281, 301, 310, 334, 374, 376, 379, - 415 - Miller’s Bog, near Pavenham, 101 - Sandy, 427 - Summerhouse Hill, 531 - Tempsford, 536 - Wanlud’s Bank, Luton, 68 - - BERKSHIRE. - Abingdon, 103, 389 - Berkshire, 381 - Cherbury Camp, Pusey, 111 - Childrey, 391 - Cholsey, 593 - Cockmarsh, 309 - Gould’s Heath, 393 - Great Shefford, 309 - Grovelands, 591 - Kennet Mouth Pit, near Newtown, 592 - Lambourn Down, 186, 318, 349, 384, 399, 434, 455 - Maidenhead, 174, 591 - Pig’s Green, near Reading, 592 - Reading, 591, 592 - Redlands, 592 - Ruscombe, 591 - Sunninghill, 229 - Sutton Courtney, 389 - Thatcham, near Newbury, 76 - Wallingford, 343, 390, 592 - Wokingham, 592 - - BUCKINGHAMSHIRE. - Burnham, 591 - Chalvey Grove, Eton Wick, 101 - Dawley, near West Drayton, 591 - Great Missenden, 596 - Iver, 591 - Langley, 591 - Marlow, 591 - Pulpit Wood, Prince’s Risborough, 281, 310 - Taplow, 591 - - CAMBRIDGESHIRE. - Aldreth, 390 - Barnwell Gravels, 538, 539 - Bartlow Hills, 68 - Bottisham Fen, 68, 73, 116, 174, 335, 350, 539 - Bottisham Lode, 110 - Bourn Fen, 383 - Burnt Fen, Prickwillow, Ely, 68, 330, 351, 376, 383 - Burwell Fen, 68, 72–75, 88, 92, 93, 107, 109, 115, 125, 174, 175, 178, - 191, 263, 332, 336, 340, 343, 351, 390, 538 - Cambridge, 310, 326, 340 - Cambridge Fens, 70, 71, 92, 100, 104, 116, 125, 178, 251, 277, 332, - 334, 343, 431, 538, 539, 680 - Cambridgeshire, 77, 202, 251, 439, 443 - Chatteris, 538 - Chatteris Fen, 200, 384 - Chesterford, 139, 194 - Chesterton, 229, 538, 539 - Coldham’s Common, 125 - Coton, 101, 104, 116 - Cottenham, 135, 200, 269 - Digby Fen, 104 - Ely, 202 - Girton, 431 - Grantchester, 129 - Hare Park, 352 - Histon, 103 - Ickleton, 144 - Inglewood Forest, 198 - Isleham, 383 - Jackdaw Hill, 351 - Kate’s Bridge, 104 - Kennett Station, 539 - Litlington, 240 - Manea, 116 - March, 681 - Melbourn, 173 - Newmarket, 229 - Orwell, Wimpole, 222 - Quy Fen, 174, 340, 351 - Rampton, 111 - Reach Fen, 75, 88, 92, 102, 122, 138, 222, 383, 385, 389 - Redmore Fen, Littleport, 228 - Six-Mile Bottom, 539 - Soham Fen, 116, 459, 539 - Swaffham Fen, 92, 95, 110, 125, 191, 343, 431, 539 - Upper Hare Park, 539 - Waterbeach, 681, 687 - Wicken Fen, 68, 389 - Whittlesea Mere, 681 - - CHESHIRE. - Alderley Edge, 234 - Cheshire, 200 - Gatley, 243 - Macclesfield, 251 - Northenden, 194 - Siddington, Macclesfield, 200 - Tabley, Knutsford, 183 - Tranmere, 151 - - CORNWALL. - Angrowse Mullion, 314 - Bochym, Cury, 130, 242 - Boscregan, 455 - Brane Common, 269 - Carn Brê, 309, 331, 334, 389 - Cornwall, 56, 130, 251, 252, 253, 279, 437, 439 - Falmouth, 107 - Kerris Vaen, 257 - Pelynt, 72, 214 - Rillaton, 448, 449 - St. Agnes, Truro, 389 - St. Just, 84 - Tregaseal, St. Just, 269 - Trevelgue, 210 - Truro, 122, 138 - - CUMBERLAND. - Burns, Keswick, 225 - Carlisle, 202, 255 - Castle Carrock, 330 - Cumberland, 106, 112, 117, 194, 200, 257, 395 - Ehenside Tarn, 133, 152, 200, 251, 259, 265 - Great Salkeld, 117 - Hallgaard Farm, Birdoswald, 224 - Inglewood Forest, 198 - Irthington, 353 - Keswick, 96, 118, 225 - Kirkoswald, 200 - Lazenby Fell, 262 - Melmerby, 240 - Mawbray, 198 - North Lonsdale, 200 - Ousby Moor, 202 - Penrith Beacon, 104 - Plumpton, Penrith, 198 - Red Dial, Wigton, 201 - Rusland, 200 - Solway Moss, 119 - Troutbeck, 200 - Wigton, 117 - - DERBYSHIRE. - Alsop, 467 - Arbor Low, 72, 343, 352, 458 - Ashford-in-the-Water, 443, 467, 632 - Bakewell, 463 - Ballidon Moor, 280 - Belper, 230 - Biggin, 434 - Blake Low, 352 - Borrowash, 197 - Borther Low, Middleton, 398 - Brassington, 389 - Breadsale Moor, 225 - Brierlow, Buxton, 108 - Buxton, 366, 455 - Carder Low, Hartington, 194, 467 - Castleton, 467 - Church Hole Cave, Creswell, 522, 523 - Cow Low, Buxton, 309, 457 - Creswell Caves, 522 - Cronkstone Hill, 309 - Cross Low, Parwich, 149 - Derbyshire Moors, 394, 400 - Derbyshire, 143, 279, 309, 324, 332, 341, 352, 375, 377, 378, 381, 385, - 389, 394, 400, 432, 459, 467 - Dow Low, 313 - Elton Moor, 139, 148, 313, 467 - Gospel Hillock Barrow, Buxton, 149 - Green Low, Alsop Moor, 313, 352, 388, 399, 416, 432 - Grind Low, Over Haddon, 458 - Haddon Field, 432 - Harborough Rocks, 372 - Hargate Wall, 457 - Hay-Top Barrow, Monsal Dale, 463 - Hollingsclough, 279 - Hopton, 107 - Hungry Bentley, 394, 463 - Ken’s Low Farm, 214 - Lean Low, Newhaven, 340 - Liff’s Low, Biggin, 91, 148, 295 - Longcliffe, 372 - Mam Tor, 342 - Middleton, 253, 467 - Middleton Moor, 96, 136, 389, 393 - Mining Low, 343 - Monsal Dale, 309, 434 - Mother Grundy’s Parlour, Creswell Crags, 522 - Nether Low, Chelmorton, 352 - Net Low, Alsop Moor, 453 - Newhaven, 343 - Parcelly Hay Barrow, Hartington, 214 - Readon Hill, Ramshorn, 467 - Ringham Low, 377 - Robin Hood’s Cave, Creswell, 522, 523 - Smerrill Moor, 432 - Stanton Moor, 463 - Thor’s Cave, 438 - Three Lows, The, Wetton, 352 - Throwley, 186, 467 - Tideswell, 186 - Upper Edge, 279 - Wetton, 451 - Winster, 198, 259 - Wormhill, Buxton, 96, 104 - - DEVONSHIRE. - Ashbury, 200 - Axminster, 639 - Beer Head, 15 - Blackbury Castle, 279 - Bridge Farm, Tawton, 92 - Brixham, 222 - Brixham Cave, 490, 499, 512–517 - Broad Down, Honiton, 264, 314, 445–7 - Broom, 639 - Burnt Tor, Dartmoor, 200 - Cattedown, Plymouth, 517 - Chagford, 331 - Chard, 639 - Comb-Pyne, 249 - Croyde, 279 - Cullompton, 639 - Dartmoor, 257, 279, 389 - Devonshire, 195, 279, 300, 421, 694 - Happaway Cavern, Torquay, 517 - Hartland, 89 - Hawkchurch, 639 - Holsworthy, 200 - Kentisbeare, 630 - Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, 321, 325, 465, 488–511, 535, 657 - Langtree, 240 - North Bovey, 192 - Penbeacon, Dartmoor, 266 - Plymouth, 389 - Prince Town, Dartmoor, 378, 390 - Thorverton, Exeter, 225 - Tor Bryan Caves, Denbury, 516, 517 - Torre Abbey Sands, Torbay, 415 - Torquay, 116 - Ugborough, 192 - Withycombe Raleigh, 200 - - DORSETSHIRE. - Afflington, 456 - Badbury Rings, 310 - Blandford, 60, 390 - Bradford Abbas, 309, 373 - Creakmoor, Poole, 122 - Dewlish, 638 - Dorsetshire, 77, 248, 249, 279, 301, 389, 432, 691, 694 - Farnham, 75 - Hod Hill, 93, 176, 230, 310, 419 - Isle of Portland, 113, 249 - Iwerne Minster Down, 174, 379 - Jordan Hill, Weymouth, 249 - King Barrow, Stowborough, Wareham, 447 - Knowle, 269 - Langton, Blandford, 125 - Lyme Regis, 35 - Maiden Castle, 70 - Morton, Dorchester, 91 - Pistle Down, 377 - Poundbury Camp, Dorchester, 301, 310 - Povington, 445 - Ridgway Hill, 328, 385 - Tarrant Launceston, 126 - Wareham, 127 - Wimborne Minster, 634 - Winterbourn Steepleton, 210 - Woodcuts Common, 144, 448, 465 - - DURHAM. - Coves Houses, Wolsingham, 229 - Cowshill in Weardale, 106 - Heathery Burn Cave, Stanhope, 432, 464 - Jarrow, 101 - Lanchester Common, 383 - Millfield, Sunderland, 194 - Newton Ketton, 378 - Raby Castle, 105 - Sherburn, 125 - - ESSEX. - Audley End, 254 - Barking, 603 - Battlebridge, 583 - Blunt’s Hill, Witham, 75 - Clacton, 687 - Colchester, 193, 578 - East Ham, 603 - Epping Forest, 254 - Epping Uplands, 229 - Felstead, 578 - Forest Gate, 603 - Gray’s, 15 - Gray’s Thurrock, 603 - Great Easton, Dunmow, 173 - Grove Green Lane, Leyton, 603 - Higham Hill, 603 - Ilford, 603 - Lake’s Farm, Camshall Lane, Wanstead, 603 - Lea Marshes, 111 - Lexden Park, Colchester, 578 - Leyton, 603 - Leytonstone, 603 - Littlebury, Saffron Walden, 538 - Little Thurrock, 536, 603 - Mucking, 603 - North End Place, Felstead, 578 - Orsett, 603 - Plaistow, 603 - Quendon, 538 - Rainham, 603 - St. Swithin’s Farm, Barking Side, 603 - Shoeburyness, 604 - Southend, 603 - Stifford, Gray’s Thurrock, 93, 229 - Stratford, 603, 604 - Temple Mills Lane, Stratford, 100 - Tilbury, 603 - Upton, 603 - Wallend, 604 - Waltham, 229 - Walthamstow, 603 - Walton-on-the-Naze, 125, 310 - Wanstead, 603 - West Ham, 603 - Windmill Hill, Saffron Walden, 336 - Wolseys, Dunmow, 351 - - GLOUCESTERSHIRE. - Cirencester, 116 - Gloucestershire, 277, 381, 393, 400 - Great Witcombe, 144 - Hinchcombe, 89 - Mitcheldean, 291 - Oakley Park, Cirencester, 280 - Rodmarton, 280, 377, 468 - Snowshill, 212 - Snow in the Wold, 390 - Turkdean, 389 - Uley, 280 - Whittington Wood, 244 - - HAMPSHIRE. - Alton, 595 - Andover, 70 - Ashey Down, Isle of Wight, 469 - Barton, 637, 687 - Barton Cliff, 647 - Basingstoke, 314 - Bembridge, Isle of Wight, 105, 626, 693 - Bere, Forest of, 77, 82 - Bishopstow, 101 - Boscombe, 635, 636 - Bournemouth, 74, 291, 378, 390, 392, 635, 687, 690, 693–696 - Bourne Valley Pottery, 636 - Brown Down, 689 - Brunage, 625 - Chuton Bunny, 637 - Dunmer, 72 - Ellisfield Camp, 72 - Fleming Arms, Swathling, 624 - Fordingbridge, 634 - Foreland, Isle of Wight, 626, 693 - Freemantle, 623 - Hampshire, 81, 92, 100, 279, 687 - Hengistbury Head, 694 - Hill Head, 623, 625, 689 - Hordwell, 687, 694, 707 - Horndean, 389 - Isle of Wight, 78, 101, 687 - Lee on the Solent, 626, 689 - Lichfield, 309 - Milford, 637 - Minley Manor, Blackwater, 125 - Needles, The, Isle of Wight, 691 - New Forest, 687 - Petersfield Heath, 468 - Portsmouth, 111 - Redbridge, 624 - St. Mary Bourne, Andover, 70, 277, 281 - Seaview, Isle of Wight, 626, 693 - Selsey, 693, 701 - Solent, 690, &c. - Southampton, 623, 688 - Southampton, Town Pit, 624 - Southampton Water, 689 - Southbourne-on-Sea, 498 - Southsea Common, 626 - Stone, 638 - Swathland, 624 - Warsash, 626 - - HEREFORDSHIRE. - King Arthur’s Cave, Whitchurch, Ross, 521 - - HERTFORDSHIRE. - Abbot’s Langley, 78, 87, 139, 291, 301 - Albury, Bishop’s Stortford, 100 - Apsley, 597 - Ashwell, 380, 382 - Ayot St. Peter, 602 - Baldock, 177 - Bayford, 602 - Bearton Green, Hitchin, 536 - Bedmond, 78, 596, 597 - Bengeo, 602 - Bishop’s Stortford, 602 - Bushey Park, Watford, 597 - Caddington, 598, 686, 698 - Eddlesborough and Tring, between, 382 - Fisher’s Green, Stevenage, 602 - Flamstead End, 603 - Harpenden, 601 - Hertford, 602 - Hertfordshire, 70, 277, 664 - Hitchin, 537 - Hitchin and Pirton, between, 114, 437, 536, 685 - Hunsdon, Ware, 389 - Ickleford, Hitchin, 536 - King’s Langley, 572 - Knebworth, 602 - Mount Pleasant, Kensworth, 600 - No Man’s Land, Wheathampstead, 601, 602 - North Mimms, 602 - Panshanger, 101 - Pesterford Bridge, Bishop’s Stortford, 603 - St. Alban’s, 258 - Sandridge, 229 - Stocking Pelham, 603 - Tring Grove, 383, 398, 426, 456 - Verulamium, 283 - Ware, 70, 228, 334, 602 - Watford, 597 - Wellbury, Offley, 190 - Welwyn, 602 - Welwyn Tunnel, 602 - Wheathampstead, 601 - Wigginton, 597 - - HUNTINGDONSHIRE. - Abbots Ripton, 538 - Elton, Oundle, 573 - Hartford, 104, 538 - Keystone, 137 - Little Orton, 573 - Overton Longville, 573 - - KENT. - Ash, 144, 145, 608 - Aylesford, 610 - Bewley, 608 - Bexley, 103, 357 - Bigborough Hill, Canterbury, 389 - Bigborough Wood, Tunford, Canterbury, 102 - Bishopstone, 613 - Canterbury, 70, 616, 618 - Canterbury, New Cemetery, 620 - Chart Farm, Ightham, 174, 608 - Chatham, 469 - Chatham, Engineering School, 611 - Chilham, 542, 620 - Chislet, 617 - Cobham, 611 - Cockerhurst Farm, Shoreham, 608 - Crayford, 606, 607 - Currie Farm, 605 - Currie Wood, Shoreham, 605 - Dartford Heath, 605 - Dover, Priory Valley, 91 - Erith, 607 - Fane Hill, 608 - Faversham, 611 - Ferry Harty, Isle of Sheppey, 154 - Folkestone, 281, 621 - Galley Hill, 607 - Gillingham, 611 - Green Street Green, 604, 605 - Grovehurst, Milton, 331, 357, 378 - Hampton, 540 - Hartlip, 611 - Harty, Isle of Sheppey, 269 - Herne Bay, 613 - High Street, Chislet, 291 - Hollingbourne, 258 - Horton Kirby, 607 - Ightham, 608 - Isle of Thanet, 309, 331, 334 - Kingsdown, 139 - Kit’s Coty House, 378 - Leeds Castle, 309 - Lewisham, 604 - Lullingstone, 608 - Maidstone, 281, 353 - Marden Church, 610 - Meopham, 611 - Milton, 310 - Milton Street, 607 - Moldash, 612 - Newington, 611 - North Downs, 609, 686 - Northfleet, 607, 686, 703 - Nursted, 611 - Oldbury, Ightham, 92 - Oldbury Hill, 608 - Old Haven Gap, 617 - Ospringe, Faversham, 611 - Otterham Quay, Chatham, 611 - Ramsgate, 389 - Ravensbourne Valley, 604 - Reculver, 613–617, 642 - Regulbium, 283 - Rowton Chapel, Lenham, 618 - St. Mary, Hundred of Hoo, 611 - Sandling, 610 - Seal, 608 - Selling, 612 - Shoreham, 71 - Sittingbourne, 279, 427 - Slade’s Green Pit, Crayford, 606 - Stoke, 611 - Stone Pit Farm, 608 - Stone Street, 608 - Studhill, 617 - Summer Hill, Canterbury, 279 - Swalecliffe, 617 - Swanscombe, 607 - Teynham, 611 - Thanington, 540, 619 - Tunbridge, 309 - Tweedale, 611 - Wear Farm, Chislet, 620 - West Malling, 610 - West Wickham, 248, 295, 310, 334 - Wickham Road, Lewisham, 604 - Wincheap, Canterbury, 619, 620 - - LANCASHIRE. - Ayside, Newby Bridge, Windermere, 198 - Bull Hill, 378, 380 - Claughton Hall, Garstang, 210 - Conishead Priory, 104 - Dean, Bolton, 200 - Furness, 202, 229 - Haydock, Newton, 230 - Heathwaite, Furness, 465 - Hopwood, 200 - Lancashire, 209, 257, 279, 325, 389 - Lancaster, 427 - Liverpool Docks, 168 - Newton, 118 - Saddleworth, 200 - Shaw Hill, Flixton, 118 - Silverdale, 230 - Solway Moss, Longtown, 119, 151 - Torver, 230 - Toxteth, 96 - Wavertree, 389 - Windy Harbour Farm, Pendle, 117 - Winwick, Warrington, 212 - - LEICESTERSHIRE. - Barrow-on-Soar, 200 - Breedon, 259, 467 - Cliff Hill, 103, 254 - Leicester, 144, 200, 389, 435 - Loughborough, 111, 129 - Osbaston, 251 - Sutton Cheney, 432 - Wymeswold, 470 - - LINCOLNSHIRE. - Broughton, 279, 332 - Fiskerton, 350 - Gunthorpe, 373 - Lincolnshire, 431 - Manton, 389 - Newport, 225 - Spalding, 124 - - MIDDLESEX. - Abney Park Cemetery, 586 - Acton, 589, 590, 591 - Bull’s Cross, Enfield, 603 - Bush Hill Park, Enfield, 603 - Dalston, 586 - Dawley, West Drayton, 591 - Ealing Dean, 589 - Ealing, The Mount, 591 - Edmonton, 603 - Forty Hill, Enfield, 603 - Gunnersbury, 591 - Hackney, 586 - Hackney Downs, 584 - Hanwell, 591 - Highbury New Park, 585 - Hillingdon, 591 - Homerton, 586 - Hounslow, 591 - Hounslow, Heath, 334 - Kingsland, 586 - London, 127, 229, 530, 656 - London, City, 586 - London, Clerkenwell, 583, 586 - London, Drury Lane, 583 - London, Gray’s Inn Lane, 583 - London, Jermyn Street, 583 - London, London Fields, 586 - London, Main Drainage Works, 101 - London, Prince’s Street, Oxford Street, 583 - Lower Clapton, 586, 587 - Mildmay Park, 586 - Mill Hill, 589 - Northwood, Harefield, 102 - Rowan Tree Farm, Lower Edmonton, 603 - Shacklewell, 584, 586 - South Hornsey, 586 - Southwell, 591 - Stamford Hill, 586, 587 - Stoke Newington, 310, 586, 587 - Teddington, 76, 279 - Twickenham, 222 - Upper Clapton, 586 - - MONMOUTHSHIRE. - Penhow, 269, 279 - - NORFOLK. - Ash Wicken, 572 - Attleborough, 390 - Aylsham, 100, 381 - Barton Bendish, 100 - Beachamwell, 100 - Blofield, 100 - Bolton, Great Yarmouth, 100 - Breccles, 100 - Bromehill Pit, Weeting, 560 - Buckenham, 34 - Caistor, 229 - Catton, 15 - Congham, 229 - Corton Beach, Yarmouth, 357 - Cromer, 253, 463, 572 - Dull’s Lane, Loddon, 125 - Dunham, 91 - East Runton, 572 - Eaton, 34 - Elsing, 100 - Feltwell, 174, 458 - Gallows Corner, Aylmerton, 572 - Grime’s Graves, Brandon, 33–35, 40, 72, 77, 125, 248, 277, 281, 322, - 390, 431, 451 - Harleston, 228 - Heckingham Common, 103 - Hilgay Fen, 100, 255 - Hunstanton, 150 - King’s Lynn, 572 - Leziate, 572 - Little Cressingham, 460 - Little Dunham, 70 - Lopham Ford, 107 - Lyng, 229 - Massingham Heath, 83 - Narborough, Swaffham, 100 - Narford, 231 - Necton, 202, 390 - Norfolk, 77, 200, 279 - North Walsham, 173 - Norwich, 77 - Oxburgh, 100 - Pentney, 103, 151 - Redhill, Therford, 550, &c. - Rockland, 223 - Shrub Hill, Feltwell, 96, 390, 550, 568, 569 - South Wootton, 572 - Sporle, Swaffham, 229, 240 - Stanford, 91 - Swannington, 110 - Tasborough, 200 - Thetford, 69, 75, 92, 93, 142, 291, 385 - Thorpe, 91 - Trimingham, 100 - Wereham, Stoke Ferry, 142 - Westacre Hall, 102 - Weston, 90, 139 - West Runton, Cromer, 572 - Whitehill, 550, 556 - Yarmouth, 229 - - NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. - Gilsborough, 110 - King’s Sutton, 130 - Little Wansford, Great Weldon, 350 - Northampton, 124 - Norton, Daventry, 352 - Oundle, 301, 373, 378 - Peterborough, 681 - Pytchley, 281 - Towcester, 104 - - NORTHUMBERLAND. - Alnwick, 199 - Amble, 280 - Barrasford, 200 - Bellingham, North Tyne, 126 - Birtley, 259 - Branton, 126 - Burradon, 103, 116 - Chollerford, 330 - Coldstream, 168 - Doddington, 116 - Eglingham, 463 - Ford Common, 330, 333 - Great Tosson, 453 - Halton Chesters, 105 - Harbottle Peels, 241 - Haydon Bridge, 200 - Helton, 202 - Hipsburn, 200 - Holystone, 194 - Ilderton, 117 - Kielder Burn, North Tyne, 388 - Northumberland, 244, 331 - Percy’s Leap, 235 - Ponteland, 105 - Seghill, 208 - Shilbottle, 200 - Thirstone, 200 - Throckley Fell, 128 - Tosson, Rothbury, 455 - Twisel, Norham, 223 - Weetwood, 253 - Woodhall, Harbottle, 92 - - NOTTINGHAMSHIRE. - Beeston, 210 - Sand Hills, Wollaton, 204 - - OXFORDSHIRE. - Alchester, 144, 442 - Bagley Wood, 593 - Barcoot, Dorchester, 264 - Brighthampton, 294 - Broadwell, 594 - Callow Hill, 281, 309, 376 - Caversham, 592 - Caversham, Henley Road, 592 - Cockshott Hill, Wychwood Forest, 160 - Dorchester, 247 - Dorchester, Dykes, 332, 384 - Eynsham, 101 - Ipsden, 593 - Marston Ferry, 593 - Oxford, 593 - Oxfordshire, 279, 381, 400 - Sarsden House, Chipping Norton, 390 - Shiplake, 592 - Standlake, 125, 389, 398 - Toots Farm, Caversham, 592 - Wolvercote, 593, 594 - - SHROPSHIRE. - Hardwick, Bishop’s Castle, 202 - - SOMERSETSHIRE. - Athelney, 468 - Barwick, 390 - Camerton, 269 - Chard, 639 - Cheddar Pass, 486 - Glastonbury, 200 - Hamden Hill, Ilchester, 396 - Little Solsbury Hill, Bath, 25, 247, 277, 281, 310, 374 - Priddy, 389 - Somersetshire, 281 - Stourton, 192, 200 - West Coker, 249, 259 - West Cranmore, 295 - Wookey Hyæna Den, 517–520 - Worle Hill, 283 - - STAFFORDSHIRE. - Bailey Hill, 433 - Beresford, 362 - Castern, 263, 455 - Elkstone, 253 - Grub Low, 377 - Leek, 362 - Long Low, Wetton, 234, 377 - Mouse Low, 399, 432 - Musdin, 330 - Ribden Low, 330, 432, 433 - Shuttlestone Barrow, Parwich Moor, 309 - Staffordshire, 377, 432 - Stone, 202 - Wetton, 451 - - SUFFOLK. - Alderton, 102 - Bardwell, 192 - Barrow, Bury St. Edmund’s, 439 - Barton Mills, 390 - Beeches Pit, West Stow, 542 - Botany Bay, Brandon, 568 - Botesdale, 100, 110 - Brandon, 14, 17–21, 427, 550, 562, 568 - Brick-kiln Farm, Brandon, 565, 566 - Bury St. Edmund’s, 91, 174, 540, 656 - Cardwell, 550 - Cavenham, 142 - Clare Castle, 229 - Cross Bank, Mildenhall, 337 - Culford, 88 - Debenham, 91 - Eriswell, 550 - Eye, 229 - Felixstow, 207, 218 - Fornham All Saints, 542 - Gravel Hill, Brandon, 507, 562, 563 - Great Wratting, Haverhill, 229 - Grindle Pit, Bury St. Edmund’s, 540 - Grundisburgh, 100, 223 - Helmingham, 280 - Helperthorpe, 89 - Hepworth, 100, 102 - Herringswell, 539 - High Lodge Hill, Mildenhall, 549, 643, 685 - Hoxne, 373, 390, 530, 573, 574, 577 - Icklingham, 14, 70, 87, 93, 176, 228, 249, 278, 281, 291, 329, 332, - 334, 335, 337, 339, 341, 343, 373–375, 382, 383, 389, 390, 393, - 543, 546, 643 - Ipswich, 34, 100, 193, 353 - Kenny Hill, Mildenhall, 78, 295 - Kesgrave, 100 - Lackford, 112, 113 - Lakenheath, 73, 125, 307, 334, 340, 341, 373, 375, 376, 385, 389, 391, - 393, 394 - Livermere, 116 - Maid’s Cross, 550; - Old Churchyard, 566; - The Broom, Maid’s Cross, 566 - Market Weston, 100 - Martlesham Hill, 89 - Melford Junction, 578 - Melton, Woodbridge, 174 - Mildenhall, 42, 56, 67, 68, 73, 75, 88, 91, 93, 104, 110, 229, 230, - 291, 336, 341 - North Stow, 176, 356 - Nowton, 542, 559 - Playford, 101 - Rampart Hill, Icklingham, 539, 543, 544, 545 - Redgrave, 110, 228 - Santon Downham, Thetford, 70, 92, 99, 542, 550, 552, 554–559, 647, - 660 - Shelley, 106 - Sicklesmere, Bury St. Edmund’s, 542 - Sproughton, 126 - Stanifield, Bury St. Edmund’s, 228 - Staunton, Ixworth, 389 - Stonham, 281 - Stow Heath, 100 - Stowmarket, 110 - Stutton, 578 - Sudbury, 117, 578 - Suffolk, 71, 89, 177, 248, 277, 279, 301, 307, 310, 324, 328, 332, 335, - 337, 377, 381, 382, 383, 391, 393, 395, 400, 419, 539 - Sutton, 111, 231, 427 - Swan Brake, North Stow, Bury St. Edmund’s, 342 - Thetford Warren, 74, 75, 556 - Thingoe Hill, Bury St. Edmund’s, 541 - Thurston, 97 - Troston, 97, 128 - Undley Common, Lakenheath, 94; - Hall, 100 - Wangford, 389, 562 - Warren Hill, 543, 544, 546, 547 - Warren Lodge, 548 - Westhall, 442 - Westleton Walks, 179 - Westley, 542 - West Stow, 92, 176, 389 - Wilton Heath, 193 - - SURREY. - Anstie Camp, Dorking, 389 - Ash, Farnham, 101 - Battersea Rise, 604 - Carshalton, 351 - Chart Park, Dorking, 389 - Cookham, Maidenhead, 591 - Croydon, 101 - Earley, 592 - Earlsfield, 604 - East Hill, Wandsworth, 604 - East Sheen, 591 - Egham, 101 - Farley Heath, 596 - Farnham, 595 - Frimley, 596 - Godalming, 319 - Hurlingham, 351 - Kingston-on-Thames, 120; - Chelsea Waterworks at, 150 - Lavender Hill, 604 - Limpsfield, 609, 610 - Lingfield Mark Camp, 389 - Normandy, Wanborough, 228 - Peasemarsh, Godalming, 353, 594 - Peperharrow, 596 - Redhill, 244, 277, 378 - Reigate, 100, 229, 277, 278 - Ridland’s Farm, Limpsfield, 610 - Roehampton, 604 - Sheen, 253 - Sonning, 592 - Surrey, 127, 279, 389 - Titsey, 144, 230 - Walton-on-Thames, 351 - West Hill, Wandsworth, 604 - Wishmoor, 70 - Wisley, 101 - Wracklesham, 596 - - SUSSEX. - Alfriston, 84, 148 - Avisford Bridge, 687 - Bell’s Field, Friston, 622 - Beltout Castle, 281 - Berling Gap, 301, 303, 305 - Bow Hill, 268 - Brighton (Elephant bed), 622 - Cissbury, 32, 33, 35, 72, 75, 78, 80, 81, 82, 248, 277, 281 - Clayton Hill, 76 - Cliffe, Lewes, 229 - Crow Link Gap, East Dean, 622 - Cuckmare Haven, 304 - Eastbourne, 76, 87, 126, 144, 179, 357 - Hardham, 283 - Hastings, 71, 281, 309, 325, 389 - High Down, Ferring, 314 - Horsham, 389 - Hove, Brighton, 185, 268, 449 - Mitchdean, 154 - Mount Caburn, Lewes, 229, 249, 268, 440 - Mount Harry, Lewes, 174 - Newhaven, 278, 295 - Newhaven and Telscombe, between, 71 - Oving, Chichester, 69 - Pallingham Quay, 229 - Possingworth Manor, Uckfield, 281 - Pulborough, 254 - Pycombe Hill, 93 - Ringwood Gore Farm, East Dean, 94 - St. Leonard’s Forest, Horsham, 229, 295, 389 - Seaford, 71, 149, 249, 278, 295, 309 - Sussex, 68, 84, 277, 279, 301, 419, 443 - Sussex Downs, 32, 36, 79, 101, 248, 263, 307, 310, 319, 400 - Willington Mill, 341 - Windore Hill, Alfriston, 308 - Wolsonbury, 465 - - WARWICKSHIRE. - Castle Ring, Cannock Chase, 281 - Hartshill Common, 187 - Rugby, 259 - Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Coventry, 240 - Saltley, 522, 578 - Sutton Coldfield, 224 - Walsgrave-upon-Sowe, 198 - - WESTMORLAND. - Burns, Ambleside, 235 - Haversham, 201 - Loughrigg Tarn, 133 - Westmorland, 112, 117, 200, 235 - - WILTSHIRE. - Aldbourne, Hungerford, 78, 96, 227, 427, 463, 466 - Alton Down, 377 - Ashford-in-the-Water, 443, 467, 632 - Ashton Valley, 210 - Avebury, 248, 281, 332, 454, 467 - Avebury Down, 309 - Bemerton, 70, 627–629, 632 - Bradford Abbas, 281 - Breamore, 107, 632 - Brigmilston, 280, 314 - Britford, Salisbury, 632 - Bulford, 427 - Bush Barrow, Normanton, 227 - Clarendon, 15 - Collingbourne, 434 - Collingbourne Ducis, 254 - Cop Hill Barrow, Warminster, 434 - Crudwell, 111 - Cutterly Clump, 378 - Downton, 632 - Durrington, 269 - Durrington Walls, 308, 352, 455 - East Kennet, 193 - Elm Grove, Milford Hill, 632 - Everley, 160, 268, 291, 384, 466 - Everley and Amesbury, between, 314 - Fisherton, 628 - Fisherton Anger, 630 - Fovant, 385, 455 - Fyfield, 377 - Galley Hill, 656 - Great Bedwin, 102 - Hacpen Hill, 432 - Hamptworth, 335 - Harnham Hill, 283 - Heytesbury, 254 - Highfield, Salisbury, 251, 538, 629 - Kingston Deverill, 460 - Knook Castle, Upton Lovel, 148 - Lambourn Downs, 186, 308, 318, 349 - Lake, Salisbury, 125, 269, 388, 627 - Liddington, 229 - Littleton Drew, 280 - Long Street Down, 280 - Marlborough, 229, 230 - Mere Down, 427 - Milford Hill, 631–633 - Milton, Pewsey, 390 - Monkton Down, 328 - Morgan’s Hill, 309 - Normanton Down, 267, 269 - Norton, Daventree, 352 - Ogbourne, 377 - Overton Hill, 295 - Ozengall, 283 - Peter’s Finger, Salisbury, 277 - Pewsey, 627 - Pick Rudge Farm, Overton, 339, 380 - Rolston Field, 186 - Rotherley, 309 - Roundway Hill, Devizes, 268, 398, 426 - Rushmore Park, 309 - Salisbury, 627 - Salisbury, Plain, 202 - Selwood, Stourton, 198, 211 - Silk Hill Barrow, 269 - South Newton, 628 - Stanton Fitzwarren, 101 - Stonehenge, 107, 212, 269, 291, 352, 466 - Stourton, 192 - Sutton, 427 - Temple Bottom, 434 - Upton Lovel Barrow Down, 88, 143, 148, 213, 244, 267, 428, 431, 456, - 460, 467 - Walker’s Hill, 377 - West Kennet, 248, 250, 263, 277, 280, 291, 294, 309, 432, 463 - Wilsford, 213, 268, 269, 398 - Wiltshire, 77, 83, 244, 260, 267, 279, 310, 352, 385, 389, 396, 397, - 456 - Windmill Hill, Avebury, 186, 385 - Winterbourn Bassett, 240 - Winterbourn Stoke, 266, 277, 280, 309, 371, 466 - Wishford, Great Bedwin, 111 - Woodyates Barrow, 385, 397 - - WORCESTERSHIRE. - Aldington, 426 - Bewdley, 186 - Doddenham, 230 - Grimley, 186, 202 - Lindridge, 427 - Worcestershire, 393 - - YORKSHIRE. - Acklam Wold, 140, 415 - Aldro’, Malton, 205 - Allerston, 189 - Amotherby, Malton, 105, 379, 391 - Athelney, 468 - Baildon Common, 388 - Barmston, 128 - Barugh, 114 - Bempton, 72 - Birdsall, Malton, 126 - Bishop’s Burton, 331 - Bridlington, 124, 125, 176, 242, 251, 290, 295, 307, 322–324, 329, 332, - 335, 339, 340, 581 - Brompton, 386 - Brompton Carr, 202 - Broughton-in-Craven, 208, 269 - Buckthorpe, 205 - Butterwick, 374, 453 - Calais Wold Barrow, Pocklington, 371, 377, 455 - Carnaby Moor, 91, 115 - Cawton, 206 - Charleston, Bridlington, 176, 290, 291 - Cleveland, 252 - Cliffe, Carlebury, 389 - Corbridge Fell, 244 - Cowlam, 176, 207, 262, 267, 434 - Coxwold, 206 - Crambe, 125, 345 - Crosby, Garrett Fell, 317 - Dalton, 176 - Danby, North Moors, 211 - Drewton, North Cave, 269 - Driffield, 280, 328, 456 - Duggleby, 140 - Easton, Bridlington, 128, 243 - Egton, 459 - Egton, Bridge, 462 - Etton, 331 - Fimber, 105, 140, 266, 337, 341, 356, 380, 393, 462 - Flamborough, 225 - Flixton, 335 - Folkton Wold, 421 - Fridaythorpe, 105 - Fylingdales, 463 - Ganthorpe, 181 - Ganton, 94, 241 - Ganton, Wold, 73, 89, 267, 335, 336, 356, 358 - Garton, 91, 350 - Gilling, Vale of Mowbray, 119, 120, 339 - Grindale, Bridlington, 96, 249, 375 - Gristhorpe Barrow, Scarborough, 279, 398 - Harome, Ryedale, 133, 221, 343, 344 - Helmsley, 239 - Helperthorpe, 89, 177, 262, 302 - Heslerton Carr, 120 - Heslerton Wold, 202, 224, 357 - Holme, Spalding Moor, 100, 117 - Hull, 202 - Hunmanby, 184, 187, 455 - Huntow, Bridlington, 181, 243, 342, 572 - Jervaux, Bedale, 204 - Kelleythorpe, Driffield, 429 - Kilham, 91 - King’s Field, Bridlington, 91 - Kirby Underdale, 91 - Kirklington, 209 - Lady Graves, Fimber, 91 - Langdale End, 391 - Leeds, 222 - Malton, 46, 105, 128, 135 - Marton, 332 - Mennithorpe, 136 - North Burton, 96 - Northdale, Bridlington, 174, 334 - Northdale Farm, Grindale, Bridlington, 378, 382, 392 - North Holme, 128 - Norton, Malton, 102 - Nunnington, 104, 115, 116, 191 - Osgodby, 122 - Oulston, 106 - Pickering, 148, 197, 207, 250, 253, 279, 291, 352, 459 - Pilmoor, 128, 191 - Potter Brompton Wold, 194, 332 - Ravenhill Tumulus, Scarborough, 143 - Robin Hood Butts, Scarborough, 330 - Rochdale, 389 - Rookdale, 396 - Rudstone, 34, 176, 195, 230, 235, 245, 265, 295, 307, 308, 316, 330, - 331, 334, 356, 384, 454, 467 - Rye Bank, Ness, 119 - Ryedale, 136, 344 - Salton, 228 - Sawdon, 89, 415 - Scalby, Scarborough, 202 - Scampston, 126, 438 - Scamridge, 77, 246, 247, 335 - Scamridge Dykes, 121 - Scarborough, 160, 221, 269, 332 - Seackleton, 191 - Seamer, 91, 126 - Seamer Moor, 96, 105, 148, 290, 371, 379, 399 - Settle, 435 - Settle, Victoria Cave at, 505, 524 - Sewerby, Bridlington, 355 - Sherburn, 34, 128, 295, 331, 391 - Sherburn, Carr, 342 - Sherburn, Wold, 333, 380, 385 - Skelton Moors, 198, 211 - Sledmere, 195 - Snainton Moor, 333 - South Back Lane, Bridlington, 129 - South Dalton, Beverley, 190 - Speeton, Bridlington, 125 - Stainton Dale, Scarborough, 198 - Stanwick, 210 - Swinton, Malton, 121 - Thixendale, 128 - Thorn Marsh, 102 - Thwing, 454 - Topcliffe, 268 - Uncleby, 96, 271, 283 - Weapon Ness, 223 - Weaverthorpe, 34, 243, 246, 266, 276, 300, 302, 331, 391, 439 - Weaverthorpe Ling, 461 - Westerdale Moors, 211 - West Huntow, Bridlington, 334 - Wetwang, 356 - Whitby, 187, 191, 196, 295, 343, 459 - Whitwell, 122 - Willerby, 125 - Willerby, Carr, 189, 228 - Willerby, Wold, 89, 180, 334, 374 - Wold Newton, 243 - Wykeham Moor, 331 - York, 92, 96, 150, 334 - Yorkshire, 41, 77, 143, 177, 186, 200, 277, 279, 290, 304, 307, 331, - 341, 345, 374, 377, 389, 391, 392, 393, 395, 420, 440–443 - Yorkshire Barrows, 244, 245, 309, 432, 468 - Yorkshire Wolds, 23, 30, 77, 89, 223, 248, 262, 266, 276, 290, 294, - 301, 302, 303, 304, 308, 310, 311, 319, 322, 323, 324, 328, - 329, 352, 356, 374, 376, 378, 379, 381, 382, 385, 389, 390, - 400, 412, 415, 416 - - ISLE OF MAN. - Cregneesh, 378 - Isle of Man, 444 - Port Erin, 378 - Port St. Mary, 277 - - CHANNEL ISLANDS. - Channel Islands, 57, 188 - Guernsey, 127, 188, 401 - Herm, 247 - _La Roche qui sonne_, 464 - St. Clement’s, Jersey, 396 - St. Sampson, Guernsey, 141 - - RIVERS. - Avon, Valley of, 626, 627, 632–634, 692 - Axe, Valley of, 639 - Beane, 602 - Blackwater, 692 - Bourne, Valley of, 631, 636, 637, 695 - Bulbourne, Valley of, 597 - Cam, Valley of, 538, 539 - Chelmer, 578 - Cherwell, 593 - Colne, Valley of, 578, 597 - Cray, Valley of, 604, 605 - Culm, Valley of, 639 - Darent, Valley of, 605–607, 609, 610 - Gade, Valley of, 596, 597 - Gipping, Valley of, 578 - Goldstream, 574 - Hamble, Valley of, 689 - Hiz, Valley of, 536–538 - Itchen, Valley of, 622, 688 - Ivel, Valley of, 536–538 - Kent, Valley of, 542 - Kennet, 592 - Lambourn, 126 - Lark, Valley of, 499, 539–543, 554, 559, 681, 682 - Lea, 229; - Valley of, 586, 598, 602, 603 - Linnet, 540 - Little Ouse, Valley of, 551–559, 681–683, 707 - Maran, Valley of, 602 - Medway, Valley of, 608, 610 - Misbourne, Valley of, 596 - Nadder, 630 - Nar, or Setchy, 572 - Nene, 681 - Oughton, 536 - Ouse, Valley of, 530, 531, 680 - Ravensbourne, Valley of, 604 - Rea, Valley of, 578, 579 - Severn, at Ribbesford, 210 - Shode, Valley of, 608 - Solent, Valley of the ancient, 635 - Stort, Valley of, 602 - Stour, Valley of, 578, 618, 619, 634, 687–692 - Swale, Valley of, 686 - Teise, Valley of, 610 - Ter, Valley of, 578 - Test, Valley of, 622, 688 - Thames, 74, 75, 91, 123, 206, 222, 229, 350, 389, 431, 581; - Valley of, 581, 604–607, 668, 685; - at Battersea, 71, 237, 587, 588; - Chelsea, 588; - Coway Stakes, Egham, 110; - Greenwich, 357; - Hammersmith, 588; - Hampton Court, 110; - Kew, 161, 434; - London, 100, 122, 195, 210, 213, 219, 350, 357; - London Bridge, 351; - Long Wittenbam, 337; - Oxford, 594; - Parliament Stairs, 194; - Putney, 588; - Reading, 143; - Richmond, 588; - Teddington, 100; - Twickenham, 174; - Wandsworth, 434, 588; - Windsor, 227, 341, 431 - Thet, 550 - Trent, at Beeston, 210 - Trent or Piddle, Valley of, 638, 692 - Ver, Valley of, 597 - Wandle, Valley of, 604 - Waveney, Valley of, 573, 577, 578, 683, 684 - Wear, 193 - Wey, Valley of, 594–596 - Wiley, Valley of, 628–630 - Wissey, or Stoke, 572 - Wye, 521 - - WALES. - South Wales, 439 - - ANGLESEA. - Amlwch Parys Mine, 234 - Anglesea, 84, 104, 198, 236, 247, 251, 252, 257, 259, 260, 269, 309, - 438, 450, 463 - Caer Leb, Llanidan, 230, 468 - Heneglwys, 281 - Holyhead, Island of, 230, 244, 248, 254, 257, 264, 270, 309, 438, 455 - Llangwyllog, 103, 460 - Llanidan, 234 - Old Geir, 234, 236, 249 - Penmynydd, 468 - Pen-y-bonc, Holyhead, 89, 230, 234, 247, 252, 442, 459 - Ty Mawr, 230, 234, 248, 251, 252, 270, 438, 450, 466 - - BRECON. - Hay, 328 - Ty ddu Llanelieu, 353 - - CARDIGANSHIRE. - Lampeter, 259 - Llangynfelin Mine, 234 - - CARMARTHENSHIRE. - Cae Gwyn, 521 - Coygan Cave, 521 - Ffynnon Beunos Cave, 521 - Pont Newydd Cave, Cefn, 521 - - CARNARVONSHIRE. - Aber, 262 - Bangor, 279 - Carreg-y-Saelhau, Aber, 262 - Dwygyfylchi, 84 - Llandudno, 233 - Llanfairfechan, 198 - Nantlle, 236 - Pen-maen-mawr, 84, 450 - Tomen-y-Mur, 433 - - DENBIGHSHIRE. - Brynbugeilen, Llangollen, 279 - Denbighshire, 244 - Moel Fenlli, Ruthin, 239, 283 - Pentrefoelas, 340 - Rhos Digre, 126 - Ty-newydd, Llansilin, 143 - - GLAMORGANSHIRE. - Cardiff, 110 - Llanmadock in Gower, 187 - Long Hole, Gower, 520 - Melyn Works, Neath, 125 - Paviland Caves, 487, 520 - - MERIONETHSHIRE. - Cader Idris, 198 - Harlech, 279 - Llanaber, 279 - Maesmore, near Corwen, 226 - Merionethshire, 279 - - MONTGOMERYSHIRE. - Carno, 281, 389, 438 - Llanbrynmair, 202 - Llanidloes, 198 - Llanrhaiadr-yn-Mochnant, 225 - Rhayader, 230 - Snow Brook Lead Mines, Plinlimmon, 234 - Trefeglwys, 240, 342 - - PEMBROKESHIRE. - Hoyle’s Mouth, Tenby, 521 - Oyle Cave, Tenby, 521 - Pembrokeshire, 230 - St. Botolph’s Priory, 242 - Tenby, 383 - - RADNOR. - Abbey Cwm Hir, 230 - - SCOTLAND. - Scotland, 123, 199, 200, 242, 245, 252, 255, 267, 269, 270, 322, 323, - 338, 377, 378, 386, 419, 420, 437, 439, 442, 443, 469 - - ABERDEENSHIRE. - Aberdeenshire, 22, 97, 103, 130, 149, 199, 236, 244, 250, 280, 333, - 362, 377, 386, 444 - Ashogall, Turriff, 224 - Ballater, 421 - Ballogie, 428 - Balmoral, 444 - Bogingarry, Old Deer, 89, 94 - Brindy Hill, 117 - Clashfarquhar, 280 - Cloister-Seat Farm, Udny, 388 - Corennie, Hill of, 413 - Critchie, Inverurie, 197 - Cromar, 291, 338, 388, 444 - Crookmore, Tullynessle, 444 - Cruden, 149, 388, 398, 425, 463 - Don River, 22 - Drumkesk, Aboyne, 444 - Dudwick, 420 - Ellon, 390 - Fernie Brae, Slains, 138 - Forgue, 388 - Fyvie, 408, 428 - Gallow Hill, Turriff, 224 - Garioch, Chapel of, 420 - Kildrummy, 388 - Kinellar, 388 - Kintore, 342, 388 - Knockargity, 444 - Leochel River, 22 - Loch Skene, 463 - Migvie, Tarland, 420 - Newburgh, 68 - Newton, 106 - Old Deer, 35 - Rothie, 459 - Slains, 388 - Strathdon, 388, 444 - Tarland, 331, 388 - Towie, 421 - Turriff, 342 - Tyrie, 237 - Udny, 331 - Ythanside, Gight, 230 - - ARGYLLSHIRE. - Ardrossan, 198 - Argyllshire, 242, 280 - Campbelton, Kintire, 143 - Inveraray, 211 - Island of Coll, 241 - Islay, 442 - Southend, Kintire, 143 - Strachur, 338 - - AYRSHIRE. - Ardrossan, 198 - Ayrshire, 310, 388 - Kilmarnock, 386, 420 - Kirkmichael, 353 - Lochlee, 247 - Maybole, 440 - Middleton, Stevenston, 198 - Stevenston, 456 - - BANFF. - Alvah, 388 - Balveny, 357 - Banff, 280, 377, 387, 444 - Bowiebank, King Edward, 388 - Cullen, cave near, 252 - Cullen of Buchan, 388 - Cullen, Bin of, 280 - Eden, 388 - Forglen, 296 - Glen Avon, 388 - Glenlivet, 386 - Lesmurdie, 282, 388 - Longman, Macduff, 230, 388 - Mains of Auchmedden, 388 - Montblairy, 386, 420 - Mortlach, 388 - - BERWICKSHIRE. - Berwickshire, 108, 130 - Butterlaw, Coldstream, 338 - Dunse Castle, 202 - Fireburn Mill, Coldstream, 189 - Lamberton Moor, 264 - - BUTE. - Ambrisbeg Hill, 128 - Isle of Arran, 225, 280 - Mountstuart, 460 - - CAITHNESS. - Aucorn, 451 - Breckigoe, 195 - Caithness, 129, 221, 222, 281, 291, 376, 388, 444, 451 - Camster, 338 - Horned Cairn of Get, Garrywhin, 376 - Kettleburn, 259, 440 - Ormiegill Ulbster, 338 - Wick, 208, 220, 252, 451 - - CLACKMANNAN. - Alloa, 230 - Tillicoultry, 280 - Tillicoultry Bridge, 199 - - CROMARTYSHIRE. - Cat’s Cairn, 149 - - DUMFRIESSHIRE. - Annandale, 195 - Dumfriesshire, 420 - Gretna Green, 388 - Mains, Dumfries, 108 - Robgill, 388 - Ruthwell, 388 - - EAST LOTHIAN. - East Lothian, 259 - Gilmerton, 103, 130 - Longniddry, 213 - Pencaitland, 463 - Stenton, 269, 332 - - EDINBURGH. - Edinburgh, 259 - Leith, 200 - Redhall, 106 - Trinity, 142 - - ELGIN (see also MORAYSHIRE) - Culbin Sands, 249, 280, 295, 319, 320, 324, 331, 339, 372, 377, 388 - Elgin, 280, 377 - Fochabers, 112 - Rafford, 459 - Urquhart, 90, 226, 280, 310, 328, 331, 338, 376, 377, 378, 386, 388, - 394, 395 - - FIFE. - Balmerino, 202 - Dairsie, 388 - Dunfermline, 109 - Dunino, 270 - Fifeshire, 126, 241 - Kirkcaldy, 112, 120 - Ormiston Abdie, 190 - St. Andrew’s, Lhanbryd, 388 - Tay River, near Newburgh, 184 - Tayfield, 457, 475 - - FORFARSHIRE. - Aberlemno, 459 - Balcalk, Tealing, 460 - Carmyllie, 388 - Dundee, 89, 92, 114 - Dundee Law, 453 - Dunnichen, 270 - Drumour, Glenshee, 119, 133 - East Braikie, 420 - Forfarshire, 128, 230, 390, 444, 451, 469 - Glamis, 224 - Glenshee, 151, 154 - Guthrie, 353 - Letham, 450 - Leuchland Toll, Brechin, 459 - Lunan-head, 457 - Montrose, Tidal Basin at, 224 - - HADDINGTON. - Gullane Links, 310 - Nunraw, 353 - - INVERNESS. - Abernethy, 388 - Ballachulish, 231, 386 - Daviot, 107, 135, 149, 254 - Druim-a-shi, Culloden, 112, 149 - Roy Bridge, 259 - - KINCARDINE. - Arbuthnot, 388 - Bervie, 388 - Cleugh, Glenbervie, 230 - Dunnottar Castle, 242 - Fordoun, 91, 388, 413, 459 - Garvoch Hill, 421 - Little Barras, Drumlithie, 138 - Pitlochrie, 230, 342 - Tullo of Garvoch, 420 - - KINROSS. - Lochleven, 114 - - KINTIRE. - West Coast of, 263 - - KIRKCUDBRIGHT. - Balmaclellan, New Galloway, 219, 259 - Borness, 270 - Castle Douglas, 202 - Kelton, 199 - Parton, 451 - - LANARKSHIRE. - Aikbrae, Culter, 179, 201 - Biggar, 420 - Braidwood, 388 - Carluke, 242, 388 - Crawfurd Moor, 454 - Culter, 230, 237, 242, 442 - Dolphinton, 154 - Glasgow, 129, 150 - Lanark, 280, 342, 387, 396 - Lesmahago, 456 - - LINLITHGOW. - Dalmeny, 113 - Silvermine, Torphichen, 200 - - MIDLOTHIAN. - Cobbinshaw Loch, West Calder, 184 - - MORAYSHIRE. - Elchies, 388 - Keith, 388 - Morayshire, 377, 444 - Old Town of Roseisle, 388 - - NAIRN. - Cawdor Castle, 434 - - PEEBLES. - Linton, 388 - South Slipperfield, West Linton, 91 - - PERTHSHIRE. - Aberfeldy, 109 - Abernethy, 187 - Benlochy, Blairgowrie, 250 - Doune, 224 - Dunning, 240 - Dunsinane, 259 - Needless, 444 - Perth, 281, 444 - Pitlochrie, 230 - Rattray, 109 - Tay, near Mugdrum Island, 194 - - RENFREWSHIRE. - Houstoun, 459 - - ROSS-SHIRE. - Assynt, 457 - Dalmore, Alness, 331, 425 - Flowerburn, 318 - Fyrish, Evantown, 425 - Kinlochew, 91 - Standing Stones of Rayne, 42 - - ROXBURGHSHIRE. - Craigfordmains, 296, 335 - Cunzierton, Jedburgh, 109 - Lempitlaw, 119 - Roxburgh, 112, 280 - Sprouston, Kelso, 115, 206 - Teindside, Minto, 318 - - SELKIRKSHIRE. - Philiphaugh, 244, 388 - Yarrow, 456 - - STIRLINGSHIRE. - Blair-Drummond, 222, 346 - Craigengelt, 194, 353 - Falkirk, Carse of, 488 - Fochabers, 112 - Killearn, 387, 388 - Meiklewood, 346 - Stirling, 133 - Stirlingshire, 118, 132 - Tappock, Torwood, 463 - - SUTHERLANDSHIRE. - Golspie, 391 - Kintradwell, 271 - Melness, 142 - Sutherland, 444 - Torrish, 457 - - WIGTOWNSHIRE. - Baldoon, 256 - Burgh-head, 388 - Claycrop, Kirkinner, 220 - Dowalton, Sorbie, 440 - Earlston, 339 - Ervie, Glenluce, 154 - Goldenoch Moor, 240, 241 - Glenluce, 109, 263, 269, 280, 296, 339, 376, 377, 388, 391, 428, 455, - 464, 466 - Kirklauchline, 131, 135 - Machermore Loch, 241 - Portpatrick, 230 - Sorbie, 194 - Stranraer, 259 - West Calder, 466 - Wick, 252, 451 - Wigtownshire, 199, 234, 247, 310, 466 - - HEBRIDES. - Broadford Bay, Isle of Skye, 425, 427 - Coll, Island of, 241 - Harris, Island of, 437 - Hebrides, 252, 258 - Lewis, Island of, 348, 437 - Mull, Isle of, 428 - Skye, Isle of, 112, 117, 386, 387, 421, 444 - South Uist, Isle of, 440 - Western Islands, 470 - - ORKNEYS. - Blows Moss, South Ronaldsay, 353 - Firth, 221, 238 - Lingrow, Broch of, Scapa, 221, 271, 416 - Northmavine, 76 - Orem’s Fancy, Stronsay, 468 - Orkneys, 97, 150, 171, 255, 257, 280, 345, 348, 421, 440, 443, 451 - Quoyness, Sanday, 255 - Rousay, 328 - Shapinsay, 269, 387 - Skaill, Underground House of, 255, 281 - Skara, Skaill, 264, 450 - Stronsay, 206 - Unstan Cairn, 372, 415 - - SHETLAND ISLANDS. - Bressay, 256 - Clickemin, Lerwick, 138 - Cunningsburgh, 128 - Easterskild, Sandsting, 346 - Firth, 221 - Hillswick, 345 - Lerwick, 130 - Lunnasting, 124 - Sand Lodge, 440 - Sandsting, 124, 346 - Sandwick, 190 - Scarpiegarth, 221 - Selter, Walls, 124 - Shetland, 116, 122, 123, 124, 130, 135, 138, 150, 208, 221, 234, 236, - 252, 255, 345, 346–8, 353, 444, 451 - Tresta, Aithsting, 124 - Trondra, 124 - Unst, Isle of, 450 - West Burrafirth, 116 - Whiteness, 224 - Yell, Isle of, 124 - - IRELAND. - Antrim, 310, 358 - Armagh, 115 - Arran, Island of, 469 - Ballykillen Bog, King’s Co., 408 - Ballymena, Antrim, 342, 421 - Bann River, 198, 349; - Lower, 353; - Valley of, 286 - Belfast Lough, 286 - Cookstown, Tyrone, 154 - Cork, 234, 251 - Dundrum, Down, 466 - Bay, 20 - Farney, 223, 224 - Ireland, 84, 85, 124, 128, 130, 137, 140, 142, 150, 175, 177, 194, 218, - 223, 224, 232, 237, 241, 242, 247, 251, 253, 269, 270, 310, 320, - 322, 326, 328, 329, 342, 365, 372, 390, 392, 394, 399, 400, 420, - 422, 428, 437, 468 - Kanestown Bog, Antrim, 408 - Kilkenny, 258 - Killarney, 234 - Lough Gur, 224 - Lough Neagh, 77, 175, 181, 291, 649 - Monaghan, 154 - Portglenone, 353 - Toome Bridge, Lough Neagh, 286 - Trillick, Tyrone, 445 - Tullamore, King’s Co., 224 - Ulster, 73, 92, 286 - - FRANCE - - AISNE. - Aisne, 401, 647 - Caranda, 327 - Chassemy, 252 - Laon, 402 - Sablonnières, 397 - Soissons, 109, 327 - - ALPES MARITIMES. - Mentone, 475, 487 - - ARDÈCHE. - Du Charnier, 327 - - ARIÈGE. - Massat, Caves of, 560 - Pyrenees, Caves of the, 281 - - AUBE. - Troyes, 527 - - AUVERGNE. - Province of, 43, 286, 402 - Corente, 401 - - AVEYRON. - Des Costes, 401 - Mont Sargel, 160 - Mur de Barrez, 35 - Pilaude, 401 - St. Jean d’Alcas, 327, 354, 401 - Taurine, Dolmen of, 401 - Vinnac, Dolmen of, 352 - - BRITTANY. - Province of, 57, 62, 109, 142, 253, 268, 395, 400, 401 - Carnac, 135, 212, 249, 465 - Ile d’Arg, 318 - La Table des Marchands, Locmariaker, 153 - Ploucour, 340 - - CHAMPAGNE. - Province of, 69, 528 - - CHARENTE. - Department of, 187, 262, 335 - Bernac, Dolmen of, 77, 401 - La Péruse, 401 - Tilloux, 528 - - CORRÈZE. - Department of, 528 - - CÔTE D’OR. - Labruyère, 144 - - CÔTES DU NORD. - Department of, 400, 428 - Bois du Rocher, Dinan, 528 - - DAUPHINÉ. - Province of, 133 - - DORDOGNE. - Department of, 262, 528 - Caves of, 292, 296, 329, 476, 478–481 - La Madelaine, 248, 484, 505 - Laugerie basse, 506 - Laugerie haute, 53, 498 - Le Moustier, 79, 483, 496, 500, 501, 515, 548 - Les Eyzies, 501, 506 - Mas d’Azil, 484 - - EURE ET LOIRE. - Chateaudun, 252 - Marboué, 528 - Neuilly-sur-Eure, 327 - St. Jean, Chateaudun, 109 - St. Prest, Chartres, 658 - - FINISTÈRE. - Department of, 141 - - FRANCE. - 22, 70, 85, 87, 97, 113, 114, 124, 125, 127, 130–136, 140, 147, 154, - 186, 205, 216, 286, 299, 310, 311, 320, 325, 395, 396, 435, 465, - 470, 653, 657; - North of, 93; - South of, 40, 43, 245, 277, 333, 475, 476, 480, 481, 510, 511 - - GARD. - Department of, 401 - Grailhe, Dolmen of, 354 - Grotte des Morts, Durfort, 335, 337, 402 - Grotte du Castellet, 373, 401 - Grotte Duruthy, 327 - - GERS. - Pauilhac, Valley of Gers, 286 - - GIRONDE. - Department of, 401 - - HAUTE GARONNE. - Aurignac, Cave of, 499 - Toulouse, 528 - - INDRE ET LOIRE. - Department of, 528 - Pressigny le Grand, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35, 69, 262, 278, 286 - - LANDES. - Department of, 401 - Poyanne, 231 - Sourdes, 43 - - LOIR ET CHER. - Pontlevoy, 69, 314, 396 - Vendôme, 538 - - LOIRE INFÉRIEURE. - Department of, 135 - Dijon, 465 - Mont Beuvray, 144 - Penhouet, St. Nazaire-sur-Loire, 160 - Pornic, 176 - - LORRAINE. - Province of, 286 - - LOZÈRE. - Dolmens of the, 268, 327, 354 - - LYONNAIS. - Mont d’Or, 244 - - MACONNAIS. - District of the, 528 - - MORBIHAN. - Department of, 385 - Bernon, Arzon, 109 - Cruguel, 400 - Rocher de Beg-er-Goallenner, Quiberon, 318 - - NIÈVRE. - Department of, 528 - - NORD. - Quiévy, 528 - - OISE. - Beauvais, 182, 528, 541 - Breteuil, 109 - Camp de Catenoy, 69, 176, 262, 286, 396 - Champignolles, 35 - Hermes, 314 - Montguillain, Beauvais, 528, 541 - Sérifontaine, 35 - - PAS DE CALAIS. - Guînes, 528 - Hydrequent, 647 - Sangatte, 528 - Vaudricourt, Béthune, 554 - - PÉRIGORD. - Province of, 101 - - PICARDY. - Province of, 246 - - POITOU. - Province of, 71, 73, 77, 262, 295, 647 - Poitiers, 244 - Tombelle de Brioux, 141 - Villaigres, 401 - - PUY DE DÔME. - Clermont Ferrand, 401, 402, 559 - Gergovia, 286 - - PYRÉNÉES. - Caverns of the, 505 - Nougaroulet, 131 - - SAÔNE ET LOIRE. - Camp de Chassey, 159, 324, 401 - Saône, Valley of the, 401 - Solutré, 484 - - SAVOIE. - Lac du Bourget, 246 - Lakes of, 439 - Savoie, 234 - - SEINE. - Clichy, 703 - Paris, 109, 528, 656, 659, 703 - Seine, at Paris, 77, 186, 187, 327 - Seine, Valley of the, 528 - - SEINE ET MARNE. - Chelles, 528 - Grand Morin, 528 - - SEINE ET OISE. - Allée Couverte, Argenteuil, 160, 327 - Argenteuil, 401, 465 - - SEINE INFÉRIEURE. - Argues, Dieppe, 528 - Auquemesnil, 231 - Dieppe, 528 - Eu, 109 - Londinières, 177, 401 - St. Saen, 528 - Sotteville, Rouen, 528 - Vauvray, 160 - - SOMME. - Abbeville, 68, 258, 527 - Amiens, 77, 241, 527, 698 - Camp de César, Pontrémy, 174 - Drucat, 707 - Menchecourt, Abbeville, 701 - Mesnil-en-Arronaise, 187 - Miannay, Abbeville, 109 - Montiers, 69, 77, 541, 616, 642, 701 - Porte Marcadé, 555 - St. Acheul, 483, 526 - Somme River, 647 - Somme Valley, 69, 160, 262, 490, 526, 554, 584, 698 - Thenay, 528, 658 - Thézy, 528 - - TARN ET GARONNE. - Bruniquel, Cave of, 296, 505, 506 - - TOURAINE. - Province of, 30 - - VIENNE. - Châtellerault, 69 - Coussay les Bois, 528 - Savanseau, 327 - Thorus, Poitiers, 395 - - YONNE. - Sens, 528 - - AUSTRIA. - Austria, 404, 529 - Egenburg, 404 - Hallstatt, Salzkammergut, 84, 188, 234, 269, 460, 464 - Hungary, 268, 529 - Salzburg, 163 - Styria, 194, 255 - - BELGIUM AND NETHERLANDS. - Aerschot, 161 - Belgium, 71, 72, 87, 92, 97, 113, 262, 278, 286, 310, 318, 396, 470, - 475, 478, 481 - Brussels, 109 - Curange, 528 - Flanders, 145 - Gelderland, 232, 391, 403 - Ghlin, 23 - Groningen, 205 - Hasledon, 402 - Heistert, Roermond, 403 - Holland, 58 - Luxembourg, 262, 403 - Maffles, 109 - Mesvin, 528 - Meuse, District of, 325 - Mons, 90 - Namur, 396 - Samson, 397 - Spiennes, Mons, 27, 34, 77, 80, 93, 248, 278, 354 - Trou de Chaleux, 318, 501 - Winterswyk, 163 - Yvoir, 402 - - DENMARK, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN. (SCANDINAVIA.) - Aarhus, Jutland, 310 - Assens, 430 - Denmark, 27, 32, 43, 49, 51, 57, 58, 62, 68, 69, 71, 73, 76, 77, 84, - 85, 97, 104, 114, 118, 121, 125, 142, 144, 169, 177, 178, 191, 194, - 197, 205, 218, 222, 237, 247, 261, 264, 268, 296, 310, 353, 355, - 396, 404, 413, 419, 422, 430, 478, 479, 601 - Faroe Islands, 445 - Iceland, 410 - Jutland, 118 - Langeland, 430 - Lindormabacken, Scania, 396 - Norway, 57, 348, 358, 404, 450 - Scandinavia, 28, 43, 170, 174, 184, 232, 252, 261, 271, 278, 286, 296, - 297, 327, 355, 396, 434, 469 - Store Lyngby, Denmark, 70 - Sweden, 57, 77, 85, 154, 177, 178, 185, 261, 339, 348, 353, 404, 418 - Thorsbjerg, 271 - Vissenberg, Odense, Isle of Fünen, 409 - - GERMANY. - Bavaria, 58, 469 - Berlin, 163 - Bohemia, 51, 101 - Brandenburg, 186, 253 - Brunswick, 191 - Camenz, 49 - Cracow, 358 - Dienheim, 160 - Gerdauen, 187 - Germany, 22, 57, 58, 145, 160, 177, 181, 182, 184, 194, 197, 205, 232, - 244, 297, 353, 396, 403, 404, 408, 529 - Gonsenheim, Mainz, 144 - Hanover, 435 - Inzighofen, Sigmaringen, 404 - Island of Rügen, 252 - Jülich, 64 - Kästrich, Gonsenheim, 109 - Lang Eichstätt, 163 - Lüneburg, 194, 468 - Mainz, 182, 191, 267 - Martha’s Hof, Bonn, 58 - Mitterberg, Bischofshofen, 234 - Monsheim, 252, 268 - Moravia, 58 - Neverstorff, Schleswig Holstein, 310 - Ochsenfurt, Lower Franconia, 431 - Oldenburg, 404 - Oldenstadt, Lüneburg, 232 - Pomerania, 403 - Posen, 296 - Prenzlow, 431 - Prussia, 252, 294 - Rhenish-Hesse, 286 - Rhine, 259, 271, 404 - Schleswig, 448 - Schraplau, 163 - Scudnitz, Schweinitz, 191 - Sigmaringen, 177 - Soden, 136 - Thuringia, 403 - Torgau, 63 - Trier, 315 - Uelzen, Hanover, 185 - Weser and Elbe, district between, 163 - Wesseling on the Rhine, 109 - Wiesbaden, 283 - - GREECE. - Greece, 61, 62, 114, 126, 127, 337, 529 - Marathon, 286, 368, 403 - Megalopolis, 530 - Melos, Island of, 28, 278 - Mycenæ, 403, 439 - Sardis, Lydia, 117 - Tanagra, Bœotia, 205 - - ITALY. - Bergamo, 403 - Brescia, 337 - Brionio, Veronese, 386 - Ceppagna, Molise, 529 - Civitanova, Piceno, 403 - Cumarola, Modena, 402 - Elba, Island of, 310, 367, 403 - Gabbiano, Abruzzo, 529 - Imola, 200 - Imolese, 529 - Italy, 59, 120, 126, 142, 205, 221, 287, 299, 310, 529; - Central, 403, 655; - Northern, 47, 129, 397, 402; - Southern, 396 - Majorca, 357 - Mantua, 391 - Mercurago, Arona, 402 - Perugia, 367, 396, 403, 529 - Piedmont, 242 - Sicily, 114 - Telese, Pæstum, 327, 333, 354 - Tiber Valley, 529 - Tuscany, 333 - Varese, Lago di, 267, 268, 396, 402 - Vercelli, 333 - Vibrata, Valley of, 402 - - PORTUGAL. - Algarve, 287 - Casa da Moura, 255, 268 - Leiria, 529 - Portugal, 44, 133, 140, 182, 247, 284, 372, 396, 403, 463, 459, 470 - Ruy Gomes, copper-mines of, Alemtejo, 234 - - RUSSIA. - Aleutian Islands, 48, 166 - Archangel, 404 - Armenia, Russian, 169 - Caucasus, 169, 405 - Courland, 184 - Ekaterinoslav, 404 - Finland, 181, 186, 215 - Kiev, 358 - Koulpe, salt-mines of, 169 - Kozarnia, Poland, 332 - Lithuania, 47, 181, 194 - Livonia, 184 - Moscow, 358 - Olonetz, 278, 404 - Russia, 181, 205, 215, 310, 355, 358, 456, 529 - Siberia, 181, 245, 488 - Vladimir, 78, 354, 372 - Volhynia, 358 - - SPAIN. - Albuñol, 287 - Andalusia, 105, 333, 403 - Cadiz, 130 - Cantabria, 65 - Cerro Muriano, 234 - Cordova, 234 - Cueva de los Murciélagos, 262 - Genista Cave, Gibraltar, 252, 287, 428, 433 - Gibraltar, 177, 182 - Manzanares Valley, 529, 653 - Milagro, 234 - San Isidro, Madrid, 529 - Spain, 44, 58, 247, 252, 284, 296, 396, 403, 428 - Villanueva del Rey, 234 - - SWITZERLAND. - Agiez, Vaud, 185 - Attersee, 357 - Auvernier, 310 - Bodmann, 22, 357 - Bully, Neufchâtel, 528 - Concise, 158, 161, 232 - Cortaillod, 418 - Geissboden, moss of, 409 - Greug, 281 - Inkwyl, 348, 470 - Lausanne, 327 - Meilon, 323 - Moosseedorf, 22 - Nussdorf, 167, 246, 292, 310, 402 - Robenhausen, 15, 155, 159, 432 - Sipplingen, 167, 182 - Swiss Lake Dwellings, 43, &c. - Switzerland, 46, 47, 51, 136, 162, 167, 170, 177, 182, 191, 232, 242, - 250, 262, 267, 292, 402, 408, 443 - Ueberlinger See, 167, 402 - Unter Uhldingen, 16 - Vaud, Canton de, 287 - Wauwyl, 22 - Zurich, 269 - - TURKEY IN EUROPE. - Armenia, 141 - Avlona, Albania, 21 - Crete, 28 - Dardanelles, 652 - Kostainicza, Turkish Croatia, 367 - Transcaucasia, 287 - - AFRICA. - Accra, 127 - Æthiopia, 368 - Africa, 60, 245, 250, 410; - Northern, 284, 405, 653; - South, 155, 216, 231, 277, 337, 370, 654 - Aleppo, 284 - Alexandria, 169 - Algeria, 182, 287, 405 - Assiut, 369 - Cape Colony, 653 - Cape of Good Hope, 248, 310 - Capetown, 288 - Diamond Fields, 653 - East London, 653 - Egypt, 51, 60, 113, 167, 169, 214, 223, 247, 277, 284, 287, 293, 297, - 320, 344, 354, 358, 359, 368, 391, 394, 395, 417, 652 - Embabaan, Swaziland, 653 - Gafsa, Tunis, 652 - Gold Coast, 60, 127, 231 - Grahamstown, 288 - Helouan, Egypt, 297, 325 - Issutugan River, Somaliland, 652 - Kolea, Algeria, 652 - Kahun, 45 - Libyan Desert, 287 - Madeira, 284 - Medum, Egypt, 170 - Natal, 322, 653 - Naucratis, 242, 243 - Ousidan, Algeria, 652 - Palikao, Algeria, 652 - Port Beaufort, Cape of Good Hope, 241 - Port Elizabeth, 653 - Process-fontein, Victoria West, 653 - Qûrnah, Egypt, 71 - Sahara, 405 - Somaliland, 652, 653 - Southern Shoa, 299 - Spring of Moses, Cairo, 652 - Teneriffe, 284 - Thebes, 71; - tombs of the Kings at, 652 - Tunis, 405 - Wady Maghara, 6, 234, 405 - - AMERICA. - Alabama, 219 - Alaska, 25 - America, - Arctic, 355; - Central, 24, 80, 216; - North, 24, 50, 52, 85, 97, 121, 127, 165, 167, 182, 215, 231, 244, 250, - 257, 264, 299, 348, 349, 353, 370, 372, 405, 406, 410, 411, 423, 428, - 433, 440, 470; - South, 250, 394, 418 - Araucania, 406 - Arica, 407 - Barbados, 182 - Bolivia, 157, 169, 178, 232, 239 - Brazil, 59, 157, 166 - California, 37, 231, 268, 293, 409; - North, 39, 40 - Canada, 182 - Cape Lisburne, 37 - Cayuga County, New York, 71, 244 - Chili, 231, 406, 407 - Chiriqui, 103 - Cloud River, 25, 39 - Comayagua, Spanish Honduras, 337 - Copiapo, 406 - Costa Rica, 141 - Delaware Water Gap, 247; - River, 241 - Greenland, 241, 246, 286, 294, 404, 405 - Guadaloupe, 155, 218 - Guiana, 169; - British, 141, 169; - Dutch, 271 - Honduras, 78, 337, 353 - Icy Cape, 292, 347 - Jamaica, 129 - Kotzebue Gulf, 38 - Lake Erie, 237; - Superior, copper-mines near, 235 - Merrimac Valley, 257 - Mexico, 23, 24, 39, 155, 191, 216, 239, 278, 288, 289, 290, 294, 310, - 354, 406, 439 - Missouri, 80 - Napo River, Ecuador, 170 - Newfoundland, 182, 310, 406 - New Granada, 407 - New Jersey, 355 - New Mexico, 367 - New York, State of, 237 - Nootka Sound, 157, 434 - Ohio Valley, 50, 288 - Oregon, 406 - Patagonia, 322, 406, 422 - Pemberton, New Jersey, 58 - Pennsylvania, 268 - Peru, 24, 232, 239, 407 - Puget’s Sound, 166 - Queen Charlotte’s Islands, 25 - Quito, 142 - Rio Frio, Nicaragua, 155 - Rio Grande, Patagonia, 406 - Rio Negro, Patagonia, 52, 406 - St. George’s Sound, 235 - St. Isabel, Brazil, 257 - South Carolina, 136, 232, 257 - Smith’s Sound, 15 - Snake River, 40 - Straits of de Fuca, 166 - Surinam, 169 - Tennessee, 171, 337 - Tezcuco, Mexico, 355 - Tierra del Fuego, 15, 39, 299, 406, 498 - Trenton, New Jersey, 80, 654 - Vancouver’s Island, 236 - Victoria River, 26 - Virginia, 40 - West India Islands, 129 - Yucatan, 78 - - ASIA. - Abu Shahrein, S. Babylonia, 651 - Abydos, 45, 393, 395 - Abyssinia, 250 - Arabian Desert, 278, 286 - Arconum, India, 232 - Asia, 277; - Minor, 126, 127 - Assam, 59, 114 - Banda District, India, 325 - Bethsaour, Bethlehem, 652 - Bundelcund, 88 - Burma, 59, 158 - Cambodia, 60, 158, 181 - Ceylon, 445 - Euphrates Valley, 653 - Ghenneh, Wady Sireh, Sinai, 405 - Hissar, Damghan, Persia, 405 - Hyderabad, 651 - India, 62, 97, 126, 127, 140, 141, 158, 232, 262, 278, 405, 468, 481, - 650, 654 - Indus River, 23 - Jerusalem, 652; - Nablus road from, 287 - Jubbulpore, 232, 276, 288 - Madras Presidency, 89, 651 - Mahanuddy River, 23 - Malprabba Valley, 651 - Mount Lebanon, 405 - Mount Sinai, 405 - Mount Tabor, 652 - Muquier, S. Babylonia, 114 - Narbada Valley, 651 - Orissa, 651 - Pergamum, 232 - Persia, 306 - Ranchi, Chota-Nagpore, 405 - Siam, 121 - South Mahratta, 651 - South Mirzapore, 651 - Tiryns, 403 - Trichinopoly, 239 - Troy, site of, 187, 206, 235, 253, 297, 418, 439 - Upper Scinde, 23 - Vindhya Hills, 325 - Yun-nan, Southern China, 110, 114, 127 - - OCEANIA, &c. - Admiralty Islands, 156, 288, 498 - Australia, 25, 80, 82, 85, 97, 137, 166, 167, 170, 171, 243, 245, 250, - 277, 288, 293 - Borneo, 97 - Carandotta, Australia, 293 - Caroline Islands, 164 - Celebes, 162 - Easter Island, 289 - Entrecasteaux Islands, 162 - Fiji, 164 - Hervey Islands, 76 - Japan, 59, 97, 114, 116, 128, 181, 322, 355, 358, 405 - Java, 59, 114 - King George’s Sound, 293 - Malay Peninsula, 121 - Mangaia, 167 - Murray River, Australia, 167, 293 - New Caledonia, 162, 163, 164, 210, 419 - New Guinea, 162, 216 - New Hanover, Island of, 156 - New Ireland, 167 - New Zealand, 45, 48, 52, 138, 166, 172, 178, 216 - Perak, 114 - Polynesia, 69, 167, 420 - Queensland, 293 - Samoa, 439 - Savage Islands, 166, 418 - Solomon Islands, 182 - South Sea Islands, 166 - Tahiti, 167, 263, 419 - Tasmania, 171, 468 - Torres Straits, 216 - - -PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON. - - - - -NOTES—CHAPTER I. - -[1] Some interesting remarks on the succession of the three periods -and the possibility of abnormal variations from it will be found in a -lecture to the Archæological Institute delivered by the late Mr. E. T. -Stevens in 1872. (_Arch. Journ._, vol. xxix., p. 393.) - -[2] 1872, p. 11, _et seqq._ - -[3] _Mém._, vol. xii., 163. - -[4] _Archæologia_, vol. ii. p. 118. - -[5] p. 778. - -[6] I would especially refer to an excellent article by the Rev. John -Hodgson in Vol. I. of the _Archæologia Æliana_ (A.D. 1816), entitled -“An inquiry into the æra when brass was used in purposes to which iron -is now applied.” - -[7] “Op. et Di.,” I., 150. - -[8] “De Rerum Nat.,” v. 1282. - -[9] Suetonius, Vit. Aug., cap. lxxii. M. Salomon Reinach has disputed -my views as to the meaning of this passage, but I see no reason for -changing my opinion as to the “arma heroum” referring to “res vetustate -notabiles.” (See _Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscr._, 14th Dec., 1888.) - -[10] “Laconica,” cap. 3. - -[11] Op., ed. 1624, vol. i., p. 17. - -[12] Wilkinson, “Anc. Egypt.,” vol. iii. p. 241. - -[13] Æn., 1. vii. 743. - -[14] Χαλκεύειν δὲ καὶ τὸ σιδηρεύειν ἔλεγον, καὶ χαλκεάς τοὺς τὸν -σίδηρον ἐργαζομένους, Jul. Pollux, “Onomasticon,” lib. vii. cap. 24. - -[15] Macrobius, “Saturnal.,” v. 19. Rhodiginus, “Antiq. Lect.,” xix. c. -10. - -[16] Met., lib. vii. 228. - -[17] Homer, Il., xxiii. 826. - -[18] _Zeitsch. f. Ægypt. Sprache, &c._ 1870, p. 114. - -[19] _Cong. Préh. Bruxelles_, 1872, p. 242. - -[20] See a valuable paper by Dr. L. Beck, _Arch. f. Anth._, vol. xii. -(1880) p. 293. - -[21] See De Rougemont, “L’Age du Bronze,” p. 159. - -[22] See Percy’s “Metallurgy,” vol. i. p. 873. - -[23] De Rougemont, _op. cit._, p. 158. See “Ancient Bronze Imps.,” p. -6, _seqq._ - -[24] Photii “Bibliotheca,” _ed._ 1653, col. 1343. - -[25] _Jour. Anth. Inst._, vol. xx. p. 330. - -[26] Lib. i. c. 21. - -[27] “Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt und dessen Alterthümer.” Vienna, 1868. - -[28] London, 1881. - -[29] De Nat. Deor., Lib. ii. c. 28. - -[30] Lib. iv. c. 28. - -[31] Lib. i. v. 66. - -[32] “Early History of Mankind,” p. 218; 2nd edit. p. 221, _q. v._ - -[33] Lib. ii. 86. - -[34] Lib. i. 91. - -[35] _Trans. Ethn. Soc._, N. S., vol. vii. 112. - -[36] Exod. iv. 25. - -[37] Josh. v. 2. - -[38] Ib. xxiv. 30. - -[39] See also Tylor’s “Early History of Mankind,” 2nd ed., p. 217. The -entire chapter on the Stone Age, Past and Present, is well worthy of -careful perusal, and enters more fully into the whole question of the -Stone Age throughout the world than comes within my province. - -[40] _C. R. du Cong. Int. des Sc. Anth._ 1878. Paris 1880, p. 280. -_Comptes Rendus de l’Acad. des Sciences_, vol. lxiii, August 28, 1871. - -[41] _Comptes Rendus_, 1871, vol. lxxiii. p. 540. - -[42] Livy, lib. i. c. 24. - -[43] Rapt. Proserp. I. 201. - -[44] “Horæ Ferales,” p. 136. _Arch. Journ._, vol. xi. p. 169. - -[45] _Arch. für Anthropol._, vol. iii. 16. - -[46] “Coins of the Ancient Britons,” pp. 42, 263, _et alibi_. - -[47] Herodian, lib. iii. c. 14. - -[48] “Cat. of Stone Ant. in R. I. A. Mus.,” p. 81. - -[49] Wood’s “Nat. Hist. of Man,” i. p. 97. - -[50] Klemm, “Allgemeine Culturwissenschaft,” part i. p. 86. _Proc. Soc. -Ant. Scot._, vol. x. 360. - -[51] Mitchell’s “Past in the Present,” p. 10, 44. _Proc. Soc. Ant. -Scot._, vol. xix. p. 385, xx. p. 146, xxiii. p. 16. - -[52] _Phil. Trans._, 1860, p. 311. _Archæologia_, vol. xxxviii. p. 293. - -[53] “Prehistoric Times,” (1865), p. 60. - -NOTES—CHAPTER II. - -[54] This chapter was for the most part written in 1868, and -communicated to the International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology -held at Norwich in that year. See _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 191, -where a short abstract is given. - -[55] _N. and Q._ 7th S., vol. x. p. 172. - -[56] _Mat._ 3me S., vol. ii. (1885) p. 61. - -[57] _Op. cit._, p. 38. - -[58] Spec. Naturæ, lib. ix. sect. 13. - -[59] Morlot in _Rec. Arch._, vol. v. (1862), p. 216. _Geologist_, -vol. v. p. 192. Engelhardt found several similar pieces of pyrites -at Thorsbjerg, with iron and other antiquities of about the fourth -century of our era. He says that steels for striking fire are not at -present known as belonging to the Early Iron Age of Denmark. This -late use of pyrites affords strong evidence of iron and steel having -been unknown to the makers of flint implements, for had they made -use of iron hammers, the superior fire-giving properties of flint -and iron would at once have been evident, and pyrites would probably -soon have been superseded, at all events in countries where flint -abounded.—Engelhardt, “Thorsbjerg Mosefund,” p. 60; p. 65 in the -English edit. The quartz pebbles with grooves in them which belong to -the Iron Age seem, however, to have been used for producing fire by -means of a pointed steel. - -[60] Weddell, “Voyage towards the South Pole,” p. 167; Tylor, “Early -History of Mankind,” 2nd edit., p. 249. Wood’s “Nat. Hist. of Man,” -vol. ii. p. 522. - -[61] Hist. Nat., lib. xxxvi. cap. 19. - -[62] Lib. vii. cap. 56. - -[63] II. Macc. x. 3. - -[64] Æneid, i. v. 174. - -[65] Æneid, vi. v. 6. See also (Georg. I. 135)—“Ut silicis venis -abstrusum excuderet ignem.” On this passage Fosbroke remarks (Enc. Ant. -i. 307), “A stone with a vein was chosen as now.” - -[66] Eidyllia, v. 42. - -[67] Keller, “Lake-dwellings,” p. 119. - -[68] Vol. ii. p. 536. Bohn’s edit., 1846. - -[69] An interesting paper on tinder-boxes will be found in _The -Reliquary_, vii. p. 65. See also Mitchell’s “Past in the Present,” p. -100, and _Arch. Camb._, 5th s., vol. vii. p. 294. - -[70] Stevens’. “Flint Chips,” p. 588. - -[71] _Op. cit._, vol. ii., p. 537. - -[72] “Classe Mathématique et Physique,” t. 3, an. ix. An abstract of -this account is given in Rees’ Encyclop., _s. v_. Gun-flint. - -[73] “Physische und technische Beschreibung der Flintensteine,” &c., -von Hacquet. Wien, 1792, 8vo. A nearly similar account is given in -Winckell’s “Handbuch für Juger,” &c., 1822, Theil iii. p. 546. - -[74] Skertchly, _op. cit._, p. 78. - -[75] _Mat._, 3me, s. ii., 1885, p. 61. - -[76] An account of the process of making gun-flints, written by the -late Mr. James Wyatt, F.G.S., has been published in Stevens’ “Flint -Chips,” p. 578. A set of gun-flint makers’ tools is in the Musée de St. -Germain, and the process of manufacture has been described by M. G. de -Mortillet (“Promenades,” p. 69). An account of a visit to Brandon is -given by Mr. E. Lovett in _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, xxi p. 206, and an -article on “Flint-Knapping,” by Mr. H. F. Wilson, is in the _Magazine -of Art_, 1887, p. 404. - -[77] See _postea_ p. 273. - -[78] Petrie, “Medum,” 1892, Pl. xxix., p. 18, 34. - -[79] _Nature_, vol. xxv. p. 8. - -[80] P. 52. - -[81] “Bosnia and Herzegovina,” 2nd ed. (1877), p. 153, _B.A. Rep._ -1885, p. 1216. - -[82] “Stone Age,” p. 6. - -[83] “Lake-dwellings,” p. 36. - -[84] _l. c._ pp. 86 and 97. - -[85] _Comptes Rendus_, 1867, vol. lxv. p. 640. - -[86] Troyon, “Mon. de l’Antiquité,” p. 52. - -[87] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 385. - -[88] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 38. - -[89] _Geol. Mag._, vol. iii. (1866) p. 433. - -[90] “Monarquia Indiana,” lib. xvii. cap. 1, Seville, 1615, translated -by E. B. Tylor, “Anahuac,” p. 331. See a correction of Mr. Tylor’s -translation in the _Comptes Rendus_, vol. lxvii. p. 1296. - -[91] Tylor’s “Anahuac,” p. 332. - -[92] P. 871. - -[93] _Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada_, 1889, p. 59. - -[94] Tylor’s “Anahuac,” p. 99. - -[95] “Last Rambles amongst the Indians,” 1868, p. 188. The whole -passage is reprinted in “Flint Chips,” p. 82. - -[96] B. B. Redding in _Am. Naturalist_, Nov., 1880. _Nature_, vol. xxi. -p. 613. - -[97] _Transactions of the Ethnological Society_, N. S., vol. iv. p. 242. - -[98] _Op. cit._, N. S., vol. i. p. 138. - -[99] “Völkerkunde,” vol. ii. (1888), p. 748. - -[100] _Zeitsch. f. Ethnol._, vol. xvi. p. 222. - -[101] _Rep. of U.S. Nat. Mus._, 1888, Niblack, Pl. xxii. - -[102] _Rep. of Bureau of Ethn._, 1887–8, p. 95. - -[103] _Anthrop. Rev._, vol. iv. p. civ. Mr. Baines has also -communicated an interesting letter on this subject, with illustrations, -to Mackie’s “Geol. Repertory,” vol. i. p. 258. - -[104] _Archæologia_, vol. xl. p. 381. See also Prof. Steenstrup and Sir -John Lubbock in the _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._, N. S., vol. v. p. 221. - -[105] _Arch._, vol. xlii. p. 68. _Arch. Jour._, vol. xxv. p. 88. _Suss. -Arch. Coll._, vol. xxiv. p. 145. _Jour. Anth. Inst._, vol. v. p. 357; -vi. p. 263, 430; vii. p. 413. - -[106] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, N. S., vol. ii. p. 419. See also _Proc. -Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. viii. p. 419. - -[107] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. i. p. 73. - -[108] Pennant describes a flint axe as having been found stuck in a -vein of coal exposed to the day in Craig y Parc, Monmouthshire. - -[109] “Rapport sur les Découvertes Géologiques et Archéologiques faites -à Spiennes en 1867.” Par A. Briart, F. Cornet, et A. Houzeau de Lehaie. -Mons, 1868. Malaise, _Bull. de l’Ac. Roy. de Belg._, 2° S. vols. xxi. -and xxv., and _Geol. Mag._, vol. iii. p. 310. See also _Cong. Préh. -Bruxelles_, 1872, p. 279; _l’Anthropologie_, vol. ii. p. 326. _Mat._ -3me s. vol. i. (1884), p. 65, likewise _Bull. de la Soc. d’Anthrop. -de Bruxelles_, tom. viii. 1889–90, Pl I. C. Engelhardt has described -Spiennes and Grime’s Graves in the _Aarb. for Oldkynd._, 1871, p. 327. -What appears to have been a neolithic flint mine at Crayford, Kent, has -been described by Mr. Spurrell, _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxxvii. p. 332. -The Deneholes were probably dug for the extraction of chalk and not of -flint. - -[110] _l’Anthropologie_, vol. ii. (1891) 445. - -[111] _Mat._, 3me s. vol. iv. (1887) p. 1. - -[112] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxviii. 220. - -[113] Cochet, “Seine Inf.,” pp. 16. 528. _Archivio per l’Antropol., -&c._, vol. i. p. 489. - -[114] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxx. (1896) p. 346. - -[115] _Mat._, vol. x. (1875) p. 521. - -[116] Lartet and Christy’s Rel. Aquit., p. 13. - -[117] _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._, N.S., vol. i. p. 139. See also _Rev. -Arch._, vol. iii. (1861) p. 341. - -[118] “Rel. Aquit.,” p. 18. For the loan of this cut I am indebted to -the executors of the late Henry Christy. The same specimen has been -engraved by the Rev. J. G. Wood. “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 717. -Another example from Greenland is figured in _Mat._, vol. vi. p. 140. - -[119] Gastaldi’s “Lake Habitations of Northern and Central Italy,” -translated and edited by C. H. Chambers, M.A. (Anth. Soc., 1865), p. -106. - -[120] Mortillet, _Mat. pour l’Hist. de l’Homme_, vol. ii. p. 517. - -[121] “Flint Chips,” p. 78. - -[122] _Arch. f. Anth._, vol. vii, p. 263. _Bull. U.S. Geol. and Geog. -Survey_, vol. iii. p. 547. - -[123] _Nat._, vol. xxi. p. 615. - -[124] _Nat._, vol. xxii. p. 97. - -[125] _Amer. Anthrop._, 1895, p. 307. _Nat._, vol. xx. p. 483. - -[126] _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._, N. S., vol. iii. p. 365. “Rel. Aquit.,” p. -17. - -[127] “Articles on Anth. Sub.,” 1882, p. 9. - -[128] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. p. 212. - -[129] Sixth voyage, “Pinkerton’s Travels,” vol. xiii. p. 36, quoted -also in “Flint Chips,” p. 79. - -[130] Bracer, a girdle or bandage. - -[131] Schoolcraft, “Indian Tribes,” vol. iii. p. 81; see also 467. - -[132] _Arch. Journ._, vol. liii. 1896, p. 51. - -[133] P. 46. - -[134] Mortillet, _Matériaux_, vol. ii. p. 353. - -[135] “Pfahlbauten, 1ter Bericht,” p. 71. “Lake-dwellings,” pp. 18, -125. See also Lindenschmit, “Hohenz. Samml.,” taf. xxvii. - -[136] _Proc. Ethnol. Soc._, N. S., vol. vii. p. 47. - -[137] _Anzeiger für Schweiz. Alterth._, 1870, p. 123. - -[138] “Habit. Lacust.,” p. 19. - -[139] See _Comptes Rendus_, vol. lxvii. p. 1292, where a suggestion is -made of some stone implements from Java having been sawn in this manner. - -[140] An article by Dr. Rudolf Much on the preparation of Stone -Implements is in the _Mitth. d. Auth. Ges. in Wien_, 2d. S., vol. ii. -(1883), p. 82; and one by Mr. J. D. McGuire, in the _Amer. Anthrop._, -vol. v., 1892, p. 165. He has also written on the Evolution of the Art -of Working in Stone, in a manner that has called forth a reply from Mr. -C. H. Read, F.S.A., _Amer. Anthrop._, 1893, p. 307; 1894. p. 997. - -[141] “Illahun, Kahun, and Gurob,” 1891, p. 51. - -[142] Fischer in _Arch. f. Anth._, vol. xv., 1884, p. 463. - -[143] _The Reliquary_, vol. viii. p. 184. - -[144] _Matériaux_, vol. iv. p. 293. - -[145] “Prehist. Ann. of Scotland.” 2nd edit., vol. i. p. 193. - -[146] “Cat. Stone Ant. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 78. - -[147] P. 26. - -[148] _Matériaux_, vol. i. p. 463; vol. iii. p. 307. - -[149] _Anz. f. Schweiz. Alt._, 1870, pl. xii. 18–20. - -[150] _Archivio per l’Ant. e la Etn._, vol. xx. 1890, p. 378. - -[151] “Primeval Ants. of Denmark.” p. 16. - -[152] P. 392. _Archiv für Anthrop._, vol. iii. p. 187. - -[153] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. iii. pp. 228, 466. - -[154] Tylor, “Early Hist, of Mankind,” p. 248. - -[155] Wilkinson, “Anc. Egyptians,” vol. ii. pp. 180, 181; vol. iii. pp. -144, 172. - -[156] Odyss., ix. 384. - -[157] 2nd ed., pp. 341 _et seqq._; see also “Flint Chips,” p. 96. - -[158] _Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus._ for 1894, p. 623. - -[159] “Guide ill. du Mus. des Ant. du Nord,” 2nd edit. p. 8. - -[160] _Anzeiger f. Schweiz. Alt._, 1870, pl. xii. 24. Munro’s “Lake -Dw.,” fig. 24, No. 12. - -[161] Keller’s “Lake-dwellings,” p. 22. 1ter Bericht, p. 74. See also -_Anzeiger für Schweiz. Alterth._, 1870, p. 139. - -[162] _Aarsb. Soc. Nor. Ant._, 1877, pl. i. 5. Montelius, “Ant. Suéd.,” -1874, fig. 34. - -[163] _Morgenblatt_, No. 253. - -[164] “Allgemeine Culturwissenschaft,” vol. i. p. 80. See also -Preusker, “Blicke in die Vaterländische Vorzeit,” vol. i. p. 173. - -[165] _Mém. de la Soc. des Ant. du Nord_, 1863, p. 149. - -[166] “Heidnische Alterthümer,” p. 66. - -[167] “Alterthümer. u. h. V.,” vol. i. Heft viii. Taf. i. - -[168] “Frederico-Francisceum,” p. 111. - -[169] _Journal of the Anthrop. Soc._, vol. vi. p. xlii. - -[170] “Archæol. Undersögelser,” 1884. - -[171] “Smithson. Report,” 1868, p. 399. “Drilling in Stone without -Metal.” - -[172] Schoolcraft, “Indian Tribes,” vol. i. p. 93. - -[173] _Anzeiger f. Schweiz. Alt._, 1870, p. 143. - -[174] _Mitth. d. Anth. Ges. in Wien_, vol. vii. (1878), p. 96. - -[175] “Habitations Lacustres,” p. 66. _Rev. Arch._, 1860, vol. i. p. 39. - -[176] _Matériaux_, vol. iii. p. 264. - -[177] Ibid., vol. iii. p. 294. - -[178] “Les Palafittes,” p. 19. - -[179] Keller, “Lake Dwellings,” xxv. 1. 7, p. 91. - -[180] _Op. cit._, xxvii. 11, 24, p. 110. - -[181] _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1881, p. 698. - -[182] “Thor’s Donnerkeil,” p. 13. - -[183] “Stone Age,” p. 79. The boring-tool is, in the English edition, -mistakenly called a centre-bit. - -[184] “Stone Age,” p. 80. - -[185] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 157. - -[186] “Mœurs des Sauv. Amér.,” 1724, vol. ii. p. 110. “Flint Chips,” p. -525. - -[187] Tylor, “Early Hist. of Mankind,” 2nd edit., p. 191. Wallace, -“Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro,” p. 278. - -[188] C. C. Abbott in _Nature_, vol. xiv. p. 154. - -NOTES—CHAPTER III. - -[189] Cap. xix. v. 24. It also occurs in a quotation of the passage by -St. Jerome, in his “Epist. ad Pammachium.” See _Athenæum_, June 11, -1870. - -[190] P. 329, 1. 23. - -[191] Vol. iii. p. 418. - -[192] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S. vol. vii. p. 395. - -[193] _N. and Q._, 5th S. vol. ix. p. 463. - -[194] _Op. cit._, x. p. 73. - -[195] _Mitth. d. Anth. Ges. in Wien_, vol. xxiv. (1894) p. 84. - -[196] _Arch. f. Anth._, vol. x. (1876) p. 140. - -[197] Barnes, “Notes on Ancient Britain,” 1858, p. 15. - -[198] Tylor, “Early Hist. of Man.,” 2nd ed. p. 226, which also see for -many of the facts here quoted. See also Tylor’s “Prim. Culture,” vol. -ii. p. 237, &c. - -[199] Halliwell, “Rambles in West Cornwall,” 1861, p. 205. _Rev. -Celt._, 1870, p. 6. Polwhele’s “Traditions, &c.,” 1826, vol. ii. p. -607. _Folk-lore Journ._, vol. i. p. 191. - -[200] Sibbald mentions two perforated _cerauniæ_ found in Scotland. -“Prod. Nat. Hist. Scot.,” ii. lib. iv. p. 49. See also _Proc. Soc. Ant. -Scot._, vol. xxiv. p. 379. - -[201] _Comptes Rendus_, 1864, vol. lix. p. 713. Cochet, “Seine Inf.,” -p. 15. B. de Perthes, “Ant. Celt, et Antéd.,” vol. i. p. 522, &c. - -[202] F. C. Lukis, F.S.A., in _Reliquary_, viii. p. 208. - -[203] _Bull., Soc. de Borda, Dax_, 1894, p. 159. See also De Nadaillac, -“Les Premiers Hommes,” vol. i. p. 12; Cartailhac, “La France préh.,” p. -4. - -[204] Ibid. - -[205] Nilsson, “Stone Age,” pp. 199–201. - -[206] “Mus. Wormianum,” p. 74. - -[207] Preusker, “Blicke in die Vaterländische Vorzeit,” vol. i. p. 170. - -[208] “Old Northern Runic Monuments,” p. 205. _Ant. Tidsskr._, 1852–54, -p. 258. Sjöborg, “Samlingar för Nordens Förnälskara,” vol. iii. p. 163. - -[209] _Ant. Tidsskr._, 1852–54, p. 8. _Mém. de la Soc. des Ant. du -Nord_, 1850–60, p. 28. - -[210] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxv. p. 116. - -[211] “Preh. Man,” vol. ii. p. 185. - -[212] _Jahrb. d. V. v. Alth. am Rheinl._, Heft lxxvii. 1884, p. 216, -lxxix. 1885, p. 280. - -[213] _Arch. f. Anth._, vol. xxii. 1894, Corr. Bl. p. 102. - -[214] _Mitth. d. Anth. Ges. in Wien_, 1882, p. 159. _Zeitsch. f. Eth._, -vol. xii. 1880, p. 252. - -[215] _Notes and Queries_, 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 92. - -[216] Tylor, “Early Hist. of Man.,” p. 227. - -[217] _Ann. for Nord. Oldk._, 1838, p. 159. Klemm., “C. G.,” vol. i. p. -268. Prinz Neuwied, ii. p. 35. - -[218] Nicolucci, “di Alcune Armi, &c., in Pietra,” 1863, p. 2. - -[219] “Mus. Mosc.,” 1672, p. 144. - -[220] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xv. p. 358; xvi. p. 145. Finlay, “Πρόιστ. -Ἀρχάιολ.,” p. 5. - -[221] Alexius, Lib. iii. p. 93, _et seqq._, quoted by Gibbon, “Dec. and -Fall,” c. 56. - -[222] Cartailhac, p. 4. - -[223] “Early Hist. of Mankind,” p. 211. Klemm, “Cultur-Geschichte,” -vol. vi. p. 467. - -[224] Tylor, _op. cit._ 214. - -[225] Franks, _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 260. - -[226] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xxvii. 1895, p. 326. - -[227] _Notes and Queries_, 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 92. _Arch. Journ._, -vol. xi. p. 121. - -[228] _Arch. für Anthrop._, vol. iv. _Corr. Blatt_, p. 48. Rumphius, -“Curios. Amboin.,” p. 215. - -[229] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2d S., vol. iii. p. 97. - -[230] _Proc. Ethnol. Soc._, 1870, p. lxii. _Jour. Anth. Inst._, vol. i. -p. lxi. - -[231] _Proc. As. Soc. Beng._, July, 1869. _Nature_, vol. ii. p. 104. - -[232] Noulet, “L’âge de la pierre en Cambodge,” Toulouse, 1877. - -[233] Morlot, _Actes de la Soc. jurass. d’Emul._, 1863. Earl, “Native -Races of the Indian Archip.,” vol. v. p. 84.—Von Siebold, _Nature_, -vol. xxxiv. 1886, p. 52. - -[234] _Nature_, vol. xxxii. 1885, p. 626. - -[235] _Proc. As. Soc. Bengal_, 1861, p. 81. Do., 1862, p. 325. - -[236] “Ausland,” 1874, p. 82. - -[237] Rev. T. J. Bowen, “Gram. and Dict. of Yoruba Language.” -“Smithsonian Contr.,” vol. i. p. xvi., quoted by Dr. E. B. Tylor, -_Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 14. - -[238] _Jour. Anth. Inst._, vol. xii. p. 450. - -[239] _Arch. per l’Ant. e la Etn._, vol. xiv. (1884), p. 371. - -[240] 1882, p. 111. - -[241] Vol. iii. 1868, p. 1. - -[242] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxv. p. 151. - -[243] Ibid. p. 103. - -[244] _Matériaux_, vol. iv. p. 9. - -[245] _Mat._, vol. xi. p. 538. - -[246] _Mat._, vol. xiv. p. 274. _Bull. della Comm. Arch. Comunal. di -Roma_, 1870. - -[247] “Quæst. Græc.,” ed. 1624, p. 301. - -[248] _Congrès Intern. d’Anth. et d’Arch. Préh._, 1867, pp. 39, 40. - -[249] Kruse. “Necroliv.,” Nachtrag, p. 21. _Journ. As. Soc. Beng._, -vol. v. p. 34. - -[250] See also Tylor, _l. c._, p. 228. - -[251] “Metallotheca Vaticana,” p. 242. De Rossi, “Scoperte -Paleoetnol.,” 1867, p. 11. _Mat._, vol. x. p. 49. - -[252] “Lithographia Angerburgica,” cited in _Mat._, vol. x. 297. - -[253] “Hist. et Mém.,” vol. xii. p. 163. _Mat._, vol. x. 146. - -[254] P. 397. - -[255] No. 201. - -[256] Aldrovandus, “Mus. Met.,” 1648, p. 607–611. Gesner, “de Fig. -Lapid.,” p. 62–64. Boethius, “Hist. Gem.,” lib. ii. c. 261. Besler, -“Gazophyl. Rer. Nat.,” tab. 34. Wormius, “Musæum,” lib. i. sec. 2, -c. 12, p. 75. Moscardi, “Musæo,” 1672, p. 148. Lachmund, “de foss. -Hildeshem.,” p. 23. Tollius “Gemm. et lapid. Historia,” Leiden, 1647, -p. 480. De Laet, “de Gemm. et lapid.,” Leiden, 1647, p. 155. - -[257] Gesner, “de Fossilibus,” p. 62 _verso_. - -[258] “De re metallicâ,” Basel, 1657, pp. 609, 610. - -[259] “Marbodæi Galli Cænomanensis de gemmarum lapidumque pretiosorum -formis, &c.” (Cologne, 1539), p. 48. - -[260] “Hist. Nat.,” lib. xxxvii. c. 9. For a series of interesting -Papers on “La Foudre, &c., dans l’Antiquité,” see M. Henri Martin in -the _Rev. Arch._, vol. xii. _et seqq._ - -[261] An interesting paper on “Bætuli” by Mr. G. F. Hill, is in the -_Reliquary and Illustrated Archæologist_, vol. ii. 1896, p. 23. - -[262] Geason, Scarce. “Scant and geason.” Harrison’s -“England.”—Halliwell, _Dict. of Archaic Words_, s. v. - -[263] “Nec multo post in Cantabriæ lacum fulmen decidit, repertæque -sunt duodecim secures, haud ambiguum summi imperii signum,” Galba, -viii. c. 4. - -[264] See _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. iii. p. 127, and Wilde’s “Cat. R. -I. A.,” p. 72. - -[265] _Comptes Rendus de l’Ac. des Sci._, 1865, vol. lxi. pp. 313, 357; -1866, lxiii. p. 1038. - -NOTES—CHAPTER IV. - -[266] Madsen, “Afbild.,” pl. iii. 1 to 3. _Kgl. Danske Vidensk. -Selskabs Forhand._, 1861, Fig. 1. - -[267] De Baye, “l’Arch. préhist.,” p. 55. - -[268] Lubbock, Preh. Times, 4th ed., p. 100. - -[269] _Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Selskabs Forh._, 1861, p. 342. - -[270] _Aarb. for. Nord. Oldk._, 1891, p. 383. See also S. Müller, _Mém. -des Ant. du Nord_, 1884–89, p. 371; _Aarb._, 1888, p. 238. - -[271] “Archæol. Undersögelser,” 1884, p. 3. - -[272] _Jour. Anth. Inst._, vol. ii., p. 368, pl. xxi. - -[273] _Smithsonian Report_, 1863, p. 379; 1868, p. 401. “Flint Chips,” -445. - -[274] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v., p. 331. - -[275] Vol. xix., 53; xxxii., 173. - -[276] “Nænia Cornubiæ,” p. 194. - -[277] The discoveries of Mr. Worthington Smith at Caddington, a few -miles from Dunstable, suggest the possibility of this specimen being, -after all, palæolithic. - -[278] _Jour. Eth. Soc._, N. S., vol. ii., pl. xxviii. 7. - -[279] _Arch._, vol. xlii., pl. viii. 10, 11. - -[280] _Arch. Assoc. Jour._, vol. xlv., p. 114. - -[281] _Arch._, vol. xlii., pl. viii. 17. - -[282] _Arch. Jour._, vol. xxxi., p. 301. - -[283] “Exc. on Cranborne Chase,” vol. ii., pl. xc. - -[284] See also Chichester vol. of Arch. Inst., p. 61. - -[285] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. x., p. 34. - -[286] Rev. W. W. Gill, LL.D., _Rep. Austral. Assoc. for the Adv. of -Science_, vol. iv., 1892, p. 613. - -[287] Low’s Tour., quoted in _Folklore Jour._, vol. i., p. 191. - -[288] _Aarb. f. Nord. Oldk._, 1886, p. 200; _Mèm. Soc. R. des Ant. du -Nord_, 1886–91, p. 227; _Mat._, 3rd. S., vol. v., 1888, p. 105. - -[289] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iv., p. 521. - -[290] Vol. vi., p. iii. - -[291] _Jour. Eth. Soc._, vol. ii., pl. xxviii. 4, 5. - -[292] Watelet, “Age de Pierre du Dép. de l’Aisne,” &c. - -[293] “Restes de l’Ind., &c.,” pl. xiii. 1. - -[294] _Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. viii., 1896, pl. xi. 1. - -[295] See _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v., p. 113; _Arch. Jour._, -vol. xxx., p. 28. - -[296] _Zeitsch. f. Eth._, vol. xii., p. 237. - -[297] _Cong. Préh. Moscou_, 1893, p. 249. - -[298] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v., p. 94; _Arch. Jour._, vol. -xxx., p. 35. - -[299] _Suss. Arch. Coll._, vol. ii., p. 268. - -[300] Vol. xlii., p. 53; xlv., p. 337. - -[301] _Arch._, vol. xlii., pl. viii. 1. - -[302] “Reliq. Aquit.,” A., pl. v. - -[303] _Jour. Anth. Soc._, 1869, p. cxii. - -[304] _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._, N. S., vol. iii., p. 269. - -[305] _Smiths. Inst. Rep._, 1894. - -[306] Vol. xlii., pl. viii. 18. - -[307] “Horæ Ferales,” pl. ii. 36. - -[308] _Arch._, vol. xlii. pl. viii. 21. - -[309] _Trans. Norf. and Norw. Naturalists’ Soc._, vol. v., 1891, p. 250. - -[310] Vol. xv., p. 122, pl. ii., iii., iv., v. - -[311] “South Wilts,” p. 75, pl. v., vi., vii. - -NOTES—CHAPTER V. - -[312] _Arch._, vol. xv., pl. iv. 1. Hoare’s “South Wiltshire,” pl. v. -1. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 9_b_. - -[313] _Arch. Assoc. Jour._, vol. xxxvii., 1881, p. 214. - -[314] _Arch. Jour._, vol. xxxi., pp. 296, 301. - -[315] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xiv., p. 265; xxiv., p. 6. - -[316] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ix., p. 258. - -[317] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xi., p. 24. - -[318] “Vest. Ant. Derb.” p. 43. Cat., p. 31. - -[319] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi., p. 178. - -[320] See _Cambridge Antiq. Comms._, vol. ii, 285, where there is a -woodcut of the skull, and _Geol. Mag._, Dec. II., vol. i. p. 494. - -[321] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, 1869, vol. ii., pl. xv., fig. 11. - -[322] _Proc. Soc. Ant., Scot._, vol. xiv., p. 265. - -[323] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 406. - -[324] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, 1869, vol. ii., fig. 7. - -[325] A large celt formed of “indurated clay-stone with garnets,” is -mentioned by Mr. F. C. Lukis, F.S.A., as having been found in the -Channel Islands (_Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. iii. 128). - -[326] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vii. p. 101. - -[327] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. 213. - -[328] _Proc. Ethnol. Soc._, 1870, p. xxxix. - -NOTES—CHAPTER VI. - -[329] “Man the Primeval Savage,” p. 310. - -[330] See “Horæ Ferales,” pl. ii. 8. - -[331] Vol. xvii., pl. xiv. “Horæ Ferales,” pl. ii. 10. - -[332] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxviii., p. 242. - -[333] _Surr. Arch. Coll._, vol. xi. pp. 247, 248. - -[334] _Arch. Journ._, vol. ix. p. 194. “Salisbury vol.,” p. 112. - -[335] _Arch. Æliana_, vol. v. p. 102. - -[336] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xx. p. 192. - -[337] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S. vol. ix. p. 71. - -[338] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxx. p. 284. - -[339] Anderson’s “Croydon: Preh. and Present,” pl. ii. - -[340] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xvi. 437. - -[341] L. Simonin, “La Vie Souterraine,” &c., 1867. Mortillet, _Mat._, -vol. iii. p. 101. - -[342] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvii., pl. x. 1, p. 164. - -[343] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xlviii. p. 436. - -[344] Pp. 577, 578. - -[345] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v., p. 34. - -[346] _Arch. Journ._ vol. xxvii. p. 238. - -[347] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ix. p. 71. - -[348] _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 406. - -[349] _Arch._, vol. xii. pl. ii. 1. - -[350] _Arch._, vol. vii. p. 414; _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vi. 37. - -[351] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxvi. p. 175; xxviii. p. 322. - -[352] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xvii. p. 382; xxviii. p. 329. - -[353] _Op. cit._, vol. x. p. 600; xvii. p. 383. - -[354] _Op. cit._, vol. ix. p. 346; xvii. p. 384. - -[355] _Op. cit._, vol. xxiii. p. 272. - -[356] _Ibid._ - -[357] Bonstetten, “Supp. au Rec. d’Ant. Suisses,” pl. ii. 1. - -[358] _Proc. Ethnol. Soc._, 1870, p. cxxxvii. - -[359] Mortillet, “Promenades,” p. 145; “Mus. Préh.,” No. 459. - -[360] See the account of the discovery, _Rev. Arch._, 3rd S., vol. -xxiv. (1894), p. 260. - -[361] “L’homme Fossile,” 2nd Ed., p. 147. - -[362] Van Overloop. Pl. ix. and x. - -[363] Lindenschmit, “Alt. u. H. V.,” vol. i., Heft. vol. ii., Taf. i. -19, &c. - -[364] Voss. “Phot. Album,” vol. vi., sec. vi. - -[365] _Jahrb. d. V. v. Alt. im Rh._, L. p. 290. - -[366] xix. p. 119. See also, for the origin of Jade, Fischer’s “Jadeit -und Nephrit,” Westropp in _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. x. p. 359, and -Rudler in _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1890, p. 971. - -[367] _Mitth. d. Ant. Ges. in Wien_, N. S., vol. iii. 1883, p. 213–216. - -[368] _Op. cit._, N. S., vol. v. 1885, p. 1. - -[369] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. x., p. 359; xx. p. 332; xxi., pp. 319, -493; _Aarbög. f. Oldkynd._, 1889, p. 149. - -[370] Calcutta, 1871. - -[371] Vol. xvi., pl. lii. p. 361. - -[372] Canon Greenwell, F.R.S. - -[373] Mr. James Brown. - -[374] Mr. Frank Buckland, F.Z.S. - -[375] Rev. S. Banks. - -[376] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol^1 xvi. p. 408. - -[377] “Stone Age,” p. 63. - -[378] Vol. iv. p. 2. - -[379] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iii. p. 486. - -[380] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xiii. p. 306. - -[381] _Z. f. Eth._, 1878. Supp. pl. iii. - -[382] “Horæ Ferales,” pl. ii. 14. - -[383] _Nature_, vol. xxx. p. 515. See also _Archiv. f. Anth._, vol. -xvi. p. 241, and _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ix. p. 211. - -[384] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xvii. p. 66. - -[385] _Proc. As. Soc. Beng._, Sept., 1870. _Proc. Ethnol. Soc._, 1870, -p. lxii. - -[386] Kanda’s, “Stone Implements of Japan,” _Nature_, vol. xxxi. p. -538; _Cong. Préh. Bruxelles_, 1872, p. 337. - -[387] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxvi., p. 404. - -[388] _Tr. Dev. Assoc._, vol. xix. p. 56. - -[389] See “Acct. of Soc. Ant. of Scot.,” p. 55. - -[390] “Horæ Ferales,” pl. ii. 11. - -[391] “Horæ Ferales,” pl. ii. 13. _Arch. Journ._, vol. xv. p. 178. - -[392] “Horæ Ferales,” pl. ii. 7. - -[393] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 389. - -[394] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xv., p. 232. - -[395] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, vol. iii. p. 225. - -[396] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ix. p. 174. - -[397] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 165. - -[398] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 165. - -[399] _Mem. Accad. R. di Torino_, Ser. 2, vol. xxvi., Tav. iv. 4. - -[400] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i., pl. xi. 3; xiv. 2. - -[401] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. x. p. 105. - -[402] “Horæ Ferales,” pl. ii. 5. - -[403] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xvii. pp. 14, 15, 18, 19. - -[404] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 235. - -[405] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. ii. pl. xxx. 3. - -[406] Dawkins’ “Cave-hunting,” p. 157. _Arch. Camb._, 4th S., vol. -iii., 1872, p. 30. - -[407] See Schliemann’s “Mycenæ,” p. 76; “Troy,” p. 71; _Rev. Arch._, -vol. xxxiv. p. 163, &c., &c. - -[408] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. p. 91. Other North American -celts are engraved in the “Anc. Mon. of the Miss. Valley,” pp. 217, -218; Squier, “Abor. Mon. of New York,” p. 77. - -[409] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. i. p. xcvi., pl. ii. _Brit. Assoc. -Rep._, 1870, p. 154. - -[410] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xii. p. 449, pl. xiii. - -[411] “Anc. Mon. of Miss. Val.,” p. 215, fig. 106. - -[412] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xv. p. 245. - -[413] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxvii. p. 370. - -[414] Wilson’s “Preh. Man,” vol. i. p. 154. See _postea_, p. 150. - -[415] Vol. xvii. p. 222. - -[416] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v. pp. 300, 442. - -[417] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxix. p. 343. Cumming’s “Churches and -Ants. of Cury and Gunwalloe,” 1875, p. 66. - -[418] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 62: xi. p. 514. - -[419] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 514. - -[420] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 207. - -[421] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xvii. p. 16. - -[422] “Acct. of Soc. Ant. of Scot.,” 1782, p. 91. - -[423] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xvii. p. 15. - -[424] Vol. vi., 1865. - -[425] _Arch._, vol. xliv. p. 281. - -[426] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 438. - -[427] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ix. p. 174. - -[428] “Etudes Paléoethnol.,” pl. viii. 5. - -[429] _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._, N. S., vol. vii. p. 46. - -[430] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 179. - -[431] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xvii. p. 14. - -[432] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xii. p. 119; xxiii. p. 201. - -[433] _Mat._ vol. xiii. p. 135; xv. p. 462. “Mus. préh.,” No. 463. - -[434] Jan. 7, 1868. See also _Reliquary_, vol. viii. p. 184. - -[435] “Mus. préh.,” No. 430. - -[436] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. ii., pl. xliv. - -[437] “Anc. Mon. of Miss. Valley,” p. 218. - -[438] Lubbock “Preh. Times,” 4th ed. p. 513, figs. 215, 216. - -[439] _Arch. Journ._, vol. viii. p. 422. - -[440] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. x. p. 509. Dalgarno, “Notes on -Slains, &c.,” 1876, p. 6. - -[441] _P.S.A.S._, vol. xviii. p. 77. - -[442] Lubbock, _op. cit._, p. 102, fig. 111–113. - -[443] “Vestiges of the Ants. of Derb.,” p. 53. - -[444] _Mat._ vol. xvi. p. 464. - -[445] Im Thurn, “Among the Indians of Guiana,” 1883, pl. x. 4. - -[446] Chantre, “Le Caucase,” 1885, pl. ii. 9. - -[447] “Indicateur Arch. de Civrui,” 1865, p. 271. - -[448] _Mat._ 3rd S., vol. i., 1884, p. 243. - -[449] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i., p. 281. - -[450] Bonstetten, “Supp. au Rec. d’Ant. Suisses,” pl. ii., 1. - -[451] _Arch. Camb._, 3rd S., vol. vi., p. 303. Watelet, “Age de Pierre -dans le Dépt. de l’Aisne,” pl. v. 9. “Ep. Antéd. et Celt. de Poitou,” -pl. x. 7. _Rev. Arch._, vol xii., pl. xv., i.; _op. cit._, vol. xv., -pl. viii. and x. Lindenschmit, “Hohenz. Samml.,” Taf. xliii., No. 12. I -have an example that I bought in Florence. - -[452] Wilde, “Cat. Mus. R. I. Ac.,” p. 44. - -[453] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 6. - -[454] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 157. - -[455] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxxix. p. 344. - -[456] “South Wilts,” p. 75. _Arch._, vol. xv. p. 122. - -[457] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. vi. p. 3. - -[458] _Arch. Journ._, vol. x. p. 161. - -[459] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 396. - -[460] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. 48. - -[461] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vi. p. 17; xvii. 170. - -[462] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xii. p. 177. - -[463] _Sussex Arch. Coll._, vol. ii. p. 258. - -[464] _Arch._, vol. xix. p. 183. - -[465] _Surrey Arch. Coll._, 1868, pl. iii. 6. - -[466] “Exc. on Cranborne Chase,” vol. i. pl. lvii. - -[467] “Durobrivæ,” pl. xxix. 4. - -[468] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 249. - -[469] Douglas, “Nænia,” p. 92. - -[470] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xx. p. 322. - -[471] _Rev. Arch._, vol. iv. p. 484. - -[472] _Ann. for Nordisk Oldkynd._, 1838–9, p. 176. - -[473] _Cong. Intern. d’Anth. et d’Arch. Préh._, 1867, p. 119. - -[474] Kirchner has collected a number of cases.—“Thor’s Donner-Keil,” -p. 27. - -[475] “Dictionarium Saxonico-et Gothico-Latinum,” _s. v._ - -[476] “Twybyl, a wryhtys instrument,” is in the “Promptorium -Parvulorum” translated _bisacuta_ or _biceps_, and “Twybyl or mattoke,” -_Marra_, or _ligo_. - -[477] 1855, vol. ii. p. 811. - -[478] Vol. xi., 1876, p. 385. - -[479] _Mitth. d. Anth. Gesellsch. in Wien_, vol. vii., 1878, p. 7. - -[480] O’Curry, “Mann. and Cust. of the Anc. Irish,” vol. i. p. -cccclviii. - -[481] Wright’s “The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon,” p. 72. - -[482] “Stone Age,” p. 73. - -[483] “Georg.,” lib. i. 62. - -[484] See p. 105 _supra_. - -[485] A woodcut of these is given in the _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. -iv. p. 105. The objects are now in the British Museum. - -[486] “South Wilts,” p. 85. - -[487] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 221. - -[488] _Ibid._, p. 222. - -[489] “Vestiges of the Ant. of Derbyshire,” p. 53. - -[490] _Ibid._, p. 42. - -[491] “Vestiges of the Ant. of Derbyshire,” p. 49. - -[492] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 216. - -[493] Vol. viii. p. 86. - -[494] _Suss. Arch. Coll._ vol. xxxii. p. 175. - -[495] P. 112 _supra_. - -[496] P. 135. See _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 179. - -[497] “Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. at Edinburgh,” p. 8. - -[498] _Arch. Journ._, vol. viii. p. 422. - -[499] “Cat. A. I. Mus. at Edin.,” p. 10. - -[500] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 82. - -[501] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 159. - -[502] Vol. i. p. 53. See p. 129, _supra_. _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. -i. p. 44. - -[503] _Arch._, vol. xli. p. 405. - -[504] “Horæ Fer.,” p. 134. _Trans. Hist. Soc. Lanc. and Chesh._, vol. -xiv. pl. ii. 3. - -[505] Vol. iv. 112. - -[506] “Stone Age,” Eng. ed., p. 65. - -[507] Vol. xliv., pl. viii. fig. 3. - -[508] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xviii. p. 268. Mus. Préh. No. 442. - -[509] Cartailhac, “La France préh.,” p. 237. - -[510] _Suss. Arch. Coll._, vol. xxxix. p. 97. - -[511] _Lit. Gaz._, 1822, p. 605, quoted in _N. and Q._, 2nd S., vol. -vi. p. 32. - -[512] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ix. p. 460. - -[513] _Op. cit._, vol. xxx. p. 6. - -[514] “La Suède préhist.,” 1874, p. 21. - -[515] “Musée préhist.,” 1881, No. 428. - -[516] Wilde, “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 46. - -[517] _Arch. Journ._, vol. iv. p. 3. - -[518] Wood Martin’s “Lake-dw. of Irel.,” 1886, p. 59, pl. vi. 7. - -[519] Keller’s “Lake-Dwellings,” Eng. ed., pl. x. 14. - -[520] _Ibid._, pl. xi. 1. - -[521] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. i. pp. 321, 404. - -[522] Squier, “Abor. Mon. of New York,” p. 180. - -[523] _Mitth. d. Ant. Ges. in Wien_, vol. ix., 1880, p. 135, pl. i. - -[524] “Aventures du Sieur C. le Beau,” Amsterdam, 1738, p. 235. Quoted -in _Arch. per l’Ant. e la Et._, vol. xiv. p. 372. - -[525] Quoted in “Anc. Mon. of Miss. Valley,” p. 198. - -[526] _Zeitsch. f. Eth._, vol. xxiv., 1892, p. (229), pl. v. 2. - -[527] Ratzel, “Völkerk,” vol. ii. p. 246. - -[528] _Intern. Arch. f. Eth._, vol. ii. p. 272. _Arch. per l’Ant. e la -Etn._, vol. xx. p. 65. - -[529] 2nd S., vol. i. p. 102. See also Ratzel, “Völkerk.,” vol. ii. p. -582. - -[530] _Int. Arch. f. Ethn._, vol. iii. p. 195. - -[531] “Musæum Metallicum,” p. 158. - -[532] It has also been figured by Klemm, “Cult.-Wiss.,” vol. i. fig. -136. - -[533] “Cult.-Gesch.,” vol. ii. Taf. vi. a.b. - -[534] See _Int. Arch. f. Eth., Bd._ ix., Supp. pl. iii. - -[535] Klemm’s “Allgemeine Cultur-Wiss.,” vol. i. p. 71, whence I have -copied the figure. See also “Cult.-Gesch.,” vol. ii., p. 352. - -[536] Skelton’s “Meyrick’s Armour,” pl., cl. 1. - -[537] “Lake-Dwellings,” pl. x. 7; 5ter “Bericht,” pl. x. 17. Another -from St. Aubin is engraved by Chantre, “Etudes Paléoethn.,” pl. xi. -Keller has published several others. See also “Ant. Lac. du Mus. de -Lausanne,” 1896, pl. iii. - -[538] “Palafittes,” fig. 17. See also Troyon, “Habit. Lacust.”; -but some of his engravings, like those of Meillet in the “Epoques -Antédil. et Celtique de Poitou,” appear to have been made from modern -fabrications. - -[539] Keller, “Lake-Dwellings,” pl. xxii. 7. “Mus. de Lausanne,” 1896, -pl. iii. - -[540] Wilde’s “Cat. Mus. R.I.A.,” p. 251; Lindenschmit, “Sigmaringen,” -pl. xxix. 7; Keller, “Lake-Dwellings,” pl. ii. - -[541] _Ibid._, pl. xxii. 12. - -[542] “Note sur un Foyer, &c.,” Châlon, 1870. pl. iv. - -[543] Cochet, “Seine Inf.,” 2nd ed., p. 16. - -[544] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xv. p. 364, pl. viii.; Mortillet, -“Promenades,” p. 123. - -[545] _Matériaux_, vol. v. p. 96. - -[546] Vol. xxi. p. 54. See also vol. xiv. p. 82. - -[547] Hoare’s “South Wilts.” pl. xxi. - -[548] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxi. p. 54. - -[549] B. de Perthes’ “Antiquités Celtiques, &c.,” vol. i. p. 282, pl. -i., ii. - -[550] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xxxv. p. 307, whence the cut is copied on a -reduced scale. - -[551] Arch. Préh., 1880, p. 99, pl. i. and v. _Mat._, vol. xvi. p. 298. - -[552] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. iv. p. 105. _Supra_, p. 148. - -[553] “Palafittes,” fig. 18. - -[554] “L’Homme Fossile,” 2nd ed. p. 149. - -[555] “L’Homme pend. les Ages de la Pierre.” p. 214. - -[556] “Les Ages de la Pierre en Belgique,” pl. ix. - -[557] _L’Anthropologie_, vol. i. p. 385. - -[558] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xviii. p. 365. - -[559] Ratzel, “Völkerk,” vol. ii. 245, 247, &c. - -[560] “Les armes et les outils préh. réconst.,” Paris, 1872. - -[561] “Lake-Dwellings,” Eng. ed., p. 110. See also pl. x. 16, xi. 2, -and xxviii. 24; and Lindenschmit, “Hohenz. Samml.,” pl. xxix. 4. - -[562] “Cultur-Wiss.,” fig. 127, p. 70. - -[563] “Alt. u. H. V.,” vol. ii. Heft viii. Taf. i. 7; _Archiv. für -Anthropol._, vol. iii. p. 105. _Jahrb. d. Ver. f. Alt. im Rhein._, lxi. -(1877) p. 156. - -[564] _Bericht Nat. Hist. Verein_, Bremen, 1879. - -[565] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xi. p. (162). - -[566] “Reliq. Aquit.,” fig. 12. - -[567] Vol. iv. p. 297. - -[568] “Etudes Paléoeth.,” pl. xii. See also Worsaae, “Primev. Ants. of -Denmark,” p. 12; “Dänemark’s Vorz.,” p. 10; and “Danmark’s Tidligste -Bebyggelse,” 1861, p. 17. - -[569] 1868, vol. lxvii. p. 1285. - -[570] “Cultur-Wiss.,” p. 70. - -[571] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. ii. pp. 423, 424; Wilson’s “Preh. Man,” -vol. i. p. 156. - -[572] “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 32. - -[573] _Op. cit._, vol. ii. p. 201. - -[574] _Op. cit._, vol. ii. pp. 369, 373. - -[575] _Int. Arch. f. Ethn._, vol. iii. p. 181, pl. xv. 1, 2. - -[576] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xviii. p. 266. - -[577] Vol. xxxiv. p. 172. - -[578] _P. S. A. S._, vol. x. p. 263. See also “Notes on some Australian -and other Stone Implements,” by Prof. Liversidge, F.R.S. (_Journ. R. -S. of New South Wales_, vol. xxviii., 1894), and Mr. E. J. Hardman’s -account of some West Australian implements (Wood Martin’s “Rude St. -Mons. of Ireland,” 1888, p. 115). - -[579] “Journ. of Voy. to N. S. Wales,” p. 293; Klemm, “Cult.-Gesch.,” -vol. i. p. 308. - -[580] “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 32. _Conf._ Worsaae, “Dänemark’s -Vorz.,” p. 10. - -[581] Vol. xxxi. p. 452. - -[582] See Jones’s “Hist. of Ojibway Indians.” - -[583] “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 652. _Conf._ Catlin, “N. A. -Ind.,” vol. i. pl. xcix. _f._ - -[584] Col. A. Lane-Fox, “Prim. Warf.,” part ii. p. 17. - -[585] “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. pl. xv. 1, p. 285. - -[586] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxvii. p. 49. - -[587] Vol. xxiv. p. 80. - -[588] “Arch. of Mersey District,” 1867, p. 15. - -[589] _Arch._, vol. xxxii. p. 400; _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 1st s. vol. i. p. -131. - -[590] Worsaae’s “Nordiske Oldsager,” fig. 14. - -[591] Chantre, “Le Caucase,” 1855, vol. i. p. 50, pl. ii. - -[592] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. ii. pl. 73; Klemm, -“Cult.-Gesch.,” vol. ii. p. 62. - -[593] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. v. p. 287. - -[594] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xi. p. 448. - -[595] _Int. Arch. f. Eth._, vol. v., Supp. pl. i. - -[596] “Illahun” (1891), p. 55. - -[597] “Kahun,” pl. xvi. “Illahun.” pl. vii. - -[598] “Medum” (1892), Frontisp. 14, p. 31. - -[599] Vol. xxxiv. p. 172. See also Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. -p. 32. - -[600] Bonwick’s “Daily Life of the Tasmanians,” p. 44; _Trans. Ethnol. -Soc._, N. S., vol. iii. p. 267. Several specimens are figured in -Ratzel, “Völkerk,” vol. ii. p. 46. - -[601] See _Arch. per l’Anth. e la Etn._, vol. xxv., 1895, p. 283. - -[602] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 1st s. vol. ii. p. 305. - -[603] Quoted by Klemm, “C. G.,” vol. i. p. 268. - -[604] _Journ. Eth. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 109, fig. 7. - -[605] _Nat._ vol. x. p. 173. - -[606] “Smithsonian Contributions,” 1876, p. 46. - -[607] (London, 1872) pl. ii. p. 66. - -[608] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. v. p. 327. See also R. Brough -Smyth, “Aborig. of Victoria,” vol. i. p. 357. - -[609] It is, however, to be observed that among the North American -Indians fire was the great agent employed in felling trees and in -excavating canoes, the stone hatchet being called in aid principally to -remove the charred wood.—Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. p. 75. - -NOTES—CHAPTER VII. - -[610] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 170. - -[611] Wilde, “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 27. - -[612] _Archæologia_, vol. xli. p. 402, pl. xviii. 7. - -[613] “Brit. Barrows,” pp. 225, 396. - -[614] “Le Camp de Catenoy,” N. Ponthieux, Beauvais, 1872, pl. v. i. - -[615] Parenteau, “Invent. Archéol.,” 1878, pl. i. 2. - -[616] “Flint Chips,” p. 76. - -[617] _Proc. Suff. Inst. Arch._, vol. vii. p. 209. - -[618] “Seine Inf.,” 2nd ed., p. 528. - -[619] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 27. - -[620] Worsaae, “Nord. Olds.” Nos. 20, 22; Nilsson, “Stone Age,” pl. vi. -127. - -[621] “Hohenz. Samml.,” Taf. xliii. 5. - -[622] “Etude Préhist. sur la Savoie,” 1869, pl. ii. 4. - -[623] Desor, “Palafittes,” p. 23, fig. 19. - -[624] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 201. - -[625] Nilsson, “Stone Age,” pl. vi. 129, p. 54. - -[626] _Int. Arch. f. Ethn._, vol. ii. p. 273. - -[627] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 181. - -[628] _Arch._, vol. xli. pl. xviii. 10. - -[629] _Mém. Soc. R. des Ant. du Nord_, 1872–77, p. 105. _Zeitsch. f. -Eth._ vol. xix. p. 413. - -[630] Cartailhac, “Ages préh. de l’Esp. et du Port.,” p. 91. - -[631] _Trans. Ethn. Soc._, N. S., vol. vii. p. 47. - -[632] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 130. - -[633] Schoolcraft, “Indian Tribes,” vol. iv. p. 175. - -[634] Sproat, “Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,” p. 316. - -NOTES—CHAPTER VIII. - -[635] Wilson, “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 191; _Arch. Scot._, -vol. i. p. 291. - -[636] “Itin. Curios.,” 2nd ed., vol. i. p. 57. - -[637] P. 58. - -[638] “Necrolivonica,” Beil. C., p. 23; and Nachtrag, p. 20. - -[639] “Stone Age,” p. 71. - -[640] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xviii. p. 310. - -[641] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiv. p. 277. - -[642] “Heidnische Alterthümer,” 1846, pl. vi. 16. - -[643] Vol. ii. fig. 144. - -[644] Vol. ix. p. 120. See _Arch. Journ._, vol. xiii. p. 184, and vol. -xv. p. 90. - -[645] Greenwell, in _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 60. - -[646] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 174. - -[647] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xx. pl. vii. 1. - -[648] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 155. - -[649] “Vest. of Ants. of Derbyshire,” p. 7. - -[650] “Ants. of Worcestershire,” pl. iv. 8 and 9. - -[651] P. 108, No. 4. - -[652] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 399. - -[653] Pl. iii. 9. - -[654] Aspelin, “Ant. du Nord Finno-Ougrien,” No. 78. - -[655] “Mém. sur les Restes d’Indust.,” &c., 1866, pl. x. 12. - -[656] Mortillet, “Promenades,” p. 146. - -[657] _Cong. préh. Bologne_, 1871, p. 101. _Do. Buda-Pest_, 1876, p. -87. “Mus. Préh.,” No. 500. - -[658] _Rev. Arch._, 3rd S., vol. vii. p. 66. - -[659] _Arch. Journ._, vol. iii. p. 67. - -[660] P. 17, pl. ii. 3. - -[661] “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 193. - -[662] Simony, “Alt. von Hallstatt,” p. 9; Taf. vi. 3. - -[663] Vol. iii. p. 128. - -[664] _Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. viii., 1896, p. 176. - -[665] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. ii. pl. xvi. 14. - -[666] “Nordiske Oldsager,” No. 50. - -[667] “Alterthümer,” vol. i. Heft ii. Taf. i. 10 and 12. - -[668] _Smithsonian Report_, 1863, p. 379. - -[669] _Anz. f. Schw. Alt._, 1870, p. 141. - -[670] _Mitth. Auth. Ges. in Wien_, vol. xxv. (1895) p. 39. - -[671] _Tr. Dev. Assoc._, vol. xxii. p. 44. - -[672] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd. S., vol. iv. p. 339. _Arch._, vol. xliii. -p. 410. A. C. Smith’s “Ant. of North Wilts.,” p. 168. “Salisbury Vol. -Arch. Inst.,” 1849, p. 110; _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 29. - -[673] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxv. p. 272. - -[674] _Pr. Lanc. and Ch. Arch. Soc._, vol. xi. p. 172. - -[675] “Essai sur les Dolmens,” pl. iv. 1. - -[676] _P. S. A. S._, vol. viii. p. 264. - -[677] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 208. - -[678] Wilde, “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 79. - -[679] “Alt. u. H. V.,” vol. i. Heft i. Taf. i. 18. - -[680] _Matériaux_, vol. i. p. 462. - -[681] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 158. - -[682] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 63. Cat., p. 6, No. 49. - -[683] Skelton’s “Meyrick’s Armour,” pl. xlvi. 3. - -[684] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxix. p. 6. - -[685] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 266. - -[686] _Trans. E. R. Ant. Soc._, vol. ii. 1894, p. 21. - -[687] “Horæ Ferales,” pl. iii. 4. - -[688] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 295. - -[689] “Vestiges of Ants. of Derbyshire,” p. 7; Cat., No. 36; Brigg’s -“History of Melbourne,” p. 15; Wright’s “Celt, Roman, and Saxon,” p. 69. - -[690] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 227. Cat., p. 25, No. 256. - -[691] Worsaae, “Nord. Olds.,” No. 109; Lindenschmit, “Alt. u. H. V.,” -vol. i. Heft iv. Taf. i. 5, 6. - -[692] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xxiv., 1892, p. (178). - -[693] Lindenschmit, _op. cit._, vol. i. Heft i. Taf. i. 8, 9, and 10. - -[694] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ii. p. 306; xviii. p. 319; “Cat. -Arch. Inst. Mus. Ed.,” p. 19; “Horæ Ferales,” pl. iii. 20; “Sculpt. -Stones of Scot.,” vol. i. p. xx.; Wilson, “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. -i. pl. iii. - -[695] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 383, pl. xxii. - -[696] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxi. p. 264. - -[697] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xii. p. 277. - -[698] Vol. iii. p. 234. - -[699] _Arch. Camb._, 5th S., vol. v. p. 170. - -[700] _Montg. Coll._, vol. xiv. p. 271. - -[701] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxxi. p. 302. - -[702] Vol. viii. p. 421. - -[703] “Cat. Arch. Inst., Mus., Ed.” p. 6. - -[704] _Ibid._, p. 45. - -[705] _Arch. Scot._, vol. iii., App., p. 121. - -[706] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vii. p. 478. - -[707] _Ibid._, vol. iv. p. 55. - -[708] _Ibid._, vol. vi. p. 86. - -[709] _Ibid._, vol. iv. p. 379. - -[710] Pl. xlviii. 1. - -[711] See _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 568; xiv. p. 126; xv. p. 266; -xvi. p. 76; xxiii. p. 205, 210; and Smith’s “Preh. Man in Ayrshire,” -1895, p. 39. - -[712] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xv., p. 232. - -[713] _Geologist_, vol. vii. p. 56. - -[714] _Arch. Ael._, vol. xii. p. 118. - -[715] “Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus., Ed.,” p. 38. - -[716] _Arch. Journ._, vol. x. p. 65. - -[717] _Arch._, vol. xliv. p. 284. - -[718] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 489. - -[719] _Tr. Lanc. and Chesh. Ant. Soc._, vol. v. p. 327. See also xi. p. -171. - -[720] _Tr. Dev. Assoc._, vol. xxvi. p. 51. - -[721] _Tr. Dev. Assoc._, vol. xxii. p. 208. - -[722] _Rep. Leic. Lit. and Phil. Soc._, 1887–8, pl. iii. - -[723] _Mem. Real. Acc. delle Scienze, &c., di Torino_, Ser. II., vol. -xxvi. Ta. i. 1. See also for Italy, _Bull. di Pal. Ital._, 1882, p. 1. - -[724] Vol. xvii. p. 20. - -[725] Vol. ii. p. 125. - -[726] Vol. xxxi. p. 452. - -[727] _Arch._, vol. ii. p. 118. - -[728] _Arch._, vol. xxx. p. 459. - -[729] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiii. p. 334; xxii. p. 384. - -[730] “Horæ Ferales,” pl. iii. 3. - -[731] Allies’ “Ants. of Worc.,” p. 150, pl. iv. 10. - -[732] P. 111. - -[733] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 349. - -[734] _Arch._, vol. ii. p. 127. - -[735] “Stone Age,” p. 73. - -[736] _L’Anth._, vol. vi., 1895, p. 10. - -[737] “Abitaz. lac. di Fimon,” 1876, p. 150, pl. xiv. - -[738] “Cat. of Objects found in Greece,” fig. 3. - -[739] Pl. iii. 24. - -[740] Schliemann’s “Troy,” 1875, p. 94. Atlas, pl. xxii. 610. - -[741] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 61. “Brit. Barrows,” p. -222. - -[742] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 60. “Brit. Barrows,” p. -224. - -[743] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxix., 1895, p. 66. - -[744] Thoresby’s Cat. in Whitaker’s ed. of “Ducatus Leod.,” p. 114. - -[745] Leland’s “Coll.,” vol. iv. vi. - -[746] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxvii., 1893, p. 56. - -[747] _Montg. Coll._, vol. xiv. p. 276. - -[748] “Celtic Tumuli of Dorset,” p. 63. - -[749] _Arch._, vol. xliv. p. 427. - -[750] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vi. p. 74. - -[751] “South Wilts,” Tumuli, pl. viii. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” Nos. 15, 17. - -[752] “Ants. of Worcestershire,” pl. iv. 5, p. 146. - -[753] “Celt, Roman, and Saxon,” p. 70. - -[754] “Horæ Ferales,” pl. iii. 15. - -[755] _P.S.A.S._, vol. xxiii. p. 8. - -[756] “South Wilts,” Tumuli, pl. i. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 283. - -[757] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 70. - -[758] _Archæol. Journ._, vol. xviii. p. 158. _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, -vol. xvi. p. 295, pl. xxv. 8; _Trans. Hist. Soc. Lanc. and Chesh._, -vol. xii. p. 189. - -[759] “Guide des Touristes, &c., dans le Morbihan,” 1854, p. 43. - -[760] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxviii. p. 241. - -[761] “South Wilts,” Tumuli, pl. v.; “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 8; -_Arch._, vol. xv. pl. v. 1. - -[762] _Supra_, p. 83. - -[763] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 209; _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 411; A. C. -Smith’s “Ants. of North Wilts,” p. 19. - -[764] _27th Report Roy. Inst. of Cornw._, 1846, p. 35. I am indebted -to the Secretaries of this Institution for permission to engrave the -specimen. It is also figured in Borlase’s “Nænia Cornubiæ,” p. 191. - -[765] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xiii. p. 347; xxvi. p. 398. - -[766] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 24. - -[767] “Crania Brit.,” vol. ii. xviii. pl. 2. - -[768] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 29. Smith, “Coll. Ant.,” vol. i. pl. xx. 3. - -[769] _Mém. Soc. R. des Ant. du Nord_, 1872–77, p. 107. _Aarbög. for -Oldk._, 1872, d. 309–342. _Cong. préh. Stockholm_, 1874, p. 290. -Aspelin, “Ant. du Nord. Finno-Ougrien,” No. 71–76. - -[770] “Indian Tribes,” vol. iv. p. 174. - -[771] _Op. cit._, vol. i. p. 92; vol. ii. pl. 48. - -[772] _Op. cit._, vol. iv. p. 167. - -[773] “Mus. préh.,” No. 449. _Mat._, vol. xvii. p. 284. - -[774] Ratzel, “Völkerk.,” vol. ii. p. 247. _Mitth. d. Anth. Ges. in -Wien_, vol. ix. (1880) pl. ii. - -NOTES—CHAPTER IX. - -[775] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xx. p. 102. - -[776] Stevens, “Flint Chips,” p. 499. - -[777] Vol. vii. p. 385. - -[778] “Indian Tribes,” vol. iv. p. 168. - -[779] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xvi. p. 57. - -[780] Bellucci, “Mat. Paletn. dell’ Umbria,” Tav. xi. fig. 3. - -[781] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 327. - -[782] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vii. p. 499. - -[783] _Ant. Tidsk._, 1858–60, p. 277. - -[784] Vol. xxx. p. 461. - -[785] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 80. - -[786] P. 94. See also _Arch. Journ._, vol. iii. p. 94; and Worsaae’s -“Prim. Ants. of Den.,” p. 15. - -[787] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S. vol. vii., p. 268. - -[788] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 155. - -[789] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ix. p. 39; xvii. p. 453. - -[790] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xvi. p. 171. - -[791] Vol. xxvii. p. 142. - -[792] _Montg. Coll._, vol. xiv p. 275. - -[793] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. v. p. 240. - -[794] _Trans. Devon. Assoc._, vol. iii. p. 497. - -[795] “Ant. Celt. et Antéd.,” vol. i. pl. xiii. 9, p. 327. - -[796] _Arch. Jour._, vol. xix. p. 92. _Arch. Camb._, 3rd S., vol. vi. -p. 307. - -[797] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 43. See also _Arch. Camb._, -4th S., vol. vii. p. 183. - -[798] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ix. p. 259. - -[799] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. xv. p. 349. - -[800] “South Wilts,” p. 204. “Cat. Devizes Mus., No. 150.” - -[801] _Supra_, p. 128. - -[802] _Surr. Arch. Coll._, vol. xi. p. 248–9. - -[803] _Archæologia_, vol. xiv. p. 281, pl. lv.; Cat., p. 14. - -[804] _Arch. Journ._, vol. ix. p. 297. - -[805] _Arch. Journ._, vol. x. p. 72. - -[806] _Archæologia_, vol. xxxi. p. 452. - -[807] _Sussex Arch. Coll._, vol. ix. p. 118. - -[808] _Sussex Arch. Coll._, vol. xxvii. p. 181. - -[809] _Arch._, vol. xlvi. p. 492, pl. xxiv. 22. - -[810] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 406. - -[811] Vol. xxvi. p. 190. - -[812] _Essex Nat._, vol. viii. p. 164. - -[813] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxix. p. 77. - -[814] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 400. - -[815] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 248. - -[816] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxv. p. 250. - -[817] _Rep. Leic. Lit. and Phil. Soc._, 1878, pl. iii. - -[818] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxix. p. 305. - -[819] _Tr. Cumb. and West. Ant. Soc._, vol. ix. p. 203. - -[820] _Tr. Lanc. and Ch. Ant. Soc._, vol. ii. pl. i. - -[821] _Arch. Camb._, 5th S., vol. xii. p. 247. - -[822] _Op. cit._, p. 249. - -[823] _Arch. Camb._, 5th S., vol. v. p. 315. - -[824] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xx. p. 105. - -[825] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 183. - -[826] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 314. _Arch. Camb._, 3rd S., -vol. xii. p. 212. - -[827] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvi. p. 321; vol. xxvii. p. 147. - -[828] _Surrey Arch. Coll._, vol. iv. p. 237; 1868, p. 24. - -[829] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xv. p. 233. - -[830] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xvii. pl. iv. p. 5. - -[831] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 41. - -[832] _Ibid._, vol. iii. p. 437. - -[833] _Ibid._, vol. iv. p. 55. - -[834] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. 568. - -[835] _Op. cit._, p. 610. - -[836] _Rev. d’ Ant._ 1st S., vol. iv. p. 255. - -[837] “Seine Inf.,” 2nd ed., p. 313. - -[838] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man.” vol. i. p. 254. _Proc. Soc. Ant. -Scot._, vol. xi. p. 140. - -[839] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. p. 173. - -[840] Rau. “Smithson. Arch. Coll.,” p. 31. - -[841] Sir J. Lubbock, in _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. i. p. xcv. - -[842] _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._, vol. i. p. 198. - -[843] _Sup._, p. 64. - -[844] “Stone Age,” pl. i. 12. - -[845] “Alt. u. h. V.,” vol. i. Heft i. Taf. i. 4. - -[846] _Op. cit._, vol. i. Heft viii. Taf. i. 6. - -[847] “Or. de la Navig., &c.,” fig. 20. - -[848] _Trans. preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 236. - -[849] _Proc. As. Soc. Beng._, 1866, p. 135. - -[850] _Proc. As. Soc. Beng._, Mar., 1874. - -[851] _Zeitsch. f. A. and E._, vol. viii., 1876, pl. xxv. - -[852] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 68; _Gent.’s Mag._, 1819, p. 130. - -[853] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xv. p. 234. - -[854] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 69. - -[855] _Arch. Camb._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 331. - -[856] _Arch. Camb._, 4th S., vol. v. p. 181. - -[857] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 66. - -[858] Vol xxvi. p. 320, figs. 10 and 11. - -[859] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvii. p. 161. - -[860] _Lib. Cit._, p. 164. - -[861] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. v. p. 2. - -[862] Cat., p. 28, No. 293. - -[863] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 213. - -[864] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.” p. 85. The chisel-edged specimens there -described are not improbably American. - -[865] P. 557. - -[866] Mortillet, “_Matériaux._” vol. iii. p. 98; vol. iv. p. 234. -Tubino, “Estudios Prehistoricós.” p. 100. Cartailhac, p. 202. - -[867] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xiii. p. 137. - -[868] _Jorn. de Sci. Math. Phys. y Natur._, 1868, pl. viii. - -[869] Simony, “Alt. von Hallstatt.” Taf. vi. 5. - -[870] “Präh. Atlas.” Wien, 1889, Taf. xix. - -[871] Perrin, “Et. Préhist. sur la Savoie,” pl. xv. 17. - -[872] _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, 1869, vol. xxv. p. 34. - -[873] “Troy and its Remains,” p. 97. - -[874] Schoolcraft, “Indian Tribes,” vol. i. p. 96; Squier’s “Ab. Mon. -of New York,” p. 184; Lapham, “Ants. of Wisconsin,” p. 74. - -[875] “Prehist. Man,” vol. i. pp. 246, 253. - -[876] _Comptes Rendus_, 1866, vol. lxii. p. 470; _Geol. Mag._, vol. -iii. p. 214; Mortillet, “_Mat._,” vol. ii. pp. 331, 401; vol. iii. p. -99. - -[877] _Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1870, p. 158. - -[878] Brit. Barrows, p. 239. - -[879] Vol. x. p. 64. - -[880] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvii. p. 164, pl. xi. 5. - -[881] _Arch. Camb._, 4th S., vol. v. p. 181; ix. p. 34. - -[882] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 209. - -[883] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 382; xii. p. 266. Mitchell, “Past in -the Present,” p. 124. - -[884] _Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Lond._ vol. iii. p. 261. - -[885] “Ind. Tribes,” vol. ii. pl. 39. - -[886] _Op. cit._, vol. ii. p. 90. - -[887] 1884, p. 156 _seqq._, also _Arch. f. Anth._, vol. v. p. 262. - -[888] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 95, fig. 77. - -[889] “Nord. Oldsag.,” fig. 88; Nilsson, “Stone Age,” pl. ii. p. 34. - -[890] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xiv. p. 327. - -[891] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 489. - -[892] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 19. - -[893] See a paper on “Antike Gewicht-steine,” by Prof. Ritschl, in -the _Jahrb. d. Ver. v. Alterthums-fr. im Rheinl._, Heft. xli. 9; also -xliii. 209. - -NOTES—CHAPTER X. - -[894] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 274. - -[895] _Mem. Geol. Surv. Ind._, vol. iv. pl. i. p. 203. _Trans. Preh. -Cong._, 1868, p. 238. - -[896] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 263, pl. xxi. 7. - -[897] Catlin’s “Last Rambles,” p. 188. - -[898] _Arch. Camb._, 5th. S., vol. i. p. 307. - -[899] _Tr. Dev. Assoc._, vol. xii. p. 71. - -[900] _Montg. Coll._, vol. xiv. p. 273. - -[901] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 440; xiv. p. 127; xv. p. 108. - -[902] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 583, Munro “Lake-dw.,” p. 448. - -[903] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. 127; xv. 267; xxiii. p. 211. - -[904] Kindly lent by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. - -[905] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxii. p. 62. - -[906] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 688. - -[907] Worsaae’s “Nord. Oldsager,” No. 32, 33. Nilsson’s “Stone Age,” -pl. i. 14. A Lüneburg specimen, with deep conical depressions, is given -by Lindenschmit. “Alt. u. h. V.,” vol. i. Heft viii. Taf. i. 4. - -[908] Wilde’s “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” fig. 75. - -[909] “Ind. Tribes,” vol. iv. p. 165. - -[910] “Stone Age,” p. 12, pl. i. 2, 3. - -[911] “Prim. Industry,” p. 425, _et. seqq._ - -[912] _Arch. f. Anth._, vol. v. p. 263. - -[913] Vol. ix. p. 118. - -[914] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxix. p. 344. Cumming’s “Churches and -Ants. of Cury and Dunwalloe,” 1873, p. 69. - -[915] _P. S. A. S._, vol. x. p. 634. Mitchell, “Past in the Present,” -p. 126. - -[916] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. iv. p. 139. - -[917] _Anz. f. Schw. Alt._, 1876, Taf. viii. - -[918] “Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus., Edin.,” p. 12. - -[919] “Naukratis,” 1886, pl. i. p. 42. - -[920] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 200. - -[921] _Pr. Lanc. and Ch. Arch. Soc._, vol. xi. p. 172. - -[922] “Naukratis,” pl. i. 1886, p. 42. - -[923] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. vi. pp. 41, 195. - -[924] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 71. - -[925] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 171. - -[926] _Amer. Anthropologist_, vol. iv., 1891, p. 301. - -[927] “South Wilts,” Tumuli, pl. vi. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 3. - -[928] See _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 408. - -[929] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvi. p. 320, figs. 14, 15. _Arch. Camb._, -4th S., vol. v. p. 181. - -[930] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 396. - -[931] _Arch. Journ._, vol. x. pp. 64, 160. - -[932] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 208. - -[933] Greenwell, “Brit. Par.,” pp. 200, 239, 242. - -[934] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxviii. p. 148. - -[935] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxviii. p. 341. - -[936] “Etudes Paléoéthnol.,” 1867, pl. iv. 1. - -[937] Squier and Davis, “Anct. Mon. of Mississ. Valley,” p. 222. - -[938] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. p. 314, xxi. p. 135. - -[939] “Mus. préh.,” fig. 592. - -[940] See Sir J. Y. Simpson, _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. App. - -[941] “Brit. Barrows,” 341, _et seqq._ - -[942] See “Reliquiæ Aquit.,” p. 60. - -[943] “Rel. Aquit.,” p. 108. - -[944] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 84. See Eyre’s “Central -Australia,” vol. ii. pl. iv. p. 14. - -[945] Keller’s “Lake-dwellings,” p. 137. Lindenschmit, “Hohenz. -Samml.,” pl. xxvii. 8. - -[946] “Hab. Lac. de la Savoie,” 1st Mem. pl. xi. 2. - -[947] _Rev. Arch._, 3rd S., vol. vii. p. 68. - -[948] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 193. - -[949] _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._, N. S., vol. iv. p. 242. - -[950] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 413. - -[951] _Arch. Camb._, 4th S., vol. v. p. 184. - -[952] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiii. p. 204, Munro, “Lake-dw.,” p. 102. - -[953] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 214. - -[954] _Journ. Anth. Soc._, 1869, p. cxvii. - -[955] The burnishing stones in use among pewterers are, when dismounted -from their setting, curiously like these blunt-ended celt-like -instruments. They have no ridge, however, at the truncated end. Some of -the stone burnishers used by bookbinders are also in form like celts, -but have a flattened edge. - -[956] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvii. p. 161. - -[957] _Trans. Ethn. Soc._, N. S., vol. vii. p. 48. - -[958] De Gongora, “Ant. Preh. de Andalusia,” p. 108. - -[959] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xx. p. (365). - -[960] Vol. xxiv. p. 251. - -[961] Vol. xxvi. p. 320; xxvii. 147. - -[962] _Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. 416. - -[963] “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 58, p. 2. - -[964] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 70. - -[965] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxv. p. 496. - -[966] Vol. xxvii. pl. xi. 2, 3. - -[967] _Suss. Arch. Coll._, vol. xxxii. p. 174. - -[968] _Arch._, vol. xlvi. p. 492, pl. xxiv. 26. - -[969] Miln’s “Excav. at Carnac,” 1881, pl. xv. - -[970] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxv. p. 47. - -[971] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 265. - -[972] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xviii. p. 393. - -[973] _Ibid._, vol. xxiii. p. 391. - -[974] _Arch._ vol. xxxviii. p. 416. - -[975] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxiii. p. 391. - -[976] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 223. - -[977] _Trans. Ethn. Soc._, N. S., vol. iii. p. 278. - -[978] Sproat’s “Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,” p. 55. - -[979] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. i. p. 152. Ratzel, “Völkerk.,” -vol. i., 1887, p. 216. - -[980] “Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,” Baker, p. 78. See also “The -Albert Nyanza,” vol. i. p. 65. Klemm’s “Cult.-Wiss.,” p. 88. - -[981] Rev. Dr. Hume, “Illust. of Brit. Ants. from Objects found in S. -Amer.,” p. 69. - -[982] See _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 244, where much information is -given concerning such stones. - -[983] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvii. p. 160, &c. _Arch. Camb._, 2nd S., -vol. iii. p. 210; 3rd S., vi. 376; vii. 40; viii. 157; 4th S., xii. p. -32. - -[984] _Arch._, vol. xlvi. p. 285. - -[985] _Arch. Camb._, 3rd S., vol. vii. p. 245. - -[986] Wilde’s “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.” p. 104. - -[987] “Itinerary,” 1617, pt. iii. p. 161. - -[988] “Flint Chips,” p. 62. - -[989] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ii. p. 377. - -[990] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. p. 9. - -[991] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 176. - -[992] Garrigon et Filhol, “Age de la Pierre polie,” &c., p. 27. _Arch. -Camb._, 4th S., vol. i. p. 292. - -[993] “Mus. Préh.,” No. 587. - -[994] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 155. - -[995] “Alt. u. h. V.,” vol. ii. Heft viii. Taf. i. 16. - -[996] “Cult.-Wiss.,” p. 88. - -[997] _Arch. Camb._, 3rd S., vol. iii. p. 356. - -[998] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 117. - -[999] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvii. p. 160, pl. ii. 1. - -[1000] _A. J._, vol. xxiv. p. 247. - -[1001] Atkinson’s “Cleveland,” p. 40. - -[1002] “Nænia Cornub.,” p. 221. - -[1003] Wood-Martin “Lake-dw. of Ireland,” 1886, p. 85. - -[1004] Kirchner, “Thor’s Donnerkeil,” 1853, p. 97. - -[1005] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 172. - -[1006] _Ibid._, p. 177. - -[1007] _Ibid._, pp. 213, 224, 226. - -[1008] “Vestiges Ant. Derb.,” p. 99. - -[1009] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 190. - -[1010] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 81. - -[1011] “Troy,” 1875, pp. 151, 163. - -[1012] _British Med. Journ._, April 2nd, 1887, quoted in _Essex -Naturalist_, vol. i. p. 92. - -[1013] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 252. - -[1014] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xiv. p. 357; xvii. 170. - -[1015] _Suss. Arch. Coll._, vol. ix. p. 117. “Chich. Vol. Arch. Inst.,” -p. 63. This cut has been kindly lent me by the Sussex Arch. Society. - -[1016] _Essex Naturalist_, vol. ii. p. 4. - -[1017] _Arch._ vol. xliii. p. 408. A. C. Smith, “Ants. of N. Wilts,” p. -14. - -[1018] See _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 179, where the -measurements hardly agree with mine. - -[1019] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 253. - -[1020] _Sitzungsb. der K. Akad. der Wiss. in Wien_, vol. lv. p. 528. - -[1021] _Trans. Ethn. Soc._, N. S., vol. vii. p. 49. - -[1022] See Laing’s “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” 1866. _Proc. -Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vii. _Passim_; viii. 64. pl. vi. _Mem. Anthrop. -Soc. Lond._, vol. ii. p. 294; iii. 216. I am indebted to the Society of -Antiquaries of Scotland for the loan of Figs. 174 to 179. See also _P. -S. A. S._, vol. viii. pl. vi.; xi. p. 173; xii. p. 271; and Mitchell’s -“Past in the Present,” p. 140. - -[1023] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vii. p. 136. - -[1024] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. pp. 358, 400. - -[1025] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. p. 125. - -[1026] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. p. 127. - -[1027] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 219. - -[1028] See Whitaker’s “Hist. of Craven.,” 2nd ed., p. 468. - -[1029] Wright’s “Prov. Dict.,” _s.v._ Cotgrave translates the word -_Baton_ “a laundress’s batting-staff.” - -[1030] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 65. - -[1031] _Op. cit._, vol. xv. p. 232. - -[1032] 3rd S., vol. iii. p. 358. - -[1033] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. p. 80. - -[1034] “Anct. Mon. of Mississ. Val.,” p. 220. - -[1035] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. p. 90. - -[1036] _Op. cit._, vol. ii. p. 89. - -[1037] _Op. cit._, vol. iv. p. 175. - -[1038] Cuming in _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 83, where some -interesting information relating to mortars will be found. Ratzel, -“Völkerk.,” vol. ii. p. 179. - -[1039] Vol. iv. p. 136. See also a paper by Mr. R. N. Worth, on the -progress of mining skill in Devon and Cornwall, in the _Trans. Cornw. -Polyt. Soc._ - -[1040] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vii. 393. - -[1041] Vol. ii. p. 323. - -[1042] “Die Burg Tannenberg,” &c., _Arch. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 404. - -[1043] Vol. iii. p. 130. - -[1044] “Gesta. Abb. Mon. S. Alb.,” vol. ii. p. 249. - -[1045] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 175. - -[1046] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol iii. p. 203. - -[1047] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xv. p. 335. - -[1048] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 99. - -[1049] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xiii. 227. - -[1050] _Ibid._, vol. xv. p. 337. - -[1051] _Arch. Journ._, vol. v. p. 329. - -[1052] Smith’s “Coll. Ant.,” vol. i. p. 112. _Arch._, vol. xviii. p. -435; xix. 183; xxx. 128. _Proc. Bury and W. Suff. Arch. I._, vol. i. p. -230, &c. _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 259. - -[1053] _Arch._, vol. xliv. p. 285. - -[1054] _Arch._, vol. xlv. p. 366. - -[1055] _Arch. Camb._, 5th S., vol. viii. p. 320. - -[1056] _Arch. Camb._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 240. - -[1057] Lee’s “Isca Silurum,” p. 114. - -[1058] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. i. p. 267. - -[1059] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ii. p. 97. See also vol. v. p. 30. - -[1060] _Preh. Annals of Scot._, vol. i. p. 214. - -[1061] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 261. Mitchell’s “The Past in the -Present,” p. 34. - -[1062] _P. S. A. S._, vol. iv. p. 417. - -[1063] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiii. p. 178. - -[1064] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxi. p. 162. - -[1065] _Arch. Camb._, 3rd S., vol. vii. p. 38. - -[1066] “South Wilts,” p. 36. - -[1067] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” 127. - -[1068] _Arch._, vol. xxxv. p. 246. - -[1069] 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 89. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XI. - -[1070] “Nord. Olds.,” Nos. 35 and 36. - -[1071] _Tidskrift for Oldkyndighed_, vol. i. pl. ii. p. 423. - -[1072] “Stone Age,” p. 16. - -[1073] “Ant. Suéd.” - -[1074] Keller’s “Lake-dwell.,” p. 24. - -[1075] Keller, “Pfahlbauten,” 1ter Bericht, Taf. iii. 19; 3ter Ber., -Taf. ii. 2. - -[1076] “Les Polissoirs préh. de la Charente,” G. Chauvet, Angoulême, -1883. - -[1077] “Les Polissoirs néol. du Dép. delà Dordogne,” Testut. _Mat._, -3rd S., vol. iii. (1886) p. 65. - -[1078] “Notice sur deux Instruments,” &c., p. 4. Mortillet, -_Matériaux_, vol. ii. p. 420. - -[1079] See “Ant. Celt et Antéd, de Poitou,” pl. xxx. - -[1080] _Ann. Soc. Arch. de Bruxelles_, vol. x., 1896, p. 109. - -[1081] B. de Perthes, “Ant. Celt et Antéd.,” vol. ii. p. 165. -Mortillet, “Prom. au Mus. St. Germain,” p. 148. - -[1082] De Gongora y Martinez, “Ant. Preh. de Andalusia,” p. 34, fig. 19. - -[1083] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xvi. p. 73. - -[1084] See _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxi. p. 170. - -[1085] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 168. - -[1086] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 220. - -[1087] _Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. 417. - -[1088] “Cook’s Voyages,” quoted by Tylor, “Early Hist. of Mank.,” 2nd -ed., p. 201. - -[1089] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xv. p. 263. - -[1090] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 169. - -[1091] _Arch. Scot._, vol. iii. p. 43. - -[1092] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxv. p. 295. - -[1093] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvii. p. 161. - -[1094] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vii. p. 219. - -[1095] See Lyell, “Ant. of Man,” 3rd ed. p. 189. - -[1096] Worsaae, fig. 36. Nilsson, “Stone Age,” pl. ii. 15. - -[1097] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xv. p. 74. - -[1098] _Arch._, vol. xliv. p. 286. - -[1099] _Malton Messenger_, Nov. 12, 1870. “Brit. Barrows,” p. 263. - -[1100] _Trans. Dev. Assoc._, vol. v. p. 551. - -[1101] _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 426. - -[1102] “South Wilts.,” p. 118, pl. xiv. - -[1103] P. 43. - -[1104] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 399. - -[1105] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xv. p. 264. - -[1106] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 173. - -[1107] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 75. _Arch._, vol. xv. p. 125. “Cat. -Devizes Mus.,” No. 2. - -[1108] Hoare, “South Wilts,” p. 182. “Cat. Dev. Mus.,” No. 97. - -[1109] “S. W.” p. 209. - -[1110] _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 423. A. C. Smith, “Ants. of N. Wilts,” -p. 68. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 172A. - -[1111] _Arch._, vol. xlvi. p. 435, pl. xxiv. 20. - -[1112] _Reliquary_, N. S., vol. v., 1891, p. 47. - -[1113] _Arch. f. Anth._, vol. ix. p. 249. - -[1114] _13th Rep. Bureau of Ethn._, 1896, p. 126. - -[1115] “Musée préh.,” No. 593. - -[1116] Lindenschmit, “A. u. h. V.,” vol. ii. Heft viii. Taf. i. 2. -_Zeitsch. des Vereins für Rhein. Geschichte, &c., in Mainz_, vol. iii. -_Archiv für Anthrop._, vol. iii. Taf. ii. _Rev. Arch._, vol. xix. pl. -x. 2. - -[1117] Sophus Müller, “Stenalderen,” fig. 196. - -[1118] _Zeitsch. f. Eth._, 1891, p. 89. - -[1119] _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._, N. S., vol. vii. p. 49. - -[1120] _Sussex Arch. Coll._, vol. ix., p. 120, whence the cut is -borrowed. _Arch. Journ._, vol. xiii. p. 184; xv. 90. - -[1121] _Arch. Journ._, vol. x. p. 356. “Chichester Vol.,” p. 52. - -[1122] Thoresby’s Cat. in Whitaker’s “Duc. Leod.,” p. 114. - -[1123] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 194. - -[1124] _Ibid._, p. 199. - -[1125] _Ibid._, p. 209. - -[1126] _Ibid._, p. 211. - -[1127] _Ibid._, p. 172. - -[1128] _Ibid._, p. 164. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 85. - -[1129] _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 424. - -[1130] _Arch._, vol. xlix. p. 194. - -[1131] “Nænia Cornubiæ,” 1872, p. 212. - -[1132] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxviii. p. 247. - -[1133] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxxi. p. 302. - -[1134] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxi. p. 101. - -[1135] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 490. - -[1136] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xviii. p. 71. Lee’s “Isca Silurum,” pl. -xlii. p. 108. - -[1137] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. iv. p. 105. - -[1138] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 120; xxiii. p. 219; xxviii. p. 230. - -[1139] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. p. 221. - -[1140] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxii. p. 67. - -[1141] “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 188. - -[1142] Wilde’s “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.” p. 87. - -[1143] Perrin, “Et. Préhist. sur la Savoie,” pl. xv. 12. - -[1144] Von Sacken, “Grabf. von Hallstatt,” Taf. xix. Simony, “Alt. von -Hallstatt,” Taf. vi. 6, 7. - -[1145] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvii. pl. iii. 1. - -[1146] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvi. p. 321, figs. 18, 19. - -[1147] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 75. - -[1148] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 358. - -[1149] _P. S. A. S._, vol. x. pl. xviii. 115. - -[1150] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 234. - -[1151] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. p. 276. - -[1152] “Nord. Olds.,” fig. 343. - -[1153] Pl. i. - -[1154] Engelhardt, “Thorsbjerg Mosefund,” p. 51, pl. xii. 12. - -[1155] See _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1881, p. 692. - -[1156] _Jahrb. d. Ver. v. Alt. fr. im Rheinl._, Heft xliv. p. 139, Taf. -vi. 21. - -[1157] _Notes and Queries_, 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 92. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XII. - -[1158] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 7. - -[1159] “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 87. - -[1160] “Geol. and Nat. Hist. Rep.,” vol. i. p. 208. - -[1161] “G. and N. H. Rep.,” vol. ii. p. 128; _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., -vol. iv. p. 95. - -[1162] I first learnt the art of producing these cones from the late -Rev. J. S. Henslow, F.R.S., and have since then instructed many others -in the process, among them the late Dr. Hugh Falconer, F.R.S., whose -account of the manufacture of flakes (“Palæont. Mem.,” vol. ii. p. -605) is, I find, curiously like what I have written above. He insists -rather more strongly on the different characteristics of “iron-struck” -and “stone-struck” facets than I should be inclined to do. There is, -however, in all probability a difference in the fracture resulting from -hammers of different degrees of hardness and elasticity. The mechanics -of the fracture of flint have also been studied by the late M. Jules -Thore, of Dax. (_Bull. de la Soc. de Borda_, Dax, 1878.) - -[1163] _Archæologia_, vol. xxxix. p. 76. - -[1164] “Spalls or broken pieces of stones that come off in hewing -and graving.” — “Nomenclator,” p. 411, quoted in Halliwell’s -“Dict. of Archaic Words, &c.” “Spalle, or chyppe, _quisquilia_, -_assula_.” — “Promptorium Parvulorum,” p. 467. - -[1165] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 38. _Proc. As. Soc. -Beng._, 1867, p. 137. - -[1166] Dr. Gillespie, in _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. vi. p. 260. - -[1167] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. pp. 36–38. - -[1168] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 73. - -[1169] _Trans. Ethn. Soc._, N. S., vol. iv. p. 241. - -[1170] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 170. - -[1171] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc. Lond._, vol. ii. p. 430. - -[1172] For neolithic implements from this place, see _Trans. Berks. -Archæol. and Archit. Soc._, 1879–80, p. 49. - -[1173] “Manx Note Book,” vol. i. (1885) p. 71. - -[1174] _Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Lond._, vol. i. p. 142. - -[1175] See Worsaae “Nord. Olds.,” No. 60; “Guide to North. Arch.,” p. -39; and the authors already cited at p. 272. - -[1176] “Mus. préh.,” pl. xxxiii. - -[1177] _Mém. Soc. R. des Ant. du Nord._, 1872–7, p. 103. - -[1178] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xvii. p. (133). - -[1179] P. 23. See also Tylor, “Anahuac.,” p. 96. - -[1180] _Geol. Mag._, vol. iii. p. 433; iv. 43. - -[1181] “Objects Found in Greece,” G. Finlay, 1869. _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, -vol. v. p. (110). - -[1182] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 69. See also _Arch. -Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 171. - -[1183] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v. p. 438. - -[1184] _Tr. Dev. Assoc._, vol. xvii. p. 70; xviii. p. 74. _Arch. Assoc. -Journ._, vol. xxviii. p. 220. - -[1185] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. v. p. 30. _Notes and Queries_, 5th -S., vol. vii. p. 447. - -[1186] “Flint Impts., &c., found at St. Mary Bourne,” Jos. Stevens, -1867. - -[1187] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xiii. p. 137. - -[1188] _Tr. Lanc. and Chesh. Arch. Soc._, vol. ii. pl. i. iv. p. 305. - -[1189] _Journ. R. Inst. Cornwall_, Oct., 1864. - -[1190] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 22. - -[1191] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 89. _Tr. Devon. Assoc._, vol. i.; -pt. v. p. 80. - -[1192] _Op. cit._, p. 128. - -[1193] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 226. - -[1194] _Arch. Journ._, vol. viii. p. 343. - -[1195] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 241. - -[1196] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 48. - -[1197] _Arch._, vol. xxxvi. p. 176. - -[1198] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xviii. p. 71. - -[1199] _Reliquary_, vol. vi. p. 4. - -[1200] _Arch. Journ._, vol xii. p. 189. - -[1201] _Arch. Camb._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 331; ii. 222. - -[1202] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xviii. p. 58. - -[1203] _Tr. Devon. Assoc._, vol. vi. p. 272, fig. 2. - -[1204] _Reliquary_, vol. iii. p. 162. - -[1205] _Arch. Journ._, vol. ix. p. 92. - -[1206] _Arch. Camb._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 102. - -[1207] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 306. - -[1208] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xiv. p. 281. - -[1209] _Arch._, vol. xxxiv. p. 252. - -[1210] “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 1, p. 2. - -[1211] “Cr. Br.,” vol. ii. pl. 24, p. 3. - -[1212] _Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Lond._, vol. i. p. 142. - -[1213] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 12, and “British Barrows,” _passim_. - -[1214] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 73. - -[1215] _Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. 416. - -[1216] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 278. - -[1217] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xi. p. 322. - -[1218] _Wiltsh. Mag._, vol. iii. p. 170. - -[1219] “South Wilts,” p. 193. - -[1220] “South Wilts,” p. 195. - -[1221] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxi. p. 172. - -[1222] “Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. Edin.,” p. 20. - -[1223] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 507. - -[1224] _Op. cit._, vol. iv. p. 385, and vi. 234, 240. _Quart. Journ. -Geol. Soc._, 1865, vol. xxi. p. 1. - -[1225] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vi. p. 251, and v. 61. - -[1226] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xx. p. 35. - -[1227] _Anthrop. Rev._, vol. ii.; lxiv. - -[1228] Wilson, “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 177. - -[1229] _Ibid._, p. 178. - -[1230] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. v. p. 13. - -[1231] _Arch. Scot._, vol. iii. p. 46. - -[1232] _Arch._, vol. xlii. p. 64. - -[1233] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xx. p. 198. - -[1234] “Salisb. Vol. Arch. Inst.,” p. 106. - -[1235] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, vol. i. p. 10. - -[1236] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiii. p. 300; vol. xxv. p. 155. - -[1237] _Geol. Mag._, vol. vii. 443. - -[1238] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 68. - -[1239] _Suss. Arch. Coll._, vol. xix. p. 53. - -[1240] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 182, &c. - -[1241] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 421. - -[1242] “Flint Impts.,” Jos. Stevens, 1867. - -[1243] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxi. p. 168. - -[1244] 3rd S., vol. iii. p. 304. - -[1245] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 141. - -[1246] “Prehist. Rem. of Caithness,” _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vii. -p. 37. - -[1247] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. p. 73. - -[1248] _P. S. A. S._, vol. i. p. 101. - -[1249] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. ii. p. 203. - -[1250] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xiii. p. 319. - -[1251] Garrigou et Filhol, “Age de la Pierre polie.” &c., pl. vii. and -viii. - -[1252] De Bonstetten, “2nd Supp. au Rec. d’Ant. Suisses,” pl. i. - -[1253] On this custom see _Trans. Lanc. and Chesh. Arch. Soc._, vol. -vi. p. 58; viii. p. 63; xi. p. 27. - -[1254] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 116. - -[1255] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. i. p. 210. - -[1256] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xii. p. 299. - -[1257] See _Arch. Journ._, vol. xi. p. 211, and xx. 189; Wright, “Rems. -of a Prim. Peop. in Yorksh.,” p. 10. - -[1258] See Cochet, “Normandie Souterr.,” p. 258; Baudot, “Sép. des -Barbares,” p. 76; Troyon, “Tombeaux de Bel-Air”; Lindenschmit, -“Todtenlager bei Selzen,” p. 13. - -[1259] _Arch._, vol. xxxv. p. 267. - -[1260] “Hist. of Lapland,” Ed., 1704, p. 313; Keysler, “Ant. Sept.,” p. -173. - -[1261] _Sussex Arch. Coll._ vol. xvi. p. 63. - -[1262] _Arch. Camb._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 88. - -[1263] Isaiah, chap. xli. ver. 15. - -[1264] “De re Rust.,” lib. i. cap. 52. - -[1265] Smith’s “Dict. of Gk. and Rom. Ant.,” _s.v._ Tribulum. -Wilkinson’s “Anc. Egyptians,” vol. ii. p. 190; iv. 94. “_Arch, per -l’Ant. e la Etn._,” vol. xxiii. 57; vol. xxvi. p. 53. Fellows, “Journ. -in Asia Minor,” 1838, p. 70. Paul Lucas, “Voyage en Asie,” Paris, 1712, -p. 231. _N. and Q._, 7th S., vol. vii. p. 36. - -[1266] For the use of this cut I am indebted to Sir A. Wollaston -Franks, F.R.S. - -[1267] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 253. - -[1268] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. x. p. 150. - -[1269] _Arch._, vol. xli. p. 404. See also Wilde, “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” -p. 10. - -[1270] See Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 94. - -[1271] _Mém. Soc. R. des Ant. du Nord._, 1886–91, p. 232. _Aarb. f. -Oldkynd_, 1886, p. 227. - -[1272] “Alt. u. h. V.,” vol. ii. Heft. viii. Taf. i. 4. - -[1273] Tom. vi. 1865. - -[1274] Ponthieux, pl. xxvi. - -[1275] Chantre, “Etudes Paléoéthnol.,” 1867. Watelet, “L’Age de Pierre -dans le Dép. de l’Aisne,” 1866. De Ferry, “Anc. de l’Homme dans le -Mâconnais,” 1867. - -[1276] “L’Homme Fossile,” 2nd ed., p. 150. - -[1277] _Comptes Rendus_, 1866, vol. lxii. p. 347; 1867, vol. lxv. p. -116. - -[1278] De Gongora, “Ant. Preh. de Andalusia,” p. 49, fig. 60. - -[1279] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, pl. viii. 3. - -[1280] “Ant. do Algarve;” da Veiga, 1886, vol. ii. p. 162, pl. viii. - -[1281] “Di alcuni armi ed Utensili in Pietra,” 1863, Tav. ii. - -[1282] Keller, “Pfahlbauten,” 6ter Ber., p. 272. - -[1283] “Supp. au Rec. d’Ant. Suisses,” pl. i. 5. - -[1284] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xvi. p. (105), pl. iii. - -[1285] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xx. p. 441. _Matériaux_, vol. v. p. 399 bis; -_Comptes Rendus_, 1869, vol. lxix. p. 1312. Arcelin, “Ind. prim. en. -Egypte et en Syrie,” 1870. - -[1286] _Zeitschrift für Ægypt. Sprache_, &c., Juli 1870. - -[1287] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. iv. p. 215 (Lubbock): vii. p. 290. -_Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xxi. pl. iv. v. “Die Stein-zeit Afrika’s,” R. -Andrée. _Intern. Archiv_, vol. iii. p. 81. “Ægypten’s vor-metallische -Zeit.” Much, Würzburg, 1880. _Nature_, vol. xxxii. p. 161: xxxiii. 311 -(Wady Halfa). - -[1288] _Tr. Cong. Préh. Stockholm_, 1874, p. 76. - -[1289] _Comptes Rendus_, 1869, vol. lxviii. pp. 196, 345. - -[1290] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. i. pp. 337, 442. - -[1291] _Quart. St. Palest. Expl. Fund_, 1874, p. 158. - -[1292] _Trans. Cong. Preh. Arch._, 1868, p. 69. _Geol. Mag._, vol. v. -p. 532. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xi. p. 124. _Camb. Ant. Comm._, vol. -v. p. 67. - -[1293] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 38. _Journ. of Ant. Soc. -of Cent. Prov._, vol. i. p. 21. _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, N. S., vol. i. p. -175. - -[1294] “Anct. Mon. of Mississ. Vall.,” p. 215. - -[1295] Lib. iii. c. 15. - -[1296] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 38. - -[1297] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. vi. p. 409, pl. xx. - -[1298] For the use of this block I am indebted to the executors of the -late Mr. Henry Christy. See also Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th Ed., p. 93. - -[1299] “Mus. Metall,” p. 157. - -[1300] Two are figured in _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. viii. p. 321. -See also Ratzel, “Völkerk,” vol. ii., 1888, p. 151. - -[1301] _Comptes Rendus_, 1868, vol. lxvii. p. 1296. - -[1302] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. iv., 1848, p. 105. - -[1303] _Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. 417. - -[1304] “Anc. Wilts,” p. 195. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 124A. - -[1305] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 230. - -[1306] “T. Y. D.,” p. 224. - -[1307] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. p. 320. - -[1308] _Op. cit._, vol. vii. p. 499. - -[1309] _Arch._, vol. xli. p. 404. - -[1310] Others are engraved in Keller’s “Pfahlbaut.,” 1ter Bericht, Taf. -iii. 8. Lindenschmit, “Alt. u. h. V.,” vol. i., Heft. xii. Taf. i. 15. -“Hohenzollernsch. Samml.,” Taf. xxvii. 18. Mackie, “Nat. Hist. Rep.,” -vol. i. p. 139. Le Hon, “L’homme Foss.,” 2nd ed., p. 175. “Ant. Lac. du -Mus. de Lausanne,” 1896. Pl. x. - -[1311] “Mus. préh.,” Nos. 276, 277. “Ant. Lac. du Mus. de Lausanne,” -1896. Pl. x., 10, 11. - -[1312] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xiv. p. (531). - -[1313] Keller’s “Lake-Dw.,” pl. iii. 1; xxi. 10; xxviii. 9, 10. Troyon, -“Hab. Lac.,” pl. v. 11. “Pfahlbauten,” 2ter Ber. Taf. iii. pl. 40. -Desor, “Palafittes,” fig. 12. Rau’s “Preh. Fishing,” 1884, p. 186. - -[1314] “Stone Age,” pl. v. 86. - -[1315] _P. S. A. S._, vol. x. p. 263. - -[1316] _Tr. Lanc. and Chesh. Arch. Soc._, vol. iv. p. 377. - -[1317] _Ibid._ - -[1318] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol., xiv. p. 28. - -[1319] “Illahun, &c.,” 1891, p. 13, pl. xiii. - -[1320] “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 32. - -[1321] See _Archiv. f. Anth._, vol. v. p. 234. - -[1322] Worsaae, “Prim. Ants. of Den.,” p. 17. Nilsson, “Stone Age,” pl. -vi. 125, 126. Madsen, “Afb.,” pl. xl. - -[1323] Wilson’s “Preh. Man,” vol. i. p. 225. “Anct. Mon. of Missis. -Valley,” p. 211. Squier, “Abor. Mon. of New York,” p. 180. - -[1324] “Cultur-wiss.,” vol. i. p. 61. - -[1325] “Stone Age,” pl. ii. pp. 28, 29. - -[1326] “Remains of a Primitive People, &c., in Yorkshire.” - -[1327] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iv. 233. - -[1328] _Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. 417. - -[1329] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvii. p. 74. - -[1330] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxix. p. 284. - -[1331] _Antiq._, vol. xv., 1887, pp. 237–8. - -[1332] _Suss. Arch. Coll._, vol. xxxii. p. 175. - -[1333] _Suss. Arch. Coll._, vol. xxvii. p. 177. - -[1334] _Wilts Arch. Mag._, vol. xx. p. 346. - -[1335] “Brit. Barr.,” pp. 251, 262. - -[1336] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 43. - -[1337] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxv. p. 497. - -[1338] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 584. - -[1339] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 208. - -[1340] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxviii. p. 337. - -[1341] _Bull. de la Soc. des Ant. de l’Ouest_, 4 Trim., 1863, fig. 18. - -[1342] “Mus. Préh.,” pl. xxxiv., xxxv. - -[1343] Madsen, “Afbildninger,” pl. i. 15. - -[1344] _Zeits._ f. _Ethn._, vol. xxviii., p. 348. - -[1345] H. and L. Siret, “Les premiers Ages du Métal,” pl. xiii., xvi. -Capelle, “L’Esp. centr.,” 1895, p. 70, pl. vi. - -[1346] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xvii. p. 93. - -[1347] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xiv. p. (483); xv. p. (116). - -[1348] “Stone Age,” p. 80, pl. v. 93. - -[1349] “Nord. Olds.,” No. 56. - -[1350] “Nord. Olds.,” No. 58. - -[1351] Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 102. “Flint Chips,” p. 74. - -[1352] _Nordisk Tidskrift for Oldk._, 1832, p. 429. - -[1353] “Stone Age,” p. 42. - -[1354] Franks, “Horæ Ferales,” p. 137. Lisch, “Frederico-Francisc.,” p. -145. - -[1355] “Celt, Roman, and Saxon,” p. 70. - -[1356] “Kahun,” 1890, p. 29, pl. ix. “Illahun, &c.,” 1891, p. 50 -_seqq._ “Medum,” 1892, p. 31 _seqq._ - -[1357] “Troy,” 1875, p. 94. Atlas, pl. xxv. - -[1358] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xvii. p. (303). - -[1359] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xlix. p. 53. - -[1360] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xlix. p. 164. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XIII. - -[1361] Pt. ii. p. 14. One from Alaska of this form and another with a -long handle are figured in _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xvi. p. (222). - -[1362] “Prehist. Times,” 4th ed., p. 513, figs. 214–6. - -[1363] “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 699. - -[1364] “Rel. Aquit.,” p. 13. - -[1365] _Proc. Ethn. Soc._, N. S., vol. i. p. 137. See _Rep. Bureau of -Ethn._, 1887–8, p. 294. - -[1366] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiv. p. 142. - -[1367] _Rep. of U. S. Nat. Mus._, _Washington_, 1891, p. 553. - -[1368] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. iv. p. 175. - -[1369] _Intern. Archiv._, vol. ii. p. 212. - -[1370] _Arch. per l’Ant. e la Etn._, vol. xxiv., 1894, p. 245. - -[1371] _Bull. Soc. d’Anth. de Paris_, 4th S. vol. vii., 1896, p. 374. - -[1372] P. 319. - -[1373] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” fig. 8. - -[1374] “Nord. Olds.,” No. 29. - -[1375] “South Wilts,” p. 172, pl. xix. - -[1376] _Arch._, vol. xliii. pp. 420, 421. - -[1377] “Salisb. Vol. Arch. Inst.,” p. 106. - -[1378] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. xii. p. 239. - -[1379] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 450. _Arch._, vol. xliii. -p. 420. - -[1380] _Suss. Arch. Coll._, vol. xxxii. p. 174. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, -vol. vi. p. 287. - -[1381] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd. S., vol. x. p. 18. - -[1382] _Trans. Dev. Assoc._, vol. xii. p. 140. - -[1383] “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii, pl. 50, p. 2. _Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. -416. - -[1384] _Reliq._, vol. xxxii., 1896, p. 109. - -[1385] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xiv. p. 83; xxii. 116, 245, 251; xxvii. 71. -_Reliquary_, vol. ix. p. 69. “Ten Years’ Dig.,” pp. 205, 208. “Brit. -Bar.” pp. 251, 348, and _passim_. - -[1386] “T. Y. D.,” p. 56. - -[1387] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 92. - -[1388] “T. Y. D.,” p. 78. - -[1389] “T. Y. D.,” p. 35. _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 217. - -[1390] Pitt Rivers, “Exc. on Cranb. Chase,” vol. ii. pl. lxvi. and -lxxxix. - -[1391] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 76. - -[1392] _Sussex Arch. Coll._, vol. xix. p. 53. - -[1393] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, vol. i. pl. i. - -[1394] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxv. p. 155. - -[1395] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, vol. i. p. 4. - -[1396] _Arch. Camb._, 4th S., vol. ix. p. 37. - -[1397] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxxi. pp. 297, 301. - -[1398] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 385. - -[1399] _Arch. Cant._, vol. xiii. p. 124. “Coll. Cant.,” p. 4. - -[1400] _Arch. Cant._, vol. xiv. p. 88. - -[1401] _Essex Nat._, vol. ii. p. 67. - -[1402] _Essex Nat._, vol. iii. p. 159. - -[1403] A considerable number of them are in the Lewes Museum. _Sass. -Ant. Coll._, vol. xxxviii. p. 226; xxxix. p. 97. - -[1404] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xv. p. 109. Munro’s “Lake-dw.,” -pp. 109, 174. - -[1405] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 461; vol. xix. p. 250. - -[1406] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xviii. p. 249. - -[1407] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. vii. p. 202; ix. pp. 167, 320. - -[1408] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xvi. p. (356). - -[1409] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. x. p. 352. - -[1410] “Preh. Times,” 4th ed. p. 110. - -[1411] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 69. _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. -i. p. 52. - -[1412] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. v. p. 239, pl. xi., 4. - -[1413] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 101. - -[1414] As another purpose to which these instruments may have been -applied, Dr. Keller (“Lake-Dwellings,” pp. 34, 97) has suggested that -some of the scrapers found in the Swiss Lake-dwellings may have been in -use for scaling fish. - -[1415] P. 16. - -[1416] P. 15. - -[1417] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 53. - -[1418] _Op. cit._, p. 59. _Reliq._, vol. iii. p. 176. “Cran. Brit.,” -vol. ii. pl. xli. - -[1419] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 96. - -[1420] “Nænia Cornub.,” p. 227. - -[1421] “South Wilts,” p. 195. _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 422. - -[1422] _Reliquary_, vol. xxiv. p. 128. - -[1423] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxv. p. 295. - -[1424] _Cong. Préh. Lisbonne_, 1880, p. 387. - -[1425] “Normandie Souterraine,” p. 258. - -[1426] _Arch._ vol. liv. p. 375. - -[1427] “British Barrows,” p. 266. - -[1428] “Brit. Barr.,” pp. 266, 390. - -[1429] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 522. - -[1430] Hough, “Fire Making Apparatus” in _Rep. of U. S. Nat. Mus._, -Washington, 1888, p. 573. - -[1431] Figured in _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 422. - -[1432] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xix. p. 356. - -[1433] _P. S. A. S._, vol. viii. p. 137. - -[1434] “Expl. des Dolmens,” Vannes, 1882, I. p. 6. - -[1435] _C. R. de l’Assoc., fr. pour l’av. des Sciences_, Grenoble, 1885. - -[1436] “Les Cav. de la Belgique,” vol. ii. pl. ix. 2. “L’homme pendant -les Ages de la Pierre,” 1871, p. 74. - -[1437] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxv. p. 499. - -[1438] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxv. p. 497. - -[1439] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 512. - -[1440] Dr. J. S. Houlder, _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. iii. p. 338; iv. -p. 19. See also _Journ. R. H. and Arch. Assoc. of Irel._, 4th S., vol. -v. p. 124. - -[1441] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xi. pl. xxx. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XIV. - -[1442] Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 103. Monkman, _Yorks. Arch. -and Top. Journ._, 1868. - -[1443] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. ii. pl. xxviii. 2, 3. - -[1444] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxix. p. 284. - -[1445] See _Arch._, vol. xli. pl. xviii. 5. - -[1446] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xi. p. 546; xxv. p. 498. - -[1447] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xv. p. 265. - -[1448] _Aarböger f. Nord. Oldk._, 1866, p. 311. - -[1449] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiii. p. 106. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. iv. -p. 311. - -[1450] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. viii. p. 15. - -[1451] “Lake-Dwellings,” p. 25. “Pfahlbauten,” 1ter Bericht, p. 76. - -[1452] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxvii. p. 361; vol. xxviii. p. 338. - -[1453] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxv. p. 498. - -[1454] Perrault, “Note sur an Foyer, &c.,” pl. ii. 15. - -[1455] _Science Gossip_, vol. ii. (1895) p. 36. - -[1456] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xxv. pp. 122, 137. - -[1457] _Bull. de Palet. It._, vol. i. (1875) pp. 2, 17, 141; vol. ii. -(1876) _passim_. - -[1458] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxvi. p. 409. The cut is kindly -lent by the Society. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xviii. p. 134. _Proc. -Vict. Inst._, March, 1889. - -[1459] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vii. p. 229. _P. S. A. S._, vol. -xii. p. 614. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. vii. p. 396. De Morgan, “Rech. -sur les Orig. de l’Egypte,” 1896, p. 130. He regards the crescents as -arrow-heads, but I cannot agree with him. - -[1460] Pierpont, _Bull. de la Soc. Arch. de Brux._, 1894–5. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XV. - -[1461] _Rev. Arch._, N. S., vol. ii. p. 129. - -[1462] Marchant, “Notice sur divers insts.,” 1866, pl. i. Parenteau, -“Inv. Arch.” 1878, pl. ii. - -[1463] “Ant. Celt. et Antéd.,” vol. i. p. 379. - -[1464] Cazalis de Fondouce, “La grotte sép. de St. J. d’Alcas,” pl. i. -1. - -[1465] _Rev. Arch._, N. S., vol. xv. pl. ix. 26. - -[1466] Mortillet, _Matériaux_, vol. v. p. 321. - -[1467] _Rev. de la Soc. Lit. de l’Eure_, 3rd S., vol. v. - -[1468] “Coll. Caranda,” Moreau, 1877, pl. iii. - -[1469] “L’anc. de l’homme dans le Vivarais,” De Marichaud, 1870, pl. -xi. 5. - -[1470] _Mat._, vol. ix. p. 162. - -[1471] “Ant. Lac. du Mus. de Lausanne,” 1896, pl. ix. - -[1472] “Horæ Ferales,” p. 137, pl. ii. 32. - -[1473] “Arch. Inst. Salisb. Vol.,” p. 105. - -[1474] _Arch._, vol. xxx. p. 333. - -[1475] _Arch._, vol. xxxiv. p. 253. - -[1476] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xvii. p. 72. - -[1477] _Arch._, vol. xli. pl. xviii. 6. - -[1478] “Reliq. Aquit.,” p. 18. - -[1479] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 380, where it is figured full size. See also -pp. 196, 270, &c. - -[1480] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 151. See also p. 227, and “Vest. Ant. -Derb.,” p. 105. - -[1481] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. xi. p. 188. _P. S. A. -Newc.-on-Tyne_, N. S., vol. ii. p. 171. - -[1482] “Hist. of Berwicksh. Nat. Club, 1863–68,” pl. xiii. 4. “Brit. -Bar.,” p. 407. - -[1483] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 153. - -[1484] _Op. cit._, p. 285. - -[1485] By permission of the delegates of the Clarendon Press. - -[1486] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 31. - -[1487] _Reliq. and Ill. Archæologist_, vol. ii. p. 46. - -[1488] _Trans. Devon. Assoc._, vol. xii. p. 367. - -[1489] _Arch. Cant._, vol. xiii. p. 124. - -[1490] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xiii. p. 254. - -[1491] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxii. p. 25. - -[1492] “Brit. Barr.,” p. 198. - -[1493] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, vol. i. pl. i. 14. - -[1494] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xix. p. 10; vol. xxv. p. 498. - -[1495] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 243. “Brit. Barr.,” p. 359. - -[1496] _Trans. E. R. Ant. Soc._, vol. i., 1893, p. 49. - -[1497] “The Bone Caves of Ojcow,” 1884, pl. i. 7. - -[1498] “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 58, p. 2. - -[1499] “Brit. Barr.,” p. 158, and 41, where it is figured full size. - -[1500] _Arch. Journ._, vol. viii. 344. - -[1501] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 414. - -[1502] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 243. - -[1503] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xiv. p. 221. - -[1504] “Brit. Barr.,” p. 153, fig. 98. - -[1505] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vii. p. 102. - -[1506] _Mat._ vol. xvi. p. 239. - -[1507] _Mem. Acc. R. delle Sc. di Turino_, vol. xxvi. Tav. v. 1. - -[1508] _Op. cit._, Tav. viii. 20. - -[1509] Le Hon, “L’Homme foss.,” 2nd ed., p. 184. - -[1510] De Gongora, “Ant. Preh. de And.,” p. 78, fig. 92. - -[1511] “Brit. Barr.,” p. 410. - -[1512] Nilsson. “Stone Age,” p. 44. See Col. A. Lane-Fox, “Prim. -Warfare,” pt. II. p. 11. - -[1513] _Arch. Cant._, vol. xiv. p. 87. _Antiquary_, vol. xv. p. 234. - -[1514] _Reliq. and Ill. Arch._, vol. ii. p. 46. - -[1515] _Yorks. Arch. and Top. Journ._, 1869, figs. 12, 13, 16. _Journ. -Ethn. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 159. - -[1516] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, vol. i. pl. i. 15, 17. - -[1517] _Yorksh. Arch. and Top. Journ._, 1868, fig. 46. - -[1518] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxviii. p. 339. - -[1519] “Mém. sur les Restes d’Indust.,” &c., pl. x. 6. - -[1520] _Matériaux_, vol. v. p. 249. - -[1521] Kindly communicated to me by the late Mr. Joseph Clarke, F.S.A. - -[1522] “Nuovi Cenni, &c.,” Torino, 1862, pl. vi. 16. - -[1523] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xv. p. 17. - -[1524] “Anc. Mon. of Mississ. Vall.,” p. 211, fig. 3. - -[1525] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 34. _Arch. Journ._, vol. -xl. p. 323; xli. p. 50. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. vi. p. 37. - -[1526] Jones, “Ants. of Tenn.” (Smithson. Coll.), p. 58. - -[1527] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. i. p. xcvi. pl. i.; vol. xiii. p. 162. - -[1528] _Matériaux_, vol. v. p. 249. - -[1529] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 239. - -[1530] _Mem. Anthrop. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 248. _P. S. A. S._, vol. vi. -p. 450. - -[1531] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 239. - -[1532] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xxviii. p. 324. - -[1533] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 204. - -[1534] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxv. p. 499. - -[1535] “Stone Age,” pl. x. 205. - -[1536] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xii. p. 285. - -[1537] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xi. p. 414; xvii. p. 171. - -[1538] “Cat.,” p. 66, No. 18. - -[1539] Bateman, “Cat.,” p. 66. - -[1540] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xi. p. 414; xvii. p. 171. - -[1541] _Arch. Camb._, 3rd. S., vol. vi. p. 138. - -[1542] “Flint Chips,” p. 75. - -[1543] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v. p. 95. - -[1544] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v. p. 441. _Montg. Coll._, vol. -v. p. xxvi.; vi. p. 215; xii. p. 26; xiv. p. 278. - -[1545] Rooke Pennington, “Barrows and Bone-caves of Derbyshire,” 1877, -p. 62. - -[1546] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 576. - -[1547] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii p. 207. - -[1548] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxix. p. 285. - -[1549] Otis Mason, _Rep. of U. S. Nat. Mus._ for 1890, Washington, 1892. - -[1550] P. 341. - -[1551] P. 299. - -[1552] “Cat. Ant. Soc. Ant.,” p. 14. “Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.,” p. 7. - -[1553] Pl. ii. 15. - -[1554] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iii. p. 437; iv. p. 52. - -[1555] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 271; xxix. p. 54. - -[1556] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 270. - -[1557] Smith’s “Preh. Man in Ayrshire,” 1895, p. 45. - -[1558] “Preh. Ann.,” vol. i. p. 184. - -[1559] “Statist. Account of Zetland,” 1841, p. 112, _et seqq._, quoted -at length in _Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Lond._, vol. ii. p. 315. The late -Dr. Hunt appears to have thought that the passage referred to rude -pestle-like stone implements such as he found in Orkney, and not to -these knives. - -[1560] “Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. Ed.,” p. 7. - -[1561] See _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 579. - -[1562] _N. and Q._, 4th. S., vol. xi. p. 302. - -[1563] _Cong. préh. Stockholm_, 1874, p. 177, _et seqq._ - -[1564] De Bonstetten, “Supp. au Rec. d’Ant. Suisses,” pl. i. 1. - -[1565] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. ii. pl. xlv. 1. - -[1566] _Arch. Journ._, vol. viii. p. 329. “Brist. Vol. Arch. Inst.,” p. -lix. _Proc. R. I. A._, vol. v. p. 176. - -[1567] “Hor. Fer.” p. 137. - -[1568] “Stone Age,” p. 38, pl. iii. 65. - -[1569] _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 413. - -[1570] “Hor. Fer.,” pl. ii. 27. - -[1571] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 170. - -[1572] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 73. - -[1573] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. vi. p. 441. - -[1574] Skelton’s “Meyrick’s Armour,” vol. i. pl. xlvi. 5. - -[1575] _Lond. and Midd. Notebook_, vol. i. (1891), p. 21. - -[1576] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 170. - -[1577] _Mat._, vol. xi. p. 87. - -[1578] Jewitt’s “Grave Mounds,” fig. 155, where it is shown full size. - -[1579] “South Wilts,” p. 172, pl. xix. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 85B. - -[1580] “South Wilts,” p. 164, pl. xvii. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 84. - -[1581] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 59. “Cran. Brit.” pl. 41, p. 3. _Reliq._, -vol. iii. p. 177. - -[1582] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 52. - -[1583] _Ibid._, p. 167. Bateman, “Cat.,” p. 38. - -[1584] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 5. - -[1585] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 228. Bateman, “Cat.,” p. 43. - -[1586] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. x. p. 177. - -[1587] _Arch. Camb._, 4th S., vol. ii. p. 327. - -[1588] March, 1797, p. 200. - -[1589] “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 182. - -[1590] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 18. - -[1591] Smith, “Preh. Man in Ayrshire,” 1895, p. 184. - -[1592] Wilde’s “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 34. - -[1593] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 170. - -[1594] Cazalis de Fondouce, “La Gr. sép. de St. J. d’Alcas,” 1867, pl. -i. - -[1595] _Matériaux_, vol. v. p. 321; viii. p. 39. - -[1596] _Matériaux_, vol. v. p. 538. - -[1597] _Cong. Préh. Bruxelles_, 1872, pl. 67, 3. Van Overloop, “Les -Ages de la Pierre,” pl. viii. - -[1598] _Cong. Préh. Moscou_, 1892, ii. p. 241. - -[1599] _Mem. R. Acc. delle Sc. di Torino_, xxvi. Tav. viii. 24. See -also _Bull. di Pal. Ital._, 1881, pl. vii. - -[1600] _Arch. Journ._ vol. liii. p. 46. See also _Mat._, vol. ix. p. -24, and De Morgan, “Rech. sur les Or. de l’Égypte,” 1896, p. 121. - -[1601] _Zeitschr. für Ægypt. Sprache_, &c., July, 1870. Wilkinson, -“Anc. Egyptians,” vol. iii. p. 262. - -[1602] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxvi. p. 399. - -[1603] _Zeitschr. für Æg. Sp._, ibid. - -[1604] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xi. pl. xxxiii. See also vol. xiv. p. -56; _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vi., p. 21: and Petrie’s “Hawara,” -1889, pl. xxviii. - -[1605] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xxii., 1890, p. (516). - -[1606] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. i. p. xcvi. pl. i. 3. - -[1607] See Fig. 1 p. 8. - -[1608] _Archæologia_, vol. liv. 391. - -[1609] “Musæum Metallicum,” p. 156. - -[1610] _Aarb. f. Oldk._, 1879, p. 290. - -[1611] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vii. p. 328. - -[1612] _Mat._, vol. ix. p. 401, pl. vii. 9. - -[1613] _Nature_, vol. xii. p. 368. - -[1614] “Madsen,” pl. xxxvi. 8. - -[1615] “Nord. Olds.,” Fig. 51. _Mém. de la Soc. des Ants. du Nord._, -1845–49, p. 139. - -[1616] Vol. xxii. p. 75. - -[1617] 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 19, where it is erroneously stated to be -only 5 inches in length. - -[1618] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 210. - -[1619] _Arch. Cant._, vol. xiii. p. 124, xi. Payne’s “Coll. Cant.,” -1893, p. 3. - -[1620] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 18. - -[1621] Keller, “Pfahlbauten,” 6ter Ber., Taf. vii. 32. - -[1622] “Präh. Atlas,” Wien, 1889, Taf. xiii. - -[1623] Cartailhac, “Mon. prim. des Iles Baléares,” 1892, p. 54. - -[1624] _Cong. Préh. Moscou_, 1892, ii. p. 243. - -[1625] _L’Anthrop._, vol. vi., 1893, p. 12. De Baye, “C. R. du neuv. -Congrès russe d’Arch.,” 1893, p. 54. - -[1626] _Arch. Journ._, vol. liii. 1896 p. 46. See also _Zeitsch. f. -Ethn._, vol. xx., 1888, p. (209), (344); vol. xxiii., 1891, (p. 474), -pl. vii. viii. - -[1627] “Naquada and Ballas,” 1896, p. 60. - -[1628] J. De Morgan, “Recherches sur les Origines de l’Égypte. L’âge de -la pierre et Les métaux,” 1896, p. 115. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XVI. - -[1629] _Trans. Ethn. Soc._, N. S., vol. iii. p. 266. - -[1630] See Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 478. - -[1631] Pliny, “Nat. Hist.,” lib. vii. cap. 56. - -[1632] Herodotus, lib. iv. cap. 132; v. 49; vii. 61. - -[1633] “Sola in sagittis spes, quas inopiâ ferri ossibus -asperant.”—“Germ.,” cap. 46. - -[1634] Smith’s “Dict. of Ant.” _s. v._, Sagitta. - -[1635] Homer, “Il.,” viii. 296. - -[1636] P. 396. - -[1637] “Prod. Nat. Hist. Scotiæ,” pt. 2, lib. iv. c. vii. - -[1638] “Mus. Met.,” lib. iv. c. xvii. - -[1639] P. 49. - -[1640] “Mus. Wormianum” (1655), p. 39. - -[1641] _L. c._ 85. - -[1642] “Mus. Met.,” p. 604. - -[1643] “Nat. Hist.,” xxxvii. c. 10. - -[1644] London, 1681. - -[1645] “Mus.,” lib. i., sect. 3, c. xiii. - -[1646] “Mus. Mosc.,” lib. ii. c. 1. - -[1647] Mus. Mosc. (1672), p. 148. See _Mat._, vol. xi. p. 1. - -[1648] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 66. In the _Theatrum -Scotiæ_ of Blaeuw’s “Atlas,” is a plate of arrow-heads found in -Aberdeenshire. This has been pointed out to me by the late Dr. J. Hill -Burton. See his “Hist. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 136 _n._ - -[1649] Reliquary, vol. viii. p. 207. - -[1650] “Cat.,” pp. 8 and 127. - -[1651] “Nænia,” pl. xxxiii. 6, p. 154. See Vallancey, “Coll. de Reb. -Hibern.,” N. xiii. pl. xi. - -[1652] Pt. iv. pl. iv. fig. 11. - -[1653] Vol. iv. p. 232, pl. xviii. - -[1654] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 19. See also _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, -vol. xxi. p. 323, and xxii. p. 316. - -[1655] _Journ. R. S. A. of Irel._, 5th S., vol. v. p. 61. - -[1656] _Folklore Record_, vol. iv. p. 112. _Journ._, vol. ii. p. 260. -See also “Folklore of the Northern Counties,” p. 185. - -[1657] Pennant’s “Tour,” vol. i. p. 115. “Stat. Account of Scotland,” -vol. x. p. 15; xxi. 148. Collins’ “Ode on Pop. Superst. of the -Highlands.” “Allan Ramsay’s Poems,” ed. 1721, p. 224. Brand’s “Pop. -Ant.,” 1841, vol. ii. p. 285. - -[1658] _Reliquary_, vol. viii. p. 207. - -[1659] “Itin. Cur.,” (ed. 1776), vol. ii. p. 28. - -[1660] “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 178, _et seqq._ - -[1661] Pepys’ “Diary and Cor.” (ed. 1849), vol. v. p. 366. - -[1662] See Nilsson’s “Stone Age,” p. 197. Wilson’s “Preh. Ann. of -Scot.,” vol. i. p. 180. - -[1663] _Mat._, vol. xi. p. 540. - -[1664] Gastaldi, “Lake Habitations of Northern and Central Italy,” -Chambers’s transl., p. 6. - -[1665] Nicolucci, “Di Alcune Armi ed Utensili in Pietra,” 1863, p. 2. - -[1666] Mortillet, _Mat._, vol. iii. p. 319. - -[1667] _Archivio per l’Antropologia_, vol. i. pl. xv. 8. - -[1668] “L’âge de Pierre dans les Souvenirs et superstitions -populaires,” Paris, 1877. - -[1669] _Bull. di Paletn. It._, 1876, pl. iv. 7. - -[1670] A. J. Evans, “Bosnia and Herzegovina,” 1876, p. 289; 1877, p. -291. - -[1671] _2nd Ann. Rep. of Bur. of Ethn._, 1880–1. _Mat._, 3rd S., ii., -1885, p. 532. - -[1672] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xv. p. 145. Leake, “Demi of Attica,” p. 100. -Dodwell’s “Class. Tour,” vol. ii. p. 159. _Arch. Journ._, vol. vii. p. -86. - -[1673] See Smith’s “Geog. Dict.,” vol. ii. p. 268. - -[1674] Lib. vii. cap. 69. - -[1675] “II.,” xiii. 650. - -[1676] “II.,” v. 393. - -[1677] IV. 81. - -[1678] See De Morgan, _op. cit._ p. 121. - -[1679] _Academy_, Oct. 27, 1894. - -[1680] _Archæologia Scotica_, vol. i. p. 389. - -[1681] This word, still in use in Scotland for the barbs of a -fishing-spear or hook, is a good old English term derived from the -Saxon ƿiðer. Withther-hooked = barbed:— - - “This dragoun hadde a long taile - That was withther-hooked saun faile.” - “Arthour and Merlin,” p. 210. - -Halliwell, “Dict. of Arch. and Prov. Words,” _s. v._ - -[1682] _Journ. R. U. Serv. Inst._ - -[1683] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. vi. p. 482. - -[1684] _Journ. R. S. A. of Irel._, 5th S., vol. v. p. 41. - -[1685] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. p. 212. - -[1686] Wood’s “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. i. p. 284. - -[1687] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 429. - -[1688] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 324. _Reliquary_, vol. -vi. p. 185. - -[1689] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. iv. p. 103. - -[1690] _Reliq._, N. S., vol. iii. pl. iv. 8. - -[1691] _Op. cit._, p. 224. - -[1692] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xix. p. 350. - -[1693] _P. S. S. A._, vol. xxv. p. 499. - -[1694] See Wakeman, “Arch. Hib.,” p. 270. - -[1695] _Cong. Préh. Moscou_, 1892, vol. ii. p. 240. - -[1696] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. pl. xxvi. 4. - -[1697] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 261. - -[1698] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxv. p. 156. - -[1699] Vol. vi. pl. xvi. 5. - -[1700] _Journ. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. i. p. 5. - -[1701] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. p. 500. - -[1702] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 246. - -[1703] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 586. - -[1704] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 170. - -[1705] A. C. Smith, “Ants. of N. Wilts,” p. 182. - -[1706] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 278; iii. p. 168. - -[1707] _Reliquary_, vol. v. p. 28. - -[1708] _Wilts Arch. Mag._, vol. xix. p. 71. A. C. Smith’s “Ants. of N. -Wilts,” p. 197. - -[1709] _Reliquary_, vol. vi. p. 185. - -[1710] Warne’s “Celtic Tum. of Dorset,” _Errata_, pp. 15 and 27. - -[1711] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 148. - -[1712] See _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 20. _Arch. Journ._, -vol. x. p. 362. _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iii. p. 362; iv. 54, 377, -553; v. 13, 185; vi. 41, 208, 234; vii. 500; viii. 10. - -[1713] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. pp. 111, 129. - -[1714] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxv. p. 499. - -[1715] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xix. p. 251. - -[1716] _Arch. Cant._, vol. xiii. p. 124. - -[1717] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 74. _Arch. Journ._, vol. -xvii. p. 171. - -[1718] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xix. p. 251. - -[1719] _Tr. Lanc. and Chesh. Arch. Soc._, vol. iv. p. 306. - -[1720] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xviii. p. 75. - -[1721] “Manx Note-book,” vol. i. (1885) p. 72. - -[1722] _Trans. Biol. Soc., L’pool._, vol. viii., 1894, pl. xii. - -[1723] Mortillet, _Mat._, vol. ii. p. 89. - -[1724] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. iv. p. 103. - -[1725] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xii. p. 285. “Cat. Mus. Arch. Inst. at -Ed.,” p. 40. - -[1726] _Trans. Lanc. and Chesh. Arch. Soc._, vol. iv. p. 306. - -[1727] _Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. viii., 1896, pl. xii. 1. - -[1728] _Arch._, vol. viii. p. 429, pl. xxx. - -[1729] _Arch. Camb._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 292. - -[1730] P. 579. - -[1731] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 60. - -[1732] Miller and Skertchly, “Fenland,” p. 579. - -[1733] “South Wilts,” pl. xxii. p. 183. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 105. - -[1734] “The Barrow Diggers,” p. 75, pl. ii. 7. - -[1735] “South Wilts,” pl. xxxiv. - -[1736] “The Barrow Diggers,” pl. ii. p. 6. - -[1737] _Ib._, pl. xxxiv. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 203. - -[1738] “Salisb. Vol. of Arch. Inst.,” p. 94. - -[1739] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 398. - -[1740] _Assoc. franç. pour l’avancem. des Sciences_, Nancy, 1881, 16 -aôut. - -[1741] Wilson’s “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” p. 127 (2nd ed. p. 182. pl. ii. -15). “Cat. Mus. Arch. Inst. Ed.,” p. 6, Fig. 9. For the loan of this -block I am indebted to Messrs. Macmillan and Co. - -[1742] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. pp. 240, 262. - -[1743] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xix. p. 251. - -[1744] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 93. - -[1745] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxvii. p. 355. - -[1746] Smith, “Preh. Man in Ayrsh.” (1895), p. 105. - -[1747] “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. pl. ii. 14. - -[1748] “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” p. 182. - -[1749] “Acc. of Inst., &c., of S. A. Scot.,” p. 389. - -[1750] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 183. - -[1751] “Tour. in Scot.,” vol. i. p. 156, pl. xxi. - -[1752] Vol. xvii. p. 19. - -[1753] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. xii. p. 62. - -[1754] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 294. - -[1755] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vi. p. 208. - -[1756] _Ib._, vol. vi. p. 234. - -[1757] _Ib._, vol. iv. p. 54; vii. 105. - -[1758] _Ib._, vol. viii. p. 10. - -[1759] _Ib._, vol. vi. p. 89. - -[1760] _Ib._, vol. iv. p. 54; v. 185. - -[1761] _P. S. A._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 19. - -[1762] _Ib._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 20. - -[1763] _P. S. A. S._, vol. iv. p. 54; v. 13. - -[1764] _Arch. Journ._, vol. x. p. 362. - -[1765] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 20. - -[1766] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vi. pp. 41, 234. - -[1767] _Ib._, vol. iii. p. 362. - -[1768] _Ib._, vol. v. p. 326; iii. 438; viii. 50; xiv. 267; xxiv. 13. - -[1769] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxvii. p. 360. See also “Smith’s Preh. Man -in Ayrshire,” (1895). - -[1770] _Arch. Scot._, vol. iii. App. 135. _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. -270. - -[1771] _P. S. A. S._, vol. iv. p. 55. - -[1772] _Ib._, vol. iv. pp. 67, 377. - -[1773] Wilson’s “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 182. - -[1774] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxi. p. 133. - -[1775] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. p. 267; vol. xxiv. p. 13. For a list of -Kincardineshire arrow-heads see vol. ix. pp. 461, 499; xi. p. 26. - -[1776] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 585. - -[1777] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxviii. p. 341. - -[1778] “Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. Ed.,” pp. 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 20. - -[1779] _P. S. A._, 1st S., vol. iii. p. 224. - -[1780] _P. S. A. S._, vol. iii. p. 490. - -[1781] _Geologist_, vol. i. p. 162. - -[1782] _P. S. A. S._, vol. i. p. 42; vol. xix. p. 11; xxv. 500. - -[1783] _Ib._, vol. i. pp. 67, 190. - -[1784] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 60. - -[1785] _Arch._, vol. xxxi. p. 304. “York Vol. of Arch. Inst.,” p. 1. - -[1786] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” pl. xxx. - -[1787] _Reliquary_, vol. iii. p. 177. “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 41, -p. 3. - -[1788] _Suss. Arch. Coll._, vol. xiii. p. 309. - -[1789] _Tr. Hist. Soc. Lanc. and Chesh._, N. S., vol. viii. p. 131. - -[1790] _Arch. Camb._, 3rd. S., vol. iii. p. 303. - -[1791] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” the “Barrow Diggers,” Bateman’s -“Vestiges,” _Arch._, vol. xxx. p. 333; vol. xliii. pp. 418, 420; vol. -lii. pp. 48, 53, 61. _Wilts Arch. Mag._, vol. vi. p. 319. - -[1792] Vol. xiv. pl. iii. - -[1793] _Tr. Lanc. and Chesh. Arch. Soc._, vol. ii. pl. i. _Trans. -Manch. Geol. Soc._, vol. xiii. p. 141; xiv. p. 284. - -[1794] _Op. cit._, viii. p. 127. _Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc._, vol. xvi. -p. 287. - -[1795] For Yorkshire arrow-heads see _Yorksh. Arch. and Top. Journ._, -vol. i. (1870), p. 4. - -[1796] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 64. - -[1797] _Arch._, vol. xxxvii. 369. - -[1798] _Surr. Arch. Coll._, vol. xi. - -[1799] _Suss. Arch. Coll._, vol. xxvii. p. 177. - -[1800] _Tr. Dev. Assoc._, vol. xx. p. 44. - -[1801] _Op. cit._, xxvi. p. 53. - -[1802] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xx. p. 372. - -[1803] Bateman’s “Cat.,” 47, _et seqq._ See also the York, Norwich, and -Lincoln Volumes of the Arch. Inst. - -[1804] Harrison’s “Geol. of Leic. and Rutl.,” p. 49. - -[1805] _Rel. and Ill. Archæol._, vol. ii. p. 45. _Journ. Roy. Inst. of -Cornw._ vol. xiii. p. 92. - -[1806] _Arch. Journ._, vol. x. p. 354. - -[1807] _Op. cit._, vol. xiv. p. 79. - -[1808] _Op. cit._, vol. xvi. p. 151. - -[1809] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. i. p. 309. - -[1810] “Trans. Arch. Assoc. at Glouc.,” p. 94. - -[1811] _A. A. J._, vol. iv. p. 152. - -[1812] _Op. cit._, vol. xviii. p. 272. - -[1813] _Op. cit._, vol. iv., p. 396. - -[1814] _Arch._, vol. ix. p. 100. - -[1815] _Yorksh. Arch. and Top. Journ._, 1868, fig. 5. - -[1816] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. p. 267; xxiv. p. 13. - -[1817] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 585. - -[1818] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 63. - -[1819] “Kahun, &c.” (1890), p. 21, pl. xvi. - -[1820] _Bull. di Pal. Ital._, 1877. pl. v. 25. - -[1821] Wilde, “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 15, fig. 7. - -[1822] _Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club_, vol. x., 1889–90, p. 22, pl. -i. - -[1823] _Proc Soc. Ant._, March 10, 1897. - -[1824] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. p. 500. - -[1825] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxi. p. 201; xxii. p. 51. _Journ. R. Hist. -and Arch. Assoc. of Ireland_, 4th S., vol. viii., 1887–88, p. 241. - -[1826] _Archivio per l’Anthrop._, &c., vol. i. pl. xii. 16. - -[1827] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. i. p. 679. - -[1828] _Ann. de la Soc. Arch. de Namur_, 1859, pl. ii. 9. - -[1829] _Arch. Journ._, vol. liii., 1896, p. 46, pl. iv. 3, 4. De -Morgan, _op. cit._, p. 124. - -[1830] _Op. cit._, pl. vi. 11. - -[1831] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. pp. 240, 262; xi. p. 510. - -[1832] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xv. p. 367. - -[1833] “L’Arch. Préh.,” p. 191, ed. 1888, p. 253. _Rev. Arch._, vol. -xxvii., 1874, pl. xi. p. 401. _Mat._, vol. viii. pl. ii. _Bull. Soc. -Anthrop._, 19 Dec., 1889. - -[1834] _Bull. Soc. Ant. de Bruxelles_, vol. vi. pl. i. - -[1835] “Afbild.,” pl. xxii. 18, 19. See also _Aarb. f. Oldk._, 1890, p. -325, 329. - -[1836] “Stone Age,” pl. ii. 36, 37. - -[1837] “Antiq. Tidskr. för Sverige,” vol. iii. fig. 3. - -[1838] “Mat. paletnol. dell’ Umbria,” pl. ix. - -[1839] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xv. p. 361; xvi. p. (118). - -[1840] Siret, p. 10. - -[1841] Cartailhac, pp. 53, 173. - -[1842] _Riv. Arch. della Prov. di Como_, Dec. 1879. - -[1843] _Arch. per l’Ant. e al Etn._, vol. xiii. (1883), Tav. i. - -[1844] _Arch. Journ._, vol. ix. p. 118. Lee’s “Isca Silurum,” p. 112. - -[1845] Herodian, lib. i. c. 15. - -[1846] _Arch. Journ._, vol. x. p. 247. - -[1847] _Arch. Journ._, vol. x. p. 69. - -[1848] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 19. - -[1849] _Ann. de la Soc. Arch. de Namur_, 1859, p. 361. - -[1850] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xxxiv. p. 183. - -[1851] _Cong. Préh. Lisbonne_, 1880, p. 372. - -[1852] See also _Nature_, vol. xxiii. p. 218. - -[1853] _Berliner Blätter_, vol. iii. p. 172. - -[1854] _Num. Chron._, N. S., vol. iii. p. 54. - -[1855] “South Wilts,” p. 239. - -[1856] Vol. xxx. p. 460. - -[1857] See “Cran. Brit.,” pl. 52, p. 9. - -[1858] “Vest. of the Ant. of Derbysh.,” p. 48. - -[1859] “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. xlii. p. 3. _Wilts Arch. and N. H. -Mag._, vol. iii. p. 185. - -[1860] _Arch._, vol. viii. p. 429; _supra_, p. 383. - -[1861] “Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. Ed.,” p. 11. Wilson, “Preh. Ann.,” vol. -i. p. 224. - -[1862] _Arch._, vol. xxxvii. p. 369. - -[1863] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvi. p. 151; xxii. p. 249. “Ten Years’ -Diggings,” pp. 60, 95, 96, 116, 127, 167, 178, &c. _Arch. Assoc. -Journ._, vol. iv. p. 103; vii. 215. _Arch._, vol. xxxi. p. 304. -“Salisb. Vol. Arch. Inst.,” pp. 25–105. Hoare’s “South Wilts,” pp. -182–211. Greenwell’s “British Barrows,” _passim_. - -[1864] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 223. _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. iv. p. -103. - -[1865] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 59. “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 41, p. 3. - -[1866] _A. A. J._, vol. iv. p. 105. - -[1867] “T. Y. D.,” p. 116. _A. A. J._, vol. vii. p. 215. - -[1868] For a comparison of arrow-heads from different countries see -also Westropp’s “Prehistoric Phases,” pl. i. - -[1869] _Nature_, vol. xxiii. p. 218. - -[1870] Dr. Mantell, however, found a flint arrow-head in a barrow near -Lewes.—“York Vol. of Arch. Inst.,” p. 1. - -[1871] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 19 _seqq._ - -[1872] “Archæol. Hibern.” (1891), p. 269 _seqq._ - -[1873] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 40. - -[1874] _Rev. Arch._, 3rd S., vol. xvi. pl. xvii. p. 304. - -[1875] Cochet, “Seine Inférieure,” 2nd ed., p. 528. - -[1876] “Epoques Antédil. et Celt. du Poitou,” p. 102, pl. iv. _bis._ 3, -4, 5. - -[1877] De Rochebrune, “Mém. sur les Restes d’Industrie, &c.,” pl. x. 8, -9. - -[1878] Chantre, “Etudes Paléoéthn.,” pl. xiii. 7. - -[1879] Watelet, “L’Age de Pierre, &c.,” pl. iv. 2. Coll. Caranda, -Moreau, 1877. - -[1880] Perrault, “Note sur un Foyer, &c.,” Châlons, 1870, pl. ii. - -[1881] _Rev. d’Anthrop._, vol. iv. p. 258. - -[1882] _Matériaux_, vol. xi. p. 207. - -[1883] De Baye, “Arch. préh.,” 1888, pp. 225, 255, 291, 292. - -[1884] _Bull. de la Soc. d’Etude des sc. nat. de Nîmes_, 1894. - -[1885] Mortillet, “Mus. préh.,” pl. xliii. _et seqq._ - -[1886] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. ii. p. 68. - -[1887] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xx. p. 359. - -[1888] De Rochebrune, pl. xiii. 2. - -[1889] Cazalis de Fondouce, “La Pierre polie dans l’Aveyron,” pl. i. 9 -and 10; pl. iv. 2, 3, &c. _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1867, p. 189; 1868, p. -351. Mortillet, _Matériaux_, vol. ii. p. 146; vol. iii. p. 231. - -[1890] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xv. p. 364. - -[1891] Cazalis de Fondouce, “All. couv. de la Provence,” 2nd Mém. pl. -ii. 18. _Mat._, vol. xii. p. 452, pl. xii. 18. - -[1892] _Matériaux_, vol. v. p. 395. Perrault, _op. cit._ - -[1893] Watelet, “Age de Pierre dans le Dépt. de l’Aisne,” pl. iv. 4. - -[1894] _Matériaux_, vol. v. p. 249. - -[1895] In the Wessenbergische Sammlung, Constance. - -[1896] Keller’s “Pfahlbauten,” and “Lake-dwellings,” _passim_. Desor’s -“Palafittes,” p. 17. Troyon, “Hab. Lac.,” pl. v. Ant. Lac. du Mus. de -Lausanne, pl. ix. - -[1897] “Les âges de la pierre,” pl. vi. and vii. - -[1898] Keller, _op. cit._, 4ter Ber. Taf. i. and ii. Strobel, “Avanzi -Preromani,” Parma, 1863, 1864. - -[1899] “Di Aleune armi ed utensile in pietra.” _Atti della R. Accad. -delle Scienze_, Napoli, 1863 and 1867. - -[1900] Gastaldi, “Lake Habs. in Italy,” p. 7. “Nuovi Cenni, &c.,” -Torino, 1862, p. 10. _Mem. Acc. R. di Sc. di Torino_, vol. xxvi. (1869). - -[1901] _Archivio per l’Antropol_, &c., vol. i. p. 457. - -[1902] Mortillet, _Matériaux_, vol. ii. p. 87. “Promenades,” p. 152. -A. Angelucci, “Le Palafitte del Lago di Varese” (1871); and Ragazzoni, -“Uomo preh. di Como” (1878). - -[1903] Mortillet, _Matériaux_, p. 89. - -[1904] “Alterth. uns. heid. Vorz.,” vol. i., Heft vi. pl. i. 9. -“Hohenz. Samml.,” Taf. xliii. - -[1905] Mortillet, _Mat._, vol. iii. p. 319. - -[1906] _Archivio per l’Ant. e la Etn._, vol. ix. p. 289. See also -Marinoni, “Abit. lacust. in Lombardia,” Milan (1868), p. 20. - -[1907] Dodwell, “Class. Tour in Greece,” vol. ii. p. 159. Leake, “Demi -of Attica,” p. 100. - -[1908] F. Lenormant in _Rev. Arch._, vol. xv. p. 146. - -[1909] Schliemann, “Tiryns,” (1886), pp. 78, 174. - -[1910] “Mycenae,” (Murray, 1878), p. 272. See also pp. 76 and 158. - -[1911] “Antigüedades Prehistóricas de Andalusia,” p. 104. - -[1912] “Les premiers Ages du Métal, &c.,” Anvers, 1887. - -[1913] “Ant. de Algarve,” 1886. Cartailhac, p. 88, 159, 170. - -[1914] “Alterth. u. h. Vorzeit,” vol. i. Heft vi. pl. i. “Hohenz. -Samml.,” Taf. xliii. 17. - -[1915] “Hohenz. Samml.,” Taf. xliii. 25. - -[1916] “Frederico-Francisceum,” 1837, Tab. xxvii. - -[1917] Von Sacken, “Grabfeld von Hallstatt,” p. 38. - -[1918] Kenner, “Arch. Funde, i. d. Oesterr. Mon.,” 1867, p. 41. - -[1919] O. Rygh, “Norske Oldsager,” (1881), No. 76. - -[1920] Conf. Madsen’s “Afbildninger,” pl. xxxvii. and xxxix. Worsaae, -“Nord. Oldsager,” fig. 68 _et seqq._ Nilsson’s “Stone Age,” pl. iii. -and v. _Antiq. Tidskrift för Sverige_, 1864, pl. xxiii. - -[1921] _Foreningen tal Norske Fortidsmindesmerkers Bevaring, Aarsber._, -1867, pl. i.; 1868, pl. iii. 8. - -[1922] Nilsson, “Stone Age,” pl. iii. 59. - -[1923] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxx., 1896, p. 291. - -[1924] _L’Anthropologie_, vol. vi. (1895), p. 14. - -[1925] Bonstetten, “Essai sur les dolmens,” pl. iv. _Zeitsch. f. -Ethn._, vol. xvii. p. (93). - -[1926] _L’Anthropologie_, vol. v. (1894), p. 538. - -[1927] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xlii. pl. x. p. 1. - -[1928] _Arch. Soc. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 74. - -[1929] _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. lvii. 1889, p. 392, pl. iv. 6, 7. - -[1930] _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xxv. p. 35. - -[1931] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 322. - -[1932] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. pl. xvii. 9. - -[1933] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xxii. p. 378. _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1871. - -[1934] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v. p. 330. - -[1935] _La Nature_, 25 juillet, 1896. _L’Anthrop._, vol. vii., 1896, p. -571. - -[1936] Chantre, “Le Caucase,” (1885), pl. i. _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, 1885, -Supp., pl. viii. - -[1937] _Journ. R. As. S._, 1876, p. 425. _Mitth. Anth. Ges. in Wien_, -1884, N. S., vol. iv. p. (28). - -[1938] _Trans. Preh. Congress_, 1868, p. 266. See also _Bull. de la -Soc. Roy. des Ant. du Nord_, 1843–45, p. 26. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, -vol. x. p. 395, pl. xviii. _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 15. -_Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xxiv., 1892, p. (432). _Matériaux_, vol. -viii. p. 92; xiv., p. 32. T. Kanda, “Anc. St. Impts. of Japan,” (Tokio, -1884). - -[1939] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. v. p. 241, pl. xi. - -[1940] Douglas, “Nænia Brit.,” pl. xxxiii. 8. See Squier and Davis, -“Anc. Mon. of Miss. Valley,” p. 212. Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. -i. pl. xvii., xviii.; vol. ii. pl. xxxix. - -[1941] Schoolcraft, _op. cit._, vol. i. p. 77. Catlin, “N. A. Ind.,” -vol. i. pl. xii. See also _Nature_, vol. vi. pp. 392, 413, 515; xi. pp. -90, 215. Gerard Fowke, “Stone Art,” _13th Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethn._ -(1891–2), 1896. _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiv. p. 396. Abbott’s “Primitive -Industry,” (Salem, Mass., 1881). - -[1942] “Conquista de Mejico,” bk. iii. chap. 14. - -[1943] Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed. p. 107. Douglas, “Nænia Brit.,” -pl. xxxiii. 9, 10. - -[1944] Strobel, “Mat. di Paletnologia comparata,” Parma, 1868. _Journ. -Anth. Inst._, vol. iv. p. 311, pl. xxiii. Nadailhac, “l’Amér. préh.” -(1863), pp. 27, 57. - -[1945] “Idle Days in Patagonia,” 1893, p. 39. - -[1946] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxxviii. p. 429. - -[1947] “Ill. of Brit. Ant. from objects found in South America, 1869,” -p. 89. - -[1948] See also _Mat._, vol. xiv. p. 382. - -[1949] _Camb. Ant. Comm._, vol. iv. p. 13. - -[1950] “Method of Fossils” (1728), p. 43. - -[1951] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 254, fig. 164. - -[1952] _Journ. R. H. and A. A. of Ireland_, 4th S. vol. vii., 1885, p. -126. - -[1953] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 509. - -[1954] “Pfahlbauten,” 2ter Ber. Taf. i. 5. “Lake-dwellings,” pl. xxxix. -15. It is curiously like an arrow of the Zoreisch Indians, figured -_Mitth. d. Ant. Gesells. in Wien_, 1893, p. 119. - -[1955] Mortillet, _Mat._, vol. ii. p. 512. Mackie, “Nat. Hist. Rep.,” -vol. i. p. 137. “Mus. Préh.,” fig. 406. - -[1956] Le Hon, “L’homme foss.,” 2nd ed., p. 184. - -[1957] “Afbildninger,” pl. xxii. 19. - -[1958] See p. 369. - -[1959] _Proc._, vol. iv. p. 298. - -[1960] “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 107. “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. -648. - -[1961] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. i. p. 103. - -[1962] _Ib._, vol. i. p. 284. - -[1963] One is figured in _Trans. Lanc. and Chesh. Arch. Soc._, vol. iv. -p. 369. - -[1964] “Mus. Wormianum,” 1655, p. 350. - -[1965] “Scut. Herculis,” v. 134. - -[1966] “Iliad,” v. 171. - -[1967] Smith’s “Dict. of Ant.,” p. 1002. - -[1968] Lib. vii. cap. 92. - -[1969] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. i. p. 85. _Nature_, vol. x. p. 245. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XVII. - -[1970] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xv. p. 5. - -[1971] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 25. - -[1972] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xix. p. 351. - -[1973] _Tr. Dev. Assoc._, vol. xv. p. 138. - -[1974] _Arch._, xliii. p. 437, fig. 136. - -[1975] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ix. p. 356. - -[1976] Vol. xxii. p. 246, 101 _note_. - -[1977] _Yorksh. Arch. and Top. Journ._, 1868. - -[1978] P. 40, fig. 24. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XVIII. - -[1979] _Arch._, vol. xxxii. p. 96. _Proc. Soc. Ant._, vol. i. p. 157. - -[1980] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xx. p. 73. See also “Flint Chips,” -p. 302. - -[1981] “Stone Age,” p. 49. - -[1982] “Sports and Pastimes,” ed. 1845, p. 74. - -[1983] “Stone Age,” p. 49. - -[1984] 1 Sam. xvii. 43. - -[1985] Keller’s “Lake-dwellings,” pl. lxxxvi. 2. - -[1986] “Troy and its Remains,” (1878), p. 101. - -[1987] “Stone Age,” pl. v. 115. - -[1988] “Lake-dwellings,” p. 135. - -[1989] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” pp. 18, 74. - -[1990] Engelhardt, “Nydam Mosefundet,” pl. xiii. 65. - -[1991] Wilson, “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 197. - -[1992] “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 105. - -[1993] “Stone Age,” p. 51. - -[1994] _Yorksh. Arch. and Top. Journ._, 1868. - -[1995] Ellis, “Polyn. Researches,” vol. i. p. 291. - -[1996] “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 195. I am indebted to Messrs. -Macmillan & Co. for the loan of this cut. - -[1997] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 20. - -[1998] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vii. p. 102. - -[1999] _Trans. Lanc. and Chesh. A. A._, vol. iii. p. 255. - -[2000] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 393. - -[2001] Smith’s “Preh. Man in Ayrshire,” 1895, p. 105. - -[2002] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 11. - -[2003] “Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. Ed.,” p. 14. - -[2004] _Report Montrose Nat. Hist. and Ant. Soc._, 1868. - -[2005] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. v. p. 340. - -[2006] _Ib._, vol. iv. pp. 186, 292; vii. p. 209. - -[2007] Wilson, “Preh. Ann. Scot.,” vol. i. p. 195. - -[2008] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. pp. 29, 313. - -[2009] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xi. p. 58. - -[2010] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iii. p. 439. Wilson, “Preh. Ann. -of Scot.,” vol. i. pl. iii. Photographs of three of the faces are given -in the _Reliquary and Illust. Archæol._, vol. iii. (1897) p. 103, _q.v._ - -[2011] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 14, pl. i. and ii. - -[2012] _Trans. Dev. Assoc._, vol. xii. p. 124. - -[2013] Worsaae, “Nord. Olds.,” fig. 87, 88. - -[2014] _Report Montrose N. H. and Ant. Soc._, 1868. - -[2015] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 56. - -[2016] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 20. - -[2017] Tylor, “Early Hist. of Mank.,” p. 179. - -[2018] Klemm, “Cultur-Gesch.,” vol. ii. p. 17. “Azara,” vol. ii. p. 46. -Catlin’s “Last Rambles,” p. 265. “Cult.-Wiss.,” vol. i. p. 55. - -[2019] Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 547. Falkner’s “Patagonia,” -p. 130. A set of these Patagonian _bolas_ is engraved by the Rev. J. G. -Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 529. - -[2020] See Ratzel, “Völkerk.,” vol. ii. (1888), p. 664. - -[2021] Skelton’s “Meyrick’s Arm.,” pl. xciii. 1. - -[2022] Klemm’s “Cultur-Wiss.,” vol. i. p. 129. “Cult.-Gesch.,” vol. x. -pl. iii. 4. - -[2023] “Anc. Mon. Mississ. Valley,” p. 219. - -[2024] The same name, _pogamagan_, is applied by the Indians of the -Mackenzie River to a different form. See “Reliq. Aquit.,” p. 52. - -[2025] “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. pl. xv. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XIX. - -[2026] “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 223. - -[2027] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. vi. p. 233. The Evantown bracer -is shown on a larger scale in _P. S. A. S._, vol. xvii. p. 454; and -Anderson’s “Scotl. in Pagan Times,” p. 15. - -[2028] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ii. p. 429. “Cat. Mus. Arch. Inst. -Ed.,” p. 20. - -[2029] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiii. p. 255. - -[2030] Wilson, “P. A. of S.,” vol. i. p. 76. “Cat. Mus. A. I. Ed.,” p. -11. - -[2031] _Arch._, vol. viii. p. 429, pl. xxx. - -[2032] _Wiltshire Arch. Mag._, vol. x. (1867), pl. vi. - -[2033] _Wiltsh. Arch. Mag._, vol. iii. p. 186. “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. -pl. 42, p. 3. _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 429, fig. 120. - -[2034] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 56. - -[2035] _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 428. - -[2036] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vi. p. 409. Allies’ “Worcestersh.,” p. 142. -_Arch. Journ._, vol. xviii. p. 160. - -[2037] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v. p. 272. _Arch._, vol. xliii. -p. 429, fig. 122. - -[2038] “South Wilts,” p. 103. _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 429, fig. 121. -“Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 63. - -[2039] “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 232. - -[2040] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 44. - -[2041] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vi. p. 319. - -[2042] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. x. p. 29. Payne’s “Coll. Cant.,” -p. 12. - -[2043] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxxiii. p. 126. - -[2044] Wilson, “P. A. of S.,” vol. i. p. 223. I am indebted to Messrs. -Macmillan & Co. for the use of this cut. - -[2045] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 537. Anderson, “Scotl. in Pagan -Times,” p. 15. - -[2046] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxvii. p. 11. - -[2047] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 586. - -[2048] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiii. p. 73. - -[2049] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, pl. viii. 2. - -[2050] P. Salmon, “L’homme,” 1886, p. 279. - -[2051] Siret’s “Album,” _passim_. - -[2052] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 182. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 96, 19A. - -[2053] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 99. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 53. - -[2054] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vi. p. 319. “Cran. Brit.,” vol. i. p. 80. - -[2055] “Cat. Mus. Arch. Inst. Ed.,” p. 11. - -[2056] Wilson, “P. A. of S.,” vol. i. p. 224. - -[2057] “Anc. Mon. Mississ. Valley,” p. 237. - -[2058] “Abor. Mon. of New York,” p. 79. - -[2059] “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. p. 89. - -[2060] _Wilts Arch. Mag._, vol. x. (1867), p. 109. - -[2061] _Arch._, vol. xxxiv. p. 254. Since this was written I have had -an opportunity of examining this bracer, and find that it is of the -same green kind of stone as the others. It is figured by Greenwell, -“British Barrows,” fig. 32, p. 36. - -[2062] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v. p. 289. _Arch._, vol. xliii. -p. 427. - -[2063] Judges, ch. xx. 16. - -[2064] Mortillet, _Bull. Soc. Anth. de Paris_, 3 July, 1890. - -[2065] Dr. D. G. Brinton, _Amer. Anthrop._, vol. ix. 1896, p. 175. Sir -Daniel Wilson, “Lefthandedness,” 1891. Mr. O. T. Mason reduces the -proportion to 3 per cent. only. _Amer. Anthrop._, vol. ix. (1896) p. -226. - -[2066] “Desc. Angl.,” ap. Bale, Ed. Oporin, vol. ii. p. 21. - -[2067] Skelton’s “Meyrick’s Armour,” pl. xxxiv. - -[2068] Wilkinson’s “Anc. Eg.,” vol. i. p. 306. - -[2069] Bruce, “Roman Wall,” 3rd ed., p. 97. - -[2070] Wood, “Nat. Hist. of Man,” vol. ii. p. 710. - -[2071] 2nd ed., 1870, p. 7. _Aarbög. for Nord. Oldk._, 1868, p. 100. - -[2072] _Ann. for Nord. Oldk._, 1840–1, p. 166. Madsen, “Afbild.,” pl. -xxv. 16. - -[2073] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xi. p. 24. - -[2074] _Arch. f. Anth._, vol. xxiv., 1896, corr. Blatt., p. 59. - -[2075] _Arch._, xv. p. 122. Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 75. - -[2076] _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 431; lii. p. 5. “British Barrows,” -_passim_. - -[2077] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., i. p. 162. - -[2078] _Journ. Ethn. Soc._, ii. p. 429. - -[2079] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” pp. 75, 114. “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. -60, p. 2. - -[2080] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” pp. 44, 77, 83, 112. - -[2081] “Salisb. Vol. Arch. Inst.,” p. 91. - -[2082] _Arch._, xxxviii. p. 413. - -[2083] “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 41, p. 3. “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 60. - -[2084] Catalogue, p. 5. - -[2085] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 103. - -[2086] _Op. cit._, p. 107. - -[2087] _Op. cit._, p. 116. _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vii. p. 215. - -[2088] _Op. cit._, p. 127. - -[2089] _Arch. Journ._, v. p. 352. - -[2090] Keller, “Lake-dwellings,” p. 328. - -[2091] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 17. - -[2092] Le Hon, “L’homme foss.,” 2nd ed., p. 186. - -[2093] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, pl. ix. p. 126. - -[2094] Madsen, “Afbild.,” pl. xvii. - -[2095] Worsaae, “Nord. Olds.,” No. 275. - -[2096] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 127. - -[2097] _Ib._, p. 169. - -[2098] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. pl. xxxvii. “Anc. Mon. of -Miss. Vall.,” p. 220. - -[2099] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 215. - -[2100] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 395. - -[2101] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 77. - -[2102] Keller, “Lake-dw.,” 2nd S., p. 26. - -[2103] Catlin’s “Last Rambles,” p. 101. - -[2104] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 68. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 224_a_. - -[2105] _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 438. - -[2106] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 42. - -[2107] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 60, fig. 27. - -[2108] Sproat, “Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, 1868,” p. 86. -_Trans. Ethn. Soc._, N. S., vol. v. p. 250. - -[2109] _Daily Graphic_, Dec. 28, 1896. - -[2110] _Ant. Tidsk._, 1852–54, p. 9. _Mém. de la Soc. des Ant. du -Nord_, 1850–60, p. 29. Madsen, “Afb.,” pl. xxv. - -[2111] _Mém. de la Soc. des Ant. du N._, 1845–49, p. 168. - -[2112] “Alterth. u. heid. Vorz.,” vol. i. Heft v. Taf. 1. See also -“Horæ Ferales,” pl. i. - -[2113] Boucher de Perthes, “Ant. Celt. et Antéd.,” vol. i. pl. ii. 5, 7. - -[2114] _Arch._, vol. xxx. p. 330. Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 103. “Cat. -Devizes Mus.,” No. 10, 49_b_, 224, 302. - -[2115] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 246. - -[2116] Smith’s “Coll. Ant.,” vol. i. p. 69. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XX. - -[2117] Keller, “Lake-dwellings,” p. 326. Desor, “Les Palafittes,” p. 30. - -[2118] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 253. “Brit. Barrows,” pp. 32, 376. - -[2119] _Arch. f. Anthr._, vol. xviii. (1889), p. 235. See also -_Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xxviii. (1896) p. 473. - -[2120] _Proc. S. A. Scot._, vol. ix. p. 548. - -[2121] “The Past in the Present,” (1880), p. 1. - -[2122] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvi. p. 184. - -[2123] _Ib._ xxvi. p. 184. - -[2124] Wilde, “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 116. - -[2125] _Proc. S. A. Scot._, vol. iv. pp. 72, 119–286. - -[2126] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. iv. p. 259. - -[2127] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xv. pp. 149, 156. - -[2128] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. v. p. 313. - -[2129] _A. J._, vol. xxiv. p. 250; xxvii. p. 160. For others from -Anglesea see _Arch. Camb._, 5th S., vol. ix. p. 242. - -[2130] _Reliquary_, vol. vi. pp. 207, 211. - -[2131] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvi. p. 304. - -[2132] _Arch. Camb._, 3rd S., vol. iii. p. 305. - -[2133] _A. J._, vol. viii. p. 427. _Arch. Camb._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. -223; 3rd S., vi. p. 376. - -[2134] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 170. _Journ. R. I. -Corn._, vol. ii. p. 280. - -[2135] _Proc. S. A. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 54; v. pp. 15, 82; vi. p. 208. -_A. J._, vol. x. p. 219. - -[2136] “Brit. Barrows,” pp. 116, 196. - -[2137] _Arch. Journ._, vol. ix. p. 11; xxiv. p. 250. - -[2138] “Stone Age,” p. 81. - -[2139] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 213. - -[2140] C. R. Smith’s “Cat. Lond. Ant.,” p. 70. Lee’s “Isca Silurum,” p. -47. - -[2141] Rabut, “Hab. Lac. de la Sav.,” 2me Mém., pl. vii. 1. - -[2142] 1863, p. 151. - -[2143] “Alt. u. h. V.,” vol. i. Heft ii. Taf. 1, fig. 1. - -[2144] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. p. 83. - -[2145] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. i. p. 268. _Arch. Journ._, vol. x. -p. 219. - -[2146] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xv. p. 108. - -[2147] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 217. - -[2148] _Arch._, vol. xxxiv. p. 135. - -[2149] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iii. p. 125. - -[2150] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 216. - -[2151] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xi. p. 351. Sir A. Mitchell, “The Past in -the Present,” p. 239 _et seqq._ - -[2152] Im Thurn, “Among the Indians of Guiana,” 1883, p. 427. - -[2153] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. x. p. 717. - -[2154] _Arch._, vol. xlvi. p. 430, pl. xxiv. 21. - -[2155] “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 45. - -[2156] Camd. Soc. Ed., p. 458. - -[2157] A polished flint is still used for producing a brilliant surface -on some kinds of coloured papers which are known as “flint-glazed.” See -“Flint Chips,” p. 101. - -[2158] Lilly’s “Euphues and his England,” ed. 1617. - -[2159] 2nd ed., p. 468. - -[2160] “Vulg. Errors,” ii. c. 4. - -[2161] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. p. 64. - -[2162] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xv. p. 192. - -[2163] _Trans. Lanc. and Chesh. Arch. Soc._, vol. iii. p. 256. - -[2164] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvi., p. 321. - -[2165] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xii. p. 177. - -[2166] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xvii. p. 20, pl. v. 1. - -[2167] _Arch. Camb._, 4th S., vol. xiii. p. 224. - -[2168] _Arch._, vol. xxxvi. p. 456. - -[2169] “South Wilts,” p. 124. - -[2170] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 29. - -[2171] _Arch._, vol. xii. p. 327. - -[2172] “Ancient Meols,” p. 314. - -[2173] “Ind. Tribes,” vol. ii. pl. 50. - -[2174] Mitchell’s “Past in the Present,” pp. 122, 128–132. _Proc. S. A. -S._, vol. xii. p. 268. - -[2175] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xiii. p. 279. - -[2176] “Lake-dwellings,” p. 331. - -[2177] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. ix. pp. 154, 174, 557. - -[2178] _Arch._, vol. xlvi. pp. 468, 493. - -[2179] Vol. i. p. 117. Wilson’s “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 207. - -[2180] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 266. - -[2181] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. v. pp. 30, 83. - -[2182] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vi. p. 89. - -[2183] “Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. Ed.,” p. 20. - -[2184] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xxii. p. 111. - -[2185] _P. S. A. S._, vol. i. p. 138. - -[2186] “Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.,” p. 18. _P. S. A. S._, vol. i. p. 267. - -[2187] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvi. p. 186. - -[2188] _Arch. Scot._, vol. iii. app. 50. - -[2189] _Arch. Scot._, vol. iii. app. 89. - -[2190] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ii. pp. 64, 71. - -[2191] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. p. 320. - -[2192] _Ibid._, vol. v. p. 82. - -[2193] _Ibid._ - -[2194] _Ibid._, vol. vi. p. 12. - -[2195] _Ibid._, vol. i. p. 180. - -[2196] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xiii. p. 104. “Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.,” p. 47. -_P. S. A. S._, vol. ii. p. 330. _Arch. Camb._, 3rd S., vol. xi. p. 429. - -[2197] Wilde, “Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,” p. 114. - -[2198] _P. S. A. S._, vol. i. p. 118. “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. -208. - -[2199] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xiii. p. 104. - -[2200] Engraved in _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvi. p. 299. - -[2201] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxv. p. 290. _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. -363. _Trans. Devon. Assoc._, vol. ii. p. 619; xii. p. 124. - -[2202] See Pengelly in _Tr. Dev. Assoc._, vol. iv. p. 105. - -[2203] _Trans. Devon. Assoc._, vol. iv. p. 302, pl. iv. 2. - -[2204] The pole-lathe is also still in use in the manufacture of -metallic cocks in which the revolution of the barrel being turned has -to be stopped before the complete circle has been gone through.—See -Timmins’s “Birmingham and Mid. Hardware District,” (1866), p. 291. - -[2205] Hutchins’ “Dorset,” vol. i. p. 38. Gough’s “Camden’s Brit.,” -vol. i. p. 70, pl. ii. Warne’s “Celtic Tumuli,” § 3, p. 4. - -[2206] Warne, _l. c._ - -[2207] “Exc. on Cranborne Chase,” vol. i. pl. xlviii. - -[2208] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiii. p. 35. - -[2209] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 189, whence the cut is borrowed. - -[2210] Erroneously called a celt by Mr. Kirwan. - -[2211] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xiii. p. 183; xv. 90. _Sussex Arch. Coll._, -vol. ix. p. 120. - -[2212] “Der Bernstein-schmuck der Steinzeit,” Königsberg in Pr., 1882. - -[2213] _Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Lond._, vol. i. p. 296, pl. i. _Proc. Soc. -Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 51. - -[2214] “Stone Age,” pl. x. 210. - -[2215] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. viii. p. 213. - -[2216] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvii. p. 160, pl. ii. 2. - -[2217] _Arch. Camb._, 5th S., vol. viii. p. 56. - -[2218] Vol. xxvi. p. 288. - -[2219] _Journ. Eth. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 430. - -[2220] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. p. 478. - -[2221] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vii. p. 502, fig. vii.; viii. p. 232; xxix. -p. 6. - -[2222] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xi. pp. 82, 83. - -[2223] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ii. pp. 4, 59; vol. x. p. 539. - -[2224] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. x. p. 539. - -[2225] _P. S. A. S._, vol. ii. p. 191. - -[2226] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. x. p. 538. - -[2227] _Ibid._, vol. i. p. 149. - -[2228] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. x. p. 548. - -[2229] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 263. - -[2230] Wilson’s “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 206. Hibbert’s -“Shetland,” p. 412. “Cat. Mus. Soc. Ant. L.,” p. 18. - -[2231] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 173. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XXI. - -[2232] “Brit. Barrows,” pp. 33, 187, 188. - -[2233] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 431. “Cran. Brit.,” pl. 54. - -[2234] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. p. 266; xxiv. p. 10. - -[2235] “Le Signe de la Croix avant le Christianisme,” 1866. - -[2236] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 264. - -[2237] _Antea_, p. 265. - -[2238] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 263. - -[2239] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 230. - -[2240] Vol. ii. pl. 58, 2. See also “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 184A and -No. 74. - -[2241] Wilson’s “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 442. _Proc. Soc. Ant. -Scot._, vol. ii. p. 307. “Cat. A. I. M. Ed.,” p. 22. - -[2242] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 68. - -[2243] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 152. - -[2244] _Reliq._, vol. viii. p. 86. - -[2245] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 172. - -[2246] _L. c._, p. 239. - -[2247] _Arch._, vol. xlix. p. 189. - -[2248] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. iv. p. 60. “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. -54, 2. - -[2249] Vol. vi. p. 188. - -[2250] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 19. - -[2251] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xv. p. 269. - -[2252] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 257. - -[2253] _Arch._, vol. xxxiv. p. 256. They seem to be incorrectly -represented in pl. xx. - -[2254] Klebs, “Der Bernstein-schmuck der Stein-zeit.” Königsberg, 1882. - -[2255] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” pl. x. and xii. _Arch._, vol. xv. pl. -vii. “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. 54. - -[2256] Wilson’s “Preh. Ann. of Scotland,” vol. i. p. 441. - -[2257] _Arch._, vol. viii. p. 429. - -[2258] P. 426. - -[2259] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, vol. iii. p. 58. - -[2260] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. ii. p. 484; vi. 62. - -[2261] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xx. p. 304. - -[2262] _Arch._, vol. xv. p. 122. Hoare’s “South Wilts,” pl. vii. - -[2263] “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 45, 3. - -[2264] Wilson, “P. A. of S.,” vol. i. p. 435. _Arch. Scot._, vol. iii. -p. 49, pl. v. _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. iii. p. 47. “Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.,” -p. 15. - -[2265] _Arch._, vol. xliii. p. 515. - -[2266] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. viii. p. 409. - -[2267] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. viii. p. 412. - -[2268] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xii. p. 294. - -[2269] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 89. _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. ii. p. -234. - -[2270] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 92. _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. ii. p. -235. - -[2271] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 25. _A. A. J._, vol. vii. p. 216. “Cran. -Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 35, 2. - -[2272] “Norfolk Arch.,” vol. viii. p. 319. - -[2273] “T. Y. D.,” p. 46. “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 35, 3. - -[2274] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 228. - -[2275] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. vi. p. 4; xx. 104. - -[2276] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 257. See also _Proc. Soc. Ant._, -vol. i. p. 34. - -[2277] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxix. p. 283. - -[2278] _P. S. A. S._, vol. iii. p. 78. - -[2279] _Ib._, vol. vi. p. 203. - -[2280] Wilson, “P. A. of S.,” vol. i. p. 434. “Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.,” p. -17. - -[2281] Wilson, “P. A. of S.,” vol. i. p. 435. - -[2282] “Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.,” p. 15. - -[2283] Wilson, “P. A. of S.,” vol. i. p. 436. - -[2284] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xiv. p. 261; xxv. p. 65. - -[2285] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xxvi. p. 6. - -[2286] Hoare, “South Wilts,” p. 46. See also “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” No. -173A. - -[2287] A. C. Smith, “Ants. of N. Wilts,” pp. 18, 19. _Wilts Arch. -Mag._, vol. xvi. pp. 179, 181. (These objects are now in the British -Museum.) - -[2288] “Norfolk Archæology,” vol. iii. p. 1. - -[2289] “Cat. Devizes Mus.,” Nos. 56, 57. In the _Archæologia_, vol. xv. -pl. vii., the rim and the top or bottom of the box are shown as quite -distinct. Mr. Cunnington thought they might have covered the ends of -staves. - -[2290] _Arch. Camb._, 3rd. S., vol. xii. p. 110. - -[2291] _Reliquary_, vol. ix. p. 67. - -[2292] Vol. xxii. p. 112. “Brit. Barrows,” p. 334. - -[2293] Vol. xxii. p. 245. “Brit. Barrows,” p. 366. - -[2294] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 74. “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 60, 2. - -[2295] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 420, fig. 159. - -[2296] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 41. - -[2297] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 57. - -[2298] _Arch. Journ._, vol. vii. p. 190. - -[2299] “Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.,” p. 10. - -[2300] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 74. _Arch. Camb._, 3rd S., vol. -xii. p. 97. - -[2301] _Arch. Assoc. J._, vol. vii. p. 217. - -[2302] _Arch._, vol. viii. p. 59. - -[2303] _Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. 413. - -[2304] _P. S. A. S._, vol. vi. p. 112. App. p. 42. - -[2305] _Trans. Ethn. Soc._, vol. vii. p. 50. - -[2306] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xiii. p. 127. - -[2307] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 131. _Arch._, vol. liv. -p. 106. - -[2308] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xv. p. 268. - -[2309] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. iii. p. 344. _Arch._, vol. xxxv. p. -247. - -[2310] Hoare, “South Wilts,” p. 124. - -[2311] Plin., “Nat. Hist.,” lib. xxxvii. c. 2. - -[2312] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xv. p. 364. - -[2313] “Exc. on Cranborne Chase,” vol. i. pl. xlix. - -[2314] See _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. i. p. 325. - -[2315] Vol. xvi. p. 299. - -[2316] _Ibid._, p. 300. - -[2317] _Proc. Dorset Nat. Hist. and Ant. Field Club_, vol. xiii., 1892, -p. 178. - -[2318] _Arch._, vol. xxxi. p. 452. - -[2319] Hoare’s “South Wilts,” p. 114, pl. xiii. - -[2320] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxvi. p. 304. - -[2321] _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 52. - -[2322] _Op. cit._, p. 56. - -[2323] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xv. p. 269. - -[2324] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xxiii. p. 219. - -[2325] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. xv. p. 268. Munro, “Lake-dw.,” p. 50. - -[2326] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. ix. p. 538. - -[2327] Wood-Martin, “Rude Stone Mon. of Ireland,” 1888, p. 60. - -[2328] Hoare, “South Wilts,” p. 124. - -[2329] _Ibid._ - -[2330] _Op. cit._, p. 165. - -[2331] _Op. cit._, p. 183, pl. xxii. - -[2332] Hoare, “South Wilts,” p. 75. _Arch._, vol. lii. p. 430. - -[2333] “Brit. Barrows,” p. 249. - -[2334] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xv. p. 337. - -[2335] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 53. - -[2336] _Op. cit._, p. 63. - -[2337] _Op. cit._, p. 29. C. R. Smith, “Coll. Ant.,” vol. i. p. 55. - -[2338] _Arch._, xii. p. 327. - -[2339] “Cran. Brit.,” vol. ii. pl. 58, 2. - -[2340] “Vest. Ant. Derb.,” p. 67. - -[2341] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 123. - -[2342] “Ten Years’ Dig.,” p. 130. - -[2343] _Reliquary_, vol. iii. p. 206. - -[2344] _Reliquary_, vol. xiv. p. 88. - -[2345] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 278. - -[2346] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xvi. p. 90. - -[2347] _A. J._, vol. xiii. p. 412. - -[2348] _Proc. S. A. S._, vol. viii. p. 350. - -[2349] Wood-Martin, “Rude Stone Mon. of Ireland,” 1888, p. 86. _Journ. -R. Hist. and Arch. Assoc. of Ireland_, 4th S., vol. v. p. 107. - -[2350] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxii. p. 314. - -[2351] _A. J._, vol. xiii. p. 412. - -[2352] _Arch. Camb._, 3rd S., vol. vii. p. 91. _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, -vol. xvi. p. 326. - -[2353] Bonwick, “Daily Life of the Tasmanians,” p. 194. - -[2354] Bonwick, _op. cit._, pp. 193–201. - -[2355] Plin., “Nat. Hist.,” lib. vii. cap. 40. - -[2356] Ovid, “Met.,” lib. xv. v. 41. - -[2357] “Man the Prim. Savage,” p. 338. - -[2358] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. x. p. 164. - -[2359] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. v. p. 327. - -[2360] “Desc. of West. Isl. of Scot., 1703,” p. 226, quoted by Stuart, -“Sculpt. St. of Scot.,” vol. ii. p. lv. - -[2361] _P. S. A. S._, vol. iv. pp. 211, 279. - -[2362] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxii. p. 63. - -[2363] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxiv. p. 157. - -[2364] _P. S. A. S._, vol. xxvii. p. 433. - -[2365] De Bonstetten, “Rec. d’Ant. Suisses,” p. 8. Nilsson, “Stone -Age,” p. 215. - -[2366] Blundevill’s “Fower chiefest Offices belonging to Horsemanship,” -quoted in _N. and Q._, 6th S., vol. i. p. 54. - -[2367] _Arch. f. Anth._, vol. xxii. (1894), “Corr. Blatt.,” p. 101. - -[2368] _P. S. A. S._, vol. v. p. 128. _Anthrop. Rev._, vol. iv. p. -401. See also _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xvii. p. 135, and “The Denham -Tracts,” vol. ii., Folklore Soc., 1895. - -[2369] _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._, vol. v. p. 315. - -[2370] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxiv. p. 40. _Matériaux_, vol. v. p. -118, 249, &c. - -[2371] “Supp. au Rec. d’Ant. Suisses,” pl. i. 2. - -[2372] Baudot, “Sép. des Barb.,” p. 78. - -[2373] Lindenschmidt, “A. u. h. V.,” vol. ii. Heft xii. Taf. vi. 12. - -[2374] “Lapland,” ed. 1704, p. 277. - -[2375] “_Cong. Préh. Lisbonne_,” 1880, pl. v. Da Veiga, “Ant. de -Algarve,” 1856. Cartailhac, p. 92. - -[2376] Schoolcraft, “Ind. Tribes,” vol. i. p. 86. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XXII. - -[2377] See, for instance, Desnoyer’s “Recherches sur les Cavernes” -in the “Dict. Univ. d’Hist. nat.” Pengelly, _Geologist_, vol. v. p. -65. _Trans. Devon. Assoc._, vol. i. pt. iii. p. 31. Lyell, “Princ. -of Geol.,” 10th edit., vol. ii. p. 514, &c.; and W. Boyd Dawkins, -“Cave-hunting,” 1874. Many British caverns have been well described by -Mr. E. A. Martel in his “Irlande et Cavernes Anglaises,” Paris, 1897. - -[2378] “Gutta cavat lapidem, consumitur annulus usu.”—De Pont., lib. -iv. El. x. v. 5. See also Lucretius, lib. i. v. 313:— - - “Annulus in digito subtertenuatur habendo - Stillicidi casus lapidem cavat.” - -[2379] See Prestwich, _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xi. p. 64. - -[2380] See Rev. H. Eley, F.G.S., in _Geol._, vol. iv. p. 521. Pengelly, -_Geol._, vol. v. p. 65. - -[2381] Lyell, “Princ. of Geol.,” 10th edit., vol. ii. p. 520. - -[2382] “Elements of Geol.,” 6th edit., p. 122. - -[2383] Plin., “Nat. Hist.,” lib. vii. cap. 56. - -[2384] Æschylus, “Prom. Vinct.,” l. 452. - -[2385] “Laus Serenæ,” v. 77. - -[2386] Described in the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,” London, 1875. - -[2387] “Recherches sur les Ossemens fossiles découverts dans les -Cavernes de la Province de Liège,” 2 vols., 1833. - -[2388] _Ann. des Sc. Nat. (Zool.)_, 4th S., vol. xv. p. 231. - -[2389] “Les Temps Antéhistoriques en Belgique,” 1871. - -[2390] _Matériaux_, vol. iv. p. 453; v. p. 172. _Cong. Préh. -Bruxelles_, 1872, p. 432. _Rev. d’Anthrop._, 1st S., vol. i. p. 432. -“Musée Préhist.” Tableau. - -[2391] Lartet and Christy in _Rev. Arch._, vol. ix. p. 238. Le Hon, -“L’homme foss.,” 36, 62. Mortillet, _Matériaux_, vol. iii. p. 191. - -[2392] “Le Mâcon préh.,” _Arch. du Mus. d’hist. nat. de Lyon_, 1872, -vol. i. - -[2393] _L’Anthropologie_, vol. ii. p. 141; vol. vii., 1896, p. 385. -_Nature_, vol. lv., 1897, p. 229. - -[2394] “Age de la Pierre,” Alcan, Paris, 1891. _Bull. de la Soc. -dauphinoise d’Ethn._, 5 mars, 1894. - -[2395] _Quar. Journ. G. S._, vol. xxv., 1869, p. 192. “Cave-hunting,” -p. 359. - -[2396] _Trans. Prehist. Cong._, 1868, p. 278. - -[2397] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 272. - -[2398] _Beitr. zür Anth. Baierns_, vol. ii. p. 210, pl. xii. - -[2399] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 275. “Cave-hunting,” p. 234. - -[2400] See “Rel. Aquit.,” pp. 93, 94. _Trans. Dev. Assoc._, vol. vi. p. -322. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. ii. p. 2. - -[2401] Wilson’s “Preh. Ann. of Scot.,” vol. i. p. 48. - -[2402] “Pal. Mem.,” vol. ii. p. 522. - -[2403] _Trans. Devonsh. Assoc._, vol. ii. p. 469; iii. 191; iv. 467. To -this paper I am largely indebted. - -[2404] _L. c._, vol. iii. p. 203. - -[2405] _Trans. Dev. Assoc._, vol. iii. p. 321. - -[2406] _L. c._, p. 327. - -[2407] _Proc. G. S._, vol. iii. p. 386. _Trans. G. S._, 2nd S., vol. -vi. p. 433. - -[2408] Vol. iii. p. 353. - -[2409] See _Reports of the Brit. Assoc. for the Advancement of -Science_, 1865–71, inclusive. See also a lecture on “Kent’s Cavern, -Torquay,” by W. Pengelly, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., in _Proc. R. I. Gt. -Britain_, Feb. 23, 1866. Dawkins, “Early Man in Britain,” p. 194. -“Cave-hunting,” p. 324. - -[2410] Vols. vi. to xviii. See also _Quar. Journ. of Science_, April, -1874. - -[2411] See _Report Brit. Assoc._ 1873, pp. 206, 209. - -[2412] _Op. cit._, p. 209. - -[2413] “Recherches Chimiques sur la Patine des Silex taillés.” -Montauban, 1866. See also Judd, in _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, vol. x. p. -218, and Lobley, _op. cit._, p. 226; as also _Comptes Rendus de l’Ac. -des Sc._, 1875, p. 979. - -[2414] _Nature_, vol. xlii. p. 7. - -[2415] Nilsson, “Stone Age,” p. 44. - -[2416] Dupont, “L’Homme pend. les Ages de la Pierre,” p. 71. - -[2417] See p. 325 _supra_. - -[2418] “Lapland” (1704), p. 223. - -[2419] Dawkins, “Cave-hunting,” p. 112. - -[2420] P. 50. - -[2421] _L’Anthropologie_, vol. vi. 1895, p. 276, and Cartailhac, _op. -cit._, vii. p. 309. - -[2422] P. 127. - -[2423] P. 361. - -[2424] _Trans. Dev. Assoc._, vol. v. p. 179; vii. p. 247. - -[2425] _L’Anthropologie_, vol. v., 1894, p. 371. - -[2426] “Palæont. Mem.,” vol. ii. p. 486. - -[2427] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, 1860, vol. xvi. p. 189. Lubbock, -“Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 321. _Geologist_, vol. i. p. 538; vol. iv. -p. 153. _Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1858. - -[2428] P. 471. - -[2429] _Proc. Dev. Assoc._, vol. vi. p. 775. - -[2430] “Cave-hunting,” p. 319. - -[2431] Lyell, “Ant. of Man,” 3rd ed., p. 99. _Trans. Devon. Assoc._, -vol. i. pt. iii. 31. - -[2432] Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 296. - -[2433] _Geologist_, vol. iv. p. 154. - -[2434] Such as “Reliq. Aquit.,” A., pl. v. fig. 2. - -[2435] See _Proc. Devon. Assoc._, vol. vi. p. 835. _Phil. Trans._, -1873, p. 551. - -[2436] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 247. - -[2437] _Op. cit._, p. 462. - -[2438] _Trans. Devon. Assoc._, vol. xviii. p. 161. - -[2439] _Op. cit._, vol. xix. p. 419. - -[2440] Vol. xviii., 1862, p. 115; xix., 1863, 260. See also Dawkins on -“The Habits and Conditions of the Two earliest-known Races of Men,” -_Quart. Journ. of Science_, 1866, _Macmillan’s Magazine_, Oct. and -Dec., 1870, “Cave-hunting,” p. 295, and “Early Man in Brit.,” p. 193, -and Hamy, “Paléont. Humaine,” p. 117. - -[2441] Vol. xviii. p. 118. For the use of this block I am indebted to -the Council of the Geological Society. - -[2442] See Lubbock’s “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 329. - -[2443] “Ant. of Man,” 3rd ed., p. 171. - -[2444] Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.,” vol. ii. p. 538. _Quar. Journ. Geol. -Soc._, vol. xvi., 1860, p. 487. _Geologist_, vol. iii. p. 413. - -[2445] “Pal. Mem.,” vol. ii. p. 540. - -[2446] “Ant. of Man,” 3rd ed., p. 173. - -[2447] _Geologist_, vol. vi. p. 47; v. 115. - -[2448] _Geol. Mag._, vol. ii. p. 471. - -[2449] _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, vol. ix. p. 9. - -[2450] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xlii. p. 9; xliii. p. 9. _Proc. Geol. -Assoc._, vol. ix. p. 26. - -[2451] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xliii. p. 112; xliv. 112. _Proc. Geol. -Assoc._, vol. x. p. 14. _Nature_, vol. ix. p. 14. _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, -1886. - -[2452] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xliv. p. 564. - -[2453] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xliii. p. 116. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. -iii. p. 387. _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxxii. p. 91. Dawkins, “Early Man in -Brit.,” p. 192. - -[2454] _Geol. Mag._, vol. viii. p. 433. _Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1871. - -[2455] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxxi. p. 679; xxxii. p. 240; xxxiii. p. 579; -xxxv. p. 724. - -[2456] “Early Man in Brit.,” p. 175. See also Pennington’s “Barrows, -and Bone Caves of Derbyshire,” p. 99. _Journ. Derb. A. and N. H. Soc._, -vol. iv. (1882), p. 169. - -[2457] _Jour. Anth. Inst._, vol. iii. pp. 392, 516. _B. A. Rep._, -1874–5. Miall’s “Geol., &c., of Craven,” 1878, p. 25. J. Geikie’s -“Preh. Europe,” p. 97. Dawkin’s “Cave-hunting,” p. 81. - -[2458] _Tr. Derb. A. and N. H. Soc., N. S._, vol. i. p. 177. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XXIII. - -[2459] See Prestwich, _Phil. Trans._, 1860, p. 277—1864, 247; Evans, -_Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. 280; vol. xxxix. p. 57. Sir J. Lubbock, -“Preh. Times,” p. 349. _Nat. Hist. Rev._ (1862), p. 244. Sir C. Lyell, -“Ant. of Man,” p. 93. Wilson, “Prehist. Man,” vol. i. p. 105. Falconer, -“Palæont. Mem.,” vol. ii. p. 596. _London Review_, Jan., 1860; -_Gentleman’s Magazine_, March and April, 1861; _Blackwood’s Magazine_, -Oct., 1860; _Quarterly Review_, Oct., 1863; _Edinburgh Review_, July, -1863; _Proc. Royal Inst._, Feb. 26, 1864, &c. It seems needless now -(1897) to add to these references. - -[2460] “Mémoire sur des Instruments en Silex trouvés à St. Acheul, près -Amiens.” - -[2461] “Pal. Mem.,” vol. ii. p. 597. - -[2462] P. Salmon, “Dict. Pal. du Dép. de l’Aube,” 1882, p. 179. - -[2463] _Matériaux_, vol. xiii., 1878, p. 22; vol. xvi., 1881, p. 329, -410. E. Chouquet, “Les Silex taillés de Chelles,” 4to, 1883. - -[2464] _L’Anthropologie_, vol. vi., 1895, p. 497. - -[2465] Cochet, “Seine Inéfrieure,” p. 248. - -[2466] _Op. cit._, p. 503. - -[2467] G. Dumoutier, 1882. - -[2468] Gosselet, Lille, 1891. - -[2469] “Mus. Préh.,” 44, 46. _Mat._, vol. viii., 1873, pp. 163, 245. - -[2470] _Rev. Arch. du Midi de la France_, 1868. _Mat._, vol. xiii., -1878, 40. - -[2471] _Bull. Soc. Ant. de Brux._, vol. xiii. 1894–5. - -[2472] _Ann. Soc. Arch. de Brux._, vol. v. p. 145. _Rev. des Quest. -scient._, July, 1891. See also _Cong. Préh. Bruxelles_, 1872, p. 250, -and _Cong. Arch. de Brux._, 1891, p. 538. - -[2473] _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, vol. xxiv., 1892, p. 366. _Mitth. d’Ant. -Ges. in Wien_, N. S., vol. xiii., 1893, p. 204. _L’Anthropologie_, vol. -viii., 1897, p. 53. - -[2474] _Cong. Préh. Buda-Pest_, 1876, p. 33. - -[2475] _Mitth. d’Anth. Ges. in Wien_, N. S. vol. xiii. 1893, p. 77. - -[2476] _L’Anthrop._, vol. vi. 1895, p. 1. De Baye, “Rapport sur les -découvertes de M. Savenkow dans la Sibérie Orient.,” 1894. - -[2477] Nicolucci, _Rendiconte dell’ Accad. di Napoli_, August, 1868. -Rossi, _Rev. Arch._, vol. xvi. p. 48. Ceselli, “Stromenti in Silice di -Roma,” 1866. _Macmillan’s Magazine_, September, 1867. - -[2478] Concezio Rosa, “Ricerche di Arch. Preist.” Firenze, 1871, pl. -ii. 1. - -[2479] _Arch. per l’Ant. e la Etn._, vol. viii., 1878, p. 41. - -[2480] Gastaldi, “Iconografia,” 1869, 4to, vol. ii. - -[2481] _Bull. di Paletn. Ital._, 1876, p. 122, pl. iv. 1. - -[2482] _Bull. Soc. Géol. de France_, 2 S., t. xx., 1863, p. 698. - -[2483] _L’Anthrop._, vol. vi., 1895, p. 616. - -[2484] “Ages préh. de l’Esp. et du Port.,” 1886, p. 26. - -[2485] “Les premiers Ages du mét. en Espagne,” 1887, p. 249. - -[2486] _Cong. préh. Lisbonne_, 1880, p. 237. - -[2487] “Ages préh. de l’Esp. et du Port,” 1886, p. 30. - -[2488] _Rev. Arch._, vol. xv. p. 18. - -[2489] “Rivers and their Catchment Basins.” - -[2490] _Athenæum_, April 4, 1863, p. 459. - -[2491] Wyatt in _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xviii., p. 113; xx., p. -187. _Geologist_, vol. iv. p. 242. See also _Bedfordshire Archit. and -Archæol. Soc. Trans._, 1861 and 1862. Prestwich, _Phil. Trans._, 1864, -p. 253. _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xvii., p. 366. Evans, _Arch._, -vol. xxxix. p. 69. Lyell, “Ant. of Man,” p. 163. - -[2492] Matt. Paris, “Vit. Offæ II.,” p. 32. - -[2493] Walsingham, “Hist. Ang.,” _s. a._ 1399. - -[2494] _Phil. Trans._, 1864, p. 254. - -[2495] Prestwich, _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xvii., p. 367. - -[2496] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xviii., p. 113; xx., p. 185. - -[2497] Prestwich, _Phil. Trans._, 1864, p. 284. Wyatt, _ubi sup._ - -[2498] Vol. xxxix. pl. iii. - -[2499] _Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. viii., 1896, pl. xi. 6. - -[2500] _Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. viii., 1896, pl. xi. 2. - -[2501] _Trans. Watford Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. i. p. lxi. _Trans. Herts. -Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. viii., 1896, pl. xi. 7. - -[2502] Several are figured in _Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. -viii., 1896, pl. xii. - -[2503] “Man the Prim. Savage,” p. 261. - -[2504] _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, vol. xiv., 1896, p. 417. - -[2505] A detailed account of Mr. Reid’s work is given in the _Proc. -Roy. Soc._, March 4th, 1897, vol. lxi. p. 40. - -[2506] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v. p. 35. - -[2507] Seeley, _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1866), vol. xxii. p. 475. - -[2508] _Antiquarian Comm._, vol. ii. p. 201. - -[2509] _Geol. Mag._, 2nd Decade, vol. v. (1878), p. 400. See also -_Camb. Ant. Comm._, vol. iv. p. 177, where the specimens are figured. - -[2510] _Nature_, vol. xxx. (1884), p. 632. - -[2511] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1866), vol. xxii. p. 478. - -[2512] _Nature_, vol. xxxiv. (1886), p. 521. - -[2513] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1861), vol. xvii. p. 363. - -[2514] “Flint Chips,” p. 43. - -[2515] _Arch. Assoc. Journ._, vol. xxxviii. p. 208. - -[2516] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xiv. p. 51, pl. iv.–vi. “Man the -Primeval Savage,” p. 280. - -[2517] _Phil. Trans._, 1864, p. 253. See also _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ -(1861), vol. xvii. p. 364. Evans, _Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. 302; vol. -xxxix. p. 63. Lyell, “Ant. of Man,” p. 169. - -[2518] “Rel. Aquit.,” A. pl. v. - -[2519] “Rel. Aquit.,” A. pl. xvii. 3, 4. - -[2520] _Quar. Journ. Suff. Inst. of Arch. and N. H._, vol. i. p. 4. - -[2521] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1866), vol. xxii. p. 567; (1867), -vol. xxiii. p. 45. - -[2522] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1869), vol. xxv. pp. 272, 449. - -[2523] Mr. Trigg (_Quar. Journ. Suff. Inst._, vol. i. p. 5) gives the -following section:— - - 1. Surface soil 1 foot. - - 2. Yellow sand, slightly argillaceous, interspersed with - ferruginous seams and layers of small flint shingle 5 to 7 feet. - - 3. Slightly rolled and sub-angular flints in an ochreous - sandy matrix, with seams of silt and chalky - detritus—variable 6 to 9 feet. - - 4. A similar matrix, with larger chalky patches, large - masses of flint but slightly broken, and some sub-angular - flints—variable 6 to 9 feet. - -It is in No. 3 that the implements are usually met with. - -[2524] Mr. Flower is mistaken in saying that these are some feet above -the gravel in which the implements occur. Implements are found both -above and below such seams, though for the most part towards the base -of the gravel. - -[2525] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 431. - -[2526] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1867), vol. xxiii. p. 47. - -[2527] _Arch._, vol. xxxix. p. 77. - -[2528] _Q. J. G. S._ (1867), vol. xxiii. pp. 49, 52. - -[2529] _Quar. Journ. Suff. Inst._, vol. i. p. 4. - -[2530] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1869), vol. xxv. pl. xx. - -[2531] See an article, “On some Cavities in the Gravel of the Little -Ouse,” _Geol. Mag._, vol. v. p. 443. - -[2532] Franks, _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 124. - -[2533] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1869), vol. xxv. pp. 272, 449. - -[2534] _Geol. Mag._, vol. v. p. 445. - -[2535] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1869), vol. xxv. p. 449. - -[2536] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1869), vol. xxv. p. 449. - -[2537] _Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc._, vol. iii. p. 285. - -[2538] _Geol. Survey Mem._ “On the Manufacture of Gun-flints,” 1879, p. -68. J. Geikie, “Preh. Europe,” 1881, p. 263. Miller and Skertchly, “The -Fenland,” 1868, p. 546, _et seqq._ - -[2539] _Quar. Journ. Suff. Inst._, vol. i. p. 4. - -[2540] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1869), vol. xxv. p. 452. - -[2541] _Essex Nat._, vol. ii. p. 97. - -[2542] This discovery is mentioned in Miller and Skertchly, “The -Fenland” (1878), p. 353. - -[2543] _Natural Science_, vol. x. (1897) p. 89. - -[2544] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxxv. p. 265. - -[2545] _Arch._, vol. xiii. p. 204. - -[2546] 4th ed., pp. 353, 354. See also _Geologist_, vol. iv. p. 19. - -[2547] 1860, p. 277; 1864, p. 247. See also Lyell, “Ant. of Man,” p. -166. - -[2548] Prestwich, _Phil. Trans._, 1860, p. 307. - -[2549] _Geologist_, vol. iii. p. 347. - -[2550] Skelton’s “Meyrick’s Armour,” pl. xlvi. - -[2551] _Phil. Trans._, 1860, pl. xiv. 6. - -[2552] _Arch._, vol. xiii. pl. xv. - -[2553] 1876, p. 289. - -[2554] _Report_, 1888, p. 674. - -[2555] _Report_, 1895, p. 679. - -[2556] _Report_, 1895, p. lxxxvi. - -[2557] _Report_, 1896, p. 400. _Essex Nat._, vol. ix., p. 245. - -[2558] _Essex Nat._, vol. ii. p. 187. - -[2559] _Essex Nat._, vol. vi. p. 78. - -[2560] Vol. i. p. lxiv. - -[2561] Vol. xxxviii. p. 301. See also Lyell, “Ant. of Man,” p. 160. -Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 352. “Horæ Ferales,” p. 132, pl. i. -21. Dawkins, “Early Man in Brit.,” 1880, p. 156. - -[2562] _Nature_, vol. xxviii. p. 564. - -[2563] _Nature_, vol. xxix. p. 15. - -[2564] _Nature_, vol. xxviii. p. 564. - -[2565] Stanford, 1894. - -[2566] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xi. p. 107. - -[2567] _Geol. Mag._, vol. v. p. 392. - -[2568] _Geol. and Nat. Hist. Repert._, vol. i. p. 373. - -[2569] “Ant. of Man,” pp. 161, 124. - -[2570] _Geol. Mag._, vol. v. p. 391. See also _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ -(1869), vol. xxv. p. 95. - -[2571] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1869), vol. xxv. p. 99. - -[2572] “Man, the Prim. Savage,” p. 214. _Nature_, vol. xxvii. p. 270. - -[2573] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xii. p. 176; xiii. p. 357. _Nature_, -vol. xxv. p. 460; xxvi. p. 579. _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, vol. viii. p. -126. _Essex Naturalist_, vol. i. p. 125. - -[2574] _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, vol. viii. p. 336. - -[2575] _Op. cit._, vol. viii., p. 344. - -[2576] _Mem. Geol. Survey_, “The Geology of London, &c.,” vol. i., 1889. - -[2577] “Man the Prim. Sav.,” p. 222, fig. 148. - -[2578] _Op. cit._, p. 225, fig. 151. - -[2579] _Op. cit._, p. 239, fig. 165. - -[2580] _Op. cit._, p. 224, fig. 150. See also _Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. -Soc._, vol. viii., 1896. pl. xiii., xiv. - -[2581] _Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1869, p. 130. He has also kindly -furnished me with other particulars. - -[2582] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxviii. p. 449. - -[2583] J. A. Brown, “Palæolithic Man in N.W. Middlesex,” p. 113. - -[2584] _Quar. Journ. of Science_, vol. viii., 1878, p. 316. - -[2585] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xlii., 1886, p. 197. “Palæolithic Man in -N.W. Middlesex,” London, 1887. _Nature_, vol. xxxv., p. 555. _Proc. -Geol. Assoc._, June 18, 1887, vol. x., 1888, p. 172. _Trans. Middlesex -Nat. Hist. Soc._, Feb. 12, 1889, Whitaker, “Geol. of Lond.,” p. 308. - -[2586] _Proc. S. A._, 2nd S., vol. xi. p. 211. - -[2587] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. ix. p. 316; 1881, p. 1. _Proc. Geol. -Assoc._, vol. xiv., p. 153. - -[2588] _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, vol. x., 1888, p. 361. - -[2589] “Man the Prim. Savage,” p. 241. _Nature_, vol. xxvi. p. 293; -xxviii. p. 617. - -[2590] _Tr. Berks. Archæol. and Archit. Soc._, vol. ii., 1896, pp. 16, -39, 43. - -[2591] “Pal. Man in N.W. Middlesex,” p. 31. - -[2592] _Journ. Arch. Assoc._, vol. xxxvii. pp. 1, 79. _Proc. Geol. -Assoc., vol. viii. p. 348. Tr. Berks. A. and A. Soc._, 1882. - -[2593] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxxvi. p. 296. - -[2594] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xlvi., 1890, p. 582. See also Mr. H. W. -Monckton, F.G.S., in _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xlix., 1893, p. 310. - -[2595] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xxiv., 1895, p. 44, pl. iii. - -[2596] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xlix., 1893, p. 321. - -[2597] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xiv., 1885, p. 192. - -[2598] See also Hedges’ “Wallingford,” 1881, vol. i. p. 29. - -[2599] _Op. cit._, p. 29. - -[2600] _Antiquary_, vol. xxx. pp. 148, 192. _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1894 -(Oxford), p. 663. - -[2601] Evans, _Arch._, vol. xxxix. p. 72; Prestwich, _Quar. Journ. -Geol. Soc._ (1861), vol. xvii. p. 367; Lyell, “Ant. of Man,” p. 161; -Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 353. - -[2602] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. vii. p. 278. - -[2603] _Surr. Arch. Coll._, vol. xi. - -[2604] _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, vol. xiii. p. 77. - -[2605] _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, vol. xiii. p. 80. - -[2606] _Arch._, vol. xxxix. p. 73. Prestwich, _Quar. Journ. Geol. -Soc._, vol. xvii. p. 368. Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 355. - -[2607] _Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. viii. pl. xi. 8. - -[2608] Stanford, London, 8vo, 1894. - -[2609] “Man, the Prim. Savage,” p. 179. - -[2610] _Op. cit._, p. 91. - -[2611] _Op. cit._, p. 170. _Nature_, vol. xliii. p. 345. - -[2612] _Nature_, vol. xl. p. 151. - -[2613] _Nature_, vol. xxiv. p. 582; vol. xxviii. p. 490. - -[2614] “Man the Prim. Savage,” figs. 97, 98, 99, pp. 135, 136. See also -_Essex Nat._, vol. i. - -[2615] Figs. 58, 69, 70, and 71, in “Man the Prim. Savage.” - -[2616] Vol. ii., 1888, p. 67. - -[2617] _Op. cit._, p. 101, fig. 65. - -[2618] _Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. viii., 1896, pl. xi. 4. - -[2619] _Op. cit._, p. 180, fig. 125. _Essex Nat._, vol. i. p. 36. - -[2620] _Op. cit._ p. 184. - -[2621] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v. p. 165. - -[2622] _Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. viii., 1896, pl. xi. 3. - -[2623] _Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. viii., 1896, pl. xi. 5. - -[2624] _Op. cit._, p. 184. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. viii., 1879, p. -278. _Nature_, vol. xxiii. p. 604. - -[2625] _Op. cit._, p. 185. - -[2626] _Op. cit._, p. 214. - -[2627] _Essex Nat._, vol. iii. p. 235. - -[2628] _Essex Nat._, vol. iv. p. 17. - -[2629] _Essex Nat._, vol. ii. p. 262. - -[2630] _Nature_, vol. xxviii. p. 367. - -[2631] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxviii., 1872, p. 462. - -[2632] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xii. p. 230. - -[2633] “Note on the Disc. at Church Field, West Wickham,” privately -printed. _Arch. Cant._, vol. xiv., 1883, p. 88. _Antiq._, vol. ix. p. -213. Clinch, “Antiq. Jottings,” 1889, pp. 180, 186. - -[2634] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. xi. p. 164. - -[2635] Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 355. - -[2636] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xlvii., 1891, p. 145. - -[2637] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxxvi., 1880, p. 547. - -[2638] _Arch. Journ._, vol. xxxvii. 1880, p. 294, pl. i. - -[2639] _Geol. Mag._, vol. ix., 1872, p. 268. _Q. J. G. S._, vol. -xxviii., 1872, p. 414. _Geol. Mag._, 2nd Dec., vol. i., 1874, p. 479. - -[2640] _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1875, p. 175. _Nat._, vol. xii. p. 202. -_Proc. W. Lond. Sci. Assoc._, 1876. - -[2641] Sep., 1875, p. 263. - -[2642] “Early Man in Brit.,” 1880, p. 136. - -[2643] _Op. cit._, p. 135. - -[2644] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xlvii., 1891, p. 129, pl. vi. - -[2645] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. li., 1895, p. 505. - -[2646] _Op. cit._, p. 505. - -[2647] _Op. cit._, p. 523. - -[2648] _Arch._, vol. xxxix. p. 74; Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. -355. - -[2649] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xxi., 1892, p. 246. - -[2650] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xlvii., 1891, p. 130. - -[2651] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xxi. p. 263. - -[2652] _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1891, pp. 353, 652. - -[2653] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xlv., 1889, p. 270. - -[2654] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xlvii., 1891, p. 126. See also _Journ. Anth. -Inst._, vol. xxi., 1892, p. 246; and Prestwich, “Controverted Questions -in Geology,” 1895. - -[2655] _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, vol. xi. p. lxxxii. - -[2656] “Geology of the Weald,” pp. 193, 194, 297. - -[2657] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xxi., 1892, pl. 18. - -[2658] _Archæologia_, vol. xxxix. p. 63. - -[2659] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xvii. p. 365. Lyell, “Ant. of -Man,” p. 161. Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 355. _Geologist_, -vol. vii. p. 118. _Once a Week_, June 19, 1869. _Geol. Mag._, vol. iii. -p. 335. _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 465. - -[2660] _Jour. Anth. Inst._, vol. iv. p. 38. - -[2661] Vol. xxxix. pl. i. 1; pl. ii. 1. - -[2662] Vol. iii. p. 501. - -[2663] _Geologist_, vol. v. p. 333. - -[2664] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xvii. p. 364. - -[2665] Vol. xxxix. p. 66. - -[2666] Lyell, “Prin. of Geol.,” 10th ed., vol. i. p. 523. - -[2667] _Arch._, vol. xxxix. pl. ii. 2. - -[2668] _Phil. Trans._, 1864, p. 254. - -[2669] _Geologist_, vol. iv. p. 391. - -[2670] This specimen is also figured in _Once a Week_, June 19, 1869, -p. 501. - -[2671] “Man the Prim. Savage,” fig. 144, p. 214. - -[2672] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xi. p. 110. - -[2673] “Flint Chips,” p. 45. - -[2674] Codrington, _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xxvi. p. 537. - -[2675] _Geologist_, vol. vi. pp. 110–154. - -[2676] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xx. p. 188. See also Lyell, -“Prin. of Geol.,” 10th ed., vol. ii. p. 560. - -[2677] “Flint Chips,” p. 45. - -[2678] Codrington, _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1870), vol. xxvi. pl. -xxxvi. - -[2679] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1870), vol. xxvi. pl. xxxvi. p. 541. - -[2680] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. xv. p. 72. - -[2681] “Opening of the Blackmore Mus.,” p. 29. “Flint Chips,” p. 47. - -[2682] “Flint Chips,” p. 47. - -[2683] _Q. J. G. S._ (1861), vol. xx. p. 188. See also Lyell, “Ant. of -Man,” 3rd ed., p. 519; and _Geologist_, vol. vi. p. 395. - -[2684] “Flint Chips,” p. 47. _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1865), vol. -xxi. p. 252. - -[2685] _Proc. Geol. Soc._, vol. i. p. 25. - -[2686] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1865), vol. xi. p. 101. - -[2687] _Phil. Trans._ (1860), p. 302. - -[2688] Prestwich, _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xi. p. 103. Stevens, -“Flint Chips,” p. 12. - -[2689] Formerly described erroneously as _Bos longifrons_. - -[2690] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1865), vol. xxi. p. 250. _Arch. -Journ._, vol. xxi. pp. 243, 269. - -[2691] _Wilts Arch. Mag._, vol. xxii. p. 117. - -[2692] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1872), vol. xxviii. p. 39. - -[2693] “Flint Chips,” p. 47. - -[2694] “Flint Chips,” p. 28. Codrington, _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ -(1870), vol. xxvi. p. 537. - -[2695] “Flint Chips,” p. 48. Lyell, “Prin. of Geol.,” 10th ed., vol. -ii. p. 562. Codrington, _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1870), vol. xxvi. p. -537. - -[2696] _Q. J. G. S., vol._ xlix. (1893), p. 327. - -[2697] “Flint Chips,” p. 28. - -[2698] _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1877, p. 116. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. -vii., 1878, p. 499. - -[2699] _Geol. Mag._, Dec. 2, vol. v., 1878, p. 37. See also _Trans. -Dev. Assoc._, vol. xvi., 1884, p. 501. - -[2700] “Natural Science,” vol. x. (1897), p. 224. - -[2701] _Geol. Mag._, 2nd Dec., vol. vi., 1879, p. 480. _Trans. Devon. -Assoc._, vol. xii., 1880, p. 445. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XXIV. - -[2702] _Archæol._, xxxix. pl. iv. - -[2703] _Phil. Trans._, 1860, p. 310. _Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. 289. - -[2704] _Arch._, vol. xxxix., p. 57. - -[2705] “Flint Chips,” p. 41. - -[2706] _Nature_, vol. xxv., 1881, p. 173. - -[2707] Watelet, 1866. - -[2708] “Flint Chips,” p. 41. - -[2709] _Arch._, vol. xxxviii., 1860, p. 291. - -[2710] _Arch._, vol. xli. p. 401. pl. xviii. 9. - -[2711] _Aarböger f. Nord. Oldk. og Hist._, 1867. p. 283. - -[2712] _Q. J. G. S._ (1867), vol. xxiii. pp. 48, 52. - -[2713] _Madras Journ. Lit. and Science_, Oct., 1866. _Geol. Mag._, -vol ii. p. 503. _Q. J. G. S._, 1868, vol. xxiv. p. 484. _Trans. of -Inter. Cong. of Preh. Arch._, 1868, p. 224. _Proc. As. Soc. Bengal_, -Sept., 1867. _Aarbög. f. Nord. Oldk._, 1869, p. 339. _Mem. Geol. Survey -India_, vol. x., 1873, p. 43. _Essex Naturalist_, vol. ii. p. 97. -_Geol. Mag._, Dec. 2, vol. vii., 1880, p. 542. - -[2714] _Q. J. G. S._, 1868, vol. xxiv. p. 493. - -[2715] _Mem. G. S. India_, vol. xii. p. 241. - -[2716] _Rec. G. S. India_, Aug., 1873, p. 49. Dawkins, “Early Man in -Brit.,” p. 166. - -[2717] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xvii., 1888, p. 57. - -[2718] _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. lvi., 1887, p. 249. - -[2719] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 66. “Horæ Ferales,” p. -132, pl. i. 19. - -[2720] _Trans. Preh. Cong._ 1878, p. 278. - -[2721] _Mat._, vol. viii. 1873, p. 179. - -[2722] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. x., 1881, p. 428. - -[2723] _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1880, p. 624. - -[2724] _Mat._, vol. x., 1875, p. 197. - -[2725] _Mat._, vol. xxii. 1888, p. 221. - -[2726] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. x. 1881, p. 318, pl. xvi. - -[2727] _L’Anthrop._, vol. v., 1894, p. 530. - -[2728] _Proc. Soc. Ant._, 2nd S., vol. v. p. 331. - -[2729] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. iv., 1875, p. 215, pl. xvi. - -[2730] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xi., 1882, p. 382. - -[2731] _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1880, p. 624. - -[2732] “Hawara,” 1889, pl. xxvii., and subsequent expeditions. - -[2733] “Rech. sur les Origines de l’Egypte,” 1896, _q.v._ - -[2734] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xxv. 1896, p. 272, pl. xix.–xxi. -_Brit. Assoc. Rep._, 1895, p. 824. _Proc. R. S._, vol. lx., 1896, p. 19. - -[2735] _Q. J. Ethn. Soc._, vol. ii. p. 41, pl. i. 3. - -[2736] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xi., 1882, p. 124. _Brit. Assoc. -Rep._, 1880, p. 622. - -[2737] _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xvi., 1887, p. 68. - -[2738] _Camb. Ant. Comm._, vol. v. p. 57, 6 plates. - -[2739] _Proc. Roy. Soc._, vol. lx., 1896, p. 19. - -[2740] C. C. Abbott, “Primitive Industry,” 1881; Report, 1877, 1878. -_Proc. U. S. Nat. Hist. Mus._, 1888, Appendix; 1890, pp. 187, 371. -_Proc. Bost. Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. xxi. pp. 124, 132. T. Wilson, “La -Période paléol. dans l’Amér. du Nord.,” Paris, 1892. - -[2741] W. H. Holmes, _Smithsonian Inst. Rep._, 1894. _Nature_, vol. -xlviii., 1893, p. 253; vol. lv. 1897, p. 459 v.; Mercer’s “Res. upon -the Ant. of Man in the Delaware Valley,” 1897. - -[2742] “Flint Chips,” p. 42. - -[2743] “Ant. Celt. et Antéd.,” vol. iii. p. 76, _et seqq._; 455, _et -seqq._ - -[2744] _Arch._, vol. xxxviii. p. 291. - -[2745] _Nat. Hist. Rev._, 1862, p. 250. - -[2746] “Man the Prim. Savage,” p. 268. - -[2747] P. 542 _supra_. - -[2748] P. 607 _supra_. - -[2749] _Nature_, vol. xxvii., 1883, pp. 8, 53, 54, 102. - -[2750] _Nature_, vol. xxix., 1884, p. 83. “Man the Prim. Savage,” p. -272. - -[2751] _Cong. Inter. d’Anthrop._, &c., 1867, p. 70. Hamy, “Paléont. -Hum.,” p. 49. - -[2752] See F. C. J. Spurrell in _Arch. Journ._, vol. xlviii., 1891, p. -315. _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xxiii. p. 260. _Brit. Assoc. Rep._, -1892, p. 900. _Nat. Science_, vol. v., Oct., 1894. - -[2753] “Explication de l’apparence de taille, &c.,” Dieppe, 1881. - -[2754] See Worthington Smith in _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xiii., 1884, -p. 377, and “Man, the Prim. Savage,” p. 294 _et seqq._ - -[2755] See also Prestwich, _Phil. Trans._, 1860, p. 297. - -[2756] See _antea_, p. 565. - -[2757] _C. R. du Cong. Intern. des Sci. Anthrop._, 1880, p. 234. - -NOTES—CHAPTER XXV. - -[2758] See _Trans. Watford Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. i., 1878, p. 137. - -[2759] Lyell, “Principles of Geol.,” 10th ed., vol. i. p. 354. - -[2760] _Op. Cit._, p. 350. - -[2761] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xix. (1863), p. 321. - -[2762] “Encyc. Brit.”—Art. “Rivers.” Lyell, “Princ. of Geol,” 10th ed., -vol. i. p. 348. Lubbock, “Prehistoric Times,” 4th ed., p. 382. - -[2763] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. ix. (1853), p. 48. - -[2764] Lyell’s “Princ. of Geol.,” vol. i. p. 458. Geikie, _Geol. Mag._, -vol. v. p. 250. - -[2765] _Geol. Mag._ (1868), vol. v. p. 250. - -[2766] _Phil. Trans._, 1864, p. 293. See also Lyell, “Princ. of Geol.,” -vol. i. p. 366. - -[2767] _Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, 1866. Trans. in _Smithsonian -Report_, 1866, p. 425. - -[2768] _Phil. Trans._, 1864, p. 296. - -[2769] See p. 664. - -[2770] H. G. Seeley, _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxii. p. 472. - -[2771] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxv. p. 455. - -[2772] _Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xxv. p. 453. - -[2773] _Phil. Trans._, 1860, pl. xi. - -[2774] Prestwich, _Phil. Trans._, 1860, pl. xi. See p. 577, _supra._ - -[2775] _Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1896, p. 400. - -[2776] _Geol. Mag._, vol. iii. p. 348. - -[2777] _Q. J. Geol. Soc._, vol. xxvi. p. 528. - -[2778] _Q. J. Geol. Soc._, vol. xv. p. 219. - -[2779] _Q. J. Geol. Soc._, vol. xx. p. 189. - -[2780] _Geologist_, vol. v. p. 452. - -[2781] “Rivers and their Catchment Basins.” - -[2782] R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xiii. p. 50. - -[2783] There may be some decree of uncertainty whether the gravels at -this spot are to be connected immediately with the main stream, or with -an affluent running into it approximately by the same course as that of -the present Bourne, but this is of little moment. - -[2784] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xiii. p. 45. - -[2785] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxvi. p. 532. - -[2786] _Phil. Trans._, 1864, p. 266. - -[2787] _Phil. Trans._, 1864, p. 291. - -[2788] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxv. p. 209. - -[2789] P. 580 _supra._ - -[2790] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. vii. p. 31. - -[2791] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxii. p. 553. - -[2792] “Heat considered as a Mode of Motion,” p. 182. Lubbock, “Preh. -Times,” 4th ed., p. 408. - -[2793] _Q. J. G. S._, vol. xxiv. p. 103; xxv. p. 57. - -[2794] _Phil. Trans._, 1864, p. 278, &c. - -[2795] “Flint Chips,” p. 47. - -[2796] Ravin, _Mém. de la Soc. d’Emul. d’ Abbeville_, 1838, p. 196. -_Phil. Trans._, 1860, p. 301. - -[2797] “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 365. - -[2798] _Athenæum_, 1863, July 4. - -[2799] Hamy, “Paléontologie humaine,” p. 210, _et seqq._ _Bull. Soc. -d’Anthrop. de Paris_, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 331. Belgrand, “Bassin de la -Seine,” pl. xlviii. and xlix. - -[2800] _Rec. Geol. Sur. of India_, vol. xxvii., 1894, p. 101. _Geol. -Mag._, Dec. 4, vol. i., 1894, p. 525. _Nat. Science_, vol. v. p. 345, -vol. x. p. 233. - -[2801] _Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc._, vol. i. p. 145. _Brit. Assoc. -Rep._, 1890, p. 963. _Nature_, vol. xlii. p. 50. - -[2802] Several writers have attempted to bridge over this gap, or to -show that it does not exist. See _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xxii. p. -66. Cazalis de Fondouce, _Cong. Préh. Stockholm_, 1874, p. 112. Brown, -“Early Man in Midd.” Worthington Smith, “Man the Prim. Savage.” - -[2803] _Trans. Preh. Cong._, 1868, p. 278. _Supra_, p. 485. - -[2804] “Princ. of Geol.,” 10th ed., vol. i. p. 295. - -[2805] “Preh. Times,” 4th ed. p. 423. - -[2806] _Geol. Mag._, vol. v. p. 249. - -[2807] _Phil. Trans._, 1864, p. 299. _Proc. R. S._, xiii. p. 135. - -[2808] Lubbock, “Preh. Times,” 4th ed., p. 430. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - -Original printed spelling and grammar are retained, with a few -exceptions noted below. - -A few words found in the Indexes have been silently changed to match -the spelling of the same word in the text. For example “Grewingk” -occurs on page 47; the corresponding Index entry was changed to -agree, from “Grewinck”. - -Some missing commas and full stops have been inserted silently. - -Ditto marks, including the word “Do.”, were replaced with the -appropriate repeated text—for example, in the table starting on page -508. However, in the list of Woodcut Illustrations, the ditto marks and -associated white space have been replaced with one em dash per word to -be repeated. - -Several footnotes contained references like this one on page 44: -“Pfahlbauten, 1ter Bericht.”, where the first character in the “1ter” -place could a priori be any numeric digit, and sometimes this digit was -separated from “ter” by a space. In this edition, the spaces have been -removed. In one case, in page 323, first footnote, “1ster” was printed; -herein it is “1ter”. - -In the _General Index and in the Index, Geographical and -Topographical_, explicit nested list html structures have been adopted -for this edition. In general, this reduces ambiguity, and is a _good -thing_. However, a few examples could be quoted wherein the exact -meaning of the original printed book was less than clear, and so -mistakes could result from this reduction in ambiguity. Here's one. The -original, on page 712, read like this― - - Ash, Irish arrow-shaft of, 408; in brick earth at Hoxne, 537 - -which has at least two different possible meanings. In this edition, a -draft was originally rendered― - - Ash, Irish arrow-shaft of, 408; - in brick earth at Hoxne, 537 - -but, upon examining page 537, we find that it should be, and finally -has been rendered― - - Ash, - Irish arrow-shaft of, 408; in brick earth at Hoxne, 537 - -Here's another nice example. The original ambiguous form printed on -page 713 read - - Brooch of metal in interment, 214; possible use of ring as, 466 - -In this case, inspection of page 466 seems to confirm the form adopted -for this edition. But not all such ambiguities have been checked. - -Page 5. The Coptic word for iron is rendered using rare Unicode -characters which may not appear correctly without your attention to -installed fonts. Furthermore, the fifth (counting right-to-left) letter -of the word is rendered herein as U+2C88 COPTIC CAPITAL LETTER EIE, -although it looks in the original print more like a Latin Capital E. -The same word in the Index, page 713, was printed with two letters EIE. - -Page 9. Here are Hebrew words, rendered herein in uncommon Unicode -letters. - -Page 104, third note. There was no anchor for this note, which said -“_Arch. Journ._, vol. xxxi., p. 301.”, so it has been moved here. - -Page 112 note. “vol^1 xvi.” is rendered herein as printed, though it -might be a printer’s error. - -Page 125 first note. No footnote label was printed, but this note has -now been linked with its anchor, in the third paragraph, after “Manor”. - -Page 317. “produciug” to “producing”. - -Page 341, note. There was no anchor printed for this note; a new one -has been inserted at the top of the page. - -Page 365. Closing double quotation mark added after ‘against the -AITHADH or elf-shot.’ - -Page 368, fourth and fifth footnotes. These contained the word “I1.”. -This has been changed to “II.”. - -Page 370, first note. Here is a Saxon word, rendered in uncommon -Unicode characters. - -Page 399, fifth note. This had no anchor; a new one has been inserted -after “those of other countries;”. - -Page 558. A reversed “S” was printed; herein U+01A7 LATIN CAPITAL -LETTER TONE TWO, “Ƨ”, is substituted. - -Page 573, third note. The third footnote had no anchor on page 573, -evidently links to the anchor printed at the top of page 574. Both -anchor and footnote had originally the label “3”. - -Page 634 note. The left double quotation mark, unmatched in the -original print, was removed from the word ‘_Quar_’. - -Page 666, 1st note. This note had no footnote label; a new one was -inserted. - -Page 717, entry “Eolithic”. “762” changed to “702”. - -Page 724, entry “Museums”. 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